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\ JOURNAL

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VOLUME 18, 1928 _qqsttl¥¥ fis;

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ERRATA AND ADDENDA

Vol. 18, 1928

Page 21: at end of line 14: add ‘‘and one other tone.”’

Page 54, line 10 and footnote 5: for ‘‘Todd”’ read ‘‘Ladd.”’

Page 86, upper table, bottom of second column: for ‘‘.65’’ read ‘‘.0361.”’

Page 86, upper table, end of fifth line: for ‘0.96’ read ‘‘0.996.”’

Page 86, lower table, middle of last column: for ‘‘.8355” read ‘‘.8535.”’

Page 126, lines 25 and 27: for ‘‘(6)’’ read ‘‘(8).”’

Page 150, line 22: for ‘‘has” read ‘‘have.”’

Page 157, line 15: for ‘‘William”’ read ‘‘Walter.”’

Page 187, line 21: for ‘‘appears’”’ read ‘‘appear.”’

Page 195, line 10, and page 196, line 18: References to the single type specimen of

pusio are inexact, as shown by two additional citations.—Cope 1869 (Proc. Amer. Philos.

Soe. 11:178) records having found four or five specimens under a stone not more

than 300 feet from the entrance of Erhardt Cave. Horn 1883 (Trans. Amer. Ent.

Soc. 10: 272) states he had seen three male specimens of pusio. If these specimens are

preserved, they were overlooked as uncertain and subsequent additions in the Horn

Collection.—H. S. Barber.

Page 223, line 16: for ‘‘pahpatlanuac’’ read “‘pahpatlahuac.”’

Page 224, line 6: for ‘‘Nuhuatl”’ read ‘‘Nahuatl.”’

Page 224, line 22: for ‘‘nora’”’ read ‘‘mora.”’

Page 231, line 48: for ‘‘M. E. ODELL”’ read ‘‘N. BE. ODELL.”’

Page 316, line 25: for ‘6.757 X 1071? ‘‘read’”’ 6.046 X 1072.”’

Page 360, figure 1, last column: for ‘‘Carlin’’ read ‘‘Carlim.”’

Page 375, line 24: delete comma after ‘‘fenster.’’

Page 377, line 26: insert side-head ‘‘Formations of Silurian age.—’’ before sentence

beginning ‘“The upper part....’’ and begin new paragraph.

Page 413, line 25: for ‘‘absorb”’ read ‘‘adsorb.”’

Page 423, line 28: for ‘‘course’’ read ‘‘coarse.”’

Page 428, line 36: for ‘‘capabara”’ read ‘‘capybara.”’

Page 432, line 3: for ‘‘expansion’”’ read ‘‘extension.”’

Page 488, line 4: for ‘‘melandra’”’ read ‘‘melanandra.’’

Page 564, line 20: for ““Scuwartz” read ‘‘Scuwarz.”’

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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OFFICERS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FoR 1928

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Vor. 18 January 4, 1928 No.1

PALEOBOTANY.—Weichselia from the Lower Cretaceous of Texas.’

Epwarp W. Berry. (Communicated by J. B. REEsIDE, JR.)

The specimen which forms the subject of the following note is con-

tained in a weathered half of a chert nodule picked up on the surface

along the banks of a small upland stream 2 or 3 miles from Sweetwater,

Nolan County, Texas. It was collected by Ernest J. Palmer, to whom

I am indebted for the privilege of studying it. Over perhaps more

than half of Nolan County strata of Comanchean age rest uncon-

formably on the Permian. ‘These Cretaceous rocks are usually con-

sidered to represent the Fredericksburg Division, but they have never

been studied in detail.

Little is known of the flora of the Lower Cretaceous in the Texas

region. The only considerable contribution is that by Fontaine,?

published in 1893 and describing plants from the Glen Rose beds.

About 25 species are more or less satisfactorily named, and the bulk

are small scraps of coriaceous conifers and cycads, much macerated.

In my review of the Lower Cretaceous floras of the world’ these plant-

bearing beds were correlated with the Aptian stage.

The present specimen is unusual in the mode of preservation. Evi-

dently its presence in the limy marine mud was the locus for the reduc-

tion of the silica from solution and the formation of the nodule. It is

unique in showing features of the frond hitherto unknown. The

specimen shows parts of 8 subopposite pinnae of the usual elongate

linear Wetchselia type: these are disposed at angles of about 45° to the

rachis. The rachis at the proximal end of the specimen is 2.5 milli-

meter in diameter; above the fourth pair of pinnae it becomes abruptly

1 Received December 1, 1927.

2W.M. Fontaine. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 16: 261-282. 1893.

3 E. W. Berry. Maryland Geol. Surv., Lower Cretaceous, p. 135. 1911.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1

attenuated and bears pinnules similar to those of the regular pinnae

except that they tend to be more remote and to have their proximal

margins decurrent—often markedly so. Laminar reduction and

coalescence are usual in the distal end of fronds but I know of no recent

ferns in which the pinnae retain their normal form and the distal rachis

bears what are to all intents and purposes normal pinnules rather than

reduced pinnae, although there is an approach to this feature in some

species of Pieris. , }

The usual specimens of this widespread form, Wetchselia, which have

been collected and figured by authors, are coarse segments of the median

Figure 1.— Weichselia reticulata.

part of fronds or small distal fragments of pinnae. In so far as I have

been able to determine from the literature, the present specimen is the

first distal portion of a frond that has come to the notice of a paleobot-

anist. This, I believe, explains the rapid diminution of the rachis,

the more ascending pinnae, their more nearly opposite arrangement,

and the presence of pinnules on the rachis for some distance below the

tip. This last feature of the specimen is unique, so far as I know.

JAN. 4, 1928 _ BERRY: WEICHSELIA FROM LOWER CRETACEOUS a

The leaf substance is thick and the specimen shows the impression

of the upper side of the pinnules with the characteristic midvein, or the

weathered cherty replacement of the leaf substance. In no pinnule

can the characteristic venation be positively seen in this coarser friable

substance, but a number show suggestions of aerolation much like that

seen in sandstone casts of the species, and in one or two of the pin-

nules sufficient detail is shown to render reasonably certain the con-

clusion that the venation was of the Wetchselia type. «

The genus Weichselia was proposed by Stiehler in 1857 and includes

fern-like impressions earlier referred to Pecopteris and Lonchopteris.

It has been discussed in recent years by Seward,‘ Zeiller,?> Bommer,®

Gothan,’ Florin, and Berry.’ Despite the fact that the first speci-

mens were figured over a century ago (1824) it is by no means settled

that itis afern. Itisso often found in sandstone, especially in central

Europe, that Gothan suggested that it was a dune plant, and while it

might seem that this suggestion is borne out by the xerophytic charac-

ter of the stomata studied by Florin, its frequent presence in mudstones

and in association with lignites renders such an interpretation doubtful.

Bommer’s conclusions, based upon the study of material from the

Wealden of Bernissart in Belgium, are so at variance with those of all

other students that one is forced to conclude that his material was not

that of Weichselia, but represented Laccopteris or Matonidium.

It is perfectly conclusive from the material which I have examined

that the fronds of Wezchselia were bi- or tri-pinnate in habit and not

digitate. Both Seward and Gothan lump all of the fossil records into

a single species which the former calls Wetchselia mantelli and the latter

Weichselia reticulata, the latter the correct name if priority isrecognized.

Many authors dissent from the conclusion that but a single botanical

species is represented and it certainly is anomalous to suppose that a

- single species ranges from the late Jurassic to the Upper Cretaceous and

over at least five continents (Europe, Africa, Asia, North and South

America). Some years ago Zeiller presented satisfactory evidence for

the specific distinctness of the abundant South American occurrences

and in this he was followed by the present writer. The genus has

4A.C. Sewarp. The Wealden flora, pt. 1, pp. 113-121. 1894.

5 R. ZEILLER. Rev. gén. bot. 25 bis: 10. 1914.

6C. Bommer. Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belg. 47: 296-304. 1910.

7W. GotTuan in H. Potonir&. Abbild. Beschr. foss. Pflanzen 7 (126): 1-114. 1910.

8R. Frorin. Svensk. Bot. Tidssk. 18: 305-312. 1919.

9K. W. Berry. Johns Hopkins Stud. Geol. 4: 52-55. 1922.

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1

hitherto been very doubtfully represented in North American Meso-

zoic strata, but this doubt is more apparent than real, since I have

studied a large amount of fragmentary but perfectly characteristic

material from the Black Hills, and the present occurrence extends its

range to Texas. It has not yet been recognized in the Kome, Kootanie,

Potomac, or Pacific coast Mesozoic floras, but these are all so imper-

fectly known that no conclusions based upon negative evidence are

legitimate.

The Texas material lacks the reflexed basal pinnules, which are the

most obvious feature of Weichselia peruviana and may therefore be

referred, at least tentatively, to Weichselia reticulata, with the full

realization, however, that the latter species is undoubtedly a composite

one.

Most authors have assumed that Weichselia was a fern, although

Florin points out that its stomatal structure is more gymnospermous

than filicalian, and it may well be that it represents some Mesozoic

cycadophyte. Several authors have figured what they have considered

fertile parts of Weichselia, but none of these are very convincing nor do

they verify one another. Thus an obscurely fertile fragment? from

the Mesozoic of Japan identified by Nathorst as Pecopterts geyleriana

is considered by Seward to be.a Wetchselia. Neumann figured" what

he considered to be fertile pinnules of Weichselia from Peru. ‘These

appear imaginary to me, and, furthermore, in the large amount of

material from Peru that I have seen there has been no trace of fructi-

fications. ‘Trautschold years ago figured” an obscure fertile fragment

which he called Asplenites klunensis from the Klin sandstone of central

Russia and which was subsequently considered a Weichselva. Finally

Gothan (loc. cit. 1910 fig. 5) figured what appears to be a fertile speci-

men from Quedlinburg, Saxony, showing marginal sporangia. All of

these are far from clear and all differ decidedly from one another. The ~~

most that can be said is that in the case of the last and most convincing

instance cited above, if it be admitted that the object shows fertile

pinnae, all it proves is that a form like Wezchselia from Saxony has

fructifications of the type portrayed. It would be unwise to assume

that fossils called Wetchselia from other localities and horizons had

similar fructifications.

10 A.G. Natuorst. Denks. k. Acad. Wiss. Wien. 57: pl. 4, f. 3. 1890.

11R. Naumann. Neues Jahrb., Beilageb. 24: 76. pl. 1, f. 1a, b. 1907.

122. TRaAvuTscHOLD. Nouv. Mém. Soc. Nat. Moscou 13: pl. 20, f. 7. 1870.

JAN. 4, 1928 STANDLEY: CENTRAL AMERICAN RUBIACEAE 5

In case of a form-genus like Weichselia, as has been abundantly shown

in other Mesozoic form genera—Cladophlebis for example, one cannot

generalize from one instance, and my own feeling is that the botanical

affinity of Weichselia is by no means settled.

BOTAN Y.—Notes on Central American Rubiaceae. Patt C. STAND-

LEY, U. 8. National Museum.!

A few months ago the National Museum was fortunate in receiving

for study from the Botanical Museum of Copenhagen a large number

of specimens of plants of the family Rubiaceae, collected in Central

America by some of the earliest botanical collectors who visited that

region. Of greatest interest were the classic specimens obtained by

Oersted, the first botanist who explored Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

Oersted was especially interested in the Rubiaceae, upon which he

published an important paper, describing numerous new species, some

of which have remained obscure, chiefly because they have not been

recollected. Included in the recent sending were most of Oersted’s

types, particularly in the difficult genus Psychotria. In some instances

the National Museum was permitted to retain duplicate type material

for future reference. In other cases our material has been compared

carefully with the types, and the sheets annotated accordingly.

The National Museum has received also on loan a number of type

specimens of Central American species of Psychotria from the Berlin

Botanic Garden. These have made it possible to determine the

status of several species not represented previously in the National

Herbarium.

The accompanying notes enumerate some of the results of the study

of these important collections, for whose loan the writer is deeply

indebted to Dr. Carl Christensen and Dr. L. Diels. The reference

material now available in the National Herbarium will facilitate materi-

ally future study in the United States of tropical American Rubiaceae,

above all in the intricate group called Psychoitria.

PENTODON PENTANDER (Schum. & Thonn.) Vatke, Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr.

25: 231. 1875.

An African plant, known to be established as a weed in Guadeloupe.

Specimens are at hand also from Central America:

Nicaracua: Granada, August, 1869, Lévy 208.

1 Published by the permission of the Acting Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Received November 26, 1927. .

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1

RONDELETIA COSTARICENSIS Standl. N. Amer. FI]. 32:61. 1918.

Here belongs Wendland 792, from San Miguel, Costa Rica, collected in

May, 1857, the specimen in the Copenhagen Herbarium. Oersted recog-

nized the plant as new, and wrote upon the sheet a specific name, never pub-

lished, alluding to the large stipules.

DEPPEA COSTARICENSIS Polak. Linnaea 41: 566. 1877.

In the North American Flora (32: 90. 1921) this species is reduced to

synonymy under D. grandiflora Schlecht., and perhaps properly so. The

latter is the only Costa Rican species represented in the National Herbarium

by recent specimens, but none of these match exactly Polakowsky’s type in

the Berlin Herbarium. The capsules of D. costaricensis are shorter than in

typical D. grandiflora, and rounded at the. base. It is probable that D. cos-

taricensis is a distinct species, but further collections are necessary to estab-

lish the fact.

BovvARDIA PALLIDA Standl. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 14: 245. 1924.

Described from the Voleano of San Salvador, Salvador. The species may

now be reported from another Central American country:

GUATEMALA: Las Nubes, Jan. 11, 1857, Wendland 208.

HoFFMANNIA GESNERIOIDES (Cerst.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 1: 285. 1891.

Ophryococcus gesnerioides Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Viv. Medd.

1852:/53: 741853;

The National Museum has received in exchange from Copenhagen a speci-

men of the type collection (the only one known) of Ophryococcus gesnerioides,

collected by Oersted in January, 1848, on Mount Pantasmo, Segovia, Nicara-

gua, at 1,200 meters. Examination of this material proves that Otto Kuntze

was correct in referring the plant.to Hoffmannia. It is a well-marked species,

not approached closely by any other Central American representative of the

genus. The region in which it grows is little known botanically, and it is

not surprising that it has not been found by other collectors. Most species

of Hoffmannia are narrowly restricted in their distribution.

HOFFMANNIA LONGIPETIOLATA Polak. Linnaea 41: 567. 1877.

The type, in the Berlin Herbarium, was collected on Cerro de la Carpintera,

Costa Rica, Polakowsky 134. Although I have paid special attention to the

collection of this genus, and have visited the Carpintera twice, I did not find

this species there. The type is well matched, however, by the following

collections:

Costa Rica: Viento Fresco, Prov. Alajuela, alt. 1,600-1,900 m., Standley

& Torres 47766, 47784.

XEROCOCCUS ConGESTUS Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1852:

BA 1853:

The type specimen, in the Copenhagen Herbarium, was collected at Tur-

rialba, Costa Rica, at an altitude of 900 meters, by Oersted. The genus is a

quite distinct one, related, evidently, to Hoffmannia, and consisting of a

single species.

The plant seems to have been overlooked by later collectors in Costa Rica,

and no additional material of it was obtained, apparently, until 1924, when I

collected a good series of specimens. Further material was gathered in 1925—

26, and there are now in the National Herbarium over 20 sheets representing

the species. Why the plant should have escaped other collectors it is hard to

understand, for it is abundant in the wet mountain forests at middle elevations

and it is, moreover, a large showy plant, with dense, bright red inflorescences.

The small juicy fruits are white when ripe.

Nr za — tt stag =

SE a Ii A Se ea lap UR sdb Glediniaiaieeaes he on ame a a

— ee —

‘JAN. 4, 1928 STANDLEY: CENTRAL AMERICAN RUBIACEAE 7

IxoRA FLORIBUNDA (A. Rich.) Griseb. Cat. Fl. Cub. 134. 1866.

Although reported from Sapod, Nicaragua, by Hemsley, this species has not

been represented in the National Herbarium by Central American speci-

mens. It may now be reported from Salvador: Between San Miguel and

Jocorro, Feb. 2, 1857, Wendland 437.

PSYCHOTRIA CHIAPENSIS Standl. Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 23: 1390. 1926.

Cephaelis tetragona Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 61: 376. 1916. Not P.

tetragona Seem. 1865-67.

Psychotria chiapensis was based on a single collection, Purpus 6963, from

Chiapas. The type of Cephaelis tetragona was collected at Tuis, Costa Rica,

Tonduz 11352. I had not seen the type of the latter when P. chiapensis was

published. The differences between Psychotria and Cephaelis are altogether

artificial, and Cephaelis can be maintained only as a matter of convenience.

It is difficult to determine where a line shall be drawn in referring plants to

the two groups, but it seems preferable to refer this plant to Psychotria.

A large number of additional specimens of P. chiapensis have appeared in

recent collections, and these are listed below. The plant is so widely dis-

persed that it will be strange if an older name is not discovered for it, but so

far I have been unable to find one.

Mexico: Misantla, Veracruz, Purpus 5982. Jovo, Liebmann 11771

(Rubiaceae no. 113). Without locality, Liebmann 11775, 11770 (Rubiaceae

no. 111), 11769 (Rubiaceae no. 93). Matlaluca, Liebmann 11768 (Rubiaceae

no. 16). Lacoba, Liebmann 11773 (C; Rubiaceae no. 92). Tlapacoyo,

Inebmann 11772 (C; Rubiaceae no. 112).

GUATEMALA: Puerto Nuevo, Tonduz 586. Chama, Johnson 248. Finca

San Luis, Depart. Retalhuleu, Rojas 589. Quirigud, Standley 24691. Escoba

Standley 24847. _

British Honpvuras: Stann Creek, October, 1925, N. Stevenson. Middle-

sex, Record 11.

Costa Rica: Las Vueltas, Tucurrique, Inst. Fis. Geogr. C. R. 12997.

Valley of Rio Tuis, Pzttier 8212. Livingston, Rowlee & Stork 737.

Panama: Lincoln Creek, Carleton 86. Western Panama, Sterk 17. Bocas

del Toro, Carleton 274.

Known in British Honduras as “‘casada;” in Guatemala as “‘palo de agua.”

Sor ELONGATA Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1852: 32.

1853. |

_ This species, collected on the Voleano of Mombacho, Nicaragua (the local-

ity given on the label is ‘‘ad Granada’’), appears to be a valid one. It is not

matched by any Central American Psychotria in the National Herbarium.

PSYCHOTRIA GLOMERATA H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3: 362. 1818.

ie microdesmia Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1852:

PSO RSTG

The type of P. microdesmia, from Jaris, Costa Rica, is evidently identical

with P. glomerata H. B. K., a conclusion confirmed by Urban. This species,

strangely enough, is not represented in recent Costa Rican collections.

PSYCHOTRIA GRACILIFLORA Benth.; Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid.

Medd. 1852: 35. 1853.

The type was collected at Naranjo, Costa Rica, by Oersted. It is well

matched by the following collections:

Costa Rica: La Palma, Standley 38035, 38200, 33127. La Colombiana

Farm, Standley 36759. La Ventolera, Standley 34715. Cerro de la Car-

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1

pintera, Standley 35521. Suerre, J. D. Smith 6602. Cafias Gordas, Pittier

11090. Fraijanes, Standley & Torres 47573, 47459, 47600. Gudpiles,

Standley 37279, 37051, 37038, 37149. La Hondura, Standley 37831. La

Tejona, Standley & Valerio 45852. Viento Fresco, Standley & Torres 47856.

PANAMA: Between; France Field and Catival, Standley 30178. Fort

Sherman, Standley 31070.

PSYCHOTRIA GRANDIS Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind Occ. 48. 1788.

Psychotria subsessilis Benth. ; ; Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd.

1852: 32. 1853.

The type of P. subsessilis was collected at Turrialba, Costa Rica. The

name should be referred to synonymy under P. grandis.

PSYCHOTRIA HORIZONTALIS Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 44. 1788.

Psychotria longicollis Benth.; Oerst. Nat. For. Kj6benhavn Vid. Medd.

1852: 23. 1853.

P. longicollis is represented in the Copenhagen Herbarium by several speci-

mens of Oersted’s collection from Costa Ricaand Nicaragua. The name evi-

dently should be referred to synonymy under the widely distributed P.

horizontalis Swartz.

PSYCHOTRIA LIMONENSIS Krause, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 54: Beibl. 119: 43.

1916.

Psychotria limonensis var. laxinervia Loes. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 18:

361. 1922.

The types, in the Berlin Herbarium, of both the species and the variety have

been examined. The variety, from Palenque, Chiapas, differs in no impor-

tant character from the type of the species, which was collected on Uvita

Island, Limon, Costa Rica, Pittier 12681. The following specimens in the

National Herbarium represent the same species:

GUATEMALA: Escoba, Standley 24857, 24822. Puerto Barrios, Standley

25084. Torold, J. D. Smith 2042. Escuintla, J. D. Smith 2754. Cubil-

quitz, Tuerckheim 8404.

Costa Rica: Limén, Cook & Doyle 440.

Panama: Fort Lorenzo, Piper 5986. Barro Colorado Island, Standley

31313, 40827, 41043.

Be oor MAGNA Standl. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 18: 131. Feb. 11,

1916.

Psychotria compressicaulis Krause, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 54: Beibl. 119:

44. Oct. 4, 1916.

The type of P. compressicaulis, in the Berlin Herbarium, Pittier 12412,

agrees in every respect with that of P. magna, from Loma de la Gloria,

Panama, Pzttier 4092.

PSYCHOTRIA MARGINATA Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 43. 1788.

Psychotria nicaraguensis Benth.; Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid.

Medd. 1852: 34. 1853.

P. nicaraguensis is clearly a synonym of P. marginata, a fact which has al-

ready been published, I believe, by Urban.

PSYCHOTRIA PARVIFOLIA Benth.; Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd.

1852: 35. 1853.

The type material was collected by Oersted on the Volcano of Barba and

at Naranjo, Costa Rica. This species resembles closely P. graciliflora in

general appearance. In P. graciliflora the branches are glabrous and the

inflorescence pedunculate; in P. parvifolia the branchlets are puberulent and

a OT ET TTI ns ania ms eee PUNE MEER 1S aE UTA? a : ¥ ‘

Fn a ati lt

JAN. 4, 1928 STANDLEY: CENTRAL AMERICAN RUBIACEAE 9

the inflorescence sessile. The following specimens are referable to P.

parvifolia:

Costa Rica: Cerro de la Carpintera, Standley 35578. La Ventolera,

Standley 34676. Cerros de Zurqui, Standley & Valerio 50396, 50271. Yerba

Buena, Standley & Valerio 49194. Santa Maria de Dota, Standley & Valerio

44076; Standley 42857. Cerro de las Caricias, Standley & Valerio 52044,

51953, 52223. Fraijanes, Standley & Torres 47571, 47566.

PanaMA: El Boquete, Maxon 4958.

PSYCHOTRIA PUBESCENS Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 44. 1788.

Psychotria glauca Polak. Linnaea 41: 569. 1877.

Examination of the type of P. glauca, from San José, Costa Rica, Polakow-

sky 377, shows that it is a synonym of the widespread P. pubescens. This

identification is confirmed by a note by Urban attached to the type sheet in

the Berlin Herbarium.

PSYCHOTRIA QUINQUERADIATA Polak. Linnaea 41: 570. 1877.

Psychotria Morae Polak. Linnaea 41: 570. 1877.

The types of both species, in the Berlin Herbarium, have been examined.

P. Morae is merely a form of P. quinqueradiata with slightly wider leaves, and

it is difficult to understand why it should have been published as a distinct

species. The type material of P. quinqueradiata is from San José and Car-

pintera, Costa Rica; that of P. Morae from San José. The plant seems to be

rare in this region at the present time, but it is one of the common shrubs of

Guanacaste. The following collections agree well with the type of P. quin-

queradiata:

Costa Rica: El Silencio, Guanacaste, Valerio 124. Tilardn, Guanacaste,

Standley & Valerio 44193, 44231, 44986, 45691. Las Cafias, Valerio 111.

Quebrada Serena, Guanacaste, Standley & Valerio 46135, 46219. San Pedro,

near San Ramon, Tonduz 17687. La Tejona, Guanacaste, Standley & Val-

erto 45904, 45833. Rio Jesus, between San Ramon and San Mateo, Brenes

14531. Finca Las Céncavas, Standley 41455. Los Ayotes, Standley &

Valerio 45479.

PSYCHOTRIA SIGGERSIANA Standl. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 15: 289.

O25,

One additional specimen, probably the first ever collected, may be cited for

this species:

Costa Rica: San Miguel, May 12, 1857, Wendland 779.

Psychotria Wendlandiana Oerst., sp. nov.

Shrub 2.5-3 m. high, the branchlets stout, subterete, very densely short-

villous with brownish pubescence, the internodes mostly 1-2 cm. long; stip-

ules caducous, thin, oval, 5-6 mm. long, prominently bicostate dorsally,

shortly bimucronate at the rounded apex, brownish-puberulent or short-

villous; petioles slender, 1—2.5 cm. long, densely short-villous with spreading

hairs; leaf blades ovate-oblong to oblong or oblanceolate-oblong, 9-15 cm.

long, 3-5.5 em. wide, gradually or usually abruptly acuminate or long-acumi-

nate, narrowed toward the base but the base itself’ broad and varying from

truncate to deeply cordate, thin, deep green above, glabrous, beneath slightly

paler, densely short-villous along the costa, puberulent on the nerves, between

them glabrous or nearly so, the costa slender, prominent, the lateral nerves

very slender, about 14 on each side, ascending at a wide angle, arcuate, irregu-

larly anastomosing close to the margin; inflorescence terminal, cymose-panicu-

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1

late, the panicle about 5 cm. long and 4.5 em. broad, borne on a peduncle

1.5-3 em. long; panicle composed of about 3 remote whorls of short spreading

branches, the branches densely brown-villous with short spreading hairs, the

bracts short, ovate, bicuspidate, the flowers sessile in dense glomerules at the

ends of the ultimate branches; calyx and hypanthium together 1 mm. long,

short-villous, the limb 5-dentate, the lobes broadly triangular, obtuse or acut-

ish; corolla yellow, 2.5-3 mm. long, puberulent outside, the tube cylindric-

campanulate, the 5 lobes ovate, obtuse, spreading or recurved, the tube

short-villous within the throat; anthers included, inserted at the middle of the

tube; style slender, long-exserted.

Type in the herbarium of the Botanical Museum, Copenhagen, collected at

San Miguel, Costa Rica, May 138, 1857, by H. Wendland (no. 781). Dupli-

cate specimen of the same collection in the U.S. National Herbarium. To

this species are referred the following collections:

Costa Rica: Guapiles, Prov. Limén, alt. 300 m., Standley 37224. La Hon-

dura, Prov. San José, alt. 1,300 m., Standley 37773.

The two specimens collected by myself had been recognized as representing

an undescribed species, but the material was too imperfect for description.

The Wendland specimen in the Copenhagen Herbarium bears Oersted’s manu-

script name, andis accompanied by an exquisite pen and ink drawing show-

ing the characters of the flowers. Psychotria Wendlandiana is a well-marked

species, easily recognized by the unusual shape of the leaves, and especially by

their cordate or truncate bases. |

PALICOUREA SUBRUBRA Polak. Linnaea 41: 571. 1877.

This appears to be a valid species, of rather rare occurrence. The type in

the Berlin Herbarium, from Cerro de la Carpintera, Costa Rica, Polakowsky

200A, is well matched by the following collections:

Costa Rica: Finca La Cima, north of El Copey, Standley 42565. Frai-

janes, Standley & Torres 47579.

PANAMA: El Boquete, Mazon 5002.

BOTANY.—Shantzia, a new genus of African shrubs related to Gossy-

pium.! FRepERIcK L. Lewrton, U.S. National Museum.

Several months ago in one of the greenhouses on the grounds of the

Agricultural Department at Washington, there came into flower for

the first time in the United States a malvaceous shrub having large

showy blossoms resembling the flowers of tropical species of cotton.

This shrub having been under the observation of the writer for several

years and its identity having only recently been established, it is be-

lieved that an account of its introduction and identification is worth

recording. ‘The plant is one of five grown from seed collected near

Kafue, Northern Rhodesia, by Dr. H. L. Shantz, then Agricultural

Explorer for the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, on

December 6,1919. These seeds were planted in pots in one of the quar-

antine greenhouses under control of the Federal Horticultural Board,

1 Received November 23, 1927.

JAN. 4, 1928 LEWTON: SHANTZIA 11

in March, 1920. The young seedlings, when observed by the writer

a few weeks later, were found to be apparently identical with other

seedlings growing in the same house, under the name Gossypium,

which had come from seeds collected in the same region in Africa by

Dr. J. Burtt Davy of the Department of Agriculture, Union of South

Africa, for the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, U. 8.

Department of Agriculture. (J. Burtt Davy: no. 63, Matoppo Hills,

Matabeleland, S. P. I. 48250; no. 109, Zimba, Northern Rhodesia,

S. P. I. 48461; no. 189, Elizabethville, Belgian Congo, 8. P. I. 48462.)

All of these seedlings after developing their sixth or seventh leaf were

checked in their growth and seemed to stand still for several years.

It was not until they had been repotted several times into more roomy

quarters or removed from the pots and set in open beds under glass

that they took on any pronounced growth with the formation of

flower buds.

Up to the present, seven plants have come into flower, five from the

seed collected by Dr. Shantz, and two from the seed collected by J.

Burtt Davy at Elizabethville, Belgian Congo. One of the latter, at:

the date of this writing, bears two nearly mature fruits.

Dr. Shantz preserved an incomplete herbarium specimen con-

sisting of a short leafy branch and one mature capsule picked from

the ground beneath the small tree found by him at Kafue, as the plant

was not in flower at the time he was there. ‘The involucral bracts,

so important for identification in this group of plants, were wanting

and appeared to have been broken off and the other evident characters

were not sufficient to enable me to identify the shrub with any known

species.

Having very recently come across a paper by Miss E. C. Steedman?

on the “Trees and Shrubs of Southern Rhodesia” in which there is

described under the name: Thespesia Garekeana, a shrub called ‘“‘Wild

Hibiscus” or ““Mtohwi,” the writer has recognized in that description

the identity of the unnamed African shrubs. 7

The name given in Miss Steedman’s list was evidently a typographi-

cal error for Thespesia Garckeana, credited in Index Kewensis to Ferdi-

nand Hoffmann. The referencethere given, however, disclosed the

fact that a copy of Hoffmann’s paper was not to be found in any library

in Washington. Through the courtesy of the Arnold Arboretum and

the U. 8. Department of Agriculture, the writer was enabled to ex-

2? STEEDMAN, E.C. Trees and shrubs of Southern Rhodesia, Pt. 1. Proc. Rhodesia Sci.

Assn. 24 (1924-1925): 13, pl. 11, Bulawayo, 1925.

ee —————

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1

amine a copy of Hoffmann’s inaugural dissertation published for the

University of Jena in 1889, and containing the original description of

his Thespesia Garckeana.

Because of the apparently very limited distribution of Hoffmann’s

inaugural dissertation, at least in this country, the original description

of this species is given herewith:

THESPESIA GARCKEANA Fred Hofftm.?

Arborea? ramuli fohaque novella albido- vel ferrugineo-tomentosa; folia

petiolata, cordato-rotunda, triloba lobis rotundatis, coriacea, supra stellato-

aspera, subtus tomentosa, 7-9 nervia nervo medio subtus uniglanduloso;

flores axillares solitarii; pedicellus 2 cm. longus, apice articulatus; bracteolae

12, lanceolatae, margine saepe complicatae, calyce duplo longiores; calyx

cupuliformis truncatus integerrimus; stylus apice clavatus, 5-sulcus, albido

villosus; stigmata 5, sessilia, e summo styli radiantia, sigmoidea; ovarium 5-

loculare loculis pauci-ovulatis.

“Gonda, 1. Nov. 1882, V. H. No. 145a.”’ Wahrscheinlich ein Baum.

Zweige stielrund, die jungeren mit gelbweissem schiilfrigen Sternfilz bedeckt.

Blattstiel 5 em lang, weiss-sternfilzig. Blattflache 10 cm lang, herzférmig-

rundlich mit 3 abgerundeten Lappen, lederig, beiderseits sternhaarigfilzig,

oberseits, wenn ausgewachsen, rauh, 7-9 nervig, der mittlere Nerv unter-

seits etwa 13 bis 2 cm tiber dem Blattstiel eindriisig. Bliiten einzeln, blatt-

winkelstindig, ihr Stiel 2 cm. lang, an der Spitze gegliedert, ebenso wie der

Kelch graubraun- der grauweiss-sternfilzig. Die Knospen sind kugelig, er.

2 em lang; der Aussenkelch zeigt 12 lanzettliche meist am Rande nach innen

imgebogene und daher pfriemlich erscheinende, cr. 1 em lange Blattchen,

die den becherférmigen, ganz ungeteilten Kelch etwa um das Doppelte

iibertreffen; Staubblatter sehr zahlreich, ihre Séule oben gezahnt; Griffel

keulenférmig, nach oben zu 5-rinnig und in den Furchen weiss-wollig; die 5

vom Scheitel des Grifiels S-formig ausstrahlenden Narden sind ebenfalls ge-

furcht; Ovarium 5-facherig.

Durch die abgerundeten Blattlappen und die 12 Aussenkelchblatter leicht

kenntlich.

Miss Steedman states in her paper :4

“This shrub or small tee is abundant on the gold belt and is difficult to

get rid of when once it is established, owing to the suckers. The wood is soft

and pliable, and the long shoots are used as whip sticks by the natives. The

bark 1s grey and smooth and the inner bark is used for fiber.”’

The following is quoted from a letter from Miss Steedman to the

writer, written from Gwelo, Southern Rhodesia:

“The shrub, Thespesia Garckeana, is very common around here. It has

an underground rooting stem and it spreads all about. It is in flower now

3 HOFFMANN, FERDINAND. Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Flora von Central-Ost-Afrika.

Inaugural-Dissertation of the University of Jena. p. 12. Berlin, 1899.

‘SreEpMAN, E.C. Trees and shrubs of Southern Rhodesia, Pt. 1. Proc. Rhodesia Sci.

Assn. 24 (1924-1925): 13, pl. 11, Bulawayo, 1925.

atid

a” >

Fig. 1.—Shantzia garckeana. Upper portion of plant flowering in greenhouse of

U. 8. Dept. Agr., April, 1926. Grown from seed collected by Dr. Shantz at Kafue,

Northern Rhodesia. For. Pl. Introd. No. 49590. (Nat. size.)

Fig. 2.—Shantzia garckeana. Upper portion of plant growing in greenhouse of U. S.

Dept. Agr., Oct., 1927, from seed collected by Dr. Shantz at Kafue, Northern Rhodesia.

For. Pl. Introd. No. 49590. A. Mature fruit collected by Dr. Shantz at Kafue, Dec.

6, 1919. For. Pl. Introd. No. 49590. U.S. Nat. Herb. No. 1,235,736. B. Mature fruit

collected by J. Burtt Davy at Zimba, 1919. For. Pl. Introd. No. 48461. (All nat. size.)

JAN. 4, 1928 LEWTON: SHANTZIA 15

(December 28). 1 am always rooting it up. With regard to your question

as to the fruit being edible: The inner layers of the pericarp become glutinous

enclosing the seeds. The natives peel off the rind and suck this part, spitting

out the seeds. It induces a great flow of saliva, hence the Dutch name ‘‘snot

apple,’ from the verb snotteren to snivel. Later the layers dry up and the fruit

dehisces by five valves. The fruit to eat must be gathered when it is green

and juicy. Europeans don’t eat it, except children. Another interesting

thing about this shrub is that it harbours the so-called cotton stainer, a red

and black beetle (Dusdercus), so, as we are just beginning to cultivate cotton

in Southern Rhodesia, we think we should destroy the shrub.”’

The mucilaginous property of the inner layers of the pericarp men-

tioned by Miss Steedman was observed by the writer when examining

the dried capsule. One of the five valves was soaked for a few hours

in a large test tube in about five cubic centimeters of water. The muci-

lage thus extracted formed so stiff a gelle that it could not be poured

out of the tube. A valve from a capsule of ordinary cotton subjected

to the same conditions yielded only a slight amount of mucilage.

Several authors have at various times placed in the genus Thespesia

five or six quite different species of tropical trees or shrubs having

as a common characteristic an involucre composed of from 3 to 12

narrow bracts, adnate to the base of the calyx, which are dropped be-

fore the opening of the flower. A careful examination of the gross

morphology of all of these included species develops differences far

more fundamental than their agreement as to the form of involucre,

so that the reference of several of them to other genera is regarded by

the writer as justifiable. ‘The Rhodesian shrub described above is one

of these and it is further believed that it represents a new genus which

the writer takes pleasure in naming in honor of Dr. Homer L. Shantz,

who first brought it to his attention.

Shantzia Lewton, gen. nov.

Shrubs or small trees, 2 to 5 meters high; woody throughout. Leaves petio-

late, cordate, entire or lobed, palmately veined, with a slit-like nectary on the

mid-vein below. Flowers usually single in the axils of the uppermost leaves;

borne on short fruiting branches usually formed of but one internode and

sometimes bearing a leaf. Peduncle bearing at its base 2 subulate, deciduous

bracts. Involucre formed of 9 to 11 linear caducous bracts. Calyx cupuli-

form, entire, or with 1 to 5 minute teeth. Ovary 4- to 5-celled with 2 or more

ovules in each cell. Capsule ovoid or obovoid, ligneous, opening tardily, the

valves containing much mucilage and sugar. Seeds obovoid, angled on the

ventral side, rounded on the dorsal, densely covered with short reddish-brown

tomentum. Cotyledons punctate with brown dots. Species two or three;

Southwest Africa.

Type: Thespesia garckeana Ferd. Hoffmann. Two specimens in the U. 8.

National Herbarium represent the genus: Sheet no. 1,235,735, a specimen

grown in a greenhouse on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture in

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1

Washington, from seed collected by J. Burtt Davy, no. 189, Foreign Seed and

Plant Introduction no. 48462; sheet no. 1,235,736, collected by Dr. H. L.

Shantz, no. 325, at Kafue, Northern Rhodesia, Foreign Seed and Plant In-

troduction no. 49590.

_ Shanteia may be distinguished from Thespesia by (a) its regularly dehisc-

ing capsule, with thick woody valves containing sugar and a great quantity of

mucilage; and (b) the involucral bracts numbering 9-11 instead of from 3-5.

ETHNOLOGY.—The melodic formation of Indian songs.1 FRANCES

DrnsMorE. Bureau of American Ethnology.

The study of Indian music must be done with little codperation on

the part of the Indian beyond his willingness to sing into the horn of a

phonograph. If an old song is under consideration he will say that it

was received in a dream—perhaps by his grandfather. If one asks how

his grandfather prepared himself to receive the song, the Indian replies,

“By going without food, and going away by himself for several days.”’

One may ask, ‘‘Did you ever see your grandfather?’ ‘The reply will

probably be, ‘‘I do not mean my father’s father. I mean aman who

lived very long ago. Maybe my father’s grandfather.” The next

question might be, ‘‘Where did you learn that song?’ The Indian

might reply, ‘‘From my father. That song is handed down in my

family.’’ The foregoing would be a typical conversation except that

its facts are too familiar for such detailed inquiry. Many songs are

also obtained from old men who themselves have received them in

fasting dreams.

The first student of Indian music was Theodor Baker who wrote

that ‘‘The Indians say that the songs connected with religious con-

cepts were of supernatural origin and that the newer songs are only

imitations of these songs.’’? ‘The Indians had nothing corresponding

to our popular music and it appears that practically all the old songs

were received in dreams. ‘This was the observation of Miss Alice C.

Fletcher and is that of the present writer.

It is scarcely necessary to state that the fasting dream (or trance)

was the means by which the old Indians believed that they received -

enlightenment on all important subjects. In a dream the medicine

man accompanying a war party received knowledge of the enemy’s

location, or a doctor learned what ailed his patient, or a man located

lost articles. If the dream promised power to accomplish some diffi-

cult undertaking there came to the mind of the dreamer a song which

1 Received November 23, 1927.

2 Baker, THEopDoR. Uber der Musik der nordameritkanischen Wilden. Leipzig. 1882.

a? “fo = wa ad

JAN. 4, 1928 DENSMORE: MELODIC FORMATION OF INDIAN SONGS 17

he was told to sing in order to obtain the promised power. It is apart

from the purpose of this article to discuss the stimulus to the brain

produced by lack of food, and the interesting element of rhythm pre-

sented by the resultant song. ‘The data are sufficient to show the futil-

ity of searching in such material for a conscious, preconceived tonal

system. There is a wide gulf between a belief in a dream and. the

knowledge of the monochord and its mathematical divisions which

formed the basis of the musical system of the Greeks.

Turning from the realm. of inspiration we seek information concern-

ing the actual composition of songs. For example, the Indians say

that a returning war party composed a song concerning its victory,

composing the song in one of its camps and singing it in the victory

dance that followed its return. If there were a ‘professional musi-

cian’’ or some person corresponding to a ballad-singer in the war party

we should find that the composing of the song was entrusted to him.

Instead, I am informed that ‘‘the warriors made up the song,” indicat-

ing that several men collaborated in producing the melody. A song

was recorded among the Sioux that was the work of several men in co-

operation. The song differed from the older songs in a lack of unity and

coherence. It contained too many peculiarities. The same quality

characterised a Winnebago song said to have been composed in the

same manner. A song was never changed after being approved by

the group composing it, but no trace of a system in their composition

has been found.

In some tribes it appears that a steady physical motion was con-

sidered an aid to musical composition. Thus two women at Neah

Bay, Washington, said that when they were young girls they com-

posed songs together when sitting in a swing, and that a young boy was

accustomed to swing them while they “made up songs.” ‘They said

that they “‘thought of something pleasant, were swung to and fro,

and pretty soon they could sing about what they were thinking.”

An Indian of British Columbia said that songs “‘came to him”’ as he

walked, and the Indians living on the west coast of British Columbia

are accustomed to go out in a “‘gasoline boat’? when they wish to com-

pose songs, remaining in the boats until the song is finished. None of

these procedures suggests a definite system governing the form of musi-

cal compositions, nor a technical training as preparation for the work

of producing songs. If these are lacking, are we not confronted by

the sense of pleasure as a determining factor in the selection of tones?

It is the purpose of the present article to show, by accumulated

data, that the tones which give pleasure (or satisfaction) to the Indians

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1

bear a relation to the natural laws of sound. It will be shown that the

upper partials of a fundamental constitute the framework of many

Indian melodies. Whether the Indians received this suggestion from

sounds in nature, from the sound of the wooden flute, or from very

early contact with the white race must remain a matter of conjecture.

The writer has been informed of a statement that ‘In 1640 or near that

date, the missionaries to the Indians found that they took very kindly

to the hymns and other songs of the white man and were often heard

singing them.’ ‘This was mentioned “in contrast with the Japanese of

about 1850, the Egyptians and Syrians, all of whom when visiting Eng-

land were much bored with European music.” , It is known that musie

travels far among primitive folk and we cannot, at this time, deter-

mine to what extent the songs of the Atlantic seaboard were carried to

the middle west, but, in the writer’s observation, the upper partial tones

of a fundamental are more in evidence among the songs of Indians

belonging to Algonquian and Siouan stocks than among the Indians of

the Mexican border and the Northwest Coast. It is scarcely possible

to trace the antiquity of a song more than 150 or 200 years, which does

not bridge the distance to the first contact between the Indians and

members of the white race.

The permanence of a melody is proven by repeated renditions by the

same or other singers. If a song is repeated after the lapse of days or

months it will be found, on comparing the phonograph records, that

the tempo and pitch as well as the note-values are identical, providing

the records are made by a competent singer. The repetition is made

with the accuracy that depends upon memory without the aid of any

notation. It is the writer’s custom to record several consecutive

renditions of a song, the phonograph cylinder sometimes containing 8

or 10 renditions, these being uniform in every respect. The rhythmic

accuracy is like that of a metronome except in songs where a rubato

is employed, as in some of the songs for treating the sick. The melodic

accuracy is naturally that of a human voice, not a mechanism, and, if

recorded by a tonodeik or similar apparatus, would not show the

accuracy of a cultivated voice nor of an instrument. We must allow

the Indian the same latitude in “keeping the key” that we allow a

member of our own race, and even more. If we do not attribute the

slight variations in pitch to his peculiar manner of singing, combined

with the human quality of the material under observation, we must

assume that he has an ability to produce and consciously repeat minute

gradations of pitch, his ability far surpassing that of our own singers.

Such gradations of pitch are used intentionally and for effect by vio-

JAN. 4, 1928 DENSMORE: MELODIC FORMATION OF INDIAN SONGS 19

linists but not by our singers. There is no doubt, as indicated, that the

Indian produces tones distant from one another less than the interval

of a semitone but his manner of tone production is entirely different

from ours and the tone may often be described as unfocused. It should

be clearly understood that the piano scale is used as standard of

~measurement by the present writer because the deviations from that

scale are not given by the Indians with a consistency and sureness

that justifies the use of a more finely graded standard. It would

scarcely be possible to show, by any system of notation, the gradations

of pitch that occur in the singing of many Indians during a period of

an hour, and it would be even more impossible to study the music of a

tribe or group of tribes by such a method. Individuals differ, the

singing of some persons being more steady in tone and easier to trans-

eribe in ordinary notation than the singing of others.

The student of Indian music must learn to detect the kernal or center

of gravity in the tone produced by the Indian. In my observation,

the Indian usually sings the tones corresponding to the octave, twelfth

and fifth of the piano scale with an accuracy that would be considered

acceptable in a singer of our own race. Other musicians listening to

records of Indian songs have corroborated this statement. Generally

speaking the intonation on the fourth and seventh above the keynote

are the most uncertain, but these are the tones that occur with least

frequency in Indian songs. The major third is usually given with

reasonable accuracy but the interval transcribed as a minor third is

more often a distinct non-major third than a minor third according to

the piano scale. The accuracy of intonation varies from the overtones

of a fundamental, already indicated as reasonably correct, to tones

which are exceedingly difficult to determine and transcribe. If a tone

is persistently sung less than a quarter tone above the pitch of a tone

in the piano scale it is the writer’s custom to place a plus sign above the

note in the transcription. A tone persistently sung less than a quarter

tone below the piano pitch is indicated by a minus sign below the note.

These are the only deviations from ordinary musical notation used by

the writer, the purpose being to show the characteristics of Indian

songs in a simple manner, thus making it possible to analyse a large

amount of material.

Mention should here be made of the Indian’s ability to keep the in-

tonation on the octave when it occurs as the boundary of a melody as

well as when it is a direct progression. Many Indian songs have a

compass of 8 tones and the singer may vary the accuracy of the inter-

vals within that octave, but the highest and lowest tones of his song

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1

will be an octave apart. The same feeling for a true octave appears

in songs of larger compass, and is the more interesting as the lowest tone

of the octave frequently does not appear until the close of the song.

In all considerations of Indian music it should be borne in mind that.

our conclusions are based upon the evidence of a recording apparatus

that is adapted to field work and is used under varied conditions. We

have not a laboratory apparatus nor ideal working conditions but we

have reliable old-time Indians, working under circumstances that place

them at their ease. Whatever peculiarities appear in the record are

natural to the Indians, who are conscientiously trying to sing their

old songs correctly in order that they may be preserved for posterity.

The same Indians, if taken to a city where a more elaborate mecha-

nism were available, might be less able to concentrate upon their sing-

ing and thus give less reliable material. In a majority of her work the

writer has used a Columbia graphophone, with specially constructed

recorders. This is manipulated as quietly as possible, every effort

being used to keep the Indians in an easv, happy frame of mind. The

work is done chiefly with men between the ages of 55 and 80.

In some Indian songs the key is established (to use the musical

phraseology) while in a lesser number of songs the relation of the tones.

to a keynote is less in evidence, or altogether absent. The descriptive

analyses that follow such songs contain a statement that the signa-

ture indicates the pitch of certain tones but does not imply the exist-

ence of a key, in the musician’s use of that term. ‘The signature is a

simpler manner of indicating the pitch than the use of sharps and flats,

scattered throughout the melody.

The question may be asked whether the selection of a keynote is not

a matter of education and therefore not germane to Indian songs.

It has been shown that the Indian apparently has no musical system,

and the designation of keynotes in his songs should not be understood

as implying that he has such asystem. Weare accustomed to keynotes

and a melody is more readily understood if we refer its tones to one

basic tone. Moreover, the use of a fundamental and its upper par-

tials as the framework of an Indian melody seems to justify the desig-

nation of the fundamental as the keynote. In songs without such a

framework the keynote is inferred from the tonal material, the final

tone of the song, except in a very small number of instances, being the

tone which we would consider the keynote in a melody of our own race,

or else its third or fifth. Thus if a song contains the tones D, E, F

sharp, G, B and C sharp, with D and F sharp as prominent accented

tones and D as the final tone we seem justified in giving the transcrip-

JAN. 4, 1928 DENSMORE: MELODIC FORMATION OF INDIAN SONGS 21

tion the signature of the key of D and analysing the song in that key.

It will be observed that in the tone-material cited the fifth is absent;

the same course would be followed if the seventh were omitted, pro-

vided the sequence of tones suggested D rather than G as keynote.

In a typical melody having the upper partials of D as its framework the

principal accented tones would be D, F sharp and A, but, in many

melodies, these tones appear only at the opening or at the close, the

remainder of the melody being in a free form.

Only 6 per cent of the Indian songs collectively analyzed (987 in

number) contain all the tones of the diatonic major or minor scale.

The five-toned scales (described below) constitute 32 per cent while the

remainder of the songs contain from 3 to 7 tones in a wide variety of

groups. Next to the largest group is that of songs containing only

the tones of the major triad (fundamental and its simplest overtones)

this group constituting 14 percent of the total number. Songs con-

taining four tones are classified as based on a major or minor triad

with one additional tone. Songs that contain five tones (apart from

the accepted five-toned scales) or six tones are classified as lacking

certain tones of the complete octave. The largest of these groups are

those in which the seventh is lacking, these groups constituting 18

percent of the total. The percentage of songs containing six tones of

the octave is not large enough, in the writer’s opinion, to justify the use

of the term “‘six-toned scale.”’ In the matter of five-toned scales, the

writer has adopted the designation used by Helmholtz, giving no con-

sideration to songs omitting tones other than the fourth and seventh of

the major diatonic octave. This is the familiar series of tones repre-

sented by the black keys of a piano. In the designation by Helmholtz,

the first five-toned scale (if thus played on a piano) had C sharp as its

keynote, the second and fourth have D sharp and F sharp respectively,

the third has G sharp and the fifth has A sharp as its keynote. The

second five-toned scale, commonly called the minor pentatonic, oc-

curs in 10 percent of the group already cited, while the fourth five-

toned scale, commonly called the major pentatonic, appears as the

basis of 20 percent of this group. The first five-toned scale forms the

tone-material of J percent, and the fifth five-toned scale appears

in only 2 of the 987 songs thus analysed. The keynote, in these as in

the diatonic major and minor keys, is determined by the tones and their

sequence, the keynote being that which would be so designated if the

melody had originated in our own race.

The songs comprised in the foregoing analyses are those of the

following tribes: Chippewa, Sioux, Ute, Mandan, Hidatsa and Papago.

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1

The songs of the Pawnee, Yuma, Cocopa, Yaqui, Makah, Menominee —

and Winnebago, as well as songs of the Indians of. British Columbia

and Vancouver Island, and songs of the Tule Indians of Panama, are

- not included as yet in the large total, but each song has been analysed.

In some instances the study of the tribe has not been completed and

the material is not considered ‘“‘closed”’ until this has been done. The

Pawnee, Menominee and (probably) the Winnebago will be found

similar in characteristics to the first five of the tribes in the collective

analysis but interesting differences appear in the songs of the tribes

living on the Mexican border and on the Northwest Coast. For

example, a structure that seems peculiar to the Makah is small in com-

pass, usually consisting of four tones with either the second or third of

the compass as the most prominent and final tone. A comparison of

the music of the several tribes is too large a subject for present considera-

tion. About 1700 songs have been recorded, transcribed and analysed

during the writer’s study of Indian music for the Bureau of American

Ethnology, covering a period of more than twenty years. Almost two

hundred songs are awaiting transcription, and the large number of

songs heard but not recorded has afforded valuable material for com-

parison. :

In the method of analysis, already mentioned, the songs are classified

under the following headings: (1) Tonality, determined by the dis-

tance of the third and sixth above the keynote, (2) Relation of the first

tone to the keynote, (3) Relation of the last tone to the keynote, (4)

Relation of the final tone to the compass of the song, (5) Number of

tones (scale-degrees) comprised in song, (6) Tone material, (7) Acci-

dentals, (8) Structure, melodic or harmonic, (9) First progression, up-

ward or downward, (10) Total number of progressions, (11) Intervals

in downward progression, and (12) Intervals in upward progression.

This is followed by a similar tabulation of rhythmic characteristics.

These bases of classification were devised for convenience. Consist-

ently and steadily used they obviate all ‘‘tests by the ear,’’ which lead

to dangerous generalizations. ‘They are a system of measurement in

order that collective results can be determined. Nothing is claimed

for them beyond the foregoing statements. In the songs of the Mexican

border and the Northwest Coast there are a considerable number of

songs now classified as “‘irregular.”” They are repeated accurately, by

reliable singers, but they do not conform to the above system. Some of

these contain a majority of the tones of the diatonic octave but do not

end on the first, third, fifth or octave. Others are entirely free in

a i ah A

JAN. 4, 1928 DENSMORE: MELODIC FORMATION OF INDIAN SONGS 23

melodic form. Further study of this group may produce interesting

results but at present there is no attempt to explain them.

It is often said that ‘‘Indian songs have a minor sound,” but the col-

lective table of 987 songs shows 53 percent having a major and 42 per-

cent having a minor tonality, a majority of the remainder being

‘Srregular,” or lacking the third above the keynote, while 5 songs have

two sections, one being major and the other being minor in tonality.

In this table, 20 percent begin on the octave above the keynote, 10

percent on the twelfth, 30 percent on the fifth, and 10 percent on the

keynote. The songs ending on the keynote comprise 54 percent, on

the fifth 33 percent, and on the third 10 percent, showing the feeling

for the upper partials already mentioned.

The impression of a “minor quality’? in Indian songs may be ex-

plained by the frequency of the minor third which constitutes 30

percent of the descending intervals and 25 per cent of the ascending

intervais in the total of 987 songs. The only interval exceeding this in

frequency is the whole tone which, with a semitone, often comprises a

minor third with a “passing tone.” The total number of intervals in

these songs is 26,777 and the average size of an interval is 3.08 semi-

tones. As a minor third contains 3 semitones it will be seen that the

average size of an interval is approximately a minor third. The dif-

ference between the tribes is very slight in this respect.

There is a general impression that Indian songs are descending in

trend. This is shown by the fact that 60 percent of the 26,777 inter-

vals in the songs under collective analysis are descending intervals.

Sixty-one percent of the songs begin with a downward progression, and

in 74 percent of the songs the last tone is the lowest tone of the com-

pass. It is particularly interesting to note this descending trend since

the tone material of Indian songs has been shown to be so closely con-

nected with the ascending harmonic series. Occasionally an Indian

sings the fundamental tone of this series softly before beginning to

record his song, as though ‘‘getting his balance,”’ but this does not occur

with sufficient frequency to be considered important.

Mention should be made of the large number of songs that a good

Indian singer has at his command. The writer has recorded more

than eighty from some individuals and been assured that a good singer

has several hundred songs held in his memory. In many ceremonies

the insistence upon accuracy is so strict that a singer who makes a

mistake in a song must pay a heavy fine and begin the song over again.

Songs are learned by Indians visiting another tribe and accredited to

that tribe when used. It is also customary to credit a song to its origin

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 1

within the tribe. Thus the songs belonging to a medicine man long

dead are said to have been his property, and the songs in honor of

warriors are kept by generations that have forgotten his deeds of valor.

The recording apparatus of the phonograph or dictaphone has made

possible the preservation of Indian songs, but the opportunity for that

work is rapidly passing away. The old songs are remembered correctly,

with the information pertaining to them, by only the old men. It is

possible to obtain old songs from men in middle life but they often do

not know the meaning of the words and are uncertain of the information

regarding the songs, beyond the fact that the songs belonged to the

previous generation. In some instances I have recorded a song from

an old man on one reservation and a middle-aged man on another

reservation and found that the latter had smoothed out the interesting

irregularities in the rhythm. The young Indians, now in Government

Schools, have little interest in the old songs except as they occasionally

learn an old melody in order to adapt it for use in a school band or ©

orchestra. ‘There will be no trace of the songs in imperishable stone for

future archeologists to decipher. The songs given to human beings by

the spirits of the night, the morning star, the dwarfs of the mountains,

the birds of the air and the animals of the plain—these will have gone

forever. The Indian of the present day does not hear these voices.

He can only say, ‘‘My grandfather received this song in a dream.”

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

At the celebration in honor of the Centenary of Marcelin Berthelot held

in Paris on October 24, and several days following, the Washington Academy

of Sciences was represented by Dr. W. E. Tispaue of the International

Education Board, who on behalf of the AcaApEMy presented an address

at a formal meeting presided over by Monsieur Doumergue, President of

the French Republic.

On the occasion of his seventieth birthday, August 13, 1927, in recogni-

tion of his forty years of research work in Tropical America, the honorary

degree of Doctor of Natural Sciences was conferred upon H. Prrrrer by the

University of Lausanne, Switzerland, “to distinguish the merits of ‘his

work concerning the natural history of Canton de Vaud (Switzerland) and

Latin America and to acknowledge*his efforts in the promotion of colonial

agriculture.”

MENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THEACADEMY AND

eh AFFILIATED SOCIBTIES oe

Janu

. Edgar oe . :

‘ans of ‘the meetings a the affliated societies. will on ‘this page if 2 ie ws

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CONTENTS

Onramat Paras

Hialessdeeslesoriane Sinan rca ore

Botany.— Notes on Central American Rubiaceae. Paut C. STANDLEY

eee a new genus of African mae related to Coenen,

AT A i ili il i se

_ OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

- President: ALEXANDER WETMORE, Smithsonian Institution.

Corresponding Secretary: L. B. Tuckmrman, Bureau of Stands

Recording Secretary: W. D. Lamprrt, Coast and Geodetic § Sur y

Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

"January 19, 1928

JOURNAL

ASHINGTON ACADEMY

BOARD OF EDITORS

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‘CHEMICAL SOCIETY _ be Sie

“ a PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY ‘ ie

EXCEPT IN see AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY <i fi

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 JANUARY 19, 1928 No. 2

BOTAN Y.—Twelve new American Asteraceae.t §. F. Buake, Bureau

of Plant Industry.

This paper contains descriptions of twelve new species of American

Asteraceae which have been found in the course of identification of

material of that family recently received at the United States National

Museum and among specimens lent for study by the curators of the

Kew Herbarium, the British Museum of Natural History, and the

Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. A few new names and transfers

are also included.

Erigeron porteri Blake, nom. nov.

Erigeron glandulosum Porter in Porter & Coulter, Syn. Fl. Colo. 60. 1874.

Not £. glandulosum Walt. Fl. Carol. 205. 1788, nor Poir. Encyel. 8:

487. 1808, nor Hegetschw. Fl. Schweiz 840. 1840.

The name Erigeron glandulosus Porter, in common use for a plant of

Colorado and Wyoming, is not available for this species owing to the previous

use of the same specific name by Walter, Poiret, and Hegetschweiler.

Walter’s name, omitted from the Index Kewensis and not referred to in

Gray’s Synoptical Flora, seems from description to refer to Chrysopsis

mariana. Poiret described under the same name the plant now known as

Chrysopsis graminifolia (Michx.) Ell., citing Michaux’s name (Inula gramini-

folia) and Walter’s as synonyms, the latter with doubt. Hegetschweiler’s

homonym is retained by Schinz and Thellung for a species of Erigeron of

the Swiss Alps. The last name was omitted from the original volumes of

the Index Kewensis, but is included in the fifth supplement, where its date

is wrongly given as 1839.

Rumfordia guatemalensis (Coulter) Blake.

Tetragonotheca guatemalensis Coulter, Bot. Gaz. 16: 99. 1891.

_Rumfordia verapazensis Blake, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 22: 609. 1924.

The type of Tetragonotheca guatemalensis Coulter (J. D. Smith 1592,

Senahi, Dept. Alta Verapaz, Guatemala), recently given by Capt. John

1 Received November 23, 1927.

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 2

Donnell Smith to the U. S. National Herbarium, is the same species as

Rumfordia verapazensis Blake, described from the Finca Sepacuité, in the

same Department. The lower leaves have deltoid, membranous blades,

about 18 by 18 cm., acuminate, cordate at base, hastately about 2-toothed

on the basal lobes with short, acuminate teeth 1-1.5 em. long, and with 1

or 2 small deltoid teeth on each side above the base; the petioles are 10-11

em. long, narrowly cuneate-winged to base.

Aspilia quinquenervis Blake, sp. nov.

Shrub; branches densely strigose; leaves lance-ovate or oblong-ovate,

large, long-acuminate, rounded at base, obscurely serrulate, 5-plinerved,

strigose or antrorse-hirsute on both sides, on naked petioles; heads medium-

sized, in a terminal cyme of 3, radiate, yellow; involucre 6-8 mm. high,

slightly graduate, the outer phyllaries obovate, strigose and ciliate, the loose

ovate acutish herbaceous tips about equaling the indurate base; rays short,

little exceeding the involucre; pappus without awns.

‘‘White-wooded shrub, the branches thin, up to 5 m. long,” striatulate,

about 3.5 mm. thick, strigose with tuberculate-based hairs; internodes

3.5-6 em. long; leaves opposite; petioles slender, tuberculate-strigose, sulcate

above, 7-15 mm. long; blades 10.5-18 cm. long, 3-6 em. wide, serrulate

(teeth short, callous, 4-8 mm. apart), papery, above dull green, evenly

and somewhat harshly tuberculate-strigose or antrorse-hirsute, beneath

scarcely lighter green, antrorse-hirsute on veins and surface with scarcely

tuberculate-based hairs, quintuplinerved, the two pairs of lateral veins

arising within 1.5 cm. above base of blade, the principal veins prominulous

on both sides, not obviously reticulate; heads (rather young) about 1.4 em.

wide, in a terminal 3-headed cyme and solitary in the uppermost axils, on

slender strigose peduncles 2—4 cm. long; disk 8-9 mm. high, 7-9 mm. thick;

involucre campanulate-subglobose, 6-8 mm. high, 3—4-seriate, the phyl-

laries rather few, the 2-3 outer series obovate to oval-obovate, 3-5 mm.

wide, below indurate, strigose, and ciliate, the equal or longer herbaceous

tips loosely spreading, obscurely callous-tipped, strigose and strigillose on

both sides, the inner phyllaries scarcely longer, with essentially glabrous or

obscurely strigillose, short-ciliate, ampliate, submembranous tips; rays

about 8, yellow, neutral, the lamina about 5.5 mm. long; disk corollas

puberulous on teeth, otherwise glabrous, 5.2 mm. long (tube 1.5 mm., throat

3 mm., teeth 0.7 mm.); pales obtusely acuminate, about 8 mm. long, keeled,

ciliolate on keel and margin, otherwise glabrous; disk achenes (immature)

nearly linear, 5.5 mm. long, densely pilose above, glabrous toward base;

pappus a crown of lacerate, ciliate, connate squamallae about 0.5 mm. long

and 2 trigonous, ciliate teeth about 1 mm. long.

Cotomsra: In bushes, Rio Palace, highlands of Popaydn, alt. 1500-

1800 m., February, Lehmann (type in Kew Herb.; photog. and fragm.,

U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Allied to A. nigropunctata Blake and A. retroflexa Blake, but distinguished

from both by characters of leaves and involucre.

Simsia grayii Sch. Bip., sp. nov.

Stem densely spreading-hispidulous and sparsely spreading-setose; leaves

opposite, triangular-ovate, hastate-lobed, finely hispidulous and sparsely

setose, the petioles winged throughout, connate at base into foliaceous

JAN. 19, 1928 BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE 27

disks; heads radiate, yellow, the disk turning purple; involucre 3—4-seriate,

strongly graduate, 7 mm. high; achenes 4 mm. long, 2-awned.

Herb; stem slender, oppositely branched above with divergent or wide-

spreading branches; internodes 10.5-13 cm. long; petioles 2-3 cm. long,

narrowly or broadly winged to base and there dilated and connate into

foliaceous disks 7-12 mm. wide; blades triangular-ovate, 6-8.5 cm. long,

3-5 em. wide, acuminate, at base subtruncate and then shortly cuneate

into the petiole, hastately lobed (lobes short, broadly triangular, obtusish),

crenate-serrate except at base and apex with short callous-apiculate teeth,

rather thin, above densely and harshly hispidulous and sparsely setose,

beneath somewhat paler, densely and finely spreading-hispidulous, setose

along the chief veins, triplinerved at base and prominulous-reticulate be-

neath; leaves of the inflorescence smaller, not hastate, often alternate,

mostly lanceolate, their short petioles margined and at base auriculate but

not connate; heads about 12 mm. wide, in cymes of 2-5 at tips of stem and

branches, on very slender naked pedicels 2 em. long or less; disk campanulate,

8-10 mm. high, 8 mm. thick; phyllaries lance-triangular (0.5-1.8 mm. wide),

acuminate, with short loose subherbaceous tips, densely and finely his-

pidulous, tuberculate-setulose at tip, the outer very sparsely setose chiefly

along midline, the inner about 5-nerved; rays 8, yellow, the lamina elliptic,

4.5 mm. long; disk corollas yellow turning purple, stipitate-glandular on

tube, finely hispidulous on throat and teeth, 7 mm. long at maturity (tube

1.3 mm., throat cylindric, 4.7 mm., teeth ovate, 1 mm.); pales acute or

acuminate, hispidulous, at apex short-hispid, 7-8 mm. long; achenes oval,

blackish, erect-pilose, ciliate, 4 mm. long, 2.6 mm. wide; awns 2, subequal,

hispidulous, 2.3 mm. long.

Mexico: Tepinapa, Oaxaca, Oct. 1842, Liebmann 560 (herb. Sch. Bip.;

photog. and fragm., U. 8. Nat. Herb.). Province of Oaxaca, Liebmann 561

(type in herb. Sch. Bip.; photog. and fragm., U. S. Nat. Herb.). Province

of Oaxaca, Buchinger 497 (herb. Sch. Bip.).

Related to Szmsia setosa Blake, of Sonora, S. tenwis (Fernald) Blake, of

Guerrero, and S. holwayi Blake, of Guatemala; distinguished by its com-

bination of sparsely setose stem, hastately 3-lobed leaves, these short-

pubescent beneath and with petioles margined to base, and small heads.

The specimen collected by Buchinger, labeled by Schultz in 1852 as a new

species under a different name, was placed in the same cover in the Schultz

herbarium with LIzebmann 560 and 561, which he named Szmsza grayiz in

1854.

Zexmenia mexiae Blake, sp. nov.

Suffrutescent, ternately branched, strigose and strigillose throughout;

leaves ovate, short-petioled, acuminate, rounded at base, serrate, 5-plinerved,

the blades about 8 cm. long; heads radiate, medium-sized, mostly in terminal

cymes of 5-9, on pedicels usually 3-5 cm. long; involucre strongly graduate,

about 8 mm. high, appressed, the phyllaries suborbicular-ovate to oblong-

oval, the outer shortly callous-pointed, the inner rounded; achenes very

narrowly wing-margined; pappus of 2 awns equaling the achene and a crown

of basally connate squamellae 1.5 mm. long or less.

Plant 2 m. high; stem subterete, striate, gray-brown, about 4 mm. thick,

rather densely strigose and strigillose with slightly tuberculate-based hairs;

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 2

internodes 8-12 cm. long; leaves opposite; petioles naked, densely strigose,

strigillose, and hispid-ciliate, 3-6 mm. long; blades 6-9 em. long, 3-4.3 em.

wide, broadly rounded or subcordate at base, serrate (teeth acutely callous-

tipped, about 0.5 mm. high, 3-7 mm. apart), pergamentaceous, above more

or less shining green, strigillose on surface with scarcely tuberculate-based

hairs, strigose along the veins, beneath duller green, strigillose on surface

and veinlets, strigose along the veins, somewhat bullate above, loosely

prominulous-reticulate beneath; heads 2 cm. wide, in terminal cymes, and

solitary or in clusters of 2-3 in the upper axils, the slender densely strigillose

pedicels 1.5—7 em. long; disk campanulate, 1—-1.4 em. high, 7-10 mm. thick;

involucre about 5-seriate, 8-9 mm. high, 7-9 mm. thick, the outer phyllaries

broadly ovate or suborbicular, abruptly and acutely callous-pointed, densely

strigose, strigillose, and short-ciliate, with indurate base or lower margin

and greenish apex, about 4.5 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide, the middle ones

similar but longer and broader, the inner oblong-oval, 4.5-5 mm. wide,

strigillose, with short-ciliate, erose, broadly rounded, submembranous tips;

rays 13, pistillate, golden-yellow, glabrous, the tube 3 mm. long, the lamina

elliptic, 9 mm. long, 3 mm. wide, about 11-nerved, tridenticulate; disk

flowers about 63, their corollas golden yellow, much exserted at maturity,

glabrous outside, 6.5-8 mm. long (tube 2—2.7 mm., throat slender-funnel-

form, 44.5 mm., teeth ovate, papillose-margined inside, 0.8 mm. long);

receptacle flattish; pales narrow, 8 mm. long, carinate, hispidulous-ciliolate

on keel and toward apex, tridentate, the middle tooth obtuse, about 2 mm.

long, flattish, the lateral ones short; ray achenes trigonous, 3-aristate (inner

awn longest, about 2.5mm. long), narrowly 3-marginate-winged, otherwise

essentially similar to disk achenes; disk achenes narrowly obovate, strongly

compressed, very narrowly wing-margined, 4.5 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide,

blackish, obscurely strigillose at apex, spinulose-ciliolate on wings, the wings

adnate at base to the 2 awns, these unequal, spinulose, 3.5-4.5 mm. long,

connected at base by a crown of basally connate squamellae 0.5-1.5 mm.

long.

Mexico: In woods, Palapar Redondo, Tuxpan, Jalisco, alt. 20 m., 5

Nov. 1926, Ynes Mexia 1049 (type no. 1,317, 609, U. 8. Nat. Herb.).

Nearest Zexmenia microcephala Hemsl., which has much smaller, fewer-

flowered heads on pedicels only 1-2 em. long. Described by the collector as

a large, coarse, erect, showy plant, with the vernacular name “tacote

amarillo.”

Otopappus cordatus Blake, sp. nov.

Stem and pedicels strigillose; leaves ovate, cordate, slender-petioled, 3-

nerved from base, repand-dentate, rough on both sides; heads medium-

sized, solitary at apex of stem and in upper axils on widely spreading pedicels

about 2.5 ecm. long; outer phyllaries spatulate, with spreading herbaceous

tips; rays about 32, about 3 mm. long.

Shrub; branch slender, densely cinereous-strigillose with somewhat tuber-

culate-based hairs; leaves opposite throughout; internodes 5-7 cm. long;

petioles naked, subterete, shallowly sulcate above, densely strigillose, 1.5-

2.7 cm. long; blades ovate, 8.5-11 cm. long, 4.5-8 cm. wide, acuminate,

cordate at base (sinus 1.2 em. deep or less) or the upper subtruncate, repand-

dentate and denticulate with unequal callous teeth essentially throughout

(teeth 3-5 mm. apart), or the uppermost merely denticulate, pergamentace-

nhac ate v

JAN. 19, 1928 BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE 29

ous, above deep green, densely and harshly antrorse-hispidulous with glandu-

lar-tuberculate-based hairs, impressed-veined and subbullate, beneath lighter

green, densely antrorse-hispidulous on all veins and veinlets, gland-dotted,

3-nerved from base and densely prominulous-reticulate, the principal vein-

lets for the most part diverging at a right angle from their respective veins;

heads 9, 1.2-1.5 em. wide, the lower in the axils of foliage leaves, the upper-

most subtended by narrowly lanceolate bracts 2.5 em. long; disk in flower

about 9 mm. high, 12 mm. thick; involucre broadly campanulate, 4—5-seriate,

graduate, 6 mm. high, the 2 outermost series of phyllaries spatulate, 3-5

mm. long, 1-1.5 mm. wide, with subindurate base and longer, obtuse,

spreading, herbaceous tip, 1-ribbed, strigillose, the 2-3 inner series oblong,

obtuse to acute, erect, with obscurely greenish, densely strigillose center

and narrow, golden-yellow, subsearious, glabrous margin; rays about 32,

fertile, golden yellow, sub-2-seriate, spreading, the tube glabrous, 0.5 mm.

long, the lamina oval, bidentate, pilosulous on nerves of back, 7-nerved,

3 mm. long, 2 mm. wide; disk corollas numerous, golden yellow, essentially

glabrous outside, barbellate within toward apex of teeth, 3.8 mm. long

(tube 0.5 mm., throat slender-funnelform, 2.7 mm., teeth ovate, 0.6 mm.);

pales very narrow, keeled, 5.5 mm. long, with firm, acute, yellow, hispidulous-

cilolate tips; ray achenes (submature) trigonous, 3 mm. long, 3-winged, the

wings hispidulous-ciliolate, adnate throughout to the 3 awns, these 0.8-1.4

mm. long, connected by a crown of connate lacerate squamellae up to 0.4

mm. long; disk achenes (submature) compressed, the body narrowly obovate,

glabrous, 3 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide, 2-winged, the outer wing glabrous,

narrow, adnate to the hispidulous-ciliolate awn (this 1.7 mm. long), the

inner wing hispidulous-ciliolate, much broadened above and adnate to the

awn (this 2 mm. long); squamellze united into a lacerate crown 0.6 mm.

long, adnate below to the awns.

Mexico: Achotla, Guerrero, alt. 900 m., Oct. 1926, B. P. Reko 5011

(type no. 1,269,429, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Nearest Otopappus salazart Blake, but with much broader, deeply cordate,

strongly reticulate, conspicuously toothed leaves, fewer and larger heads,

and much shorter and more numerous rays.

Oyedaea obovata Blake, sp. nov.

-Stem and branches densely appressed-pubescent; leaves elliptic-ovate or

ovate, short-petioled, acute, rounded at base, obscurely serrulate, roughish

above with subappressed hairs, hirsute beneath, featherveined, about 6

em. long; heads medium-sized, short-pedicelled, in close clusters of 3-6 at

tips of stem and branches; involucre 1-1.2 cm. high, the outer phyllaries

with indurate base and abruptly broader, suborbicular-ovate, acute, herba-

ceous tip.

Shrub; branches alternate or opposite; stem stout (38-5 mm. thick), sub-

terete, striatulate, at length glabrescent, the branches erectish, subangulate,

densely and griseously appressed-pubescent or substrigose; internodes

1-3.5 em. long; petioles stout, naked, pubescent like the stem, 5—9 mm. long;

blades 4.5-7 cm. long, 2-3 cm. wide, broadly rounded to cuneate-rounded at

base, obscurely serrulate (teeth minute, 2-4 mm. apart) on the slightly

revolute margin, subcoriaceous, above deep green, shining, densely and

finely tuberculate, more sparsely (along chief veins densely) antrorse-hirsute,

beneath evenly and rather densely hirsute on surface and veinlets with

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 2

spreading antrorse-curved hairs, along the chief veins antrorse-hirsute with

stouter hairs, prominulous-reticulate beneath, the chief lateral veins 7-8

pairs, a pair about 1-1.5 cm. above base of leaf often more conspicuous

than the others and frequently forked; heads 2.2-3 em. wide, in close cymose

clusters, usually overtopped by the leaves, the stout pedicels 1-12 mm.

long, densely pubescent like the stem or the hairs sometimes spreading; disk

about 1 em. high and thick; involucre campanulate, about 5-seriate, graduate,

1-1.2 em. high, the 2 outermost series of phyllaries obovate or broadly

spatulate-obovate, with indurate base (1.5-8 mm. wide) and abrupt, sub-

equal, suborbicular-ovate, thick-herbaceous, erect or rather loose tip (3-5

mm. wide), subappressed-hirsute, more or less ciliate, and somewhat tubercu-

late, the middle ones elliptic-oblong or oblong (8-4 mm. wide), with some-

what ampliate, subscarious, broadly rounded tip, less pubescent, the inner-

most sometimes shorter, subglabrous or sordid-glandular, with subscarious

tip; rays about 10, yellow, neutral, the tube 2 mm. long, the lamina oblong,

2-dentate, about 12 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, about 12-nerved, puberulous

on nerves of back; disk corollas numerous, evidently yellow, finely hispidulous

on teeth, otherwise glabrous, 5.7 mm. long (tube 2 mm., throat subcylindric,

3 mm., teeth ovate, 0.7 mm.); pales narrow, acute, carinate, obscurely

ciliolate toward apex, 8 mm. long; disk achenes oblong-obovate, 4 mm.

long, 1.5 mm. wide, compressed, very narrowly 2-winged, sparsely ap-

pressed-pubescent on sides, short-ciliate; pappus a lacerate-ciliolate crown

of squamellae 0.8 mm. long and 2 slightly unequal, slender, hispidulous

awns 3 mm. long.

VENEZUELA: Agua de Obispo, Province of Trujillo, alt. 2135-2440 m.,

July 1843, Linden 1450 (type in herb. Mus. Paris, dupl. in herb. Sch. Bip.;

photog. and fragm., U. S. Nat. Herb.). :

In Schultz’s herbarium this plant was marked as a new species of Lezghia

(= Viguiera), under a name which it has not seemed necessary to cite,

with a note indicating that Schultz suspected it might represent a new

genus. The specimen in the Paris Herbarium is marked ‘‘Viguiera?” in

Bentham’s hand. The plant is definitely an Oyedaea near the Colombian

O. reticulata Blake, but with denser pubescence, somewhat different leaves,

and very different, highly characteristic phyllaries.

Verbesina pantoptera Blake, sp. nov.

Perennial herb, 60 cm. high, simple, 4—7-headed, hispidulous throughout;

stem and peduncles very narrowly 4-winged throughout; leaves opposite to

middle of stem, the blades ovate, sometimes hastately 3-lobed with obtuse

lobes, acute, rounded or abruptly contracted into narrowly cuneate-winged

petioles, denticulate, rough-pubescent on both sides, the blade about 5 cm.

long; involucre obgraduate, loose, herbaceous, 1-1.2 em. high, the phyl-

laries linear or lance-linear; rays about 13, lemon-yellow, the lamina about

1.2 em. long.

Rootstock short (ca. 2 em. long); stems apparently few, about 2 mm.

thick, spreading-hispidulous, the 4 herbaceous wings entire, scarcely 1 mm.

wide; larger leaves about 5 pairs, subremote (internodes 3.5-7 cm. long),

the blades 5-6 cm. long, 2.8-3.8 cm. wide, firm-papery, dark dull green

above, paler dull green beneath, above evenly tuberculate-hispidulous or

short-hispid, beneath rather densely hispidulous on veins and veinlets,

JAN. 19, 1928 BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE ol

featherveined or obscurely triplinerved, the veins and veinlets prominulous-

reticulate beneath, the petioles cuneate-winged to base, not connate, 1.2-

2 em. long, 6-8 mm. wide above, 1.5 mm. wide at base; upper leaves few

(about 4), mostly alternate, lanceolate to triangular-ovate, 0.8-2 cm. wide,

acuminate, acutely cuneate at base, unlobed; peduncles terminal and in

the upper axils, 1-3-headed, 2-9 cm. long, the terminal one shortest; heads

2-3 cm. wide, apparently nodding except at maturity; disk 8-10 mm. high;

involucre about 3-seriate, obgraduate, the outermost phyllaries linear or

linear-lanceolate, acute or obtuse, callous-tipped, herbaceous essentially

throughout, hispidulous or short-hispid on both sides, loose, in age reflexed

from above the base, 10-12 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, the second series

similar but shorter, 8-10 mm. long, the innermost (subtending the rays)

still shorter, herbaceous above, subindurate below, acuminate; rays neutral,

“lemon yellow,” sparsely hirsutulous on tube and back, the tube 1.5-2.5

mm. long, the lamina elliptic, 1.1-1.38 cm. long, about 4 mm. wide, 8-9-

nerved, 2—3-denticulate; disk corollas numerous, “lemon yellow,’’ hispidulous

chiefly above the middle, 7.5 mm. long (tube 1 mm., throat subcylindric,

5.3 mm. long, teeth 1.2 mm.); pales rather narrow, about 7 mm. long,

hispidulous on keel and toward tip, tridentate, the lateral teeth short, the

middle one elongate, nearly equaling body of pale, greenish, with slightly

recurved tip; achenes (submature) broadly and obliquely obovate, 4 mm.

long, 3 mm. wide including wings (these 0.2-0.3 mm. wide), very flat, 1-

nerved on each side, glabrous except for the short-ciliate wings, the wings

adnate at base to the awns and connected between them by a narrow undu-

late margin; awns 2, subulate, hispidulous, slightly unequal, 1.2-1.5 mm.

long.

Mexico: Common in open spaces in woods on lower slope of Cordilleras,

trail from Tepic to Santiago, State of Nayarit, alt. 1000 m., 15 Sept. 1926,

Ynes Mexia 632 (type no. 1,317,608, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

A species of the section Pterophyton, readily distinguished by its narrowly

winged stems and peduncles, in combination with its comparatively long,

herbaceous phyllaries. The undulate margin connecting the awns suggests

the allied genus Zexmenia, but a longitudinal section of the achene indicates

that this border is not squamelloid in origin, but is formed by the lateral

confluence of the substance of the wings between the awns, which are em-

bedded in it, and around the contracted apex of the achene body. In any

case the neutral rays forbid the reference of the species to Zevmenia.

Verbesina heterocarpa Blake, sp. nov.

Shrub; stem softly griseous-puberulous with subappressed hairs; leaves of

main stem alternate, of branches opposite, lanceolate, about 8 cm. long,

acuminate at each end, short-petioled, serrulate, roughish above, softly

griseous-pilose-subtementose and densely dotted with yellow glands beneath;

heads rather small, several in small terminal panicles, radiate, yellow; in-

volucre 4—5-seriate, the inner phyllaries with acuminate subscarious tips;

pales with yellowish erect acuminate scarious tips; ray achenes glabrous,

their pappus of a single squamella; disk achenes pubescent, 2-awned.

Shrub 2.5 m. high, the branches alternate or opposite, about 3 dm. long;

main stem subterete, 4 mm. thick, finely appressed-puberulous; branches

fuscous, densely subappressed-puberulous and with some not longer more or

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 2

less spreading hairs and finely gland-dotted, their internodes usually 2-4.5

em. long; petioles naked, unappendaged, pubescent like the stem, 4-5 mm.

long; blades 7-8 em. long, 1.3-1.8 em. wide, serrulate (teeth small, callous,

mostly deflexed, 2-3 mm. apart), pergamentaceous, above dull green or

purplish-tinged, densely antrorse-hirsutulous with slightly tuberculate-

based hairs and gland-dotted, beneath densely pilose-subtomentose with

mostly spreading hairs and gland-dotted, featherveined, the lateral veins

about 15 pairs, prominulous beneath, the veinlets scarcely prominulous;

heads about 1 cm. wide, in flattish or convex panicles (about 3-6 em. wide)

of 15-24 at apex of branches, the bracts lance-linear, mostly 3.5 em. long or

less, the pedicels slender, 5-15 mm. long, pubescent like the stem; involucre

4—5-seriate, strongly graduate, 5-6 mm. high, the outer 2 series of phyllaries

ovate, 0.5-1.2 mm. wide, appressed, pilosulous and gland-dotted, sub-

herbaceous above, with short, acutish, purplish, callous tips, the others

ovate or lance-ovate, 1.3-2 mm. wide, with subindurate central portion and

subscarious, yellowish, sharply acuminate, erect tips, usually fuscous

centrally, sparsely pilosulous and dotted with sessile yellow glands; rays 6,

golden yellow, pistillate, pilose and stipitate-glandular on tube and base of

back, the tube 1.5 mm. long, the lamina oval, emarginate, 6 mm. long,

‘44.5 mm. wide; disk flowers 22, their corollas golden yellow, pilose and

stipitate-glandular on tube, sparsely pilose on nerves of throat below, papil-

lose on inner surface of teeth, 6 mm. long (tube 1.5 mm., throat subcylindrie,

3.5 mm., teeth ovate, 1 mm.); receptacle strongly convex; pales similar to the

inner phyllaries in shape and texture, about 7 mm. long, stipitate-glandular

on back and above on margin and very sparsely pilose on back, with scarious,

yellowish, sharply acuminate, erect or somewhat incurved tips; ray achenes

(very immature) obcompressed or trigonous, glabrous or with a few hairs

at apex, narrowly 2-winged, their pappus of a single squamella 0.3 mm.

long or less; disk achenes (very immature) compressed, narrowly obovate,

3 mm. long, very narrowly 2-winged, pilosulous above, densely short-ciliate

on wings; pappus awns 2, slender, unequal, hispidulous, 2.5-3.2 mm. long.

Mexico: In opening in oak forest on steep slope, Real Alto, Sierra Madre

Occidental, Jalisco, alt. 2500 m., 29 Jan. 1927, Ynes Mexia 1587 (type no.

1,317,611, U. 8. Nat. Herb.).

A member of the section Saubinetia, allied to V. molinaria Robins. &

Greenm. and V. oncophora Robins. & Seaton. In the former the larger,

opposite leaves are canescently subsericeous-tomentose beneath, and the

involucre and pales are very different; in the latter the leaves are larger

and normally alternate, the petioles are provided at base with deciduous

corky auricles, the involucre is shorter and simpler, and the much shorter,

firmer pales bear abrupt short mucros. The almost complete absence of

pappus in the ray flowers of V. heterocarpa is a striking feature not found in

either of the two related species.

Verbesina glaucophylla Blake, sp. nov.

Shrubby, leafy, glabrous throughout except for the obscurely puberulous

pedicels; leaves chiefly alternate, lanceolate, 9-20 cm. long, acuminate at

each end, short-petioled, denticulate, green above, glaucous beneath; heads

discoid, whitish, about 36-flowered, slender-pediceled, numerous in a terminal

concave cymose panicle; involucre 2—-2.5 mm. high; pales with short re-

curving mucros.

JAN. 19, 1928 BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE cee

Shrub 1.5-2.5 m. high; stems or branches subterete, simple or little

branched, striate, glabrous, glaucescent, 3 mm. thick, pithy; internodes

5-15 mm. long; leaves alternate, or on short branches opposite below, the

blades lanceolate, 1.8-3.5 em. wide, broadest near middle, subremotely

denticulate or serrulate-denticulate (teeth blunt, callous, ca. 0.4 mm. high,

3-11 mm. apart), papery to subpergamentaceous, glabrous and smooth on

both sides featherveined (lateral veins about 10 pairs), finely translucent-

reticulate, the strong costa whitish or purplish, the chief lateral veins pro-

minulous; naked portion of petiole grooved above, 3-7 mm. long; heads

turbinate-hemispheric, about 8 mm. high, 10 mm. wide, on terminal and

axillary peduncles 7.5 cm. long or less, forming a panicle about 11 cm. wide,

the bracts mostly narrowly linear, 2—20 mm. long, the pedicels mostly 8-25

mm. long, slightly puberulous especially at apex; involucre 2-seriate, sub-

equal, the phyllaries ovate or oblong-ovate, obtuse, glabrous, subherbaceous,

sometimes subtended by a few slightly longer and more herbaceous loose-

tipped bracts; corollas whitish, 3.5-4 mm. long (tube densely pilose, 1—-1.2

mm., throat glabrous, thick-cylindric, 1.8-2 mm., teeth ovate, short-ciliate

on inner margin, 0.7-1 mm. long); receptacle convex; pales cymbiform,

yellowish green, 3.5-4 mm. long, strongly carinate, sparsely hispidulous on

keel, denticulate on the subscarious margin above, tipped with a short erect

or recurving mucro; achenes obovate, 2.6 mm. long, 2.8 mm. wide (including

wings), the body blackish, sparsely pilose near apex, about 1.2 mm. wide,

the short-ciliate whitish wings about 0.7 mm. wide, prolonged above the

achene and adnate to base of awns, the awns 2, subequal, hispidulous, 2

mm. long.

Mexico: In pine forest on steep dry clay hills, Loma de Garote, trail to

San Sebastian, Sierra Madre Occidental, Jalisco, alt. 1500 m., 8 Feb. 1927,

Ynes Mexia 1649a (type no. 1,317,612, U. S. Nat. Herb.). San Sebastian,

east of Arroyo Santa Gertrudis, Jalisco, 17 Jan. 1927, Mezza 1507.

A species of the section Lzpactinia; distinguished by its glabrous char-

acter, its glaucescence, and its about 36-flowered heads. The two other

Mexican species of this section have 7—9-flowered heads.

Verbesina rivetii Blake, sp. nov.

Stem thinly cinereous-tomentose; leaves alternate, short-petioled, oblong-

lanceolate, acuminate, acutely cuneate at base, sharply serrulate, cinereous-

tomentose beneath; heads small, 15—17-flowered, radiate, yellow, very

numerous in a large flattish terminal panicle; outermost phyllaries oblong,

pilosulous; pales slightly ciliolate.

Shrub; stem (or branch) simple below the inflorescence, 5 mm. thick,

subterete, multistriatulate; internodes 1-2 em. long; petioles stout, naked,

densely cinereous- or canescent-tomentose, 4-7 mm. long; blades 6-10 cm.

long, 1.5-2.5 cm. wide, serrate or serrulate above the entire cuneate base

(teeth about 7 pairs, callous-tipped, 0.5-1 mm. high, usually 5-10 mm.

apart), above deep green, densely and rather harshly pilosulous with antrorse-

curved hairs with persistent glandular-tuberculate bases, beneath densely

and softly cinereous-tomentose, pergamentaceous, featherveined, the chief

lateral veins 5-7 pairs, covered by the tomentum; heads 1-1.2 cm. wide,

numerous in dense cymose panicles at tip of stem and branches, together

forming a panicle 20 cm. wide, the ultimate bracts minute, the pedicels

mostly 6-12 mm. long, spreading-pilosulous; disk subcylindric, 1 cm. high,

4-5 mm. thick; involucre about 3-seriate, 5-7 mm. high, the phyllaries few,

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 2

very unequal, the outermost oblong or ovate-oblong, about 2.5 mm. long,

1 mm. wide, subherbaceous, obtusish, callous-tipped, densely pilosulous,

the innermost (subtending the rays), 5-7 mm. long, similar to the pales in

shape and texture, ciliolate, on back glabrous or somewhat puberulous;

rays 4-5, fertile, pilosulous on tube and base of lamina, the tube 2.2 mm.

long, the lamina oval or suborbicular, 2-3-denticulate, about 8-nerved,

44.8 mm. long, 2.8-3.5 mm. wide; disk flowers 10-13, their corollas densely

short-pilose on tube and base of throat, strongly papillose-bearded on margin

of teeth within, 5.5-6 mm. long (tube 1.8 mm., throat funnelform, 3-3.3 mm.,

teeth ovate, 0.8-1mm.); pales oblong, acute or acutish, blackish green,

yellow-margined and -tipped, short-ciliate, essentially glabrous dorsally,

about 8 mm. long; ray achenes compressed or trigonous, narrowly winged,

their pappus of 2 subequal or very unequal more or less paleaceous awns

2.5 mm. long or less, sometimes reduced to short teeth; disk achenes cuneate-

obovate, compressed, blackish, very narrowly 2-winged (wings eciliolate,

about 0.1 mm. wide, adnate to base of awns), glabrous or sparsely hispidulous

on the sides, 5 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide; pappus awns 2, subequal, hispidulous,

about 3 mm. long.

Ecuapor: Terme Nord, Nov. 1902, Rivet 290 (type, Mus. Paris, photog.

and fragm., U. S. Nat. Herb.).

A member of the section Lipactinia, of the Verbesina arborea group,

distinguished by its radiate heads, comparatively small sharp-toothed

leaves, and merely ciliate pales. It is near the Peruvian V. grandifolia

Blake, which has densely pubescent pales and very much larger leaves,

those subtending the lower branches of the inflorescence in that species

being about 2 dm. long, in V. rivetiz 6 em. or less.

Calea longipes Blake, nom. nov.

Tridax trianae Hieron. Bot. Jahrb. Engl. 21: 350. 1896. Not Calea

trianae Hieron. 1894.

This species was evidently referred to T'ridax by Hieronymus because of

its ciliate pappus awns. It has not the characteristic bilabiate ray corolla

of that genus, and its pappus is much nearer that of Calea. The linear-

lanceolate, attenuate awns have the scarious margin lacerate-ciliate, only

slightly more so than in such a Calea as C. caracasana, and are by no means

plumose as is the pappus of Tridax. The pappus of the ray flowers is much

reduced and only 1 mm. long, while that of the disk reaches 3.5 mm. The

species is not closely related to any other species of western South America,

but comes near the Mexican C.. palmeri Gray. I have examined two sheets

of Triana 1422, the type number of T’. trianae, from Anaporina (?), Bogota,

alt. 2600 meters (Brit. Mus., Kew), and another from herb. Triana (Brit.

Mus.) labeled Linden 61. A recent specimen in the U.S. National Herbarium

is Ariste-Joseph A773, doubtfully from the Department of Cundinamarca.

Stuebel 176b, also cited by Hieronymus for his new species, has not been

available for examination.

Gynoxys jamesonii Blake, sp. nov.

Shrub; branches sordidly stellate-tomentose, glabrescent; leaves petioled,

elongate-lanceolate, acuminate, repand-denticulate, glabrous above, beneath

densely stellate-tomentose with short grayish hairs and loosely brownish-

tomentose with longer, somewhat deciduous, stellate hairs; heads small,

JAN. 19, 1928 BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE BD

white, radiate, crowded in ternately divided panicles, 10—11-flowered;

involucre 4.5 mm. high, sordidly stellate-tomentose, somewhat glabrescent;

rays 5, short.

Branches somewhat compressed, striatulate; leaves opposite; uppermost

internodes 4.5 em. long; petioles naked, densely sordid-tomentose with

stellate hairs, suleate above and beneath, 1.5-2 em. long; blades 11-15.5 cm.

long, 2-3 cm. wide, rounded to cuneate at base, repand-denticulate (teeth

small, callous, 1-2 cm. apart), above dark green, glabrous except for base

of costa, closely prominulous-reticulate, beneath densely and doubly stellate-

tomentose (the lower tomentum of very short and dense grayish hairs, the

upper of much longer, more or less deciduous brownish hairs), pinnate-

veined (the lateral veins about 20 pairs, prominulous-reticulate beneath) ;

panicles terminal and pedunculate from the upper axils, convex, 5-12 cm.

wide, densely stellate-tomentose with short brownish hairs, the lowest pair

of bracts linear, about 2 cm. long, the others minute, subulate, 3 mm. long

or less; pedicels 5 mm. long to almost none; heads numerous, somewhat

fasciculate, obovoid, 6 mm. wide, the disk 7 mm. high, 3 mm. thick; bractlets

at base of involucre 2-3, subulate, appressed, 1.5-2 mm. long, stellate-

tomentose, persistent; phyllaries 8, equal, 1.5-1.8 mm. wide, somewhat

imbricate, oblong, obtuse, the outermost densely stellate-pubescent with

short brown hairs except toward base, the middle ones stellate-pubescent

along midline above, the innermost glabrous except at apex; receptacle

alveolate, glabrous; rays 5, fertile, glabrous, the tube 3.5 mm. long, the

lamina erectish, linear-elliptic, entire, 3 mm. long, 0.6 mm. wide, about 4-

nerved; disk corollas 5-6, glabrous, 5.2 mm. long (tube 2.6 mm., throat

seareely wider, 1 mm., teeth rather narrow, 1.6 mm. long); achenes (im-

mature) glabrous, ribbed, 1.5 mm. long; pappus of numerous yellowish-

white serrulate bristles 4.5 mm. long or less; style-tips subtruncate-rounded,

merely papillose-hispidulous, without evident appendage.

Ecuapor: West side of Mount Pichincha, alt. 3050 m., Jameson 227

(type in Kew Herb.; photog. and fragm., U. 8. Nat. Herb.).

Described by the collector as a shrub with white, very fragrant flowers.

Related to G. albiflora Wedd., G. longifolia Wedd., and G. selerzana Muschl.,

but distinguished by characters of leaves, heads, and involucre. The

double tomentum of the lower leaf surface is like that described for G.

henrict Mattf., but the plants are otherwise very different.

Gynoxys leiotheca Blake, sp. nov.

Branches densely velvety-tomentose; leaves elliptic or oblong-elliptic,

obtuse, rounded at base, subentire, coriaceous, soon glabrous and promin-

ulous-reticulate above, densely ochroleucous-velvety-tomentose and pro-

minulous-reticulate beneath; heads discoid, yellow, 7-8-flowered, subsessile

or short-pediceled, cymose-panicled; involucre 6-7 mm. high, glabrous or

essentially so.

Shrub; branches subangulate, stoutish, densely velvety-tomentose with

ochroleucous or in age fuscescent hairs; leaves opposite; petioles similarly

tomentose, 1-1.8 cm. long; blades 6-9.5 cm. long, 1.8-2.8 em. wide, short-

apiculate, at base rounded or obscurely cordate, obscurely repand-denticulate

with small remote inflexed callous teeth, above at first velvety-tomentose,

quickly glabrate and light green, coriaceous, the chief lateral veins 11-13

pairs, diverging at a very obtuse angle; panicles terminal, rounded, many-

headed, about 12 em. wide, pubescent like the stem; heads 8-10 mm. high,

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 2

subcylindric, crowded at tips of branches of panicle, the pedicels 5 mm.

long or less, usually very short, the lowest branches subtended by somewhat

reduced leaves; involucel of about 5 bractlets about 2 mm. long, triangular,

acuminate, stiff, persistent, ciliate and somewhat tomentose; phyllaries 5-6,

broadly oblong, obtuse, 6-7 mm. long, 1.8-2.2 mm. wide, substramineous,

the outer about 5-nerved, the inner about 2-ribbed and with broad sub-

scarious margin, all pilosulous-tufted at apex, on back glabrous to very

sparsely pilose, especially toward apex; corollas glabrous, 8.5 mm. long

(tube 3.5 mm., throat 2 mm., teeth 3 mm.); achenes glabrous, about 10-

ribbed, 3.5 mm. long; pappus yellowish white, 7 mm. long.

Ecuapor: Borma, Sept. 1904, Rivet 671 (type, Mus. Paris; photog. and

fragm., U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Distinguished by its 7—-8-flowered discoid heads and practically glabrous

involucre of 5 or 6 broad and blunt phyllaries. Apparently most closely

allied, from description, to the radiate G. szyszylowiczi2 Hieron., of Peru.

Chuquiraga brasiliensis (Spreng.) Blake.

Ioannea brasiliensis Spreng. Neue Entd. 2: 132. 1821.

Flotovia glabra Spreng. Syst. 3: 506. 1826. |

Chuquiragua glabra (Spreng.) Baker in Mart. Fl. Bras. 6°: 363. 1884

(synonymy).

Sprengel’s name Ioannea brasiliensis of 1821, the oldest name applied to

this species, was cited by him in 1826 asa synonym of Flotovia glabra. The

change in the specific name was evidently made because of the addition in

1826 of a second Brazilian species, which he called F. tomentosa. The type

in the Schultz Bipontinus herbarium at Paris was examined by the writer

in 1925.

The generic name is usually written Chuquiragua, but its original spelling,

which should be followed, was Chuquiraga, both in Jussieu’s Genera (p. 178.

1789), where the genus was described without mention of any specific name,

and in Gmelin’s Systema,? where a specific name (C.. jussiewi Gmel.) was

first assigned, based on Jussieu’s description.

Perezia longifolia Blake, sp. nov.

Stem glabrous, simple, leafy; leaves very long, lance-elliptic to nearly

linear-elliptic, acuminate, cordate-clasping, spinulose-denticulate, firm, loosely

reticulate, hispidulous on the veins; heads large, about 46-flowered, mostly

solitary in the axils, on short or obsolete peduncles; involucre turbinate,

2.8-3 cm. high, many-seriate, the phyllaries lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous.

Herb, probably tall; stem slender (3 mm. thick), terete, hollow, purplish,

glaucescent; internodes 3-5.5 cm. long; leaves alternate, 20-30 cm. long,

4—7.5 em. wide, closely spinulose-denticulate throughout except at apex with

unequal teeth, subcoriaceous, above deep green, slightly shining, roughish

with minute hairs along veins and veinlets and on margin, beneath light

green, roughish-hispidulous on the venation, featherveined and _ loosely

prominulous-reticulate on both sides, the chief lateral veins about 12-15

pairs, ascending at an acute angle; heads 1—2 in the axils of the middle and

upper leaves, 3 cm. high, about 2 em. thick, on glabrous minutely bracted

peduncles 1 cm. long or usually less; involucre about 7-seriate, strongly

graduate, the phyllaries erect, acuminate and subcuspidate, substramineous,

2 Syst.2: 1205. 1791.

JAN. 19, 1928 COBB: NEMIC SPERMATOGENESIS: LITOBIONTS Oo”

dull-purplish-tipped, 1-ribbed and several-nerved; corollas (white or purple?)

bilabiate, 2.3 em. long, one lip shortly 3-toothed, the other 2-partible to

base; achenes (immature) subrostrate, densely glandular and hispidulous,

6.5 mm. long.

Mexico: Calabaza, Jalisco, 1925, B. P. Reko 4872 (type no. 1,269,424,

U. S. Nat. Herb.).

This striking species is related to Perezia formosa (D. Don) A. Gray and

P. turbinata Lex. The former has narrow, much smaller leaves, and a

different type of inflorescence. The latter, a still dubious plant, Gray’s

interpretation of which? is here followed, is loosely branched above, with

slender pedicels, 20-30-flowered heads, and about 3-seriate involucre.

ZOOLOGY .—Nemic spermatogenesis: with a suggested discussion of

simple organisms,—Litobionts.| N. A. Coss, U. 8. Department

of Agriculture.

Definitions. Spermatidium: one of a plurality of cells derived

from a spermatid by subdivision; a secondary, tertiary, or quaternary,

etc., spermatid. Spermule: an individual _,, Gt 6) male?

spermatidium which, after growth and LB

transformation, is capable of activating SEB

or fertilizing an egg,—being not a meta- oo / “@ hi

morphosed spermatid, but a descendant

of a spermatid, one or more cell-genera- “” he ee

tions removed.

Spermatogenesis. At the blind end of geen? naw

the single testis of the nema, Spirina para-

situfera (Bastian ’65) Filipjev (Figs. 1 sail. 0

and 2) ,—a free living marine species, com-

mon an inch or two deep in sand and — avam : dvd kt

among small stones between the tide 2

marks of protected coasts on both sides es =a ap.

of the North Atlantic through a wide 3 .

range of latitude,—the primordial gonic , on yer

elements give rise by 14-chromosome

mitotic division to numerous twin cells gee, Nes : sy

(Figs. 2, 14), which arrange themselves

tandem in the testis (Fig. 3) where each

3 Proc. Amer. Acad. 19: 58. 1883.

1 The investigations were made in part at the

laboratories of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries at

Woods Hole, Mass. Received December 3, 1927.

Fig. 1.—Lateral view of the

head of Spirina parasitifera.

The amphidial nerve, nrv amph,

expands into a sensilla, then

again into a 10-12 celled ganglion

(seen through the lateral chord,

chrd. lat.) joining the nerve-ring,

cor nrv.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 2

ard fat... - a. al did dat

; ~~... MSC SOM

(dro § 36 GA *£504% 95.

meernsscescesesscseesse DI in

Tp 0.8 16 18 5 U5

f cormv 6 3965 8M 948

enesteaneaseaeecea e280 2 d2 16mm

_ Iv S&L & 16 18 Rie

<< fl Sub _—_ parasite

Sg mt may

apne

‘otis gt mle S

lay

ott

oir] SS

spmtd _.....-” SSS,

dtd..." S&S e.g int man

ap id oe eee ee. pid polynal

micrsm.......-°°° ded’ It =~ . . Jocus nel alv x 250

Fig. 2.—The male of S. parasitifera drawn from life. The tinting of drawing modi-

fied in accordance with study of stained specimens. Nearly all details shown were seen

in the living specimen. The front view of head, however, is from a decapitated speci-

men. In life the chromosomes have not been seen definitely enough to admit of accurate

counting. Most of the subsequent camera lucida drawings were obtained from fixed

and stained material. In nearly all cases the fixing and staining were done simulta-

neously by means of acetic acid methyl green. Just to the right are placed, in the

form of the decimal formula, the average measurements of specimens used. Material

collected at Woods Hole, Mass., U.S. A.

The self-explanatory abbreviations are the same throughout the various figures,

and are of necessary Latin anatomical terms; thus, chrd lat, chorda lateralis, lateral

chord; grt, quartet of spermatids; chrid, chromatoids; spmtd, spermatid; alv ncl, alveoli

of nuclear space; micrsm, microsomes, of spermatid; 14, a 14-chromosome spermato-

gonial mitosis; mit, mitotic figure; grn, a cell of primary spermatidian tissue containing

four granules; grn 16, cell of spermatidian tissue containing sixteen granules; locus

nel alv, locus of the diminishing alveolated nuclear space; spmtd polyncl, polynucleate

spermatid in process of becoming a 64-celled tissue; textus spmtdi, spermatidian tissue.

JAN. 19, 1928 COBB: NEMIC SPERMATOGENESIS: LITOBIONTS 39

cell, growing, forms a primary spermatocyte. At the end of the

growth period the primary spermatocytes, one after another, divide

transversely, i.e., at right angles to the nema’s body axis, and then,

sometimes almost simultaneously, longitudinally, to produce four simi-

lar, juxtaposed spermatids (Fig. 2, grt), each soon packed with several

thousand very slightly elongate microsomes, nearly all of which are

located outside the large central, faintly alveolated, diminishing nuclear

space. (Fig. 2, micrsm and alv ncl; and Fig. 14.)

mer ot

get =

pare

Fig. 3.—View near blind end of testis of S. parasitifera, showing pairs of cells result-

ing from division of primordial nuclei. This testis had broken open and become par-

tially evacuated so that these pairs of cells in tandem could readily be distinguished as

such. Normally these nuclei are so packed that the mass effect obscures the fact

that they are twins.

Fig. 4.—Second stage of reduction division of a spermatocyte of S. parasitifera,

which will result in 4 similar juxtaposed spermatids, as at grt, Fig. 2, each having 7

chromosomes. The compound chromosomes present considerable individuality.

agape the 2 double groups of chromosomes is seen portion of the new cell wall.

x ,

In the first of these two divisions the chromosome number is re-

duced to seven. Probably the smallest one of the seven chromosomes

of the secondary spermatocytes differs slightly in relative size in the

two cells. Thus far the spermatogenesis presents nothing very new

or striking, but the amount of growth,—from 3 to 60 microns (¢ést,

Fig. 2),—is worthy of note, and, connected with reduction, there is

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 2

a more or less orderly (e.g. more or less definitely oriented) extrusion

from the spermatids of structureless looking chromatoid substance,

(chrid Fig. 2 and Fig. 14), barely possibly by a very ‘‘degenerate”’

mitosis; these chromatoid masses are soon absorbed.

“Normally,” the four cells just described would develop into four

sperms, but here the spermatogenesis proceeds as follows: Moving

along the testis with soldier-like precision, the two caudad members

A120

Fig. 5

Fig. 5.—Nucleus of full grown spermatocyte seen in synapsis. The nuclear mem-

brane is still intact and the spherical nucleolus.is still visible. The chromosomes are

in seven pairs. It was possible to resolve the chromosomes into numerous components,

suggesting a possible explanation of the difference in chromosome counts in certain

nemas, e.g. in Ascaris; i.e. differences between counts at this stage and counts in later

somatic divisions; for, should such loosely organized chromosomes later break apart,

the count would be much increased.

Fig. 6.—A single spermatidium of first generation with its nucleus and sixteen

granules. From life. In this case the cell wall is shown.

Fig. 7.—Above, camera lucida drawing of nuclei and granules in spermatidia of

S. parasitifera at the point grn (4), Fig. 2. Below a diagram of four spermatidia. The

diagram is derived from drawing above, and shows more clearly the numerical rela-

tionships of nuclei and granules.. The boundaries of the spermatidia are almost in-

visible and are not shown. The granules are shown black, white or, when seen through

the nucleus, gray. The larger ellipsoidal objects are nuclei. In the drawing, at top,

and on the hither side, a nucleus with its accompanying four granules, the nucleus

being this side of granules. In the drawing, on the farther side, again at top, a sperma-

tidium three of whose granules have already given rise to four smaller granules each.

In the drawing and below, a spermatidium none of whose four granules have divided,

one of them shown behind the nucleus. grn (16) shows a spermatidium with a nucleus

and 16 granules. The lower figure is only somewhat schematised. Very rarely are

spermatidian cells so systematically arranged as to disclose so clearly the relationships

of granules and nuclei. In this diagrammatic lower figure the far spermatidium is

shown in an intermediate state. Illustration derived from material stained with

methyl green.

of the quartet form a tandem, followed by the other two, also in

tandem; i.e., the quartet falls into single file. These spermatids in

file grow, and one after another divide internally without evidence

of mitosis into 64 uninucleate elements which proceed to surround

themselves with walls and form a tissue of 64 cells. (See lowest part

of Fig. 2.) As this tissue leaves the testis and enters the duct it

JAN. 19, 1928 COBB: NEMIC SPERMATOGENESIS: LITOBIONTS 41

elongates (2-4 nuclei abreast), and each of its 64 cells in turn, following

on the disappearance of the microsomes, acquires four equal, refrac-

tive, spherical granules (4 microns in diameter), and the tissues thus

take on a granulated appearance,—the nuclei and cell-walls being

almost completely hidden by the closely packed granules. By the

time the cephalad part of each tissue enters the duct the caudad part

has undergone a further change, in that the four granules, each dimding

endogenously into four similar but smaller spherical granules, popu-

late each cell with 16 granules (grn 4 and grn 16, Fig. 2).

This very interesting behavior of the granules (Figs. 7 and 9)

more than suggests a different order of mechanism from that typical

| a

St ht eS it

x 700 aor

Fig. 8

x 4000

Fig. 9 Fig. 10

Fig. 8.—Reduction division. Sublimate-acid carmine toto preparation. The

smallest chromosome differed somewhat in size in the two sets. Fixation less delicate

than with acid methyl green.

Fig. 9.—Two granules from the spermatidia of S. parasitifera;—one showing 4

smaller granules formed endogenously, the other 8. The right hand granule is from

near grn 4, Fig. 2. The left hand granule, taken from farther back in the testis, where

microscopic details are so fine that exact relationship of granules and their descendants

has not as yet been fully deciphered.

Fig. 10.—Spermatidia each containing sixteen refractive spherical granules. From

life. The cell walls and nuclei of this tissue are nearly invisible in life.

Fig. 11.—Nuclear spindles in later mitoses of spermatidia taking place in vas

deferens. Polar views of spindles show 7 chromosomes; see small figures to right,

from another part of the same specimen.

of cell division, but since irritability, ingestion, transportation, trans-

formation and so forth, all seem involved, it appears necessary to

base the concept on what is known of cell physiology and mechanics;

the changes, however, are carried out on a smaller scale and doubt-

less with a more limited variety of molecules forming a different

kind of plasm—litoplasm. In short, the facts indicate a distinctly

lower order of “organism.’”’ Many of what now are often called

lower organisms might better be regarded simply as less multiplicate.

Thus certain ciliates are smaller and less multiplicate, rather than

“lower,” as compared with nemas for instance. This matter is

morphose.

_. 4m Ww

xt spt

Tag

, Ul

Fig. 12

briefly discussed on a later page,—under the

heading, Size and Number as related to Or-

ganisms.

As the tissue proceeds along the duct, the

cells containing 16 granules undergo a further

diminution in the size of their granules, and a

change in the number and nature of the gran-

ules, so that the cells become more transparent;

at the same time the nuclei divide mitotically,

(7 chromosomes), giving rise to a tissue of 128

cells. ‘The evidence that this increase is by

mitosis is as follows: 1. At the part of the duct

where this change is taking place (Fig. 11) the

sizes, form and position (in pairs) of the new

nuclei are what would be expected from mitotic

division. 2. The new smaller nuclei,—pos-

terior to the larger, as yet undivided, nuclei,—

stain more strongly. 3. Occasionally 7-element

spindles can be seen. 4. No trace has been

seen of any other sort of division.

Two or more such tissues as that described fill

_the duct of the male nema, the number of tis-

sues varying with the age of the nema and with

the copulatory history. The tissues seem to be

of two styles, and, if so, perhaps correspond to

the two styles of chromosomes in the second-

ary spermatocytes (tertus spmtdi, Fig. 2).

Ferttlt ation and Syngamy. ‘The two sexes

of S. parasitifera seem about equally common.

During copulation the male passes the sper-

matidian tissues on intact to the female, and

afterward they may be seen in the uteri, often

Fig. 12.—Carefully proportioned free-hand sketch of

gonads of female S. parasitifera after impregnation. The

two uteri, outstretched in opposite directions, are filled

with spermatidian tissue. The young ovaries are just be-

ginning to function and the ova next the flexures, flex ov,

are about to enter the uterus. The spermatidia adjacent to

the ova about to enter the uteri have metamorphosed into

spermules, spml, and have taken on the form characteris-

tic of nemic sperms as hitherto described. In this case

two other cells of the spermatidian tissue nearer the vulva have also begun to meta-

trm, blind end of ovary; flex ov, flexure of ovary; tzt spmid, spermatidian

tissue; gl vag, vaginal gland, for which see also Fig. 16.

JAN. 19, 1928 COBB: NEMIC SPERMATOGENESIS: LITOBIONTS 43

jumbled, sometimes extended along the length of the two uteri

(Fig. 12).

Fertilization is preceded by increase in size of that cell of the

spermatidian tissue adjacent to the ovum next to be fertilized and

its transformation into a cell, spermule, having the form, and dis-

charging the functions, of a nemic sperm as hitherto understood ;—

a transformation involving a growth of about 50 per cent in diameter

together with a greater growth longitudinally, and a marked change

in the granulation of the cytoplasm (spml, Fig. 12). These trans-

formed cells, detached one by one, fertilize the eggs in what seems a

normal manner. The polocytes seem normal. The female gamete

has seven chromosomes (Fig. 13).

Fig. 13.—Sketch of one end of ania of S. parasitifera, in synapsis. Above, male

zygote. Below, female nucleus in synapsis; one group of chromosomes shown behind

the other. Individuality of chromosomes obscured by their position.

This method of spermatogenesis is normal to nemas. A large

number of species belonging to numerous and varied genera are

known to the writer in which the general appearances in the gonad of

the male so closely resemble those of Spirina parasitifera as to leave

him no doubt that the details of their spermatogenesis will show the

features here described, or something similar. The formation of the

spermatidian tissue is not an essential feature; in others of the above

species the spermatidia may remain separate.

Current postulates must be modified in order to account for heredi-

tary transmission in this and similar animal species. The factors

usually believed to reside wholly; or in part, in the chromosomes

must here, in order to accord with the usual theories of heredity,

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 2

@ © win spermatogonia peer a at

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Fig. 14

Fig. 14.—Boverian diagram of spermatogenesis of Spirina. Spermatids are formed

in the ‘“‘conventional’”’ way,—four from a spermatocyte. Instead of metamorphosing

into ciliated spermatozoa, the spermatids undergo further changes and divisions, which

give rise to a spermatidian tissue of 64 cells from each spermatid. These by mitotic

division produce 128-celled tissues. One by one the spermatidia, when transferred to

the uteri of a female, grow into spermules, capable of activating an egg and initiating

normal development. Whether every one of the 128 metamorphose in this way is as

yet undetermined.

Fig. 15.—Two views of one of the lateral glands of S. parasitifera. At the left only

the pore and distal portions of gland are shown. The gland is uninucleate and consists

mainly of spherical granules. Spent glands contain fewer granules than that shown.

- Fig. 16.—Ventral view of vulva and vaginal glands of S. parasitifera. See also

ig. 12:

Fig. 17.—Lateral view of one of the lateral glands of S. parasitifera. ‘The gland

in a different state, or stage of development, from that shown in Fig. 4.

rea a

nips

JAN. 19, 1928 COBB: NEMIC SPERMATOGENESIS: LITOBIONTS 45

be ‘“‘divisible’’ in the spermatid into numerous parts such that when

they appear in the spermule they are capable of bringing about

‘“normal’’ syngamy.

It will be interesting to discover how factors or genes, concepts

essential to clear thinking on the subject of heredity, can be imagined

to ‘‘earry on” through the mazes of the division that, extending

throughout the spermatid, gives rise without mitosis to 64 apparently

equivalent elements in the spermatidian tissue (see spmid polyncl,

Fig. 2). The spermatidian tissues (aggregates of haploid cells,—

gametophores—Fig. 12) seem more clearly reminiscent of the alter-

nation of generations in plants than any animal structure hitherto

made known. 3

Subjoined is an alteration of the Boverian diagram illustrating

the spermatogenesis here described. It will be seen that in this

Boverian diagram (Fig. 14) the proportions of the camera lucida

drawing (Fig. 2) are to a large extent adhered to. The microsomes

and the alveolated nuclear spaces are shown with no very great

departure from nature. The number and size of the microsomes is

approximately correct and the new arrangement of the microsomes

around 64 centers as shown in the diagram is not violently schematized.

The same is true of the size, color and disposition of the chromatoid

bodies. For simplicity the spermatidian tissues are reduced in the

diagram to masses of 64 and 128 nuclei respectively.

The features accompanying and following the oécytic synapsis seem

at least a gesture toward the path followed in the spermatogenesis,

but they have not yet been carefully studied.

Occasion for staining the gonads of Spirina parasitifera offered an

opportunity for a more careful study of the unicellular glands of

this species that “empty” through minute pores in the cuticle of most

regions of the body, but particularly along the lateral fields. Uni-

cellular structures of this character are known to be widespread

among nemas, having been recorded for a great variety of free-living

genera and a few parasitic genera. It is not known whether the

various unicellular organs of this character hitherto recorded are

homologous or whether they are connected with a variety of func-

tions. The fact that they are well developed on aquatic forms that

experiment proved to be in urgent need of oxygen has led the writer

to suggest the possibility that these ‘‘glands’’ or some of them, may

be connected in some way with respiration. This would seem in

accord with the failure hitherto to observe any such organs in the

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 2

vast majority of the parasitic species,—whose “respiration” it would

seem natural to explain in other ways.

In Spirina parasitifera these organs are very small, and it therefore

seems not unlikely that the present methods, when applied to more

suitable material, may give results much more detailed and intelligible.

The structure of one of these glands of S. parasitifera, so far as deter-

mined, is shown in Figs. 15 and 16. The great difference in the size

of the organs in the two cases, as well as the difference in structure

and space relationships, suggests the probability that the shape of

the organ changes materially, perhaps rapidly, under various condi-

tions. ‘To this surmise it may be added that the method of collect-

ing the spirinas, and the varying length of time between their exist-

ence under natural conditions and the time of examination, would

result in a very material alteration in the environment; and it is

believed that the longer this time became the less free oxygen would

exist in the sea water in which the specimens were kept. This length

of time varied widely.

SIZE AND NUMBER AS RELATED TO ORGANISMS

The interesting behavior of the spermatidian granules as described

on pages 38 to 41 has suggested the following sketchy discussion of

the relationship of organisms tc size and number.

Why not vertebrates a mile long and a thousand feet high? Why

not vertebrates only a quarter of an inch long? The known facts

clearly indicate limits in both directions.

Among the reasons for the existence of the upper limit are, circula-

tion difficulties due to friction in the blood vessels; accumulation of

an excess of excreta in the blood during the long journey to the dis-

tant extremities and back; the difficulty of maintaining the requisite

temperature at the extremities; limits set by the strength of ma-

terials,—bone could not be strong enough or muscles efficient enough

properly to support and move so large an organism; food supply

difficulties; space limitations connected with protecting such an

organism from the elements, etc., etc.

Reasons for the non-existence of exceedingly small vertebrates

also come readily to mind. The complicated vertebrate mechanism

would be in the way in an organism of such small size. Why an

elaborate pumping system to pump blood for a distance through which

it might diffuse without such a system? So with ‘“‘centralized”’

respiration. An internal skeleton plus the necessary protective

JAN. 19, 1928 COBB: NEMIC SPERMATOGENESIS: LITOBIONTS 47

cuticle become incompatible in this range of sizes. The competition

of such imaginary small vertebrates with other organisms, say insects,

of simpler structure better adapted to such small sizes would be a

hopeless struggle.

Why not insects as large as moles or as small as microbes? Here

again the mechanical relations of the organism to the menstrua

furnish numerous reasons for the known size limits.

Generalizing, why not multicellular organisms beyond certain

maximum and minimum limits? A little thought shows that limits

are set by the relationships of particular mechanisms to the sizes and

distances involved; and as size, in such cases, is a function of the

number of cooperating cells, the limits are set in numerical terms.

This becomes clearer when we consider our ability to represent a

cellular organism by a strictly numerical expression, the bioequation,?

and all the more certainly true when, continuing the same line of

thought, we consider the size limits of cells.

Why do we not have cells a meter long; and why not typical cells

below the limits of a micron or two? Again, among other reasons,

in this range of still smaller sizes the mechanism of the typical cell

becomes so complex as to ‘‘be in its own way” when the distances

involved become sufficiently small and the number of properties to be

transmitted sufficiently few, as will be indicated in a moment.

Size limits in these various cases are set by a fundamental neces-

sity, having its “‘final’”’ source in the size of the electronic combinations.

Particular attention is called to the fact that; usually, the size

limits of “‘adjacent”’ higher and lower groups of organisms reciprocally

overlap (e.g. Vertebrates and Insects); as well as to the fact that

individuals of certain species of unicellular organisms are larger

than some of the multicellulars; or, to emphasize by reversing, many

multicellulars are smaller than some of the larger unicellulars. There

is a distinct lapping of the size limits of one on to the size limits of

the other.

Organisms of greater size; “social organisms.’’—Developing a more

complex nervous system, the higher organisms have evolved “‘mental

pictures” of distant and invisible things and events, and have in-

vented means for transmitting through various media signs that

represent these mental pictures. Along this path the social organisms

evolved. When we speak of a social organism it is usually assumed

2 Biological Relationships of the Mathematical Series 1, 2, 4, etc.’”? This JouRNAL

15: 235, 1925

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 2

that we are using analogy, but an interesting formulation might be

made out for homology. Are not the interactions between rela-

tively widely separated intellectual individuals, existing in the sea

of air surrounding the earth, in many ways actually homologous with

the passage of stimuli, etc., through more viscous fluid media between

cells? As, for instance, when two small organisms live in symbiosis;

or, where cells exist together as they do in blood; or, between cells

even more intimately organized.

The concept of organisms of this higher or social grade suggests

the possibility of there being also lower orders of organisms at the

_ other end of the accepted series. This idea is not new, for their

existence was specifically asserted by acute observers and adventurous

thinkers in the plainest of language at least half a century ago; but

at that time the supporting evidence was so meagre that the idea

did not rise to the dignity of an acceptable working hypothesis.

Now it is quite different. Today what we know about certain small

living elements, both inside and outside of cells, compels such a

working hypothesis,—if mayhap we are not already beyond the

hypothetical stage.

Here again, size seems a prime determining element. When a

cell (really a relatively complex and large organism) transmits its

exceedingly numerous properties to its ‘‘descendants,”’ nothing short

of an elaborate mobilization and census is adequate to the coming

transmigration. Hence follow mitosis and its complications.

We are perhaps prone to forget that every cell has, in a great degree,

to care for itself; and so must have many of the multitudinous proper-

ties characteristic of the groups of cells constituting higher organisms.

It must nourish itself. ‘‘You can take the horse to food (or vice

versa), but you cannot make him eat;—he must do that himself,”

seems to summarize the situation. If the cell assimilates (‘‘eats’’),

and is to continue, then it must have mechanism adequate to select,

transport, digest, excrete, etc., and at least to take some part in

reproducing itself. All this complexity is because of the number of

its characteristics, and because of the size, i.e., the distances involved.

But what if all these be a hundredfold or more reduced, and the

system be at the same time “isolated” or individualized? Plainly,

the requirements would call for a simpler mechanism; cell-mechanism

would be so complicated as to be in the way. Under such conditions

simpler organisms, organisms. simpler than cells, seem a logical

necessity.

JAN. 19, 1928 COBB: NEMIC SPERMATOGENESIS: LITOBIONTS 49

LIitobionts.—I have ventured to suggest a general or inclusive

name, Litobionts, for the organisms which my observations lead me

to believe to exist, these very organisms of lower grade;—(A:70s,

simple), simple-organisms. The Litobionts have distinctive char-

acters, such as small size, and simplicity of composition, but neverthe-

less, live, assimilate, grow, multiply;—not only segmenting somewhat

after the manner of some higher, more or less filamentous organisms,

but multiplying by endogenous division, this latter being one of the

present observations, the endogenous process being exemplified in

the “granules” of the spermatidia of Spirina. (See p. 41.)

Yet it is possible to over-emphasize the smallness of Litobionts.

It seems likely that we have been looking at Litobionts a long time,—

Litobionts of the larger size,—without recognizing their nature, just

as observers previous to the time of Schleiden and Schwann had

been looking at cells without recognizing their nature.

Just as the multicellular and unicellular organisms overlap each

other in the matter of size, so the unicellular organisms (having the

characteristic properties of cells as now defined) overlap the Lito-

bionts. There are unicellular organisms smaller than some Lito-

bionts. Or, in reverse, some Litobionts larger than some unicellular

organisms.

That the Litobionts are much simpler than cells, is indicated by a

number of considerations. Their effects on light indicate that in

the main, they are composed of a smaller number of kinds of molecules

of a more orderly arrangement,—what may perhaps be thought of

as forming a simpler plasm, Litoplasm. The fact that some of them

are soluble in certain chemical reagents (e.g. acetic acid), is another

indication of relative simplicity. In a word, we must conceive of

the Litobionts as made up of a smaller number of kinds of simpler

molecules manipulated through very much smaller distances, and

therefore necessarily (a matter of ‘‘economy,” “least resistance’) by

simpler mechanism. It is quite conceivable that some Litobionts

may be smaller than some of the largest molecules. Not needing

these large and complex molecules, the mass of the Litobiont may

even be smaller than that of some such molecules.

The duality characteristic of all matter must lead, however, to an

arrangement of the parts in Litobionts such that we can only think

of them at present largely in terms of what we know of cell physiology

and mechanics; simply because knowledge progresses exclusively

through the known to the unknown. Our knowledge of cells must be

one of the main sources of our Litobiont concepts.

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 18, NO. 2

We may at least suspect the existence of organisms, or quasi-

organisms, simpler than Litobionts. Is not a living ‘‘being’’ com-

posed of a comparatively small number of chemical elements, say

approaching some of the carbohydrates in composition, not only —

thinkable, but are there not experimental data almost justifying

science in its present state in postulating such “‘beings’’?

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The third meeting of the International Union of Scientific Radio Teleg-

raphy held at Washington from October 10 to 28, 1927, was the largest and

most successful of the three that have taken place up to the present time.

The first was held at Brussels in 1922. The Washington meeting included

both general sessions and sessions of its technical subdivisions called ‘‘com-

missions’ and was arranged according to the following program:

Oct. 10, General Session

11, Commission II, Wave Propagation

12, I, Radio Measurements

13) Publie Session

14, Commission IIT, Atmospherics

17, ‘ a5 Wave Propagation

ie a IV, Liaison

18, a It Radio Measurements

18, : III, Atmospherics

20, ve “tt

20, i: IV, Liaison

24, ss T, Radio Measurements

26, i II, Wave Propagation

26, s IV, Liaison

27, ee III, Atmospherics

28, General Session.

The public and general sessions were held under the chairmanship of

Gen. Ferrié, President of the Union. The presiding officers at the session

of the commissions were as follows: I, Radio Measurements, Dr. D. W. Dye

(England); II, Wave Phenomena, Dr. L. W. Austin (U. 8. A.); III, Atmos-

pherics, Prof. R. Mesny (France); IV, Liaison, Prof. G. Vanni (Italy).

The papers presented in the public session, October 13, were as follows:

Lemploi de cellules photoélectriques associées a des lampes a plusieurs

électrodes, a la solution de divers problémes concernant la mesure du temps.

Gen. G. Ferrié.

International comparison of frequency standards. Dr. J. H. Dellinger,

The Navy’s primary frequency standard. R.H. Worrall and R. B. Owens.

Precision determination of frequency. J. W. Horton and W. A. Marrison.

A radio-frequency oscillator for receiving set investigations. G. Rodwin

and T. A. Smith.

The effect of reaction on the received signal strength. Dr. B. van der Pol.

An automatic recorder for radio signals and atmospheric disturbances.

I. B. Judson.

JAN. 19, 1928 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Gal

Experiences in radio compass calibration. F. A. Kolster.

Apparent night variations in crossed-coil radio beacons. H. Pratt.

Investigation of downcoming waves (a) on the existence of more than one

ionized layer, (b) on the influence of the earth’s magnetism on wireless trans-

mission. Prof. E. V. Appleton.

Ionization in the upper atmosphere. Dr. E. O. Hulburt.

A theory of the upper atmosphere and meteors. H. B. Maris.

Les ondes ultra-courtes. Prof. R. Mesny.

Experiments on radio wave projectors. E. F. W. Alexanderson.

Height of reflecting layer in August 1927 and the effect of the disturbances

of August 19. O. Dahl and L. C. Gebhardt.

The relation between radio reception, sunspot position and area. G. W.

Pickard.

On the influence of solar activity on radio transmission. Dr. L. W. Austin

and Miss I. J. Wymore.

Seasonal variation in signal strengths of the 20-meter wave from Nauen

in Japan. T. Nakagami and T. Ono.

Diurnal variation tn signal strengths of short waves. T. Nakagami and

i Ono.

A note on the short-wave long-distance transmission. T. Minohara and

K. Tani.

The directional observations on atmospherics in Japan. E. Yokoyama and

T. Nakai.

Relations entre les parasites atmosphériques et les phénoménes météorologiques.

Capt. R. Bureau.

The meetings concluded with a formal dinner tendered to the visiting

delegates by the executive committee of the American section on October 28.

The persons who attended the meetings from the various countries were

as follows:

Australia; Prof. J. P. V. Madsen.

Belgium; Prof. R. B. Goldschmidt.

Canada; Major W. A. Steele, J. W. Bain.

France; General Ferrié, P. Brenot, Dr. LeCorbeiller, Comm. Jullien,

Prof. R. Mesny, Capt. Bion, Capt. R. Bureau.

Germany; Dr. H. Harbich.

Great Britain; Prof. E. V. Appleton, Dr. D. W. Dye, E. H. Shaughnessy,

Capt. P. P. Eckersley, Capt. A. L. Harris.

Holland; Dr. B. van der Pol, E. F. Volter, G. C. Holtzappel, G. Scholet.

India; T. G. Edmunds.

Ireland; T. 8. O’Muineachain.

Italy; Prof. G. Vanni.

Japan; Capt. T. Minohara, Prof. E. Yokoyama, T. Nakagami, 8. Inada.

Norway; H. Petersen.

Switzerland; E. Nussbaum, H. Eggli.

United States of America; Dr. L. W. Austin, E. F. W. Alexanderson,

Dr. R. Bown, Dr. G. Breit, Major W. R. Blair, Miss M. A. Brower, Prof.

W. G. Cady, Dr. J. H. Dellinger, F. W. Dunmore, O. Dahl, Dr. H. T.

Gras, Dr, EB. O:, Halburt; BE. LL. Hall, Dre A. Hund, J. W. Horton, V. E.

Heaton, E. B. Judson, Dr. C. B. Jolliffe, S. S. Kirby, Prof. A. E. Kennelly,

F. A. Kolster, G. W. Pickard, T. Parkinson, H. Pratt, Gen. C. M. Saltz-

man, Gen. G. O. Squier, Dr. G. C. Southworth, Dr. A. H. Taylor, Prof.

E. M. Terry, Dr. Tuve, Dr. W. Wilson, Dr. L. P. Wheeler, Miss I. J. Wymore.

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 2

On December 6th Neil M. Judd, Curator of American Archeology, United

States National Museum, returned to Washington after six months field

work for the National Geographic Society at Pueblo Bonito. Pueblo Bonito

is a prehistoric Indian village in northwestern New Mexico and is the most

remarkable of all the pre-Hispanic pueblos of the Southwest. The past

summer marked the seventh and concluding season of The Society’s explora-

tions. Mr. Judd is now engaged upon preparation of his final reports which

will be published by The Society.

The Petrologists’ Club met at the Geophysical] Laboratory on December

20. Program: W. F. Fosnac, The hematite (martite) deposit at Durango,

Mexico; C. P. Ross: Some aspects of magnetite-specularite intergrowths. J. W.

GREIG ‘presented an informal communication on The’ supposed evidence for

liquid immiscibilty in rocks at Agate Point, Ontario.

Representative SINNOTT introduced in the House of Representatives on

December 15 (by departmental request) a bill (H.R. 7480) ‘To authorize

the transfer of the geodetic work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey from the

Department of Commerce to the Department of the Interior.’’ The bill

makes the Geological Survey responsible for the execution of geodetic surveys

in the interior of the United States, including also variation-of-latitude,

gravity, and seismological observations. The Coast and Geodetic Survey

would be renamed the ‘‘ United States Coast Survey.”’ ‘The bill was referred

to the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce.

On January 10 Dr. CHaruus G. Apsor was elected Secretary of the Smith-

sonian Institution by the Board of Regents. Dr. ABsot had been Acting

Secretary since the death of Dr. Watcort.

Professor H. H. Bartert of the University of Michigan spent a few days

preceding and following the Christmas meetings of the Botanical Society of

America at the National Herbarium, preparing for distribution his botanical

collections of 1926-27 from Formosa and Sumatra. The most complete sets

are going to the U. S. National Herbarium, the University of Michigan, Dr.

K. D. Merrill, and the Gray Herbarium.

AFFILIATED BOCTE EES

~The ACADEMY.

Joint. eee with The " Philosophical “Bortz.

- Speakers: Dr. GEORGE H. sea He and. Dr. L. a

TucKERMAN. ‘

The Philosohpical Society.

‘Program: E. O. Hunsurt—lonization of the Upper.

-s Atmosphere. 45min. (Ilust.)

Pek ok 8 Rooney—Earth-Resistivity Mcandiomeat and

‘Their Bearing on the (ower = Concealed Geological

_ Diseontinuities. .

The Helminthological Society.

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sr 25. ‘The Geological Society.

- The Medical Society. _

. ‘The Biological Society.

~The Botanical Society.

p Hebary 2 oe The Medical Society. —

The Washington Society of Engineers. a

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ae Boe the eee the affiliated fete will muons: on this ‘page if

‘the editors as ‘the cleventh = twenty Aith oe of each arlene

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| Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast, and Geodetic Sur

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Fesruary 4, 1928 No, 3

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 18 FEeBRuARY 4, 1928 No. 3

GEOLOGY.— The amount of the geologically recent negative shift of

strand line on Oahu. JAMES B. Potuock, University of Michi-

gan. (Communicated by H. H. BartTLett.)

Many observers of islands of the Pacific region from the early

explorers to the present time have noted evidence of change of strand

line in the form of raised coral reefs, of elevated terraces and wave-

cut benches above present sea level in both elevated limestones and

on voleanic shores. The earlier observers interpreted these facts as

indicating the elevation of the lands in relation to a constant sea level.

More recently the view has been presented that such changes may

have been due to a lowering of sea level relative to a stable land.

If the latter is the correct interpretation it could hardly do other-

wise than affect the whole ocean, and evidence for the same amount

of shift should be found in widely separated localities in all the oceans.

Of course local differential movements might mask or even com-

pletely hide the evidence for the general shift, yet if the shift has

actually been a general change of sea level the evidence must be

available in many localities and the exact mount of the shift becomes

of prime importance. It has been difficult for observers to determine

from a study of wave-cut benches and sea caves where the sea level

stood during the time when the caves and benches were cut, and

different men in the same region have interpreted the evidence dif-

ferently. On the Island of Tutuila, American Samoa, Daly? noted sea

caves cut at the present sea level and their relation to that level,

compared them with similar caves cut at the higher level before the

1 Paper number 272 from the department of Botany, University of Michigan. Re-

ceived December 5, 1927.

2 Daty, R. A. The Geology of American Samoa. Carnegie Inst. Washington Dept.

Marine Biology 19: 95-143. 1924 (Publication 340).

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

last shift, and concluded that the shift was 6 meters or 20 feet.

Chamberlin,* studying wave-cut benches in the same region, thought

the shift was somewhere from 12 to 20 feet, and most likely 12 to 15

feet.

Wentworth and Palmer‘ studied the wave-cut benches on the

Hawaiian Islands, and concluded that a negative shift of the strand

line here occurred later than the origin of the youngest tuff cones on

Oahu, to the amount of about 12 feet, or somewhere between 10 and

15 feet.

Todd and Hoffmeister’ conclude that the benches they observed

indicated a shift of 6 to 8 feet on Fiji and 9 to 10 feet on Tonga.

The author had a sojourn of two years in the Hawaiian Islands,

from the summer of 1922 to that of 1924, during which period he

made a study in considerable detail of the coral reefs on Oahu, both

living and fossil. Incidental to this study certain observations

seemed to establish the fact that the amount of the shift on Oahu,

~ estimated by Wentworth and Palmer at about 12 feet, was really

more nearly equal to that estimated by Daly for Tutuila, Samoa.

It is the object of this paper to present the evidence for this con-

clusion.

The locality in which the decisive observations were made was on

the east shore of Pearl Harbor on the Island of Oahu, the Iccation of

the great Naval Station of the United States in the Pacific Ocean

region.

Pearl Harbor consists of a series of broad, pouch-like bays com-

monly known as the Pearl Lochs. The outlets of all the lochs con-

verge to a single channel which forms the entrance to the harbor.

At an early stage of its development Pearl Harbor was a broadly

open bay which during long geological time has become largely

filled, in part with calcareous deposits of all the kinds of material

found on the neighboring coral reefs, in part by detritus from erosion

of the surrounding highland, and in part by volcanic tuff. The

latter is particularly in evidence on the eastern shore of the harbor

near which is a considerable number of craters known as the Salt

3 CHAMBERLIN, R. T. The Geological Interpretation of the Coral Reefs of Tutuila,

American Samoa. Carnegie Inst. Washington Dept. Marine Biology 19: 145-178.

1924.

4 Wentworty, C. K. and Patmer, H. 8. LEustatic Benches of Islands of the North

Pacific. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 26: 521-544. 1925.

® Topp, H. 8. and Horrmeister, E. Recent Negative Shift in the Strand Line of

Fiji and Tonga. Journ. Geol. 35: 542-556. 1927.

FEB. 4, 1928 POLLOCK: STRAND LINE ON OAHU 55

Lake craters, since one of them is so near sea level that it always con-

tains a small lake in which there is a deposit of salt on the bottom

at low stages though it is not connected directly with the sea. All

the craters in this vicinity have been long extinct but during the

period of their activity whenever they were in a state of eruption

quantities of fine ashes drifted on the northeast trade wind toward the

southwest forming a broad, gently sloping ridge from the Salt Lake

craters to the channel entrance of Pearl Harbor. ‘This deposit of

voleanic ash was one of the major factors in the partial closing of the

broad outlet of the original bay, converting it into a nearly closed

series of lochs. |

Immediately adjacent to the east short of Pearl Harbor is a small

crater known as Makalapa crater. The highest point of its crater

rim is about 100 feet above sea level and on one side it slopes down

rather steeply to the Pearl Harbor shore. At the foot of this slope

runs the Oahu railway and the cuts along its right of way afford some

opportunity to see the formation of the region. On this slope are |

located the great oil tanks which the Doheny oil interests constructed

for the United States navy. In laying the foundations for these tanks

and digging the trenches for the pipe lines connecting the oil tanks

with the pumping station, slopes were leveled down, depressions in

the land were filled up, and in the process the materials composing

the land of this region were disclosed to a considerable depth below

the land surface from near sea level to an elevation of about 50 feet

above that level. Some of the oil-pipe ditches were excavated to a

depth of 35 feet below the surface of the tuff. Preliminary to the

work of construction of the oil tanks this region was surveyed with

contour lines having a vertical interval of ten feet, and stakes were

set to mark the contour levels. The construction engineers very

kindly allowed the author access to the blue prints of the survey, and

with the stakes marking the contour lines it was possible to get very

accurately the elevation of any given spot within the limits of the

survey. Along several of the trenches for the pipe lines, observations

were made of the calcareous deposits laid down during the last period

when the sea stood higher than its present level, that is, the period

during which were cut the benches observed in many localities in the

Hawaiian Islands by Wentworth and Palmer. Those observers state

that the eustatic shift took place much later than the origin of the

most recent tuff craters on Oahu, and in the Koko Head region

they found the bench of the time preceding that shift cut into the

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

tufaceous materials at the base of those craters. They also assert.

that the Salt Lake craters are enormously older than those of Koko

Head region. They were therefore completed before the shift of

strand line and might be expected to exhibit in one way or another

evidence of the sea level before the shift.

Even with the sea 20 feet higher than its present level, Pearl Harbor

would still be a more or less inclosed bay, and the shore in the region

of Makalapa crater would be protected from the great waves of the

open ocean by the extension of the low ridge previously described,

running from the Salt Lake craters to the Pearl Harbor outlet. Per-

haps because of this protection the sea, during its higher level, made

calcareous deposits but did not cut a bench around Makalapa crater.

It was fortunate that the author was able to make his observations

of these deposits during the period of construction of the oil tanks,

and he is under obligation to the construction engineers for the

opportunity of seeing their blue-prints and obtaining the informa-

tion as to the elevation of significant materials. They frequently

informed him whenever any such materials were opened up to in-

spection. It was chiefly owing to this assistance that the amount of

the last shift of strand line could be fixed with a nearer approximation

to accuracy than had previously been done.

Though the accuracy of survey lines was available only around the —

Makalapa crater, observations pointing to the same general con-

clusions were made along the outlet channel where the low ridge of

tuff from the Salt Lake craters meets that channel. The shore cliff

in that vicinity is composed of the tuff layers separated by thin

sheets of calcareous material in its lower portions, but these tuff

layers are capped by a continuous deposit of calcareous material in

which coral fragments, shells, etc., are embedded in calcareous sand.

In this locality caleareous deposits were traced to an elevation of 15

feet but the highest limit was not determined. In neither of these

two localities, Makalapa crater and the harbor channel, were cal-

careous deposits seen at an elevation higher than 25 feet above

present sea level, though in other localities within Pearl Harbor,

namely, on Ford Island and the Waipio peninsula, there are cal-

eareous deposits up to an elevation of about 40 feet. These facts

indicate very clearly that deposits of tuff from the Makalapa crater

and in the lower part of the ridge from the Salt Lake craters were laid

down subsequently to any submergence of Oahu that was greater

than 25 feet, and that when the last eruption from these craters

FEB. 4, 1928 ~ POLLOCK: STRAND LINE ON OAHU 57

occurred and for some time afterward, the sea stood somewhat less

than 25 feet higher on the land than it does at present.

The calcareous deposits used to determine the highest level at which

they occurred were mostly in pockets or depressions around the base

of the Makalapa tuff cone, and some of them may still be seen in

part along the railway cut in this vicinity: It is likely, however,

that the upper portions of all of them in this region have been com-

pletely hidden or removed in the extensive operations in the con-

struction of the oil tanks, and will never again be open to observation.

Even though the upper portions had been covered up by tuff carried

down over them by rain, the sections along the pipeline ditches,

running up the slopes as they did, made complete exposures of the

depth and elevation of the calcareous deposits.

The field notes of the observations, written for each on the spot

at the time the observation was made, show that at five different

points within the Makalapa area a record was made of the highest

elevation at which the calcareous deposits appeared. At two of these

points traces of calcareous material were recorded as occurring up to

25 feet, but more marked at 22 to 23 feet. Two others were recorded

as at 22 feet, and one at 21 to 22 feet. At the highest level the ma-

terials were in very thin layers, fine-grained and friable. At slightly

lower levels shells and coral fragments were recognizable, and still

lower, clumps of coral that might have been in place as they grew.

In one pocket there were quantities of a bryozoan.

Critical facts in these observations are that the extreme elevation

at which any of the calcareous materials were seen in this region was

25 feet above present sea level; that these highest layers were thin,

fine-grained and friable, like the sand at the top of the sea beach;

that at about 22 feet these deposits were greater in quantity, and at

least one exposure at this level was seen to contain shells and coral

fragments; that at still lower levels the number of coral fragments

increased; and that at about 15 feet there was a bed cf coral that

seemed to have grown in place where it was seen.

In the interpretation of these facts it was assumed that the highest

calcareous deposits, those at 25 feet elevation, were at the top of the

beach above high tide, and the question was presented, how many

feet would this be above high tide. As an aid in answering this ques-

tion it had been noted that on a shore where the waves came in from

the open ocean but were broken by a coral reef a few hundred feet

off shore, the highest part of the sandy beach was 7 feet above high.

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

tide. In the region around Makalapa crater, where there would be

not only the protection from the waves of the open ocean afforded

by the coral reef off the entrance of Pearl Harbor, but also the added

protection afforded by the ridge of tuff previously mentioned, it is

believed that the highest part of the beach would ke not more than

five feet above high tide at the most. High tide level of the period

before the last shift would therefore be 20 feet above present sea

level, and the calcareous materials seen at 22 feet, may still have

been tossed up by the waves 2 feet above high tide. Since the range

of the tide in the Hawaiian Islands is three feet, the tide range as a

whole was at least 17 feet higher in the time preceding the shift

than at present.

There is still a little uncertainty on two points as to the correctness

of these figures. In the first place it may be that in this protected

situation and on a steep shore the waves would not deposit materials

as much as five feet above high tide. Perhaps it would be only four

feet instead of five. In that case the range of tide for the earlier time

would be from 18 to 21 feet higher than at present. The second point

of uncertainty is due to the failure of the writer to note whether the

sea level used by the engineers in charge of the oil tank construction

was “‘mean tide level” or ‘mean low tide.’’ The difference is one

and one-half feet. It is believed the latter was the sea level datum

used by them, which agrees with the figures first given. If, however,

the other datum was the one used, the whole tide range of the earlier

period would be one and one-half feet higher. Accepting both un-

certainties we may say that in the period preceding the last shift of

strand line the sea stood higher than at present by an amount be-

tween 17 and 20 feet on the Island of Oahu. This conclusion can

be drawn with a very high degree of certainty as to its accuracy.

The author believes he has presented more reliable data than any

previous writer whose work is known to him as a basis of approxi-

mating the amount of the last land-sea level shift on the Island of

Oahu, whatever the final conclusion which will be reached as to whether

it was a shift of land or a shift of sea. It is impossible to know how

much wave-cut benches were lowered below the level of the sea that

cut them, hence the uncertainty of the conclusions of Wentworth and

Palmer, as well as those of many others. Sea caves also may have

quite different dimensions in relation to the sea that excavated them,

depending on the resistance of the materials in which they are ex-

cavated. The good fortune which allowed the recognition of the

FEB. 4, 1928 POLLOCK: STRAND LINE ON OAHU 59

materials characteristic of the beach above high tide in continuation

with those of a lower level, coupled with the opportunity of deter-

mining the elevation above sea level by accurate surveys, all make

for a higher degree of accuracy than has previously been attained.

As to whether the shift was an elevation of the land or a lowering

of water, the most convincing evidence for the latter will be the proof

that around many islands as well as along the shores of the conti-

nents there has been a similar shift in the same direction and of a

similar amount. If the shift was one of the land the chances are

almost infinitely against its being of the same degree in many widely

separated localities in all the oceans, while if there was a lowering

of the water it would within a short time affect all the lands in all

the oceans. Of course it must be granted that local shifts of the land

may mask or entirely hide the effects of a change in water level,

nevertheless it is of great importance to determine as exactly as

possible, the amount of apparent shifts of land or sea wherever found.

It would seem that the evidence of wave-cut benches such as those

observed by Wentworth and Palmer should be interpreted to mean a

higher sea level at which they were cut than those authors were led

to believe. Also, the interpretation of Chamberlin in Tutuila, Samoa,

based on wave-cut benches, is likewise probably too low, and should

allow a greater shift than he supposed, or at least it should be the

upper limit of his allowance, namely about 20 feet. Sea caves, which

are cut partly above and partly below tide level, may, in all probabil-

ity, be a safer guide to the former sea level than wave-cut benches.

If we accept Daly’s interpretation of the former sea level on Tutuila,

which was based on the sea caves, the shift in Hawaii is practically

identical with that in Samoa, in direction and degree.

CONCLUSIONS:

1. The last negative shift of strand line on Oahu involved a change

of land-sea level somewhere from 17 to 20 feet.

2. This agrees very closely with the findings of Daly on Tutuila,

Samoa, and is greater than Wentworth and Palmer believed was

indicated by the evidence furnished by the wave-cut benches on Oahu

and other islands of the Hawaiian group.

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

PALEONTOLOGY.—A caddis case of leaf pieces from the Miocene

of Washington.1 Epwarp W. Berry. (Communicated by JoHN

B. REESIDE, JR.)

The aquatic larvae of the so-called caddis flies (Trichoptera) con-

struct a variety of protective cases of a variety of materials. These

are frequently fossilized, and are especially liable to be encountered

in- continental deposits, since the larvae inhabit all sorts of fresh

water environments.

Last year I described? a new type of fossil caddis case constructed

of leaf pieces, which occurs very abundantly in the lower Eocene

(middle Wilcox) of western Tennessee, in what were interpreted as

lagoonal deposits. ‘These cases were broad and depressed, and were

neatly constructed of symmetrically cut pieces of drift leaves.

The habit of utilizing leaf fragments in the construction of the

cases of the larvae—the so-called caddis worms or caddis fly worms—

has, of course, been frequently noted among existing forms, and is

especially pronounced in the family Limnophilidae. The architec-

tural plan adopted varies both with the species and with the seasons,

but in no case are the leaf pieces known to be as symmetrically uni-

form as in this lower Eocene form, although this is approximated in

the genera Glyphotaelius and Pycnopsyche. Consequently the pseudo-

generic term Folindusia was coined for the fossil form made of leaf

pieces, in conformity with the term Indusia, which has long been

used for generically indeterminable fossil caddis cases of the familiar

sand grain type.

The new Miocene species which is the subject of this note may

therefore be referred to Folindusia, and described as

Folindusia miocenica Berry, n. sp.

Cases relatively large, depressed, two faced with sharp edges, somewhat

over 3 times as long as wide, decreasing slightly in width from in front

backward, amounting to about 1 millimeter in a length of 2.5 centimeters.

Size ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 centimeters in length by 4 to 7.5 millimeters

in width. Constructed entirely as far as observed of relatively small vege-

table fragments. In the specimen figured these are all small and irregularly

cut fragments of leaf blades, but in smaller cases fragments of small sticks

or perhaps pieces of petioles (‘‘ballast sticks’) are incorporated, and in one

specimen a long piece of this kind occupies one margin. Both monocoty-

ledonous and dicotyledonous leaves are mined and there is apparently no

selection since, although the fragments are much too small to be determined,

1 Received December 12, 1927.

2EHpwarp W. Berry. U.S. Nat. Mus. Proc. 71(14): 1927.

{| ot

FEB. 4, 1928 PITTIER: CERATOPHYTUM 61

observed differences in texture and areolation of the pieces in a single case

show that several species of leaves are represented, and that the ‘‘worm’’

did not get all of its building material from a single leaf. The number of

pieces on one face of a case amounts to slightly in excess of 50, which is in

striking contrast to the Eocene species

Folindusia wilcoxiana in which the num-

ber was from 5 to 8.

Folindusia miocenica was found in the

fine grained, diatomaceous clays of the

Latah formation at the Brick-yard ex-

posure in Spokane, Washington. ‘These

clays carry an especially rich, varied, and

well preserved mesophytic terrestrial flora

of later Miocene age amounting to over

150 species. The conditions of deposi-

tion have been interpreted by Pardee and

Bryan’ as lacustrine, and due to stream

damming by flows of the so-called Colum-

bia lavas.

The philosophy of such flat cases is

obviously to prevent them from being

readily capsized or rolled to the conse-

quent discomfort of the relatively small

occupant, and consequently such cases

may be considered as evidence of some

current action.

The present species is obviously dis-

tinct from Folindusia wilcoxiana in the

larger number of much smaller and more

irregular leaf pieces used. It probably

belongs in the same family, Limnophili-

dae, incidentally a rather large and

‘ cage ; ; Figure 1.—Folindusia miocenica

widely distributed group, which is es- Berry, n. sp. X 3. Miocene of Spo-

pecially prominent in the faunas of ponds’ kane, Washington.

and slow streams.

BOTANY.—Studies of Venezuelan Bignoniaceae.—I. Ceratophytum,

a new genus of vines... H. Pirtrer, Caracas, Venezuela.

The genus Adenocalymna was fully described for the first time by

P. de Candolle? from notes and Brazilian specimens left by von

Martius. It included originally 19 species, one of which (A. bra-

3 J.T. Parper and Kirk Bryan. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140: 15-16. 1927.

1 Received December 9, 1927.

2D.C. Prodr. 9: 199.

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

chybotrys) is doubtful, another one (A. Guillemint) has not been seen

again by modern monographers of the genus, and the remaining 17

are characterized by the biseriate disposition of the ovules, with the

exception of A. macrophyllum and A. Salzmanni for which this char-

acter has not been ascertained. Two of the other species (A. flori-

bundum and A. plicifolvum) have since been transferred, the first one

to Arrabidaea and the second to Memora. Besides, Adenocalymna

splendens, created in 1896 by Bureau and Schumann, and which shows

8-seriate ovules, lately became the type of Hassler’s genus Chodanthus.

It seems evident, first, that the intention of the authors of genus

Adenocalymna was to include in it only species with biseriate ovules,

and secondly, that most modern students of the group have supposed |

this arrangement to be a fundamental character. If we consider,

then, that we have in the two species described hereafter a third type

of such arrangement, namely an 8-seriate disposition of the ovules,

and also, that the shape and size of the fruit is absolutely sui generis,

the tendrils always trifurcate and the insertion of the inclosed stamens

densely villous, their separation to form a distinct genus will appear

as sufficiently justified. Besides, the affinities of the group would be

with Haplophytum or ele Distictis Mansoana, rather than with

Adenocalymna.

On account of the likeness of the capsule of the type species to a

goat’s horn, I propose for the new genus the name of Ceratophytum,

which is self-explanatory.

Ceratophytum Pittier, gen. nov.

_ Calyx tubuloso-campanulatus apice truncatus vel subquinquedentatus,

extus lepidotus, plus minusve distincte glandulosus, intus glaber, eglandulo-

sus. Corolla tubuloso-campanulata basi in tubo contracta, apice lobata

lobis subaequantibus suborbiculatis, extus plus minusve dense puberula

intus prope insertionem staminum dense villosa. Stamina manifeste

didynama inclusa, thecae glabrae, divaricatae; staminodium breve, fili-

forme. Discus annularis vel cupulatus, conspicuus.. Ovarium sessile,

lateraliter compressum, plus minusve sulcatum vel angulatum cum stylo

obsolete articulatum, ovulis numerosis, 8-seriatim placentis binis pro loculo

affixis anatropis; stigmata subfoliacea. Capsula magna elongato-linearis,

septo parallele compressa, apicem versus attenuata; extus sublaevis, septi-

frage dehiscens. Semina applanata, alata, alis membranaceis, subhyalinis,

interdum apicem truncatis—Frutices scandentes, vulgo glaberrimi. Folia

decussata plerumque ternata vel interdum conjugata cirrho terminali 3-

fureato clausa; phylla stipulas simulantia non notata. Flores majuscul,

speciosi, albi vel partim lutescentes, racemos umbelliformes decussatos

terminales referentes, bracteis bracteolisque minoribus deciduis vix notatis.

Species 2, venezuelenses.

FEB. 4, 1928 PITTIER: CERATOPHYTUM 63

Ceratophytum capricorne Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex scandens, ramis crassis, cortice griseo, rugoso verruculis cicatrici-

bus foliolorum delapsorum intermixtis obtectis, ramulis teretibus, laevibus,

glaberrimis, parce lenticellatis, longitudinaliter striatis; foliis membranaceis

Figure 1.—Right side: Capsule of Ceratophytum capricorne, full view reduced to 2

natural size.

Left side: above, apex of same, front view; below, side (left) and front

view of base, all reduced to 7 natural size.

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

glaberrimis, vel novellis vix puberulis, plerumque ternatis, summum in-

terdum conjugatis cirrho terminali trifurcato clausis, longe petiolatis, petiolis

teretibus, supra obsolete canaliculatis; petiolulis modice longis supra anguste

canaliculatis, terminali longiore; laminis late ovatis obovatisve basi rotun-

datis subcuneatisve, apice late rotundatis brevissime et obtuse acuminatis

interdum utrinque obtusis retusisve, supra solute viridibus costa venisque

primariis circa 5 prominulis, subtus pallidioribus, laxe reticulatis, costa

venisque prominentibus; inflorescentia brevi, terminali, e basi ramosa, floribus

apice pedunculorum 4-6 umbellulatis, rhachide minute puberula, bracteis

diminutis, caducissimis; pedicellis gracilibus calyce subaequantibus vel

longioribus; calyce tubuloso-campanulato, apice truncato vel sinuato, extus

rufulo-furfurescente, intus glabro, glandulis nullis vel 10 obsoletis; corolla

tubuloso-campanulata, extus tubo basilari brevi aurantiaco excepto alba

minutissime furfuraceo-flavescente, intus flava, prope insertionem staminum

dense villosa, demum glabra, lobulis orbicularibus, basi plus minusve con-

tractis, utrinque albis; staminibus brevibus, circa dimidium corollae aequanti-

bus, filamentis minutissime adpresso-puberulis, antheris divaricatis, glabris,

staminodio filiformi; disco annulari crasso glabro; ovario leviter compresso,

anguloso vel plus minusve sulcato, minutissime lepidoto; ovulis pro loculo

numerosis, 8-seriatis; stylo glabro apicem versus attenuato; capsula elongata,

laevi vel rugulosa, glabra, valde arcuata, lineari-lanceolata, apicem versus

sensim attenuata, applanata, apice grosse mucronata, valvis lignosis medio

longitudinaliter sulcatis carinatisque; seminibus alatis.

Frutex ut videtur e rupibus pendens, multicaulis, 5-6 m. longus. Petioli

3-8 cm. longi; petioluli laterales 1—-1.4 cm. longi, terminale 1.5-3 em. longum.

Laminae 8-10 em. longae, 5-7.5 cm. latae. Pedicelli 9-17 mm. longi.

Calyx 11 mm. longus. Corolla circa 7 em. longa, tubo basilari 7 mm. longo,

lobulis 1.5-1.6 cm. longis latisque. Stamina majora circa 27 mm. longa,

minora 15 mm., omnes 7 mm. supra basin corollae affixa; thecae circiter 3

mm. longae; staminodium 3-4 mm. longum. Discus 1.5-2 mm. altus.

Ovarium 3.5-4 mm. longum; stylus 3.1-3.3 cm. longus. Capsula crasse

pedunculata circa 40 cm. longa, 3.8 em. lata; semina cum alis 4.5—5 cm. lata,

circa 1.5 cm. longa.

VENEZUELA: Between Catia and Blandin, on the road from Caracas to

La Guaira, hanging from rocks; flowers and fruits May 11, 1924 (Pitter

11527, type, in the herbarium of the Commercial Museum at Caracas, and

cotype in the U. 8. National Herbarium at Washington, D. C.).

As further distinctive characters between this species and those of genus

Adenocalymna, we may mention the length of the capsule, which is gradually

attenuate with a flattened subquadrangular transverse section. The fruits

of none of the original species of Adenocalymna are known, with the ex-

ception of three cases in which they were subsequently described as ‘‘sub-

teretes” or “‘subcylindricae’”’ and as much shorter and narrower than those

of either of the two species of Ceratophytum. The calyx of C. capricorne

is decidedly truncate, devoid of marginal lobules and of the subsessile

glands on the inner surface as reported by Schumann. The leaves are

mostly 3-foliolate and, when conjugate, end in a trifurcate tendril, whereas

this is described as simple in every case when it has been observed in the

Adenocalymna species.

FEB. 4, 1928 PITTIER: CERATOPHYTUM 65

It is most certain that a more complete comparative study of more copious

materials will show further divergences. For the present I only indicate

those which happened to strike me and at the same time express my con-

viction that genus Adenocalymna, as constituted at present, is an hetero-

geneous and unsustainable complex.

Ceratophytum brachycarpum Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex alte scandens, ramis crassis, angulosis, ramulis glabris, striatis,

coplose verruculosis, cortice griseo vel nigrescente obtectis; foliis longe

petiolatis plerumque ternatis, interdum conjugatis cirrho terminali glabro,

valido, 3-furcato clausis; petiolis gracilibus, teretibus, striatis, parcissime

lenticellatis, supra anguste canaliculatis; petiolulis brevibus, striatis, cana-

liculatis, terminali lateralibus vix duplo longiore; foliolis coriaceis ovatis,

basi plus minusve obliquis subemarginatisve et leviter complicatis, apice

subacuminatis obtusisve, supra laete viridibus, opacis, costa impressa,

venis venulisque prominulis, subtus vix pallidioribus, glandulis impressis

praecipue secundum costam interspersis, costa venisque circa 6 prominenti-

bus, venulis laxe reticulatis prominulis; inflorescentia brevi, modice peduncu-

lata, pedunculo crasso puberulo, floribus pedicellatis ad apicem peduncu-

lorum secundariorum umbellulatis; pedicellis puberulis calycem plus minusve

aequantibus; calyce campanulato, margine scarioso irregulariter parceque

dentato, plus minusve distincte glanduloso, glandulis nigrescentibus elon-

gatis, demum extus dense lepidoto, irregulariter glanduloso,. glandulis

globosis, intus laevi; corolla alba (in sicco cinnamomea), tubuloso-campanu-

lata basi in tubo brevi angusto contracta, lobulis suborbicularibus, imbrica-

tis, subaequantibus, extus furfuraceo-velutina, intus lobulis et insertione

staminum dense villosa exceptis glabra; staminibus glabris, filamentis quam

corollae tubo dimidium brevioribus, antheris divaricatis; staminodio fili-

formi; disco annulari-cupulato, plus minusve plicato et margine sinuato;

ovario leviter applanato, lateraliter sulcato, extus lepidoto, ovulis pro loculo

numerosis, 8-seriatis; stylo modice longo, glabro, stigmatibus lanceolatis;

capsula crassa, lignosa, applanata, subrecta vel arcuata, lineari-lanceolata,

apicem versus attenuata, grosse mucronata, extus laevi, villoso-punctulata,

punctis impressis, valvis medio leviter canaliculatis, basi bigibbosis, semini-

bus alatis.

Petioli 4.5-7.5 em. longi; petioluli laterales 0.7-2.4 cm., terminales 1.5—

3.7 em. longi; laminae 8.5-13 em. longae, 4.5-9 em. latae. Pedunculi

primarii 1.5-3 cm., secundarii 0.5-1 em. longi; pedicelli 1-1. 5 em. longi.

Calyx 1 cm. longus, supra 7 mm. diam. Corolla circa 7 cm. longa, tubo

basilari 6 mm. longo, lobulis 1—1.5 em. longis, 1.3-1.7 cm. latis. Stamina

majora circa 2.3 em., minora 1.5 cm. longa, omnes circa 8 mm. supra basin

tubo affixa; thecae 4 mm. longae; staminodium 5 mm. longum. Discus

eirciter 1.5 mm. altus. Ovarium circa 4 mm. longum; stylus plus minusve

3 em. longus. Capsula 16-24 em. longa, 3 em. lata; semina cum alis circa

3.35 em. lata, 1.4 em. longa.

VENEZUELA: Near Garabato, between Villa de Cura and Magdaleno,

Aragua; flowers and fruits May 7, 1925 (Pittzer 11805, type, in Herb. Comm.

Mus., Caracas, co-type in U. S. National Herbarium, Washington, D. C.).

La Sanguijuela, between Alpargat6én and Urama, Carabobo, fruits De-

cember 17, 1920 (Pittier 9153); vicinity of El Sombrero, Gudrico, in light

forest; flowers and fruits April 17, 1927 (Pittier 12366): near Sarare, Lara,

in light forest; flowers and fruits April 9, 1925 (Pittier 11754).

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

This species differs from the preceding in the coloring of the corolla, the

dimensions of the several parts and, principally, in the size of the capsules

and seeds. Besides, the valves of the capsule are copiously punctate, a

character not perceptible in those of C’. capricorne and the glandular system

is more developed in the leaves, calyx and corolla.

Before closing this contribution, I wish to add that the type-specimens

of both species have been submitted to Mr. Sprague, the well known author-

ity on the Bignoniaceae, who concurred in the opinion that they represent

a new genus. I am sincerely obliged to him for his kindly aid.

ZOOLOGY.—New marine mollusks from. Ecuador.) Pau Barrscu,

United States National Museum.

A recent shipment of mollusks collected by Mr. J. M. Reed, of Guaya-

quil, Ecuador, at Salinas in Guayaquil Bay, for the Southern Cali-

fornia Conchology Club, and transmitted by that Club to the U. S.

National Museum for determination, contains a number of new things

which are here described.

This collection as well as the two transmitted by Dr. R. A. Olsson?

some time ago from which we also described a lot of new material,

show that the region in question offers rich opportunities to the -

careful collector, and it is hoped that more work of the kind will be

done here to make known to us that fauna. I am informed that the

sponsors and heaviest backers of Mr. Reed’s expedition have been

Messrs. A. M. Strong, W. L. Brown, and C. E. White.

Mangilia whitei, new species

Fig. I.—1.

Shell small, elongate-conic, white with two slender reddish-brown bands

which cover the two spiral threads anterior to the suture. The axial sculp-

ture consists of broad, rounded ribs which are only slightly elevated at the

summit and increase rapidly toward the middle of the space between the

suture and summit and then again decrease anteriorly toward the suture,

disappearing shortly after reaching the base. The spaces that separate

these ribs are about half as wide as the ribs. The spiral sculpture consists

of rather broad cords which are separated by channels almost as wide as

the cords. Of these cords, 7 occur between the summit and the suture.

Suture well constricted. Base attenuated, slightly concave on the left side,

marked by 13 low, broad spiral threads. Aperture.oval, strongly channeled

anteriorly and moderately notched at the posterior angle, the outer lip

1 Published by permission of the Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-

tion. Received December 28, 1927.

2New Mollusks from Santa Elena Bay, Ecuador. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., No. 2551,

66: 1-9, pls. 1-2. Additional new mollusks from Santa Elena Bay, Ecuador. Proc. U.

S. Nat. Mus., No. 2646, 69: 1-20, pls. 1-3.

FEB. 4, 1928 BARTSCH: MARINE MOLLUSKS FROM ECUADOR 67

reinforced within by a strong callus which bears 9 poorly developed lirations

on the inside, the strongest one of which is immediately anterior to the

posterior notch, from which they grow consecutively weaker anteriorly;

there is a strong varicial-like rib immediately behind the aperture on the

outside.

The type (Cat. No. 367966 U. 8. N. M.) has 7 whorls, and measures—

length, 5.3 mm.; greater diameter, 2.5 mm.

Olivella guayaquilensis, new species

Fig. I.—10.

Shell of medium size, elongate-ovate with the spire decidedly elevated;

the first 5 turns flesh-colored, the fifth flesh-colored with a narrow brown

zone near the summit and another in the suture; the last whorl is flesh-

colored with a narrow brown zone at the summit, and another zone

about 3 times as wide separated from this by a pale zone about as wide as

the dark zone at the summit; this is followed by a broad light spiral zone

which is as wide as the broad spiral brown zone immediately posterior to

the first fold of the base; a narrow brown zone is present on the anterior half

of the first fold and a much broader one which extends over almost half

the base anterior to the second fold; the interior of the aperture is yellowish-

white with 2 broad spiral bands of brown, one at the posterior angle and

the other extending anteriorly from the: middle: the extreme outer edge of

the aperture is yellowish-white. The whorls are polished, scarcely marked

by incremental lines; microscopic spiral striations are present. Suture

narrowly channeled. Periphery rounded. Base rather stout, marked by

2 conspicuous folds below the periphery and 4 oblique threads on the columel-

lar border. Aperture moderately broad, acutely channeled posteriorly,

moderately deeply notched anteriorly; outer lip thin at the edge; inner lip

strongly reflected as a heavy callus bearing the folds referred to above;

parietal wall marked by a rather stout callus.

The type (Cat. No. 367975 U. 8. N. M.) has 7 whorls, and measures—

length, 15.6 mm.; greater diameter, 6 mm.

Olivella salinasensis, new species

Fig. I.—12.

Shell oval with the spire very short; early whorls flesh-colored, later ones

pale brown, the last with vermiculations, arrow-shaped markings and dashes

of yellowish-white, the points of the arrows being protractively directed; the

interior of the outer lip is mottled at the edge, and brownish-flesh-colored

within. The first 3 whorls form a mucronate apex, the next 3 expand very

rapidly and are separated by a rather deeply impressed channeled suture;

the last whorl is marked by fine retractively slanting, incremental lines and

microscopic spiral striations. Suture channeled. Base moderately long

with a single impressed line a little anterior to the periphery; the parietal

and basal callus are marked by folds of which the first two are slender, and

these are about one-fourth of the length of the aperture anterior to the pos-

terior angle of the aperture; they are followed by a heavy fold which in turn

is followed by two a little less conspicuous, succeeded by a narrower one

which is followed by 2 heavy folds which in turn are followed by 2 a little

less strong; the outer lip is thin; the aperture is narrowly channeled pos-

teriorly and deeply notched anteriorly.

The type (Cat. No. 367976 U.S. N. M.) has almost 7 whorls, and measures

—length, 10.7 mm.; greater diameter, 5.2 mm.

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

Mitra salinasensis, new species

Fig. I.—16.

Shell rather large, oval; early whorls flesh-colored with a narrow zone of

brown posterior to the suture; the last whorl chestnut-brown, a little paler

on the posterior two-thirds between summit and suture; the interior of the

aperture dark chestnut-brown except the posterior zone just referred to;

the folds on the columella are bluish-white. The first 3 whorls are marked

by 5 rather strongly incised spiral threads which are not quite of equal

width or spacing; on the next turn these become much enfeebled, and on

the last they are altogether lost; the entire surface of the last whorl is marked

by fine incremental lines and fine spiral striations. Suture moderately con-

stricted. Periphery well rounded. Base moderately long, the anterior

half marked by 14 spiral threads which grow consecutively stronger from

the middle of the base anteriorly, and likewise more closely approximated.

Aperture somewhat lunate, conspicuously channeled anteriorly; outer lip

thin; inner lip bearing 4 conspicuous folds which grow consecutively weaker

from the posterior anteriorly, and which are of equal spacing.

The type (Cat. No. 367982 U. 8. N. M.) had 6 whorls, and measures—

length, 27.8 mm.; greater diameter, 12.7 mm.

Engina mantensis, new species

Mie

Shell moderately large, chestnut-brown, paler at the tip with a con-

spicuous yellowish band immediately below the periphery. Early whorls

decollated. Postnuclear whorls marked by 10 axial ribs on each turn which

are almost truncated on the middle of the turns and fade rapidly posteriorly

while anteriorly they extend to the umbilicus; on the early whorls these

ribs show above the suture as a series of nodules; on the last turn the nodule

becomes bifid; on the base 6 additional series of nodules are present; these

nodules in reality are the intersection of strong spiral cords and the ribs;

in addition to these stronger spiral cords, less conspicuous spiral threads

are present which are separated by spaces about as wide as the threads; of

these threads, 17 are present between the summit and the suture on the

last turn. Base about four times as long as the space between the summit

and the periphery on the last turn, marked in addition to the stronger

nodules by spiral threads of the same strength as those on the spire. Aper-

ture irregular in outline, white within but brownish on the outer lip except

where the light zone is present; strongly channeled anteriorly and less so

posteriorly; the posterior channel is rendered conspicuous by a heavy callus

on the parietal wall and on the outer lip; the outer lip also bears in addition

to the strong spiral lamella bordering the posterior channel 5 spiral lamellae

anterior to the light zone; a series of 8 slender, short spiral lamellae are

present on the parietal wall and posterior half of the inner lip; the anterior

half of the inner lip is reflected over the columella with a very heavy callus.

The type (Cat. No. 367970 U. S. N. M.) was collected by Mr. Jones at

Manta, Ecuador. It has 6 whorls, and measures—length, 17.2 mm.; greater

diameter, 9.3 mm. This specimen has been in the collection of the U. 8.

National Museum for some time and is not part of the material received

from the Southern California Conchology Club.

AD ad a

FEB. 4, 1928

BARTSCH: MARINE MOLLUSKS FROM ECUADOR

4 PRS

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

Anachis whitei, new species

Fig. I.—11.

Shell small, elongate-conic, ground color flesh-colored, variously marked |

with spots, blotches and streaks of dark brown, rust- color or yellowish.

The sculpture of the nuclear whorls is partly eroded: that of the postnuclear

turns consists of strong, slightly retractively curved axial ribs, of which 12

occur upon the third, 14 upon the fourth, fifth and sixth, and 16 upon the

last turn. These ribs are separated by spaces a little wider than the ribs.

In addition to the strong axial ribs, the whorls are marked by fine axial

threads both on the ribs and in the spaces that separate them. ‘The spiral

sculpture consists of strong, decidedly elevated spiral cords, of which 4 are

present on the third to fifth, 6 upon the sixth and the last turn between the

summit and the suture. The junction of the axial ribs and the spiral cords

forms elongate nodules having their long axis parallel with the spiral sculp-

ture, while the spaces enclosed between them are oval pits with their long

axis also parallel with the axial sculpture. Suture strongly constricted.

Periphery well rounded. Base about twice as long as the last whorl between

summit and suture, marked by the feeble continuations of the axial ribs which

evanesce shortly after leaving the periphery, and 13 strongly elevated spiral

cords which grow consecutively weaker from the periphery toward the base.

The spaces that separate these spiral cords are about as wide at the periph-

ery as the cords, but become narrower toward the base; they are marked

by slender, rather closely spaced axial threads. Aperture of irregular shape,

strongly channeled anteriorly and less so posteriorly; outer lip thick within,

marked a little behind the edge on the inside by 6 denticles which grow

consecutively weaker from the posterior anteriorly; the columellar wall is

covered by a rather thick callus which also extends over the parietal wall.

The type (Cat. No. 367977 U.S. N. M.) has almost 8 whorls, and measures

—length, 7.7 mm.; greater diameter, 3.4 mm.

Anachis strongi, new species

Fig. I.—13.

Shell small, ovate; early whorls flesh-colored, the later dark chestnut-

brown, with an even darker band on the posterior half of the base; the

aperture is dark chestnut-brown with a reddish tinge, paler within. Early

whorls eroded, the succeeding turns are almost appressed at the summit,

marked by low, broadly rounded axial ribs, of which 16 seem to be present

upon all the turns; in addition to these low ribs, the whorls are marked by

slender incremental lines. The spaces that separate these ribs are a little

narrower than the ribs. The spiral sculpture consists of 4 strongly incised,

equal and equally spaced lines between the summit and suture. Suture

slightly. constricted. Periphery well rounded. Base almost twice the

~ length of the portion between summit and suture of the last turn, the anterior

hal ‘marked by 7 incised spiral lines which separate spiral bands about

‘~ twice a8 broad as these lines which are flattened; on the columellar portion

_ § additional incised spiral grooves separate an equal number of considerably

more elevated spiral cords. Aperture rather narrow, decidedly channeled

anteriorly and feebly so posteriorly; outer lip thick within, narrowing toward

the edge, marked by 7 denticles within, of which the first, which marks the

anterior termination of the posterior ‘channel, is slender, while the two

succes are very heavy ;\the next 3 anterior to this are much less strong,

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FEB. 4, 1928 BARTSCH: MARINE MOLLUSKS FROM ECUADOR i1

about equaling the first, the last being feeble; the columellar and parietal

walls are covered by a thick callus.

The type (Cat. No. 367978 U.S. N. M.) has 5.5 whorls, and measures—

length, 6.0 mm.; greater diameter, 3.0 mm.

Anachis reedi, new species

Fig. I.—15.

Shell small, broadly ovate, flesh-colored with a narrow zone of brown at

the suture and a broad zone of much darker brown on the anterior third of

the base; the posterior two-thirds being of the same color as the zone anterior

to the periphery; the interior of the aperture shows the same zonation,

with the ground color a little darker flesh-colored than the exterior. Nuclear

whorls eroded. Postnuclear whorls appressed at the summit, somewhat

inflated, well rounded, marked with feebly developed, low axial riblets which

are merely indicated on the early turns, and of which 20 are present on the

last volution. In addition to these axial ribs, fine, closely spaced incre-

mental lines are present on the ribs as well as the spaces that separate them.

The spiral sculpture consists of 5 strongly incised spiral lines which are most

conspicuous in the intercostal spaces. Suture feebly impressed. Base

about twice as long as the space between the summit and the suture, the

extreme posterior portion marked by the feeble continuation of the axial

ribs, and the entire surface by closely spaced incremental lines. The spiral

sculpture consists of 5 deeply incised continuous spiral lines on the posterior

third which separate broad, low rounded spiral cords, and 13 strongly in-

cised lines which separate 12 rather strong, well rounded spiral cords on the

anterior two-thirds of the base which grow consecutively weaker from the

posterior anteriorly. Aperture oval; outer lip thick within, bearing 4 con-

spicuous denticles on its middle half; the inner lip and parietal wall are

covered with a thick callus.

The type (Cat. No. 367979 U.S. N, M.) has almost 6 whorls, and measures

—length, 5.3 mm.; greater diameter, 2.8 mm.

Epitonium strongi, new species

Fig. I.—2.

Shell rather large, broadly elongate-conic, white, thin. Nuclear whorls

decollated. Postnuclear whorls inflated, strongly rounded, marked by very

broad, slightly retractively curved, lamellar axial ribs, of which 14 occur

upon the first and second, 16 upon the third and fourth, 14 upon the fifth

and sixth, and 16 upon the last. These riblets extend equally strong over

the whorls from the summit to the periphery, and on the last whorl over the

base to the umbilicus, here, however, they become somewhat reduced. The

broad spaces between the axial riblets are marked by incremental lines and

microscopic, very closely spaced spiral striations which, however, become

apparent only under very high magnification. Suture strongly constricted.

Periphery inflated, well rounded. Base short, strongly rounded, marked

by the continuation of the axial ribs which become fused at the umbilical

region. Aperture broadly oval, peristome continuous, reinforced by a

callus which replaces the columella on the inner lip and which is marked by

6 spiral threads; the rest of the peristome is considerably thickened.

The type (Cat. No. 367967 U. S: N. M.) has lost the nuclear turns; the

7.5 remaining measure—length, 15.9 mm.; greater diameter, 8.5 mm.

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

Epitonium reedi, new species

Fig. I.—3. 3

Shell of medium size, broadly conic, white with a flush of brown on the

last turn which is particularly emphasized on the basal portion thereof.

The last two turns of the nucleus are present and appear to be smooth.

Postnuclear whorls inflated, strongly rounded; the first postnuclear whori is

marked by 14 slender, only slightly elevated, almost vertical axial riblets;

on the second postnuclear turn only 10 axial riblets are present, and here

they are much more elevated and also somewhat thicker with a decided

angle about one-third of the distance between the summit and the suture

anterior to the summit. This state of affairs obtains on the third and

fourth turn, but here the angle becomes dulled, and the ribs increase ma-

terially in thickness; on the rest of the turns the angle is lost, but the axial

ribs become very much thickened and are marked by a series of lines of

growth; they are also conspicuously posteriorly reflected. Ten of the axial

ribs are present upon all the whorls except the first; the spaces separating

the axial ribs are marked by 6 spiral threads between the summit and suture

which are of about the same strength and spacing on the first postnuclear

whorl; the spaces separating these threads are about as wide as the threads.

On the second postnuclear turn the spiral threads become obsolete on the

posterior half of the whorls between the summit and suture, but remain

strong on the anterior half, the posterior half being marked by numerous

slender, closely spaced spiral threads; the basal portion of the intercostal

spaces on the last turn are also marked by conspicuous spiral threads, while

the ribs here are very much thickened and become fused at the umbilicus.

Aperture broadly oval; the outer and basal lip very much thickened, that of

the parietal wall a little less so, while on the inner lip the shell is reinforced

by a rather strong callus which shows spiral markings.

The type (Cat. No. 367968 U.S. N. M.) has 8.5 whorls (having lost the

extreme nuclear tip) and measures—length, 12.7 mm.; greater diameter

6.8 mm.

Turbonilla (Turbonilla) salinasensis, new species

Fig. I.—7. |

Shell small, elongate-conic, bluish-white. Nuclear whorls 2.5, forming a

depressed helicoid spire whose axis is at right angles to that of the succeed-

ing whorls, in the first of which the nuclear spire is about one-fourth im-

mersed; the left outline of the nuclear spire projects very slightly beyond

the left side of the postnuclear turns. The first 4 postnuclear whorls are

slightly rounded, the rest almost flattened, weakly shouldered at the summit

and marked by retractively curved axial riblets which are about twice as

wide as the spaces that separate them; of these riblets, 30 occur upon the

second of the postnuclear turns, 26 upon the third and fourth, 36 upon the

fifth, 38 upon the sixth and the last turn. These ribs extend fairly strong

to the summit of the turns which they slightly crenulate. The intercostal

spaces, on the other hand, are but feebly impressed and terminate a little

posterior to the suture, leaving a narrow smooth zone in the suture. Suture

moderately constricted. Periphery well rounded. Base moderately long,

well rounded, marked by slender incremental lines. Aperture oval; posterior

angle acute; outer lip thin; inner lip su:ghtly curved and slightly reflected,

adnate to the preceding turn for almost half its length; parietal wall glazed

with a. very thin calius.

faith a

FEB. 4, 1928 BARTSCH: MARINE MOLLUSKS FROM ECUADOR 3

The type (Cat. No. 367972 U. S. N. M.) has 7 postnuclear whorls, and

measures—length, 3.7 mm., greater diameter, 1.2 mm.

Odostomia (Crysallida) salinasensis, new species

Fig. I.—8.

Shell small, elongate-ovate, bluish-white. Nuclear whorls small, deeply,

obliquely immersed in the first of the succeeding whorls, above which about

half of the tilted edge of the last portion only projects. Postnuclear whorls

slightly rounded, feebly shouldered at the summit, marked by retractively

curved, broad, low rounded axial ribs, of which 18 occur upon the first and

second, 24 upon the third and fourth, and 26 upon the last turn. These

ribs are considerably wider than the spaces that separate them. The spiral

sculpture consists of 4 strong threads between summit and suture which

render the axial ribs conspicuously nodulose; the spaces between the broad

spiral threads are less than half the width of the threads. Suture strongly

channeled. Periphery with a rather strong channel. Base moderately

long, marked by 6 strong spiral cords; the spaces separating these spiral

cords are a little wider than the cords and are crossed by slender axial threads.

Aperture oval; posterior angle acute; outer lip thin at the edge; inner lip

strongly curved, provided with an oblique fold at its insertion; the parietal

wall covered by a moderately thick callus.

The type (Cat. No. 367973 U. S. N. M.) has 6 whorls, and measures—

length, 3.2 mm.; greater diameter, 1.5 mm.

Odostomia (Crysallida) reedi, new species

Fig. L.—9. :

Shell very small, elongate-ovate, bluish-white. Nuclear whorls small,

deeply, obliquely immersed in the first of the succeeding turns above which

only a portion of the tilted edge of the last portion projects. Postnuclear

whorls almost flattened, very feebly shouldered at the summit, marked by

rather strong, well elevated, obliquely, protractively slanting axial riblets,

of which 18 occur upon the second and 20 upon the rest of the turns; these

riblets terminate conspicuously at the summit which they render slightly

crenulated. The spaces that separate the axial ribs are a little wider than

the ribs; in addition to the axial sculpture, the whorls are marked by 4

spiral threads which are a little more than half the width of the spaces that

separate them and which render the junction with the axial ribs feebly

nodulose. The spaces enclosed between the axial ribs and spiral threads

form conspicuously impressed, rounded pits. Suture well constricted.

Periphery well rounded. Base moderately long, well rounded, marked by 12

spiral threads which grow consecutively feebler and more closely spaced

from the periphery anteriorly; the spaces between these spiral threads are

crossed by slender axial threads. Aperture broadly oval; outer lip thin;

inner lip reflected over and appressed to the base for two-thirds of its length,

marked with an oblique fold at its insertion; parietal wall covered with a

thin callus.

The type (Cat. No. 367974 U.S. N. M.) has almost 6 whorls, and measures

—length, 2.3 mm.; greater diameter, 1 mm.

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

Thericium browni, new species

Fig. I.—4. .

Shell moderately large, brownish sooty, blotched with splashes of dark

. brown and white; these are usually arranged in alternating series so that

on the base the tubercles are dark, while the spaces that separate them are

light; the aperture is light smoky gray with alternating spots of brown and

gray at the edge, some of which extend inward as streaks into the outer lip;

the deeper portion of the outer lip is darker in tone than the outer edge.

The early whorls have the sculpture eroded; on the next to the last it con-

sists of a row of very strong tubercles which is about two-thirds of the dis-

tance between the summit and the suture anterior to the summit, and a_

row of finer tubercles a little below the summit; on the next to the last whorl

the anterior row of tubercles is very strong, while on the last it is materially

reduced; in addition to this sculpture the whorls are marked by numerous fine,

somewhat wavy incised spiral lines. The base is about twice as long as the

posterior portion of the last turn and is marked by 4 spiral series of tubercles.

which are brown while the spaces that separate these tubercles, which are a

little larger than the tubercles, are white. On the base the spiral threads be-.

tween the nodules, which are quite numerous, are a little stronger than those.

on thespire. Aperture irregular in outline, very strongly channeled anteriorly

and moderately strongly channeled posteriorly; the callus on the parietal

wall near the posterior angle forms a strong spiral lamella which forms a

conspicuous channel between the posterior edge of this and the outer lip;

the rest of the parietal wall is covered by a thin, translucent callus, while

on the columellar lip the callus is thicker and smoky white; the outer lip is:

moderately expanded and curved almost in a semicircle.

The type (Cat. No. 367969 U.S. N. M.) has 5.5 whorls remaining, and

measures—length, 23.1 mm.; greater diameter, 14.8 mm.

Alaba guayaquilensis, new species

Fig. I.—14.

Shell elongate-conic, the first four turns flesh-colored, the rest horn-

brown with the varices flesh-colored; the interior of the aperture pale brown;

the incised spiral lines are also flesh-colored. The first 3 whorls are well

rounded, smooth, excepting incremental lines; beginning with the fourth,

5 incised spiral lines are present between the summit and suture. The

whorls are marked at irregular intervals by strong, almost vertical varices;

on the last turn there is one which crosses the entire whorl, preceded at

aimost regular intervals by 4 which extend but little beyond the deeply

incised spiral lines anterior and posterior to the periphery. Suture slightly

constricted. Periphery well rounded. Base moderately long, well rounded,

marked by fine incremental lines and 5 strongly incised spiral grooves.

Aperture broadly oval; posterior angle acute; outer lip thin at the edge with

a strong varix immediately behind it; inner lip rather stout; parietal wall

covered by a thin callus.

The type (Cat. No. 397981 U.S.N. M.) has 7 whorls, and measures—

length, 5.7 mm.; greater diameter, 2.5 mm.

Fossarus guayaquilensis, new species

Pie 6:

Shell small, helicoid, white. Nuclear whorls partly eroded. The later

turns marked by 3 very strong spiral keels between summit and suture, and

FEB. 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 75

3 additional strong spiral keels on the base; anterior to these 3 strong spiral

keels near the edge of the columella are 2 additional spiral cords of con-

siderably lesser strength than the keels; the space between the summit and

the first spiral cord, which is almost on the middle of the turn between

summit and suture, is marked by 7 slender spiral threads; 8 slender spiral

threads are present between the first and second keel, 2 of these being on

the anterior half of the first keel. The space between the second and third

keel is marked by 10 spiral threads, of which 4 are present on the anterior

half of the second keel, and 2 on the posterior half of the third; the space

between the third and fourth keel is marked by 15 spiral threads, of which

5 very slender ones are present on the anterior half of the third and the

posterior half of the fourth keel; the space between the fourth and fifth is

marked by 10 spiral threads, of which 4 are on the anterior half of the fourth,

and 4 in the space between the fourth and fifth keel, and 2 on the posterior

half of the fifth keel; the space between the fifth and sixth keels is also marked

by spiral threads; of these, 4 are on the anterior half of the fifth, and 3 in

the space that separates them; anterior to this, the slender spiral threads

are less conspicuous. In addition to the spiral sculpture, the whorls are

marked by rather strong incremental lines amounting almost to riblets which

give to the spaces between the strong spiral keels a somewhat cloth-like

appearance. Base short, openly umbilicated; the umbilical wall is marked

by strong incremental lines but devoid of spiral sculpture. Aperture of

irregular outline, rendered strongly fluted by the spiral keels on the outer

lip which is fairly thick; the inner lip is lunate, being slightly protracted at

the anterior angle of the aperture and extending as a claw-like element at

its junction with the outer lip on the parietal wall.

The type (Cat. No. 367971 U. S. N. M.) has 3.5 whorls remaining, and

measures—length, 3.7 mm.; greater diameter, 4.1 mm.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

960TH MEETING

The 960th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 1, 1927.

Program: Paut R. Heri: Wave mechanics. The concept of the atom as

set forth by Bohr involves the assumption that a revolving electron will not

radiate energy. This assumption runs counter to accepted ideas, but has

been tolerated because the Bohr atom works well.

The wave mechanics of Schrédinger furnishes us with a concept of the atom

which is free from this objection and which retains all the good features of

the Bohr atom. In addition it permits of half-quantum numbers which

seem to be demanded by experimental evidence, but for which there was no

room in Bohr’s theory. It also gives a means of calculating the intensity of

spectral lines, which no earlier theory was capable of doing. (Author’s

abstract.)

961ST MEETING

The 961st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, October 15, 1927.

Program: CHESTER SNow: A magneto-electron theory of gravitation. (This

JOURNAL 17: 457-464. 1927.)

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3

A. J. Henry: Abnormal summers in the United States. The summer of

1927 in Washington, D. C., was the third coolest in that city in the last 50-odd

years. This fact led to a short statistical study of abnormal summer tem-

peratures, not only in Washington but elsewhere in the United States.

This, study was based upon thermometric observations mainly for the

50-odd years since the early seventies and on observations for more than 100

years at two New England stations, New Haven, Conn., and New Bedford,

Mass. It was shown that abnormal summers are rarely, if ever, general over

the entire continental United States but tend rather to be localized in certain

sections of the area, cool summers in the region extending eastward from the

lower Missouri Valley to the eastern seaboard and warm summers more in the

central areas west of the Appalachians and east of the Rocky Mountains.

The range in the summer means is least on the coast and greatest in the inte-

rior. The extreme oscillation in the summer mean (the mean of June, July

and August) is eleven degrees at Saint Paul, Minn., and the smallest oscilla-

tion is about half that amount at San Francisco and Santa Fe, New Mex.

The outstanding cool summer for New England, the only part of the country

which has a thermometric record of more than 100 years was that of 1816,

although the summer of 1812 at Salem, Mass., wascooler. For the remainder

of the country there have been four noteworthy cool summers in the last

50-odd years, viz., those of 1903, 1907, 1915 and 1927. Of these 1915 was

the coolest, 1903 the second coolest and 1927 the fourth. Warm summers

have been distributed quite irregularly and more or less locally. ‘The summer

of 1926 at Portland, Oregon, was the warmest ever experienced; at San

Francisco, the highest mean was reached in 1888 and at San Diego in 1871.

East of the Rockies there was a group of warm summers 1889-1901, also in

the middle seventies and again in 1919-1920. (Author’s abstract.)

962D MEETING

The 962d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 29, 1927.

Program: H. B. Maris: A theory of the upper atmosphere and meteors.

The force of gravity acting on the atmosphere of the earth causes the heavier

gases to settle downward and the lighter gases to rise to higher altitudes by

diffusion, and winds unhindered by diffusion would by convection keep the

composition of the air uniform at all elevations. The classical ideas of the

change in atmospheric pressure with altitude (e.g. Humphreys, Jeans, Chap-

man and Milne, etc.) have been based on the assumption that convection is

negligible, at least in the upper atmosphere, and that each gas was through

diffusion in gravity equilibrium with its own partial pressure. Investigation

has shown, however, that diffusion is of importance only at elevations greater

than 100 km.

The ordinary equations of diffusion show at once that if the air were uni-

formly mixed at all altitudes and then left free from all convection currents,

there would be a constant flow of lighter molecules upward and of heavier

molecules downward, which would be independent of the altitude until a

level was reached where the diffusing gas would be in gravity equilibrium.

This “diffusion” level for hydrogen would move from infinity down to 142

km. in one day, at the end of five days it would be at a height. of 127 km. and

in 50 days it would be at 113 km. The corresponding levels for helium would

be at 137, 120 and 106 km. respectively. The new calculations give hydrogen

ae helium contents above 150 km. roughly 1/100,000 of the values previously

calculated. |

FEB. 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 77

Recent use of the upper atmosphere as a medium for transmitting elec-

tromagnetic radiation of wave-length 10 to 10,000 meters has emphasized

the importance of knowledge or at least of a theory of changes which occur in

the upper atmosphere between day and night conditions during different

seasons of the year. Absorption of solar and terrestrial radiation by the air

must determine any theory of temperature distribution in the upper atmos-

phere. Humphreys has discussed this problem and has suggested that it

should have been worked out but no attempt has been made previously to

apply radiation and absorption coefficients and solve for the thermal condi-

tion of the upper atmosphere or to estimate probable temperatures at eleva-

tions greater than 20 km. for the radiation conditions of day and night or

winter and summer.

Water vapor above 11 km. absorbs a little over 20 per cent of black body

radiation from below at earth temperatures while carbon dioxide absorbs

nearly 40 per cent. Ozone absorbs only about 2 per cent but its presence is

important because it absorbs about 4 per cent of the solar radiation at an alti-

tude where most of the re-radiation must be by the ozone itself. Temperature

calculations based on these absorption coefficients show that for a 50° latitude

above a height of sixty kms. we should expect a temperature of about 250°K

during a winter day with a drop to 220° during the night. The atmosphere

at the base of the stratosphere cannot be in radiation equilibrium, but it must

receive more radiant energy than it loses both from above and below during

a 24 hour day. The temperature condition of the earth’s surface is in very

unstable equilibrium. The loss in heat by radiation from the warm equator

is much less than from the cooler polar regions. An increase in temperature

at sea level near the equator would not result in an increase in the energy lost

by radiation from these regions, but would actually result in a decrease. Loss

of heat by radiation from the earth depends, not on the condition of the sur-

face, but on the temperature at the base of the stratosphere and absorption

in the stratosphere. A slight change in the carbon dioxide of the air would

have a tremendous influence on the climate of the earth. If the carbon diox-

ide content of the air were increased from the present 0.03 per cent to 0.1

per cent tropical plants would probably grow in the polar regions. On the

other hand if this protecting sheet decreases from 0.03 per cent to 0.01 per

cent, ice would probably be found near the equator.

Since the present theory leads to low densities of the atmosphere above

heights of 100 km., densities one hundred thousandth of those of classical

tables at 300 km., the facts about the appearance of meteors require explana-

tion. It seems possible to do this following to a certain extent the ideas of

Sparrow and to a certain extent those of Lindemann. When a high speed

meteor strikes an air molecule, it is assumed that the energy of the impact

violently ejects atoms, molecules and possibly small particles of molecular

dimension from the body of the meteor. This ejected material by virtue

of its velocity carries into the air the energy which eventually gives the light

of the meteor trail. For example, when a nitrogen molecule strikes an iron

meteor which has a velocity of 40 km. per second, the energy of the impact is

sufficient to raise the temperature of 1800 molecules 1000°C. or to evaporate

56 molecules of iron, or to evaporate and ionize 24 molecules of iron. Asa

result of this impact a mass many times that of the nitrogen molecule is

ejected from the meteor principally in the form of highly energized iron atoms

which have velocities slightly greater than that of the meteor itself. The

inelastic collisions of these iron atoms with the molecules of the air result in

the visible trail. The excitation energy of these collisions may be as high

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 3:

as 155 volts for nitrogen or 280 volts for argon. Much of this energy may be

radiated in the ultra-violet or even soft X-ray region, and it is probable that

not more than one-tenth of the total radiation is in the visible part of the

spectrum. Therefore, the total mass of the meteor must be much more than

that derived by Lindemann and Dobson from their considerations of the

relation between the mass of a meteor and its light. The temperature changes:

in the upper atmosphere from evening to morning, and from winter to summer,

given by the present theory leads one to expect appearance of meteors at:

heights which are greater by say 5 km. in the evening than in the morning and

in the summer than in the winter. It would be interesting to know whether

this difference has been observed.

Recent studies of the propagation of electromagnetic waves over the earth’s

surface have emphasized the need of a theory and definite conclusions con-

cerning diurnal and seasonal changes in temperature and composition of the

atmosphere at heights greater than 50 km. It is the purpose of this discus-

sion to take what steps are possible toward the meeting of this need.

(Author’s abstract.)

F. WENNER: A principle governing the distribution of electric current in

systems of linear conductors. A brief resume is given of the procedures which

have been developed for determining the distribution of direct current in

systems of linear conductors. In this connection reference is made to practi-

cally all the laws, theorems, principles and procedures generally considered to

pertain to this particular field of investigation. Consideration is then given

to a principle which when employed usually leads more directly to the solu-

tion of problems than does any of the procedures commonly used.

This principle applies to systems of linear conductors in which the currents

are proportional to the impressed electromotive forces; the electromotive

forces may be any function of time, and may be distributed in any manner

throughout the system; and the branches may contain resistance, inductance,

capacitance or any two or all of these in series, may be so arranged as to move

with respect to a permanent magnet, thus developing counter electromotive |

forces, and may be connected by contacts or mutual inductances or both of

these. For such a system of conductors the current in any branch is that

which would result if all impressed electromotive forces were replaced by a

single impressed electromotive force, located in the particular branch and

equal to the drop in potential which originally would have appeared across the

break had this branch been opened. While this principle is a logical con-

sequence of well-known laws, it has been used but very little and seems to be

practically unknown. It is shown here that it may be used to advantage

in all or practically all cases in which the conductors form a series-parallel

combination or a network which may be changed to a series-parallel combina-

tion by opening the branch in which it is desired to determine the current.

(Author’s abstract.)

963D MEETING

The 963d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 12, 1927.

Program: Howarp S. Rappieye: Observer’s patterns. In the work of

first-order leveling as carried on by the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey the

rods are read by estimating tenths of centimeter gradations. Hach rod is

read at three points. The height of the instrument and consequently the

height at which the rods are read being purely accidental there should be

about an even distribution among the ten digits in the resulting estimated

FEB. 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 79

millimeters. This paper is a preliminary statement of results obtained by

tabulating over 30,000 separate estimations of millimeters.

The results were grouped for different observers and for different observing

conditions. The diagrams or “‘patterns,’’ by means of which the results were

shown, displayed some startling differences between the work of different

observers and even for the same observers under different observing conditions.

The possibility of devising a test, to determine the fitness of a particular

observer for this class of work, before taking the field with a level party was

discussed. Certain other practical results, such as a limit on the length

sight, which may possibly arise from this investigation were noted. (Author’s

abstract.)

JAMES STOKLEY: The optical planetarium.

In an informal communication FREDERICK E. Brascu spoke of the ‘‘ Newton

Commemoration Program’? and accompanying exhibits at the American

Museum of Natural History.

H. E. Merwin, Recording Secretary.

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

- 709TH MEETING

The 709th meeting of the Biological Society was held in the assembly

hall of the Cosmos Club October 22, 1927 at 8:10 p.m., with Vice-president

Wetmore in the chair and 63 persons present. Under suspension of the

rules W. H. Waite was elected to membership. The chairman announced

the resignation of Dr. T. E. Snyprr as Corresponding Secretary and ex-

pressed the gratitude of the Society for his faithful service. On motion of

S. A. Ronwer, Wm. H. Wuite was elected Corresponding Secretary for

the remainder of Dr. SNYDER’s term.

T. S. PALMER called attention to the 45th Annual Meeting of the Ameri-

ean Ornithologists Union to be held in Washington November 14-17.

A. WETMORE stated that a dead specimen of a rare shrew, Sorex fontinalis,

was picked up about three weeks ago by Miss Marcaret WmETMoRE, in the

path along the Canal at Lock 11. This is the westernmost record for the

species in this region. | ,

J. M. Aupricu: Collecting flies in the West (illustrated)—The speaker

described his experiences during the past summer in collecting diptera on a

cross-country automobile trip, making special reference to accommodations

for tourists at the auto camps along the road, and illustrating his talk with

a number of lantern slides. In discussion, C. W. St1tzs called attention to

the fact that public auto camps, unless strictly supervised by State officials,

are likely to become menaces to public health.

H. C. OBERHOLSER: The lure of the waterfowl (illustrated). —Owing to the

difficulties in their study, the waterfowl are one of the most fascinating

groups to the bird student. The speaker, in the course of his travels over

the country, has found a widespread interest in their conservation. The

problems presented by the concentration of waterfowl in restricted areas

during the winter, and by the preservation of sufficient marshland for breed-

ing purposes, were described and illustrated by photographs. The German

carp, which has been introduced in many of their favorite resorts, has greatly

diminished the supply of available food for ducks and geese. Monthly

censuses of waterfowl are now being taken on designated days at stations

scattered throughout the United States and Canada, and are expected to

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No.3

afford definite information as to the number of ducks and other waterfowl

in the country. Lantern slides of a number of the favorite resorts of water-

fowl were shown.

S. F. Buakn, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. J. WaLttER Frewxss retired as Chief of the Bureau of American Eth-

nology, Smithsonian Institution, on January 15. His retirement will allow

him to complete manuscripts on certain field researches already accom-

plished, and he will at the same time continue to cooperate in the work of

the Bureau.

A meeting to commemorate the life and services of CHarLES DoOoOLITTLE

WatcotTt, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution from 1907 to 1927, was

held in the Auditorium of the Natural History Building, January 24, Chief

Justice Tart presiding. Addresses were delivered by JoHn C. M=ERRI«AM,

JosEPH S. Ames, GEORGE OTIS SMITH, and CHARLES G. ABBOT.

The Petrologists’ Club met at the Geophysical Laboratory on January 17.

Prof. WALDEMAR LINDGREN of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

at present chairman of the Division of Geology and Geography of the

National Research Council, spoke on Hot springs and magmatic emanations.

| ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

= AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

eae _ Tuesday, February 7. The Botanical Society.

_____ Wednesday, February 8. The Geological Society.

eS: The Medical Society.

ee ‘Thursday, February 9.

Sey Se

) ae

ima <3 Saturday, February 11.

Wednesday, February 15.

4 . 4 Saturday, February 18.

The Archaeological Society.

Address by Sir John Garstang, Director of the British

School of Archeology in Palestine, on recent research

in Palestine, illustrated. The meeting will be held at

the British Embassy.

The Chemical Society.

Program: W. C. Hansen, L. T. BRowNMILLER, and

R. H. Bogus (presented by W. C. Hansen, Bureau of

Standards)—Studies on the system calcium oxide-

alumina-ferric oxide.

E. N. Buntine, Bureau of Standards—The system

~ $i0.-Zn0.

J. H. Hissen, Bureau of Standards—Radiation and

collision in chemical gas reactions.

The Biological Society.

The Medieal Society.

The Washington Society of Engineers.

The Philosophical Society. |

The Helminthological Society.

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

—

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So ee EDWARD W. Burry ic eee ek a ee

eo: Mme, Botany.—Studies of Venezuelan Bignonineas oe L Coat

wees, aco vines. Oh hue We a

: Zoology.—New marine shetinaiie from eet

The Philosophical Society .......:...scsscceceereecrenseenenerees

The Biological Society. cee 3 . nie seer seree see ees seer ‘ .* . ee #9) ae

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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY _ |

: Ropert B. SosMAN, Geophysical baie.

_ Corresponding cate | L. B. lbcscugersca > eee es

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Vou. 18 FEBRUARY 19, 1928 No, 4

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

BOARD OF EDITORS

Acnes CHasE Joon B. Rezsme, Jr. OLARD

BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL MUSEUM

WHATHER BUREAU

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

L. H. Apams S. A. Rouwer

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

E. A. GotpMAN G. W. Srosz

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

R. F. Griaes J. R. Swanton

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Roger C. WELLS

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 FEBRUARY 19, 1928 No. 4

PHYSICS.—The association of water with serpentine... P.G. NuTTING,

U.S. Geological Survey.

Various minerals are known to take up and part with water with

changes in humidity and temperature. The water may be either

dissolved, adsorbed or chemically combined as part of the molecule.

Quite commonly water is held in all three ways at once. Chemical

analyses for combined water in minerals are usually based on the

assumption that adsorbed and dissolved water are driven off by heat-

ing for some time to 110°C. at room humidities. This preliminary

study of a typical hydrous silicate was undertaken to determine

whether it is possible to distinguish between these three kinds of

association and to arrive at concepts of the energy changes involved.

It is incidental to a comprehensive study of adsorption in oil sands.

The literature of the subject of water association is fairly extensive.

Of recent investigations, that by A. S. Coolidge? appears to be most

closely related to the specific problem in hand. Of particular interest

is his discussion of the various types of adsorption-vapor pressures

curves. 3 |

The investigation of systems of which only one component is volatile

by the method of weighing is very simple in theory. The elimination

of effects due to the container and to variations in room humidity is

more difficult. The adsorption of air and water on platinum and on

pyrex beakers was first investigated and is described elsewhere (to

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received

January 3, 1928.

2LamsB and Cootipee. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 42: 1146. 1920 (adsorption by

charcoal). A. S. Coottper. Ibid. 48: 1808. 1917 (theory); 49: 708. 1927 (water

and charcoal); 49: 1949. 1927 (mercury and charcoal).

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

appear in Science). Weighings at various temperatures were made

while the material (in a small platinum crucible) was suspended in a

small vertical furnace directly under the balance. Material at

various humidities was conditioned in closed desiccators over sul-

phuric acid solutions for 24 hours, then weighed at intervals of 1, 2, 5,

10, 15 and 20 minutes, and the weighings plotted. Since the container

reaches equilibrium with the atmosphere of the room in less than

5 minutes, extrapolating the plotted curve backward to zero of

time gives the true weight of the conditioned material to within

0.1 mg. This program was tested by a preliminary run on analcite,

NaAlSi.0,- H.O, for Dr. W. H. Bradley of the Geological Survey.

The serpentine used was suggested and selected by C. 8. Ross of

the Geological Survey and analyzed by F. A. Gonyer in the laboratories

of the U. 8S. National Museum. It was crushed and sized between

150 and 300 mesh sieves (0.15-0.05 mm.) and consisted entirely of

clear homogeneous grains of a yellowish green tint with no appearance

of weathering or leaching. Its composition is 3MgO-2S8i0.-2H.O

with part of the Mg replaced by ferrous iron. The H.O is supposed

to come off in two steps on heating. The molecular weight is 278,

of which 2H,O forms 12.95 per cent. ‘The analysis follows:

CoMPOSITION OF SERPENTINE TESTED

F. A. Gonyer, ANALYST

Per cent Ratios

SSOVE SMA RGR bea gainers Os tsb a a5 Ome a an bbs 500... Lae

BesOpeewies Li Te CPT BGR 2 WO .029

Bie ae ches ek te ae ae te weer a oe

INESO RE Ay hii as 7h kA 39 68.25 uad. a

ONO 28 EIR ee apg ORO ee ick 002

NEO) 2 Sa hea 3 ata eps le a arse: 1:07 Aube GOB" sami: sigs

e@mipreeers Taye d ir ES ee 2102) te, Hae 028)

Es OpomOgeren hv. sce eee ee O88 on hae. .049

Tame CY Secor Li ae eee ERC se eta pete Bas

Serpentine over dry P.O; at 26° loses water down to 17.61 per cent

(2.37 molecules) and reaches equilibrium. In 24 hours the sample

reached a weight of 0.8661 gm.; in 48 hours, 0.8661 gm., having been

exposed to room humidity (47 per cent) between the two runs. ‘This

was taken as the base weight throughout. Exposed to a saturated

atmosphere for 24 hours, it came back to the same base weight over

3F, W. CiarKe. Constitution of the natural silicates, p. 94.

FEB. 19,1928 NUTTING: ASSOCIATION OF WATER WITH SERPENTINE 83

P.O; in 24 hours. With air removed, the weight reached over P20s

was 0.8656 gm. Evidently the air pressure has a slight effect on the

retention of moisture.

CIEE AS

pies eke

a tise

sage

eececas ou

a 2 gale a

“ Log p

Fig.2 Log concentration, Pressure

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

The moisture retained over P.O; decreases slightly with rise in

temperature. ‘The relative weights found were

Temp. 26° 36° 46° 56°

Wt. 1.0000 0.9979 0.9969 0.9962

The maximum concentration of water in (or on) a mineral which has

the vapor pressure zero or held against zero external pressure is an

important constant, but since it varies with temperature, no definite

molecular structure is indicated. |

Relative weights of serpentine in equilibrium with water vapor of

various concentrations are given in the following table and in Figure 1.

Weights are relative to that at 26° and humidity zero as a base.

Humidities range from zero (over P.O;) to saturation. In the last

two columns for comparison are given weights relative to that at

zero humidity as a base.

RELATIVE WEIGHTS OF SERPENTINE AT THREE TEMPERATURES AND VARIOUS HUMIDITIES

H umidity

(Per cent Temperatures

sat.) 26° 36° 46° 36° 46°

Ors a 5G 0 (0) 0 Re Sea 0.99797) ote O19969% 6a. oe os T0000)... cee 1.0000

De Oe POO ZA ite ec T001G 5c ee 1.0024...:.... 112 01053 PS: 1.0055

HON erates cece L003 Di ehewes xs 10028227: L004 T curerreeene 1.0049........ 1.0078

DA Geiser he LP OOGO esis Las 10) 0 MRS an 8 TOOT ee ets P0072 Ae 1.0103

AQ Ro is fA0082 erate as: LOOT ie. 1 009M eee cle es 10096: 62 ee 1.0122

GOR a5 1 0 OB ee 11,0098): coe MeO YS ia ap sey ae iT OS to: Seger 1.0149

SO eae, she LORS Os Lee L2ON22 yee ea VAGUS esis 2 POTAS ee Ae 1.0206

S10 Ries Seen Ls OLG A eet ae pO eo GN. URL ag RS Rleeaio is Ro ee 1.016824 5.0....0 eee

LOOT ie seers een 10238 eons se LOLS eae er Aa oe re 1:0206:... 2.3 eee

The curves are considerably flatter, i.e., the material is much less

sensitive to changes in humidity, in the middle range of ordinary

atmospheric humidities than under more arid or more humid condi-

tions. The minimum slope is in the neighborhood of 40 to 50 per cent

humidity. Except at the lowest humidities (under 10 per cent),

serpentine will hold less water at 36° than at 26° but at 46° will hold

more. This behavior would indicate a change from exothermic to

endothermic adsorption (or solution) in the neighborhood of 35° but

this point may better be decided by calorimetric methods. ‘The range

of molecular water at 26° is from 2.37 at zero humidity to 2.49 at 40

per cent (flattest point of curve) to 2.74 at saturation.

These data give vapor pressures of serpentine holding various

proportions of water either adsorbed, dissolved or combined. Analo-

gous curves for sulphuric acid of various concentrations are of quite

FEB. 19, 1928 NUTTING: ASSOCIATION OF WATER WITH SERPENTINE 89

-. similar S-shape but it does not follow that the uncombined water in

serpentine is in solution, for adsorbed water in many cases also gives a

curve of this form. ©

Ignition of this serpentine to a dull red (about 600°C.), produced a

change in its properties worth noting. Material in equilibrium with

air at 80 per cent humidity lost. 18.8 per cent on heating, of which

12.1 per cent was regained over night. In a P.O; desiccator, it

reached a weight 84.9 per cent of the original weight. Taking this

weight (at humidity zero) as a base, equilibria were observed at

various humidities (26°C.) as follows:

IGNITED SERPENTINE AT VARIOUS HUMIDITIES

Humidity Humidity

per cent Weight : per cent Weight

a Ns Samo w des 1.0000 bs DRESS Ne hare >. ne 1.0151

BES PIR Sa. casravoscrorene 1.0039. PO ic isk eh ondtid bike MR 1.0252

ee ea eee 1.0062 QOS AOA AIE TE LS HR 1.0422

ete ete pb a eiacal 1.0090 TODS). PRA ON SER ed 1.0754

2 tS ee See 1.0113

The ignited material takes up 50 per cent more water than the raw

(see above) at the same humidities. Since at the same water concen-

tration the vapor pressure is lower, the water is more firmly held by

ignited than by raw material—a result opposite to that anticipated.

The above data on variation in weight with relative humidity may

readily be converted into vapor pressures at various concentrations of

water in serpentine. At zero humidity (over P.O;) the weight of the

raw serpentine was 1.1761 times that of the completely dehydrated

material. The ignited serpentine, cooled in a P.O; desiccator, con-

tained no appreciable water nor did it regain any that could not be

desiccated off on exposure to various humidities for a week.

The mechanical energy of association m per gram molecule is ob-

tained from concentration and vapor pressure from the relation

(1)

Log concentration is plotted against log pressure (Figure 2) and

differentiated graphically. Since d log c = dc/c is dimensionless

(as is also dp/p) any convenient units may be used. This equation

is applicable to such heterogeneous systems if the concentration change

is due entirely to the pressure change.

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

The graphs show that at each temperature, the energy of association

is constant for pressures up to that corresponding to about 40 per cent

humidity. In other words the gas law or rather Raoult’s law holds in

this range and the compressibility varies inversely as the pressure.

The water behaves precisely as though it were in solution in the

serpentine, but the solubility is low. The ratio m/RT instead of being

unity as for gases or 0.96 for water at 26° is very much lower, as in

solutions of rather insoluble material. Values found from curves

similar to those of Figure 2 are

VALUES OF m/RT Founp

0-40 per 50 per 90-100 per

cent H cent H cent

Raw serpentine 2604. .h isa. wes ese em ee HOUSGee aie: 038 ... cee

o “4 Bet eee Cc: he en Uae Als eee 030. saat . 202

= yi A i Sil tc aa 8 crise cools mee eee MO MD oe ase ice O14, ... ees Bs ly

Ignited “ PAT GE Me et ne pie MN es vn ate ae MODE ee ee ek OO) coe see

Water 26° (external work) m/RT = 0.96

Liquid water (Bridgman) m/RT = .034+ .037 log p

The decrease in weight with rise in temperature is given in the table

below and shown in Figure 3. It is believed that equilibrium was

reached in every case. Half the effect occurred within an hour after

the temperature was raised; it was practically complete in 6 hours but

final weighings were made only after 24 hours. An additional 24-hour

heating gave no further loss.

Two runs made at 16 temperatures each, one with serpentine in

equilibrium at 26°, 80 per cent humidity, the other at 26°, 47 per cent,

agreed perfectly when reduced to 950°. The maximum departure from

a smooth curve was but 0.0004 per cent. The percentages below are

from the curve starting at 80 per cent humidity.

PERCENTAGE WEIGHT AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

7 Sao ANNs (Ee 1.0000 BOOT See ean 0.9467

SUAS esa, et 0.9930 Os) agin 3 a Maal See a 9379

CO eo a) ae 9881 BOO sete sens eet, Bho a 9239

SOO ey Acree ocak 9843 CoO ee Ts 8 Baie 8884

NS) Se to 9784 OD eee Pict « hs Anza Se Pe 8355

ZNO eee aa 9742 EU see eerie ce ie 8450

B00! cee telnet. te 9670 SOD te se vets 8417

ADO SY ot dat Sew 9584 OOO SE Heres Mines ee 8383

This graph shows only moderate curvatures and no straight line

portions. There is no indication of any break near 100° nor near the

transition temperature (573°) of silica. Its flatness above 900° in-

FEB. 19, 1928 NUTTING: ASSOCIATION OF WATER WITH SERPENTINE 87

dicates equilibrium and the value 0.8370 was chosen as a base weight

for presumably anhydrous material. The weight at 26° was 1.1947

times this.

bs BS

ae oer a

;

\ ~

Anal. :

96 \ \

\ °

Ou \

100 200 300 4.00 500 600 700 800 S00

Temperature

1.00

-98

jg/auW

t Fig.3 Weight - Temperature

The energy per gram molecule g, necessary to free water from a

material is given by the Van’t Hoff equation, which certainly applies

to this case. In dimensionless form this is

d log c

(2) 8 —

ay,

dlogf RT ~*

Multiplying through by T to split out the constant ¢/R, this becomes

(3) d log c

Hence, if log ¢ be plotted against 1/T, a straight line portion will

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

indicate constancy of molecular energy of association q through the

corresponding range of temperatures. ‘This graph is shown in Figure 4.

Pig a Moe Ce ar

The whole curve from room temperature to 850° breaks up into

three straight lines (26°-368°-620°-850°) differing enormously in

slope and sharply differentiated. ‘The values are

ENERGY OF ASSOCIATION

q/h qg *

ZO OOS a inet, Coe u ait TP ele VAD deg eR ee 282 cal/gm. mol.

368 2O20re ees: Co%.. Jad., eee SON CLE. Nate. 1350/5 ou

620°-850°......... 2) RRR AERC EEC ESOP ed SPST PEZOO tree. Bes we 34140 *«

The break between straight lines is very abrupt, an observation at

622° lies very near the corner between adjacent straight lines. The

three intervals of constant energy are indicated by cross lines on the

graph of Figure 3.

This evidence is rather convincing that water exists in raw serpentine

in three distinct forms, somewhat as ordinarily supposed, and with

widely different energies of association—adsorbed, monohydric, and

dihydric. But the weight-temperature curve does not show this nor

FEB. 19, 1928 KILLIP: NEW SOUTH AMERICAN LOASACEAE 89

does the customary preheating to 110°C. by any means completely

remove all but hydrated water; this temperature should be 368°

instead.

At the lower transition point (868°) the indicated water content

(read from the curve) is 14.90 per cent which is 36.058/18 = 2.003

in molecular proportion. At the higher point however (620°) the

water content is 9.26 per cent, corresponding closely (1.246) to 1.25

molecules of water, not to a single molecule as might be assumed.

Perhaps the simplest interpretation of these results is that below

368° the material consists of 2H.O-serpentine containing a variable

amount of adsorbed and dissolved water decreasing to 0 at 368° but

requiring a constant (!) amount of energy 15.7 cal./gm. to drive it off.

Between 368° and 620° the molecules are progressively breaking down

from 2H.O to #H.O and requiring 75.0 cal./gm. of energy in the proc-

ess. At 620° the associated water is all #H.0. Above 620° the

material is a mixture of {H.0 and anhydrous serpentine, the removal

of this last water requiring 1897 cal./gm. throughout. The constancy

of the energy of association over each of the three ranges (Berthelot’s

Principle) is remarkable, particularly in the lowest, suggesting a higher

hydrate.

This method of thermal analysis of a two component system appears

to be quite effective in dissecting out hydrates. Itis rather remarkable

that the specific energy of dehydration should be independent of

temperature for adsorbed water as well as for molecular water. The

method is being applied to other minerals. The curve for analcite

is shown in Figure 3 for comparison. Further results will be published

later.

BOTANY.—WNew South American Loasaceae.1 ELusworts P. Kip,

U.S. National Museum.

Among specimens of Loasaceae from South America recently sub-

mitted to me for determination, several appear to represent new

species. Descriptions of these follow, the various divisions referred

to being those of Urban and Gilg’s excellent monograph? of the family.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Received January 3, 1928.

2 Nov. Act. Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol. Vol. 76. 1900.

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

Loasa heucheraefolia Killip, sp. nov.

Plant perennial; stem subligneous, up to 1 cm. in diameter, tomentulous,

sparingly to densely setose with very slender setae; leaves alternate or sub-

opposite; petioles 2 to 4 cm. long; blades orbicular in outline, 3 to 6 em. long,

3.5 to 6.5 em. wide, shallowly and irregularly 7-lobed (lobes undulate or

irregularly crenate), cordate at base with a narrow sinus, tomentulous,

pilosulous and sparingly setose on both faces; flowers 5-merous, axillary,

solitary (?), the peduncles 1 to 1.5 cm. long; calyx broadly turbinate, 8 to

10 mm. long, 10 mm. wide, densely pilosulous, setose, the lobes oblong-

lanceolate, 8 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, acute; petals obovate, 15 mm. long, 8

mm. wide, rounded at apex, narrowed at base, strongly concave, white;

scales rectangular, 5 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, incurved, 3-nerved, the nerves

slightly inflated, terminating in a filament about 3 mm. long; staminodia

2 within a scale, linear-subulate, 1.2 to 1.4 em. long; stamens about 50, the

filaments about 1 cm. long, the anthers oval, about 1.2 mm. long; mature

capsules not seen. |

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

518960, collected at Tambo de Pariocota, Peru, altitude about 1000 meters,

October 8, 1922, by Macbride & Featherstone (no. 2543).

Series Floribundae. Though mature fruit is not present, the general habit

of the plant and the shape of the scales suggest a relationship with L. pallida

Gill. It is readily distinguished from this by the shape of the leaves and

the longer filaments in which the scale-nerves terminate.

Loasa puracensis Killip, sp. nov.

Perennial herb, 60 to 100 cm. high; stem minutely pubescent with grayish

curved subhyaline hairs, with numerous slender brownish setae inter-

mingled; leaves alternate or subopposite, membranous, hispidulous, sparingly

setose, tomentose on nerves; petioles up to 10 em. long, grayish-tomentose

and densely short-setose; leaf blades suborbicular to lance-ovate, 3 to 12

cm. long and wide, subpalmately lobed, the lobes 5 or 7, triangular, extend-

ing less than one-third distance to midnerve, acuminate, sinuate-dentate;

flowers 5-merous, terminal and axillary, the peduncles up to 3 cm. long,

densely setose; calyx obconic, densely rufo-setose, the lobes lanceolate, 5 to

10 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. wide at base, acuminate, tomentulous; petals flat,

obovate, 1.3 to 1.5 cm. long, 0.6 to 0.7 cm. wide, rounded at apex, slightly

narrowed in lower quarter, orange-red, tomentulous, especially without;

scales rectangular, petaloid, 5 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, birostrate (beaks

1.5 mm. long), bearing on outside near middle 2 suborbicular sacs, the neck

barely 1 mm. longer than sacs, narrowed toward apex; staminodia 2 opposite

each scale, linear-lanceolate, 5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide at base, puberulent;

stamens about 60, the filaments about 1 cm. long; anthers oblong, barely 1

mm. long; capsule obconic, 2 to 2.5 em. long, cano-tomentose and densely

rufo-setose.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,142,158, collected on open

hillside, Mount Puracé, Department El Cauca (Central Cordillera), Colombia,

altitude 3100-3300 meters, June 11-18, 1922, by F. W. Pennell and E. P.

Killip (no. 6682).

Series Grandiflorae. Related to L. acuminata Wedd.; differing in smaller

flowers, shape of scales, and indument of staminodia.

FEB. 19, 1928 KILLIP: NEW SOUTH AMERICAN LOASACEAE 91

Loasa rugosa Killip, sp. nov.

Perennial herb, about 35 em. high; stem stout, nearly 1 cm. thick, minutely

pilosulous and densely rufo-setose; basal leaves numerous, the cauline few;

petioles 2 to 6 cm. long; leaf blades reniform, 2.5 to 3.5 em. long, 4 to 7 em.

wide, shallowly and irregularly 5 to 9-lobed, deeply cordate, coriaceous,

strongly rugose, nearly glabrous above, rufo-tomentose on nerves and veins

beneath; peduncles stout, up to 4 em. long; calyx obconic, densely setose

with yellow-brown setae, the lobes ovate-lanceolate, up to 2 em. long, 1

cm. wide, acute; petals 5, obovate, 4 cm. long, 2.5 em. wide, orange; scales

petaloid, rectangular, 12 mm. long, bilobate to below middle (lobes erect

2 mm. wide), bearing 2 suborbicular appendages on outside near base;

staminodia 2 within each scale, linear-setaceous, 15 mm. long, densely

pilosulous; stamens about 50; filaments 2 to 2.5 em. long; anthers linear-

oblong, 2 mm. long; capsule broadly obconic, 2 to 2.5 em. long, 2 em. wide,

densely setose with dark brown setae.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

535435, collected at Tambo de Vaca, Peru, altitude 4000 meters, June 10-24,

1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 4350). Duplicate in U. 8. National Her-

barium.

Series Grandiflorae. Related to L. peltata Spruce; differing in non-

peltate, thicker, strongly rugose leaves and much larger flowers.

Loasa cuzcoensis Killip, sp. nov.

Annual herb, 30 to 40 cm. high, or higher; stem stout, up to 1 em. thick,

longitudinally striate, clothed with small whitish hairs and with numerous

dark-brown setae; leaves alternate or subopposite; petioles 0.5 to 3.5 cm.

long; blades ovate to lance-ovate in outline, 5 to 12 cm. long, 3 to 10 em.

wide, subpinnately lobed (lobes 7 to 9, acute, the basal usually the longer),

sharply serrate, truncate to subcordate at base, hispidulous, sparingly

setose; flowers 5-merous, borne toward ends of stem and branches, the

peduncles up to 3 em. long; calyx cylindric-obconic, densely covered with

dark brown, divaricate setae, the lobes ovate, 5 to 6 mm. long, acute; petals

obovate, about 1.5 cm. long, 0.6 em. wide, cucullate distally, unguiculate

toward base, pilosulous without, pale yellow (?); scales triangular-ovate,

about 5 mm. long, bisaccate toward base (sacs much-inflated), callous-

thickened toward apex, otherwise smooth, the marginal teeth lanceolate,

scarcely 1 mm. long; staminodia 2 within each scale, subulate, 4 to 5 mm.

long; stamens about 60, the anthers ovate, about 0.5 mm. long, purplish;

capsule cylindric-obconic, 2 em. long, nearly 1 cm. wide.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,283,242, collected near San

Sebastian, Cuzco Valley, Peru, altitude 3200 meters, January, 1927, by F. L.

Herrera (no. 1465).

A second Herrera specimen, “Cuzco, 3000-3600 meters, July 1923,” is

clearly this. Probably Pennell’s 13571, from Sacsahuaman, above Cuzco,

belongs here.

This and the following species belongs to the complex series Saccatae,

and apparently come nearest L. ferruginea and L. poissoniana. From

both of these this and L. hastata differ in shape of leaves and in the size and

other details of the flowers.

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

Loasa hastata Killip, sp. nov.

Annual herb, 50 to 75 cm. high; roots densely fibrous; stem stout, up to

1.2 cm. in diameter toward base, erect, somewhat succulent, densely covered

with short (about 0.5 mm.) retrorse or divaricate pale setae, with numerous.

longer (up to 2 mm.) brown setae toward summit; leaves alternate, or the

lower subopposite, sessile (or the lower with slender petioles up to 1.5 em.

long), varying from ovate-lanceolate (lower) to hastate, 3 to 10 cm. long,

1.5 to 7 cm. wide, acuminate to a subacute or obtuse apex, subcordate or

subtruncate at base, irregularly sinuate-lobed, hispidulous above, finely

pilosulous beneath; flowers 5-merous, borne at ends of stem and branches,

forming a pseudo-raceme; calyx obconic, densely covered with long (3 to 4

mm.) light brown setae, the lobes ovate-lanceolate, 6 to 7 mm. long, acute,

occasionally with a few minute teeth at margin, setiferous; petals 1.3 to 1.5

em. long, unguiculate below, cucullate above, about 1 cm. wide, ‘‘green-

tinted,’ sparingly setiferous on nerves without; scales triangular-ovate,

about 6 mm. long, bisaccate (sacs strongly inflated), “‘bright yellow and red,

shading into a rose-pink,”’ the neck with 2 horizontal thickened bands, the

teeth lanceolate, about 1 mm. long; staminodia 2 within each scale, narrowly

lanceolate, fiiform toward tip, about 8 mm. long, minutely papillose;

stamens 60 to 75, 6 to 7 mm. long, the anthers ovate, scarcely 1 mm. long,

“whitish”; capsule subcylindric, 2 ecm. long, 0.5 cm. wide, pilosulous and

densely covered with long, divaricate setae.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

516950, collected in wet sunny places at Matucana, Peru, altitude about.

2500 meters, April 12 to May 3, 1922, by Macbride & Featherstone (no. 416).

Duplicate in U. 8. National Herbarium.

Series Saccatae. |

Cajophora taraxacoides Killip, sp. nov.

Low, apparently perennial herb, with leaves numerous and rosulate at

base and stems suberect, 1 to 4 cm. long; petioles 4 to 6.5 cm. long, sub-

equaling or longer than blades; blades narrowly lanceolate, 4 to 7 cm. long,

1.5 to 3 em. wide, deeply pinnate-lobed or pinnatisect (lobes triangular

ovate, sinuate-dentate, 4 to 6 to a side, the lower nearly opposite, the upper

alternate), hispid above, the hairs thickened at base, hirsutulous beneath,

both faces with a few slender setae, the nerves and veins strongly impressed

above; peduncles very slender, 5 to 10 cm. long; calyx cylindric-obconic,

straight, densely covered with short whitish hairs with a few setae inter-

mingled, the lobes linear-lanceolate, about 8 mm. long, the margin cleft.

into a few filiform subulate teeth; petals 5, cymbiform, 1 to 1.2 cm. long

0.7 to 0.8 cm. wide, yellow; scales strongly saccate, carinate, 6 mm. long

3 to 4 mm. wide, bilobed at apex, bearing on outside 3 slender threads 2.5.

mm. long; staminodia 2 within each scale, narrowly linear, about 4 mm. long;.

' stamens about 50, 4 to 5 mm. long; capsule recurved, subcylindric, 2.5 cm.

long, 0.6 cm. in diameter, straight.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 921784, collected in the

Department of Andalgald, Province of Catamarca, Argentina, February 12,

1917, by P. Jérgensen (no. 1158).

Section Orthocarpae, Series Pletomerae. From C. pycnophylla, a near

relative, this species is distinguished by its less deeply cut leaves and long

petioles and by details of the flower structure.

FEB. 19, 1928 KILLIP: NEW SOUTH AMERICAN LOASACEAE 93

Cajophora pauciseta Killip, sp. nov.

Lax, apparently decumbent herb, 20 cm. long, or more; stem slender,

densely and finely pilosulous, with numerous stiffer subretrorse hyaline

hairs and a few slender white setae intermingled; leaves opposite; petioles up

to 5 cm. long, about half as long as blade; blades lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate

in general outline, 5 to 10 cm. long, 2 to 5 em. wide, deeply and regularly

pinnate-lobed (lobes opposite, about 6 pairs, dentate or dupli-dentate,

acutish), thin-membranous, densely covered above with short (about 1 mm.)

stiff appressed hyaline hairs, glabrous on nerves, densely cano-tomentose

beneath; peduncles subterminal, erect, 4 to 5 cm. long; calyx obconic,

densely clothed with yellowish brown bristles ; the lobes lanceolate, about 1

em. long, 0.2 em. wide, remotely denticulate: petals 5, cymbiform, 1.5 to

1.8 em. long, 1 to 1.3 cm. wide, unguiculate at base; scales sac-like, 10 to

12 mm. long, 7 mm. wide, slightly keeled at midnerve, 3-nerved (nerves not

terminating in free threads), bidentate at apex, the teeth lanceolate, 2

mm. long; staminodia 2 within each scale, linear, about 12 mm. long, papil-

lose at margin; stamens about 100, 1.2 to 1.4 cm. long, the anthers broadly

ovate.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,044,294, collected in rocky

soil, vicinity of Oroya, Peru, altitude 3300 to 4000 meters, by A. S. Kalen-

born (no. 48).

This species belongs to the small group of the Section Orthocarpae repre-

sented by C. coronata, C. cirsiifolia, and C. cymbifera. The scales are

shaped like those of C. cymbifera but are tridentate, not with a triangular

lobe; the leaves are proportionately narrower.

Cajophora tenuis Killip, sp. nov.

Slender scandent herb; stem less than 1 mm. thick, sparsely pilosulous,

nearly destitute of bristles; leaves opposite, petiolate (petioles 2 to 3.5 cm.

long), lanceolate in general outline, 3 to 5 cm. long, 1.5 to 3 cm. wide, acute

at apex, cordulate at base, pinnately 6-lobed (lobes ovate, sinuate-denticu-

late, extending about halfway to midnerve), thin-membranous, densely

appressed-pilosulous above, hirsutulous beneath; inflorescence subterminal,

the flowers solitary, the peduncles very slender, up to 5 cm. long, bearing

numerous short retrorse bristles toward end; calyx obconic, densely covered

with yellowish setae about 2 mm. long, the lobes narrowly linear, 6 to 7

mm. long, entire; petals 5, cymbiform, 16 to 18 mm. long, 10 to 12 mm. wide

narrowed at base, finely hirsutulous and sparingly setose, pale cream-

colored; scales saccate-convex, 8 mm. long, 3 mm. wide, 3-nerved, finely

puberulous, shallowly bidentate at apex, bearing 3 slender threads about 3

mm. long; staminodia 2 within each scale, 9 to 10 mm. long, thickened toward

apex; Stamens numerous, about 10 mm. long; capsule narrowly oblong, 20

mm. long, 4 mm. in diameter (not fully developed), spirally twisted.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

534636, collected in dense shrubbery, Maria del Valle, Peru, altitude about

2200 meters, April 30, 1923, by J. Francis Macbride (no. 3560). Locally

known as “ortiga.”

The shape of the capsules would place this near the Argentine species

C. cernua (Section Dolichocarpae) in Urban and Gilg’s monograph. That

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

plant, however, is more robust, has differently shaped leaves, and differs in

several details of flower structure.

Cajophora macrantha Killip, sp. nov.

Vine; stem terete, about 2.5 mm. thick, sparingly setulose with slender

retrorse bristles; leaves opposite, petiolate (petioles 1 to 2.5 ecm. long),

lanceolate in general outline, 5 to 8 cm. long, 3 to 5 cm. wide, acuminate,

pinnatifid to about halfway to midnerve (Segments ovate-lanceolate, regu-

larly serrate-dentate), cordate at base, setulose above, appressed-hirsutulous

on nerves and veins beneath; flowers 5-merous, subterminal, the peduncles

about 5 cm. long; ovary broadly obconic, 1 ecm. long, 1.2 em. wide at throat,

densely setose, the lobes linear-oblong, 1 to 1.2 cm. long, 0.3 cm. wide, —

irregularly toothed, the teeth narrowly linear; petals slightly cymbiform,

2.8 to 3 cm. long, 2.2 to 2.3 cm. wide, slightly narrowed at base, white; scales -

deeply concave, 9 to 10 mm. long, 7 to 8 mm. wide, finely papillose, green,

the margin truncate, slightly thickened, dorsal thread none; staminodia

linear, about 10 mm. long; stamens about 75, 10 to 12 mm. long, the anthers

linear-oblong, 1.5 mm. long.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

535555, collected at Tambo de Vaca, Peru, altitude about 3600 meters,

June 10-24, 1923, by J. Francis Macbride (no. 4468). Duplicate in U. 5S.

National Herbarium.

Section Dolichocarpae. Obviously related to C. contorta from the shape

of the scales, the proposed species differs in its less deeply cut leaves, larger

flowers, and longer, proportionately narrower anthers.

Cajophora madrequisa Killip, sp. nov.

Herbaceous vine; stem terete, 1.5 to 2.5 mm. thick, sparingly appressed-

setulose; leaves opposite, petiolate (petioles 1 to 2 cm. long), lanceolate or

oblong-lanceolate, 3 to 6 cm. long, 1.5 to 3 cm. wide, acuminate at apex,

subtruncate or cordulate at base, pinnately lobed (lobes broadly ovate or

suborbicular, dentate or denticulate, subopposite, 5 or 6 to a side) or merely

denticulate toward apex, finely appressed-hispidulous above, rufo-tomentose

beneath; flowers solitary or in 2 or 3-flowered cymes, the peduncles up to 8

em. long, densely retrorse-hirtellous; calyx obconic, about 1 cm. wide at.

throat, densely rufo-setose, the lobes narrowly linear or lance-linear, up to.

20 mm. long, 3 mm. wide, subulate-dentate; petals 6, cymbiform-concave,

17 to 19 mm. long, 10 to 12 mm. wide, scarcely narrowed at base, tomentu-

lous, hirtellous without, apparently light yellow; scales convex (dorsal view),

5 to 6 mm. long, 3 to 4 mm. wide, shallowly bidentate at slightly narrowed

apex, bearing 3 slender threads 1.5 mm. long; staminodia 2 within each

seale, lance-linear, 12 mm. long, 2 mm. wide at base, each bearing a sub-

orbicular appendage dorsally near base; stamens about 100, 12 to 15 mm.

long, the anthers ovate-orbicular, 1.2 mm. long; capsule clavate, 5 cm.

long, 1.2 cm. in diameter at summit, tapering to a short stipe, spirally

twisted to right.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 604480, collected in the

Lucumayo Valley, Peru, altitude 1800 to 3600 meters, June 18, 1915, by

OQ. F. Cook and G. B. Gilbert (no. 1294). The local name is given as

“‘madrequisa.”’

FEB. 19, 1928 KILLIP: NEW SOUTH AMERICAN LOASACEAE 95

In the Monograph of Loasaceae all of the climbing species described have

5-merous flowers and twisted capsule. The ten species having six or seven

petals are all erect, rigid plants and were placed in the section Orthocarpae,

characterized as ‘‘numquan volubilis” and as having straight or very slightly

twisted capsules. Subsequent to the publication of the Monograph, Urban

and Gilg described® a climbing species with six petals, C. scarletina, and

associated it with C. mollis of Orthocarpae. Whether the capsules of this

species are straight or twisted is not stated. Cajophora madrequisa ap-

parently should be placed with the climbing species with twisted capsules

(Dolichocarpae), the section being amended to include species with six petals.

Cajophora scarletina perhaps belongs here too. From C. madrequisa it

differs in having more deeply cut leaves and larger scarlet flowers and in

being far more densely setose.

Cajophora pedicularifolia Killip, sp. nov.

Scandent herb; stem about 2 mm. thick, subquadrangular, glabrous, the

distal portion and petioles beset with short whitish setae; leaves opposite,

petiolate (petioles 1 to 2 cm. long), lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, 5 to 10

em. long, 1.5 to 4 cm. wide, acuminate, subtruncate or cordulate at base,

symmetrically 6 to 8-lobed (merely dentate toward apex; lobes broadly

ovate, 1 to 1.3 em. wide, dentate to subentire), bearing on upper surface,

mainly toward margin, numerous translucent setae 1 to 1.5 mm. long,

beneath nearly glabrous but with a few setae on nerves and veins, dark

green above, paler beneath; flowers 5-merous, solitary in upper axils, the

peduncles 3 to 5 cm. long; calyx turbinate, 1 cm. long, densely covered with

yellowish bristles, the lobes lanceolate, 1.3 to 1.5 cm. long, 0.4 to 0.5 cm.

wide, acuminate, subulate-dentate; petals oblong-cymbiform, 2.2 to 2.4

em. long, 1 to 1.2 em. wide, cucullate toward apex, scarcely narrowed at.

base, finely pulverulent, setiferous outside near midnerve, apparently

yellow; scales ovate-rectangular, 7 mm. long, 6 mm. wide, 3-nerved, trun-

cate at apex, bearing just below apex 3 narrowly linear filaments 4 to 5mm.

long, and 2 transverse ridges, the upper ridge arcuate between the fila-

ments; staminodia 2 within each scale, narrowly linear, 9 to 10 mm. long,

densely papillose; stamens about 100, 15 to 18 mm. long, the anthers oblong,

blackish; capsule subcylindric, 10 to 12 mm. long, 5 mm. wide (not fully

developed), densely setose.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,177,715, collected at

Unduavi, North Yungas, Bolivia, altitude 3300 meters, November 1910, by

O. Buchtien (no. 2898). Duplicate in New York Botanical Garden Her-

barium.

The character of the scales indicates that this species belongs to the small

section Bicallosae. From the two known species, C. stenocarpa, of Peru, and

C. arechavaletae, of Uruguay, C. pedicularzfolia is readily distinguished by

the shape of the leaves, smaller flowers, and proportionately broader scales.

? Bot. Jahrb. Engler 45: 470. 1911.

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

ZOOLOGY.—The screw-nemas, Ascarophis van Beneden 1871; parasites

of codfish, haddock and other fishes... N. A. Coss, United States

Department of Agriculture.

The screw-nemas, as it is here proposed to call them, have yet to be

adequately studied. Not very much has been added to van Beneden’s

original description. Almost nothing

is known about their life history and

habits. However, the present commun-

ication adds considerably to our knowl-

edge of their morphology. The sug-

gested explanation of the remarkable

screw form, and its probable mode of

evolution, presents the nemic cuticle in

anew role. (See Figs. 5, 6, and 7.)

Considering the number of screw-

nemas thus far seen, it is remarkable

that no males have been discovered.

Nicoll records screw-nemas as “ex-

tremely numerous” in haddock. Van

Beneden found them originally in the

codfish; Nicoll, in the codfish and had-

dock, and in the fishes Hippoglossus

vulgaris and Cotus bubalis; and Mac-

Callum now finds a species in the sting-

ray. |

Nemas so widespread and numerous

mae \\. dle probably have economic significance.

\ =e aN This probability can not be dismissed

x 4001 (7 SERENA oe by citing the absence of definite evi-

Fig. 1—Head and tail end of dence to the contrary, for, at rather

eae bifid eee eae a frequent intervals nowadays, nematolo-

region. The head end is nearly a gists are showing that nemas long

ventral view, but slightly oblique. known and lightly regarded, are not

The tail end is a dorsal view, and only of some importance in their rela-

the anus, being on the far side, is_ .,. : d :

bit dhidvettncii@ ener: tionship to mankind but sometimes of

great importance; and the multitudi-

nous ways in which this comes about may well give pause to any who,

basing their views on past records and much current opinion, see in the

presence of such parasites merely an interesting phenomenon.

re 7

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anid

meen

Faausl

1 The investigations were carried on at the laboratory of the United States Bureau

of Fisheries, at Woods Hole, Mass. Received January 38, 1928.

FEB. 19, 1928 COBB: SCREW-NEMAS, ASCAROPHIS 97

For example, it is now found that the presence of nemic parasites

not infrequently has a profound effect upon the reproductive organs

of the host, a limited number of the parasites even producing complete

sterility in a host otherwise apparently normal. That such cases in their

most definite form have thus far been found mainly in the invertebrate

phyla does not invalidate the application of the idea to vertebrates,

even were such cases wholly unknown in the vertebrata,—which

they are not. Considering the well known universal specificity of

certain chemical reagents,—chloroform for instance, a “‘universal’’

anaesthetic,—we should be prepared to accept without very much

surprise some such universal specificity in the action of some hormones,

particularly sexual hormones, whose origin traces back to comparatively

simple, but fundamental, ancestral cell phenomena.

Again, there is abundant evidence of high infant mortality in a great

variety of animals and plants, due to nematism. This, coupled with

our ignorance of the early life histories and food habits of fishes, even

common ones, makes it unwise to ignore the possible economic impor-

tance of the nemic parasites of fishes.

Many other examples could be cited of the multitudinous and

unexpected ways in which nemas are being shown beneficial or in-

jurious to mankind.

Ascarophis helix n. sp.

4:4 ges bs 4.5.....23:_.... = oe echt. Pia 9 9-8 --13.2mm, The thick layers of the

0.8

transparent, paloreses naked rificle are traversed by obvious plain transverse

striae, which vary markedly i in different portions of the body. On the head,

however, the transverse striae are hard to resolve; yet critical examination

of the striae immediately on and behind the lip region even resolves them

into rows of dot-like elements. In this region the crenations of the contour

seem duplex, four double crenations a short distance behind the head occupy-

ing 10 microns, so that each crenation encompasses about 1.25 microns.

In the latitude of the nerve-ring the striae are 1.7 microns apart; thence

backward they are gradually coarser and more distinct, each striation

becoming a double line. Furthermore, it is soon apparent that the stria-

tions pass around the body in the form of right-handed helices—coarser and

coarser, and more oblique, with increasing latitude, so that at the base of

the long neck the coils are about 8 microns apart and lie at an angle of

about 23° with a transverse plane. This obliquity increases until, near the

middle ‘of the body, it reaches a maximum of about 30° (Fig. 2). Thence

onward, however, the obliquity diminishes. Somewhat behind the middle

of the body, certain coils of the helix fade, so that the other, now more promi-

nent, striae are aS much as 20 microns apart, while their width is nearly

two microns,—namely the distance apart of the double “lines” representing

the striae. This “dropping out,” or fading, of course, is evidence of the exis-

tence of a plurality of helicoid “striae.” In this way the body of the nema takes

9 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

1.<)

on the external form of an ordinary multiple-threaded screw. Here, in the mid-

dle, the contour of the body has become very coarsely and very pronouncedly

compound-crenate. ‘The more pronounced striae come to subtend twelve

minor ones (Fig. 3). Finally near the tail end, the more pronounced striae

subtend six minor ones (Fig. 3); this is near where the body is bluntly rounded

off, in a hemispherical-conoid manner, in the course of a distance equal to

about one and one-half body widths (Fig. 1). At first sight the deceptive

appearance of the cuticle toward the posterior end of the nema suggests.

moulting, and consequent wrinkling of the cuticle. Longitudinal ‘‘striations,”’

about 2 microns apart, due to the attachment of the mus-

culature, are visible in most regions of the body. Posteriorly

these longitudinal “striae’”’ are still slightly oblique, and

this slight obliquity extends practically to the terminus.

There are no cuticular wings. With the nema in profile

the lateral chords appear about one-seventh as wide as the

\ |

| MK

= =Z

\a—=,_— body. | WF ie ae

3 SG The groove-like unarmed ‘‘vestibule” is very simple and

——S= BB shallow,—about as deep as the height of the two prominent,

SS lateral, forward-pointing, conical labial projections (Fig. 1,

—<—— —S, proj. lb.). The vestibule leads through the slit-like mouth

(————— opening into a long, uniform, tubular pharynx, extending

Ss more than halfway to the nerve-ring. The pharynx is a

6 a marked feature of the front end, though it is so transparent

8 and dimly refractive that it might, perhaps, under some

circumstances, rather easily be overlooked (Fig. 1). Van

Beneden seems to have figured the pharynx; Nicoll not, or

at least not definitely. The mouth seems to lead into a

minute pharyngeal or vestibular cavity, not very much wider

== “int than the amphids, perhaps six to eight microns wide,—a

little longer dorso-ventrally than transversely. The

median axil between the two lips is not sharp and distinct.

The inner surfaces of the conical labial projections are

not uniformly rounded and striated, like the outer sur-

coid striae of As- faces,—for, near the middle, in their inner lateral lines

carophis heliz, at OF fields there are refractive longitudinal elements ex-

lat. 23°, near the tending from the tips back to the mouth opening. It

seems quite certain that there is an axial element ex-

tending to the apex of each of these conical projections,

and when this is viewed in optical section, as one focuses

from front to back, the appearances give rise to the opinion

that there is a single innervation to each conical pro-

jection. One sees no evidence of radial musculature

round the vestibule. There are no eyespots; and there is no pigment near

the head, or elsewhere in the nema.

Returning now to the profile and dorsal views of the head;—four to five

microns behind the tips of the two cephalic projections, exceedingly minute

openings in the lateral region indicate the external amphids. As viewed

dorso-ventrally, the anterior part of the walls of the pharynx, without diminish-

ing much in thickness, bend together and nearly meet near the base of the

vestibule, thus giving rise to the narrow mouth opening; in this anterior

portion of the pharynx, the transverse striation is less apparent.

Behind the pharynx the oesophagus is a little less than one-third, at the

nerve-ring about one-fourth, twice as far back as the nerve-ring a little less

Fig. 2.—Camera

lucida drawing of

an oblique view of

the eight-fold heli-

beginning of the

intestine. The an-

astomosing occurs

opposite the lateral

chords.

FEB. 19, 1928 COBB: SCREW-NEMAS, ASCAROPHIS 99

than one-third, and then again soon—rather suddenly increasing—a little

more than one-third, and finally is one-half, as wide as the corresponding

portion of the neck. The lining of the oesophagus is a rather distinct

feature throughout its length, and finds its main optical expression as a

somewhat sinuous axial element. The musculature of the oesophagus is

rather fine. Behind where the above-mentioned enlargement takes place

there is a considerable amount of granular matter in the oesophageal tissues.

Fig. 4

Fig. 3.—Helicoid striae of Ascarophis helix considerably behind the middle of the

body.

Fig. 4.—Camera lucida drawing of the contour of Ascarophis helix near the tail

end of a female.

In front of this region the radial fibers are of a finer nature, closer together,

and the granulation much less apparent, if present at all; in other words,

there is a distinct change in the structure of the eosophagus at a point twice

as far back as the nerve-ring. ‘The intestine becomes almost at once two-

thirds as wide as the body; it is separated from the oesophagus by a distinct

cardiac collum somewhat less than half as wide as the body.

Line iS

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a Uh anennmannis Manni

Fig. 5.—Diagrams illustrating a theory of the mode of origin of helicoid striae through

anastomosing of the ordinary transverse striae of the nemic cuticle. Let 1 represent

seven ordinary annules of anemic cuticle, and suppose the anastomosing to take place

on opposite sides of the nema at the places indicated by the arrows; 2 represents the

anastomosing as having taken place, precisely as indicated by the arrows in 1; while

3 and 4 show the further theoretical transition to perfect helices. It will be observed

that two helices are formed. Bilaterally symmetrical growth would necessarily lead

to helices of even number, as exemplified in Ascarophis. See also Figs. 6 and 7.

on al

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"Minny

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yee TT La

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TTT Li

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

The wall of the intestine, while not very thick, is somewhat irregular in

thickness, the lumen‘ appearing zigzag. At places the wall of the intestine

is one-fourth as thick as the intestine is wide; at other places nearby its

thickness may diminish by two-thirds. There is a distinct lining to the

intestine, apparently made up of ‘‘columnar” elements vertical to the inner

surface, though these have not been very clearly seen (Fig. 8). The granules

contained in the intestinal cells are rather uniform in size, but their histo-

logical characters can not be made out on account of the state of preservation

of the specimen. Well forward, near the blind end of the ovary, the intestine

is not over one-third as wide as the body; and in this region the body wall,

including the cuticle, occupies about one-fourth the radius, of which amount —

the vaguely retrorse cuticle occupies eight microns and the muscular tissue

fifteen microns. There seems to be a very short rectum. The portion of

the intestine just in front of the rectum is saccate, and, for a very short dis-

tance about half as wide as the corresponding part of the body; whereas

“ ee of this enlargement the intestine is only about one-third as wide as

the body.

av un ‘

is h ru

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ce Heal 9 .

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: it a Winnenk

)

ait

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Fig. 6. Fig. 7

Fig. 6.—Should two ordinary adjacent annules on each side of the nema behave as

shown in 1, the result would be four helices; four such would originate eight helices.

See also Fig. 7 and Fig. 5. |

Fig. 7.—Should anastomosing take place simultaneously in successive annules oppo-

site any four of the longitudinal chords a, b, c and d, say the four submedian, or the

two lateral and the two median, the result would be eight helicoid striae. See also

Fig. 6.

The blind end of the anterior ovary, about as wide as the distance between

two of the adjacent oblique winds of the cuticular helix, is about two-thirds

as far behind the cardia as this latter is behind the anterior extremity. In

this region, in the body cavity, which is relatively of considerable capacity,

there are ‘‘floating’’ organs made up of ellipsoidal or subspherical, fine granules,

the largest of which are about eight microns in diameter (Fig. 8, org fluit).

These “‘loose’”’ organs are reminiscent of those known and figured in some of

the ascarids,—e.g. Ascaris ktikenthalii. The ovaries lie in elongate coils,

and at first contain odcytes about four microns across, which soon increase

and become packed in the ovaries in the form of polyhedrons whose optical con-

tour is often hexagonal, and which are 10 to 12 microns across where the ovary

is one-third as wide as the body. The stretched-out ovary would be about

ee ee

FEB. 19, 1928 COBB: SCREW-NEMAS, ASCAROPHIS 101

twenty times as long as the body of the nema is wide, and at its greatest

width about one-third as wide as the nema. Sperms have not been seen,

nor has the extent and nature of the oviduct been observed. The two

uteri are filled with six to eight hundred ellipsoidal eggs about one-third as

long as the body is wide and averaging 40 X 24 microns. For a short dis-

tance near their equator the eggs are practically cylindrical. The shells

are thick—a little over 2 microns—and structureless looking; are of uniform

thickness throughout; and, as seen in the uteri, are without any surface

markings or appendages. No indications were seen of “two flagellae at one

pole,” as noted by van Beneden and Nicoll. It is possible that appendages

might arise later, e.g. from some vaginal secretion coagulated during deposi-

tion. The eggs, before deposition, contain fairly well developed larvae.

There is a single ovijector of considerable length passing inward from the

vulva; apparently the ovijector is several times as long as the body is wide;

—say at least three times. Its walls are thick and muscular; viewed in

optical section it is nearly one-third as wide as the body, being somewhat

flattened when collapsed, and so, in cross-section, a little more than half

as wide as long. Its lining is thin

and strongly refractive; the wall,

when seen in optical section, is

glassy internally and fibrous ex-

ternally. The vulva is a transverse

ellipsoidal affair near the middle

of the body, about one-fifth as wide

as the corresponding portion of the

body and interrupting two to three

of the spirals. It is about twice as

wide as long, is distinctly marked,

and presents a double refractive

contour, especially posteriorly.

The excretory pore is an opening

of considerable size, taking up the

space of about three annules of

the cuticle. Fora short distance

the tube is strongly refractive,

then suddenly becomes almost in-

visible. In the specimen under

examination it is impossible to follow it far enough to say whether in its

course it becomes double and symmetrical or remains single and asymmetrical

(Fig. 1, p ez.)

Diagnosis: Ascarophis having a length of 13 mm.; striae helicoid, the

sub-cephalic ones very fine and not retrorse, the posterior ones very coarse

and compound, their maximum obliquity,—behind the nerve-ring,—30°;

the two labial projections broadly conoid; pharynx tubular, 1.1%; tail

convex, and rather symmetrically short-conoid, 0.2%; eggs without polar

filaments.

Habitat: Gills of the fish, Dasyatis centrura, sting-ray. This unusually

interesting nema was discovered by my friend, Dr. G. A. MacCallum, at

Woods Hole, Mass., August, 1927, while examining material collected by

the Bureau of Fisheries. Hitherto members of the genus Ascarophis have

been found only in the intestinal canal of fishes. Previously the species

have been but very imperfectly described; males have not even been men-

tioned. The helicoid development of the outer cuticle is especially in-

Fig. 8.—Somewhat schematized drawing of a

cross-section of Ascarophis helix, taken not far

behind the neck. Eight helices are cut, as

at helix.

102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

teresting. No other nemas known to me present this feature. I can only

suggest that a plurality of helices has evolved through anastomosis such as

has been frequently seen, and often figured, in cases where the annules of

the nemic cuticle are a marked feature; this anastomosis, if increased in

extent and systematized as shown in the diagrams (Figs. 5, 6 and 7) could

give a to helical striae. The anastomoses in A. heliz, as far as seen, are

latera

The facts recorded in this communication regarding the helicoid

_ striae, and the theory of the method of their formation accord with the

writer’s observations (1888?), that the longitudinal chords are a seat

of the formation of the fibrous cuticle in nemas.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

964TH MEETING

The 964th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 26, 1927.

Program: The evening was given to reports from the Prague Meeting of

the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union.

WILLIAM Bowie: International coéperation. ‘There are very few branches

of science on which international codperation and conferences are not desirable.

One of the branches which needed such codperation very early is geodesy.

About 65 years ago the geodetic association having representation from the

states of the German confederation was enlarged to include all of the countries

of Europe. Then, about 1886, the European Geodetic Association was en-

larged to the International Geodetic Association, taking in all of those coun-

tries of the world in which geodesy was active and which cared to join.

Then there were the Seismological Association and the Astronomical

Society. Besides the societies for Meteorology and Terrestrial Magnetism,

there were the Geological Congress and the Geographical Congress. It would

be rather difficult to estimate the number of international scientific associa-

tions that were in existence prior to the world war but, in any event, the

government of the United States paid dues to seven of them. ‘The others

were not considered as being of an official nature and therefore do not appear

in the list of those receiving government support.

All of those old associations and societies did notable work. They ad-

vanced greatly the various sciences involved and the periodical conferences

or conventions made it possible for the workers in any one field to get together

and become personally acquainted.

It has frequently been said that very little is accomplished at such confer-

ences. I am rather inclined to differ with this view. The reports of the

proceedings may indicate that nothing very definite had been accomplished

by the delegates and committees in their general meetings, but the many

conferences of the delegates in their rooms and in hotel lobbies and while

2 Beitrage zur Anatomie und Ontogonie der Nematodon. Gustav Fischer, Jena,

1888.

FEB. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 103

at receptions, etc., make it possible for the organizations to which the repre-

sentatives belong to develop much during the intervals between the general

conferences.

Just before the end of the world war the representatives of the national

academies of some of the allied countries decided to reorganize international

scientific associations and societies. The result of the preliminary discussion

was the calling of a meeting at Brussels in July 1919. At this conference

there was organized the International Research Council and three of its

Unions, those of Geodesy and Geophysics, of Astronomy, and of Chemistry.

Provision was made for the later organization of eight other Unions, five of

which have been created.

The Preamble to the Statutes of the International Research Council set

forth the purposes of the organization and then the Statutes showed how the

organization should function. The affairs of the Council are administered by

an Executive Committee composed of the President, two Vice Presidents,

the Secretary General and a representative of each of the Unions now organ-

ized. The headquarters of the Council are_at Brussels where the meetings

occur and where the archives are kept.

The meeting of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union, held

in September, 1927, in Prague, was considered to be the most successful,

from a scientific standpoint, of any ever held. As a matter of fact, only two

had previously been held, one in Rome in 1922 and one in Madrid in 1924.

In Madrid and also in Prague the Parhament Building was turned over to

the Union for the meetings of its Sections and their various committees.

There is always a most delightful entertainment of the guests, with receptions

by high government officials, and there are visits to nearby places of interest

during the conferences and at the end of the meeting there is usually a per-

sonally conducted excursion over the country where the meeting is held. All

of the entertainment is given free to the delegates and their families except the

excursion at the end of the conference and, even then, special rates on the

railroads and hotels are extended.

The International Research Council and its Unions certainly justify their

existence. There are now about 32 countries adhering to the Council and it

is hoped that the remaining countries which have not yet joined may do so in

the very near future. (Author’s abstract.)

W. D. Lampert: Section on geodesy.

N.H. Heck: Sections on oceanography, eases and terrestrial magnetism.

One of the important outcomes of attending a meeting of this character is

coming in close touch with those who are doing outstanding work along similar

lines throughout the earth, since this gives a new viewpoint on the problems

involved and a better understanding of the part which should be taken by

the country of each delegate. Through association both in official duties

and through the American Geophysical Union with the three subjects named

it is not inappropriate for one delegate to report on all three, though there was

American representation in each. The effort to follow the work of three

sections was very difficult and the observations are therefore not based on as

full first hand information as would have been the case in attending only

meetings of one section.

Oceanography. The activities in this section indicate the great complexity

of this subject which includes most of the geophysical subjects relating to the

land. There are a great many organizations, some of them through lack of

funds accomplishing little, and the section has considered it a part of its duty

to attempt to codrdinate these. This is being accomplished to some extent,

104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

though with some difficulties, owing to the constitutional limitations on the

activity of the section. Since the last meeting lists of oceanographers and

organizations engaged in oceanographic activities have been published and

will prove useful to all those interested in oceanography. International

investigations in tides, standardization of instruments in use in oceanography

and similar subjects have engaged a considerable portion of the section’s

activity.

Seismology. The national reports proved to be of great value as showing

how the International work in this subject is recovering from the disintegrat-

ing effects of the war. The rise of interest in seismology in the United States,

as indicated by the reports from the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the

Jesuit Seismological Association, and the United States Coast and Geodetic

Survey, was noted with interest. A report of considerable interest was given

by Dr. Imamura for Japan which indicates that at 50 stations new instru-

ments have replaced those shown by the great earthquake of 1923 to be

inadequate. An instrument for measuring long period waves which has been

developed in Japan was discussed, also a clinometer for measuring tilt by

which it appears likely that severe earthquakes can be predicted one half to

several hoursin advance. This preliminary tilting of the earth will be further

studied. Dr. Rothe, secretary of the section and head of the Central Bureau

at Strasbourg, introduced the proposed nomenclature for earthquake phases

of Dr. James B. Macelwane, of St. Louis University and head of the Jesuit

Seismological Association and this was fully discussed though not recom-

mended for adoption at this time. Other national reports were of consider-

able interest but cannot be detailed. Dr. Nikifaroff of Russia described the

activities in seismology in that country, including ten new major stations

and numerous minor stations.in regions specially subject to earthquakes.

A station is being established in the Comandorski Islands, the nearest group

to the Aleutians.

Terrestrial magnetism and electricity. The range of subjects discussed

was wide. The report of the activity in the United States was covered by that

of the Coast and Geodetic Survey and that of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Elec-

tricity, the latter of which also contained much information about work in

all parts of the earth. Improvements of instruments and methods was

stressed in both reports. The national report of Denmark which described

progress both in that country and Greenland; that of Norway which de-

scribed recent important auroral investigation; that of France, which de-

scribed proposed work in the French possessions in the Pacific and elsewhere;

that of Japan which described proposed work in the mandate islands in the

Pacific and others of considerable interest. Committees were continued or

formed to study the sudden commencement of magnetic storms, a better

method of magnetic characterization of days, extended study of auroral

phenomena, and improved instruments and methods for investigation of

geological formations, and numerous other subjects.

It was decided to recommend the adoption of Greenwich time for publica-

tion of magnetic observations, though as there was considerable opposition,

no time was set for making the change. The hope was expressed that the

proposed auroral program could be extended to the United States and Canada.

Geophysical investigation to determine geological formations is perhaps a

little outside the ordinary range of geophysics but it was decided that such

work should be given encouragement, at least such work as is undertaken

from the proper scientific viewpoint.

ee Se ee ee

FEB. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 105

There was a resolution adopted by three different sections, Oceanography,

Seismology and Geodesy recommending the investigation of deep ocean

troughs by acoustic surveying, gravity determinations and seismological

observations. It is hoped that work of this character will be undertaken in

various parts of the earth before long. (Auwthor’s abstract.)

H. H. Kimpatu: Section on meteorology. This meeting followed imme-

diately after the Leipzig meeting of the International Commission for the

exploration of the upper air, August 27-September 3. The commission is

appointed by the International Meteorological Committee, has no official

standing, and no funds. Like its parent body, it is a purely voluntary

organization of men engaged in a research of world-wide extent. There was

an exhibition of aerological instruments in connection with the meeting.

The most important subject under discussion was the publication of the

upper air data obtained by means of balloons and kites on international

days. Closely related to this was the question of units of measure to be used

in presenting the data. A sample volume containing the data for the year

1923 was submitted for consideration.

Dr. H. Hergesell, Director of the Aerological observatory at Lindenberg,

Germany, was elected president of the Commission, to succeed Sir Napier

Shaw, who declined reelection.

There are many points of similarity between the meetings at Leipzig and

Prague. Sir Napier Shaw presided as president over both meetings. Most

of the delegates at Leipzig were also delegates at Prague. At the latter

meeting, however, the strong German delegation, and the delegates from

Austria and from the U.S. 8. R. (Russia) were missing.

At Prague, after the Bureau had reported on its work during the three years

that had elapsed since the Madrid meeting, various subjects were discussed,

prominent among which were, as at Leipzig, the publication of upper air

meteorological data, and the units of measure to be used in their presentation.

The Section was deeply interested in these subjects for the reason that at

Madrid it had appropriated £500. towards defraying the expense of the

publication of the sample volume. The Section also expressed a broader

interest in the question of units in the form of a resolution which authorized

and requested its bureau to report on the practices of the different sciences

comprised within the Union with regard to units of measurement, and to

invite the codperation of the bureaus of other sections with the ultimate

object of a common unitary system for all these sciences.

Other subjects assigned to commissions for consideration included solar

radiation, hemispherical weather maps, scientific methods of weather. fore-

casting, the adoption of the week as a unit of time in meteorological statistics,

and the relations between the Section of Meteorology of the Union and the

International Meteorological Committee. (Author’s abstract.)

H. E. Merwin, Recording Secretary.

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

710TH MEETING

The 710th meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

November 5, 1927, at 8 p.m., with Vice-president WETMORE in the chair and

75 persons present. New members elected: J. Gorpon Caruson, Mrs.

Davin J. Rumpoucu, H. H. SHAMEL.

FRANK THONE announced that the late Dr. E. F. Smitrn’s collection of

photographic negatives has been turned over to Science Service. It is made

106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

up principally of photographs of plant pathologists. A short special cata-

logue of the collection is to be published, and a complete set of prints donated

to the U. 8S. Department of Agriculture.

J. M. Aupricu reported that he had many interesting old records of flies

collected at Grove Hill, Maryland, and Oak Grove, Virginia, and inquired

whether members of the Society could assist him in locating these places.

A. WETMORE reported his observation on October 29 at Widewater, Vir-

ginia, of large flocks of Grackles made up mostly of Purple Grackles but also

containing numbers of Bronzed Grackles.

The regular program consisted of reports and remarks on the International

Congress of Zoology at Budapest by two of the delegates of the Biological

Society, Dr. L. O. Howarp and Dr. C. W. STILzEs.

Doctor HowarpD, in reporting as a delegate of the Society to the Tenth

Entomological Congress held September 4 to 10 at Budapest, stated that,

while he was an official delegate of the Biological Society, he was not a

delegate of the United States Government,—Doctor StrsJNEGER and Doctor

STILES representing the Government. As Doctor STrEJNEGER had not re-

turned to the States and as Doctor STILES wished to report chiefly concern-

ing the work of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature,

it became necessary for the speaker to touch upon the general features of

the Congress. This he was hardly prepared to do, as he had expected

Doctor STEJNEGER to be able to make a full and general report on the

aspects of the Congress, which would probably be more interesting to the

members of the Biological Society than those which the speaker had especially

noticed as he went there mainly to attend the Section on Economic Zoology

of which he was President.

The Congress was largely attended, more than seven hundred being

present. There were forty-eight official delegates representing twenty-four

countries. England and China did not send official delegates.

He spoke especially of the opening address in the great hall of the National

Museum of Hungary by the President, Professor Horvatu, and stated

that this address was delivered in French, German, Italian and English.

Two hundred and sixty papers were read at the Congress, twenty-five of

them before the general sessions. ‘These twenty-five were largely illustrated

papers, the motion picture machine being used in several of them. There

were twenty-five papers on entomology. His talk was illustrated by a

number of lantern-slides from photographs which he had taken at the

Congress, largely of individuals. (Author’s abstract.)

Dr. STILES gave an account of his activities at the Congress, and pre-

sented the following list of amendments to the International Rules adopted

at the Congress:

Amendments to the international rules of zoological nomenclature: Important

notice to zoologists, physicians, veterinarians, and others using zoological names.

Upon unanimous recommendation by the International Commission on Zoological

Nomenclature, the International Zoological Congress which met at Budapest, Hungary,

September 4-9, 1927, adopted a very important amendment to Article 25 (Law of

Priority) which makes this Article, as amended, read as follows (ctalicized type repre-

sents the amendment; Roman type represents the old wording):

Article 25.—The valid name of a genus or species can be only that name under

which it was first designated on the conditions:

a) That (prior to January 1, 1931) this name was published and accompanied by an

indication, or a definition, or a description; and

b) That the author has applied the principles of binary nomenclature.

c) But no generic name nor specific name, published after December 31, 1930, shall

have any status of availability (hence also of validity) under the Rules, unless and until rt

1s published either

FEB. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 107

(1) With a summary of characters (seu diagnosis; seu definition; seu condensed de-

scription) which differentiate or distinguish the genus or the species from other genera

or species;

(2) or with a definite bibliographic reference to such summary of characters (seu diagno-

sis; seu definition; seu condensed description). And further

(3) in the case of a generic name, with the definite unambiguous designation of the

type species (seu genotype; seu autogenotype; seu orthotype).

The purpose of this amendment is to inhibit two of the most important factors which

heretofore have produced confusion in scientific names. The date, January 1, 1931,

was selected (instead of making the amendment immediately effective) in order to

give authors ample opportunity to accommodate themselves to the new rule.

The Commission unanimously adopted the following resolution—

a) It is requested that an author who publishes a name as new shall definitely

state that it is new, that this be stated in only one (i.e., in the first) publication, and

that the date of publication be not added to the name in its first publication.

b) It is requested that an author who quotes a generic name, or a specific name, ora

subspecific name, shall add at least once the author and year of publication of the

quoted name or a full bibliographic reference.

The foregoing resolution was adopted in order to inhibit the confusion which has

frequently resulted from the fact that authors have occasionally published a given

name as ‘“‘new’’ in two to five or more different articles of different dates—up to five

years in exceptional cases.

The three propositions submitted by Dr. Franz Pocus, of Vienna, failed to receive

the necessary number of votes in Commission to permit of their being recommended

to the Congress. Out of a possible 18 votes for each proposition, PocHn’s proposition

I received 9 votes, II received 6 votes, and III received 7 votes.

Zoological, medical, and veterinary Journals throughout the world are requested

to give to the foregoing the widest possible publicity in order to avoid confusion and

misunderstanding. C. W. Srizes, Secretary to Commission.

711TH MEETING

The 711th meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

November 19, 1927, at 8 p.m., with Vice-president WETMORE in the chair

and 65 persons present. New members elected: CHARLES L. BAKER,

WiuuiaM H. REESE.

Dr. Paut JoHNSON reported that he had recently seen a bird picking in-

sects out of the hair of one of the yaks at the Zoo. The bird was not identified.

F. C. Lincotn presented recent records of the recovery of banded birds,

namely of a blue-winged teal in Colombia, banded in Nebraska, and of a

black-crowned night heron in Santo Domingo, banded in Massachusetts in

1924.

A. WETMORE referred to the 45th annual meeting of the American Orni-

thologists’ Union held in Washington during the past week, and called on

various visitors for remarks, namely RuTHvEN D5anez, G. F. Simmons,

Mrs. M. M. Nicsz, Dr. Tracy I. Storsr, and others.

Howarp Batt read a list of birds seen on the field trip of the American

Ornithologists’ Union down the Potomac River on November 18, totaling

47 species.

A. J. vAN Rossem (illustrated): Faunal associations of Salvador.—The

speaker, who has spent two and a half years in field work in Salvador, de-

scribed the various associations and illustrated their characteristics by

photographs. From the Pacific slope a volcanic range rises abruptly to

7000 feet elevation. A valley separates this from another range, reaching

9000 feet elevation on the continental divide, the eastern limit of Salvador.

From the Pacific side the Arid Pacific division of the Lower Tropical zone

rises to 6800 feet on the highest volcano, followed at 6800 to 7000 feet by a

well-marked Sonoran association. The same zone rises to 3500 feet on the

Cordillera; from 3500 to 8000 feet is Lower Transition, an essentially pure

zone of pitch pine. From 8000 to 9000 feet on the Pacific side is an Upper

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 4

Tropical rain forest, composed chiefly of oak and white pine, with abundant

mosses and tree ferns.

In discussion, T. S. Paumer referred to LEesson’s visit, about a century

ago to the Pacific Coast, including Salvador and Nicaragua. Later he

received specimens from his nephew, who was on a vessel which plied back

and forth between Salvador and Oceanica, resulting in much confusion of

data. Mr. van Rossem pointed out that the locality ‘San Carlos, Central

America,” referred to by Lesson was the San Carlos in Salvador, which

country continued to style itself ‘‘Republic of Central America’”’ for some

years after the dissolution of the countries that had been united under

that name. ;

EpwarpD FRAncis, Hygienic Laboratory: Tularaemia in rabbits and other

animals as related to human health (illustrated)—Dr. Francis spoke of the

completeness of our knowledge of tularaemia and of the abruptness with

which it has become recognized as a national and international disease.

Discovered by McCoy of the United States Public Health Service, in 1910,

in the California ground squirrel (Cifellus beechey: Richardson), the disease

became engrafted into the wild rabbits of the West, and then, as a disease

of wild rabbits and of man it has advanced steadily across the continent,

appearing anew in state after state until now, in 1927, there remains only

a solid block of nine uninvaded States, composed of the six New England

States, New York, New Jersey, and Delaware. Although a new disease of

rodents and of man, tularaemia has now been recognized in 37 states of the

United States, in the District of Columbia, and Japan. Of 420 reported

cases, 17 have terminated fatally.

The great reservoir of infection in nature is wild rabbits (Jacks, snowshoes

and cotton-tails); it has also been found in the ground squirrels of California

and Utah, in the wild rats of Los Angeles, and in the wild mice of Contra

Costa County, California. But cases of human infection, referable directly

to wild rodents, have been traced only to the wild rabbits and not to rats

or mice.

Transmission among wild rabbits is by blood-sucking ticks, lice and flies.

Transmission to man is by ticks (Dermacentor andersonz), by flies (Chrysops

discalis), and by self-inoculation or contamination while dressing wild

rabbits or while dissecting infected rodents in the laboratory.

Market infections of rabbits and man, the bacteriology, symptoms in

man, and prevention were discussed, the various phases of the disease being

illustrated by lantern slides. Many points were brought out in the dis-

cussion which followed, especially the susceptibility of foxes, coyotes and

dogs, which feed on rabbits, and the relationship of the well-known fatal

epidemics of wild rabbits to tularaemia. (Author’s abstract.)

S. F. Buaxn, Recording Secretary.

@Obituary

BrapsHAw Hatt SwWALES, a member of The AcaprEmy, died January 23,

at his home in Washington. He was born at Detroit, Michigan, June 30,

1875, educated at the University of Michigan, and was widely known for

his work on birds. Mr. Swales was an active member of the American

Ornithologist’s Union and other scientific societies. For some years he had

been honorary assistant curator of birds at the U. S. National Museum, to

which he contributed a large number of valuable specimens.

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Marcu 4, 1928 No. 5

JOURNAL

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 | Marcu 4, 1928 No. 5

OCEANOGRAPHY—Ocean-surveys: Problems and _ developments.

J. P. Aunt, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie

Institution of Washington.

Tradition has decreed that the address upon this occasion shall deal

more or less with the work with which the outgoing president has been

associated. So tonight we shall discuss the problems and develop-

ments of ocean-surveys with which we have been connected for over

23 years.

We usually think of the ocean as a vast moving highway, without

visible paths or sign-posts. It occupies so large a part of the Earth’s

surface that knowledge of its contents and physical conditions is of

prime importance. Especially is this true for certain problems relat-

ing to the physics of the Earth as a whole—geophysics. Human life

and its environment and the evolutionary processes in the living world

are influenced in countless wane by the varying physical properties

of the ocean.

In the geophysical sciences with which we are concerned tonight,

terrestrial magnetism, terrestrial electricity, and oceanography, much

information has been collected already, though systematic investiga-

tions are but fairly started and the vast extent of the ocean still leaves

many unsolved problems.

Our knowledge of the origin of the Earth’s magnetic and electric

fields is still imperfect. The exact interrelation between these two

fields is not known, and we are interested in securing more information

regarding the close connections which seem to exist between variations

1 Address of the retiring President of the Philosophical Society of Washington,

January 7, 1928, based on lecture Purpose and progress of ocean-surveys at the Carnegie

Institution of Washington, November 22, 1927 (published in Scientific Monthly for

February 1928). Received January 14, 1928.

109

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5

in magnetism, atmospheric electricity, auroral displays, earth-currents,

and transmission of wireless waves. Observations over the compara-

tively undisturbed ocean-areas will very materially aid in the discussion

of all these phenomena.

The history of ocean magnetic-surveys goes back to the time of

Edmund Halley who made the first observations in the Atlantic

Ocean during 1698 to 1701. Before the invention of accurate time-

pieces, navigation consisted of observations of the noon altitude of the

Sun for latitude, and crude estimation of course and distance to de-

termine longitude. ‘This method was very unsatisfactory, since un-

known ocean-currents and errors in reckoning made it impossible

to keep accurate account of the ship’s position.

Large prizes were offered for a more reliable method of determining

longitude, and in 1698 Halley began his voyages in the Atlantic Ocean

on the PARAMOUR PINK to “improve the knowledge of the longitude

and variations of the compass.” As a result of these voyages he

constructed and published the first magnetic chart of the oceans, and

his method of drawing lines through points of equal declination is

still used in nautical charts today. His map was used for many years,

not to determine the longitude, the purpose for which it was con-

structed, but to give the navigator his compass correction as he sailed

from port to port.

The changes which have taken place in the compass variation during

the more than 200 years which have elapsed since the time of Halley

are shown by comparing the early maps with those of the present day.

Halley himself knew of these changes and cautioned the users of his

chart to take them into account.

To give some idea of the amount of these changes, it might be noted

that the cruises of the CARNEGIE in the Indian Ocean in 1911 and 1920

showed that the compass was changing its direction over one-third of

a degree annually in the central part of the ocean. In 1911 the navi-

gational charts for this ocean were in error by as much as one-half

point chiefly owing to lack of accurate information as to the amount

of the annual change. In 1580 the magnetic needle pointed 11° east

of north at London and by 1812 it pointed 24° west of north, a change

of 35° in 232 years. It now points only about 16° west of north.

The causes of these changes and variations are not as yet known,

and their explanation constitutes one of the chief problems in the

science of terrestrial magnetism.

It is with these changes that we are chiefly concerned in a study of

the earth as a magnet in trying to explain the origin of the Harth’s

MARCH 4, 1928 AULT: OCEAN-SURVEYS 111

field, the causes of the changes which are observed during the day,

the variation with the seasons during the year, and the secular or

progressive change from year to year. We also wish to know why

there is such close relation between changes in terrestrial magnetism

known as magnetic storms and the occurrence of polar lights or

auroras, both north and south, and changes in solar conditions, and

why we have 1l-year periods in magnetic changes coincident with

the well-known 1l-year periods in sunspot activity.

Since we cannot bring the Earth into the laboratory to study its

problems, we must go out over its surface, penetrate into its interior,

into its atmosphere, and into the ocean depths as far as present in-

ventive genius will permit, and observe and record the results of ex-

periments which nature is performing on a cosmical scale.

In order to secure the data necessary for a ccmplete study of these

various problems in magnetism, it was decided early in the organiza-

tion of the magnetic-survey work of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington to extend the investigations to the Jarge ocean-areas.

Since the time of Halley in 1700, occasional magnetic observations

have been made at sea incidentally on voyages of discovery and ex-

ploration, such as those of the EREBUS and TERROR, the PAGODA, the

CHALLENGER, the DISCOVERY, and the Gauss. But over 200 years

elapsed after Halley’s survey before another expedition started out

primarily to make magnetic observations at sea. The GALILEE sailed

out of the Golden Gate in 1905 to survey the Pacific Ocean, making

three cruises during the period August 1905 to June 1908. On these

expeditions, the fruition largely of the plans and vision of Bauer and

his colleagues, observations were made not only to determine the

magnetic declination but also the magnetic dip or inclination and the

strength of the Earth’s magnetic field. The instruments used in these

observations were mounted on an open bridge exposed to wind and

weather, and many doubted whether worth-while observations could

be made at sea with equipment then in use.

The accuracy of the results with these more or less experimental

instruments and the promise of increased accuracy with new devices

invented and constructed by Peters and Fleming indicated the

desirability of continuing the ocean-survey. At the same time the

effect of what little iron was present in the hull of the GALILEE was so

difficult to control and measure in the results that it was decided to

construct a specially designed nonmagnetic vessel. In 1909 the

CARNEGIE was completed and began her long series of cruises in August

of that year. Improvements in the instrumental equipment increased

112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5

materially both the amount and the accuracy of the data secured.

Since advancement and success of ocean-surveys are measured by

progress in the development of instrumental equipment, full credit —

must be given to those who have developed this phase of the ocean-

surveys executed on the GALILEE and the caRNEGIE. ‘Tribute also

should be paid to the individual members of the several expeditions,

who cannot be mentioned by name, but whose chief compensation is

the thought that they have helped to add something of permanent

value to science and to human knowledge.

A very satisfactory distribution of stations has been accomplished,

and the accuracy of present-day magnetic charts used by navigators

has steadily increased since the various hydrographic offices began

using the data resulting from these surveys. |

At only about 80 stations do we have cruise-intersections where

reliable information has been obtained regarding the changes which

have taken place over a period of years, the so-called secular variation.

To improve this condition, in future ocean-survey work it is planned

to retrace previous cruises and reoccupy as many points as possible

in order to secure the maximum of data on the amount and direction

of this secular variation. Valuable information for keeping naviga-

tion charts up to date, as well as the necessary data for the advance-

ment of theoretical studies and investigations will thus be furnished.

Future cruises need not be repeated at frequent intervals, and may be

supplanted altogether by more rapid and efficient methods in con-

nection with upper-air travel and research.

The study of the Harth’s electric field, that is, of terrestrial electricity

including both atmospheric electricity and earth-currents, is now being

carried forward side by side with the study of the Earth’s magnetism.

The importance of these investigations has increased in recent years

because of the close relation between variations in atmospheric-

electric and earth-current phenomena and variations in magnetic

conditions. Recent theories regarding the nature of electricity and

the constitution of matter and the rapid advances made in radio

transmission have given added stimulus to the study of the earth’s

electric field. The Sun is included in this study because of the close

connection between magnetic and atmospheric-electric phenomena

and solar activity, and codperative work with the Mt. Wilson Solar

Observatory in these investigations was started last year.

Some experimental observations in atmospheric electricity were

made in 1908 on the GALILEE and in 1909 to 1914 on the CARNEGIE,

but it was not until 1915 that a systematic and definite program of

ones

MARCH 4, 1928 AULT: OCEAN-SURVEYS 113

observations was undertaken with new and improved methods and

instruments devised and constructed chiefly by Swann and Fleming.

A well-known European student of atmospheric electricity states that

the only new contribution to this science within the past ten years

was that resulting from the cruises of the CARNEGIE, which is especially

valuable because of the wide distribution of information obtained.

The electric elements which have been investigated include potential

gradient, both positive and negative ionic content, conductivity, and

ionic mobility, penetrating radiation, and radioactive content of the

air. The potential or electric charge in the air increases with height

above the earth’s surface, being about 100 volts at the height of one

meter. This is the so-called potential gradient and is measured by

noting the deflection on the fibers of an electrometer while the col-

lector is raised one meter. There are present in the air at all times

both positively and negatively charged particles called ions, about

1,000 of each kind in a cubic centimeter of air, and with our instru-

ments it is possible to count the number with fair accuracy. In-

timately connected with the number of ions in the air is the electric

conductivity, or its ability to carry an electric current. Air is forced

past a charged conductor at a uniform rate of speed, and the rate of

discharge is noted by the changing position of the fibers in an electro-

meter.

Whether penetrating radiation or “cosmic rays’’ coming into the

Earth’s atmosphere from outer space can be one of the causes of the

ionization of the air is one of the problems being investigated, and

observations are made at sea to determine the amount and variation

of this radiation by observing the rate of ionization in a closed copper

vessel. The radioactive-content observations are arranged to collect

and measure the amount of radioactive material, such as radium and

thorium, present in our atmosphere, this being another source of

ionization.

Under the action of the Earth’s electric field, positive ions are travel-

ing toward the Earth and negative ions are traveling upward in the

air, giving rise to an air-earth electric current. The rate at which this

interchange takes place would neutralize the earth’s negative charge

in a very short time were there no recharging source of energy. Vari-

ous theories have been advanced to account for the source of this sup-

ply, e.g., lightning or the Sun, but the problem still awaits solution.

Conditions at sea are much more favorable for investigating the

Earth’s electric field than on land, where dust and smoke in the air and

presence of changing cultural or permanent topographic features

114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5

such as trees, buildings, or contours cloak the true characteristics of

the atmospheric-electric phenomena. To improve further the at-

mospheric-electric results and to note the conditions at sea, dust-

count observations are to be included in the program since it is known

that the presence of dust in the air has a. marked influence upon

atmospheric-electric conditions.

In order to determine the variations which take place in the elements

of the Earth’s electric field during a 24-hour period, continuous ob-

servations of these changes are carried out on the CARNEGIE at

frequent intervals. I will mention only the difficulties of carrying

out such observations under conditions which persist at sea, insulation

troubles due to condensation and to salt spray, and difficulties attend-

ing the use of instruments on a rolling ship. In dealing with insulation

difficulties we have learned that our favorite slogan ‘‘Electricity never

fails” has always held true. The instrument will always work if the |

insulation surfaces are clean and all connections are good.

A discussion by Mauchly of these 24-hour series of atmospheric-

electric observations at sea on the CARNEGIE disclosed that the chief

maximum of the diurnal variation of the potential gradient occurs

at about 18" Greenwich mean time all over the world, approximately

the time when the Sun is in the meridian of the north magnetic pole.

This conclusion was confirmed by Sverdrup during Amundsen’s

Arctic-Drift Expedition on the maup. The true physical explanation

of this discovery is not yet apparent. Wait and Sverdrup point out

that the rotating magnetic field of the earth induces electromotive

forces in the earth’s electric field, the variations of which are in re-

markable agreement with the observed variations of the potential

gradient over the oceans. This agreement appears too good to be

accidental, but further evidence is needed for a satisfactory physical

interpretation. To add to the information regarding variations of the

potential gradient, an automatic photographic recording electrometer

is to be mounted near the truck of the mainmast during the next

cruise. Some experimental work with this apparatus was done during

the return of the cARNEGIE from New York to Washington last month

by W. C. Parkinson, who will have charge of the atmospheric-electric

work during the next cruise. :

The important contributions to the study of various geophysical

problems which are being made by investigations of the Kennelly-

Heaviside conducting layer and of radio transmission and variations

with changing magnetic and electric conditions greatly enhance the

value of the ocean atmospheric-electric data and indicate codperative

MARCH 4, 1928 AULT: OCEAN-SURVEYS 115

investigations along similar lines for future ocean-work. It is planned

to begin at sea investigations of the conducting layer and to carry out

experiments on the variations of signal-intensity, following methods

already in use on land.

Important -correlations between earth-current variations and

changes in other geophysical and cosmical phenomena, such as solar

activity, magnetic disturbances, and polar lights, have resulted from

an investigation of observatory records, and the importance of these

discussions in the general study of the Earth’s magnetic and electric

fields now warrants beginning systematic earth-current observations

at sea. Some preliminary experimental work was done by O. H.

Gish while the cARNEGIE was en route from New York to Washington

this year in order to determine the best methods and instruments for

such investigations over the oceans. |

The challenge of the vast, practically unknown, expanse of the at-

mosphere above the Earth’s surface and of the equally unexplored

depths of the ocean awaits the pioneering spirit of a Langley or the

ingenuity of a Lord Kelvin to penetrate their mysteries. When

inventive genius makes it possible to investigate the modifications in

magnetic and electric variations due to change in altitude, many new

and important discoveries will be made.

The mysteries of the ocean-depths, however, are slowly being un-

folded through advances in the growing science of oceanography. Up

to the time of the CHALLENGER expedition in 1872 to 1876, oceano-

graphic research had been limited to restricted areas, or was incidental

to some exploratory expedition, or was associated with some national

fisheries investigations. Following the stimulus given by the cHAL-

LENGER results, oceanographic investigations were much extended,

and new methods and instruments were devised. However, the

vastness of the regions to be explored and the time and expense

entailed in sending instruments to the bottom of the ocean-deeps leave

many unsolved problems for the oceanographer. ‘Time does not per-

mit more than a brief mention of the pioneer work done by Forbes,

Thomson, Agassiz, Murray, and others who laid the foundations of

the present science of oceanography.

In spite of all the vast amount of data that has been collected, we

have only a general idea of the contours of the ocean-bed and only a

meager knowledge of the bottom sedimentary deposits which are of

peculiar interest to the geologist in his study of the age and formation

of the Earth and the changes which time has witnessed. The mapping

of the configuration of the oceanic basins covering over two-thirds

116 JOURNAL OF

1928-31.

CARNEGIE,

f the

ul1se O

Fig. 1.—Tentative route for the seventh er

MARCH 4, 1928 AULT: OCEAN-SURVEYS 117

of the Earth’s surface should be as important as the mapping of the

land masses which occupy less than one-third. Such information is

necessary for the geodesist in his study of the movements within the

Earth’s crust and for the seismologist in his study of the origin, history,

and probable future development of submarine earthquakes.

The movements of vast bodies of water relatively to one another

and to the land due to winds and tide, and the vertical movements due

to changes of temperature and salinity make the ocean with its vast

capacity for carrying heat a powerful factor in its influence upon

practically every phase of life upon the Earth, in its control of climate,

and in its determining effect upon man’s migration and habitation.

Perhaps the most fascinating study connected with the sea is the

multitudinous life found in all oceanic waters from the surface down

to the deepest abyss yet explored. Physical changes in the ocean-

waters have profound influences upon marine life, its variety, its

amount, and its distribution. A knowledge of these influences will

contribute in many ways not only to the study of evolutionary proc-

esses taking place in the sea but to the practical problem of economic

use of the ocean’s food resources.

Many problems of oceanography are of interest to the Carnegie

Institution of Washington through the activities of its various de-

partments and research associates. The vast extent of the ocean-

areas to be covered by the next cruise of the CARNEGIE offers unique

opportunity to add new and much-needed information in this science

from regions never investigated.

To carry out the proposed increased program of general oceano-

graphic work has required many structural changes on the CARNEGIE.

During the past summer the vessel was in Hoboken, New Jersey,

undergoing repairs and alterations. A new stateroom was added in

the cabin since the technical staff is to be increased to seven, the

additional man to be especially trained in chemistry and marine bi-

ology. The two lifeboats were moved from the quarter-deck to over-

head platforms amidships opposite the after dome, leaving the quarter-

deck free for the operation of the bronze winch, sounding wire, and

special davits for handling tow-nets, water-bottles, deep-sea reversing

thermometers, and bottom-samplers.

Two new laboratories were constructed on deck; one will be specially

fitted for physical oceanographic, biological, and chemical work, and

the other will house the radio and echo-sounding equipment.

In physica] oceanography it is planned to obtain temperatures and

water samples at depths of 5, 25, 50, 75, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 700,

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5

1,000, 1,500, and 2,000 meters every 150 to 200 miles, with occasional

series down to the bottom with a limit at 20,000 feet. To obtain a

continuous record of surface-temperatures, a distant-recording thermo-

graph has been installed with its bulb on the hull about seven feet

below the water-line and with its recorder in the new laboratory.

These records will be checked occasionally by the usual method,

direct readings with draw-bucket and thermometer.

Water samples and temperatures will be secured by Nansen water-

bottles and Richter reversing deep-sea thermometers using a series

of ten on the wire at one time. The water-bottle has a capacity of 14

liters, and two thermometers will be used with each one in order to

check the temperature. The salinity and density of each water-

sample will be determined on board ship by the Wenner electric con-

ductivity method and checked occasionally by the silver-nitrate

titration method. ‘The water-sample also will be analyzed for oxygen,

nitrate, and phosphate content, and hydrogen-ion concentration.

Samples of muds and sediments from the bottom will be secured by

use of the snapper-type of sampler, as modified by Vaughan, and a

larger Eckman tube-sampler, as modified by Trask for deep water.

It is now known that bottom-living creatures feed on organic matter

found in bottom muds, and that these muds are often teeming with

life. From a study of these organisms and fossil remains, together

with borings from oil-wells, important conclusions have been reached

regarding the origin of oil-producing deposits. The Geophysical

Laboratory also is interested in the nature and derivation of inorganic

marine deposits in the study of the age of the earth and the various

processes of its formation.

The machinery necessary to handle arc anles thermometers,

and bottom-samplers has been installed on the caRNEGIE. It consists

of a 30-horse-power gasoline engine and a 12-kilowatt generator

installed below decks in the engine-room to furnish the required electric

power. A bronze winch weighing three tons, operated by a 15-horse-

power electric motor, has been installed on deck. ‘Two reels and two

gypsy-heads are provided, one reel containing 20,210 feet of special

aluminum-bronze stranded wire rope 7s inch or 4 mm. in diameter,

and the other containing 6,808 feet of 4 inch or 6 mm. wire. This

wire was made in Germany and was designed especially for oceano-

graphic work after extensive tests and experiments by those in charge

of preparations for the German Expedition on the METEOR, 1925 to 1927.

_ The gypsy-heads are to be used in handling yards, sails, hoisting

lifeboats, hauling in earth-current cables, and for the general work on

deck. Special bronze davits and blocks have been installed for

MARCH 4, 1928 AULT: OCEAN-SURVEYS 119

handling the wire as it is payed out or hauled in. Platforms have

been constructed on both port and starboard sides, where the observer

will stand while attaching or detaching the water-bottles and thermom-

eters to the sounding wire.

The winch has been constructed so that the reels may be operated

either singly or together, thus allowing one wire to be payed out on the

brake while the other wire is being hauled in. This will allow two

series of water-bottles to be operated simultaneously, thus saving

materially in the time required at each station.

It is planned to heave to every other afternoon, taking in all sails

except those required to keep the vessel as nearly stationary as possible.

To keep the wire vertical or nearly so will require skilful maneuvering,

and it may be necessary to use the main engine occasionally to ac-

complish this result. Helland-Hansen and Nansen have carried out

similar work with great success on the ARMAUER HANSEN, a sailing

vessel of only half the size of the caRNEGIE. They state that? ‘‘owing

to its special construction the ship is easily maneuvered in such a

manner that the line along which the oceanographic instruments are

suspended remains in a vertical position throughout the time of

observation even if there is a strong drift caused by wind or cur-

rent.’ This is essential in order to obtain correct depths by wire

measurements.

As a further aid in checking the depths at which temperatures and

water-samples are obtained, simultaneous use is to be made of pro-

tected and unprotected thermometers, calibrated for pressure-effects,

placed at frequent intervals as the wire is lowered into the water.

The difference between the readings of the two thermometers at any

level will give the depth for that level. This method was used recently

with success by the German Atlantic Expedition on the METEOR.

To avoid rapid and excessive drift of the vessel when hove to in a strong

breeze, sea-anchors will be used to check the headway. Simultaneous

determinations of depths with actual wire soundings and with the

echo-method, together with temperature and salinity data at all levels,

will give information of great value in establishing proper formulae

for the velocity of sound in sea-water in the deep basins of the ocean.

The latest type of sonic depth-finder as developed by Harvey C.

Hayes has been installed on board the cARNEGIE, and frequent de-

terminations of ocean-depths will be made as the vessel is proceeding

on her way. The depth can be determined in a very few moments,

the method consisting essentially of measuring very accurately the

2B. HELLAND-HANSEN and Friptsor Nanspen. The Eastern North Atlantic.

Geofysiske Publikasjoner 4: No. 2, 3-4. 1926.

120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5

time-interval between a signal sent out from the ship and the return

of the echo from the bottom of the sea. The United States Navy is

codperating in this work by lending the necessary equipment consist-

ing of an oscillator for transmitting the signal, six microphones for

receiving the echo, and a depth-finder for measuring accurately the

interval between signal and echo. The method is accurate to within

about +5 fathoms or 30 feet for depths greater than 100 fathoms,

the range over which the sonic depth-finder is designed to operate.

In marine biology it-is planned to confine attention to microbiology,

to determine the abundance and distribution of plankton and other

microscopic organisms. Shallow-water dredging for diatoms and

fordminifera will be undertaken also in coéperation with Dr. Albert

Mann, a research associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Quantitative distribution of plankton at various depths from the sur-

face down to 100 meters will be determined by the examination of

definite quantities of water brought up by means of special water-

bottles, or by use of a hose let down to depths found practicable.

Some study will be made also of surface plankton by straining a

continuous’ stream of water through a fine-meshed net. Marine

organisms also will be secured by tow-nets, and hauls both vertical

and horizontal are to be made from the surface down to a depth of

150 to 200 meters, and occasionally to greater depths. A special

boom-walk has been rigged in connection with the vessel’s boat-boom,

where the observer can walk out 30 feet from the ship’s side in fair

weather, dip up any marine life from the surface, or operate the tow-

nets well out from the disturbing influence of the vessel and its motion

through the water. | :

To assist: the biologist, H. R. Seiwell, in his study of marine life in

its native habitat at the bottom of the ocean, a diving helmet has been

secured for use in shallow-water. This device has been used by

amateurs at depths of 30 feet and can be used safely at depths of 50

to 100 feet. ca | .

Equipment will be carried also for securing specimens of dolphins

and porpoises from regions where no specimens have been secured

heretofore. Such specimens are of special interest to Remington

Kellogg, a research associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washing-

ton, in his study of the evolution of the whale and other marine

vertebrates.

Limited space.on the vessel and time and restrictions as to power and

machinery prohibit undertaking any deep-sea trawling or dredging.

This work may be taken up during a later cruise when it is hoped that

chief attention may be devoted to work in oceanography.

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MARCH 4, 1928 AULT: OCEAN-SURVEYS 121

Any program of oceanographic investigations should include ex-

tensive work in marine meteorology in view of the important influence

upon climate of mass movements of large bodies of heat-bearing oceanic

waters. The study of the physical interchange between the surface

of the ocean and the air above it is important in the study of atmos-

pheric circulation and disturbance over the entire surface of the Earth

because of the fairly normal conditions which exist at sea.

The foundations of the science of marine meteorology were laid by

an American, Admiral Matthew Fontaine Maury. His book Physical

Geography of the Sea is still a classic, although some of his theories and

conclusions have been supplanted. Due to his efforts an international

conference was held at Brussels in 1853, and a general program for

marine meteorological observations-was adopted. Maury introduced

sailing directions and pilot charts which were of untold value to ship-

ping interests, especially in the time of sailing ships. Monthly pilot

charts of the great oceans are now issued in advance by the U.S.

Hydrographic Office and the British Admiralty and constitute a most

important aid to navigation.

While conditions at sea are fairly normal for the study of the atmos-

phere, yet the ocean is only a highway and the observer is always on the

move irom place to place. Instruments must be especially adapted

for use on moving and rolling platforms, and progress in marine meteor-

ology, as in other oceanographic investigations, has developed only

as rapidiy as the invention and utilization of the proper instrumental

equipment has permitted.

To study the physical interchange of heat and moisture between the

ocean and the atmosphere, it is planned to observe the temperature and

humidity lapse-rates from sea-level to masthead. Accompanying

_ observations of wind direction and velocity and of changes in atmos-

pheric pressure will be made.

Variations in the amount of solar radiation received at the Earth’s

surface and their influence upon world-wide weather conditions have

been the subject of much study in recent years by Abbot and Clayton.

It has been thought worth while to. include such observations in the

meteorological program, together with observations of cloud systems,

rainfall, evaporation, and dust-content and carbonic-acid content of

the atmosphere. Additional data over the great oceanic areas to be

covered by the next cruise of the CARNEGIE may be extremely valuable

in the comparison of world weather with solar variation, in the deter-

mination of the rate at which the atmosphere is being charged with

water vapor so vital to life on the continents, and in the study of the

dynamics of atmospheric circulation over the oceans.

122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5

It is planned to compute at sea and publish promptly as the cruise

progresses the pertinent oceanographic data for use of students and

investigators of oceanography, as has been done heretofore in terrestrial

magnetism. ‘The physical data to be published include the following

results of observations and calculations at various depths: Tempera-

ture, salinity, density observed and corrected for compression, oxygen-

content, hydrogen-ion concentration, specific volume, and dynamic

pressure and depth. A part of the water-samples will be tested for

salinity and for gas-content, and a part will be stored below decks for

later study in various laboratories. Biological specimens will be

studied, sketched, and preserved for transmission to some museum.

The dynamic calculations will be made in accordance with the

method devised by Bjerknes and as modified by Hesselberg, Sverdrup,

and others. ‘The dynamic conditions in the ocean may be viewed in

the same light as similar conditions in the air. Winds blow obliquely

from areas of high pressure towards areas of low pressure, taking into

account the effect of the rotation of the Earth. The force or velocity

is proportional to the gradient or difference in pressure. So in the

ocean, data as to temperature and density at two points at the same

level permit us to calculate the difference in dynamic pressure between

the two points. ‘Lhisis one of the factors which cause circulation, and

the direction of this circulation is affected by the rotation of the Earth.

In the biological and chemical work, chief emphasis will be placed

upon the collection of data and specimens. Some analysis of water-

samples and study of specimens must be done on board ship imme-

diately after collection, and as complete a preliminary examination

and report as possible of the results of these investigations will be

made as the cruise progresses. Interested organizations will be fur-

nished with water-samples, bottom-samples, and biological specimens ~

for further study and report, and a final discussion and publication of

the results of the cruise will be made by the Institution at the conclu-

sion of the work.

The Carnegie Institution of Washington is indebted to the following

institutions and organizations for codperation by lending special

equipment or by giving expert advice in planning the program of

of investigations: United States Navy Department, National Mu-

seum, Bureau of Fisheries, Weather Bureau, and Coast and Geodetic

Survey; Scripps Institution of Oceanography of the University of

California; Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard University;

School of Geography of Clark University; Geophysical Institute,

Bergen, Norway; Marine Biological Association of the United King-

MARCH 4, 1928 NUTTING: DEFORMATION OF GRANULAR SOLIDS 123

dom, Plymouth, England; German Atlantic Expedition of the METEOR;

and Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copenhagen, Denmark.

In this brief discussion of ocean-surveys it is possible to present only

a few of the outstanding developments and to sketch only briefly the

problems as yet unsolved. The chief advances in surveys already

made have come from invention of instruments capable of revealing

the variations in natural phenomena in regions hitherto inaccessible.

Thus the pathway to further progress in these branches of geophysics

is made plain, and man’s inventive genius is challenged in no uncertain

terms.

PHYSICS—The deformation of granular solids.! P. G. Nuttina, U.S.

Geological Survey.

Theoretical mechanics has long suffered from the lack of a function

capable of representing the deformation of bodies possessing elastic,

plastic, and viscous properties all at the same time. Many solids

yield gradually and continuously to stresses far below their elastic

limits and without losing their power of elastic recovery at any stage

of strain. Solids strained beyond their elastic limits exhibit many

plastic properties. Viscous fluids behave somewhat like solids above

their elastic limits. The pitches studied by the writer? possess a

remarkable combination of elastic and viscous properties. The mathe-

matical difficulty is to represent a viscous flow in combination with

elasticity in accordance with Hooke’s Law.

I am indebted to Mr. W. W. Rubey? of the U. S. Geological Survey

for geological data which led to a simple formula which in turn led by

integration to a new deformation function of wide applicability having

many remarkable properties.

Well borings, taken in compacted granular material of fairly uniform

grain density, indicated the relation Depth x Void Ratio = Constant

to within the uncertainty of measurement, allowance having been

made for erosion. We have then zR = C where z = depth and R,

void ratio, is the ratio of void volume to that filled by grains. From

this we have to obtain a relation between pressure and volume. Call-

ing the pressure p, the (variable) density of the material p and the

(constant) density of the grains py, we have

D = [paz

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. 8S. Geological Survey. Received

January 14, 1928.

2 Amer. Soc. Test. Mat. Trans. 1921; and Journ. Frank. Inst. May, 1921.

3 Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol. 11. 1927

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES YOL. 18, NO. 5

p 1 1 @

Hence by substitution and integration

(1) p= pe C(2/C — log 1 + 2/C))

a function the simplest form of which is

(2) ay = x — log (1 + 2)

Substituting for 2/C, 1/R = p / ( — p) in (1) gives

(3) p= oC ( Se lo x)

Pe @e Pp Pe awe

a relation between pressure and density. Finally the relation between

pressure and volume is obtained at once from (3) (since v = 1/p)

G ( iL i!

o Taso. al wee 1 — =

Put in the form of an equation of state, this is

(5) (p + - log (Cd 2/0) (= ve = C

In this equation, v — v corresponds with v — b of van der Waals, C =

RT and (C/uw) log (1 — %/v) = a/v?. (5) reduces to Boyle’s Law

pv = const. for large specific volumes as it should. For very large

pressures, v approaches 2y, 1.e. the granular material approaches a solid

whose density is the grain density.

From (4) the compressibility 8 = (dv/v)/dp, is

(6) CB ra Vg (v/v, rr iL)?

a quantity approaching zero as the eranular material approaches

homogeneity. Eliminating C between (4) and (6) gives the dimen-

sionless characteristic 6p

d log v :

aise eo Bp = (v/v, — 1) + (v/v, — 1)? log (L — 0,/0)

which is again a function of specific volume. 3

In the general equation between compressive and repulsive pres-

sures

(7) ptP=ar+k

in which p = external (transmitted) pressure, P = cohesive pressure,

x = distending (static) pressure—due to contact—and « = kinetic

(thermal) distending pressure, holding at any plane in any body, P

and « are negligibly small in loose masses of granular solids and p

= 7. In gases P and 7 are practically zero and p = x. T. W. Rich-

MARCH 4, 1928 NUTTING: DEFORMATION OF GRANULAR SOLIDS 125

ards finds P proportional to about the square and 7 to about the

seventh power of the densities of many elementary solids and liquids

over smallranges. These relations are special cases of (3) and (4).

Equation (3) between pressure and density may be used to compute

grain density by eliminating C between two sets of values. This was

done for water using the data of Bridgman, regarding the molecules

as but small grains. The computed grain (molecular) density was 1.12

and porosity 10 per cent but both varied somewhat with pressure since

the molecules are not incompressible nor are cohesive forces absent.

Such physical checks on the new function as have been given are

serviceable since it rests on a purely empirical foundation. Its geo-

metrical form is shown by Figure 1.

Derivative

The Function sf =x-log Ci+X)

Fig. 1—Graph of the function y = x — log (1 + 2)

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 5

The graph has the form of a tilted sled runner sharply curved near the

origin but rapidly approaching a linear relation between the variables.

In the figure, each curve is the toe of the preceding one magnified ten

times. |

These curves closely resemble those observed in the shear of very

viscous fluids in the relation between pressure and shear. ‘The initial

curved portion of the graph has been attributed‘ to plastic properties

and the straight line portion to true viscous flow. But evidently a

smooth continuous function may represent both. Calling s shear,

F force per unit area and ¢ time, then

(8) s — log d+ s) = aft

will have the general characteristics desired. When the shear s is

small it is proportional to both force and time. When it is a little

larger (since log (1 + s) = s — $s? + 4s? — etc.) it is for a time nearly

proportional to the square root of F' and ¢ but no equilibrium is ever

reached.

Differentiating (8) gives for rate of shear under a constant force

(ordinary viscous flow)

= = a(1 + 1/s)F

At the start when s is small, the shear is very rapid but as s becomes

larger the rate steadies down to the constant value af. The constant

a is the reciprocal of the viscosity. The force derivative, ds/dF =

a (1 + 1/s) tis of the same form.

In order to fit the new function to experimental data, parameters

may be introduced into (2) or (6). For example, the 1921 data on

pitch by the writer referred to above is very well represented by writing

for s in (6), ms». With time in minutes and s in millimeters, m =

0.140 andn = 1.718. In this case the rate of shear is high at the start,

but decreases rapidly and approaches zero as a limit. Where 7 is less

than unity the velocity of shear increases indefinitely as in a brittle

solid stressed beyond the elastic limit. m» = 1 corresponds to simple

viscous flow. The exponential function previously proposed (J. F. L.,

l.c.) is a limiting special case of the new function.

These examples are sufficient to indicate the possibility of wide

usefulness in the new function. Specific applications will be dealt with

in later papers.

(9)

4BineHAM. Fluidity and plasticity, p.217, f.77, 81.

MARCH 4, 1928 WELLS: EXAMINATION OF SULFURIC ACID FOR SELENIUM 127

CHEMISTRY .—Ezamination of sulfuric acid for selentum.t R. C.

WELLS, U. 8. Geological Survey.

In testing commercial sulfuric acid for selenium by means of aspido-

spermine according to the suggestion of L. P. J. Palet? it was found that

instead of a pink color different shades and colors were developed,

depending on the strength of acid and time of heating, so that the con-

clusions were somewhat uncertain. In order to check the results by an

independent method the following scheme was devised and found to

work very well.

Dissolve from 0.5 to 1.0 gm. of KBr in 3 or 4 ml. of bromine water

and allow it to run through a funnel into a 200 ml. retort. Next add

from 65 to 100 ml. of the sulfuric acid to be tested, sothat about 100 gm.

of H.SQ, shall be taken. Shake until the mixture is uniform. Next

saturate 3 or 4 ml. of concentrated HCl with SO, in a 25 ml. graduate

and distill the bromine and selenium bromide slowly from the retort

into the graduate, allowing the neck of the retort to just touch the

SO, solution and immersing most of the graduate in cold water con-

tained in a casserole. The selenium bromide comes over very soon as

a yellow liquid which deposits red selenium the moment the first drop

runs into the SO, solution. Discontinue heating when the acid be-

comes colorless. <A dilute acid may be concentrated before examina-

tion by evaporating in an open vessel, without loss of selenium. Per-

centages of selenium as small as one part of selenium in 10,000,000 of

sulfuric acid are shown in this way on saturating the final distillate

with SO, and allowing it to stand for a day or longer in a small corked

flask,

As a result of comparison of the two methods it appeared that the

tests with aspidospermine became more consistent when the portions

being tested, after heating, were allowed to stand several days. Yet

even under these conditions one or two of the samples out of about

fifteen showed a pink color when no selenium could be found by the

distillation method. When the selenium content exceeded 2.0 mg. in

100 gm. of sulfuric acid the aspidospermine gave a brown coloration

instead of a pink color and selenium settled out on standing. The

distillation method allowed better visual estimation of the quantities

of selenium in running comparison tests with known quantities of

selenium in reagent sulfuric acid.

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. Received

January 7, 1928.

? Annales de chimie analytique 23: 25. 1918.

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5

The method described above and depending on the volatility of

selenium bromide was suggested by the procedure of Noyes and Bray,?

but whereas they recommend the use of hydrobromic acid as a

reagent and distill most of it, the distillation in the case of sulfuric

acid does not need to be carried even to the point where fumes of

sulfuric acid begin to go over.

PALEONTOLOGY .—The generic name Orbiculoidea d’Orbigny and

its application. GrorcEe H. Grirty, U. 8. Geological Survey.

(Communicated by Joun B. REESIDE, JR.)

The name proper to the most common type of discinoid in the

Devonian and Carboniferous faunas of America has been a subject of

languid controversy for a number of years, and the present paper is in

the nature of a reply to my friend, the late Prof. C. 8. Prosser, and to

the arguments that he advanced as long ago as 1912. The intervening

years have removed Professor Prosser from his honored sphere, but the

questions raised between us are still alive. Would it were otherwise.

The following broad statements will supply a background for the dis-

cussion whose details will be filled in farther on.

Discinoids were fairly abundant in Paleozoic faunas, and they are

also present in living ones, but during the intervening period they

appear to have been relatively rare. Of species many had of course

been named among the fossil forms and of genera a few had been more

or less inadequately described, but up to the publication of Hall and

Clarke’s monograph on the Brachiopoda? most of the fossil species had

been referred under the living genus Discina. Such authors as de-

scribed new genera among these fossils or in turn sought to identify

those genera scarcely did more than bring confusion into the subject.

To these shells Hall and Clarke accorded treatment that seems par-

ticularly elaborate. They recognized a number of generic types and

for the one which we are considering here they revived a half-forgotten

name of d’Orbigny’s, Orbiculoidea. This name thus received rather

widespread acceptance. | |

In 1809 and again in 1911,? having occasion to describe certain shells

of this type, I gave reasons why, as I thought, Orbiculoidea could not

3A system of qualitative analysis for the rare elements (Macmillan, 1927), p. 37.

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. Received

January 14, 1928.

2 Natural History of New York, Pal. 8: Brachiopoda, pt.1. 1892.

3U. 8. Geol. Surv. Bull. 377: 18. 1909; Bull. 489: 37. 1911.

“a

MARCH 4, 1928 GIRTY:; ORBICULOIDEA 129

properly be used in the sense in which it was revived by Hall and

Clarke, and I suggested that Lingulidiscina Whitfield appeared to

connote the same general elements of structure; Lingulidiscina then

might be substituted for Orbiculoidea. At that time and subsequently

I employed the generic term Lingulidiscina in my own writing, but

my proposal has had relatively little following, although I may fairly

say that this fact reflects rather ignorance that any controversy

existed or indifference to its outcome than opinion as to the merits

of either name. At least no one so far as J am aware gave any reasons

for employing Orbiculoidea in preference to Lingulidiscina or Lin-

gulidiscina in preference to Orbiculoidea until Professor Prosser took

up the argument in the paper above referred to.

Now there are obviously two distinct questions at issue, and these

questions are measurably independent, or at least they depend on

different facts and are susceptible to independent consideration. One

is, whether Crbiculoidea is available as a generic name for this type of

shell; the other is, if Orbiculoidea is not available what other name can

be employed. Should the first question be answered in the affirma-

tive, the second, of course, would cease to have any real importance.

The conclusions that I reached in 1909 rested on the following prem-

ises: (1) The brachiopod types that Hall and Clarke designated by

the names Orbiculoidea d’Orbigny and Schizotreta Kutorga, constitute

two distinct genera. (2) The name Schizoireta has priority of publica-

tion over Orbiculoidea. (3) The first species mentioned under Orbi-

culoidea (O. forbesz) is a “Schizotreta’”’ while the second (O. morrist)

is an ‘‘Orbiculoidea.’’ By application of the ‘‘first species”’ rule to these

facts, Orbiculoidea became a synonym of Schizotreta and the group of

species called ‘“‘Orbiculoidea’’ by Hall and Clarke was left without a

name, or at least it was bereft of the name Orbiculoidea. Lingulidis-

cina Whitfield seemed available to replace Orbiculoidea and I used it.

I propose to examine the status of each one of these premises and also

to glance at certain other considerations that bear upon the same

issues.

The authentic meaning of the term Orbiculoidea revolves about the

identification of its genotype and the characters that the genotype is

found to possess. A search for the facts about these points is com-

plicated by an extraordinary number of ambiguities and inaccuracies

of statement. Absit omen.

The following is by Hall and Clarke from page 128 of the mono-

graph:

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5

The definition of this term [Orbiculoidea] was first given in the Prodrome

de Paléontologie Stratigraphique, 1849, and is in the following terms: ‘‘Co-

quille de contéxture cornée non perforée, dont la valve inférieure concave est

pourvue d’un ouverture laterale ou crochet pour le passage d’un pedicule

simple,” the first example cited under this definition being the Orbicula

Morrisi, Davidson. Mr. Dall has observed that in neither the first use of

the term, nor in the second, was an example cited, and, therefore, reaches

the unavoidable conclusion that O. Morrisz, being the first citation made by

the author, must be assumed as the typical species.

Evidence is then offered for believing that Orbicula morrisit David-

son, had the same type of structure as the American shells with which

we are now familiar under the term Orbiculoidea. In this way the

name “Orbiculoidea’”’ was brought into conjunction with the ‘‘very

compact generic group” which we here have under discussion. Some

of the facts employed in this chain of evidence, however, seem to be

erroneous. Apparently at the time of writing the authors had not

examined any of the three works of d’Orbigny mentioned, for in that

brief paragraph they embody misstatements that would scarcely have

found expression if they had consulted the original sources. As a

matter of fact ‘‘the definition of this term” was not ‘‘first given in the

Prodrome,’’ the Prodrome was not published in 1849, and the first

species mentioned under Orbiculoidea was not Orbicula morrist. These

errors were apparently recognized by the authors at some later date,

for the following passage appears on page 160 of the same work, though

no reference is made to the erroneous statement that preceded it:

The genus Orbiculoidea of D’Orbigny was first defined and exemplified

in the Frodrome de Paléontologie, vol. i, p. 44, the date of this work being

1850, not 1849. Dall is in error in stating that Orbicula Morrisi, Davidson,

is the first species mentioned under the diagnosis quoted. D’Orbigny here

gives three species in the following order: O. Forbes, Davidson, O. Morrist,

Davidson, O. Davidsoni, D’Orbigny. As no species is specially designated

as the type of the genus we are compelled to assume these three as types in

their order and upon their merits. It is shown on page 136 that the first of

these, O. Forbesi, Davidson, is unquestionably congeneric with Schizotreta

elliptica, Kutorga, Kutorga’s genus having been established in 1848. As this

species, therefore, can not be used as the type of Orbiculoidea, we must assume

the second species as the typical representative of the genus, and upon this is

based the distinction throughout the foregoing pages in the use of this term

Orbiculoidea by D’Orbigny and by Davidson. At the place cited in the

‘‘Prodrome’”’ the date “1847” stands after the name of the genus. The

explanation of its use appears upon page lix of the Introduction, and the date

of publication of the work renders its adoption untenable.

The views expressed in the two paragraphs quoted from Hall and

Clarke seem to me in some respects not quite consistent. In the

first passage they say ‘‘Mr. Dall has observed that in neither the first

MARCH 4, 1928 GIRTY: ORBICULOIDEA 131

use of the term, nor in the second, was an example cited, and, there-

fore, reaches the unavoidable conclusion that O. morrisz, being the

first citation made by the author, must be assumed as the typical

species.”” Even if these expressions are to some extent a quotation

from Dall, the authors manifestly concur in them. I read from this

nothing else than that Hall and Clarke accept the “‘first species’”’ rule

in principle and also the application of the rule to the selection of a

genotype for Orbiculoidea. What they say may be paraphrased in

this wise: The first species cited by an author under a new genus must

be assumed as the genotype (qualifying conditions of course being

absent), and specifically, Orbicula morrist being the first species cited

by d’Orbigny must be assumed as the genotype of Orbiculoidea, both

conclusions being unavoidable. In the second passage, however, they

say that we are compelled to assume these three species as types in

their order and upon their merits, that the first mentioned species is

undoubtedly congeneric with Schizotreta elliptica and therefore can not

be used as the type for Orbiculoidea (evidently because to do so would

make Orbiculoidea a synonym of Schizotreta) and that, consequently,

we must assume the second species as the typical representative of the

genus. ‘They appear, in this passage, not only to have forgotten their

original conviction regarding the “‘first species’ rule, but to have

overlooked the fact that if Dall had already selected a genotype, they

themselves had no subsequent choice. Indeed, they seem to have

lost their grasp on the situation entirely. It will be worth our while

to look into the facts about these critical points more closely than can

be done through the passages quoted.

So far as I am informed the name Orbiculoidea was introduced by

d’Orbigny in 1847.4. It was again used by him in 1850,° and a third

time in the Prodrome.* In each of these publications the genus was

defined but only in the Prodrome were any species cited under it.

The earliest of these works was an outline of the classification of

the Brachiopoda, and the definitions are rather brief. As the char-

acters ascribed to the higher groups supplement those ascribed to the

genera, it will be desirable to quote, in addition to the diagnosis of

Orbiculoidea, that of the famly Orbiculidae in which Orbiculoidea was

included. This family comprises four genera, Siphonotreta, Orbicella,

Orbiculoidea, and Orbicula. Its distinctive characters are given as “‘an

* Acad. Sci. Paris, Comptes rendus 25: 269. 1847.

§ Ann. sci. nat. 13: 351. 1850.

® Prodrome de Paléontologie 1: 44. 1850.

132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5

exterior muscle issuing through the lower valve; shell free,’’ and the

distinctive characters of the genus Orbiculoidea are given as ‘‘shell

corneous, not punctate (perforée), muscle pedunculate.”’

The description in the Annals is much more extended and detailed,

occupying with the discussion an entire page. Orbiculoidea is thus

described:

animal attached (fixé); shell free, regularly corneous, suborbicular, inequi-

valve; lower valve concave, pierced in the deepest part by an elongated

opening, which is simple and lateral to the beak, and through which must

have issued a simple muscular pedicle attached only to the internal parts of

the valve. Upper valve conical, with the beak eccentric.

There follows a rather lengthy discussion of the relationship, both

as to resemblances and differences, of Orbiculoidea to Orbicula and

then to Orbicella, but the discussion rather throws new light on the

characters cited in the description than amplifies the description with

new characters. ‘The author adds, however, that 27 species of this

extinct genus are known to him, of which the first are from the “étage

Murchisonien,’’ the greatest number from the Carboniferous, and ioe

last from the Neocomian.

The diagnosis given in the Prodrome alt!ough considerably con-

densed is in substance the same as the diagnosis given in the Annals.

It has already been repeated in this paper in the quotation taken from

Halland Clarke. Their quotation, however, is not exact, punctuation,

diacritic marks, and even whole words having been changed, but the

changes do not affect the sense except in one instance, the substitution

of ‘‘ou”’ for ‘‘au,”’ apparently a clerical or typographic error. ‘To again

quote this description would be superfluous but the fact will bear repe-

tition that under it three species are cited and in the following order—

O. forbest, O. morrist, and O. davidsoni. So much for d’Orbigny’s

three descriptions of the genus Orbiculoidea.

As every one knows, the modern conception of a genus, taxonomi-

cally at least, is that the genus centers in a typical species, the geno-

type, and the rule for a long time held wide acceptance that if the

author of a genus did not name a genotype, as nearly all the early

authors failed to do, any one subsequently might select as the geno-

type one of the species originally cited, though he was required to

select the first of those species unless this procedure in some manner

thwarted the obvious intentions of the author. Proceeding under

this rule and applying it to the facts set forth above, I concluded in

1909, that O. forbesi was the genotype of Orbiculoidea and that Orbicu-

loidea d’Orbigny was a synonym of Schizotreta Kutorga.

MARCH 4, 1928 GIRTY: ORBICULOIDEA 133

Professor Prosser, however, takes exception to these conclusions on

the ground that an amelioration of the ‘‘first species’ rule had been

adopted two years prior to the publication of my report in 1909, or

about the time I was engaged in writing it. He says on this subject:?

The above case is apparently covered by the rules reported by the Inter-

national Commission on Zoological Nomenclature and adopted by the

Seventh International Zoological Congress in August, 1907. Article 30,

section g of these rules states that “If an author, in publishing a genus with

more than one valid species, fails to designate or to indicate its type, any

subsequent author may select the type, and such designation is not subject to

change. (Type by subsequent designation.) Section k of the reeommenda-

tions to this article further says that ‘If some of the original species have later

been classified in other genera, preference should be shown to the species

still remaining in the original genus (Type by elimination).’’ From the above

rule it appears that Hall and Clarke had the right to select a type for the genus

Orbiculoidea and since they did, that species is the genotype and the genus

Orbiculoidea stands.

In place of Orbiculoidea Dr. Girty uses provisionally Lingulidiscina which

was proposed by Whitfield (Lingulodiscina) for Lingula exilis Hall. It has

not yet been conclusively shown, however, that Whitfield’s genus Lingulo-

discina is identical with d’Orbigny’s Orbiculoidea. Dr. Girty states that

Orbiculoidea newberryi, which Schuchert in his synopsis of American fossil

Brachiopoda referred to the genus Lingulodiscina, ‘is certainly a member of

the Orbiculoidea group.’ This may have strengthened his opinion that these

two genera are identical; but the reference of O. newberryi to Lingulodiscina

was accidental, as is shown by the following quotation from a letter by

Professor Schuchert to the writer, dated July 2, 1906: ‘‘Certainly I have made a

mistake regarding Orbiculoidea newberryi, for it is not a Lingulodiscina. It

is an error I can not account for. When I received your letter I remembered

the species as a Orbiculoidea. Please make the change and I thank you for

directing my attention to it.”

The facts advanced by Professor Prosser undoubtedly are important

and give a new turn to the Orbiculoidea question, bearing as they do

upon both of its phases, the proper application of that name and the

availability of Lingulidiscina to replace it. So far as they bear on

the present phase, however, the validity of Orbiculoidea, I believe that

they really lead to a conclusion quite different from his.

My objections to Professor Prosser’s argument travel along two

distinct lines. It is of course tacitly understood that no rules of

nomenclature in biology can be actually enforced, that they are bind-

ing only as they appeal to the good judgment and impartiality of those

who work in that field, but we may assume that the ‘‘first species”’

rule and the two rules cited by Professor Prosser, which in a measure

supersede it, are on those grounds really binding on every one. If

7Cuas. S. Prosspr. The Devonian and Mississippian formations of northeastern

Ohio. Bull. Ohio Geol. Surv. (4) 15: 203. 1912.

134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 5

that is so, the rigid ‘‘first species” rule was binding on every one up to

1907, when the new and amended rules came into force. I agree with

Professor Prosser in the general thesis that I, publishing in 1909, was ~

bound by the rules of nomenclature adopted in 1907, and I would

expect him to agree with me that Hall and Clarke, publishing in 1892

were equally bound by the rules of nomenclature in force at that time.

But the rule of nomenclature in force in 1892 was the strict ‘‘first

species’ rule and I am unable to see how Hall and Clarke “‘had the

right’’ in 1892 to select the second species by virtue of an amendment

that was not adopted until fifteen years later, in 1907; yet this is what

Professor Prosser seems to say. Nor, I think, could the claim be

advanced that a genotype selected by Hall and Clarke in violation of

one part of the rule was established for ever by another part of the

same rule which states that such designation is not subject to change.

The crux of the situation, however, is found in a fact that Professor

Prosser seems to have overlooked, a fact that lies at its very core and

that diverts from my conclusions to his own the adverse force of the

rule that he invokes. He says namely “‘from the above rule it appears

that Hall and Clarke had the right to select a type for the genus Orbic-

uloidea and since they did, that species is the genotype and the genus

Orbiculoidea stands.’ It appears to me, on the contrary, not only

that Hall and Clarke had no right to select the particular genotype

that they did select, but that they had no right to select a genotype at

all because Dall had already selected one in 1877.

At this point it is necessary to consider what author first selected a

genotype for Orbiculoidea, and what genotype he selected. It is clear

from Dall’s comments that he did not know of any selection prior to his

own, and it is clear from what Hall and Clarke have written that they

also did not know of any prior toit. Dall’s selection, therefore, appears

to be the first and therefore the determining one. The only possible

exception lies in the fact that Davidson, who regarded Orbiculoidea and

Schizotreta as congeneric, employed Schizotreta elliptica, the type species

of Kutorga’s genus, as if it were the type species of d’Orbigny’s. Itis

doubtful if Davidson’s course has any direct bearing on the present

discussion, especially as S. elliptica was not one of the species originally

referred to Orbiculoidea by d’Orbigny nor indeed was it mentioned by

him in any way. |

The discussion must now be addressed to the question what species

is to be considered as having been selected by Dall as the genotype of

Orbiculoidea.

MARCH 4, 1928 GIRTY: ORBICULOIDEA 135

This work of Dall’s to which reference has already several times been

made, is entitled ‘‘Index to the Names which have been Applied to

Subdivisions of the Class Brachiopoda,’”’ and the author apparently

sets out to list all the names that had been employed for brachiopod

genera, to fix or crystallize the meanings of those names by determining

their typical species and to suggest the relations of the genera to one

another. ‘To many of the names he has appended notes of poignant

significance and to some rather lengthy discussions. Where the selec-

tion of a genotype fell to him he seems invariably to have followed the

‘first species’ rule. No exceptions to this practice were noted though

for obvious reasons only a relatively small number of genera were

eanvassed. As touching Orbiculordea he refers to the Comptes Rendus

and to the Annals with the remark ‘‘No examples cited’’ and follows

mention of the Prodrome with the comment:® ‘‘First speciesO. Morrisii,

‘d’Orbigny 1847’ ** *. Two other species cited as of ‘d’Orbigny 1848.’

It would appear as if O. Morrisii must be considered as the type.”’

That O. forbesz is really the first species cited under Orbiculoidea and

not O. morrisz has already been pointed out.

From the expressions here employed by Dall, and from the circum-

stance that he mentions O. morrisi as the “‘first species’”’ though it is in

fact the second species cited in the Prodrome, one might infer that Dall

had in mind not the sequence of names in that publication but rather

the date affixed to O. Morrisi by d’Orbigny, 1847, whereas the two

other species are cited as of d’Orbigny 1848. ‘The date for O. morrisz,

however, is an obvious misprint for 1848, so that as regards date of

citation under Orbiculoidea, all three species are on the same level.

The scheme of citation employed in the Prodrome, as explained on

page LIV of the introduction, is this: Under the genus is given first

the name of the species, then the name of the author who referred it to

its accepted genus with the date of transfer, then the citation in its

original form followed by the name of the original author and the

date of publication. In this instance the citation takes this form,

under Orbiculoidea—‘315. Morissiz, d’Orb., 1847. Orbicula Morissi,

Davidson, 1848” with the book reference and place of discovery.

It is obvious at a glance that d’Orbigny could not have referred this

species to Orbiculoidea in 1847 before it was described by Davidson

in 1848. The probability that the date 1847 is a misprint instead of a

reference to some transaction that no one has as yet noted, is enhanced

§W.H. Datu: Index to the names which have been applied to the subdivisions of the

Class Brachiopoda. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 8: 51. 1877.

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5

by the abundance of errors in this work, no less than three occurring

within the narrow limits of these three citations. The three species.

referred to Orbiculoidea in this place were all described by Davidson

under the same genus, in the same report, and of course under the same

date, 1848. That d’Orbigny cites them as having been also transferred

to the genus Orbiculoidea in 1848, is explained by the fact that he ex-

pected the Prodrome in which the transfer was made (and from which

I am quoting) to have been published on that date as already men-

tioned. ‘The date of transfer of all three species should, of course, be

changed to 1849 if not to 1850, but 1847 as printed is clearly a mistake

for 1848. This is one error; Morrisii, the name of the species, is mis-

spelled Morissii; and a third error is found in the species cited as

Orbiculoidea Davidsoni. This name was proposed in the Prodrome

(as if in 1848) in substitution for “‘Orbicula Koninckw’’ Davidson 1848

(non Geinitz 1848). Davidson’s species, however, was not called

Orbicula Konincki but Orbicula Verneuilit, confusion on my part being

impossible because d’Orbigny gives the place of original description.

Beyond reasonable question, then, the date 1847 for the transfer of

Orbicula morrist to Orbiculoidea was a misprint for 1848. All three

species were transferred at the same time in the Prodrome, whose date

should apparently be taken as 1850.

_ Dall was probably less liable to error in these matters than most of

us, but in this instance he clearly erred in one respect or the other.

He intended to name the ‘‘first species’ cited under Orbiculoidea as

the type of that genus; the fact that he actually named O. morrisi is

capable of but two explanations. He may have been fully aware that

all three species had simultaneously and for the first time been cited

under Orbiculoidea in the Prodrome, but by inadvertence have men-

tioned the second of these instead of the first; or he may have been

misled by the date appended to O. morrisi into the belief that that

species had been transferred to Orbiculoidea before the two others.

As regards the latter possibility, d’Orbigny’s error was on the face of

things so palpable in view of the year in which the species morrist was

published, that Dall could not have failed to notice it, and in addition

he had so immediately set down the Comptes Rendus as the only publi-

cation by d’Orbigny in 1847 relating to the genus Orbiculoidea with the

remark ‘‘No examples cited,”’ all this within the space of about four

lines, that he could not have interpreted the date 1847 as referring to

some transaction which was at the same time unnoted and essential

to note. That Dall had in mind the sequence of species in the Pro-

MARCH 4, 1928 GIRTY: ORBICULOIDEA 137

drome and that intending to name O. forbesi as the ‘‘first species,”

which in fact it was, he carelessly named O. morrisi, is by far the more

probably conclusion. Thus, on the one hand it is fairly certain that

Dall intended to name O. forbes: as the typical species of Orbiculoidea;

on the other hand, it is quite certain that he named Orbiculoidea

morrist, apparently an act of inadvertence. The question is squarely

put: the species that Dall intended to name or the one that he actually

did name? If there were any doubt in my mind as to Dall’s inten-

tions, or if his intentions followed any but the sole legitimate course,

and his own consistent practice, I would hesitate, but my own judg-

ment is clear that O. forbes: should be regarded as having been selected

by Dall as the typical species of Orbiculoidea. Indeed, if the ‘“‘first

species’’ rule is accepted as applying to all cases down to 1907, I do not

see how O. morrisi could have any standing on the basis of Dall’s per-

formance.

My understanding of the ‘‘first species” rule is that the International

Commission did in mass what they could not do in severalty—select

the first species of all undesignated genera as genotypes. Individual

workers were merely commissioned to specify the first species as each

of those genera came up for revision. If they failed to name the first

species, except for some valid reason, such as that to do so would

thwart the original author’s intention, their action was without

authority and without effect.

On this understanding, if Dall’s selection of a genotype for Orbicu-

loidea was the first species—as I think he intended it to be—then

O. forbesi is the genotype. If, however, his selection was the species

which he accidentally named, O. morrisz, his selection was void and the

genus still remains undesignated so far as he was concerned. [If this

is true of Dall’s selection it is equally true of Hall and Clarke’s. Orbic-

uloidea then continued to be without a specified genotype until 1909,

when I treated it as if typified by O. forbesi, in obedience to the first

species rule. But by that time the first species rule had been modi-

fied in the terms already quoted from Prosser. Prosser’s application

of the modified rule to Hall and Clarke’s discussion is obviously beside

the mark; the modifications could not possibly apply to something

that was done 15 years previously. They would apply, however, to

what I did in 1909, and what I did was in some measure an infraction

of them inasmuch as I used the first species as the genotype, whereas

the rule reads that if some of the species have later been classified in

other genera, preference should be given to the species still remaining

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5

in the original genus. ‘This, it will be remarked, is not an injunction

but a recommendation, but if it is thought to invalidate my use of

O. forbesi as the genotype of Orbiculoidea, Orbiculoidea would appear to

be without a valid genotype even at the present writing. In my

judgment, Dall’s selection should be regarded as the determining one

and he should be regarded as having selected the ‘‘first species,”

O. forbest.

The year from which Orbiculoidea takes its date is not beyond our

present concern. The genus was undoubtedly described in 1847,

whereas the genus Schizotreta was not described until 1848. If the

genera are accepted as established on those dates and if they should

prove to be synonymous, then Schizotreta would yield to Orbiculoidea,

not Orbiculoidea to Schizotreta. Dall, Davidson, and d’Orbigny date

Orbiculoidea from 1847; Hall and Clark use 1850. As the being of a

genus, according to modern ideas, is centered in a typical species, a

generic name can not be accepted as established until species are named

under it, one of which by selection, either original or subsequent, be-

comes its genotype. A bald generic description does not constitute

validity. If this is so, Orbiculoidea is validly dated only from the

Prodrome, whereas Schizotreta is validly dated from 1848. But the

year from which the Prodrome should be dated is itself somewhat

doubtful.

The description of Orbiculoidea in the Prodrome occurs in the first

volume, and the copy of that volume now before me bears the imprint

of 1850. The third volume, by the way, is dated 1852. Dall dates

the Prodrome, at least the first volume and consequently the genus

Orbiculoidea, as of 1849. Hall and Clarke cite the same date in the

first quotation from their monograph, but cite 1850 in the later quota-

tion. The adoption of the date 1849 appears to be explained by a

remark found on page 59 of the introduction to the Prodrome, where

d’Orbigny says that he completed the work in 1847 and expected to

publish it in 1848 but owing to political cireumstances, he was unable

to bring it out before 1849. That d’Orbigny was disappointed in the

hope of publishing his work in 1849 seems much more likely than that

it was actually published in 1849 with the false imprint 1850. Unless

other facts are brought to light the first volume of the Prodrome and

the date of the genus Orbiculoidea should be taken as of the year 1850.

On these grounds I reach the conclusion that Schizotreta has priority

over Orbiculoidea, that the type species of Orbiculoidea is O. forbesz,

and that if O. forbesi is a Schizotreta, Orbiculoidea becomes a synonym.

MARCH 4, 1928 GIRTY: ORBICULOIDEA 139

Of the premises which seemed to justify me in diverting d’Orbigny’s

name Orbiculoidea from the group of species to which Hall and Clarke

wished to apply it, several have already been considered. I have

attempted to show that the first valid description occurs in the Pro-

drome, and that the Prodrome was not published until 1849, or more

probably 1850, so that Schizotreta has priority over Orbiculoidea.

The various attempts to select a genotype have also been discussed

together with their standing under the rules of nomenclature governing

such selection, with the result that Dall’s selection was found to be the

first and that, in pursuance of his obvious intention, it seemed best to

regard the first species, O. forbesi, as the genotype of Orbiculoidea.

It remains to consider whether Orbiculoidea and Schizotreta are distinct

genera or subgenera, and whether O. forbesi is a Schizotreta or an

“Orbiculoidea’”’ as those names were employed by Hall and Clarke.

In my original discussion of Orbiculoidea I accepted Hall and Clarke’s

dictum that Schizoireta and ‘‘Orbiculoidea”’ were distinct genera, or as

they estimated values, subgenera. On this head those authors say

(p. 136) that Schizotreta Kutorga ;

may very well stand to include those forms essentially in agreement with

Orbiculoidea, d’Orbigny, but having thicker shells and the relative convexity

of the valves reversed, bearing, in fine, the same relation to d’Orbigny’s

genus as Strophonella to Strophodonta, among the articulate brachiopods.

Several additional characters of possible value in distinguishing the

two genera are suggested by a reading of Kutorga’s description. He

says namely that Schizotreta is marked by fine radial striae (radial-

leistchen) and that the shell is not phosphatic (keineswegs hornartig)

but like that of the other Siphonotretacaeae. The radial striae may,

however, be only such irregular, almost casual lines as may be seen

on some of our common Paleozoic discinoids. Furthermore, though I

would interpret “‘hornartig’’ as refering to that shiny phosphatic

appearance which is characteristic of discinoid shells in their fossil

state, this interpretation is possibly a mistake, for the shell substance

of Szphonotreta is described by Hall and Clarke as caleareo-corneous

- and apparently not different from that of Orbiculoidea. ‘Therefore, the

distinction suggested by Kutorga’s term “‘hornartig,’”’ even if correctly

understood, may be only a matter of preservation. Let the distinction

between these genera then rest merely on the relative convexity of the

valves and the thickness of the shell.

In the type species of Schizotreta the brachial valve is depressed con-

vex, more often flat, and the pedicle valve strongly conical, just the re-

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 5 |

verse of the relation common in “‘Orbiculoidea.’’ On these grounds I

am fain to accept the judgment expressed by Hall and Clarke that

Schizotreta and ‘“‘Orbiculoidea”’ may advantageously be distinguished but

Ican not grant that thedistinction between them is on a parity with that

between Strophodonta and Strophonella. Passing over the fact that the

distinction between those articulate genera only comes about in the

later growth stages, we must nevertheless recognize that the reversal

in curvature of the valves of Strophonella is such that though both gen-

era are concavo-convex, in Sirophodonta the pedicle valve is convex and

brachial valve concave, whereas in Strophonella the pedicle valve is

concave and the brachial valve convex. In the two discinoid genera,

on the other hand, both valves are convex. Neither is the pedicle

valve in ‘“‘Orbiculoidea’”’ concave as it is in Strophonella, nor is the

brachial valve in Schizotreta concave as it is in Strophodonta. The

curvature of the valves is not reversed, merely their relative convexity.

The difference between Strophonella and Strophodonta may be of the

same character only carried further. It is, however, carried much

further. The difference between Schizotreta and ‘‘Orbiculoidea”’

would appear more aptly compared to that between Rhipidomella and

Schizophoria or perhaps between Dalmanella and Schizophoria. In

those orthoid types, however, the difference in configuration is sup-

ported and emphasized by accompanying differences in the size and

shape of the muscular imprints. }

Let us, however, accept Hall and Clarke’s conclusion that Schizotreta

and “Orbiculoidea’’ are valid groups distinguished by the characters

set forth above, and turn to the question whether Orbiculoidea forbesi

is a Schizotreta or an ““Orbiculoidea.’”’ Hall and Clarke are very posi-

tive on this point and the conclusions that I reached in 1909 were in

great measure due to an acceptance of their opinion without a personal

investigation of thefacts. This wasilldone. ‘To quote from Hall and

Clarke—they say on p. 129 that Davidson’s description of Orbicula

morrist supplemented by McCoy’s show it to be in precise harmony

with the paleozoic discinas generally, “while those species now passing

under the name of Orbiculoidea, Davidson, are distinctive in having the .

relative convexity of the valves reversed, the pedicle valve being the

more convex.’’? Whether this is generally true or not, is of little

moment; our concern is only with O. forbesi which is one of Davidson’s

orbiculoideas. Of this more anon. Again, on p. 136, they say, “It

thus appears that there is no essential difference in Schizotreta, Kutorga

and Orbiculoidea, Davidson,’’ and on p. 160 that ‘‘O. Forbesi, David-

MARCH 4, 1928 GIRTY: ORBICULOIDEA 141

son, is unquestionably congeneric with Schiaotreta elliptica, Kutorga.”’

This is said to have been “shown” on p. 136, but O. forbesz is not

mentioned on that page and the only thing that can in any sense be

regarded as shown there is that all these types have the pedicle valve

constructed on essentially the same plan, Schizotreta Kutorga as

based on S. elliptica, Orbiculoidea of Davidson (as including if not

typified by O. forbesz), and authentic Orbiculoidea d’Orbigny (as typi-

fied, according to Hall and Clarke, by O. morrisz).

In view of these repeated assertions, one is somewhat surprised to

find Davidson both describing and figuring O. forbes: with the upper

or brachial valve more convex than the pedicle valve. ‘This is true

whether one consults the original publication in French, appearing in

1848, or his later and better known Monograph on British Brachiopoda.

The pedicle valve may be rather more convex than the pedicle valve of

our orbiculoideas commonly is, though not abnormally so, but it is

distinctly less convex than the accompanying brachial valve. If

Schizotreta and Orbiculoidea are distinguished only in the manner sug-

gested by Hall and Clarke, O. forbesi is an Orbiculoidea and not a

Schizotreta. Davidson, it will be recalled, regarded Schizotreta as

identical with Orbiculoidea and because he accepted 1847 as the date

of publication for Orbiculoidea, he employed d’Orbigny’s name in pref-

erence to Kutorga’s. In discussing the brachiopod genera recog-

nized in his monograph, he uses a figure of Orbiculoidea elliptica as

representative of the genus Orbiculoidea, Orbiculoidea elliptica being of

course Kutorga’s species Schizotreta elliptica, typical of that genus.

Davidson’s figure, however, shows a large shell in which the upper

valve is distinctly more convex than the lower, a shell markedly differ-

ent in both respects from authentic S. elliptica of Kutorga and appar-

ently a quite distinct species. Davidson’s Orbiculoidea elliptica seems

much more naturally associated with his O. forbesi, likewise a large

shell, and if any distinction is to be made among them, O. forbesi,

O. morrist, and O. elliptica Davidson non Kutorga would seem to

belong in one group and Schizotreta elliptica Kutorga in another, pretty

much as d’Orbigny arranged them, though he took no cognizance of

Kutorga’s work nor of Davidson’s identification of O. elliptica, which

came later. If Davidson’s identification of Orbiculoidea elliptica be

accepted, then apparently Orbiculoidea and Schizotreta are the same

thing, for his figure has every appearance of being a true Orbiculoidea.

They are also the same thing if O. forbesi is admitted into the genus

Schizotreta, as Hall and Clarke state positively that it should be, for the

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18 No.5

distinction that they try to make between the two genera becomes

impractical if not fanciful in as much as O. forbes: differs less from the ©

normal Orbiculoidea in the relative convexity of the valves than from

typical Schizotreta. In either contingency Schizotreta and Orbiculoidea

would appear to be synonymous, a relationship that has been main-

tained by a number of authors; and if the two names do cover essen-

tially the same types of structure and configuration then I believe

that Schizotreta should be retained in preference to Orbiculoidea as

having had a prior valid description. The evidence seems, however,

rather to indicate on the one hand that O. elliptica of Davidson is not

the same species as Schizotreta elliptica Kutorga or even congeneric

with it, and on the other that Orbiculoidea forbes: is a true Orbiculoidea.

Thus the two errors that I attribute to Hall and Clarke cancel each

other. The type species of Orbiculoidea is not O. morrisi as they wished

to make it, but O. forbesi. O.forbesz on the other hand is not a Schizo-

treta as they affirmed but a true ‘‘Orbiculoidea.’’ My previous con-

clusions, reached by accepting one of these premises and rejecting

the other now seem to me untenable. Orbiculoidea now seems properly

employed for the group of species covered under it by Hall and Clarke,

though even the premises relied on for this conclusion are liable to

revision. Where, as here, the evidence available is so largely com-

prised in books rather than in specimens one is especially liable to

misconceptions and misjudgments, for one is dealing with part of the

evidence only and with facts as they are transformed by the lenses

of so many different minds.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

712TH MEETING

The 712th meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

December 3, 1927, at 8:10 p.m., with President GoLDMAN in the chair and

82 persons present. New member elected: F. C. BisHop.

Titus ULKeE: Flora of Yoho Park (illustrated)—The speaker gave an

account of his work during several summers in Yoho Park, British Columbia,

illustrated by slides showing characteristic Alpine scenery and many flowers

in colors. The rocks almost throughout the park are calcareous shales.

Three life zones are represented, the Arctic-Alpine; the Hudsonian, and

the Canadian.

G. F. Stumons, Cleveland Museum of Natural History: Natural history

notes from the cruise of the ““Blossom’’ in the South Atlantic (illustrated).—

MARCH 4, 1928 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 143

The speaker described his experiences on the natural history cruise of the

“Blossom” to western Africa and various islands of the south Atlantic,

making particular mention of the birds and flora of the islands visited.

713TH MEETING

The 713th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club December 17, 1927, at 8:10 p.m., with President Gotpman in the

chair and 115 persons present. New members elected: Eumer Hicers,

G. F. Smmrons, R. O. Santa

F. C. Lincoun reported the recovery of an Arctic Tern, banded in Labra-

dor in 1927, at La Rochelle, France. This is the first time an American

banded bird has been taken in Europe.

S. F. Buake read from a Manila newspaper a notice of the shooting of a

swallow, banded in Japan, in the Philippine Islands.

Paut G. Repineton: Informal discussion of some biological problems.

The speaker illustrated the problems presented to the Biological Survey

for solution by discussing the question of placing a close season on woodcock.

Evidence as to the increase or decrease of this bird under present conditions

is conflicting and there is neither time nor funds for a thorough survey of

actual conditions by trained ornithologists. Under the circumstances, the

only practicable method of obtaining information has been the circulation

of questionnaires, and the evidence derived from these points unmistakably

to the general decrease of the bird in its range as a whole, although it may be

holding its own in some localities. The question of tularaemia in wild

animals other than rabbits was briefly referred to. The migration of cambou

during the past summer near Fairbanks, Alaska, has been the greatest ever

known in that region, the number of animals being estimated at 500,000 to

_750,000. In discussion, CHARLES SHELDON stated that he doubted whether

this migration indicated a recent great increase in numbers, and was rather

of the opinion that excessive numbers in this region were due to circum-

stances of migration. E. P. Watker concurred in this belief.

JoHN M. Houzworts: Motion pictures of mountain sheep, mountain goats,

caribou and other tig game from Alaska and Idaho (illustrated)—_The speaker

showed a remarkable series of pictures taken in the region of the Salmon

River, Idaho, in the Smoky River Country, in the Yukon, and elsewhere in

the Northwest and gave an interesting commentary on the pictures as they

were shown.

S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The Smithsonian Institution has awarded the Walter Rathbone Bacon

research fellowship for the years 1928-1930 to Dr. Paul Bartsch, curator of

mollusks in the National Museum. Dr. Bartsch will make use of the award

to collect material for the completion of a monograph on the land shells of

the West Indies. The fellowship, established under the terms of the will of

Mrs. Virginia Purdy Bacon of New York, became available in 1924. It is

given for two years and may be extended; a report is made to Smithsonian

and all collections, photographs, records and equipment become the prop-

erty of the Institution.

144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL. 18, No.5

Professor H. H. Barrietr of the University of Michigan spent two weeks

at the National Herbarium working on his Sumatran collections. The

grasses have been identified at the Grass Herbarium. Most of the other

phanerogams are to be determined by Dean E. D. Merrill of California, and

the ferns by Dr. E. B. Copeland.

B.S. Butuer of the U. 8. Geological Survey will give a series of lectures on

mining geology at the University of Arizona, and will be on leave of absence

from the Survey until the end of May.

A. C. SpeNcER has gone to Socorro, New Mexico, for a stay of several

months to complete his work on the Santa Rita district. His headquarters

will be at the New Mexico School of Mines, at Socorro.

Dr. R. S. Basster, Curator of Stratigraphic Paleontology in the National

Museum, was recently elected Secretary of the Paleontological Society of

America for the 20th year.

BatLeEY Wituis, President of the Geological Society of America, has re-

cently been in Washington for conference on scientific matters.

Prof. C. K. Lerru of University of Wisconsin visited Washington en route

to New York and the West Indies.

Dr. E. C. ANDREWs, Government Geologist of New South Wales, addressed

the Geological Society of Washington, and less formally the geologists of the

U.S. Geological Survey, on the geology of the Broken Hilldistrict, Australia,

and the tectonics of the Pacific.

Prof. Dayton C. Mriuumre, of the Case School of Applied Science, Cleve-

land, Ohio, gave an experimental lecture, Photographing and analyzing sound

waves, before the AcapEMy February 16. The general nature of sound and

sound waves was discussed, and a detailed explanation of noise and tone,

and of pitch, loudness and tone-quality was given. A method for obtaining

photographic records of sound waves was described, and numerous photo-

graphs were shown. By means of the ‘‘Phonodeik,” “living” sound waves

from the speaker’s voice, from various musical instruments, and from singing

and whistling were projected on the screen.

The Ore Deposits Club met at the Geological Survey on February 14. T.

S. LovERING presented a paper by B. 8S. BurLEeR and W. 8S. BurBank, of the

Colorado office of the Survey, on The relation of electrode potentials of some

elements to the formation of hypogene ore deposits. ‘There was general discus-

sion of the question whether the solutions given off by a magma are acid during

the early stages of ore-deposition. The evidence on this point is inconclusive.

DonaLp C. Barton, consulting geologist, of Houston, Texas, lectured at

the Interior Department on February 16, on The use of the torsion balance in

geophysical prospecting.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

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Tuesday, March 6 The Botanical Society

‘Wednesday, March 7 ‘The Medical Society

Pe) be The Washington Society of Engineers

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, ‘ C. H. Kunsman—A comparison of the physical and chem-

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fee of gases.

i Fee Lanstna S. Wetis—Reaction of water on the caleium

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The Helminthological Society

Tuesday, March 19 The Anthropological Society

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noon. Dr. Cart W. BisHopr will speak on archeological re-

search in China.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 Marcu 19, 1928 No. 6

PALEONTOLOGY.—Prehistoric ornithology in North America.!

ALEXANDER WETMORE, Smithsonian Institution.

When one considers that the number of forms of living birds known

at the present time is approximately 25,000, the fossil species that

have been discovered are remarkably few. The most recent synopsis

of the fossil birds of the world, that of Koloman Lambrecht, published

in 1921, includes only 700 species, part of them of doubtful identity;

the list has been increased slightly in the seven years that have passed

since this publication. At the present date there have been described

154 species known only as fossils from that part of continental North

America which lies north of Mexico (but including the peninsula of

Lower California), this being the area included by the American

Ornithologists’ Union in its official Check-List. To complete the

_ roster of fossil forms for this region we must add 105 species now living

whose bones are found in deposits of Pleistocene age, so that the list

includes at the present moment 259 names. The total is less than

that for any other group of vertebrates except the amphibia for this

region. ‘The fossil reptiles according to data supplied by Dr. O. P.

Hay, now number 1011, or nearly four times the number of birds,

while the amphibians (without reference to supposed members of this

group named from tracks alone) reach a total of 156.

That comparatively few students have taken up serious work on

our fossil birds may be due to three factors: first, the small numbers in

which fossil bird bones ordinarily occur; second, the incompleteness of

the specimens in most cases; and third, the lack of skeletal material in

most museums for comparative use.

1 Presidential address delivered before the Acapemy January 10, 1928. Received

January 26, 1928.

145

146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 6

It is true that there have been occasional deposits in Pleistocene beds

in North America where bones of birds have been found in great

abundance, as at Fossil Lake in Oregon, and in the pitch deposits at

Rancho La Brea in California, but these are exceptional both in

number of individuals and in range of species represented. Ordinarily

the careful collector of vertebrate fossils finds no bird remains what-

ever, or at most recovers only a few fragments in the course of a

season’s explorations in the field. Most of these are secured in-

cidentally in other excavations, the majority of bird bones being small

and easily overlooked, or of such form as to offer little promise, so

that when only partially exposed they may be disregarded by the

searcher for striking specimens.

Bird remains in the fossil beds below the Pleistocene are charac-

teristically fragmentary or broken. Leg and wing bones are those most

usually encountered, with occasional parts of vertebrae, pelves, sterna

or ribs. Seldom are more than the merest fragments of skulls secured,

and on relatively few occasions have complete skeletons been found.

Birds as individuals exist in enormous numbers, and as there is

naturally a constant mortality among them it might be expected that

their remains would be abundant. ‘There is no reason to suppose that

birds were less common during the Tertiary than now; in fact there is

ground to believe that they may have been more numerous prior to

the Recent Period than in the present century. Our present race of

civilized man was not then developed to trouble them: and there is

no question but that the rising dominance of man in the last hundred

years has had far reaching effect in reducing the total numbers of

birds, both by his personal activity in hunting, and by the changes in

ecological conditions that have attended his agricultural and com-

mercial developments. Many of our existing species are now able to

maintain their living status only through restrictions arranged for

their benefit by those far-sighted persons who realize the necessity

for conservation in connection with our remaining wild creatures.

It would seem then that in previous geologic ages there may have

been more birds present in North America than exist today. That

few seem to have been preserved as fossils is apparently due to the

fact that the bones of birds are so light that they are easily destroyed.

Most of the limb bones have a hollow center, with comparatively thin

walls of dense, rather brittle structure, and when subjected to undue

pressure are crushed or broken. Most birds die through capture by

some predator, or if overtaken by disease are eaten promptly by some

scavenger. As the majority are of small or medium size they are often

MARCH 19, 1928 WETMORE: PREHISTORIC ORNITHOLOGY 147

entirely consumed, and their bones comminuted or destroyed by the

strong digestion of the creature that has found or captured them.

That this destruction is the usual course when birds die will be

attested by field naturalists when they reflect upon the hundreds and

thousands of living birds that are seen and the relatively small number

_ of instances in which remains of dead birds are encountered. Armies

of predatory or scavenger creatures, many of them unnoticed by the

average individual, destroy the carcases immediately upon death.

The bones that in past ages through fortuitous chance have escaped

this destruction are frequently of little moment to the paleontologist.

Bones of the toes, ends of the ulna, broken bits of the coracoid, or

fragments and slivers from the shafts of long bones, all of which are

common as fossils, ordinarily offer no distinctive characters, and, in the

main, should be disregarded by the careful student. Unfortunately

through the enthusiasm of early workers in the science these have

served frequently as the basis of description for names that are now

stumbling blocks in modern paleontological studies.

In work in the field I have been interested in observing the skeletal

remains of birds, and have found that chance today seems to favor the

preservation of exactly the same type of fragments as those found

among Tertiary fossils. The body of a duck or a heron is eaten by

some coyote or vulture which tears out the breast and the viscera,

destroying part of the sternum, breaks the skull to obtain the brain,

and mangles the wings and thighs. The remaining portions dry

somewhat, and the flesh is removed either fresh or dried by the work

of insects. The broken skeleton is light, and unless anchored by

vegetation, blows about with the wind or is swept by running water.

Bit by bit if falls apart and is scattered over the space of several

square feet. Occasional bones are buried in such a way that they may

be subject to decay, or, less often, where they may be preserved.

Even where vertebrate scavengers are not active delicate portions

and many of the more sturdy bones disappear.

Imperfect preservation is common where predatory enemies are

absent. On the islets in the Hawaiian Bird Reservation thousands

upon thousands of birds of moderate size live without interference

from the usual enemies that prey upon birds in continental areas. It

might be expected that here complete skeletons would be preserved

in large quantity since there is the usual regular mortality among the

assemblage. I found, however, that even here the carcases dis-

integrated while the thinner parts of skulls, sterna and pelves, under

the combined effect of sun, rain, and wind-blown sand, were corroded

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 6

away, and the firmer bones were scattered by violent gales. On

Laysan Island many found a resting place in the concentrated saline

waters of the shallow, central lagoon, and here on investigation I

found a veritable cemetery of bird remains, mostly composed of the

long bones, characteristic of fossil deposits. These thousands of

fragments were being steadily buried in the sands that blew in upon

them so that the lagoon at Laysan may be a possible source of fossil

deposits for study in the remote future if then there still exist beings

interested or capable in such research. The situation on Laysan

suggests that similar conditions have operated on many oceanic islands,

and that there is opportunity for discovery of extinct forms of life

when these are found and properly exploited. Formation of such

large deposits seems to occur only under exceptional circumstances,

it being more usual for only scattered fragments to be preserved.

The certain history of the class of birds as known in North America

at the present time must be considered to begin with the Cretaceous

period of geologic time. It is true that there is one species called

Laopteryx priscus, described by Marsh from the Morrison formation

of southern Wyoming, that in late years, without particular reason,

has been listed in the same family with Archaeopteryx of the Old World.

As there is, however, some doubt that Laopteryx is actually avian,

its systematic position must .be considered vague until it has been

more carefully studied. Another fragment, described by Emmons

in 1857 as Palaeonornis struthionoides, from what are considered

possibly Triassic beds in North Carolina, is also so doubtfully avian

as not to merit consideration at this time.

The first fragment of a fossil bird from this continent of which we

have record, a part of a tibia, was secured by S. W. Conrad in Cre-

taceous marl beds near Arneytown, New Jersey. This was men-

tioned in 1834 by Dr. Morton in his ‘‘Synopsis of the Organic Re-

mains of the Cretaceous in the United States,” as a species of Scolopaz,

but was not actually described until 1870 when Marsh bestowed upon

it the name Palaeotringa vetus.

The birds found in the Cretaceous period of greatest interest are

species known to have teeth, first described from specimens found

by Marsh and parties under his direction in the Niobrara beds of

western Kansas. Of prime importance among these are the members

of the family Hespercrnithidae, in which there are at present recog-

nized five species. Several practically complete skeletons have been

discovered so that in spite of their antiquity these fossil forms are

fairly well known. ‘The species of Hesperornis were diving birds with

MARCH 19, 1928 WETMORE: PREHISTORIC ORNITHOLOGY 149

greatly elongated bodies, strong legs, paddle-like feet, and long necks,

with the jaws set with sharply pointed teeth placed in continuous

grooves. The vertebrae were saddle-shaped like those of modern

birds. The lower jaw had teeth set along the entire length, but in the

upper jaw teeth were placed on the maxilla alone, the premaxilla

being smooth, so that apparently even at this remote date there

began a tendency to tooth reduction which has resulted in the tooth-

less jaws found in modern birds. The various species of Hes-

perornis lived in the shallow seas that covered parts of the interior of

our country in the Cretaceous, and from their form seemed to have

fed on fish which they captured by diving. They were so adapted

for aquatic life that they had entirely lost the power of flight. In

fact the wing is known from the humerus alone which is reduced to a

slender, curved stylus, the head of which has so slight an articulation

on the scapular arch that it is evident that it had little function. It

is possible that the remaining wing elements were represented by

rudimentary bones but these have not been identified, and if present

at all they must have been very small.

Early constructions of the skeleton represented Hesperornis in an

upright attitude, but on more careful examination of the articular

surfaces of the leg bones it was found that the legs projected at right

angles from the body so that it is doubtful if the bird could stand on

them at all. It appears that Hesperornis presented the most highly

specialized developments for aquatic life of any bird yet known. It

travelled through the water by propulsion of its tremendously powerful

feet, which are of such form and have such size in relation to the re-

mainder of the skeleton that it is probable that at need the bird could

develop the speed and agility in turning found in the modern shark

or porpoise. On land, if it ventured at any time on terra firma, it must

have progressed like a hair seal, prostrate on the breast; it is possible

that it built a nest of floating vegetation in the water like the modern

grebes, and seldom if ever did more than flounder out on shore to rest

in the sun. If its eggs were placed on shore they must have been

deposited near the water’s edge like those of loons.

Marsh, deceived by the flat sternum, on which there is no keel for

the attachment of flight muscles, characterized Hesperornis as ‘‘a

carnivorous, Swimming ostrich” while later authors have considered

it as perhaps ancestral to the modern grebes and loons. In point of

fact Hesperornis is so highly specialized that it is doubtful that it may

be considered ancestral to any modern form other than that it repre-

sents a type of bird that lived at an earlier age. Resemblances to

150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 6

Hesperornis seen in modern species appear to be merely those charac-

terizing birds as a group, or are the preservation in a few of ancient

characters which in the Cretaceous may have been developed in all

forms of birds.

The second type of toothed bird, described from the Cretaceous by

Marsh, is [chihyornis, a genus in which seven species are at present

recognized. Ichthyornis victor and I. dispar, the two that are best

known, in body were about as large as a domestic pigeon. The neck

was long, and the head was large and strong, with long jaws im-

planted with many small, sharply pointed, recurved teeth set in

sockets. The wings were large, long and strong, the sternum heavily

keeled and the legs and feet comparatively weak. The biconcave

vertebrae, which have the form found in fish and some amphibians

and are unlike those of any other bird, were the most peculiar feature

of the group. Jchthyornis was entirely different from Hesperornis in

that it was pre-eminently developed for flying. That it flew by

feathers, and not by means of a skin membrane as do bats, is shown by

tubercles for the attachment of secondary feathers on the ulna, and

the ankylosis of the metacarpal elements into one bone to form a firm

support for the primaries, the long wing feathers on the outer part of

the wing. As a flying form it is apparently nearer the central stem

from which has come our modern birds than.is Hesperornis. Ichthy-

ornis, however, shows primitive tendencies in that it still carries the

amphicoelous or biconcave type of vertebral articulation, so that it

combines the ancient with the new, as a grandmother may don the

dress of a modern maiden. Jchthyornis has been postulated as

ancestral to modern terns or skimmers, but here again I believe that

resemblance is merely convergent due to the restriction placed by

method in flight on the evolution of bodily form in birds. It is my

belief that birds of the Cretaceous had as varied form as those of

modern times, and that there is no direct linear connection between

the few fossils of this time yet known and existing groups.

Certain other Cretaceous fossils, (Apatornis celer, and Baptornis

advenus) from the Niobrara beds, are placed among the toothed birds.

There have been described also from the Cretaceous of New Jersey

three species of a genus known as Palaeotringa that are currently

located in the modern family Scolopacidae which contains the snipes,

and three more of the genus Telmatornis that are allocated in the family

Rallidae among the rails. Another, Laornis edvardsianus, is consid-

ered as an anserine bird of the family Anatidae, or ducks, geese and

swans. It is very probable that none of these has anything to do with

ee ae

MARCH 19, 1928 WETMORE: PREHISTORIC ORNITHOLOGY 151

the existing families in which they have been grouped, and that all

should be placed lower, near Hesperornis and Ichthyornis. From the

evidence of the two genera last mentioned, the only forms in which

the jaws have been found, it would appear that teeth are a character

to be expected in all ornithic forms of the Cretaceous, and that we

should not, therefore, put any Cretaceous bird in a modern family

unless its skeleton is completely known.

With the beginning of the Tertiary there is a sudden change in

our known fossil avifauna. Toothed birds have disappeared, and the

forms found are more like modern types so that the greater number of

the approximately 25:species of fossil birds that have been described

from the Eocene of North America are now placed in modern families.

It may be said that a number of these have been named from very

inadequate material and that some, perhaps, may not be birds, as the

bones from which they have been described are so fragmentary as to

make it difficult to decide whether they belong in the class Aves or

elsewhere among the vertebrates. Others on further study may be

found sufficiently peculiar to warrant their separation as distinct from

living families.

Diatryma steini from the Lower Eocene (Lower Wasatch) of

Wyoming is one of the few fossil birds found that is represented by a

nearly complete skeleton. This great bird stood nearly seven feet in

height and was developed for a terrestrial life. It possessed strong

legs, and a heavy head, with a great, arched bill, and very small,

almost aborted wings. Superficially it suggests the remarkable

Phororhacos of Patagonia, and probably was similar in habit. It has

been described fully by Matthew and Granger but has not been

carefully studied so that its exact affinities are uncertainly known.

It is placed at present near the cranes and rails, but does not seem to

have very close affinity with either.

Another form that is known from a nearly complete skeleton is

Gallinuloides wyomingensis from the middle Eocene (Green River)

of Wyoming, a gallinaceous form, typical of a special family related

to the curassows and guans, fowl-like birds that live among the

branches of trees. Minerva saurodosis of the same age is apparently

a primitive owl, while Presbyornis is a shore-bird placed in a separate

family from any of our modern species. It seems to have resembled

an avocet but probably was more aquatic and swam more readily.

Nautilornis was an auklike form that differs from modern auks in

that it seems adapted for wading as well as for swimming. Other

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 6

species that have been described from this age are so fragmentary as

to be uncertain in character.

Bird remains from the Oligocene of North America are as yet few

so that to date only six species have been recorded. ‘Two of these,

a cormorant, and a supposed pheasant named by Shufeldt, are of

uncertain status. The only important deposit of this age that has

yielded much bird material to the present is one in Weld County,

Colorado, where collectors from the Colorado Museum of Natural

History in Denver, in exhuming great series of such mammals as

Trigonias, Symborodon and Archaeothervum, have uncovered a few

bones of birds. From these the speaker has recently described four

species representing peculiar genera not known in modern times.

Phasmagyps patritus is a vulture related to the living black vulture

but about one half larger. Palaeogyps prodromus, in the same family,

is more like the California condor but is only two-thirds as large,

Palaeocrex fax is a large gallinule, apparently between two and three

feet in height, and Bathornis veredus is a species of the shore-bird family

of thick-knees or Gidicnemidae. Bathornis was peculiar in possess-

ing a hind toe which is missing in living representatives of the family.

Further species of extinct birds from the Oligocene will be awaited

with interest since in this age we may expect the earliest species that

are at all closely similar to those living today.

The 23 birds certainly allocated to the Miocene include a consider-

able variety of forms. In Colorado, in the deposits known as the

Florissant lake beds, famous for the insect and plant remains that

that they have produced during the past fifty years, there have been

found remains of several birds. A plover has been described as

Charadrius sheppardianus, while another species, a perching bird

about as large as a cedar waxwing or bluebird, has been named

Palaeospiza bella by J. A. Allen. During a recent examination of the

type of the latter species I found that it is representative of a peculiar

family to be known as the Palaeospizidae, which belongs near the base

of the oscinine subfamily of the perching birds, immediately above

the larks, or Alaudidae.

Another avian species from these same Florissant beds has had a

curious history. In 1883 the paleobotanist Lesquereux named

Fontinalis pristina from a specimen that he thought was a bit of a

fossil moss. In 1916 Knowlton called attention to this species indi-

cating that the fragment on which it was based was not a plant, but

was in reality a bit of afeather. Fontinalis must, therefore, be trans-

MARCH 19, 1928 WETMORE: PREHISTORIC ORNITHOLOGY 153

ferred to the avian list where it is placed in the group of zncertae sedis

without hope ever of ascertaining its proper relationships.

Among other Miocene fossils there have been found in the beds

of diatomaceous earth at Lompoc, California, a number of birds

from which Loye Miller has described six species, a shearwater,

three gannets or boobies, an auklet, and a shore-bird. ‘These occur as

flattened impressions or silhouettes in beds of nearly pure diatomaceous

material. The birds found are mainly fish-eaters that may have come

to a shallow Miocene bay to feed on myriads of herrings whose remains

abound in the same beds. The most abundant bird is Puffinus

diatomicus, a shearwater allied to the living blackvented shearwater.

Limosa vanrossem? is a godwit much like the modern marbled godwit.

Sula willetti, a booby somewhat like the living red-footed booby, is of

interest in that it shows the same type of closed external nostril found

in modern Sulidae, indicating the great antiquity of this character.

The bone in these specimens has been so altered that on exposure to

the air it crumbles and disappears, leaving only an impression that in

turn is evanescent, as the material in which it is formed is soft and

friable. |

The Miocene of the Sheep Creek and Snake Creek beds of north-

western Nebraska under exploration by the American Museum of

Natural History, Princeton University, the Carnegie Museum, and

Mr. Harold Cook, has yielded a fair number of bones of birds from

which I have described seven species, including a hawk, Buteo

typhoius, related to the modern red-tail, two small eagles, Geranoaétus

ales and G. contortus, of a genus not found outside South America in a

living state, and a kite, Proictinia effera. There is also a peculiar

limpkin, Aramornis longurio, and a small paroquet, Conuropsts

fratercula, allied to the modern Carolina paroquet but smaller. One

may picture the area as a badlands section where hawks and eagles,

with nests on the sides of cliffs, dropped the bones of their prey on the

slopes below, to mingle with occasional bodies of the predatory birds

that had brought them to the place.

The Pliocene, like the Oligocene, has fossil birds poorly represented

as yet, as at present we know only 10 forms from within the limits of

this age. ‘The upper Snake Creek in Nebraska, which is placed in the

lower Pliocene, has given us an eagle, and a species of chachalaca,

Orialis phengites, a tree-haunting, gallinaceous bird of a group not

found today north of the lower Rio Grande Valley. From these same

deposits within the last few weeks I have received the humerus of a

154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 6

crane that is seemingly identical with the existing sandhill crane, the

first instance found of remains of a species still living below the

Pleistocene. From beds ascribed to the Upper Pliocene in southern

Arizona I have identified a small goose, Branta minuscula, a tree

duck, Dendrocygna eversa, a sandpiper, Micropalama hesternus and

a dove, Chloroenas micula.

Though a part of the birds of the Miocene and Pliocene are peculiar

many are identified in genera existing at the present time. It is my

own belief that these two ages mark the period of evolution of our

modern genera of birds and that there has come comparatively little

change in generic type since. In my opinion evolution among birds

during the Quaternary has been concerned principally with the

development of those differences that characterize species and sub-

species, differences which in some cases have been so pronounced that

present usage, with its close perception of minutiae, concedes them as

generic. When broad, comprehensive limits are given generic groups,

however, these seemingly have had their origin in the latter part of

the Tertiary.

It seems probable that the bird life of the Miocene and Pliocene

was even more varied and wonderful than that of today, and that a

larger number of species may have existed. We are told that climatic

conditions in that time had not developed such sharply marked zonal

characteristics as in the Recent period, so that though the temperature

was not oppressively warm it was moderate and fairly uniform at

points much farther north than under modern conditions. Forms

that we consider now as subtropical, in the Miocene and Pliocene

ranged north into northern Nebraska, and probably further. We

are aware that the present number of species in tropical and subtropical

sections of America is much greater than in the temperate zone.

Ecuador for example, in the geographic limits at present granted to it,

has approximately the same area as the State of California. The

known bird life of Ecuador at the present time numbers 1508 forms,

more than for the whole of North America north of Mexico, while that

of California at the end of 1924 (the latest published revision of the list)

included only 594 species and subspecies. By analogy we may suppose

a rich and highly varied bird life for the Miocene and Pliocene periods

in North America, a fauna that since has been in part exterminated

and in part restricted to more southern latitudes. Further research

may be expected to increase considerably the list of fossil forms known

from this section of geologic time.

MARCH 19, 1928 WETMORE: PREHISTORIC ORNITHOLOGY 155

With advance into the Pleistocene we come to an age in which the

fossil avifauna becomes much better known through more numerous

occurrence and greater abundance of specimens. Fifty extinct species

have thus far been described from our Pleistocene beds, evidence of a

rich avifauna. There are in addition 105 species of birds still existent

whose remains have been identified in Pleistocene deposits, so that the

entire group for this period includes 155 forms of birds, more than

half our present list, and a considerable number when we consider the

smaller figures yielded by our census in previous ages.

It may be remarked parenthetically that the fifty extinct species

that have been described from the Pleistocene are definite indication

of what has been said above of the probable abundance of birds at the

close of the Pliocene, since these forms undoubtedly had their evolution

prior to the Ice Age and were in existence at its beginning. From

somewhat meager information I am inclined to regard the close of the

Tertiary as the period of greatest diversity and abundance in bird

life in the earth’s history so far as North America is concerned, and to

believe that with the rigors of climate incident to the opening of the

Pleistocene, and the even more unfavorable conditions of the historic

part of the Recent Period occasioned by the increase of man over the

earth, there has been steady reduction and extermination among birds,

a process that will continue in spite of protective regulation until most

of the peculiar forms have disappeared and only the more adaptable

ones remain.

To return to our Pleistocene avifauna we find several deposits that

have yielded abundant bird remains. The earliest known of these

important beds was that of Fossil or Christmas Lake, in the arid

section of Oregon, where deposits containing hundreds of bones of

birds have been explored. These, studied first by Shufeldt and later

by Miller, have given a varied list of birds, mainly aquatic, of which

a number have been described as species distinct from those existing

today, and many have been identified as identical with living forms.

Dr. O. P. Hay considers the age as first interglacial. Of the more

than twenty peculiar species only one, Palaeotetrix gillit, is now held

to be generically distinct from living birds. The flamingo, Phoent-

coplerus cope, is the most unusual species in the assemblage, as any

of the other genera might be expected in this area today. It may be

remarked that the flamingo is no criterion for particularly warm

climate at the time mentioned, since a somewhat similar species of

flamingo now ranges and nests in South America through Patagonia

where the summer weather is often cold and inclement.

156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 6

The deposits of bird bones from this Oregon locality are found in

an old lake bed that from modern conditions might be supposed to be

similar to the small alkaline lakes now common in this area. If this

is true it is possible that the great abundance of bird remains is

indicative of a condition in the Pleistocene similar to one that has

destroyed hundreds of thousands of waterfowl in the western part of

the United States in recent years. The malady to which I allude,

the so-called ‘duck sickness,” has been especially prevalent in the past

twenty years in the deltas of streams flowing into Great Salt Lake in

Utah, but is known in alkaline lakes in a number of other sections,

including the Malheur region of Oregon. Briefly, it appears that

birds, principally ducks and other aquatic species, become affected

by excessive concentrations of alkalis in the waters in which they

feed, and unless they can have immediate access to fresh water they

become paralyzed and die. Aquatic birds of various kinds have been

affected and the number of individuals known to have been thus killed

in the last twenty years has been tremendous, running literally into the

millions. The possibility of the accumulation of extensive deposits of

bones of birds that may be preserved as fossils under these conditions

is easily evident.

The most famous deposit of Pleistocene vertebrate remains in the

New World is that of Rancho La Brea on the Californian coastal plain

only a few miles from the business center of the city of Los Angeles.

Here outpourings of asphalt from the depths of the earth have been

exposed in such a way that they have served to entrap animals which

were held in sticky embrace until death came to them, and then when

decay had released their skeletons, to entomb the bones in a bed of tar

where many have been preserved in perfect condition. The manner

in which this pitch trap operated is seen in minor deposits that form

today, as it is not unusual to find small mammals or birds held fast in

the viscous substance. Under careful exploration the beds at Rancho

La Brea have yielded bones to an aggregate of many, many thousands

and have included very large numbers of remains of birds. To the

present time Loye Miller has published identification of nearly sixty

species, and there are unquestionably others to come as the smaller

forms, the passeriform or perching birds in particular, have not yet

been carefully studied. Two-fifths of the forms from these deposits

are extinct. Such scavengers as vultures, which would be attracted

to the bodies of dead animals, are represented in abundance, and

include several extinct genera. Among these the most curious is the

MARCH 19, 1928 WETMORE: PREHISTORIC ORNITHOLOGY 157

great Teratornis merriami, which is known from almost the complete

skeleton, and represents the largest of flying birds, exceeding in wing

spread the modern condors. Another species of great abundance

was a gallinaceous bird, Parapavo californicus, supposed at one time

to be a peacock, but now admitted as a species of turkey. The age of

these deposits is placed by Hay as first interglacial.

Asphalt deposits of similar kind have been found recently near

McKittrick, and near Carpinteria, California, giving additional infor-

mation on the distribution of the avifauna of California in the Pleisto-

cene, which, in its abundance of vultures and large hawks and entire

lack of gulls, offers a decided contrast to that of Oregon.

Recent explorations in Florida, near Vero and Melbourne, in what

are supposed to be Pleistocene beds, have yielded remains of birds in

which are found the great stork known as the jabiru, and various other

species. Recently a valuable collection gathered by Mr. William W.

Holmes near the west coast has come into my hands for study, and on

preliminary examination is found to contain a considerable variety of

species. Most remarkable is a broken metatarsal of a male turkey

with a trifid spur core that may represent an unknown species. Multi-

ple spurs are known among certain pheasants, but have not been

recorded among the gallinaceous birds of North America. The Holmes

collection when fully identified will add considerably to knowledge of

the ancient Floridian avifauna.

Cave deposits that have been explored in California and also in

Pennsylvania and Maryland have contained remains of Pleistocene

birds, that need not be described in detail except to remark that such

offer a fertile field for investigation.

The discovery of additional forms in the Cretaceous is uncertain but

if obtained will be important. At the present time only two types are

well known from this period, one of diver form, and the other of

flying habit that apparently fed on the wing over water. ‘These are

both so specialized that we may expect that other toothed birds

existed though their possible presence is now indefinitely indicated by

fragments of a few waders or marsh inhabitants. The Tertiary should

give many more species than now known, particularly in its Miocene

and Pliocene beds, and finally from the Pleistocene we may expect

many forms in addition to those already discovered. From cavern

and other deposits we may hope for more extinct species related to

modern birds, some peculiar and some with relatives living today in

South America.

158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 6

It has been already intimated that the number of extinct species

of birds from North America is far less than is to be expected. As

the forms described by earlier students are passed under review it is

evident that much remains to be done to decide their proper status.

Many have been named from such insufficient material that their

systematic position is doubtful while there are a few in which the type

material is a composite of fragments that may contain remains from

two or more families so that selection must be made to properly apply

the name. Some that have been called birds probably are not avian

and eventually will be rejected from our list. Progress is being made

steadily in these matters and yearly the condition improves so that

our uncertainties become fewer and fewer. Such glimpses as our few |

fossils give us of the life of the past are fascinating and promise high

return for the most painstaking study. At the present rate with which

new material comes to hand we may possibly expect to see our knowl-

edge of palaeornithology in North America doubled in the next imal

years.

PALEOBOTANY.—A petrified walnut from the Miocene of Nevada.

Epwarp W. Berry, The Johns Hopkins University.

There is in the National Museum collections a single silicified speci-

men of a walnut, which, despite precise data regarding the locality

from which it was collected, shows such characteristic features that it

fully merits description. The specimen was collected by W. M..

Leite, who in July, 1885 sent it to the late Professor Joseph Le Conte,

who must in turn have submitted it to the late Frank H. Knowlton,

since the original letter bears the following notation in Dr. Knowlton’s

handwriting: ‘This is probably a nut of Carya (Hickory).”’ |

Mr. Leite stated that the specimen was collected in the desert along

the old emigrant road near the line of the railway, 50 miles east of.

Reno, Nevada. Hence it probably came from the Truckee beds?

and is Miocene in age.

The shell of the nut is shghtly yellowish on the outside, but very

light in color where fractured. Both faces are partially broken away

and one of these breaks exposes a complete cotyledon, similarly

silicified, but black in color and strikingly contrasted with the en-

closing shell.

1 Received January 10, 1928.

2 CLARENCE KING. Bact: U.S. Geol. Surv. 40th Par. 1: 412. 1878.

MARCH 19, 1928 BERRY: PETRIFIED WALNUT FROM MIOCENE OF NEVADA 159

Although superficially this nut suggests those of the hickory, the

cotyledons in all of their features are those characteristic of the exist-

ing walnuts. The differences between the two

are not profound, but they are perfectly defi-

nite. These have been discussed at some length

recently by the present writer in describing the

petrified walnut kernels of the Titanotherium

beds of Nebraska? and therefore need not be Fig. 1—Juglans nevadensis

repeated in the present connection. The pres- can big)

ent species, obviously new, may be named and described as follows:

Juglans nevadensis Berry, n. sp.

Nut relatively small and smooth, although considerably larger than the

existing Juglans rupestris, 1.7 centimeters high, 1.8 centimeters in width and

2 centimeters in thickness. Wall 2 millimeters thick at the sides. There isa

conspicuous hilum at the base. The apex is rounded. The cotyledons are

separated and not compressed, with their inner surfaces concave: the radicle

is prominent, superior and pointed, and its keel extends downward to the

widely rounded basal sinus lying between the basal lobes of the cotyledon:

their superior lobes are also narrow and rather pointed, and similarly separated

from the radicle by open rounded sinuses. The cotyledonary surfaces are

nearly smooth. The surface of the nut (bony seed coat) lacks the usual cor-

rugations so frequent in the case of the existing species of Juglans, but it is

obscurely uneven, quite as much so as in some specimens of the existing

Juglans regia and Juglans sieboldiana which I have examined.

The present species differs from the only other petrified walnut known

to me—Juglans siouxensis (Barbour) Berry (op. cit.) of the Oligocene of

Nebraska, in its considerably smaller size, smoother cotyledons, which have

straighter side edges and more pointed lobes.

Juglans nevadensis comes from a region where the genus has hitherto

been unknown in either the fossil or living state, so that although the

past history of the genus has been discussed on several occasions, a

few remarks are called for in the present connection. Nevada, since

the elevation of the Sierra Nevada, has been too dry for the existence

of Juglans, all the known species of which require a deep moist fertile

soil. The existing species geographically nearest to the fossil are

Juglans californica of southern California, Juglans rupestris major of

central New Mexico and Arizona, and Juglans rupestris of central and

west Texas and adjacent parts of Mexico and New Mexico.

All of these occur in an arid country, but are confined to stream mar-

gins or canyon bottoms where the soil is moist and deep, and hence do

3 Epwarp W. Berry. Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 221. 1926.

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 6

not depart from the normal environment of the eight or ten other

existing species. ‘These three species, or more probably their an-

cestors, have had their distribution restricted in correspondence to the

shrinkage of such environments in the central and western United

States during the later Tertiary.

The genus Juglans is said to go back to Upper Cretaceous times,

and numerous fossil species have been described, especially from rocks

of Tertiary age, the majority being based upon foliar remains.

The Miocene tree which bore this nut may, of course, have been a

stream margin dweller, but the accumulating evidence for mesophytic

climatic conditions during the Miocene in western regions now arid or

semiarid, such as is furnished by the flora found in the Esmeralda

formation of Nevada,‘ or the Latah formation of eastern Washing-

ton,® strongly suggests that we are dealing with general rather than

local climatic conditions, conditions which have an important bearing

on the age of uplift of the bordering mountains.

BOTANY.—New plants from Central America—XI. Patuu C.

STANDLEY, U. 8S. National Museum.!

All the plants described as new on the following pages belong to the

family Rubiaceae, a group to whose collection the writer has given

special attention. There is no doubt that wider exploration in the

Central American forests will increase greatly the number of repre-

sentatives of the family known to occur in the region. |

The present paper includes the description of a new species of

Houstonia from northern Mexico, as well as notes regarding several

plants of scattered families for which new data are available.

Hydrangea diplostemona (Donn. Smith) Standl.

Gilibertia diplostemona Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 61: 373. 1916.

Hydrangea inornata Standl. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 17: 9. 1927.

Recently I have seen the type of Gilibertia diplostemona. Although not

bearing a collector’s number, it is evidently a part of Putter 14068, upon

which Hydrangea inornata was based.

4Epwarp W. Berry. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 72: 23. 1927.

5 EpwARD W. Berry. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper (in press).

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. For the

last preceding paper of this series see this JouRNAL 17: 520. 1927. Received Novem-

ber 21, 1927.

MARCH 19, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 161

CAMPNOSPERMA PANAMENSIS Standl. Journ. Arn. Arb. 2: 111. 1920

The type of this species (Anacardiaceae) was collected at the Chiriquicito

Lagoon, Panama, in 1920. The tree has been collected again, in the Chan-

guinola Valley, Panama, by Cooper and Slater (no. 154). The vernacular

name is “‘orey.”’

MeE.LocHIA BERNOULLIANA Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 35: 2. 1903

This species, occasional in Guatemala and Salvador, has not been known

heretofore from Mexico. It was collected_at Santa Barbara in March, 1841,

by Liebmann (no. 535).

Metocnura PILosa (Mill.) Fawe. & Rendle, Fl. Jam. 5: 164. 1926

Sida pilosa Mill. Gard. Dict. ed. 8. 1768.

‘Melochia venosa Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Oce. 97. 1788. .

This species, likewise, has not been known from Mexico, but it was collected

at Pacho by Liebmann (no. 11874).

DipYMOPANAX MorotoToni (Aubl.) Decaisne & Planch. Rev. Hort. IV. 3:

109. 1854 »

Panax Morototoni Aubl. Pl. Guian. 949. 1775.

This tree, of striking appearance, is frequent in some regions along the

Atlantic coast of Central America, but has not been reported from Mexico.

It was collected by Liebmann (no. 585) at Lacoba in June, 1842.

PoLYCODIUM STAMINEUM (L.) Greene

But a single species of Polycodium, P. Kunthianum (Klotzsch) C. B.

Rob., has been known hitherto from Mexico. It grows in the states of

Puebla and Hidalgo. In the spring of 1926 Mr. Robert Runyon collected

(no. 844) at Santa Rita Ranch, Tamaulipas, altitude 1,500 meters, specimens

which agree perfectly with the eastern forms of P. stamineum. The species

is frequent in some parts of eastern Texas, but its occurrence in Mexico was

scarcely to be expected.

PoTaLIA AMARA Aubl. Pl. Guian. 394. pl. 151. 1775

This genus of the Loganiaceae, consisting of a single species, has been

reported from Brazil, Peru, and the Guianas, but not from North America.

A specimen of P. amara in the Copenhagen herbarium was collected at San

Miguel, Costa Rica, May 21, 1857, by Wendland (no. 977). The collector’s

notes state that the plant is a shrub 1 to 2 meters high, with yellow-green

flowers.

CALDERONIA SALVADORENSIS Standl. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 13:

290. 1923

This genus of Rubiaceae was described from Salvador, and is known also

from British Honduras. It may now be reported for the first time from

Mexico, where it was collected on the banks of the Chalchijapa River above

Dos Rios, State of Veracruz, January 22, 1927, by C. D. Mell. The collector

reports the vernacular name as “‘nazareno.”’

162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 6

Portlandia guatemalensis Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub or small tree, the young branches glabrous, obtusely quadrangular

or subterete, the internodes 1.5-3.5 em. long; stipules short-connate, intra-

petiolar, 5-6 mm. long, broadly triangular, cuspidate, persistent, glabrous;

leaves opposite, the petioles slender, 1-2 em. long, glabrous, shallowly canalicu-

late on the upper surface; leaf blades oblong-elliptic, broadest at or near the

middle, 9-16 cm. long, 3.5-6 cm. wide, narrowed to each end, acuminate,

~ acute at base and decurrent, firm-chartaceous, deep green above, glabrous,

beneath much paler, domatiate and short-barbate in the axils of the lateral

nerves, elsewhere glabrous, the costa slender, salient, the lateral nerves about

7 on each side, slender, prominent, ascending, subarcuate, obscurely an-

astomosing near the margin; inflorescences axillary, long-pedunculate, about

equaling the leaves, racemiform-paniculate, the flowers clustered at the end

of the rachis and in pedunculate lateral clusters, the bracts leaflike, lanceolate

or elliptic, petiolate, their blades 3-6.5 cm. long; pedicels 3-4 mm. long;

hypanthium broadly turbinate, 2-2.5 mm. long; calyx lobes 5, distinct, linear-

subulate, 1 em. long, green, glabrous; corolla white, funnelform, glabrous, 4.5

em. long, the tube very short, 2.5 mm. wide at base, the throat 2.5 em. wide,

the 5 lobes broadly ovate-triangular, obtuse, about 1.5 cm. long; stamens

included, the filaments filiform, glabrous, 1 cm. long, the anthers narrowly

linear, 8 mm. long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,081,354, collected in forest

at Quebradas Secas, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, altitude 750 meters, June 1,

1920, by Harry Johnson (no. 282).

Most species of Portlandia are West Indian. Two are known from Mexico.

This is the first species to be reported from Central America. It is not very

closely related to any other species of the genus.

Houstonia drymarioides Standl., sp. nov.

Perennial, with very slender rootstocks, the stems erect or decumbent,

branched at base, glabrous, very slender, the plants 8-13 em. high; stipules

minute, laciniate; leaves mostly crowded at the base of the stem, the cauline

ones much reduced and bractlike, many times exceeded by the internodes;

basal leaves on puberulent petioles 1-2 mm. long, the blades rounded-oval to

rounded-ovate, 5-7 mm. long, 4-5 mm. wide, obtuse, at base obtuse or rounded

and abruptly short-decurrent, thin, scaberulous on the upper surface, glabrous

beneath, the costa evident, the lateral nerves obsolete; flowers in lax cymes

terminating the stems, the cymes 3 to many-flowered, the branches erect or

strongly ascending, the pedicels filiform, 2.5-15 mm. long, glabrous; hy-

panthium and calyx together scarcely 1 mm. long, glabrous, the calyx lobes

triangular, acute, erect, equaling or exceeding the hypanthium; corolla

funnelform, 3.5 mm. long, glabrous outside, the tube broadened upward,

the lobes oblong, obtuse, shorter than the tube; capsule 2.5 mm. broad, two-

thirds inferior, broader than long, subretuse, the free portion glabrous; seeds

black, oval, 0.5 mm. long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,315,865, collected on moun-

tains south of Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico, altitude 1,000 meters, April 9,

1926, by Robert Runyon (no. 870). Runyon & Tharp 4039, collected at the

same time and place, also represents the species.

MARCH 19,1928 | STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 163

Houstonia drymarioides is related to H. gracilis Brandeg., of Veracruz,

which has leafy stems, much larger leaves, and a slightly larger corolla.

Arcytophyllum muticum (Wedd.) Stand.

Hedyotis mutica Wedd. Chlor. And. 2: 48. 1857.

To this Colombian species belong, apparently, sterile specimens collected

on Cerro de las Vueltas, Costa Rica, at 3,000 meters, Standley & Valerio

43618, 43677, 43859. This species, not reported heretofore from North

America, is a prostrate ericoid shrub forming small dense mats in the paramos.

Rondeletia Torresii Standl., sp. nov.

Slender shrub 2.5-3.5 m. high, the branches subterete, brown, rimose,

when young sparsely short-strigillose but soon glabrate, the internodes short

or elongate; stipules triangular, cuspidate-attenuate, 3 mm. long, strigillose

or glabrate; leaves opposite, the petioles slender, 1.3-3 em. long, sparsely

strigillose or glabrate; leaf blades lance-oblong to ovate-oblong or elliptic,

7.5-12 em. long, 3-5.5 em. wide, abruptly acuminate or long-acuminate, the

acumination often long, narrow, and falcate, at base subobtuse to,acute,

often abruptly decurrent, thin, deep green above, often lustrous, sparsely

puberulent along the costa and often very sparsely short-pilose elsewhere,

beneath paler, puberulent along the nerves, short-barbate in the axils of the

nerves, the costa slender, prominent, the lateral nerves very slender, 6 or 7

on each side, ascending, arcuate; inflorescence terminal, cymose-corymbose,

long-pedunculate, usually many-flowered, lax, equaling or shorter than the

leaves, the bracts minute and inconspicuous; pedicels 2 mm. long or shorter,

most of the flowers sessile or nearly so; hypanthium oblong, 3 mm. long,

densely whitish-strigillose, calyx lobes 4, 3 of them linear or subulate and’

1.5-2.5 mm. long, the fourth elliptic or ovate, obtuse, and 4-5 mm. long,

green, minutely strigillose; corolla white, densely pubescent outside with

minute whitish ascending hairs, glabrous within, the tube 13-14 mm. long,

naked in the throat, slightly broadened upward, the 4 lobes rounded, 3 mm.

long; anthers included. |

‘Ltype in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,305,295, collected in wet

forest at Viento Fresco, Province of Alajuela, Costa Rica, altitude about

1,800 meters, February 13, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Rubén Torres

Rojas (no. 47839). No. 47859, from the same locality, represents this

species.

The nearest ally of Rondeletia Torresiz is the Costa Rican R. calycosa Donn.

Smith, which has linear-lanceolate calyx lobes.

Hillia Maxonii Standl., sp. nov.

Epiphytic shrub 1-5 m. long, often weak and pendent, glabrous throughout,

the branches stout, obtusely quadrangular, cinereous or blackish, the inter-

nodes 3-)4 mm. long; stipules caducous, broadly obovate, 12 mm. long, thin,

rounded at apex; petioles very stout and broad, 3-4 mm. long, shallowly

channeled on the upper surface; leaf blades oval to obovate-oval, 2-3.5 em.

long, 1-2 cm. wide, broadly rounded at apex, slightly narrowed to the very

obtuse base, coriaceous, lustrous above, slightly paler and dull beneath, the

costa and lateral nerves scarcely visible, the latter usually 3 on each side,

164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No: 6

straight, ascending at a very acute angle; flowers terminal, solitary, sessile;

hypanthium cylindric, slightly narrowed at base, 7 mm. long, 4 mm. thick,

costate; calyx lobes 4, distinct, oblong-linear, 8 mm. long, rounded at apex,

green; corolla white, the tube 5 cm. long, 3 mm. thick, the 4 lobes elliptic,

nearly 2 cm. long, 7-10 mm. wide, obtuse; capsule cylindric, 3 cm. long, the -

open valves 8 mm. wide; seeds fusiform, 3 mm. long, brown, the hairs brown,

1 cm. long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,181,212, collected at Las

Nubes, south of Managua, Nicaragua, altitude 800 to 900 meters, June 28,

1923, by William R. Maxon (no. 7501). Here are referred also the following

collections:

Costa Rica: Las Nubes, Prov. San José, alt. 1,900 m., Standley 38472.

Finca La Cima, north of El Copey, Prov. San José, alt. 2,200 m., Standley

42771, 42599. Laguna de la Chonta, northeast of Santa Maria de Dota,

Prov. San José, alt. 2,100 m., Standley 42187.

Related to H. chiapensis Standl., which has much smaller, thinner leaves,

shorter stipules, and narrower Baie

To dH. chiapensis, which is known otherwise only from Gite I have

referred a collection by Prof. Juvenal Valerio and myself (no. 44733) from

El Silencio, Guanacaste, Costa Rica, at 750 meters.

Hillia palmana Standl., sp. nov.

Epiphytic shrub, glabrous throughout, much branched, the older branches

subterete, brownish, rimose, the younger ones obtusely quadrangular, green,

slender, the internodes 5-30 mm. long; stipules thin and scarious, oblong or

spatulate-oblong, 13-20 mm. long, rounded at apex, deciduous; leaves nearly

sessile, the petiole 3mm. long or shorter, stout, not sharply differentiated from

the blade: leaf blades narrowly spatulate-oblong or oblong-cuneate 1.5-3.5

em. long, 5-11 mm. wide, broadly rounded at apex, gradually narrowed to the

long-attenuate base, ‘coriaceous, dull, dark green above, slightly paler beneath,

the venation obsolete; corolla white, the tube 3.5 cm. long, 2.5 mm. thick,

the 4 lobes suborbicular, 1 cm. long, broadly rounded at apex.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,181,721, collected between

La Palma and La Hondura, Province of San J osé, Costa Rica, altitude 1,500

to 1,700 ae July 17, 1923, by William R. Maxon and Alfred D. Harvey

(no. 8045).

From H. Mazonzi this plant is distinguished by its narrow leaves, long

narrow stipules, and shorter corolla with broad lobes.

Hillia Valerii Standl., sp. nov.

Epiphytic shrub about a meter high, glabrous throughout, much branched,

the older branches terete, brown, the younger ones obtusely quadrangular,

the stout internodes 5-30 mm. long; stipules spatulate-obovate, 2.8-4 cm.

long, caducous, broadly rounded at apex, thick and firm, brown; petioles

stout, 5-10 mm. long; leaf blades obovate-oblong or narrowly obovate, 5-8

em. long, 2-3.5 em. wide, broadly rounded at apex, gradually and cuneately

long-attenuate to the base, decurrent upon the petiole, coriaceous, dull, deep

green above, brownish beneath, the costa stout, prominent, the lateral nerves

MARCH 19, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 165

evident, about 6 on each side, very slender, ascending obliquely, nearly

straight; flowers terminal, solitary, sessile; hypanthium cylindric, 1 cm. long,

4 mm. thick, smooth; calyx lobes 4, distinct, ovate-oval, obtuse, green, un-

equal, 4-5 mm. long; corolla white, the tube stout, 8 cm. long, 4 mm. thick

near the base, 8 mm. thick in the throat, the 4 lobes oval, about 3 em. long

and 1.5 em. wide, obtuse or rounded at apex; capsule columnar, terete,

smooth, dark red-brown, straight or slightly curved, 6—-7.5 em. long, 8 mm.

thick, narrowed at base.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,181,776, collected between

La Palma and La Hondura, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude 1,500

to 1,700 meters, July 17, 1923, by William R. Maxon and Alfred D. Harvey

(no. 8092).

The vernacular name is ‘‘azaharcillo.”” The following additional collec-

tions may be cited, the first three evidently conspecific, the others sterile and

possibly referable to a distinct species:

Costa Rica: Cerros de Zurqui, Prov. Heredia, alt. 2,300 m., Standley &

Valerio 50749. La Palma, Tonduz 12440 (J. D. Smith 7387). Yerba Buena,

Prov. Heredia, Standley & Valerio 50151. Cerro de las Caricias, Prov.

Heredia, alt. 2,300 m., Standley & Valerio 52409. Yerba Buena, Standley &

Valerio 50144, 50234. Cerros de Zurqui, Standley & Valerio 50691.

This species is well marked by the very large flowers and stipules. Some

of the specimens have been referred to the Jamaican H. tetrandra Swartz, a

plant with much smaller flowers.

Hillia loranthoides Standl., sp. nov.

Epiphytic shrub 1 m. high, branched, glabrous throughout, the branches

obtusely quadrangular, brown or grayish, with short internodes; stipules

elliptic-oblong, 18 mm. long and 6-8 mm. wide, obtuse, slightly narrowed at

base, thick and firm, green, caducous; petioles 6 mm. long or shorter, very

thick and stout, not sharply differentiated from the blade; leaf blades elliptic

or oblong-elliptic, 4.5-7 em. long, 2-3 cm. wide, narrowed to the obtusish

apex and base, decurrent upon the petiole, coriaceous, dull, the venation

obsolete, the lateral nerves scarcely visible, about 4 on each side, obliquely

ascending at a very narrow angle, nearly straight; flowers terminal, solitary,

sessile; capsule cylindric, 3 em. long, 7 mm. thick, slightly narrowed toward

each end, smooth, olivaceous.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,254,482, collected in moist

forest at Quebrada Serena, southeast of Tilardn, Guanacaste, Costa Rica,

altitude 700 meters, January 27, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal

Valerio (no. 46152).

This is a relative of the West Indian H. parasitica Jacq., which has thinner,

abruptly short-acuminate leaves, larger capsules, and thin stipules. The

leaves of H. loranthoides resemble closely those of certain species of Phor-

adendron and Loranthus segregates.

Pentagonia hirsuta Standl., sp. nov.

Young branches about 1 em. thick, hirsute; leaves sessile, broadly obovate,

about 60 cm. long and 27 em. wide, narrowed to the short-acuminate apex,

rather abruptly narrowed below the middle to a narrow base about 3 cm.

166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 6

wide, the base cordate-clasping, the auricles broadly rounded, 2 cm. wide,

the blades entire, rather densely hirsute on both surfaces with slender spread-

ing hairs, somewhat paler beneath, the costa salient, the lateral nerves slender,

prominent, about 19 on each side, 1 to 3 times branched toward the margin;

flowers sessile and clustered in the leaf axils; hypanthium densely hirsute;

calyx about 24 mm. long, brown, membranaceous, hirsute with whitish

hairs.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 938648, collected in forests

above Tsaki, Talamanca, Costa Rica, altitude about 500 meters, March,

1895, by A. Tonduz (no. 9415).

The material consists of a single leaf and of a few flowers so mutilated that

it is impossible to determine their characters. Pentagonia hirsuta is easily

recognized by its hirsute pubescence. Most plants of the genus are glabrous

or nearly so.

Randia grandifolia (Donn. Smith) Standl.

Basanacantha grandifolia Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 55: 436. 1913.

Posoqueria grandiflora Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub 3-5 m. high, the branches terete or obtusely quadrangular, green,

with short or elongate internodes, puberulent or scaberulous; stipules oblong,

obtuse, nearly 2 cm. long, glabrous; petioles thick and stout, 7-20 mm. long,

puberulent; leaf blades rounded-ovate to broadly elliptic or oblong-elliptic,

12.5-36 cm. long, 8-21 cm. wide, rounded to obtuse at apex, sometimes

abruptly short-acuminate, broadly rounded to acute at base, usually sub-

coriaceous, deep green and glabrous above, beneath paler, very densely

pubescent with minute spreading hairs, rather rough to the touch, the costa

stout, salient, the lateral nerves 7-10 on each side, ascending, arcuate, the

other venation obsolete; flowers borne in small dense terminal corymbs, the

flowers pedicellate; hypanthium oblong-turbinate, 6 mm. long, glabrous;

calyx 4 mm. long, shallowly lobate, the lobes broadly rounded, ciliolate;

corolla white, glabrous outside, the tube slender, 19-22 cm. long, 3-5 mm.

thick, the 5 lobes oblong, rounded at apex, 3.5—-4 cm. long, 1-1.5 cm. wide,

minutely puberulent within, the throat white-villous; filaments exserted

about 1.5 cm., the anthers linear-oblong, puberulent, 8-10 mm. long, attenu-

ate to the apex; fruit short-pedicellate, subglobose, green, about 7 cm. in —

diameter.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,305,673, collected in wet

thicket at Hamburg Finca on the Rio Reventazon below El Cairo, Province

of Limén, Costa Rica, altitude about 55 meters, February 19, 1926, by Paul

C. Standley and Juvenal Valerio (no. 48706). The following additional

collections have been seen:

Costa Rica: Hamburg Finca, Standley & Valerio 48753. Finca Monte-

cristo, below El Cairo, Standley & Valerio 48399.

The West Indians of the banana plantations call the shrub ‘‘wild coffee.”

Heretofore only one species of Posoqueria has been known from North

America, the widely distributed P. latifolia (Rudge) Roem. & Schult. That

differs from the present plant in being glabrous throughout, and in having

much smaller flowers. —

MARCH 19, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 167

Posoqueria Pittieri Standl., sp. nov.

Tree 15 m. high, glabrous throughout, the crown rounded, the trunk 60

em. in diameter at base, the branchlets thick and stout, ochraceous, the

internodes 1-3.5 cm. long; stipules narrowly triangular, 7-10 mm. long,

acute or acuminate, tardily deciduous; petioles 4-8 mm. long; leaf blades

broadly obovate, 8-16 em. long, 5—9.5 em. wide, usually obtuse or rounded at

apex, often abruptly short-acute, at base cuneate-acute to obtuse or rounded,

membranaceous, drying blackish, lustrous, the costa and lateral nerves salient

on both surfaces, the lateral nerves about 12 on each side, divergent at an

angle of 65 degrees or more, the lower divergent nearly at a right angle,

arcuate, irregularly anastomosing close to the margin; flowers in dense many-

flowered short-pedunculate terminal corymbs, the bracts triangular, acute,

2 mm. long; pedicels stout, 3 mm. long or shorter; hypanthium oblong-

turbinate, 5 mm. long; calyx short-cupular, 2-2.5 mm. long, very shallowly

lobate, the lobes apiculate; corolla ‘‘orange-yellow”’ (only buds seen), the

tube slender, 4.5-8 cm. long, 2.5 mm. thick, the limb in bud globose-ovoid,

obtuse, 8-9 mm. long and 6 mm. in diameter; fruit subglobose, about 7 cm.

long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 716696, collected near the

hydrographic station on the Trinidad River, Canal Zone, Panama, May 17,

1914, by H. Pittier (no. 6635).

From P. latifolia this differs in its thin leaves, narrow acute stipules,

and small corolla. The leaves of P. latifolia do not blacken in drying.

Posoqueria obliquinervia Standl., sp. nov.

Branchlets 4 mm. thick, glabrous; stipules not seen; petioles slender,

1—1.5 em. long, glabrous; leaf blades cuneate-obovate to oblanceolate-oblong,

20-28 em. long, 8-13.5 em. wide, rounded at apex and abruptly short-acute,.

or the apex sometimes acute, cuneately long-attenuate to the base and

decurrent, membranaceous, drying blackish, short-barbate beneath in the

axils of the lateral nerves, elsewhere glabrous, the costa and lateral nerves

salient on both surfaces, slender, the lateral nerves about 13 on each side,

ascending at an angle of about 40 degrees, nearly straight, laxly anastomosing

near the margin, connected by the faint, nearly straight secondary nerves;

flowers arranged in a dense many-flowered sessile terminal corymb, glabrous,

the bracts triangular-acuminate, 2 mm. long; pedicels very short or the

flowers sessile; hypanthium oblong-turbinate, 4-5 mm. long; calyx 2 mm.

long, shallowly lobate, the lobes rounded, apiculate; corolla tube (only buds

seen) slender, 12-18 mm. long, 1.5 mm. thick, the limb in bud globose-ovoid,

7 mm. long, 5 mm. in diameter, obtuse.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 764158, collected in forests of

the Rio Naranjo, Costa Rica, altitude 200 to 250 meters, March, 1893, by

A. Tonduz (no. 9528).

This is clearly related to P. Pittier1, which it much resembles in general

appearance. The venation of the leaves is so different in the two plants

that I am confident they represent distinct species. The flowers of P.

obliquinervia are still in bud, but they appear ready to open, and it seems

probable, therefore, that the length of the corolla will increase little, if at all,

in anthesis. If this is the case, the flowers are much smaller than those of

P. Pittierr.

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 6

Genipa venosa Standl. sp. nov.

Tree 9-15 m. high, the ultimate branchlets stout, grayish, rimose, the

internodes less than 1 cm. long, glabrate; petioles 3.5-4 cm. long, terete,

narrowly canaliculate above, ferruginous-tomentose or glabrate; leaf blades

obovate-oblong, 29-35 cm. long, 11.5-14 em. wide, rounded or obtuse at apex and

linear-cuspidate (cusp 1 cm. long, obtuse), gradually narrowed to the obtuse

base, this slightly unequal, not decurrent, subcoriaceous, dull, glabrous or

glabrate above, beneath brown-tomentose along the nerves or glabrate,

elsewhere glabrous, the costa slender, salient, the lateral nerves about 24 on

each side, ascending at an angle of about 60 degrees, nearly straight but

arcuate toward the margin, slender, salient, parallel, anastomosing to form a

collective nerve very close to the margin, the transverse nerves numerous,

salient, straight or nearly so, parallel, connected by the close prominent

reticulation of the ultimate nerves; inflorescence terminal, few-flowered, the

branches very thick; fruit green, subglobose or oval, at maturity as much as

10 cm. long or even larger, smooth, rounded at apex, borne on a thick pedicel

1-1.5 cm. long. |

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,254,013, collected in dense

wet forest at El Arenal, Province of Guanacaste, Costa Rica, altitude

485 meters, January 18, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal Valerio

(no. 45269).

Related to G. Maxonii Standl., of the Canal Zone, which has thin acute

leaves, with less prominent venation, and very short petioles. From @G.

americana L. this Costa Rican tree differs in its long-petioled thick leaves

with prominent venation.

Faramea quercetorum Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub or small tree 2.5-4.5 m. high, glabrous throughout; branches green,

obtusely quadrangular, with short or elongate internodes; stipules short-

connate, forming a shallowly bilobate sheath about 2 mm. long, persistent,

green, the lobes tipped with a stiff subulate green cusp 4-5 mm. long; petioles

stout, 2-4 mm. long; leaf blades elliptic to elliptic-oblong, 6.5-9.5 cm. long,

2-4.5 cm. wide, gradually or abruptly acuminate, the acumen broad, obtuse,

at base acute or obtuse, subcoriaceous, dark yellowish green when dry,

lustrous, especially when fresh, the costa slender, prominent on both surfaces,

the lateral nerves prominulous beneath, about 9 on each side, divergent at a

wide angle, subarcuate, irregularly anastomosing near the margins, the

ultimate nerves evident, pale, laxly reticulate; flowers borne in terminal,

sessile or short-pedunculate, about 5-flowered umbels; pedicels slender, 8-18

mm. long; hypanthium globose-obovoid, 1.5 mm. long; calyx slightly over 1

mm. long, truncate; corolla violet, the tube 13 mm. long, 2 mm. thick at base,

3 mm. broad in the throat, the 4 lobes lance-oblong, obtuse, 8-10 mm. long;

fruit depressed-globose, smooth, 8 mm. broad.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,253,066, collected in wet

oak forest near Quebradillas, about 7 km. north of Santa Maria de Dota,

Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude about 1,800 meters, December 24,

1925, by Paul C. Standley (no. 42999). The following additional collections

have been examined: 7

Costa Rica: Quebradillas, Standley 42967, 48057, 48085.

MARCH 19, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 169

This Costa Rican plant is related to F. ovalis Standl., of Panama. The

latter has much broader leaves and a much smaller corolla.

Faramea hondurae Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub 3-+4.5 m. high, glabrous throughout; branches slender, subterete,

green, the internodes mostly 2.5-3.5 cm. long; stipules sheathing, early

deciduous, 3-4 mm. long; leaves opposite, the petioles 7-10 mm. long; leaf

blades narrowly oblong or lance-oblong, broadest at the middle, 12-19 cm.

long, 3-5 cm. wide, abruptly caudate-acuminate, the cusp linear, obtuse,

1.5-2 em. long, at base acute, chartaceous, deep green above, the costa promi-

nent, beneath slightly paler, the costa and lateral nerves slender, salient, the

lateral nerves about 14 on each side, divaricate at a very wide angle, nearly

straight, anastomosing near the margin to form a distinct regular collective

nerve parallel with the margin, the ultimate nerves prominulous, laxly reticu-

late; inflorescences terminal and also borne in the upper axils, sometimes

bearing a large leaflike bract, cymose-paniculate, the panicles 5-6.5 cm. long,

many-flowered; bracts lance-subulate, 12 mm. long, deciduous; pedicels stout,

2-3 mm. long; hypanthium turbinate, 1-1.5 mm. long; calyx broadly cam-

panulate, 1-1.5 mm. long, shallowly 4-lobate, green, the lobes rounded,

apiculate; corolla white, salverform, 5 mm. long, the tube 2 mm. thick,

slightly broadened above, the 4 lobes oval-ovate, obtuse, erect, shorter than

the tube.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,105, collected in wet

forest at La Hondura, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude about 1,400

meters, March 16, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 37890). No. 36534, from

the same locality, represents this species.

Faramea hondurae somewhat suggests F. suerrensis Donn. Smith, also

Costa Rican, but the latter has larger, more conspicuously nerved leaves,

and a longer, more slender corolla.

Faramea stenophylla Standl., sp. nov.

Plant glabrous throughout; branches very slender, subterete, the inter-

nodes 1.5-4 em. long, 1-1.5 mm. thick; stipules semiorbicular, 1.5 mm. long,

rounded at apex and bearing a filiform cusp 2.5 mm. long, the cusp deciduous,

but the stipules persistent; petioles slender, 3-6 mm. long; leaf blades linear-

lanceolate, 4.5-8.5 cm. long, 7-11 mm. wide, very long-acuminate, the acumen

linear, obtuse, attenuate to the acute base, firm-membranaceous, blackish

when dry, lustrous, concolorous, the costa slender, prominent on both sur-

faces, the lateral nerves very slender and inconspicuous, about 10 on each

side, distant, irregularly anastomosing toward the margin; inflorescences

terminal, 1-flowered, the peduncle slender, 2-10 mm. long, bearing at apex

several subulate bracts 1.5-2 mm. long; pedicel slender, 8-14 mm. long;

fruit globose, 7-8 mm. in diameter, smooth; calyx limb persistent, less than

1 mm. long, truncate; seed 1, depressed-globose, pale brown, deeply excavate

at base, 6-7 mm. broad.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,399, collected on hills at

Cuyamel, Honduras, March 29, 1924, by M. A. Carleton (no. 592).

Easily recognized by the very narrow leaves and 1-flowered inflorescences.

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 6

BOTANY.—Siudies of Venezuelan Bignoniaceae.—II. Species of Am-

philophium.'! H. Pirrimr. Caracas, Venezuela.

On revising our materials of this genus, it was found that the

identification of one collection (Piltier no. 10401) with the Mexican

Amphilophium molle Cham. & Schlecht. had been a hasty one, founded

on superficial examination, and that the group referred to A. panni-

culatum H. B. K. was also represented by two forms which may be

considered as specifically distinct.

KEY TO THE VENEZUELAN SPECIES

Rami et folia manifeste induta

Calyx campanulatus, bilobus, lobi appendicula subaequantes; folia ovata

vel ovato-oblonga, acuta vel breve acuminata supra scabra

1. A. macrophyllum H. B. K.

Calyx subglobosus, trilobus, lobi appendicula manifeste breviores; folia

late ovata vel suborbiculares, longe acuminata, supra haud scabra

2. A. mollicomum Pittier

Rami et folia haud manifeste induta; calyx bilobus

Calyx subglobosus, coriaceus; folia ovata, acuta vel breviter acuminata

basi cordata; corolla 3-3.3 em. longa 3. A. panniculatum H. B. K.

Calyx campanulatus, membranosus; folia ovato-lanceolata, basi rotundata;

corolla 4—4.2 cm. longa 4. A. xerophilum Pittier

1. AMPHILOPHIUM MACROPHYLLUM H. B. K., Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3: 117. 1818

ARAGUA: Vicinity of Colonia ‘Tovar; flowers December ( Karsten, TYPE).

2. Amphilophium mollicomum Pittier, sp. ‘nov.

Frutex scandens, ramis validis, hexagonis, angulis griseis minute pilosulis

exceptis glabris, brunneis, lepidotis, ramulis lateralibus florigeris praecipue

angulis fulvo-tomentosis; foliis ramulorum ut videtur conjugatis, modice

petiolatis, petiolis angulosis, striatis, petiolulisque molliter denseque hirsutis,

laminis late ovatis suborbicularibusve, basi truncatis vel leviter emarginatis,

apicem longissime angusteque acuminatis acumine obtuso, utrinque lepidotis,

supra opacis parce pilosis, subtus mollissimis, pilis simplicibus rufo-fulvescen-

tibus vestitis; nervibus 5-6 supra imprimis subtus costaque prominulis;

paniculis elongatis, rachide pedunculis pedicellisque fulvo-tomentosis, pe-

dunculis supremis simplicibus, inferioribus bifloribus, pedicellis pedunculis

brevioribus; bracteis bracteolisque oblongo-linearibus, obtusis, tomentosis;

calyce coriaceo, bracteolis 2, caducis suffulto, subgloboso, extus lepidoto-

tomentello, trilobato, lobis late triangularibus subacutis obtusisve, puberulis,

appendiculis membranaceis, irregulariter sinuato-denticulatis, lobis longi-

oribus; corolla extus minutissime puberula, basi alba, apicem purpurascente,

intus glabra, ad insertionem staminum corrugato-pulvinata; staminibus

glaberrimis, thecis maturis haud divaricatis; disco pulvinato, crasso, verru-

culoso, margine irregulariter lobato vel sinuato, lobulis reflexis; ovario late-

raliter compresso, stylo villoso, basi incrassato, stigmatibus glabris, late

ovalibus, apicem rotundatis.....

1 Studies of Venezuelan Bignoniaceae.—I appeared in this JouRNAL 18: 61-66.

1928. Received January 20, 1928.

MARCH 19, 1928 | PITTIER: AMPHILOPHIUM 171

Rami florentes circa 30 em. longi, basi 4-5 mm. diam. Petioli 3-3.5 em.,

petioluli 2 cm. longi; laminae 6-10 cm. longae, 2.7-6.5 cm. latae. Panicula

circa 16 em. longa, 7-8 em. lata. Pedunculi 1-2 em., pedicelli 0.7-1 em.

longi. Bracteae circa 1 em. longae, 1-2 mm. latae; bracteoli 0.8 mm. longi.

Calyx circa 1 em. longus; lobuli 5 mm. longi, 5-8 mm. lati; appendicula

eirciter 7 mm. longa. Corolla tota 2.7-3 em. longa; lobi 1.5-1.7 em. longi.

Stamina 5-7 mm. supra basin corollae tubo innixa, minora 1.6 em., majora

1.8-2 em. longa; staminodium 7 mm. longum. Discus 2 mm. altus. Ova-

rium 5—6 mm. longum; stylus cum stigmate circa 2 em. longus.

FEDERAL District: Vicinity of Las Trincheras, 1000 m., on the old

cartroad from Caracas to La Guaira; flowers July 20, 1922 (Pittier 10401,

TYPE).

This plant differs from Amphilophiwm molle Cham. & Schlecht. in its

shorter petioles and petiolules, the long and narrowly acuminate leaf-blades,

not heart-shaped at the base, and provided with an indument of simple

hairs, the much shorter corolla, ete. It cannot be confused with A. macro-

phyllum, on account of its trilobate calyx.

3. AMPHILOPHIUM PANNICULATUM (l.) H. B. K. Nov. Gen & Sp. 3: 149.

1818.

ANZOATEGUI: Vicinity of Caripe and Monte Cocollar (Humboldt &

Bonpland).

Mrranpa: La Begonia, on the railway between Los Teques and Tejerias

( Pittier 7559); Piritu Valley, near Petare, 900 m. (P2ttzer 9877); La Malva,

near Las Mostazas on the railroad between Los Teques and Tejerias (Allart

279).

FEDERAL District: Near Macarao, on bushy slopes (Pitter 11566);

hills above Antimano, 1000 m., climbing on bushes; fruits December—January

( Pittier 12456, 12582). Flowers August to November.

_ The capsule and seeds of this species do not seem to have been described

completely yet. They are characterized as follows:

Capsula ellipsoidea, depressa, 10-12 cm. longa, 44.5 em. lata, 2-3 cm.

crassa, basi attenuato-truncata, apice subobtusa, valvis sublignosis, septi-

fragis, medium longitudinaliter sulcatis, verruculoso-rugosis. Semina pro

loculo 45-50, pluri (5)-seriata, 1.1—-1.3 em. longa, 4.5-5 em. lata, alis hyalinis.

4. Amphilophium xerophilum Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex scandens, ramis annotinis hexagonis, gracilibus, glabris, juveniori-

bus ramulisque interdum minutissime puberulis; foliis non bene evolutis,

discoloribus, conjugatis vel cirrho trifurcato terminatis; petiolis gracilibus,

angulatis, supra vix canaliculatis, minute pubescentibus, petiolulis profunde

canaliculatis molliculis; laminis ovato-lanceolatis, basi rotundatis, apice

acuminatis acumine subacuto, utrinque lepidotissimis, supra glaberrimis,

subtus axillis venarum villosis exceptis glabris; costa venisque 5-6 subtus

prominulis; paniculis in apice ramulorum axillaris terminalibus, rachide

anguloso pedunculisque simplicibus puberulis; bracteis bracteolisque lineari-

lanceolatis plus minusve pubescentibus; calyce submembranoso, campanu-

lato, puberulo-lepidoto, apice bilobulato, lobulis membranaceis subglabris,

appendiculis lobulis subaequantibus; corolla purpurea, extus glabra, intus

staminum basin dense furfuraceo-villosa; staminibus glabris, thecis haud

172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. &

divaricatis; staminodio brevi, apiculato; disco crassissimo, pulvinato, glabro;

ovario dense rufo-tomentoso; stylo basi incrassato, puberulo, supra glabro;

stigmatibus magnis, apicem sinuato-truncatis.

Rami florentes 6-15 cm. longi, basi 2-3 mm. diam. Petioli 1.5-3 em.,

petioluli 0.8-2.5 cm. longi; laminae 3-7 cm. longae, 2-4 cm. latae. Paniculae

(haud bene evolutae) circa 10 cm. longae. Pedunculi 0.7-1.2 cm. longi.

Bracteae 0.5-0.8 cm. longae. Calyx 1.7-2 cm. longus, tubo 1 cm. longo,

lobulis appendiculique 0.5-0.6 cm. longis. Corolla 44.2 cm. longa, lobulis

2.3 cm. longis. Stamina 7 mm. supra basin corollae innixa, majora 2.1,

minora 1.9 cm. longa; staminodium 5-6 mm. longum. Discus 2 mm. altus.

Ovarium 3.5 mm. longum, stylus 2.2 cm. longus; stigmata circa 5 mm. longa,

4 mm. lata.

Lara: Vicinity of Barquisimeto, in bushy savannas; flowers July 1925

(José Saer @’ Héquert 253, TYPE.)

This species is characterized by the scarcity of the indurnene eae the

shape, consistence and color of the leaves, which are abundantly covered with

tiny scales, the calyx and corolla much longer than in the other Venezuelan

species, and by the pronounced hairy band on the inside of the corolla at the

insertion of the stamens.

BOTAN Y.—The history of the Franklin tree, Franklinia alatamaha.?

Epcar T. WHERRY, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

The Franklin tree is one of the few members of the Camellia family

(Ternstroemiaceae or Theaceae) which have survived the climatic and

geographic changes of late Tertiary and Quaternary times on the North

American continent. Although it is rather widely known as Gordonia

pubescens L’ Heriter, the arrangement of its stamens and the structure

of its fruit are so different from those in other species of Gordonia

that it seems better classed as the representative of a monotypic genus,

its name then being Franklinia alatamaha Marshall. Considerable

interest has been shown in this plant during recent years, largely

owing to the fact that it has apparently become extinct in its native

place, and is preserved only in cultivation. As the data concerning.

it which have been published in newspaper articles are not altogether

accurate, and as inquiries regarding its history are continually being

made by people who do not have access to the somewhat scattered

literature upon it, a compilation of the main facts regarding it is here

presented.

In the year 1765 John Bartram, the first native American botanist,

made a trip through the southeastern part of the United States, and in

the course of it observed a new tree in the neighborhood of Fort

Barrington, Georgia. The occurrence of this was described in 1791

by his son, William Bartram,? in the following words:

1 Received January 11, 1928.

2 Travels through North and South Carolina, etc. 16 and 466. 1791.

MARCH 19, 1928 WHERRY: THE FRANKLIN TREE 173

I sat off early in the morning [from Darien, Georgia, one day in May 1773],

. and took the road up the northeast side of the Alatamaha to Fort

Barrington. .. . On drawing near the fort. I was greatly delighted at the

appearance of two new beautiful shrubs, in all their blooming graces. One

of them appeared to be a species of Gordonia,* but the flowers are larger,

and more fragrant than those of the Gordonia Lasianthus, and are sessile;

the seed vessel is also very different. ....

This very curious tree was first taken notice of about ten’ or twelve years

ago, at this place, when I attended my father [John Bartram] on a botanical

excursion late in the autumn..... We never saw it grow in any other

place, nor have I ever since seen it growing wild, in all my travels, from

Pennsylvania to Point Coupé, on the banks of the Mississippi, which must

be allowed a very singular and unaccountable circumstance; at this place

there are two or three acres of ground where it grows plentifully.

The footnote, indicated by the asterisk, gives, somewhat misspelled,

the technical name which had meanwhile been assigned to the plant,

Franklinia alatahama. [Should have been alatamaha.|

The original name was given by Humphrey Marshall, a cousin of

the Bartrams’, in the first American botanical work, the Arbustum

Americanum, published in 1785. After describing its characters in

detail, he gave the following account of its history: :

This newly discovered, rare, and elegant flowering shrub, was first ob-

served by John Bartram when on botanical researches, on the Alatamaha

river in Georgia, Anno 1760 [should have been 1765]; but was not brought

into Pennsylvania till about fifteen [eight] years after, when his son, William

Bartram, employed in the like pursuits, revisited the place where it had been

before observed, and had the pleasing prospect of beholding it in its native

soil, possessed with all its floral charms; and bearing ripe seeds at the same

time; some of which he collected and brought home, and raised several

plants therefrom, which in four years time flowered, and in one year after

perfected ripe seeds.

. . . William Bartram ... has chosen to honour it with the name of

that patron of sciences, and truly great and distinguished character, Dr.

Benjamin Franklin. The trivial name is added from the river, where alone

it has been observed to grow naturally. It delights in a loose, sandy, and

moist soil.

The correspondence of the Bartrams and of Marshall with their

various friends includes several references to Franklinia, but fails to

mention further visits to the locality. However, Moses Marshall,

a nephew of Humphry, found it there in 1790, as recorded in a letter

to Sir Joseph Banks:$

In May last, I sat out upon a botanic tour, . to Augusta, and to

Savannah town, and continuing southwest to the river Alatamaha in Georgia.

I here found the Franklinia . ae

3 W. Daruineton, Memorials of Bartram and Marshall, 563. 1849.

174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 6

Since that dale, this plant has never been seen in its native place,

nor has any other colony of it ever been discovered. In 1880 and

1881 it was searched for by the South Carolina botanist, H. W.

Ravenel,‘ at the instance of Professor C. 8. Sargent, but no trace of

it was found. From that time to the present it has been repeatedly

sought by collectors from the Arnold Arboretum, the Biltmore ©

Herbarium, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and various nursery

companies, without success.

I have made three visits to the locality, and although I have been

unable to locate the plant, the following observations may throw some

ight on its place of occurrence and the reasons for its disappearance.

The region of interest is situated at the upper edge of the Everett City

quadrangle, mapped by the United States Geological Survey in 1917.

As there shown, a secondary road leads northwest from Cox Station

on the Seaboard Air Line to Fort Barrington Ferry, on the Altamaha

River (as it is now spelled, the last syllable being accented), a distance

of four miles. Ravenel’s account of his visits shows clearly that he

took this road, and his directions for finding the place have apparently

been followed by all subsequent searchers. On reaching the swamp

lying as shown on the map, between this road and Pinch’s Hill, he

concluded that he had rediscovered Bartram’s locality of “two new

beautiful shrubs in all their blooming graces,’’ because the second of

these shrubs, easily identified by Bartram’s description as the Georgia-

bark, Pinckneya pubens, grows here and nowhere else along the road.

He overlooked, however, two important points.

In the first place, it seems highly improbable that the secondary

road in question was there in Bartram’s day, for it approaches the

river gradually, whereas the builders of the fort—which has by now

practically vanished—would surely have seen to it that the approach

to this important point on the river was more or less perpendicular, so

as to be better capable of military control. In my opinion, therefore,

Bartram’s route deviated from that followed by Ravenel at Mc-

Clendon School, ran east of the Sandhill Bay shown on the map, and

swung toward the fort and ferry at some point near the north edge

of the quadrangle, probably following the trail shown thereon as

terminating in the midst of the woods north of the Sandhill Bay, but

which actually extends out to the highway, and can be traversed by

vehicles, at least in dry weather. The Georgia-bark grows along this

trail, northwest of the Sandhill Bay.

4 American Naturalist, 16: 235. 1882. ‘

MARCH 19, 1928 WHERRY: THE FRANKLIN TREE 175

That this was the colony of it which Bartram saw is indicated by

another circumstance, the second point overlooked by Ravenel and

subsequent visitors. A large and showy patch of the Sandhill Kalmia,

Kalmia (Kalmiella) hirsuta, grows adjacent to the more southern

(Ravenel’s) colony of Georgia-bark, but there is none near the more

northern one. Bartram in the journal earlier referred to mentioned

this Kalmia, but stated that it was observed, as a plant new to him,

only after he had crossed the Fort Barrington Ferry, and had proceeded

some distance farther southwest. The inference is plain that instead

of the southern colony of Georgia-bark, it was the northern one that

he saw, and that the Franklin tree grew with the latter.

But apparently no Franklin tree is there now; so the question re-

mains as to how it was exterminated. The letter of Moses Marshall,

earlier quoted in part, concerned the shipping of various native Ameri-

ean plants to England, so no doubt a part of the colony was dug up

for that purpose by Marshall and probably by others of his day,

although that the ‘‘two or three acres” of it reported by Bartram

could have been thus removed seems improbable. However, many

acres of land in the vicinity of the northern colony of, Georgia-bark

have been burned over and more or less cleared, and it may well have

been that what the collectors left was destroyed in the course of these

operations.

That the species, and accordingly the genus Franklinia, has not

become entirely extinct, is due then to the fortunate circumstance that

a Single one of the plants, transplanted by Bartram to an acid portion

of his famous garden near Philadelphia, survived, and nurserymen,

observing its ornamental value, took cuttings and brought it into the

horticultural trade. Scores, if not hundreds, of plants from this

source must have been distributed to various gardens, yet only a hand-

ful of them succeeded, so the extinction of the species might be still

threatened, but for a further discovery made in connection with it.

In recent years it has been recognized that certain plants thrive

best in soils possessing a moderate or high degree of acidity; that the

Franklin tree belongs to this class is shown by two observations. In

the first place, the soil of the immediate vicinity of its presumable

native place is predominantly acid and the associated plants, es-

pecially the Georgia-bark, are acid-loving. The relative failure of the

tree in cultivation furnishes the second line of evidence. It has been

found that those native species which are commonly reputed to be

incapable of cultivation are as a rule the ones that prefer the more

acid soils. The reason for this is that our ordinary horticultural

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 6

practices result in neutralizing acidity, and, contrary to popular

opinion, the average garden soil is neutral or slightly alkaline rather

than acid. Actual tests of some of the few gardens in which the

Franklin tree has chanced to thrive show that they are exceptional in

exhibiting a distinct soil acidity, which has not been neutralized by

fertilization or cultivation. Dr. Frederick V. Coville informs me that,

suspecting the Franklin tree to be a plant of acid soils, he raised seed-

lings successfully in such soils in 1911. The plants flowered in 1913.

In 1912-13 he rooted cuttings in acid soils, with pronounced success,

and in 1916 he sent small plants to the acid-soil nursery at Whitesbog,

in the New Jersey pine-barrens. The trees have thrived there amaz-

ingly; the largest is now about 10 feet high and bears hundreds of

flowers each year. He has used this species in his experiments on the

effect of aluminum sulfate on acid-soil plants.®

There is a further point in connection with the Franklin tree, how-

ever, which deserves study, namely the matter of seed production.

Like certain other rare species, it seems to be nearly sterile to its own

pollen, and the seeds produced as a result of self-pollination are seldom

viable. If it is true that all the plants now in cultivation have arisen

from cuttings taken from the single individual in Bartram’s garden,

then carrying pollen from one to the other would be of no avail. If,

however, descendants of the trees collected by Marshall or others exist

cross-pollination could be expected to result in seed from which

numerous new plants could be grown, and some of them might prove

more vigorous and adaptable than is the present stock. With thisin

view I have been making an effort to track down every report of the

presence of the species in hitherto unknown places. There are several

specimens in old Philadelphia gardens, all apparently derived from the

Bartram tree. One or two nurseries near New York City have sup-

plied plants to estates in that vicinity, but they obtained their stock

in the first place from Thomas Meehan and Sons, who utilized Bar-

tram’s garden as their original source of cuttings. The single tree at

Chevy Chase Circle, Washington, D. C., also came from Meehan’s.

Many reports of the plant, it should be noted, have proved to be

erroneous, either Gordonia lasianthus or a species of Magnolia having

been mistaken for it. The hope may be expressed, however, that

some day a descendant from another ancestor will be discovered, and

the cross-pollination and production of seedlings in quantity may then

become possible, representing the final step in the permanent preserva-

tion of this interesting plant. '

5 The effect of aluminum sulphate on. . . acid-soil plants. Smiths. Rept. 1926: 373.

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 18 Aprit 4, 1928 NOT

PALEONTOLOGY .—A Cotylosaur from the Upper Triassic of western

Texas.1 EK. C. Casz, University of Michigan.

The expedition from the Museum of Geology of the University of

Michigan to the Upper Triassic beds of western Texas, in the summer

of 1927, recovered a small fragment of a lower jaw which proves to be

that of a Cotylosaur of the family Procolophonidae. ‘The specimen,

number 2338 of the Museum collection, is the type of a new genus and

species for which the name Trilophosaurus buettnert is proposed.

The specimen is of peculiar interest in that it is the first evidence of

the presence of Cotylosauria in North America in Triassic time.

The fragment contains three complete teeth and the roots of four

others. The first tooth was small and cylindrical, as shown by the

broken root, behind this the teeth are set transversely in the jaw and

increase in size regularly toward the rear. The three complete teeth

are very similar. ‘he teeth are obscurely thecodont

in insertion; they appear to be acrodont and the fibres

of bones can be seen running from the root to the wall

of the alveolus. Only when the teeth are broken

does the root and the alveolus become apparent. Fig. fee

This peculiarity of attachment is a characteristic of saurus buettneri

the family, as all workers upon the various genera Case,n.gen. and sp.,

have noted it or have been bothered by it in describ- '"#8™ment of lower

‘ ; jaw, oblique view

ing the specimens. The complete teeth show 4 from above down-

thin upper cutting edge, divided into three lobes ward and backward

by slight depressions in the edge. The sides swell out ‘% 2):

slightly and then contract sharply to the root. The upper teeth

fitted between the lower teeth when the jaws were closed, inter-

locking closely.

1 Received February 23, 1928.

177

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 7

In the other members of the family, Procolophon and Thelegnathus (2)

from South Africa, Telerpeton from Elgin in Scotland, and Sclero-

saurus and Koilioskiosaurus from Germany, the transverse expansion

of the teeth 1s shown in varying degree. In Telerpeton the cutting

edge is divided into two lobes. The nearest group which shows a

similar arrangement of the teeth is the Cotylosaurian family Diadecti-

dae from the Permian beds of North America.

BOTANY.—New plants from Central Wie Ae I, PA

STANDLEY, U.S. National Museum.!

Descriptions of further representatives of the family Rubiaceae are

presented here. ‘There are proposed eight new species of Hoffmannia,

a genus whose species seem to be almost unlimited in the mountains of

Costa Rica, where the group is best developed. Most of the forms seem

to be of very local distribution, hence it may be expected that a good

many others will be discovered by new explorations.

Heffmannia Valerii Standl., sp. nov.

Branched shrub 1-1.5 m. high, the older branches subterete, 6-8 mm.

thick, the young branches subterete, their internodes 3.5-5.5 em. long, when

young densely villous with slender spreading pale hairs; stipules rounded,

scarcely over 1 mm. long, caducous; petioles slender, 1-2 cm. long, villous;

leaf blades elliptic or ovate-elliptic, 6.5-11 cm. long, 3.5-5.5 em. wide, acute

or acuminate with acute or obtuse tip, at base obtuse or rounded and abruptly

or gradually decurrent, membranaceous, deep green on the upper surface,

when young sparsely villous but soon glabrate, beneath somewhat paler,

marked with numerous short linear cystoliths, villous along the nerves with

slender, pale or brownish, spreading hairs, the costa and lateral nerves promi-

nent beneath, the lateral nerves slender, ascending, arcuate, anastomosing

very close to the margin; inflorescences cymose, few-flowered, dense, axillary,

fasciculate, sessile or nearly so (peduncles in fruit sometimes 1 cm. long),

the bracts caducous; pedicels 2-5 mm. long, glabrous or nearly so; hypanthium

turbinate, 2 mm. long, glabrous or bearing a few short hairs; calyx lobes 4,

narrowly triangular, 1 mm. long, acute or obtuse, sometimes bearing dorsally

a few short hairs; corolla in bud lance-ovoid, acutish, 5-6 mm. long, short-

villous, the 4 lobes triangular-oblong, obtuse, 3 times as long as the tube;

fruit subglobose, 6 mm. long, bright red, glabrous; seeds minute, subglobose,

dark brown, coarsely and deeply pitted.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,206,194, collected at El Arenal,

Guanacaste, Costa Rica, altitude 600 meters, March 20, 1923, by Juvenal

Valerio (no. 57). The following collections are from Guanacaste.

Costa Rica: El Arenal, in wet forest, Standley & Valerio 45217. Los

Ayotes, alt. 600 m., Standley & Valerio 45437.

This species is well marked by the villous nerves of the leaves and by the

very short corolla tube.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. For the

last preceding paper of this series see This JouRNAL 18: 160. 1928. Received Decem-

ber 9, 1927.

]

‘

APRIL 4, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 179

Hoffmannia inamoena Standl., sp. nov.

Simple erect shrub 1-1.5 m. high, the stems stout, subterete, with short or

elongate internodes, the young branches densely and minutely puberulent;

stipules ovate, 1.5 mm. long, caducous; leaves opposite, the petioles slender,

1-4.5 em. long, densely puberulent; leaf blades chiefly elliptic, sometimes

ovate-elliptic, rarely oblong-ovate, 8-20 cm. long 3.5-10 cm. wide, abruptly

acute or acuminate, rarely long-acuminate, with acute or obtuse, ‘often fal-

cate tip, at base obtuse to rounded and abruptly long-decurrent, membranace-

ous, green and glabrous above, beneath paler, densely and minutely puberu-

lent beneath upon the nerves.and sometimes, at least when young, over the

whole surface, the costa stout, prominent, the lateral nerves slender, about

16 on each side, divaricate, usually arcuate, anastomosing to form a distinct

collective nerve close to the margin, the ultimate nerves prominulous, closely

reticulate; flowers fasciculate in the leaf axils or in sessile or short-pedunculate,

2 to 4-flowered cymes, the pedicels in fruit I-4 mm. long, short-villous; calyx

lobes 4, triangular-oblong, 1-2 mm. long, obtuse, short-villous; fruit sub-

globose, 6-7 mm. long, white, Juicy, copiously villous; seeds minute, dark

brown, coarsely and deeply pitted.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,254,102, collected in wet

forest at Los Ayotes, near Tilardn, Guanacaste, Costa Rica, altitude 600

meters, January 21, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal Valerio (no.

45421). The following collections from Guanacaste may be cited:

Costa Rica: Los Ayotes, Standley & Valerio 45432, 45345, 45529. El

Arenal, alt. 500 m., Standley & Valerio 45214, 45181. Quebrada Serena,

Standley & Valerio 46270, 46170, 46195.

Although flowers have not been collected, this plant is evidently distinct

from all species of Hoffmannia previously described from Costa Rica. It

is recognizable by its pale (when dried) leaves and the minute dense puberu-

lence of the nerves.

Hoffmannia subauriculata Standl., sp. nov.

Decumbent shrub 1-1.5 m. long, the young branches obtusely quadrangular,

glabrous, the internodes 5-7.5 cm. long; leaves opposite, sessile, elliptic-obo-

vate, 15-22 cm. long, 7-9.5 cm. wide, abruptly short-acuminate, abruptly

narrowed near the base into a petioliform portion about 2 em. long and

1.5-2 em. wide, rounded to subcordate at the base and amplexicaul, membrana-

ceous, glabrous, deep green above, somewhat paler beneath, furnished with

numerous minute cystoliths, the costa prominent beneath, stout, the lateral

nerves about 15 on each side, slender, prominent, divaricate, strongly ar-

cuate, anastomosing close to the margin; inflorescences borne on the naked

older branches below the leaves, lax, many-flowered, cymose-paniculate, on

slender peduncles 6.5-9 cm. long, the panicles about 5 cm. long, glabrous;

bracts deciduous; pedicels slender, 6-12 mm. long; fruit oval or subglobose,

2-celled, bright red, glabrous, about 8 mm. long; calyx lobes 4, deltoid, acut-

ish, tig long, glabrous, erect; seeds minute, subglobose, brown, coarsely

pitted.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,306,554, collected in moist

forest at El Mufieco, on the Rio Navarro, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica,

altitude 1,400 meters, March 6-7, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Rubén

Torres Rojas (no. 50956).

This species may be recognized by its sessile leaves with broad bases.

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 7

Hoffmannia piratarum Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub, the young branchlets stout, obtusely quadrangular, glabrous,

the internodes 1.5-3 em. long; stipules caducous; leaves opposite, the petioles

slender, 2.5-4.5 cm. long, glabrate; leaf blades lance-oblong, 10.5—20 cm. long,

5-6 cm. wide, long-acuminate, the acumen narrow, long-attenuate, often

falcate, the blades membranaceous, deep green above, glabrous, beneath paler,

when very young sparsely short-villous with ferruginous hairs but soon gla-

brate, the costa prominent, rather stout, the lateral nerves 8 or 9 on each

side, very slender, strongly ascending, arcuate, irregularly anastomosing close

to the margin; inflorescences axillary, solitary or fasciculate, cymose, dense,

few-flowered, 3 cm. long or shorter, the peduncles 2.5 cm. long or shorter,

glabrous or nearly so, the bracts caducous; pedicels 2-5 mm. long, usually

sparsely short-villous; hypanthium 3 mm. long, glabrous or sparsely short-

villous; calyx lobes 4, triangular-oblong, 2-3 mm. long, acute, villous-ciliate

with short hairs; corolla 1 cm. long, in bud oblong, obtuse, glabrous or with a

few short hairs at apex, the tube obconic, 2 mm. wide at base, 5 mm. wide in

the throat, the 4 lobes oblong-triangular, slightly shorter than the tube; fruit

subglobose, 2-celled, 6 mm. long, glabrous; seeds minute, subglobose, dark

brown, coarsely and deeply pitted.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 579835, collected in wet forest

in the Wafer Valley, Cocos Island, Costa Rica, altitude 200 meters or less,

January, 1902; by H. Pittier (no. 16259).

This insular plant is related to H. angustifolia Standl. and H. psychotriae-

folia (Benth.) Griseb., but differs from both in its ciliate calyx lobes.

Hoffmannia ramonensis Standl, sp. nov.

Shrub, the older branches stout, terete, the younger ones glabrous or nearly

so, the internodes 2-6.5 cm. long; stipules caducous; leaves opposite, sessile or

nearly so, obovate-oblong, 14-28 cm. long, 5.5-10 cm. wide, acute, gradually

narrowed below the middle, then rather abruptly long-attenuate into a petio-

liform portion 3-6 cm. long, this 1.5 cm. wide or narrower, acute at base, the

blades membranaceous, deep green and glabrous above, beneath paler, when

very young densely tomentose with loose brownish hairs, in age glabrate

except along the short-villous nerves, the costa slender, prominent beneath,

the lateral nerves about 14 on each side, slender, prominent, divaricate,

arcuate, anastomosing close to the margin, the lower surface marked with

very numerous short linear cystoliths; cymes axillary, solitary or fasciculate,

umbelliform, mostly 2 to 5-flowered, the peduncles stout, 6-15 mm. long,

densely brown-tomentose, the bracts caducous; pedicels stout, 2-4 mm. long,

densely villous-tomentose; hypanthium turbinate, 2.5-3 mm. long, brown-

tomentose; calyx lobes 4, narrowly triangular, 1.5-2 mm. long, narrowed to

an obtuse apex, brown-villous on the outer surface; corolla in bud oblong-

ovoid, obtuse, 6-7 mm. long, obtuse, densely villous-tomentose with brown

hairs; anthers linear, 5 mm. long, narrowed to the acutish apex:

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 861910, collected along the

Rio Barranea at San Juan, near San Ramon, Costa Rica, altitude 1,300 to

1,400 meters, April 25, 1913, by A. Tonduz (no. 17812).

Hoffmannia ramonensis is well marked by its large, essentially sessile

leaves and densely tomentose inflorescence.

See ee

APRIL 4, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 181

Hoffmannia dotae Standl., sp. nov. .

Erect branched shrub 2.54.5 m. high, the young branches obtusely quad-

rangular, glabrous or sparsely villous, the internodes 2.5-10.5 cm. long; stip-

ules caducous; petioles 2 cm. long or shorter, often marginate to the base,

glabrous; leaf blades oblong-obovate to obovate-elliptic, 19-29 cm. long, 7.5-

12 cm. wide, abruptly short-acuminate with acute or obtuse tip, narrowed to-

ward the base and abruptly long-decurrent, membranaceous, deep green and

glabrous above, paler beneath, marked with numerous short pale cystoliths,

at first sparsely short-villous along the nerves but soon glabrate, the costa

stout, prominent, the lateral nerves about 15-17 on each side, arcuate-divari-

cate, anastomosing close to the margin; cymes solitary or fasciculate in the leaf

axils, lax, few-flowered, 5.5 cm. long or shorter, the peduncles sometimes 3.5

em. long; bracts caducous; pedicels 4-12 mm. long, sparsely or densely short-

villous; hypanthium turbinate, 4 mm. long, sparsely short-villous; calyx

lobes 2.5-3.5 mm. long, unequal, triangular or narrowly triangular, narrowed

to the obtuse or acutish apex, sparsely villous; corolla red below, yellow above,

15 mm. long, glabrous or sparsely villous on the lobes, acuminate in bud, the

tube 4 mm. thick, the 4 lobes linear-lanceolate, equaling the tube; anther tips

slightly exceeding the corolla tube; stigma oblong, much exceeding the anthers;

fruit red, oblong, 8-9 mm. long, 4 mm. thick, 2-celled, sparsely villous; seeds

minute, yellowish, shallowly and coarsely pitted.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,253,172, collected in moist

forest near Santa Maria de Dota, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude

about 1,700 meters, December, 1925, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal Valerio

(no. 43277). Nos. 43286 and 43293, from the same locality, also represent

this species.

Hoffmannia dotae is related to H. josefina Standl., which has a smaller

corolla, denser inflorescence, and obtuse flower buds.

Hoffmannia trichocalyx Standl., sp. nov.

Large weak shrub, 1-2.5 m. long, often decumbent, the branches thick and

stout, terete, ochraceous, rimose, the young branchlets obtusely quadrangular,

their internodes 1-4 cm. long, thinly villous or often glabrous; stipules cadu-

cous; leaves opposite, the petioles slender, 1.5-7 cm. long, sparsely villous or

glabrous; leaf blades elliptic to oblong-elliptic, rarely ovate or obovate, 12-26

em. long, 4.5-10 cm. wide, abruptly acuminate with acute tip, cuneate to

obtuse at base, usually abruptly contracted and short-decurrent, chartaceous,

deep green and glabrous on the upper surface, beneath usually villous along

the nerves but sometimes glabrate, the costa slender, prominent, the lateral

nerves 10—14 on each side, divaricate, strongly arcuate, prominent, extending

nearly to the margin; inflorescences pendent, borne on naked stems below the

leaves, fasciculate, 2.5-14 cm. long, few or many-flowered, the peduncles

long and slender, usually short-villous, dark red, the bracts deciduous; pedi-

cels 3-6 mm. long, sparsely or densely villous; hypanthium turbinate, dark

red, 4 mm. long, densely or sparsely villous; calyx lobes 4, broadly deltoid,

acutish, 2 mm. long, sparsely or densely villous; corolla 1 cm. long, bright

yellow or red and yellow, glabrous or sparsely villous outside, the tube 3 mm.

thick, cylindric, the lobes triangular-oblong, narrowed to the obtuse apex, about

equaling the tube; fruit 2-celled, oval, 8 mm. long, 5 mm. thick, dark red,

glabrous or sparsely villous.

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 7

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, nos. 1,305,242-3 (both from the

same plant), collected in wet forest at Fraijanes, Province of Alajuela, Costa

Rica, altitude about 1,600 meters, February 12, 1926, by Paul C. Standley

and Rubén Torres Rojas (no. 47690). Additional collections are at hand, as

follows: :

Costa Rica: Fraijanes, Standley & Torres 47819, 47480, 47924.

The nearest relative of this species is H. leucocarpa Standl., also Costa

Rican, which has a glabrous inflorescence and white fruit.

Chomelia (?) sylvicola Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub, glabrous throughout, the branches slender, subterete, the older ones

grayish, rimose, the younger ones green, smooth, the internodes 1.5-6.5 cm.

long; stipules distinct, ovate-oval, 3mm. long, obtuse, green, deciduous; leaves

opposite, the petioles slender, 7-12 mm. long; leaf blades elliptic-oblong, 6.5-8

cm. long, 2.2-2.8 cm. wide, rather abruptly attenuate to an obtuse tip, acute

and decurrent at base, subcoriaceous, deep green above, dull, the venation

inconspicuous, beneath somewhat paler, domatiate in the axils of the nerves,

the costa slender, prominent, the lateral nerves about 6 on each side, ascend-

ing, arcuate, irregularly and laxly anastomosing near the plane margin; in-

florescence terminal, cymose-paniculate, open, rather few-flowered, the pedun-

cle 2 cm. long, the branches slender, stiff, the bracts triangular, 1-1.5 mm.

long, green; pedicels slender, 10-12 mm. long, stiff; fruit obovoid, terete, finely

costate, about 18 mm. in total length and 7 mm. in diameter, acute at base,

lustrous, prolonged within the calyx into a conic obtuse projection 4-5 mm.

long, 2-celled, the endocarp hard and osseous; calyx persistent, cuplike, 2

mm. long, green, the margin undulate.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,305, 902, collected in wet for-

est at Yerba Buena, northeast of San Isidor, Province of Heredia, Costa

Rica, altitude about 2,000 meters, February 22, 1926, by Paul C. Standley

and Juvenal Valerio (no. 49196).

It is improbable that this plant belongs to the genus Chomelza, especially

in view of its terminal inflorescence, but I have not been able to refer it satis-

factorily to any other group.

Guettarda poasana Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub or small tree 3-6 m. high, the branchlets stout, compressed, glabrous,

the internodes short; stipules ovate, about 2 cm. long, long-acuminate, thin,

brown, glabrous, deciduous; leaves opposite, the petioles slender, 2-7 cm.

long, glabrous, the blades elliptic, broadly elliptic, or elliptic-ovate, 13-19

cm. long, 5-9 cm. wide, acutish to short-acuminate at base, short-acuminate

at apex, membranaceous, green above, glabrous or when young very sparsely

short-pilose, the venation mostly plane, paler beneath, appressed-pilose when

young, glabrate in age, the costa and lateral nerves very slender, prominent,

the lateral nerves 8 or 9 on each side, arcuate, extending nearly to the margin,

the intermediate veins inconspicuous, the margin plane; peduncles 3 cm.

long or shorter, glabrous, the cymes bifurcate, about 9-flowered, the branches

short; flowers sessile, the bractlets minute; calyx and hypanthium together

2-2.5 mm. long, the hypanthium glabrous or nearly so; calyx shallowly den-

tate, puberulent or glabrous; corolla pink, densely tomentose outside, the

tube 15-20 mm. long, 2.5 mm. thick in the throat, the lobes suborbicular, 4

mm. long.

APRIL 4, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 183

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,305,283, collected in wet forest

at Viento Fresco, on the slopes of Pods Voleano, Province of Alajuela, Costa

Rica, altitude about 1,800 meters, February 13, 1926, by Paul C. Standley

and- Rubén Torres Rojas (no. 47807). The following additional specimens

have been seen:

Costa Rica: Valley of Rio Pods, alt. 2,100 m., Prttzer 2399. Las Nubes,

Prov. San José, alt. 1,800 m., Standley 38755, 38777.

Closely related to G. crispiflora Vahl, which also occurs in Costa Rica but

is distinguished by its pilose stipules and densely tomentose hypanthium

Guettarda Deamii Standl., sp. nov.

Tree 3.5-4.5 m. high, the branches blackish, lenticellate, the branchlets

stout, densely short-pilose, the internodes short; stipules ovate-oblong, 2.5-

4mm. long, obtuse or acutish, appressed-pilose outside, soon deciduous; leaves

opposite, the petioles stout, 5-9 mm. long, densely short-pilose; leaf blades

mostly oval, sometimes oblong-oval or obovate-oval, 4-8.5 cm. long, 2.5-

4.5 em. wide, rounded at base, broadly rounded at apex, chartaceous, green

above, densely short-pilose or pilose-scaberulous, the venation prominulous

but more or less imbedded, beneath paler, densely velutinous-pilosulous, the

costa and lateral nerves prominent, the lateral nerves 8-10 on each side,

-subarcuate, ascending at an angle of 50 degrees or more, the intermediate

veins prominulous, laxly reticulate, the margin recurved; cymes subcapitate,

3 to 5-flowered, the peduncles very stout, 3-10 mm. long, densely short-pilose,

the flowers sessile; bractlets subulate, 3-4 mm. long, persistent; fruit globose,

about 8 mm. in diameter, 3 or 4-celled, minutely tomentulose.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 796136, collected on mountain

ridges near Gualdin, Guatemala, altitude 185 meters, June 15, 1909, by C. C.

Deam (no. 6271).

A relative of G. macrosperma Donn. Smith, which has chiefly acute leaves,

with closely appressed pubescence.

Psychotria hondensis Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub 3 m. high, the young branches stout, greenish (older ones ochraceous),

obtusely quadrangular, densely puberulent or pubescent with short spreading

hairs, the internodes mostly 1.5-3 cm. long; stipules persistent, erect, stiff,

short-connate, broadly triangular, narrowed to the obtuse apex, densely pu-

berulent; leaves opposite, the petioles stout, 1.3-3.5 mm. long, puberulent;

leaf blades broadly elliptic to elliptic-oblong, 17.5-29 cm. long, 6-15 cm.

wide, narrowed to the acute to acuminate apex, often abruptly acuminate,

acute or acuminate at base and often abruptly decurrent, membranaceous,

deep green above, glabrous, the venation not elevated, beneath slightly paler,

densely velutinous-pubescent with short spreading hairs, the costa and lateral

nerves slender, prominent, the lateral nerves 9-11 on each side, ascending, usu-

ally at a wide angle, slightly arcuate, anastomosing close to the margin;

inflorescence terminal, cymose-paniculate, erect, the peduncle stout, 4-5.5

cm. long; panicles open, rather few-flowered, 5-11 em. broad, usually broader

than long, the primary branches few, opposite or verticillate, stout, divaricate,

pubescent with short spreading hairs; flowers sessile or nearly so; hypanthium

semiglobose, 2 mm. long, densely pubescent with minute spreading hairs;

calyx 2.5 mm. long, subtruncate, distantly and obscurely repand-dentate, the

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 7

teeth 5; corolla in bud 11 mm. long, densely puberulent-tomentose with

fulvous pubescence, the buds obtuse; fruit subglobose, green, about 13 mm.

in diameter, glabrate; pyrenes 2, ] cm. long, nearly smooth dorsally, planeon

the inner surface; seeds semiglobose, 7 mm. long, brown, deeply and narrowly

sulcate from base to apex on the inner surface.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 764151, collected in forests of

the Rio Hondo, Atlantic slope of Costa Rica, altitude 100 meters, August,

1901, by H. Pittier (no. 16161). The following are additional collections:

Costa Rica: La Colombiana Farm, Province of Limon, alt. 70 m., Stand-

ley 36883, 36775.

This species is characterized by its large, broad, copiously pubescent leaves,

and large fruit.

Psychotria Heydei Standl., sp. nov.

Young branches stout, subterete; densely villous with short spreading

brownish multicellular hairs, the internodes short; stipules persistent, united

to form a truncate interpetiolar sheath 3-4 mm. long, this densely short-vil-

lous; leaves opposite, the petioles stout, 1.5-4 cm. long, villous-tomentose;

leaf blades elliptic-oblong, broadest at the middle, 11.5-26 cm. long, 5.5—-10.5

cm. wide, acuminate, often rather abruptly so, at base obtuse to rounded,

sometimes very shortly decurrent, thick-membranaceous, green above, villous- -

hirsute with slender yellowish hairs, beneath scarcely paler, densely villous-

hirsute, the costa stout, prominent, the lateral nerves slender, prominent,

about 15 on each side, arcuate-ascending, anastomosing very close to the mar-

gin, the intermediate nerves usually evident, coarsely reticulate; inflorescence

terminal, cymose-paniculate, the peduncle stout, erect, 5.5-12.5 cm. long;

panicles much branched, lax, many-flowered, 6-9 cm. long, 8-17 cm. wide,

the primary branches opposite or verticillate, divaricate or reflexed, stout,

densely villous-hirsute; bracts persistent, triangular-subulate, 7 mm. long or

shorter, short-villous; flowers mostly sessile, but sometimes on pedicels as

much as 8 mm. long; hypanthium 2 mm. long, densely villous; calyx 1.5-2

mm. long, 5-lobate, the lobes triangular, acutish; corolla funnelform, 13-14

mm. long, densely short-villous, the tube gradually widened upward, 3 mm.

broad in the throat, the 5 lobes ovate, obtuse, 3 mm. long; anthers oblong-

linear, nearly sessile, included, 3 mm. long. |

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 939642, collected at Chiul,

Department of Quiché, Guatemala, altitude 2,600 meters, April, 1892, by

Heyde and Lux (no. 3173).

The dense pubescence and large panicles distinguish this plant among the

Central American ‘species of Psychotria.

Psychotria dispersa Standl., sp. nov.

Densely branched, erect shrub, 1-2 m. high, the branches slender, terete,

green, the young branches usually densely pilose with short spreading whitish

hairs, sometimes merely puberulent or glabrate, the internodes short or elon-

gate; stipules green, persistent, connate into a sheath 2.5-3 mm. long, puberu-

lent, the sheath bicuspidate on each side, the cusps 3-6 mm. long, linear, ‘rigid,

erect; leaves opposite, the petioles slender, 5-13 mm. long, minutely puberu-

lent; leaf blades oblong-elliptic to rarely lance-oblong, 5-10.5 cm. long, 2-4

cm. wide, abruptly acuminate or long-acuminate, or cuspidate-acuminate,

with acutish, often faleate acumen, narrowed to the acute, often decurrent

APRIL 4, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 185

base, membranaceous, deep green above, puberulent or pilose along the ele-

vated costa, elsewhere glabrous, beneath paler, pubescent on the nerves with

minute spreading hairs, the costa slender, prominent, the lateral nerves very

slender, 12-17 on each side, arcuate-ascending, laxly anastomosing close to

the margin, the intermediate nerves evident, coarsely reticulate; inflores-

cence terminal but in age often appearing lateral because of the elongation of

the branch, usually recurved, cymose-paniculate, the peduncles slender, 1.5-

2.5 em. long, pilose with spreading whitish hairs, the panicles 24 cm. long,

2-3.5 em. broad, racemosely branched, the branches 1 cm. long or shorter,

chiefly opposite, divaricate, green, hirtellous, few-flowered; bracts linear,

green, 2-5 mm. long, those at the base of the flowers oblong, shorter; flowers

sessile or nearly so; hypanthium subglobose, 0.8 mm. long, minutely pubes-

cent; calyx 0.7 mm. long, shallowly 4 or 5-dentate, the teeth triangular,

acutish; corolla funnelform, 3-3.5 mm. long, puberulent, the 5 lobes triangular-

ovate, obtuse, 1 mm. long, spreading; anthers included; fruit subglobose 3

mm. long, bisuleate, bright blue, puberulent or glabrate; pyrenes 2, obtusely

5-costate dorsally, the inner face flat, with a narrow groove from base to apex.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,254,170, collected in wet

forest at Los Ayotes, near Tilardn, Province of Guanacaste, Costa Rica,

altitude 600 meters, January 21, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal

Valerio (no. 45548). The following additional collections have been examined:

Costa Rica: Los Ayotes, Standley & Valerio 45519. La Tejona, Prov.

Guanacaste, alt. 600 m., Standley & Valerio 45819, 45938. Tilardn, Prov.

Guanacaste, alt. 600 m., Standley & Valerio 44304. Boca de Zhorquin,

Talamanca, alt. 50 m., Tonduz 8591. La Colombiana Farm, Proy. Limén,

alt. 70 m., Standley 36640, 36855, 36963, 36748, 36651. Near QGudpiles,

Proy. Limén, alt. 300-500 m., Standley 37266. -Pejivalle, Prov. Cartago,

alt. 900 m., Standley & Valerio 46869, 46971. Turrialba, Cook & Doyle

371. El Silencio, Prov. Guanacaste, Valerio 145. El Arenal, Prov. Guana-

caste, alt. 485 m., Standley & Valerio 45223. Peralta, Stevens 350. Que-

brada Serena, Prov. Guanacaste, Standley & Valerio 46156, 46223. Hamburg

Finca, Prov. Limon, Standley & Valerio 48749. Rio Colorado near Tur-

rialba, alt. 570 m., TJ’onduz 8288. Shirores, Talamanca, alt. 100 m., Tonduz

9320. Valley of Rio Tuis, alt. 600 m., Tonduz 8136. Forests of Las Vuel-

tas, Tucurrique, alt. 650-700 m., Tonduz 12888. Forests of Tuis, alt. 650

m., Tonduz 11463.

Panama: Changuinola Valley, Dunlap 228, 382. Farm 6, between the

Changuinola and Sixaola rivers, Rowlee & Stork 1023. Lower Changuinola

River, Stork 98.

GUATEMALA: Chamé4, Alta Verapaz, alt. 450 m., Johnson 402.

Psychotria dispersa is a very common shrub of the lowland forests of Costa

Rica, occurring on both continental slopes. It is rather handsome and

conspicuous because of the small panicles of bright blue fruit. P. dispersa

is closely related to P. Pittieri Standl., with which it has been confused hereto-

fore. In the latter, a Panamanian plant, the pubescence of the lower surface

of the leaves consists of longer, closely appressed hairs.

Psychotria bella Standl., sp. nov.

Young branches obtusely quadrangular, green, stout, densely pilose with

slender, whitish, spreading or ascending hairs, the internodes 1.3-3 cm. long;

stipules 1-1.5 em. long, oval, soon deciduous, green, conspicuously nerved,

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 7

densely pubescent, shallowly bilobate at apex, the lobes obtuse; leaves oppo-

site, the petioles slender, 2-3 cm. long, pilose with short spreading white hairs;

inflorescence terminal, probably pendent, cymose-paniculate, the peduncle

slender, 13 cm. long, thinly villous-pilose, the panicle about 6 cm. long and 8 em.

broad, the primary branches 2.5 cm. long or less, each bearing about 5 flowers;

bracts pink, ovate or elliptic-ovate, 12-18 mm. long, acute, hirtellous on both

surfaces; pedicels 4-6 mm. long, pilose with short slender spreading hairs;

hypanthium obovoid, 2 mm. long, densely pilose; calyx campanulate, pink,

10-13 mm. long, deeply 5-lobate, the lobes oval-ovate, acute or obtuse, evi-

dently nerved, 5-6 mm. wide, thinly pubescent; corolla funnelform, white,

thinly hirtellous, the tube 18 mm. long, 2 mm. thick, the throat 4 mm. wide,

the 5 lobes triangular-oblong, attenuate to the apex, about 8 mm. long,

spreading or recurved; anthers partly exserted.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 677646, collected in wet forest

between Alto de las Palmas and top of Cerro de la Horqueta, Chiriqui,

Panama, altitude 2,100 to 2,265 meters, March 18, 1911, by H. Pittier (no.

3250). |

When growing this must be an unusually showy plant because of the large,

brightly colored bracts and calyces, which differentiate it from all other Cen-

tral American species of Psychotria.

BOTANY .—WNotes on some marine algae from Brazil and Barbados.

MarsHaLtt A. Howr. (Communicated by WiLu1AM R. Maxon.)

New York Botanical Garden.

In the summer of 1915, Dr. J. N. Rose of the United States National

Herbarium, accompanied by Mr. P. G. Russell, visited the eastern

coast of South America for the primary purpose of making collections

of Cactaceae for use in connection with preparing the manuscript of

the four-volume monograph on the Cactaceae by Doctors Britton and

Rose. Incidentally, Dr. Rose and Mr. Russell, in the period from May

24 to August 18, 1915, collected on the coast of Brazil 67 numbers of

marine algae, including the subsequent subdivisions of the original

field numbers; and 14 numbers were picked up on the shores of Bar-

bados on September 30, 1915. ~The study of this material shows it to

be of sufficient interest to justify a brief report in regard to it.

Several lists of Brazilian algae have been published. The first,

by de Martius,? in 1833, includes about 70 marine species, besides a

few from fresh water. The longest list is that of de Martens? 1870,

who, after reviewing critically the works of his predecessors and throw-

1 Contributions from The New York Botanical Garden, No. 295. Received January

23, 1928. .

2Martius, C. F. P. pz. Flora brasiliensis, 1-50. 1833.

> Martens, G. DE. Conspectus algarum Brasiliae' hactenus detectarum. Kjgb.

Vid. Medd. 1870: 297-314. 1870. |

APRIL 4, 1928 HOWE: MARINE ALGAE FROM BRAZIL AND BARBADOS’ 187

ing out 18 Brazilian records as improbable, enumerates 166 marine

species and 11 fresh-water species from Brazil. Two important and

critical papers by Mobius,‘ in 1889 and 1890, added about 56 species

to previously published lists. There are other papers of some im-

portance, but those named are the principal, especially in regard to

the marine forms.

The present collections of marine algae on the coast of Brazil in-

clude only 40 species, but two of them, representatives of the Rhodo-

phyceous genera Porphyra and Cottoniella, appear to be new to science,

and nine others, Enteromorpha prolifera, Codium intertextum, Sargas-

sum polycerattum, S. Filtpendula, Padina Sanctae-Crucis, Dilophus

guineensis (?), Gelidium pusillum, Wurdemannia setacea, and Jania

capillacea have apparently not before been reported for Brazil,

although it is reasonably certain that some of them, like Codiwm

intertextum, have lurked under other names.

The collection of marine algae made in Barbados by Dr. Rose and

Mr. Russell includes only twelve species, gathered near the steamer

landing on September 30, 1915, but it is remarkable for the large provor-

tion of additions to the list of 215 species of marine algae of Barbados

published by Miss Vickers® in 1905. After making allowance for two

eases in which only a matter of nomenclature is involved, there appears

to be seven additions to the Vickers list, viz., Ulva rigida, Boodlea

siamensis, Chaetomorpha brachygona, Neurocarpus Hauckianus, Lau-

rencia paptllosa, Jania capillaceae, and Fosliella Le Jolisiz. The most

notable of these is Neurocarpus Hauckianus, now reported for the first

time as occurring outside of the coast of Brazil. The same species

however, was brought from Brazil by the same collectors on Joose

sheets in the same package (at least when they reached The New York

Botanical Garden) and the possibility of a confusion of labels or speci-

mens at some stage of the handling is to be kept in mind. Neverthe-

less, there is nothing unreasonable or improbable in such an extension

of the known range of Neurocarpus Hauckianus. Similar extensions

have been made for other species first described from Brazil. For

example, Acicularia Schenckit (Mo6b.) Solms, originally described from

Cabo Frio, Province of Rio de Janeiro, in 1889, has since been found

‘Mosrius, M. Bearbeitung der von H. Schenck in Brasilien gesammelten Algen.

Hedwigia 28: 309-347. pl. 10, 11. 1889.

. Algae brasilienses a cl. Dr. Glaziou collectae. Notarisia 5: 1065-1090.

pl. 1890.

5 Vickers, A. Liste des algues marines de la Barbade. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. IX. 1:

45-66. 1905.

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 7

to occur on several of the West Indian islands, including Barbados®

and ranging as far north as Bermuda. It is an interesting parallel

that Neurocarpus Hauckianus (Mob.) Kuntze, originally described

from Brazil by the same author in the same paper, now appears to

have its known limits extended in a similar direction.

BRAZIL

CHLOROPHYCEAE

Family ULVACEAE

Utva Lactuca L.

Island of Paquetd, Rio de Janeiro Bay (20289); vicinity of Bahia (21301 g).

ULVA RIGIDA Ag.

Vicinity of Bahia (19609 a); Nictheroy, Rio de Janeiro (20316 a).

ENTEROMORPHA PROLIFERA (O. F. Mill.) J. Ag.

Vicinity of Bahia, 19672; Island of Coco, Rio de Tani Bay (20269 a);

Nictheroy, Rio de Janeiro (20315).

Family VALONIACEAE

ANADYOMENE STELLATA (Wulf.) Ag.

Vicinity of Bahia (19609 b), a reduced form.

Family CLADOPHORACEAE

CHAETOMORPHA MEDIA (Ag.) Kiitz.

Vicinity of Bahia (19610).

Family BRYOPSIDACEAE

Bryopsis HARVEYANA J. Ag.

Vicinity of Bahia (19606 a).

Family CAULERPACEAE

CAULERPA FASTIGIATA Mont.

Nictheroy, Rio de Janeiro (20318 a).

Family CoDIACEAE

HALIMEDA Opuntia (L.) Lamour.

Vicinity of Bahia (19679 and 19682).

CopIuM DECORTICATUM (Woodw.) M. A. Howe.

Codium elongatum Ag.

Island of Coco, Rio de Janeiro Bay (20268); Island of Juparayba (20280).

CoDIUM INTERTEXTUM Collins & Hervey

Vicinity of Bahia (21301 k).

Dr. O. C. Schmidt in his valuable paper “Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Gat-

tung Codium Stackh’”’ considers Codiwm intertextum to be a synonym of C.

adhaerens (Cabr.) Ag. and holds C. difforme Kitz. distinct from Codium

adhaerens, of which many writers have made C. difforme a synonym. He

states that there are three main distinctions, namely the firm-membranous

thallus, smaller utricles, and smaller gametangia of C. adhaerens, as zontrasted

with the loose spongy thallus and larger utricles and gametangia of C. dif-

6 Reported and figured under the name Acetabularia caraibica Kitz by Miss Vickers

(Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. [IX 1: 58. 1905; Phyc. Barb. 1: pl. 49. 1908).

7 Bibliotheca Botanica, heft 91. 1923.

APRIL 4, 1928 HOWE: MARINE ALGAE FROM BRAZIL AND BARBADOS 189

forme. These comparative distinctions may hold good for European speci-

mens, but it seems difficult to apply them to American representatives of the

group, the characters of which are commonly intermediate. It seems to us

necessary either to maintain Codium intertextum as a species, poorly defined

though it may be, or to consider both C. difforme and V. intertextum as

synonyms of Codium adhaerens. In the present specimen from the vicinity

of Bahia, the utricles are mostly 60-152u in maximum diameter; according

to Schmidt those of C. difforme are 100-275y, while those of C. adhaerens

hardly exceed 75 u.

PHAEOPHYCEAE

Family ENCOELIACEAE

CoLPoMENIA SINUOSA (Roth) Derb. & Sol.

Island of Juparayba, Rio de Janeiro Bay (20278 b).

Family FucAcEAE

SARGASSUM POLYCERATIUM Mont.

Sargassum bahiense Kiitz.

Vicinity of Bahia (19612, 19680 and 21301 a).

SARGASSUM CYMoSUM Ag.

Island of Coco, Rio de Janeiro Bay (2027 1); Island of Juparayba, Rio

de Janeiro Bay (20278 a); Island of Paquetd, Rio de Janeiro Bay (20295);

Ilha Grande, Distrito Federal, Rio de Janeiro (20395 a).

SARGASSUM FILIPENDULA Ag.

On beach, Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro (20888). A small, presumably

long-natant fragment, overgrown with Bryozoa.

Family DicTYOTACEAE

ZONARIA VARIEGATA (Lamour.) Ag.

Vicinity of Bahia (21301 h).

PapINA VICKERSIAE Hoyt.

Padina variegata Hauck. Not P. variegata Gaill.

Padina Howeana Barg.

Island of Coco, Rio de Janeiro Bay (20270); Island of Juparayba, Rio

de Janeiro Bay (20282 a); Ilha Grande, Distrito Federal, Rio de Janeiro

(20397 c).

Papina SAncTAE-Crucis Bogrg.

Vicinity of Bahia (19681 b.)

Nevrocarpus Haucxianus (Mob.) Kuntze

Dictyopteris Hauckiana Mob.

Vicinity of Bahia (19611 b, 19613, and 21301 c); Ilha Grande, Distrito

Federal, Rio de Janeiro (20397 b).

NEUROCARPUS PLAGIOGRAMMUS (Mont.) Kuntze

Haliseris plagiogramma Mont.

Ilha Grande, Distrito Federal, Rio de Janeiro (20397 a).

Dicryota BarTayresm Lamour.

Nictheroy, Rio de Janeiro (20316 b).

DictTyoTa DENTATA Lamour.

Vicinity of Bahia (21301 j), in small quantity, with other algae.

DILoPHUs GUINEENSIS (Kiitz.) J. Ag. (?)

Vicinity of Bahia (19606 b)—a fragment only, determination not certain.

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 7

RHODOPHYCEAE

Family BANGIACEAE

Porphyra Roseana sp. nov.

Densely cespitose, tawny-violet or olivaceous; thallus very shortly stipitate,

usually with several successive convolute-spreading or cornucopioid laminae

or divisions from common base, the main divisions suborbicular or broadly

ovate to oblong or linear-oblong, mostly 1-3 cm. long, strongly crispate,

Fig. 1.—Porphyra Roseana M. A. Howe. Photograph of type specimens (Rose &

Russell 20684), natural size. a

monostromatic except at the extreme base, 20-30u thick, rigid on drying and

scarcely adhering to paper, the margins commonly lobulate or subdentate, the

lobules often auricular, cucullate, cornute, or somewhat trumpet-shaped;

cells mostly 13-25u in maximum diameter in surface view, their protoplasts: .

irregularly angular or sometimes fusiform, separated by spaces of 5-10, the-

APRIL 4, 1928 HOWE: MARINE ALGAE FROM BRAZIL AND BARBADOS 191

~ basal protoplasts flagellate-pyriform; cells in sections subquadrate, the. super-

ficial walls firm, 5-10z thick; monoicous; antheridial sori narrowly marginal,

32 antherozoids in each antheridium; sporocarps forming submarginal

sori, 8 carpospores in each sporocarp.

On Balanus sp. etc., in the vicinity of Cabo Frio, Province of Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil, J. N. Rose & P. G. Russell (20684), August 8, 1915.

Porphyra Roseana is probably allied to the Japanese P. suborbiculata

Kjellm. and P. crispata Kjellm., but differs amply from both of them in its

rigid thallus, a character that is especially remarkable in view of its thinness.

It is apparently also a smaller and thinner plant than either of these, with a

more cucullate-convolute base, and more pronouncedly cucullate lobes. In

general habit the plant bears some resemblance to Kjellman’s figure 4° (plate 1)

of Porphyra crispata, though only one-fourth or one-half the size of Kjell-

man’s figure. The cells in surface view resemble those of P. suborbiculata,

as shown in Kjellman’s figure 5 (plate 2) and in cross-section they are of about

the same form as those of the same species as shown in Kjellman’s figure 4

(plate 5), but lamellations are not obvious, though sometimes faintly visible

in a surface view of the uncut cells.

Family CHAETANGIACEAE

GALAXAURA MARGINATA (Ell. & Soland.) Lamour.

Ilha Grande, Distrito Federal, Rio de Janeiro (20396).

GALAXAURA OBTUSATA (Ell. & Soland.) Lamour.

Galaxaura moniliformis Kjellm. |

Vicinity of Bahia (21301 n); a small reduced form, of ‘‘Cameratae”’ struc-

ture, with Neurocarpus Hauckianus, ete. The type of Galaxaura monili-

formis Kjellm. was from Bahia; it is tetrasporic and shows the “‘Cameratae”’

structure. Kjellman’s var. brachyarthra of Galaxaura fragilis Kitz. [= G.

oblongata (Ell. & Soland.) Lamour] was also from Bahia, but its cortex is

quite different from that of our present plant.

Family GELIDIACEAE

GELDIUM CORNEUM (Huds.) Lamour.

Nictheroy, Rio de Janeiro (20317 b).

GELIDIUM PUSILLUM (Stackh.) Le Jolis.

Island of Coco, Rio de Janeiro Bay (20269 c), with Hypnea spinella, ete.

Family RHODOPHYLLIDACEAE

WURDEMANNIA SETACEA Harv.

Island of Juparayba, Rio de Janeiro Bay (20281 a), with Hypnea spinella,

ete. Apparently the first record of this species from South America; type

from Key West, Florida.

Family SPHAEROCOCCACEAE

HYPNEA MUSCIFORMIS (Wulf.) Lamour.

Vicinity of Bahia (19671); Island of Juparayba, Rio de Janeiro Bay

(20278c) ; Ilha Grande, Distrito Federal, Rio de Janeiro (20395 b).

§KsELLMAN, F.R. Japanska arter af slagtet Porphyra. Bihang till Svenska Vet.-

Akad. Handl. 23‘: 1897.

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 7

HyYpNEA SPINELLA (Ag.) Kiitz.

Island of Coco, Rio de Janeiro Bay (20269 b); Island of jopeaee Rio

fs “ ae Bay (20281 b), with Wurdemannia. setacea, etc.; vicinity of Bahia

21301 m

Family DELESSERIACEAE

Cottoniella sanguinea sp. nov.

Pomegranate-purple, carmine, or Indian lake,® very soft, gelatinous, or

mucous, gregarious or densely cespitose on other algae, 2-3 cm. long, pseudo-

dichotomous, more or less decumbent and rhiziniferous near base; main aXes

strongly corticated, subcylindric or slightly complanate, 0.15-0. 28 mm. in

diameter, destitute ‘of rhizoids akove the decumbent base, cells of the cortex

Fig. 2.—Cottoniella sanguinea M. A. Howe. Photograph of type specimens (Rose

& Russell 20279), natural size.

polymorphous; corticated branches giving rise above to secund, subterete,

uncorticated polysiphonioid branchlets 25-60u broad, tapering to a monosi-

phonous apex, their segments mostly 2-2 times as long as broad, the

pericentral siphons four at first, soon becoming five, or four persisting, the

corticated branches bearing also occasional monosiphonous branchlets; cross-

section of polysiphonioid branchlets suborbicular or compressed, rarely

twice as broad as high; costa wanting or very obscure; uncorticated poly-

siphonioid branchlets bearing secund monosiphonous filaments 0.3-0.6 mm.

long, consisting of 12-20 cells, mostly 1-3 times as long as broad and bearing

also occasional polysiphonioid branchlets, each of these commonly accompanied

by a collateral monosiphonous filament; reproductive organs unknown.

On Sargassum, Island of Juparayba, Rio de Janeiro Bay, Brazil, July 17,

1915, J. N. Rose & P. G. Russell (20279, Type, and 20282 b).

® Colors according to Ripaway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature.

ABTA

van -

APRIL 4, 1928 HOWE: MARINE ALGAE FROM BRAZIL AND BARBADOS 193

Cottoniella sanguinea is related to C. arcuata Bérg.,” known to us only

from the author’s description and figures, from St. Thomas of the American

Virgin Islands, but it is apparently a smaller plant (2-3 cm. long vs. 8 cm.

long), with more strongly corticated main axes, with apices of the terminal

branches scarcely arcuate and with much less obvious dorsiventrality; in the

older parts, cross sections commonly show five pericental siphons instead of

the four of C. arcuata. The latter seems to be known only from a small

amount of material preserved in fluid, so that no description of color is

available.

Cottoniella filameniosa (M. A. Howe) Bé@rg. (originally described as Sar-

comenia filamentosa from the upper Florida Keys and since reported from

western Cuba) differs decidedly in having much more flattened costate-alate

branchlets and a pair of short alar siphons, end to end, on either margin,

corresponding to each bundle of four pericentral siphons. This species was

placed in the genus Sarcomenia with some misgivings, which were expressed

at the time of its publication. It seems more in harmony with the modern

idea of generic limitations among the Rhodophyceae to accept Bérgesen’s

recently proposed genus Cofttoniella, which now seems to include three differ-

ent specific forms.

What the Guadeloupe Polysiphonia mucosa Crouan™ may be we do not

know except that its color is “rose carmine trés vif’’ and that it grows a “para-

site sur Cladophora, Thalassia, recuellis 4 la plage.”

Family RHODOMELACEAE

DIGENEA SIMPLEX (Wulf.) Ag.

Vicinity of Bahia (21301 i).

BRYOTHAMNION TRIQUETRUM (S. G. Gmel.) M. A. Howe.

Vicinity of Bahia, (21301 d).

BRYOTHAMNION SEAFORTHII (Turn.) Kiitz.

Vicinity of Bahia (19611 c, and 19681 a).

AMANSIA MULTIFIDA Lamour.

Vicinity of Bahia (19611 a and 21301 b).

VIDALIA OBTUSILOBA (Ag.) J. Ag.

Vicinity of Bahia (21301 1) in small quantity, with Neurocarpus Haucki-

anus, etc.

Family CERAMIACEAE

CENTROCERAS CLAVULATUM (Ag.) Mont.

Island of Coco, Rio de Janeiro Bay (20269 d); Nictheroy, Rio de Janeiro

(20318 b).

Family CoRALLINACEAE

CoRALLINA SUBULATA Ell. & Soland.

Vicinity of Bahia (21301 e).

JANIA CAPILLACEA Harv.

Vicinity of Bahia (19609 d), with Amphiroa brasiliana, etc. and (19681 c).

AMPHIROA BRASILIANA Decaisne

Nictheroy, Rio de Janeiro (20317 a); vicinity of Bahia (19609 ¢ and 21301 f).

10 The Marine Algae of the Danish West Indies 2: 333-338. f. 335, 336. 1919; 477-479.

1920

11 Mazé and Scuramm, Essai 262. 1870-77.

194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL. 18, No. 7

BARBADOS

September 30, 1915

CHLOROPHYCEAE

? Family ULVACEAE

-Uxva ricipaA Ag. (21190 a).

Family VALONIACEAE

BooDLEA SIAMENSIS Reinb. (21186 a).

Family CLADOPHORACEAE

CHAETOMORPHA BRACHYGONA Harv. (21190 c.)

Family CoDIACEAE

HaLimMepA Opuntia (L.) Lamour. (21187 a).

PHAEOPHY CHAE

Family FUCACEAE

SARGASSUM POLYCERATIUM Mont. (21186 b and 21188).

Fucus foliosissimus Lamour. (nomen nudum aut seminudum)

Family DicryoTacBhAb

DictyoTa BARTAYRESIANA Lamour. (21186 c).

DIcTYOTA CILIOLATA Kiitz. (21190 b).

_ Dictyota ciliata J. Ag. Not D. ciliata Lamour.

Nervurocarpus Hauckianus (Mob.) Kuntze. On Halimeda Opuntia (21187 b

and 21189 a).

Dictyopterts Hauckiana Mob.

Apparently the first record for the West Indies. Type from Olinda, near

Pernambuco, Brazil.

RHODOPHYCHAE

Family RHODOMELACEAE

LAURENCIA PAPILLOSA (Forsk.) Grev. (21186 e).

ACANTHOPHORA MUSCOIDES (L.) Bory. (21186 d).

Family CoRALLINACEAE

JANIA CAPILLACEA Harv. (21187 c).

FositiELLA Le Jouistt (Rosan.) M. A. Howe. On Thalassia (21189 b).

Melobesia Le Jolisiz Rosan.

ENTOMOLOGY.—Two new cave-beetles related to Anophthalmus.

pusio Horn.: H.S. Barsrer, Bureau of Entomology.

The blind carabids of our eastern limestone caves having received

so little attention since the interesting discussion of the possible sources

of cave life by Garman, 1892, this notice of a new form collected near

Cumberland Gap, Tennessee, in 1924, by Mr. George P. Engelhardt,

together with that of the only known specimen from the Luray Cavern,

was outlined, but publication was delayed until the type A. pusio

Horn could be compared. The Luray specimen, recorded as A.

1 Received January 20, 1928.

ss iC Lr OO

‘

OO eee SS

APRIL 4, 1928 BARBER: CAVE-BEETLES 195

tenuis by Hubbard, 1884, and discussed under that name by Garman,

has stood under the name A. pusio in the Hubbard and Schwarz col-

lection and in Hubbard’s unpublished notes for a long time. That

tenuis was a lapsus for pusio in Hubbard’s published note is evident

from his allusion to Erhart’s Cave, the type locality of the latter. In

Garman’s discussion, reference is also made to ‘“‘pusio from Virginia

and eastern Kentucky,’’ and comparison is made of his new species,

A. horni, with A. pusio Horn from the Carter Cave.

The four forms now under consideration are: (1) A. puso Horn,

1868, known from the unique type collected by Cope in Erhardt’s

Cave, Montgomery Co., Virginia; (2) the unique specimen found in

- Luray Cavern, about 140 miles northeast of the type locality of A.

pusio, by Hubbard and Schwarz, and here named A. hubbardi; (3)

two specimens found in English Cave on the Powell River in Tennessee,

about 200 miles southwest of the type locality of A. pusio; and (4)

A. horni Garman, 1892, from crevices in the rocks and in cellars of

Lexington, Kentucky. It is probable that the Carter Cave form will

be found specifically distinct from A. pusio, but the writer has seen no

specimens from this lot.

Unfortunately all structures of the type of A. pusio were not critically

examined, but it seems to agree with the other three species in differ-

ing from other American Anophthalmus in their small size (less than 4

mm.), depressed form, transverse pronotum, and apical elytral stria-

tion, and in having only six setae at base of mentum. They will

doubtless constitute a genus distinct from the other species for which

Jeannel, 1920,2 proposed two new generic names—Neaphaenops for

A. tellkampfi and Pseudanophthalmus for A. menetriesi and its allies.

The four species here considered may be distinguished in the follow-

ing table: |

1. Apical recurved stria shorter, occupying apical seventh or eighth of elytral

length; antennae shorter, joints 5 to 10, inclusive, measuring less than

Apical recurved continuation of first (sutural) stria produced forward to

apical fourth of elytral length, where it joins the third stria by an abrupt

transverse sinuosity; the third, or subapical discal seta arising from a

point at about anterior third of area thus inclosed, and forming apex

- of interval between second and third striae, which there unite and con-

tinue in a feeble stria, curved inward apically. Antennal joints 1 and 2

subequal in length and about a fourth shorter than joints 3 and 4, which

are also equal; joints 5 to 10 longer, together measuring 1.6-1.7 mm.

Length 44.2 mm., width 1.4-1.5 mm. English Cave, Powell River,

eA OWE aladeg a el mama a ee 3d spe ht ale A. engelhardti, n. sp.

2 JEANNEL, Bull. Soc. Entom. France 1920: 154. 1920.

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 7

2. Antennal joints 1, 2, 3 and 4 subequal, apex of the recurved apical stria

bent internally to join the third stria opposite anterior edge of subapi-

cal setigerolis puneture:.. 00. Se ney. a ce 5)

Antennal joints 1 and 3 subequal in length, joint 2 about a fourth shorter

than 3; apical stria broadly curved, but terminating in a broad, rounded

shallow fossa not connected with third stria and a little in advance of

subapical setigerous puncture. Length 3.3 mm., width 1.3mm. Luray

riven remington A. hubbardi, n. sp.

3. Form more depressed; first four antennal joints almost equal, joints 5 to 10

inclusive, measuring about 1.4mm. Erhart’s Cave, Montgomery Co.,

NCE 01 Ae I” SOMBIE ANSE) sh (\ WNa ch Gael ean 0 A. pusio Horn

Form more convex; antennal joint 2 slightly shorter and 3 slightly longer

than 1, joints 5 to 10, inclusive, measuring 1.1-1.25 mm.; basal constric-

tion of head continuous and distinct across occiput. Length 3.7-4.0 mm.,

width 1.3mm. Lexington, Kentucky ..... 20:05 ...... A. hornj Garman

The type of A. puszo Horn, 1868,? preserved in the Academy of Natural

Sciences, Philadelphia, has the pronotum more deeply impressed near pos-

terior angles, causing the margins to be more strongly reflexed. No other

specimen has been seen and those mentioned by Garman, 1892, from the Carter

Cave of eastern Kentucky will probably prove to be a distinct species.

A. horni Garman, 1892,‘ is represented by a series of six specimens in the

U. S. National Museum collection, received from its author and labeled

‘Lexington, Ky. 10.9.92.” In the original description he records the pronotal

measurements as 0.72 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide before middle, and 0.66 mm.

wide at base.

In A. hubbardi (=tenuis Hubbard, 1884,° lapsus for puszo; Garman, 1892,

part) the pronotum is 0.65 mm. long, 0.81 mm. wide at apical fourth, and

0.60 mm. wide at base, the sides being feebly sinuate and almost evenly di-

vergent from base to near apical fourth, thence strongly arcuate. The elytra

are less convex, more densely pubescent with the striae marked on disc only

by the feeble convexity of the intervals, although they are more deeply im-

pressed basally. The tarsi are relatively shorter and stouter. The holotype

(U. 8. National Museum Cat. No. 40823) was collected more than forty years

ago, an old note by Mr. H. G. Hubbard stating the “‘single specimen of A.

-. pusio was found November 27, 1884, in Luray Cave, Page County, Virginia,

among debris under a stairway and within twenty feet of an electric light.”

This species is more similar to A. pusio than to any other species known to me.

In A. engelhardti the pronotum is 0.82 mm. long by 0.95 mm. wide at apical

third, and 0.75 mm. wide at base. The elytra are more convex and less densely

pubescent, with the striae more definitely marked on disc. The more elon-

gate antennae, more slender and elongate tarsi and larger size support the

characters already given. The type and paratype (U. S. National Museum

Cat.§No. 40824) were collected in English Cave, Powell River, Tennessee,

six miles south of Cumberland Gap, July 27, 1924, by Mr. George P. Engel-

hardt, after whom it is a pleasure to name the species.

3 Horn, Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc. 2: 125. 1868.

4 GarRMAN, Science 20: 240-241. 1892.

5 HupBarpD, Proc. Entom. Soc. Washington 1: 16. 1884

APRIL 4, 1928 COBB: UNGELLA SECTA 197

ZOOLOGY.—Ungella secta n. gen., n. sp.; a nemic parasite of the

Burmese Oligochaete (earthworm), Eutyphoeus rarus.!. N.A.Coss,

U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Ungella, n. gen.

Amphigonie nemas with protrusile, dorsally arcuate, hooked onchia (Fig. 1)

and special cervical gland; oesophagus degenerate-diplogastroid; adults

with posterior lateral pockets or ‘“‘suckers;”’ ’m and *f; males with two equal

spicula and a gubernaculum, and an elongate pre- and post-anally mbbed

bursa. Parasitic in earthworms. Proposed as type species is:

Ungella secta n. sp.

The transparent colorless cuticle is traversed by transverse striae, about

one micron apart, hard to resolve even with high powers, at least in alcoholic

specimens. In certain stages of the nema the striae are

much more obvious and double in ;size. Though inter-

rupted, the striae are not altered, on the lateral fields,

where there are only faint single wings—non-existent or

faint on the neck and anterior portion of the body, but

somewhat readily seen along the middle of the body. The

very slightly oblique longitudinal striae, due to the at-

tachment of the musculature, are more readily visible than

the transverse striae. (Fig. 3, str longt) Between the

longitudinal striae are faint rows of dots, reminiscent of

the cuticular markings of Diplogaster.

And here it may be said that, though valveless, the

oesophagus also is reminiscent of Diplogaster; and that

of all the free-living genera, Diplogaster is that to which

Ungella seems most closely related. It is readily conceiv-

able that the submedian duplex onchium (Fig. 1), could

have been evolved from an armature such as characterizes ;

one of the types of diplogastric pharynx. Wie 1g

Onchium. Theduplexonchiumof Ungellahasitsamalga- se1q._ Side, dorsal

mated roots movably imbedded in the head end ofthenema and end views of

backward for a distance equal to two-thirds the width of the same head.

the head or more;it is assumed therefore that thisrepresents 7/'6", the intussus-

the depthof theotherwiseunarmed pharynx. Theonchium, °¢?%°™ ™em?rane:

ptho otherwise unarmed pharynx eonchium,

which can be exserted for the greater part of its length, is a strong refractive

organ, colorless except distally, where it is yellowish; it is a conspicuous feature

of the head, especially when protruded. The two equal claws of the onchium

are joined rigidly in such a way as to make it impossible for them to be juxta-

posed, and their internal structure makes plain that they represent the two

ventrally submedian sectors of the oesophagus. Thus the onchium and its

1 Investigation made in part at laboratories of the Bureau of Fisheries at Woods Hole,

Massachusetts. Received January 23, 1928.

198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 7

Sung por 15 $4 SAMS, BSB AE. OF. 4 stom “hilt”’ have the general form of the ulti-

: mate two-clawed segment of a beetle’s

14°32. 227° as 15 t%-" tarsus. (See Fig.1.) Rather weakly

developed retractor muscles are at-

tached to the ‘amalgamated onchial

apophyses. It seems not unlikely that

the caudal “‘suckers’’ may also aid—as

a base of resistance—in the use of the

onchium, the object of which must be

to claw; it must wound by clawing,

hence the specific name secfa. When

the onchium is withdrawn and at rest,

as in the female of Figure 2, the outer

or distal parts of the two claws rest in

special lateral depressions on the out-

side of the front of the head (see concav

Fig. 1) and to that extent are not

withdrawn into the head.

Oesophageal glands. The median

dorsad pore in the front of the head,

por dsl, is the exit of a large well de-

veloped special cervical gland, gl crv.

The excretory pore of the renette, p

ex,is farther back and ventral. There

| ~ is an almost imperceptible short alter-

m7 2 s...d¢ ation in the oesophageal lining be-

tween the fore and after parts of the

oesophagus,—probably the vestige of

a median bulb. The indistinctly cla-

vate, posterior, non-valvate, oesopha-

geal swelling contains a single, bright,

refractive, three-micron nucleus near

the base in the dorsal sector, proving

the presence of an oesophageal gland.

: Radial oesophageal muscles jare only

Tg se faintly to be seen.

Tis us whet MS ‘Tntestine. A cross-section of the

‘ies gee Fig.2.—Male jntestine cuts through only about two

\ ™m and female U. relatively large cells. The refractive

secia.. From ales. : 4 ape epi

coholic earth- Lningof the intestine often is distinctly

' 4 worm speci- to beseen. In the front portion of the

% 4g) mens. Allnemas body the wall of the intestine is hardly

adult, females gs thick as that of the body; jhere the

outnumbering males. lumen of the intestine often is more

than twice as wide as the thickness of the intestinal wall.

or |. .oyjet

guy. .

Org SUE? .

— vs

APRIL 4, 1928 COBB: UNGELLA SECTA 199

Renette. The renette duct, dct ex, is distinctly refractive and nearly two

microns across; it passes inward at right angles to the ventral surface and

then turns backward on the left side and becomes narrower and apparently

bifurcate.

Caudal “‘Suckers.”’ The tissue composing the mouths of the two lateral

caudal ‘‘suckers”’ is comparatively structureless looking, and externally par-

takes of the general character of the cuticle. These two large lateral open-

ings, found on the tail of adults of both sexes, when viewed dorso-ventrally

are seen to lead inward and forward into two

well developed pockets or “suckers,” so massive x 800 4... is;

that this portion of the tail, in the median aspect

appears about 50 per cent wider than the portion of \

the tail immediately behind (Fig. 3, org suct). “ --- STS

The cavity of each organ is lined with thick striated ‘ i Ve aa

tissue whose most obvious elements are arranged sir Jongit.. Hoe ‘i i

at right angles to its inner surface, which presents Co TR

a very definite internal sectional contour, due to

the refractiveness of this tissue; so that the whole

organ is a relatively conspicuous affair. A strand

(contractile?) leading forward from each “‘sucker”’

into the corresponding lateral chord is at first

rather ‘wide, then narrows (text org suct, Fig. 3).

The ‘“‘suckers” seem to make their appearance on

both sexes at the last moult (Fig. 4). |

Gonads. The elevated transverse vulva ap-

parently is not very wide. Near the flexure the

gonad presents a spermatheca, spmth, containing

numerous spherical sperms of such a size that

about a dozen would be required to span the

body diameter. These possess refractive, faintly “mor: _. $..: rit

lobed nuclei, indicating the presence of a small Fig. 3.—Ventral view of

number of chromosomes—probably about five. the post-anal region of Un-

Contained in the uterus of adult females, as a ie Ae eae a 5

rule, is a single thin-shelled, smooth egg, ov, 4. latdei pockets a ne

about one and one-half times as long as the body ers, cay org suct.

is wide and about one-third as wide as long. No

segmented egg has been seen in the uterus. The blind end of the ovary

lies between the caudal “suckers” or somewhat farther forward. From

the blind end of the ovary forward the odcytes very soon become smaller,

as if by division, and not far from the anus are arranged several abreast,

and so continue, increasing meanwhile in size, for a good fraction of the dis-

tance to the vulva; thence, owing to increased size, they are arranged single

file, each ovum cylindroid and somewhat longer than wide.

> a

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 7

The male. The relatively large gubernaculum, gub, is single, rather shallow,

nearly straight, and extends inward nearly at right angles to the ventral sur-

face, so that its proximal end is considerably dorsad of the body axis. It

appears quite as massive as the two equal spicula, and has the form of a, rela-

tively very broad, shallow, somewhat boat-like trough, deepest amidships,

its depth being about one-third ‘its length. The long

narrow bursa, brs, presents seven whiplash-like ribs (1-7,

Fig. 2) extending into each of the colorless, thin, glassy-

looking, ventrally submedian, bursal expansions of the

cuticle. |

Since the suckers are common to both sexes, they can

a hardly be considered secondary sexual organs. Figure 4,

X 800. derived from one of the few immature specimens thus far

Fig. 4.—Ventral seen, seems to indicate that these interesting organs come

view of the suckers into existence at the last moult, for, just previous to the last

of Ungella secia ys ouylt, they appear immature or “embryonic.” It seems

pepperere the last. aval ible that these organs can be homol ith

ee ardly possi g ogous Wl

the phasmids; nor does it seem ‘possible to link them with

such ventral suckers as occur for instance on male Heterachids. In short,

further observation is needed fully to determine their function.

Habitat: Body cavity and muscles of the earthworm, Hutyphoeus rarus;

fide Mr. G. E. Gates, to whom the discovery of the nema is due. Locality,

Prome, Burma, India.

Diagnosis: Flexible-tailed ungellas, dimensioned as shown in the formulae

and illustrations, with two practically submedian, amalgamated onchia

(ungellae), having the form of the final joint of a beetle’s tarsus; cervical

gland just behind the cardia, its outlet dorsad on the lip region; pockets or

suckers not far in front of the middle of the tail; external amphids more or less

circular and opposite the base of the pharynx; oviparous; males with three

pre- and four post-anal slender ribs to the bursa, as shown in Figure 2; pos-

terior part of the tail cylindroid, fine yet blunt,—in the male distinctly set

off.

Only a more careful study of the nemas thus far described as para-

sitic in earthworms can determine the nature and limits of most of the

genera and species that: have been proposed for their reception.

For literature consulted see the list of Pierantoni (Boll. Soc. Nat.

Napoli, 1915, p. 150-3) and Baylis & Daubney (Synopsis, 1926).

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND*

| AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

. BS _ Saturday, April 7. The Biological Society.

Wednesday, April 11. The Geological Society.

eee The Medical Society.

_. Thursday, April 12. The Chemical Society.

? 3 aa ow Program: J. G. Davipson.—Ethylene derivatives and their

a technical application.

- Saturday, April 14. The Philosophical Society.

ee ie: Program: L. W. Keruarr (by invitation).—Plant ez-

nes ploration tn ihe highlands of East Africa. ~

| Tuesday, April 17. The Anthropological Bomeers.:

The Historical Society.

Wednesday, April 18. The Medical Society.

The Washington Society of Engineers.

| Thursday, April19. The Acapemr.

7 of

‘ene

| A, | Me tia vascs Glick cadetings od the attiiate oosiviies ‘il aren ot Coe eee

5 _ sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

‘Ontarwas. PAPERS

| Pmeontology.—A Cotylosaur from the Upper ‘Tvisadie of Western es

Ps ae Pan,

rie hepa

np ORF oan yc tes eal

| Botany.—Notes on some marine algae f from Brasil and Barbados. y

: HOWE... 00s sees settee eee .

“Boenne | ot a On eee

che Zoology Span aete n. roi n, of fala parasite ofthe Burmese a

(earthworm), Eutyphoeus rarus. N. A. Cozs.. eae |

een iiihy: ‘President: RopertT B. paula ‘Gonpohysioat

cor Corresponding Secretary: L. B. TUCKERMAN, Bure:

_ Recording Secretary: W. D. LAMBERT, ‘Coast and C

i, Treasurer: R. L. ‘Fans, Coast and Geodetic

eo a 4 ee ee ane i

: oy tS ae

} ew 2 ey

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 Apri 19, 1928 No. 8

GEOLOGY.—A spiral graph of geologic time.!| Davin Wuits, U.S.

Geological Survey.

While the astronomer teaches the immensity of space, it falls to

the geologist to cultivate the conception of geologic time. It is a

task he owes to society, for some understanding of geologic time as

well as of cosmic distance is an essential part of the background of any

well-balanced philosophy of life. In conveying the idea of geologic

time mere figures too often lose value with the student as well as the

layman. Greater success is reached when the mental image envisages

a picture in which numbers are codrdinated with some graphic scale.

Block diagrams may reflect contrasts in magnitude, but they fail in

the attempt to represent geologic length of time. Straight-line hori-

zontal diagrams in normal orientation and clock dial graphs, while

passably effective, plunge the layman into the long dark pre-Cambrian,

shrouded in greatest ignorance and uncertainty, with the probable

result that his first impression of geologic knowledge, as well as time, is

unfavorable. Only as the end of the line or the later hours of the dial

are approached, the differentiative information becomes more and more

exact as well as more complete. The dial has its good psychological

points, but the eye travels along the endless circle to pass from the

Recent again into the misty Azoic. The trouble with the geologic

time graph lies mainly in its beginning and in the pre-Cambrian

epochs.

The object of this note is to present an appropriate, stimulating,

and more adequate form of graph for use in developing the mental

picture of the lapse of geologic time and superposed geologic history.

It is offered to illustrate a method, rather than definite conclusions.

1 Received February 16, 1928.

201

202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

Borrowing the idea from some recent photographs of spiral nebulae—

the mothers of multiple solar systems—I have partly unwound a

closely coiled spiral to form the basis of the picture. Vision of the

origin and earliest history of the earth is hidden in obscure and un-

certain remoteness. ‘The spiral is so complexly intricate that not even

the number of turns, and, so, the length of the time line can be dis-

cerned. Gradually the line becomes clearer, and presently one meets

more or less definitely known, though perhaps distantly isolated and

unrelated facts. As the coils roll wider out into clearer view the

information increases in amount

and diversity, and the historical

record unfolds in ever growing dis-

tinctness, detail and definiteness of

relations. Finally, the mind runs

into theimpressive facts that Recent

time is incredibly brief and that

the drama of the evolution of earth

and life is still going on.

In Figure 1 the numbers in hun-

dreds (of millions of years) on the

spiral accord approximately with

and are adjusted to the results

reached by Arthur Holmes and A.

C. Lawson (Am. Journ. Sci., April,

1927), through (1) the recalculation

of the formula for determining the

ages of the uranium-bearing rocks

by means of viewing the proportions

Fig. 1.—Graph illustrating geologic of yranium and uranium lead with

time and the evolution of earth’s history. :

reference to the rate of decomposi-

tion of the radioactive minerals, and (2) the revisory computation of

the ages of a considerable number of uraniferous rocks. In some of

these calculations attention was given to thorium lead as well as

radium lead. Not all the Holmes-Lawson determinations, most of

which relate to Paleozoic and pre-Cambrian rocks, In many cases

_ very indefinitely correlated, were used. The others, and still others

to come, may be intercalated by the geologist who may be interested

in the measurement of geologic time. The pre-Cambrian time classi-

fication is that given by the cited authors. This is the skeleton of

the graph.

Written

PISCOLY

100 Million years

Ys}

a) ae ~ *

APR. 19, 1928 SWALLEN: SCHIZACHNE 203

In laying off the accepted divisions of geologic time one million years

was adopted for the Pleistocene, 60 millions for the Tertiary, and so

on, in more or less agreement with the calculations by Barrell, Schu-

chert, and others as to relative length. The demarcation of the

periods and epochs is subject to revision to suit the user’s convictions.

This geologic time graph lends itself to the uses of geologists whether

the object be to show the sequence and duration of the time divisions,

the sequence of life, the glacial epochs, the periods of voleanism or

diastrophism, or other features or time relations in earth’s history.

The curve should be redrawn in better balance proportions.

BOTANY.—The grass genus Schizachne.: Jason R. SWwALLEn,

Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by A. 8. Hircucock.)

The generic position of one of our native grasses, at present known

as Melica purpurascens, has been somewhat uncertain. It was first

described from North American by Michaux as Avena striata and

later by Torrey as Trisetum purpurascens. From Siberia it was de-

scribed by Ledebour as Avena callosa and from Sachalin Island by

Hackel as the type of a new genus, Schizachne, which he compared with

Festuca and Bromus. Hitchcock transferred it to Melica and Farwell

to his new genus Bromelica.

An examination of Melica purpurascens leads to the conclusion that

the species is generically distinct. The texture of the glumes suggests

Melica but the bearded callus, the strongly nerved lemma, bifid at the

apex, the divergent awn, and the brown smooth shining caryopsis

are characters not possessed by any species of Melica of the section

Bromelica to which the species is more closely allied than to Festuca or

Bromus. Furthermore the innovations are extravaginal, while those

of the section Bromelica are intravaginal and the culms are often bul-

bous at the base.

The species under consideration shows affinities with Bromus but

the styles are exactly terminal and the caryopsis is entirely free from

the palea while in Bromus the styles arise below the apex and the

caryopsis is adherent to the palea. It also resembles species of Festuca

but its bifid lemma and bearded callus exclude it from that genus. It

differs from Melica smithii (Porter) Vasey, which has been grouped

with it, in the bearded callus, the more deeply bifid lemma and the

smooth caryopsis.

1 Received February 4, 1928.

204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

In view of these differences it seems best to segregate the species

as the type of a distinct genus, taking up the name Schizachne Hack.

The geographic distribution of Schizachne, which is monotypic, is

similar to that of a number of species mentioned by Asa Gray,? being

found in northern North American and eastern Asia. This distribu-

tion was recognized as early as 1842 by Turczaninow? who referred his

collections, later described as Avena callosa, to Avena striata Michx.

Hultén,‘ in his Flora of Kamtchatka, also states that Asiatic specimens

agree completely with the American ones.

SCHIZACHNE Hack.

Spikelets several-flowered, articulate above the glumes and between the

florets, the rachilla glabrous; glumes unequal, 3 and 5-nerved respectively;

lemma lanceolate, strongly 7-nerved, long-pilose on the callus, awned from

just below the teeth of the prominently bifid apex; palea with softly pubes-

cent, thickened submarginal keels, the hairs longer toward the summit;

ovary glabrous, the styles exactly terminal; caryopsis dark reddish brown, —

very smooth and shining. Type species, S. purpurascens.

Schizachne purpurascens (Torr.)

Avena striata Michx. Fl. Bor. Amer. 1: 73. 1803. Not Avena striata

Lam. Collected by Michaux “‘a sinu Hudsonis ad Lacus Mistassins.”” Type

in Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle at Paris. A fragment in the U.S. National

Herbarium has been examined.

Trisetum purpurascens Torr. Fl. North. & Mid. U. 8. 1: 127. 1823. A

cited specimen in the Torrey Herbarium, at the New York Botanical Garden,

has been examined. It is labeled in Torrey’s handwriting, ‘““Trisetum pur-

purascens Tor. fl. near Montreal.’

Avena callosa Turez. in Ledeb. Fl. Ross. 4: 416. 1853. ‘‘Catal. Baie.

nr. 1295” is cited. Judging from the description and a specimen from ‘‘Vallis

U-scha-gon, Siberia,’’ Kamerov 163, there is no doubt that this is identical

with Schizachne purpurascens. |

Avena striata forma albicans Fernald, Rhodora 7: 244. 1905. “Quebec,

abundant on mossy tableland, altitude 900-1500 meters, Mt. Albert, Aug. 9,

1905.” [Collins & Fernald 26] The characters are not sufficient to distin-

guish it from the species.

Melica striata (Michx.) Hitche. Rhodora 8: 211. 1906. Based on Avena

striata Michx.

Melica purpurascens (Torr.) Hitche. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 12: 156.

1908. Based on Trisetum purpurascens Torr.

Schizachne fauriet Hack. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 7: 323. 1909. ‘Insula

Sachalin, in silvis prope Korsakof, Faurie 803.’”’ A portion of the type from

the Hackel Herbarium has been examined.

2 Proc. Amer. Assoc. 21: 1-31. 1872.

3 Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou15: 16. 1842.

4 Flora of Kamtchatka and the Adjacent Islands1: 118. 1927.

APR. 19, 1928 SWALLEN: SCHIZACHNE 205

Avena torreyi Nash in Britt. & Brown, Illustr. Fl. ed. 2.1: 219. 1913.

Based on Trisetum purpurascens Torr. Not Avena purpurascens DC.

Bromelica striata (Michx.) Farwell, Rhodora 21: 77. 1919. Based on

Avena striata Michx.

DESCRIPTION

Perennial herb; culms erect from a loose decumbent base, the innovations

extravaginal; panicle simple, about 10 cm. long, the branches one or two

together, more or less drooping, bearing one or two spikelets.

DISTRIBUTION

Dry, moist, or rocky woods and open

places, in North America from Labrador

to Alaska, south in the United States to

Pennsylvania, Indiana, and in the moun-

tains to South Dakota and New Mexico;

also in Asia from Kamtchatka and Sachalin

Island, west to Lake Baical.

The following specimens are in the U. S.

National Herbarium:

NEWFOUNDLAND: Quarry, Fernald &

Wiegand 4608. Frenchman’s Cove, Mac-

kenzie & Griscom 10077.

QuEBEC: Island of Anticosti, Marie-Vic-

torin, Brunel, Rolland-Germain & Louis

Marie 20546, 20547. Mount Albert, Ma-

coun 40; Marie-Victorin, Brunel, Rolland

Germain & Rousseau 17787. St. Anne River,

Allen in 1881; Marie-Victorin, Brunel, Rol-

land-Germain & Rousseau 17762. Mount au

Clair, Fernald & Smith 25, 464. Gaspé,

Marie-Victorin, Brunel, Rolland-Germain &

Rousseau 17768. Riviére Cap Chat, Fer-

nald, Griscom, Mackenzie, Pease & Smith

25463. Longueuil, Marie-Victorin 3006.

St. Jerome, Victorin 3007. Lac Tremblant,

Churchill in 1922. Ville-Marie, Marie-Vic-

torin 8040. WIZ

OnTARIO: Vicinity of Ottawa, Rolland 4 NE

6089. Galt, Herriot in 1898 and 1901. -

Jones Falls, Fowler in 1895. Tilsonburg, Fig. 1.—Schizachne purpuras-

Macoun 26077. North Shore of Lake Su- cens. Spikelet, floret, summit of

perior, Wood 20; Macoun in 1869. lemma, palea, and caryopsis, X 5.

MAniToBa: Carberry, Macoun & Herriot

42909.

SASKATCHEWAN: “Portage La Prairie,’ Macoun 122. Prince Albert,

Macoun 13025.

ALBERTA: Red Deer River, Brinkman 2199. Calgary, Macoun 18631.

Edmonton, Hitchcock 11390. Athabasca Landing, Hitchcock 11411. Jasper

Park, Macoun 98208. McMurray, Raup 143, 147.

‘206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

British Coxtumpstia: Field, Hitchcock 11538. Lucerne, Macoun 98203.

Hazelton, Henry 6.

ALASKA: Kenai, Piper 4715.

Maine: Aroostook County, St. John & Nichols 2148. Fort Kent, Knight

9; Fellows 2550. Somerset County, St. John & Nichols 2146, 2147. Farm-

ington, Knowlton in 1911. Orono, Fernald in 1893; Harvey 1299. Mount

Katahdin, Fernaldin 1900. ‘Mt. Clifton,” Briggs 21.

New Hampsuire: Shelburne, Deane in 1915. Jefferson, Booth in 1873.

Mount Washington, Eggleston in 1898; Hitchcock 16042; Greenman 1282.

White Mountains, Faxon in 1878. Franconia, Booth in 1855.

VerMonT: Lyndon, Congdon. Cabot, Knowlton in 1915. Burlington,

Flynn in 1901 and 1902. Charlotte, Eggleston in 1892; Hosford 487; Pringle

in 1877 and 1878. Rutland, Kirk 983. Townshend, Wheeler in 1912.

ConnNECTICUT: Salisbury, Bissell in 1901; Weatherby 3629.

New. York: North Elba, Peck 10. Canton, Phelps 154. Lebanon

Springs, Harrison in 1890. Arkville, Chase 7444, 7451. Jamesville, Chase

74904. McLean, Dudley in 1881 and 1884. Ithaca, Metcalf 1617; Pearce in

1884. Chemuga County, Lucy 1055. :

PENNSYLVANIA: Loyalsock, Sullivan County, Smith 1864.

INDIANA: Logansport, Deam 38375. |

Micuican: Chippewa County, Dodge in 1914. Mackinac County, Dodge

in 1912 and 1915. Schoolcraft County, Dodge in 1915. Douglas Lake,

Ehlers 405. Port: Huron, Dodge 25, and in 1904. Lansing, Wheeler in 1887.

Grand Rapids, Mulliken in 1896.

Wisconsin: Hurley, Random in 1896. Green Bay, Schuette in 1878.

Bellevue, Schuette in 1882. Winnebago County, Kellerman.

MINNESOTA: Gull Lake, Anderson in 1893. Minnehaha Falls, Minns.

Nort Dakota: Devils Lake, Lunell in 1902 and 1913.

SoutH Daxorta: Custer, Hitchcock 11131; Rydberg 1132. Nahant, Hay-

ward 2412. Elmore, Hayward 1848.

Montana: Columbia Falls, Williams 823 in 1894. Belt Creek, Scribner

371. Barker, Rydberg 3363. ‘Lower Belt Pass,” Willcams 823 in 1889.

Wyromine: Sundance, Griffiths 455, 890; Williams 2637. Little Missouri

Buttes, Griffiths 575. Clear Creek, Williams & Griffiths 13, 86. Yellowstone

National Park, Tweedy 612.

Cotorapo: Pikes Peak, Hitchcock 1718, 1748. La Plata Mountains,

Baker, Earle & Tracy 976. Upper La Plata, Tracy 4804. ‘‘Crystal Park”’

Clements 173 in 1901.

New Mexico: Pecos River National Forest, Standley 4185. Cowles,

Hitchcock 22965.

SACHALIN ISLAND: Korsakof, Faurie 803.

JAPAN: Hokkaido, Yushun Kudo in 1907.

SIBERIA: Kamtchatka Peninsula, Kamarov in 1909. Vallis Uschagon,

Kamerop 163. :

BOTANY.—Some errors and mistakes in taxonomic botany.! H.

PITTIER, Caracas, Venezuela.

Botanists, like all other mortals, are subject to errors and mistakes.

Few of those, for instance, who have had to describe a large number of

1 Received March 1, 1928.

APR. 19, 1928 PITTIER: ERRORS IN TAXONOMIC BOTANY 207

plants have been exempt from them. Many times, they are the result

either of a previous description obscurely written or of a different

valuation of specific characters. In other instances, species have been

too hastily founded on decidedly scant materials. In all cases, the

result is the inconvenience caused by a useless encumbrance of

synonyms.

Other mistakes are more serious and perhaps less easy to condone.

I will cite only one case, besides those which are to be rectified in this

article. In a splendid work entitled Florae Columbiae terrarumque

adjacentium specimina selecta, Karsten described his Szphoniopsis

monoica, founded on the African Cola acuminata R. Br.! This tree,

brought to Venezuela by negro slaves, is quite naturalized in some

places and found in situations that preclude the suspicion of its being

an introduced species, so that Karsten’s error can be easily understood.

In two cases my own mistakes were undoubtedly much worse. In

1913, I collected at Cardenas, Siquire Valley, in the State Miranda,

Venezuela, specimens of a tree which I determined as a new species

of Monopteryx, a genus created by Spruce and including two distinct

types growing in the Upper Rio Negro. While studying and describing

that supposedly new species, I could not but be struck by certain

apparent discrepancies in Spruce’s definition of the genus. My ob-

servations were recorded in a short paper in 1915.2. Comparing the

newly described Monopteryx Jahnii with the original species, I con-

cluded that Spruce’s species were based on immature flowers and that

the fruits could not be drupelike, as originally supposed. Accordingly

I offered an emended generic diagnosis. As an extenuating circum-

stance it may be explained that the genus Monopteryx was not repre-

sented at the time in the U. 8. National Herbarium, and that my

specimens looked very much indeed like the full size drawing in plate

122, vol. 15, 1, of the Flora brasiliensis. Relying on the characters of

the supposed new species, I made another mistake in proposing to

transfer the genus in question from the Sophorae to the Pterocarpinae.

A few years ago, Dr. H. Harms, of the Berlin Botanical Museum,

suggested that my no. 6005, type of Monopteryx Jahnii, might in

reality be none other than Fissicalyx Fendleri Benth., a Venezuelan

monotypic genus of the Geoffreainae, which assumption was at once

confirmed by my finding in the Venezuelan National Herbarium

specimens of the same species from the vicinity of Hacienda de Cura,

? Bull. Torrey Club 42: 623-627. fig.1, 2. 1915.

208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

near San Joaquin in the State of Carabobo (P2ttier no. 7738), and from

Hacienda Cardenas, where the original specimens of M. Jahnii were

collected (Pattier no. 7072), rightly labelled by myself this time, as

Fissicalyx Fendlert Benth. Consequently, Monopteryx Jahnii Pittier

is to be relegated to the synonymy of the above Venezuelan monotype.

The second of my botanical sins which I wish to atone for is that

of the hasty publication of Adenocalymna anomalum Pittier,’ the spe-

cific name of which referred to the bipinnate leaves. Here, the blunder

is perhaps still less pardonable, because before publishing new species

of the vast family Bignoniaceae, I should have known that among the

Sub-family Bignonieae, there are two Venezuelan genera, and only

two, Memora and Pleonotoma, with pluripinnate leaves. In the first

one the stems and branchlets are terete and the tendrils simple, in the

second they are tetragonous with sharp detachable angles, formed by

black sclerom strings. Subsequent to the description of Adenocalymna

anomalum both genera have been mixed together under the same cover,

but my pseudo-new species, which I have not at hand, was presum-

ably Memora caracasana K. Schum., while among the species with

sharp cornered stems and branchlets we have Pleonotoma variabile

Miers. |

A third mistake of mine consisted in the publication, in my ‘‘Arboles

y arbustos nuevos de Venezuela’ (p. 58, 1925), of a supposed new species

under the name of Coursetia caracasana. First, this small tree is not

a Coursetia, and secondly, it had already been described, practically

from the same locality, under the name of Robinia ferruginea H. B. K.*

I was led to this too hasty publication by the fact that two different

species, the above one and Coursetia arborea Grisebach, which com-

monly grow together and resemble each other at first glance when

leafless, were often mixed together in herbaria. In 1923, Dr. Harms

of the Berlin Botanical Museum, an acknowledged authority on

leguminous plants, already cited above, published his Humboldtiella

ferruginea, supposedly to replace Robinia ferruginea H. B. K. When

comparing the specimens of the tree collected by me with Dr. Harms’

description, I found wide discrepancies and so jumped to the erroneous

conclusion that I had on hand a Coursetia, which, however, could not

be C. arborea of Grisebach; hence the new name.

Later, when revising the Papillionatae of the Venezuelan Herbarium,

I was surprised to find that, among the numbers cited by Dr. Harms

3 Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 18: 254-255. 1917.

4 Nov. Gen. & Sp.6: 395. 1823.

————

APR. 19, 1928 PITTIER: ERRORS IN TAXONOMIC BOTANY 209

as belonging to his Humboldtiella, one (no. 5780) apparently corre-

sponds to Gliricidia sepium H. B. K., another (no. 9078) is unmis-

takably Coursetia arborea Griseb., and only one (no. 6004) belongs to

the real Robinia ferruginea H. B. K., as do also additional collections

under nos. 10310, 10375, 11956, and afew more. It would seem that

Dr. Harms did not draw the generic characters of his Humboldtiella

from a single type, but from all the materials cited by him, giving per-

haps most weight to Coursetia arborea Grisebach. This would explain

in a large measure my own mistake. After a careful study of the

whole matter I have come to the conclusion that my Coursetia caraca-

sana is the topotype of Robinia ferruginea H. B. K. and that the only

character which would exclude the plant in question from Robinia is

the absence of a conspicuous margin on the upper suture of the pod,

which would certainly not be sufficient to establish a new genus.

The above facts were submitted to Dr. Harms, who with the utmost

good grace accepted them with the exception of the part relating to

the supposed Gliricidia, and agreed that, for the present, Humboldt &

Bonpland’s name had better be retained. I must admit, finally, that,

as far as the general habit and macroscopic characters are concerned,

there is little resemblance between our Robinia ferruginea and Robinia

pseudo-Acacia, the only other species of the genus with which I am

familiar. '

The following is a full description of our Robinia, from specimens

proceeding from the Tacagua valley, where the original plant was

collected by Bonpland in imperfect specimens.

RoBINIA FERRUGINEA H. B. K., Nov. Gen. & Sp. 6: 395. 1823.

Humboldtiella ferruginea (H. B. K.) Harms, Repert. Nov. Sp. Fedde 19:

12. 1923.

Coursetia caracasana Pittier, Arb. y. arbust. nuev. Venez. 58. 1925.

Arbor parva, ramulis plus minusve griseo-pubescentibus, gemmis novellis,

petiolis, petiolulis, pedunculis pedicellisque ferrugineo-tomentosis; foliis

elongatis, imparipinnatis, plerumque 21-foliolatis, petiolulis gracilibus, ,

suboppositis vel alternis, laminis elliptico- vel oblongo-lanceolatis, basi

inaequalibus rotundatis apice acutis subacutisve, supra glaberrimis pallide

viridis, costa impressa, subtus praecipue ad costam costulisque prominentibus

molliter ferrugineo-pubescentibus; stipulis lineari-setaceis, subpungentibus,

rigidis, ad apicem ramulorum persistentibus; racemis pedunculatis, pluri-

floribus praecocibus vel foliis subcoaetaneis, solitariis, vel rarius geminis;

floribus longe pedicellatis; calyce basi articulato, subulato, extus ferrugineo-

tomentello, intus superne et margine albido-villoso, dentibus subaequantibus,

obtusis; petalis glaberrimis, vexillo transverse ovato, basi flavi-maculato,

210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

auriculato callosoque, apice emarginato, reflexo; alis longiuscule unguiculatis,

lamina distincte obovata, basi intus leviter auriculata; petalis carinalibus

vexillo alisque brevioribus, dorso breviter cohaerentibus breve unguiculatis,

lamina late falcata, apice subacuta; staminibus 10, filamentis connatis, vexil-

lari basi apiceque libero, utrinque capillaceo-linearibus, uninervibus, alterne

brevibus longioribusque; ovario breviter stipitato, cinereo-tomentello; stylo

basi glabro apicem versus utrinque villosulo; legumine subsessili, pedicellato,

maturo ferrugineo-tomentoso, calyce persistente suffulto et stylo terminato.

Arbor 4-6 m. alta. Petiolum 4-10 cm. longum, supra leviter suleatum;

petioluli 1.5-2 mm. longi; laminae 1.3-3.5 cm. longae, 0.6—-1.1 em. latae.

Stipulae 3-4 mm. longae. Racemi 2.5-8 cm. longi; pedicelli 5-9 mm.;

flores circa 1.5 cm. longi; vexilli unguiculus 2-2.5 mm. longus, lamina circa

1.4 em. longa, 1.7—1.8 cm. lata; alarum unguiculus 4.5 mm. longus, lamina

13 mm. longa, 8-9 mm. lata; carina 12-13 mm. longa (cum unguiculo 3 mm.

longo), 5-6 mm. lata. Ovarium 9-10 mm. longum; stylus 5 mm. lLegumen

10-12.5 cm. longum, circa 1 em. latum; pedicellum 0.8—1 em.

VENEZUELA: Quebrada de Tacagua (altitude about 720 m.) (Bonpland,

type of the species); Caracas, January 1843 (Moritz 223); Escuque, Trujillo

(Moritz 1481). Puerto Cabello, May 1874 (O. Kuntze 1742); Cardenas,

Siquire Valley, Miranda, 500 m., March 1913 (Pitter 6004); near El Consejo,

Aragua, in bushes, flowers and young fruits, January 15, 1921 (Pittier 9159);

near Las Trincheras, 900 m., valley of Tacagua, D. F., flowers May 4, pods

and leaves, June 15, 1922 (Pittier 10310, 10375, type of Coursetia caracasana

Pittier); Los Mariches, Miranda, in dry bushes, flowers and young leaves,

~ November 22, 1924 (Pittzver 11956).

TRINIDAD: Broadway 1431; O. Kuntze 1884.

Cited also from Guiana, Brazil and Panama, but there are no data at

hand to verify the identifications.

In the course of the investigations necessitated to undo the above

imbroglio, dissections of the flowers of the several species in question —

were made. When comparing the details of those of the so-called

Coursetia arborea Grisebach with the descriptions of genus Coursetia

I became very doubtful as to whether this species could really be in-

cluded in it. The shrubs of this group are generally more or less

tomentose, often glandulous, and sometimes armed. The calyx is

described as having its five teeth subequal, elongate and acute, with

the two superior ones hardly connate at the base. The ovary and

style are hairy in all species and the pods are more or less constricted

between the seeds. The details concerning the calyx and the ovary

were confirmed by the dissection of flowers of three species of Mexico

and Arizona kindly sent by Dr. F. 8. Blake. The calyx of C. arborea,

on the other hand, is of very different shape, having short teeth, the

two superior united almost to the tip, the lateral ones smaller and more

or less acute, and the inferior one again slightly longer and sharply

pointed; besides, the pubescence is hardly perceptible, while in the

Or ae a

APR. 19, 1928 PITTIER: ERRORS IN TAXONOMIC BOTANY 211

true species of Coursetia the same part is often tomentose, with the

indument intermingled with glandular hairs, especially conspicuous

on the margin of the segments. The shape of the petals is also differ-

ent, the base of the wings and carinal petals being distinctly semi-

auriculate in C. arborea, while it is more or less rounded or attenuate

in the three species of supposed true Couwrsetia I had the opportunity

to examine. But it is in the gynoecium, perhaps, where we find the

most significant difference. In the three species of Coursetia, it is,

as we just mentioned, prominently hairy and often glandulous, and

either, sessile or short-stipitate; the style is mostly long-arcuate and

probably always ends in a ecapitellate stigma. In the Venezuelan

species the same organ has a striking appearance: the ovary is long,

smooth and long-stipitate; the style seems to be distinctly articulated

on this and, after a short curve downward, bends sharply again and

continues upward, long, straight and needle-like, its upper side hairy

all around, and ends in a cone-shaped stigma. ‘This character and

the details of the calyx would, it seems, be sufficient to exclude the

species from Coursetia. But we have cited other important diver-

gences and will add that neither are the pods of our tree like those of

Coursetia. I propose, therefore, to segregate Coursetia arborea Grise-

bach under the name Callistylon arboreum (Griseb.) Pittier, with

the following description: —

Callistylon Pittier, gen. nov. |

(Coursetia sp., Griseb.)

Calyx late cupulatus, basi rotundatus, dentibus inaequalibus, 2 superioribus

alte connatis obtusis, lateralibus brevioribus plus minusve acutis, inferiori

acuto, lateralibus longiori, Vexillum suborbiculatum quam longius latior,

basi emarginatum et subauriculatum, apice emarginatum, marginibus reflexis,

unguiculo longiusculo, lamina basi intus obliquo vel fere rectangulari; alae

falcato-oblongae, latae, semi-auriculatae, plus minusve conchoideae, apice

rotundatae, longe unguiculatae; carina lata, alis brevior, pariter longe ungui-

culata, valde arcuata et longe rostrata, petalis pars dimidia superiora cohaer-

entibus. Stamina 10, inaequalia, vexillari basi et apice libero; antheris

oblongis. Ovarium crasse stipitatum, 15-22 ovulatum, stylo basi crasso,

glabro, geniculato, sursum abrupte curvato, parte superiora verticali longa,

filiformi, apicem versus adpresse villosa; stigmate punctiformi. Legumen

vix stipitatum, lineare, compressum, polyspermum, continuum, dehiscente,

valvis convexis, apice stylo persistente producto; semina parva, nigra,

lenticularia—Arbor parva, inermis. Folia abrupte pinnata, foliolis 12-18,

petiolulatis, ovalibus, apice emarginatis mucronatisque, mucronulis fugacibus,

primum oppositis demum plus minusve alternis, petiolo apice mucronato.

Stipulae setaceae, rigidulae, sub-persistentibus; stipellae nullae. Racemi

terminales vel folia superior axillares, haec breviores, multiflorae, pedicellis

flores aequantibus vel longioribus, basi apiceque articulatis. Bracteae

212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

breves, lanceolatae; bracteolae parvae et inconspicuae. Flores albi, ima

magni.

CALLISTYLON ARBOREUM (Griseb.) Pittier.

Coursetia arborea Griseb., Fl. Brit. W. Ind. 183. 1864.

Humboldtiella ferruginea (partim) Harms, Repert. Nov. Sp. Fedde 19: 12.

1923.

Arbor parva, ramulis cinereis, tortuosis, novellis rufo-pubescentibus; foliis

paripinnatis, stipulatis, glabris glabrescentibusve, petiolo gracili, basin versus

leviter incrassato, canaliculato, apice mucronato, foliolis 6—9-jugis, mem-

branaceis, petiolulatis, petiolulis saepe pilosulis, exstipellatis, laminis ovatis

obovatisve, integerrimis, basi vix inaequalibus rotundatisque, apice mucro-

nulatis primum late obtusis in aetate emarginatis, supra laete viridibus,

glaberrimis, minute reticulatis, subtus pallidioribus, juveniis interdum

pilosulis demum glaberrimis, costa prominente, et caeteris prominuliter

reticulatis; stipulis minutis, setaceo-spinescentibus, villosulis; racemis

pedunculatis, 8-—15-floribus, pedunculo pedicellisque rufo-pubescentibus,

pedicellis gracilibus, elongatis, postea floribus persistentibus; calyce cupulato,

costulato, parce pubescenti; vexillo interdum pilosulo; alis liberis, unguiculo

arcuato; petalis carinalibus basi liberis, parte superiore cohaerentibus; fila-

mentorum pars libera tenuissima; ovario glabro vel glabriusculo. Legumine

- elongato primum ferrugineo-pubescenti demum glaberrimum, marginibus vix

incrassatis. |

Arbor 2-4 m. alta. Petiolus 5-10 cm. longus; petioluli tereti 2-3 mm.

longi; laminae foliolorum 1.5-4.7 cm. longae, 1—2 cm. latae. Stipulae circa

2 mm. longae. Racemi cum pedunculo circa 2 cm. longo 3-5 cm. longi,

pedicelli 1-2 cm. longi. Flores circa 2 cm. longi. Calyx 7 mm. longus.

Vexillum 15 cm. longum, 19-22 mm. latum, unguiculo 5 mm. longo; alarum

laminae 17 mm. longae, 8-9 mm. latae, unguiculo 4-t mm. longo; carinae

unguiculum circa 3 mm. longum, lamina horizontaliter 11 mm. longa, vertic-

aliter cum rostro 11 mm. longa. Ovarium 11 mm. longum, stylo parte hori-

zontali 2.5 mm., verticali 8 mm. longa. Legumen 10-12 cm. longum, 0.9—1.2

em. latum. ;

VENEZUELA: Vicinity of El Palito, in dry hills, 100 m., Aragua, rare,

flowers September 24, 1920, fruits, Dec. 1920 (Pzttier 9078, 9413) ; La Ciénega,

near Valera, 550 m., Trujillo, in arid bushes, fruits, Nov. 24, 1922 (Pztter

10780); near El Sombrero, 130 m., Gudrico, in thorn bushes, flowers and

fruits (but no leaves and the latter narrower than in the type and quite

glabrous), February 19, 1924 (Pitizer 11447); near Curucuti, 300 m., D. F.,

on rocky slopes, flowers, August 7, 1927 (P2ttzer 12423); Humocaro, 1000 m.,

Lara, flowers September 25, 1922 (Jahn 1197); Puerto La Cruz, D. F.,

October 1926 (Voronoff 335); La Ruesga near Barquisimeto, 550 m., flowers,

May and June 1925 (Saer 230, 247).

PLANT ECOLOGY.—Northward range-extensions of some southern

orchids in relation to sotl reaction.. Epgar T. WHERRY, Bureau

of Chemistry and Soils. |

In this note it is proposed to discuss six southern terrestrial orchids,

notable extensions of the ranges of some of which have recently been

1 Received January 23, 1928.

APR. 19, 1928 WHERRY: RANGE-EXTENSIONS OF ORCHIDS 213 :

discovered: Cleistes divaricata (L.) Ames (often classed as a species of

Pogonia); Habenaria conspicua Nash; Habenaria integra (Nutt.)

Sprengel; Hezxalectris spicata (Walt.) Barnhart; Malaxis spicata

Swartz (also known as M. floridana); and Ponthieva racemosa (Walt.)

Mohr. ‘These are classed as “‘southern”’ because they are widespread

in Florida and in the Coastal Plain physiographic province in neigh-

boring States, but in more elevated provinces, as well as at sea-level

farther north, they become so rare and local as to make publication

of the finding of new stations worth while. No attempt is made to

assign them to any “‘life-zone,”’ because in the southeastern part of the

United States these zones are about as lacking in significance as are

those in eastern Canada.’

The Rosebud Orchid,’ Cleistes divaricata, extends northward locally

beyond its area of abundance, or, as this may be called, its ‘‘normal”’

area, as far as New Jersey on the Coastal Plain, whereas on the Pied-

mont red-clay soils it seems unable to migrate beyond Georgia. In

central Alabama, where sandy soils derived from Paleozoic formations

come into contact with the Coastal Plain sands, it again pushes north-

ward far beyond its normal area. In the mountains of North Carolina

it is known to grow up to elevations of 1,200 meters (3,900 feet). It

has not been heretofore recorded farther northwest, but was found in

September, 1927, by Dr. Francis W. Pennell and the writer on a dry

ridge near Honeybee Post Office, Pulaski County, Kentucky. A

specimen is in the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.

The orange colored species known from the shape of its flowers as

the Frog-arrow Orchid, Habenaria integra, shows a similar but more

restricted range. It too has reached New Jersey on the Coastal

Plain, but apparently it has not been able to extend north on either

the Piedmont or the Blue Ridge province. The sands of the Appa-

lachians furnish a route for its migration, however, and it grows at

least as far up as south-central Tennessee.*

? FERNALD, Rhodora 23: 169. 1921.

3 Botanists often derive ‘‘common names’ for plants by anglicizing the specific

name and changing a letter or two in the generic name. To the writer names so derived

seem pedantic and needless, for they are never used by anyone not thoroughly ac-

quainted with the technical name itself. An effort has here been made to introduce

common names which either are in actual use, or can be understood, by laymen. The

name chosen for the present species may seem a bit far-fetched, but the lip of the flower

does bear some slight resemblance in color and form to a slender rose bud, and this name

means much more to the natives of the regions where the plant occurs than would

‘*Divaricate Cleistia.”’

4 GaTTINGER, Flora Tennessee 62. 1901.

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

The Longspur Fringe-orchid, Habenaria conspicua, is another exam-

ple of the same general behavior. In its case there appears to have

been no migration beyond the normal area on the Coastal Plain, but

it does follow the Appalachians, and a form of it with the lip entire

was found by Dr. Pennell and the writer in September, 1927, about 5

kilometers south of Pine Knot, Whitley County, Kentucky, this bring-

ing it within the limits of floras of the northeastern part of the United

States. A specimen of this is now in Academy of Natural Sciences,

Philadelphia. :

All three of these plants grow far enough north and at high enough

elevations to show that they are reasonably hardy, so the question

arises as to why they are limited to very restricted areas beyond their

normal region. It is not a matter of moisture, for the first appears to

thrive equally well in meadows which are under water half the year

and on the dryest kind of gravelly mountain slopes, and the other two

show distinct variation in the wetness of their habitat. It is not

connected with soil temperature, for while it is true that sandy soils

such as these species occupy are often considered to be ‘‘warm,”’ the

bogs in which they are usually found are generally recognized to be

‘“‘cool’”’ places. Indeed, as pointed out by Fernald,’ in Newfoundland

southern species often occupy colder places than do northern ones,

the explanation being that extensive areas of acid soil occur in an

especially cold part of the island, and the southern species concerned

are acid-soil plants. The one feature which the various soils support-

ing these orchids have in common is a high degree of acidity. A simple

explanation of their isolation is, then, that beyond their normal areas

these species are able to withstand the more or less unfavorable en-

vironmental conditions only when particularly well nourished, and

their physiology chances to be such that they can best obtain the

nutriment they require in strongly acid soils, which are only locally

well developed in situations where the plants can grow at all.

The distribution of the Crested Coralroot Orchid, Hexalectris spicata,

has already been discussed.’ It crosses the Virginia Coastal Plain

along marl outcrops, and even extends into Maryland on an Indian

shell-heap. Farther west it reaches fairly high elevations in the

mountains of Virginia, and enters Indiana, where the climate is by

no means mild. Though occasionally growing in acid upland peat, it

becomes luxuriant only in relatively rich soils.

5 FERNALD, Amer. Journ. Bot. 5: 237. 1918.

6 WuerrY, This JoURNALIT: 35. 1927.

APR. 19, 1928 WHERRY: RANGE-EXTENSIONS OF ORCHIDS 215

The little brown-flowered orchid, which is best characterized as the

Two-leaf Adder’s-mouth, Malazis spicata, has not heretofore been re-

ported as growing north of Florida. That its range was wider by two

States was shown when it was found by Mr. H. W. Trudell and the

writer in June, 1922, near Monck’s Corner, Berkeley County, South

Carolina, growing in marl thrown out in the digging of the Santee

Canal. A specimen has been placed in New York Botanical Garden.

In August, 1927, an additional two-State extension of range was indi-

cated when it was discovered in southern Gloucester County, Virginia,

by Miss Jennie 8. Jones, of Richmond. A specimen of the orchid

found by Miss Jones is in the United States National Herbarium.

Another colony was found a month later near Williamsburg, Virginia,

by Mr. E. A. Eames, of Buffalo, New York. In both these places

the plant grows in rich soil where marl outcrops near ravine-bottoms.

The Shadow-witch Orchid, Ponthieva racemosa, was. apparently

collected in Virginia by Clayton, for Gronovius’ listed a ‘‘SERAPIAS

foliis ovatis radicalibus, scapo nudo multifloro. Orchis s. Bifolium

aquaticum autumnalis flore herbaceo, caule aphyllo, foliis subrotundis

plantagineis, radice palmata. Clayton 1 & 138” which clearly de-

scribes this species. It was then lost sight of for more than 150 years,

until it was rediscovered by the late E. J. Grimes?’ in 1920. The

writer has observed it in several localities in James City, York, and

Gloucester Counties, always in rich marly soil, and in this State as

well as farther south it is more or less closely associated with the two

preceding species.

Like the first set of three species, the ones just discussed seem to

thrive equally well in dry and in moist situations; and here, too, the

temperature relations are contradictory. It is often held by ecologists

that calcareous (circumneutral) soils, which are clearly favored by

these three orchids, are relatively warm, and this may be the case in

some places. Finding certain tropical plants on isolated shell-mounds

(where the soil is circumneutral) in central peninsular Florida, Small!°

suggested that heat in the spaces between the shells enables these

plants to withstand cold spells. Exactly the reverse conclusion, how-

ever, could be reached elsewhere in Florida. On the circumneutral

Aspalaga bluffs of the Apalachicola River many northern plants grow

in isolated colonies far south of their normal areas, and here it would

7 Gronovivts, Flora Virginica, ed.2.137. 1762.

8 Grimes, Rhodora 24: 149. 1922.

® Satispury, Journ. Ecology 8: 208. 1921.

10 SMauu, Journ. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 28: 10. 1927.

216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

have to be argued that coolness in spaces between the shell fragments

enables them to withstand Floridian heat-waves. In Virginia, more-

over, the ravine-bottoms preferred by the three warmth-loving orchids

are about the coolest situations on the Coastal Plain. Their isolated

distribution northward, however, can be simply interpreted by the

same theory of reaction-control applied in the case of the other set, to

the effect that they best obtain the nutriment they require in cireum-

neutral soils, and beyond their normal areas can withstand the un-

favorable environment only in the restricted localities where such soils

are prominent.

It is inferred then, that in the cases of these six orchids, and by

analogy in those of hundreds of other plants which show similar dis-

tribution-relations, the chief reason for isolation beyond the normal

areas is not physical (moisture or pia apa but chemical (reaction

—acidity or er es

ETHNOBOTANY.—Remedial plants of Tepoztlan: A Mexican folk

herbal.!| Ropert REDFIELD, University of Chicago. (Com-

municated by JoHN R. Swanton.)

The present writer, who is not a botanist, has done little more than

collect the plants listed below and the accompanying ethnobotanical

data.2 The identification of the pJants was made by Mr. Paul C.

Standley, of the United States National Museum; the Compositae

were identified by Dr. S. F. Blake of the Department of Agriculture.

To these gentlemen the writer is deeply indebted, and especially to

Mr. Standley for further assistance and advice on pre-Linnean de-

scriptions of Mexican flora. A further obligation is owed to Mr.

Donald C. Peattie, of Rosslyn, Virginia, who placed the plants in

their proper families and furnished botanical notes.

The extensive ethnobotanies which have been collected among primi-

tive peoples testify to the high degree of completeness with which

many such peoples have explored their flora. To most primitive

peoples no other aspect of the natural environment is as well known.

Such knowledge is not, of course scientific. It is unreflective and un-

systematized, growing empirically, and never entirely dissociated from

magical art. The village populations of Mexico are composed no

1 Received February 15, 1928.

2'This was done in the course of an ethnological study of a Mexican village, made

possible by a fellowship granted in 1926-27 by the Social Science Research Council.

APR. 19, 1928 REDFIELD: MEXICAN FOLK HERBAL 217

longer of primitive (tribal) peoples, but of a folk to whom literacy is

not unknown. City ways, much diluted, reach such villages, and city

cures for rationally comprehended diseases. An interesting problem

in such a village lies in the extent to and manner in which the ancient

folk medicine loses ground at the expense of modern treatment, and

the effect this has in causing old magical behavior to disappear.

No beginning is made on such a problem in this paper, which is no

more than a catalogue of some herbal remedies in use in Tepoztlan,

State of Morelos, Mexico. This town was a pueblo of the Tlahuicas,

a Nahuatl-speaking tribe closely allied to the Aztecs. Its name

occurs in the Mendoza’ and Magliabecchi‘ codices, and first appears

in post-columbian history in the account of Bernal Diaz del Castillo.®

Although less than fifty miles from Mexico City, Tepoztlan is still

populated by people almost entirely Indian in blood. Both Nahuatl

and Spanish are spoken.

It happens that Francisco Hernandez, physician to Philip II and

traveler in Mexico in the sixteenth century, a man of both medical

and botanical interests, visited Tepoztlan. At least it is true that

a good many plants in his list® are described as growing at or near

Tepoztlan, Yautepec or Cuernavaca—a cluster of villages in northern

Morelos. The writer hoped to be able to compare the uses which

Hernandez gave for plants collected three centuries ago in this region

with present uses in Tepoztlan, but it proved impossible to identify

more than afew on Hernandez’s list with plants on the list given below.

Some ancient remedial uses probably survive, as do certainly some

ceremonial uses (as, for example, decoration of altars with Plumeria,

still called cacaloxochitl, and ceremonial use of T'agetes, called cem-

poalxochitl).

The folklore of present-day Mexico is a close compound of Indian

and early Spanish elements. Most of the plants in the following list

are indigenous to Mexico, but a few have been introduced from Europe.

Such plants are Ruta graveolens L., Ricinus communis L., Malva

parviflora L., Peucedanum graveolens (L.) Benth. & Hook., Anagallis

arvensis L., Borago officinalis L., Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.)

3 Plate 9 of the Kingsborough reproduction.

4 Commentary to Section 62.

5 The conquest of New Spain (Hakluyt translation), Book 10: (chap. 144) p. 67.

6 Francisco HerRNANDEZ: Cuatro libros de la naturaleza y virtudes de las plantas de la

NeuvaEspana. Ed. by Pefiafiel, Morelia, 1888 (first translated into Spanish and printed

in Mexicoin1615).

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

Bernh., the pomegranate and the citrus fruits. These enter into the

herbal pharmacopeceia of Tepoztlan today, and into remedies that have

precolumbian sources; but in no case, except perhaps Ricinus com-

munis L., does such an introduced plant bear a Nahuatl name. No

doubt the Spaniards introduced new ways of using wild plants as

remedies, and no doubt they seized upon native species resembling

those with which they were familiar, and instructed the Indians in

their use.

But in the large the folk medicine of such a Mexican village as

Tepoztlan is probably more Indian than European. The Aztecs

particularly had a vast knowledge and practice of herbal medicine.

The extensive list of Hernandez and the frequent references in Sahagun

and the other early writers testify to this, as does equally the great

body of plant lore of the contemporary Mexican population. Among

the Aztecs there was something of a systematic view of disease and

its treatment; there was more than one deity presiding over special

forms of sickness, that had to be propitiated.

The information embodied in the following list was obtained largely

from one informant, a woman of middle age. She had had a little

schooling, but her life was one entirely without influence of the written

word; she represented the average run of folk-culture of the town.

From her were obtained the names and uses of one hundred and five

local medicinal plants. (About half of these descriptions were identi-

fied with botanical names and appear below.) It is clear that the

information of this one person was by no means exhausted. Yet her

knowledge was probably not unusually great; she did not assume to

be a curandera (Tepahtiant); as she put it, she did not ‘“‘know how to

boil’ (sabe hervir). Many of her ethnobotanical items were checked

against the knowledge of other persons; sometimes additional but very

rarely contradictory information was obtained. The folk knowledge

of the village is fairly consistent.

In the list below the Spanish name precedes the Nahuatl term for

each plant. A dash in either position indicates that the informant

knew no equivalent in the other language. The Nahuatl names,

transcribed by a person without phonetic training, probably contain

errors. The aspirate or fricative following a vowel which Spanish

grainmarians indicate with the saltillo accent is here indicated with

the letter ‘“‘h.’”? An asterisk indicates that no actual specimen was

identified but that the plant is sufficiently notorious to be included.

APR. 19, 1928 REDFIELD: MEXICAN FOLK HERBAL 219

SELAGIN ELLACEAE

1. SELAGINELLA CUSPIDATA Spring.

Tepechayohtli (‘‘chayote of the mountains’). A boiled infusion

of this plant is taken internally for a disease of pregnancy known as necazanilli

(“loosening”’ of the female organs), in order, it is said ‘‘to fix the placenta.”

AMARYLLIDACEAE

2. *POLIANTHES (TUBEROSA L.)

Azucena. Omixochitl. This plant does not grow in Tepoztlan, but is

imported to combine with a species of Laelza for a use described under the

next following name. The plant is probably the same as that known under

this name to the ancient Aztecs. The name means “‘bone flower” and refers

perhaps to its color.

ORCHIDACEAE

3. LAELIA sp.

Tzacxochitl. The pseudobulb of this plant is ground with that of

Polianthes and boiled with sugar and chocolate. The resulting potion is

taken by a pregnant woman to prevent the abortion which would otherwise

follow when she conceives a sudden appetite that she is unable to satisfy.

“‘All of a sudden she wants to eat something; she cannot get it; so she takes

tzacxochitl so that the child does not fall.”

The plant does not grow in Tepoztlan itself, but is obtained from the

tezcal, a rocky area on the slopes of the mountain.

URTICACEAE

4. PARIETARIA PENNSYLVANICA Muhl.

Tripa de Judas. Tepanzozmahtl. Relatives of this plant, some of which

are doubtless called by this same Spanish name, ‘“‘the guts of Judas” are eaten

as greens in Europe. In Tepoztlan the entire plant is eaten, boiled, as a

remedy for ‘“‘internal inflammations.” It also enters into remedial com-

pounds; one such is described below under no. 60, Chrysanthemum parthenium

(L.) Bernh.

AMARANTHACEAE

5. IRESINE INTERRUPTA Benth.

Tlatlancuaye. The plant is ground up and steeped with other

herbs and placed on the lungs and abdomen to reduce the fevers. One such

recipe includes rose leaves, wine and coriander.

PAPAVERACEAE

6. BocconIA ARBOREA S. Wats.

Gediondillo. A piece of the leaf is plastered on the temple with

soap to cure headache. Other plants are sometimes used, and quite com-

monly a patch of porous plaster.

CRUCIFERAE

7. LEPIDIUM DENSIFLORUM Schrad.

Lantejilla. As with other crucifers, the stinging taste of this plant

probably suggested its local use. It is steeped in alcohol and placed on the

chest to cure a cold.

220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

LEGUMINOSAE

8. CAESALPINIA PULCHERRIMA (L.) Swartz.

Flor de camaron. This plant of wide distribution, known in

English-speaking countries as ‘“‘Barbados Pride.” “Flower Fence,” “Dwarf

Poinciana,”’ etc., is known in Tepoztlan as ‘‘shrimp flower.’”’ The leaves

are boiled with the flowers of the cabellito de angel tree (probably Ceiba pen-

tandra (L.) Gaertn.), with manzanillos, raisins, licorice and a fragment of

armadillo shell to prepare a remedy, applied externally, for whooping cough.

9. Cassia LAEVIGATA Willd.

Guajillo. Yehcapahtzin. The meaning of the Nahuatl term is ‘‘wind-

medicine.”? Perhaps this is in reference to the fact that it is used for troubles

of the respiratory tract. The plant is ground in alcohol with Senecio salignus

DC., and the infusion rubbed on the chest.

10. ERIOSEMA GRANDIFLORUM (8. & C.) Seem.

Guayabillo. An infusion of the leaves is used to wash sore feet.

11. Mucuna sp.

Ojo de venado. The seed of this tree, its appearance suggesting the

local name ‘‘deer’s eye,’ is widely worn in Mexico as a charm. The tree

does not grow in Tepoztlan but the seeds are imported for sale. In many

parts of Mexico the seeds are worn as a charm against the evil eye, but in

Tepoztlan they are worn to keep off the evil spirits of the air that cause the

disease generally known by the same name, los azres, or, in Nahuatl, Yehye-

cahuiliztlk. These evil spirits (yehyecatzitzin), are an important cause of disease

in Tepoztlan, and besides the numerous herbal treatments which appear in

this list for troubles so caused, there are many ritualistic treatments, as well

as an elaborate technique for propitiating the malevolent spirits. The

Mucuna seeds are generally perforated, and bits of colored yarn are put

through the holes. Bright-colored yarn is commonly employed in many

connections to propitiate los azres.

RUTACEAE

12. RuvTa GRAVEOLENS L.

Ruda. This European plant with widespread popular remedial

associations was introduced into Tepoztlan together with its therapeutic

reputation. A recipe there collected provides that the plant be boiled with

Salvia microphylla H. B. K. and an unidentified plant, apparently a mint

(according to Standley), called locally poleo del monte or huatlaxictzi. The

infusion is taken for abdominal pains. The plant is also used to wash persons

affected by los azres (described under no. 59, Piqueria trinervia Cav.).

13. CITRUS AURANTIFOLIA (Christm.) Swingle.

Flor de limon. “Limonzochitl.”” Lime flowers boiled in water with

cinnamon and sugar added form one of the many remedies for a disease known

as la mohina (fretfulness; peevishness). This disease is characterized by

persistent anger or ill-temper. There are a number of such strong emotional

states which are considered and treated as diseases in rural Mexico. In la

mohina various warm flavored drinks are given to soothe the patient.

MALPIGHIACHEAE

14. THRYALLIS GLAUCA (Cav.) Kuntze.

Xaxaxacotic. This plant, together with Hypericum pratense

Schlecht and two unidentified plants known as huztlatenaxihwitl and thilac-

atzihuitl, is boiled and administered to pregnant women suffering from a dis-

APR. 19, 1928 REDFIELD: MEXICAN FOLK HERBAL 221

ease called costumbre blanca (‘‘white menses’’) or zztaccocoliztli (‘‘white

sickness”). This remedy is also administered for the different sickness known

as necaxanilli, referred to under no. 1, Selaginella cuspidata Spring.

KU PHORBIACEAE

15. *RicInus coMMuNIs L.

Digerillo. Azxazxaxozihwitl. The leaves are boiled and administered

internally for fevers. The informants knew no remedial use of the seeds,

but said that the flowers, when dry, are pressed and the oil extracted for

burning.

ANACARDIACEAE

16. ScHINUS MOLLE L.

Pirun. This common tree, introduced from Peru, enjoys a wide

variety of local names and usages, both curative and culinary, in Mexico.’

In Tepoztlan, among other uses, the leaves are steeped in water and applied

to parts of the body affected with rheumatism.

MALVACEAE

17. MALVA PARVIFLORA L.

Malvas. — This plant, of European introduction and folk medicine,

is boiled with Piqueria trinervia Cav., Verbena polystachya H. B. K., and a

rose known as rosa de Castilla, and the infusion taken internally for fevers.

18. Matvaviscus ConzaTtTiI Greenm.

Flor de molenillo. Atlatzompililliz. This plant enters into recipes for cough

medicines. It is boiled with Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Swartz, and a

piece of armadillo shell, both of which are often used in other combinations

to treat coughs.

GUTTIFERAE

19. *MaMMEA AMERICANA L. .

Pitzli. This word means simply ‘‘kernel.’’ It is more particu-

larly applied to the stone of the mamey which, ground, enters into cathartic

compounds in Tepoztlan.

HY PERICACEAE

20. HyPERICUM PRATENSE Schlecht.

Sangrinaria. European relatives of this plant are rich in folk

associations. In Tepoztlan the Mexican plant is an ingredient in the remedy

described under no. 14, Thryallis glauca (Cav.) Kuntze.

CACTACEAE

21. HELIOCEREUS SPECIOSUS Britton & Rose.

Ahuazochitl. The name, meaning simply ‘‘thorn-flower,’’ was

doubtless applied to many cacti. The flowers of this species are boiled, and

the infusion taken internally for colds.

7Paut C. Sranpitey. Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Contr. U. 8S. Nat. Herb. 23:

661. 1923.

222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

LYTHRACEAE

22. HEIMIA SALICIFOLIA (H. B. K.) Link.

Yerba jonequil. Xonecuilli. This herb is ground up in alcohol and applied

very hot for rheumatism, as one takes the steam-bath in the temazcal, (the

pre-Columbian sweat-house still in general use throughout rural Mexico.)

Hernandez has a ‘“‘xonecuilpahtlz’’ which he says was used as a remedy for

colds, but it is not possible to identify his description.

PUNICACEAE

23. PUNICA GRANATUM L.

Granada. — The leaves of the European pomegrante are used as a

wash for the lips when they are affected by a disease characterized by white-

ness of the lips and known as camapalaniliztli (‘‘rotten mouth’’). The leaves

of the guayaba (Psidium guajaba L.) are added and both roasted and ground

before making the infusion.

OENOTHERACEAE

24. OBNOTHERA MEXICANA Spach.

Yerba del golpe. As its name indicates, this plant is used for

bruises. An infusion is made and minor lesions are washed in it.

UMBELLIFERAE

25. PEUCEDANUM GRAVEOLENS (L.) Benth & Hook. (Syn: Anethwm grave-

olens L.)

Hinojo. — This European plant forms an ingredient in recipes

for remedies taken internally to reduce restlessness during fevers. In one

such recipe the following are boiled together with this plant: Flor de tila

(Tilia sp.); flor de manita (not identified); flor de nacahute (Solanum fontan-

esianum Dunal); la peonia (Peonia sp.); nutmeg; cinnamon; and magnesia

powder.

PRIMULACEAE

26. ANAGALLIS ARVENSIS L.

Coralillo. The leaves of this European plant are boiled and

applied to inflammations.

OLEACEAE

27. *FRAXINUS Sp.

Fresno. ———— The leaves of the ash are mixed with wine and applied

as a poultice for headache.

LOGANIACEAE

28. BUDDLEIA SESSILIFLORA H. B. K.

Lengua de vaca. Pahtlaxoxoctic. The Nahuatl name of this plant means

‘“‘sreen medicine.” It is common in Tepoztlan and used for a variety of

ailments.* The leaves are applied to the lungs to reduce fever. Mixed with

suet the leaves are applied to the gums as a poultice for toothache. The plant

also has a (probably purely magical) use in connection with cookery. ‘Tor-

tillas are cooked on a flat clay griddle, the comal. Some of the leaves of this

8 Aselsewhere in Mexico. See STanpiey, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 23: 1145. 1924.

APR. 19, 1928 REDFIELD: MEXICAN FOLK HERBAL 223

plant are ground in nejacote (nexacotl or nexatl—the water in which corn is

cooked with lime). Lime is added to these ground leaves and the preparation

rubbed on both faces of the comal the first time the comal is used. Otherwise

it is said the comal would break. Sometimes, when the comal is used there-

after, the preparation is rubbed on the upper face only.

POLEMONIACEAE

29. BONPLANDIA GEMINIFLORA Cav.

Tetzotzo. This plant is boiled together with Solanum nigrum L.,

and the infusion taken as a purge. Verbena polystachya H. B. K. may also

be added.

30. LoESELIA MEXICANA (Lam.) Brand.

Espinoncillo. This plant does not grow in Tepoztlan but is

brought in from near by Cuernavaca. The leaves are boiled and the infusion

taken as a purgative in fevers.

HY DROPHYLLACEAE

31. WIGANDIA KUNTHII Choisy.

Flor de chichicascle. Tzitzicaztli or pahpatlanuac. The leaves are ground

and boiled and the infusion taken for abdominal pains.

BORAGINACEAE

32. BoRAGO OFFICINALIS L.

Boraja. This European plant is steeped in water and the infusion

drunk to cool fevers.

33. TOURNEFORTIA DENSIFLORA Mart. & Gal.

Yerba rasposa. The leaves are rubbed on blisters. The scab-

rous character of the leaves suggests a counter-irritant.

VERBENACEAE

34. VERBENA POLYSTACHYA H. B. K.

Yerba de San Jose. Zanhuanazictzi. The Nahuatl name of this plant

is of course a hybrid term. Itis puzzling to find a plant referred to in one

of two idioms in current use as Saint Joseph’s plant and in the other as the

plant of Saint John. A use is described in connection with no. 17, Malva

parviflora L.

35. Lippra puLcis Trev.

Yerba dulce. Widely known in Mexico under this name, in

Tepoztlan the plant is boiled with the flowers of a tree, probably Ceiba

pentandra (L.) Gaertn., (known as cabellito de angel or xiloxochitl), and

manzanillos to make a remedy applied externally for coughs.

LABIATAE

36. OcIMUM MICRANTHUM Willd.

Albahaca. A little of this mint is placed in the ear to stop earache.

37. SALVIA MEXICANA L.

Tlapachichin. A use of this plant is described under no. 54,

Viguera grammatoglossa DC.

38. SALVIA MICROPHYLLA H. B. K.

Mirto. A use of this plant is described in connection with no. 59,

Piqueria trinervia Cav.

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

39. HEDEOMA PIPERITA Benth. }

Tabajillo This plant is boiled with brown sugar and the

liquid taken internally for abdominal pains.

SOLANACEAE

40. NICOTIANA TABACUM L.

Tabaco cimarron. Cuahuthitl. The Nuhuatl form given in Simeon’s

dictionary and elsewhere is cuawzetl, but the local informant gave the form

indicated above. The remedial use in Tepoztlan is of a boiled infusion as a

wash to the abdomen for abdominal pains.

41. SOLANUM FONTANESIANUM Dunal.

Flor de nacahuite. Nacahwxochitl. The plant is boiled and the liquid

taken internally for cough.

42. SOLANUM MADRENSE Fernald.

Flor de clamaclancle. Tlamatlantlz. This plant, boiled and mixed with

alcohol, is used as a remedy when a nursing baby vomits. ‘The mother washes

her breasts with the preparation and also takes a little internally. Then the

child is allowed to nurse. A suggestion by the informant that the trouble

came from teething tempts the writer, inexperienced in Nahuatl etymologies,

to derive the local name from a Nahuatl root meaning ‘‘to Baw and the

word tlantlz (teeth). .

43. SOLANUM NIGRUM L. :

Yerba nora. Tohonechichi. Both the Spanish and the Nahuatl names

are common in Mexico for species of Solanum. This one in Tepoztlan is

boiled and mixed with alcohol and applied externally for inflammations and

swellings. Itisalso used as a wash to cool fevers.

44, DaTuRA CANDIDA L.

Florefundia (Florepondia) or Bomba. The petals are coated with

grease and placed on the gums to alleviate toothache.

45. *LycoPERSICUM ESCULENTUM Mill. (Syn: Solanum lycopersicum L.)

Jitomate. Xitomatl. An infusion of tomato leaves is applied to granular

eruptions.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

46. CASTILLEJA ARVENSIS C. &.S.

Saumyate. Catoxictzi. European species also have uses in folk medicine.

The Tepoztlan use is described in connection with no. 59, Pzqueria trinervia

Cav.

ACANTHACEAE

47. JACOBINIA SPICIGERA (Schl.) Bailey.

Mwuicle. This name is apparently a corruption from Nahuatl,

but the informants regarded it simply as a Spanish term. Standley® gives

several Mexican remedial uses and also mentions its employment as a dye.

In Tepoztlan the plant is boiled in water with sugar and taken by pregnant

women. It is one of a number of plants which are collected and brought to

Mexico City to sell there.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

48. SAMBUCUS MEXICANA Presl.

Sauca. ——— A use of elder is indicated under no. 55, Bidens lender ge

(L.) Willd.

9 STANDLEY. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 23: 1345. 1926.

APR. 19, 1928 REDFIELD: MEXICAN FOLK HERBAL 225

COMPOSITAE

49. SENECIO. sp.

Lechugilla. Palancapahili. This plant is boiled with the stone of the

mamey, and with the yellow elder, Tecoma stans (L.) H. B. K., and an uniden-

tified plant known as sacaszlz, and the resulting infusion taken internally by

children suffering from constipation or indigestion.

50. SENECIO saLicNus DC.

Jarilla. Ac-chayatl. This plant, ground in alcohol, is combined with

Cassia laevigata Willd. The infusion is applied externally for respiratory

diseases. Standley!® gives this same local name for the Valley of Mexico,

and mentions several remedial uses.

51. TAGETES FLORIDA Sweet.

Pericén. Teyaili. The aromatic plants of this genus make them particu-

larly eligible for folk-medicinal uses. In Tepoztlan the flowers of this species

are steeped in water and the infusion used to wash new-born babies during the

week after birth. At this time the mother bathes in the temazcal, the indig-

enous sweat-house of stone. If no temazcal is available, she may instead

wash herself with this infusion.

52. TAGETES ERECTA L.

. Simpasuchi.’ Cempoalxochitl. The ‘‘African’” marigold of our gardens is

the well-known ‘‘flower of the dead” of the ancient Aztecs. The plant is

widely known throughout Mexico under some modification of the original

Nahuatl name, still in use in Tepoztlan. The plant is frequently mentioned

under this name in the sixteenth century writings. It was used by the

Aztecs to decorate altars and as a part of floral offerings to certain gods. It

still has such ceremonial-religious uses in Tepoztlan.' It is also used remedi-

ally, the flowers being boiled and the infusion drunk for stomach troubles.

53. ALOMIA ALATA Hemsl. .

Yerba de Santa Maria. Zohuapahtli. The Nahuatl name, an ancient one

applied no doubt to other plants, suggests a remedy’ for female ailments

(“woman medicine’). The use cited in Tepoztlan is of the plant ground and

taken in a cup of alcohol with sugar and egg for palpitations.

54. VIGUIERA GRAMMATOGLOSSA DC.

Acahual. An infusion of the plant is applied to the chests of

children suffering from respiratory diseases, such as croup. The other in-

gredients named are lemon flowers and Salvia mexicana L.

55. BIDENS LEUCANTHA (L.) Willd.

Tzitziquilitl. This plant, together with Sambucus mexicana Presl.,

forms an ingredient in a remedy for eye troubles. The two plants are boiled

up with some raisins and the umbilical cords each of a boy and of agirl. For

this remedial use umbilical cords in Tepoztlan are not buried as in some

other Mexican villages, but kept. ‘‘They are worth twenty-five centavos.”’

The presence of the umbilical cords in the remedies is due to a magical

application of the fact that.an important trouble of the eyes occurs in babies

(no doubt ophthalmia neonatorum). It is supposed to be caused by the

approach to the baby of someone who has recently had sexual intercourse.

56. STEVIA MICRANTHA Lag.

Calpancatoxictzi. The plant is boiled, mixed with alcohol, and

taken internally as a remedy for those ailments thought to be caused by the

evil spirits of the air (los aires, already referred to under no. 11, Mucunasp.).

10SranDLEY. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 23: 1627. 1926.

11 As in many other Mexican communities. See, for example, FREDERICK STARR.

Notes on the ethnography of Southern Mexico. Proc. Davenport Acad. Sci., 8: 28.

226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

57. CALEA ZACATECHICHI Schlecht.

Prodigiosa. Ahuapahili. The plant is boiled and the infusion beaten up

with egg and sugar and drunk for biliousness. Hernandez lists a plant

with the same name, of undetermined identity, used at that time for similar

ailments.

58. BAccHARIS sp.

Popote. Popotl. The roots are steeped in alcohol and placed on the gums

to relieve toothache.

59. PIQUERIA TRINERVIA Cav.

Harta reina or Alta reina. ———— This plant forms a frequent ingredient

in mixtures of herbs used in washing the body (it may also be taken internally)

of a person afflicted by los azres, the evil spirits of the air already referred to.

Los aires are found wherever there is water—near ravines, springs, fountains

or water-tanks. <A person going to such a place to wash or bathe may offend

these spirits and in return be visted with a variety of complaints, of which the

most characteristic are pustular eruptions and paralysis. Treatment of this

disease—for the wide range of possible symptoms does not prevent if from

being regarded as one disease, a visitation,—is in part accomplished by con-

ciliation of the spirits through gifts and in part by treating the patient. The

essential element of this treatment is washing with herbs. There are probably

many recipes for such herbal compounds, the most used in the entire Tepozt-

lan pharmacopeeia. This plant is almost invariably included. One such

compound includes Salvia microphylla H. B. K., Castilleja arvensis C. & S.,

egg, and an unidentified plant known as arretillas or pipiloxihwitl. Piqueria

is also employed for fevers (see under no. 17, Malva parviflora L.). The leaves

may be used to wash a child afflicted with el dano (see under no. 60, Chrys-

anthemum parthenium (L.) Bernh.).

60. CHRYSANTHEMUM PARTHENIUM (L.) Bernh.

Alta mesa. This European plant, generally known as feverfew

in United States gardens, receives its local name from a corruption of altamza.

Its European folk reputation came with it to Mexico. In Tepoztlan the plant

is common. It is cooked with Parietaria pennsylvanica Muhl. to form a

remedy administered internally to children afflicted with el dano. Hl dato

(the hurt; the injury) bears the Nahuatl name of oquitzahtzitihque (‘‘making

them cry’). It is the local form of the evil eye. When people with “bitter

hearts” (yolchichihque) look upon children and praise them, the children

begin to cry and can not be comforted until some one or another of the

accepted remedies, some herbal, some ritualistic, is applied.

APR. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 227

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

965TH MEETING

The 965th meeting, constituting the 57th annual meeting, was held at the

Cosmos Club December 10, 1927.

The Treasurer reported expenditures of $1318.89 for the year, and stated

that the active membership of the Society is 235.

The following officers were declared elected for the year 1928: President,

P. R. Heyy; V2ce-Presidents, L. H. ApAMs and W. D. Lampert; Treasurer,

O. H. GisH; Corresponding Secretary, E. W. Woouarp, Members-at-large

of the Council, N. H. Heck and L. V. Jupson.

Program: WALTER A. MacNartr: Some physical measurements concerning

vitamin D. (The paper is in press in the Journal of Biological Chemistry.)

Q66TH MEETING

The 966th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 7, 1928.

Program: President J. P. Auir: Ocean surveys—problems and develop-

ments. (Printed in this JourNat for March 4, 1928.)

967TH MEETING

The 967th meeting was a joint meeting with The ACADEMY, held at the

Cosmos Club, January 19, 1928.

Program: L. B. Tuckerman: Theoretical principles underlying balloting.

GrorGE H. Hauert, Jr.: An appraisal of election methods.

968TH MEETING

The 968th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 21, 1928.

Program: E. O. Huxisurt: Ionization of the upper atmosphere. Using

laws, either known or based on apparently reasonable assumptions of the gas

pressures in the high atmosphere, the ultra-violet light, the recombination of

the electrons and ions and their diffusion, the form of the electron bank in the

high atmosphere is calculated and found to be in fair agreement with that

required by the data of wireless telegraphy for day and night conditions.

For a summer day (North Temperate Zone) the maximum density of the

electron bank is about 3 X 10° electrons per cc. at a height of about 200 km;

the corresponding values for a winter day are about 2 10° and 150 km,

and for a summer or winter night about 8 X 10* and 100 to 150 km. There

is an ion bank below the electron bank, whose maximum density is probably

less than 10° ions per cc. (Author’s abstract.)

W. J. Rooney: Earth-resistivity measurements and their bearing on the

location of concealed geological discontinuities. A review of the earth-resis-

tivity investigations of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, 1924-1927,

shows a consistent relationship between the variations of resistivity with depth

and the geological structure of the regions surveyed. The possibility of

using resistivity determinations to locate certain types of discontinuity in

vertical structure is shown by six specific experiments in Washington and in

the copper country of Michigan. Results indicating discontinuities at depths

beyond 1000 feet have been secured, but independent determinations to con-

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

firm the resistivity indications are seldom available for depths much greater

than 100 feet. Hence the depth limit for practical application of the method

is uncertain. Given a fairly uniform lateral distribution of material, resis-

tivity measurements made on ‘the surface will disclose quite accurately the

distance to underground water and the depth of overburden, and may be used

to determine the thickness of rock strata, provided the rocks differ sufficiently

one from the other. In general, sedimentary rocks have fairly low resistivi-

ties, 5000 to 20,000 ohms per centimeter cube, while the values for the denser

igneous rocks run from five to twenty times higher. The resistivity of soils

varies widely with composition and with the amount and character of the

solutions they contain. (Author’s abstract.)

H. E. Merwin, Recording Secretary.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

598TH MEETING

The 598th meeting was held in the National Museum, October 11, 1926.

Program: Dr. ALES HrpuicKa, Explorations in Alaska and northeast Asia.

599TH MEETING

The 599th meeting was held in the National Museum, November 16, 1926.

Program: Dr. J. WALTER FEwKEs, Elden Pueblo.

600TH MEETING

The 600th meeting was held in the National Museum, December 21, 1926.

Program: WALLACE THOMPSON, Appraising the Mexican.

601stT MEETING

The 601st meeting was held in the National Museum, January 18, 1927.

Program: WARREN K. MoorEHEaD, Prehistoric moundbuilders.

602D MEETING

The 602d meeting was held in the National Museum, February 3, 1927.

Program: Mrs. Zevia NuTTAuy, of Coyoacan, D.F., Mexico.—New light

on ancient American calendars. The speaker reviewed the evidence for her

well-known. theory of the origin of the Maya and Aztec calendars, first pro-

posed at the Oxford meeting, 1926, of the British Association for the Advance-

ment of Science. As all the centers of ancient American culture are situated

within the tropics, the inhabitants had a simple means at hand for learning

the true length of the solar year. The sun itself registered it for them, for

within this zone the sun passes twice a year through the zenith, causing the

striking phenomenon that, for a moment about noon, all vertical objects are

shadowless.

Mrs. Nuttall submitted an array of evidence—historical, documentary,

archeological, and photographic—to substantiate her conclusion that Mexi-

cans, Mayas, Ecuadorians, Peruvians, and others inhabiting this zone,

observed the strange periodical disappearance of shadows and interpreted it

as ‘“‘a descent of the Sun-God.” As this descent is always immediately

followed by rains caused by the heat of the vertical solar rays, this momentary

descent, which marked the advent of the rainy season, was of transcendental

importance to the native agriculturists. After this ‘descent of the god”

they could confidently sow the seeds of maize and other food plants with a

APR. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 229

certainty of rain. The theory would explain why, as civilization gradually

advanced under favorable conditions, this phenomenon, first observed by

means of any vertical staff, pole, or stone, led to the erection of pillars,

stelae, altars, towers, shrines, and the temples ultimately erected on the

summits of pyramidal structures, which were to serve as worthy seats or

places of rest for the descending Sun-God and offer constant invitations for

him to descend and linger.

603D MEETING

The 603d meeting was held in the National Museum February 24, 1927.

Program: Dr. ALFRED V. KippER.—Clzff-dwellers of Arizona and their pred-

ecessors. The southwestern archaeological field embraces those parts of

Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah, which contain the remains of the

sedentary, agricultural type of Indian, commonly known as Pueblos. The

present range of the Pueblo Indian is restricted to the drainage of the Rio

Grande and the Little Colorado. Ruins of ancient villages closely similar

to those of the historic Pueblos are found throughout a far greater range.

They consist of cliff houses, valley towns, and mesa-top dwellings, ranging in

size from a half dozen to a thousand rooms. The problem of Southwestern

archaeology is the arrangement of these ruins in relative chronological order

and the determination of the origin and growth of the culture responsible

forthem. Until about fifteen years ago the early stages of Pueblo civilization

were not recognized. The explorations of the Peabody Museum of Harvard,

the Natural History Museum of New York, the National Geographic Society,

and other institutions have resulted in the discovery and description of these

early stages, the first being the Basket-maker, a phase marked by primitive

agriculture, lack of pottery and of stone architecture. This was followed

by the Post-basket-maker period which saw the introduction of pottery and

the beginnings of masonry construction. The Post-basket-maker was suc-

ceeded by the Pre-Pueblo, in which pottery was greatly improved, houses

were enlarged and strengthened, and the typical massed type of dwellings

first introduced. We are thus now in possession of the outline of the entire

growth of the Pueblos from nomadism up.

604TH MEETING

The 604th meeting was held in the National Museum March 17, 1927.

Program: MattrHew W. Strruinc.—Recent explorations in Dutch New

Guinea. The interior of the island is largely unknown as it has never been

completely mapped or penetrated. The purpose of the expedition under

Mr. Stirling’s leadership was three-fold: the making of maps; addition to

our knowledge of the country; and a study of the peoples inhabiting this

region. The expedition was scientifically outfitted, and motor boats and an

aeroplane were used as means of transportation. Entrance was effected

from the northern coast, thence up the Rouffaer River, to the central range

known as the Nassau Mountains, one of the great ranges of the world. The

island is inhabited mainly by Papuans, of which three distinct groups were

visited: those of the coast, those of the great Lake plain, and those of the

Van Reese Mountains. The foothill region, above the Lake plain, is unin-

habited for a distance of about thirty miles. After passing this belt, the

Negrito pygmy peoples are encountered. The average height of the men

is 152 em, that of the women 145 cm. A permanent camp was established

at Tombay, located in the interior of the Nassau Mountains. The peoples

230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

have an advanced system of agriculture, of which the staples are: sweet

potatoes, sugar cane, taro root, bananas, and lemons. They have a loose

type of clan organization. They are polygamists in theory and monogamists

in practice. They believe in some form of immortality, but their religious

concepts were hard to investigate, as they were very reluctant to discuss

anything concerning these matters. The pygmies bury their dead, while

the Papuans practise platform burial near the home of the deceased.

605TH MEETING

The 605th meeting was a joint meeting with The Acaprmmy and was held

in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club April 21, 1927.

Program: Dr. FREDERICK W. Hopes, of the Museum of the American

Indian (Heye Foundation).—The Zuni Indians of New Mexico. (To be

published in the Proceedings of The AcapEmy, This JoURNAL, vol. 18, 1928.)

606TH MEETING

The 606th meeting was held in the National Museum; October 25, 1927.

Program: Dr. Joun M. Coorer.—Field notes on northern Algonkian magic

and divination. In order to determine the limits of western extension of a

number of culture traits that are characteristic of the Téte de Boule and

Montagnais-Naskapi tribes of Quebec and Labrador, the speaker undertook

last summer, 1927, a reconnaissance of the Cree and northern Ojibwa bands

of the southern and western James Bay region and of the Albany River area.

The belt covered extended about a thousand miles westward of the St.

Maurice River to the source of the Albany River and averaged about two

hundred miles in breadth. Scapulimancy, or divination by the marks and

cracks on flat bones held against the fire, was found to extend continuously

from the St. Maurice section to half way up the Albany, and an apparently

reliable report was obtained of its occurrence as far west as the country

north of Lake of the Woods. Scrying, or divination by peering into water in

a dish or into some substitute therefore, was found universally distributed

throughout the area studied. Other types of divination, common especially

in the eastern half of the area, are those carried out with otter carcasses or

otter paws, with beaver haunch bones, with beaver shoulder blades, with

bear skulls, and with grouse wishbones. Foetal inclusions are universally

used in hunting-magic, as are also singing and drumming for game. The

caribou bezoar is used in the eastern section of the area. To bring the north

wind, the buzzer, the bull-roarer, and the snow man are resorted to. A num-

ber of cradle charms are used, particularly the bit of navel string attached

to the cradle bow. The cylindrical or barrel-shaped conjuring tent, that

has been reported from various points from northern Labrador to Minnesota,

was found of universal extension over the whole belt studied, as was also

the whole conjuring complex that is associated with this very distinctive

type of tent. In fact, throughout the whole belt is found a culture funda-

mentally identical in all its a material and social, with only minor

local differences.

607TH MEETING

The 607th meeting was held in the National Museum November 22, 1927.

Program: Frank H. H. Roserts, Jr.—A late Basket-maker village in

the Chaco Canyon. A late Basket-maker village consisting of 18 houses,

48 storage bins and a kiva excavated in the Chaco Canyon, New Mexico,

APk. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 231

during the summer of 1927, by Mr. Roberts, has given considerable informa-

tion as to the house-type of the period. In general, the crude, one-room

domicile consisted of an oval or rectangular excavation, two and one-half to

three feet deep, 12 to 14 feet in diameter, roofed over with a pole, brush,

and plaster superstructure. The earth walls of the excavation were lined

with large stone slabs which in turn were covered with adobe plaster. Four

posts set in the floor a short distance from the walls supported the super-

structure. These posts carried a rectangular framework against which the

upper ends of small poles, the lower ends of which were embedded in the

earth around the periphery of the excavation, were placed. The latter formed

the sloping upper walls of the house. The rectangular space at the top prob-

ably had a flat roof with an opening in the center to serve as a smoke hole,

possibly on occasions as an entrance. The entire wooden structure was then

covered with twigs, bark, leaves, earth, and plaster. In the center of the

room was an oval or rectangular firepit on the north side of which was a small,

circular hole which is probably analogous to the sipapu of kivas. Most of

the houses appear to have had an entry way on the south or southeast side.

The doorway of the main room gave access into a short passage which in

turn opened into a small oval room. The ante-chambers of these domiciles

are quite suggestive of the entry-ways into earth lodges built by modern

Indians, by the Eskimo, and even by the Palaeo-Asiatic peoples. The kiva

was constructed of slabs in much the same fashion as the dwellings. The

inner circle, forming the face of the bench was of smaller slabs than the outer

or wall of the room. The diameter above the bench was 40 feet and inside

the bench 36 feet. There was a central firepit, a deflector on the south side,

but no other features in the room. The roof was supported on four large

posts. It is quite possible that in this structure is to be seen the predecessor

of the great kivas of the Chaco pueblo cultures. Burials were scattered

throughout the village. Skeletal remains showed a group of people with

long heads, undeformed. There were very few mortuary offerings. Bowls

accompanied three of the interments while the other graves had no funerary

furniture.

JoHN M. Cooprr, Secretary

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

431sT MEETING

The 431st meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Interior Department

Building, November 2, 1927, President Butts presiding.

Program: Professor D. J. MusHxKertov, Director of the Russian Geological

Survey: Recent geological investigations in Turkestan.

432ND MEETING

The 432nd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 23, 1927

President Butts presiding.

Program: Professor L. W. Cotiret, Geneva University: The structure of

the Alps.

JOINT MEETING

_ A joint meeting of the Society and the AcapEmy was held at the Cosmos

Club, December 7, 1927, President Wetmore of the AcapEmy presiding.

Program: Captain M. E. Opr.u, of Toronto, Canada: Scientific aspect

of the Mount Everest expedition.

232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 8

433RD MEETING

The 433rd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, December 14, 1927,

President Butts presiding. The Secretary announced the death of Minton

WHITNEY, SAMUEL SANFORD, FRANK SPRINGER, and J. C. WurtTE. Vice-

president Hewett took the chair during the presentation of the address of

the retiring president.

Presidential Address: Varzationsin Appalachian stratigraphy.

THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING

The thirty-fifth annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club after the

adjournment of the 433rd meeting, President Butts presiding.

The annual report of the secretaries was not read. The Treasurer pre-

sented his annual report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of

$1,139.86 (book value) on December 10, 1927. The auditing committee

reported that the books of the Treasurer were correct.

The results of balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as follows:

President: D. M. Hewntt; Vice-Presidents: 8. R. Capps, G. R. MANSFIELD;

Treasurer: H. G. Frrouson; Secretaries: W. W. Ruspry, A. A. BAKkEr;

Members-at-Large-of-the-Counal: W. F. Fosuac, M. I. Goupman, J. B.

Merttg, Jr., C. P. Ross, W. T. ScHaLtueR; Nominee as Vice-President of

Washington Academy of Sciences representing the Geological Society: CHARLES

Butts.

W. P. Wooprinea, W. W. Rusey, Secretaries.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

C. E. Doxppin has been transferred from the Fuel Section of the Geologic

Branch to the Conservation Branch of the Geological Survey, of which he is to

be field representative of the mineral classification division, with office in

Denver, Colorado.

The Petrologists’. Club met with the Geological Society on February 28 at

the National Museum. Special features of the geological, paleontological,

and mineralogical collections were shown by Messrs. Mmrritt, GILMORE,

FosHaG, BASSLER, and other members of the Museum’s staff.

A paper by Miss Frances Densmore on the music of the North American

Indian was presented before the Academy of Athens, Greece, on March 23.

PauL C. STANDLEY returned to Washington April 2, after spending four

months in botanical field work in Honduras. Most of his time was devoted

to a survey of the Lancetilla Valley, near Tela, but three weeks were passed

in exploration of the pine forests of the interior of the Republic.

The Baltimore-Washington Section of the American Ceramic Society met

at the Olmsted Grill on March 31. Program: L. J. TRostTEt, of the General

Refractories Company: The technical control in the manufacture of refractories;

A. N. Finn, of the Bureau of Standards: The value of the chemist in the ceramic

industry.

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Vou. 18 May 4, 1928 No. 9

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Vou. 18 May 4, 1928 No. 9

GEOLOGY.—<Again on Pleistocene man at Vero, Florida.! OLIVER

P. Hay, Washington, D. C.

In a conversation held recently between an anthropological friend

and myself about the finding of human remains in supposed Pleistocene

deposits, about 11 years ago, at Vero, Florida,? he used an expression

which implied that the investigations made there, the reports, and the

subsequent discussions, proved disastrous for those who affirmed the

presence there of Pleistocene man. This remark has prompted the

writer to reconsider the case, after having devoted some years pre-

viously and the years since that time to the study of the Pleistocene

vertebrates and of the Pleistocene geology of North America. I

anticipate to say that I regard the investigations as far from having

injured the case of Pleistocene man. In the symposium cited above

there was no general agreement on the main question and it would be

difficult to say who were farther apart in their conclusions, the geol-

ogists or the anthropologists.

When the geologists, the anthropologists and the paleontologists

arrived on the spot they beheld a low-lying tract composed of thin

beds of slightly consolidated materials which looked as if they might

have accumulated within a few centuries and which offered for con-

sideration a being almost universally looked upon as a “‘leitfossil’’

of the Recent epoch. The lowest stratum in view was a marine shell

bed recognized by all as belonging to the Pleistocene, but by most of

the company as appertaining to a late time in this epoch—late,

because (1) this bed was composed almost wholly of mollusks ap-

parently all of existing species and because (2) it reposed on a terrace,

1 Received March 8, 1928.

2 Journ. Geol. 25: 1-62. 1917.

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

the youngest of at least three which, according to the prevailing theory,

owed their existence to as many successive submergences during the

Pleistocene beneath the sea. Overlying this marine marl was a

freshwater deposit from 2 to 4 feet thick, composed of sand mingled

with a little vegetable matter, some freshwater shells, many bones of

land mammals, and a few of reptiles. This bed is known as No. 2.

Lying upon this was found a stratum made up mostly of vegetable

debris mingled with sand and containing various fossils. It formed a

muck bed and was designated No. 3. It, as well as the underlying

bed, No. 2, had evidently been deposited by the small stream which

had, doubtless for many ages, wandered over the tract.

Now, under the conditions, material and psychological, how was it

possible to find room in those thin deposits of sand and muck, for a

Pleistocene creature whose skeleton and whose handiwork did not

seem to differ from those of a red Indian?

Dr. Rollin T. Chamberlin, of the University of Chicago, made the

main reports in opposition to the asserted presence of Pleistocene

man.’ He granted that the human bones found in strata Nos. 2

and 3 had been covered up as those deposits were laid down. ‘This

formation [No. 2] contains human bones essentially in situ beyond

reasonable doubt, together with the scattered bones of many extinct

vertebrates.’’4

One can not be mistaken in saying that Chamberlin’s efforts were

expended in the endeavor to prove that the deposits containing

evidences of man were of comparatively recent time. A feature which

he regarded as of high importance was the discovery, in a bog im-

mediately west of the fossiliferous locality, of a stratum from 2 to 4

feet thick, of a dark brown to black sandstone firmly indurated by

oxides of iron and manganese. It was thought that the accumulation

and induration of this may well have required considerable time. On

examining the deposit where remains of man had been found (Sellards’

No. 2 and No. 3) Chamberlin found numerous pebbles, “‘balls’’

and ‘“‘eannon balls” of a similar dark sandstone. ‘These he explained

as fragments which had been brought down the creek and rolled on

their passage into their globular form. He accordingly argued that

the deposits holding the fossils and these balls were probably much

more recent than the sandstone stratum of the bog. Also in his second

report he retained his opinion that the sandstone had furnished the

3 Journ. Geol. 25: 25-39; 667-683. 1917.

4 Journ. Geol. 25: 27-28. 1917.

May 4, 1928 HAY: PLEISTOCENE MAN 235

rough materials for the balls; hence ‘‘the oldest fill in the creek channel

is notably younger than the bog deposit.’’ However, one may argue

on the other side. As is well known, sandstones saturated with water

containing salts of iron and manganese, in the presence of organic

materials may harden rapidly. On the west coast of Florida human

skulls and skeletons have been found embedded in masses of bog iron,

and the bones themselves are sometimes converted into limonite;

and yet we are assured that these human remains are of comparatively

recent age.> Nor is it necessary to suppose that irregular blocks of

sandstone were rolled into balls as they were pushed down stream.

Round concretionary masses are common occurrences in bog iron

deposits and the formation of these may be effected rapidly. Released

by erosion they would need no abrasion and would perhaps increase

in size while rolling. It is still more probable, however, that the balls

observed at Vero were engendered at the spot where they were dis-

covered. At any rate, the bog sandstone and the creek beds may have

been laid down in a relatively short, probably simultaneous time.

In his first report Dr. Chamberlin regarded the bog sandstone as

also the source of most of the bones which were found in the creek

beds. The animals had, he thought, lived, died, and left their skele-

tons in the sand before it had become consolidated. Later these

bones had been eroded out and transported to their final resting place

with the balls just described. This conception appeared to relegate

the animals back in the Pleistocene to any convenient time and the

deposition of the creek beds forward to any required late date. How-

ever, when on Dr. Chamberlin’s second visit no bones could be found,

either in the bog sandstone or in the creek on their way to the fossil-

bearing beds, this hypothesis was abandoned. ‘‘The solution of the

riddle of the mixture of bones of extinct animals with human bones

and pottery was therefore sought on other lines.” The critical

problem was left “‘still crying for a satisfactory explanation.”’

In seeking a solution of the problem Dr. Chamberlin fell into various

errors. He appeared obliged to assume a late date for the animals

and forman. ‘Both of these deposits [No. 2 and No. 3] were late in

the history of the formations of the region, and the oldest of these

formations bears both a paleontological and a topographical aspect of

recency.’® In speaking of the marine coquina deposit he says that it

does not bear evidence of great age, its shells being all of living species;

5’ Bur. Ethn. Bull. 33: 64-66.

§ Journ. Geol. 25: 673. 1917.

236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

and he cites the assignment, by geologists, of the terrace on which the

coquina reposes to the late Pleistocene. It would have been instruc-

tive to tell us what Pleistocene deposits of mollusks are not composed

of practically all existing species. The Upper Pliocene of England

contains from 90 to 95 per cent of living species of mollusks and this

Upper Pliocene corresponds to the lower portion of the American

Pleistocene. Dr. Ralph Arnold? found in the Pleistocene Upper San

Pedro beds, near Los Angeles, abundant molluscan species of which

only 9.5 per cent were extinct. In Dr. W. C. Mansfield’s list of

mollusks® are recognized 61 species. Of these there are 19 species

(exclusive of young and imperfect specimens) which are not indicated

as occurring in the recent fauna. Certainly not all of these are

extinct; but no one, I think, can affirm that none of them are. If 6

out of this lot are extinct the percentage will be 10; if only 3 are extinct

the percentage will be 5. Another piece of evidence in favor of the

early Pleistocene age of the Anastasia marl is the discovery in it of a

bone of a camel, as reported by Sellards. What stands in the way of

referring the Anacostia marl to the lower Pleistocene?

Dr. Chamberlin fell also into the error of accepting without further

investigation the view that the terrace was a late Pleistocene marine

formation. It may be permitted to call it the youngest terrace, but

that does not fix its place in the epoch. Neither it nor the terraces —

above it are of marine origin. This is demonstrated by the total

absence of marine fossils in all of them, except where local sinkings of

the coast have occurred since the formation of the last terrace; and

these depressions amount to only a few feet. Had those terraces

been submerged they would have been filled with mollusks. Similar

terraces are common in Europe along the coasts and many rivers, and

on our western coast, and they abound in fossils.2 Our east coast

terraces are of river origin and were laid down in probably the earliest

Pleistocene when the continent stood at a much higher elevation than

now. It was probably at this time when the now submarine channel

of Hudson River was excavated and the channels of many of our other

great rivers were cut deep, to be refilled at a later time. Drs. T. C.

Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury!® reject the marine theory of the

terraces along our Atlantic coast. The reader ought to peruse, on

7Mem. Calif. Acad. Sci. 3. 1908.

8 Fla. Geol. Surv., 9th Ann. Rept., p. 78.

9 See Have, Traité de géologie, and ARNowD, Mem. Calif. Acad. Sci. 3. 1903.

10 Text Book of Geology 3: 452-454. 1906.

MAY 4, 1928 HAY: PLEISTOCENE MAN 237

pages 412 to 414 of the 15th volume of the Journal of Geology, a review

signed T. C. C.," in order to obtain that writer’s opinion about the

marine origin of the terraces.

Dr. R. T. Chamberlin further assumed that the animal remains

were swept by floods into the positions they occupied. No proof can

be afforded that a single bone was thus carried into those creek de-

posits, although this transportation would not involve their belonging

to a Pleistocene stage older than that of the deposit No.2. However,

the animals found there probably died not far distant.

In his efforts to prove the recency of the mammalian remains and

the deposits at Vero, Dr. Chamberlin hit upon two ideas which have

come to other minds since that time, if not before, and which appear

to have given them much comfort. These are (1) that the southern

climate was better adapted for mammalian life than that of the north-

ern States and (2) that the mammalian fauna existed longer there than

it did elsewhere. These notions appear to inspire a sort of poetical

feeling, for the conditions are spoken of almost always as “‘that genial

southern clime”’ and the animals are tenderly mentioned as “lingering

longer there.”’ |

Doubtless during the Wisconsin glacial stage the mammals of the

northern regions were forced southward, even into Florida and Texas.

Reindeer reached Kentucky, musk-oxen migrated to Oklahoma,

Elephas boreus (E. primigenius, of authors) probably strayed as far

south as Florida and Texas, and so with many other northern species.

When, however, the glacier retreated these animals did not remain

there, but they kept as near the glacial front as they found it com-

fortable. Mastodons and certain elephants doubtless lived in Florida

during the wane of the Wisconsin stage, but there is not a whit of

evidence that they lived there at a later time than they did in New

York or Michigan. For a reindeer and a musk-ox the genial climate

is the one which furnishes plenty of snow and the kind of food they

need.

Now as to the matter of lingering, it is a certainty that many of the

mammals found in the Pleistocene beds at Vero, Peace Creek, Mel-

bourne and many other places in Florida did linger there and elsewhere

and become extinct only at a later time. Mylodon, one or more

species of tapirs, the great ox Bison latifrons, and Equus complicatus

appear to have lived on until the Sangamon interglacial. The Ameri-

can mastodon, Elephas columbi, and the giant beaver lived long after

11 Journ. Geol. 15: 412-414. 1907.

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

the disappearance of the Wisconsin glacier and left their bones in the

deposits overlying the drift. It is also true that many other species,

specifically unchanged, are still lingering and they constitute the

existing fauna of North America. With the species named above

there existed at Vero, Peace Creek, and Melbourne Megatherium,

Chlamytherium, Glyptodon, Elephas imperator, the Florida saber tooth -

tiger, and one or more camels. In regions farther west and northwest,

as at Frederick, Oklahoma; Rock Creek, Texas; ‘‘Hay Springs’’

(Peters) Nebraska, and in the Aftonian deposits of western Iowa,

there are found also numerous species of horses, camels, Mastodon

mirificus and Elephas imperator; and these appear not to have existed

anywhere after the first interglacial stage. Had they continued to

exist their remains ought to be found in the deposits overlying the

Kansan, the Illinoian, or the Wisconsin drifts. Outside of the drift

region, in the Appalachian ranges from Lookout Mountain, Tennes-

see, to Frankstown, Blair County, Pennsylvania, in caves and fissures,

have been collected numerous species of mammals of apparently mid-

Pleistocene times, but none of those mentioned as being characteristic

_of the first interglacial stage. In northwestern Arkansas an abundant

fauna has been discovered in a fissure, but among these were no

Elephas imperator, no Mastodon mirificus, no camels, no Glyptodon,

no Megatherium, no Chlamytheritum. In the Mississippi embayment,

extending from Cairo, Illinois, to the Gulf and on the south from west-

ern Louisiana to western Alabama, a very interesting fauna has been

collected, consisting of mastodons, elephants, one or two species of

horses, tapirs, megalonyx, mylodon, etc.; but again the forms which

are taken to be peculiar to the first interglacial, or Aftonian, stage are

notfound. Weare justified, I ‘maintain, in believing that, instead of a

few lingering here and there some hundreds of thousands of years,

perhaps to conduct to the happy hunting grounds the spirit of some

‘“‘mid-Recent”’ red man, they ceased existence near the close of the

first interglacial, or at most did not live beyond the Kansan glacial.

Therefore, I hold that the creek bed No. 2, at Vero, and its contents

belong in the first, or Aftonian, stage of the Pleistocene.

During his second visit to Vero Dr. Chamberlin was especially

engaged in determining, at the localities where human remains had

been discovered, the relations of beds Nos. 2 and 3 at their plane of

contact. His purpose was to learn whether the human remains were

really found in No. 2 or in what he regarded as the very recent No. 3.

As to the skeleton No. 1, the first one found, he thought that the 9

MAY 4, 1928 HAY: PLEISTOCENE MAN 239

inches of brown sand overlying it was too thin to permit a safe

conclusion.

At the locality of the second skeleton, where there had occurred

more vigorous stream action, Dr. Chamberlin carried the plane of

contact nearer the layer of shells. His conclusion was evidently that

the human bones belonged in the muck layer or at least might have

belonged there. That he proved this he certainly would not assert;

nor would he perhaps regard it as necessary. ‘The writer believes for

the reasons stated above that it can not be successfully contested that

the stratum No. 2 is of early Pleistocene age. In case the muck layer

belongs to the Recent epoch we may inquire what was the condition

of that little valley during the intervening 200,000 or 300,000 years?

I think that no evidence can be furnished that additional deposits were

laid down and afterwards removed. It is, as already mentioned,

probable that the muck had been accumulating ever since the begin-

ning of the Kansan glacial stage, and I believe that the fossils found

testify to this proposition. If, now, this is true what becomes of

deductions based by Dr. Chamberlin on the skillful work which he did

at Vero? i

Dr. Chamberlin” emphasizes the importance of the presence of the

pottery found at Vero. No pottery was found in stratum No. 2.

However, nobody has the knowledge or the authority to say that

pottery was not used in America by Pleistoceneman. As for myself, I

would say that its presence in No. 3 is evidence that early man did

use it. Recent revelations indicate that in America in Pleistocene

times the art of working flint was far more advanced, in some tribes

at least, than had been suspected. The same may be true as regards

pottery.

It is the writer’s conviction that Dr. Chamberlin erred as respects

the age and origin of the coastal terraces, the age of the Anastasia

marl, the ages of the creek beds and of the bog sandstone, the origin

of the spherical concretions, the manner of accumulation of the

bones, the composition and fate of the various elements of the fauna,

and the position and age of the human remains. Nor can I give assent

to any one of the four conditions set forth at the close of his second

report.

The geologists appeared to be in agreement that there had passed

between the deposition of stratum No. 2 and No. 3 no considerable

lapse of time. In that case the apparent break may mark the begin-

2 Journ. Geol. 25: 682. 1917.

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

ning of the Kansan glacial stage. The change of climate produced a

more swampy condition of the little valley and made it a less agree-

able resort for such of the larger animals as yet remained and there

was a denser growth of plants. The muck accumulated slowly.

There appears to be no evidence of either elevation or depression.

If the time that has elapsed be taken as 300,000 years and the thickness

as 50 inches the amount added would be one inch in six thousand years.

The upper layers may be comparatively young; the lower, very old.

While it is possible that some bones were washed up from the lower

layer there is no necessity for granting it, for they belong to species

which continued to live in that stage. :

Dr. Ales Hrdli¢ka’s theory of the presence of human bones.in the

deposits at Vero was short and simple. ‘They were purposely buried

there. No claim was made that there was any visible disturbance

of the sand, marl, and muck such as would be caused by digging and

refilling the grave. There might at first have been some unnatural

mingling over the cadaver, but the materials would soon regain their

former relations. He reported that evidences of this tendency to

reestablish original conditions were observed already on the dump left

by the steam excavator.

Dr. George Grant MacCurdy, of Yale University, recorded his

conclusions in two papers." In each article he figured three of the

flint spalls collected by Dr. Sellards. Two were found in stratum

No. 2. One of these was shaped somewhat like the blade of a broad

ax. The height was one inch; the length of the thin edge was an

inch and five-eighths. Dr. MacCurdy’s explanation of its presence

in the middle bed was that it had worked its way down by the aid of

growing roots or burrowing animals. One may be curious to learn at

what point of such a spall a root-cap could strike so as to guide it down

through a bed of muck. More spalls were found in No. 2 than in the

bed above it. Might not one as well assume that some had been

washed up from the lower bed into the upper one? The number of

animal burrows that have been dug in our broad land may be just a

little short of infinite and arrow heads and spalls might work their

way into these; but has any anthropologist ever found a flint weapon

in such a situation? In the muck bed at Vero fragments of pottery

were abundant. How has it happened that none of these were as-

sisted to reach No. 2 either by roots or rodents? The specious value

of such explanations was definitely exposed some years ago by the

13 Journ. Geol. 25: 56-62. 1917; Am. Anthr. 19: 252-261. 1917.

MAY 4, 1928 GIRTY: LINGULIDISCINA 241

investigations made at Trenton, New Jersey, by the American Museum

of Natural History.

Dr. MacCurdy fell into the same error as Dr. R. T. Chamberlin

and various other people, that of regarding the “‘fauna’’ found at

Vero as an integral thing which existed for a while and later dis-

appeared. I have shown already a number of genera which character-

ized the first interglacial stage as revealed at Vero and numerous

localities and which appear at no later stage. Dr. MacCurdy men-

tions as occurring in the upper stratum (No. 3) at Vero Elephas

columbi, Mammut americanum, Chlamydothertum, horse, and tapir.

Chlamydotherium may have lived on for a while in the Kansan stage.

It may have possessed some of the vitality of its near relative, the

armadillo, which is still living in Texas. As for Mammut americanum

and Elephas columbi and certain peccaries, they continued on probably

all over the continent down close to or within the Recent. Mylodon

and some species of tapirs and one of the horses found at Vero, Hquus

complicatus, and possibly EF. lerdyz, held on until after the Illinoian

glacial stage. 3

After this article had been put in type the annoucement was made

by Dr. J. W. Gidley, of the U. S. National Museum, that he had

found, in two or three localities in Florida, human bones and artifacts

definitely included within stratum No. 2. These discoveries ought

to end the dispute about the relationship of man to this important

deposit. |

PALEONTOLOGY .—Characters of the brachiopod genus Lingulidiscina

Whitfield.| Grorcr H. Girty, U.S. Geological Survey (Com-

municated by JoHN B. REEsIDE, JR.).

Many years ago, in the course of studying certain faunas from north-

western Arkansas, it became necessary for me to deal with a large

series of discinoid shells, and, while discussing the identification of the

species I ventured to glance at the generic name that should be used

for them. These shells belonged to the group for which Hall and

Clarke had revived D’Orbigny’s term Orbiculoidea, but it appeared

to me that on their own showing Orbiculoidea was a synonym of

Schizotreta. Under these circumstances I cast about for some name

that was already in the literature rather than propose a new one, and

provisionally adopted Lingulidiscina Whitfield. Now Whitfield’s

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received

March 3, 1928.

242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

description of Linyulidiscina, if taken literally, would make that name

inapplicable to the orbiculoideas of Hall and Clarke, but I had reasons

for believing that the description was in certain respects not accurate.

I was led to believe that Lingulidiscina could be used to replace

Orbiculoidea, among other things, by the fact that Schuchert in his

bibliography of American fossil Brachiopoda had included under

Lingulidiscona a shell that I knew to be a characteristic Orbiculordea,

and as I had usually found Schuchert well informed and accurate, I

concluded, without inquiry, that he must be in possession of some

esoteric knowledge regarding those genera. My confidence in this

instance now seems ill-judged in view of the singular compilation that

passed as the genus Lingulidiscina. Thus we have (1) Orbiculoidea

newberryt in which both valves are in agreement with Orbiculoidea as

generally understood; (2) Oehlertella pleurites, in which the upper valve

is like Orbiculoidea but the lower valve entirely different, the pedicle

aperture being a notch in the margin instead of an oblique tubular

perforation; and (3) Lingultdiscina exilis itself, in which the lower

valve is like Orbiculoidea, but the upper valve different.

Some years after my comments on Orbiculoidea, in 1912 to be exact,

Professor Prosser? took a hand in the Orbiculozvdea question and quoted

a letter from Professor Schuchert to the effect that O. newberryi was

included under Lingulidiscina by mistake. This admission was

perhaps unfortunate because otherwise Schuchert might lay claim to

almost superhuman penetration in an allocation that, on the face of

things far astray, now appears to be very close to the truth. Prosser

not only made this allegation against my use of the name Lingulidis-

cina but seemed to think that Hall and Clarke were entirely justified

in their use of the name Orbiculoidea. Though I could not agree with

Prosser on this point, and though one of my reasons for substituting

Lingulidiscina was shown to be fallacious, I continued to use Lin-

gulidiscina until very recently, partly because I felt disinclined to

reopen the discussion and partly because La Sale still seemed

available on fairly good grounds.

Now Professor Schuchert’s inclusion of Orbiculoidea newberryt

under Lingulidiscina was not my only reason for thinking that Lin-

gulidiscina could properly be employed for these Devonian and Car-

boniferous shells. Indeed, I found great difficulty in understanding

how, as was said to be the case in Lingulidiscina, a brachial valve

that had essentially the shape and general plan of construction of

2C.S. Prosser. Bull. Ohio Geol. Surv. (4) 15: 203. 1912.

MAY 4, 1928 GIRTY: LINGULIDISCINA 243

Lingula could be mated with a pedicle valve that had essentially the

shape and general plan of Orbiculoidea (Discina) in view of the fact

that these plans are so unlike that the two genera are actually assigned

to different orders of brachiopods, Lingula to the Atremata and

Orbiculoidea to the Neotremata. I felt that Whitfield’s characteriza-

tion could hardly be taken literally and that as his figures show the

pedicle valve to have typical discinoid characters, the brachial valve

was probably of the same type, though possibly having an apex uncom-

monly near the posterior margin. These considerations appear not

to have occurred to either Prosser or Schuchert, and neither of them

seemingly tried to ascertain what the characters of Lingulidiscina

really were. The facts could be ascertained only through an examina-

tion of the type specimens, and these, through the unfailing courtesy

of the American Museum of Natural History, I have been able to

study. My observations in this field seem worth recording even

though I now accept Orbiculoidea as a valid name in the sense adopted

by Hall and Clarke, for they help to establish the relations of Lin-

gulidiscina to other genera, relations which Whitfield’s diagnosis left

more or less doubtful. If his diagnosis were taken without qualifica-

tions, Lingulidiscina could hardly be of lower standing than the type

of a new family. One might even go a little further and say that a

brachiopod in which one valve had a terminal beak with shell accre-

tions only at the front and sides while the other valve had a central

beak with shell accretions equal all around, could not possibly occur

in nature.

The generic description of Lingulidiscina reads thus:

“An inarticulate brachiopodous shell, in which the upper valve is linguloid

in character, having a marginal or an essentially terminal beak, the accretions

by growth being along the lateral and basal margins; lower valve discinoid

in character and having its growth lines nearly equal on all sides of the initial

point and perforated on the cardinal side by a byssal slit or opening, as in

Discina. Shell: structure as in Lingula and Discina. Muscular scars yet

unknown. Type, Lingula exilis, Hall.’’*

The type species of Lingulidiscina is commonly quoted as Lingula

exilis Hall. This is possibly in error. Hall figured two specimens of

L. exilis, one of which was subsequently figured by Whitfield in il-

lustration of the genus Lingulidiscina. Figure 8 of Hall was described

as “‘a specimen with the beak imperfect”’; figure 9 as ‘“‘a more convex

individual which may belong to the species.’”’ The language here

employed clearly implies that Hall was in doubt about the specific

3R.P. WuHitTFieLtp. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 3: 122. 1890.

244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

identity of these two specimens and that the one shown by figure 8

should be considered as the type of Lingula exilis. On the other hand,

it is the doubtful specimen that was later figured by Whitfield as

belonging to Lingulidiscina. If Hall’s two specimens are really con-

specific with each other, and if the doubtful one is in turn really con-

specific with the specimens that furnished the generic characters of

LInngulidiscina, then Lingula exilis is in fact the type species of that

genus. The doubtful specimen is among those loaned me by the

American Museum of Natural History and I feel confident that

it is an Orbiculoidea. The other and typical specimen of Lingula

exilis, I have not seen, but the growth lines in Hall’s figure suggest

that it is really what he believed it to be—a large Lingula. If such

is the case, L. exilis obviously is not the type species of Lingulidiscina.

I have not thought it necessary to borrow the type specimen of Lingula

exilis in order to form an opinion upon this point, for my inquiry is

addressed at present more particularly to ascertaining the characters

of Lingulidiscina, and these depend upon Whitfield’s specimens and

not on Hall’s.

To sum up my conclusions regarding Lingulidiscina before comment-

ing on the type material in detail: Whitfield’s specimens are poorly

preserved, probably exfoliated, certainly somewhat crushed, and

certainly more or less broken at the margin. Both valves are con-

structed essentially as in Orbiculoidea of Hall and Clarke, though

the apex of the upper valve is more excentric than is common in

that genus. Whitfield’s description is misleading, if taken literally,

in saying that the valve is “‘linguloid in character, having a marginal

or an essentially terminal beak, the accretions by growth being along

the lateral and basal margins.’”’ Let us consider the type specimens

in detail, first those representing the brachial valve:

Figures 1, 2, and 3 in Whitfield’s description of the genus represent

the same specimen, figures 1 and 2 being different views of the brachial

valve. These figures, which show a shell shaped like Lingula with a

beak apparently terminal at the pointed posterior end, are accurate

enough in so far as they represent the specimen as it now is, but they

are highly misleading in so far as the specimen is decidedly imperfect.

The growth lines run out half way up the sides of the brachial valve

indicating that the shell was broken in the marginal parts and that the

posterior outline was originally much less pointed or at least that the

present outline is far from being the true outline. The point repre-

sented in Whitfield’s figure as a terminal beak appears to be the true

apex of the valve, so that the apex must originally have been situated

some distance from the margin.

MAY 4, 1928 GIRTY: LINGULIDISCINA 245

Where discinoids were buried with both valves in conjunction they

often suffered a lateral displacement due to compression, one valve

projecting on one side, the other on the other. When such specimens

are broken from the rock the fracture is likely to occur where the

valves are in contact, causing them to be defective along opposite |

sides. This condition is apparently exemplified by the specimen

shown by figures 1, 2, and 3, the brachial valve having slipped back-

ward with the result that the brachial valve projected beyond the

line of contact at the posterior end and the pedicle valve projected a

corresponding distance at the anterior end. ‘The evidence for this

interpretation is as follows: The brachial valve, even in its broken

condition extends considerably beyond what appears to be the true

posterior margin of the pedicle valve. In addition to the specimen

illustrated, however, we have the slab from which it was detached.

This slab retains the impression of the pedicle valve and also, project-

ing downwards from it almost at right angles, a considerable strip of

shell, which appears to be the marginal part of the overlapping brachial

valve. This strip of shell, which surrounds the pedicle valve from

part way up the left side to part way across the posterior end, where it is

broken off, may, it is true, be a section of the pedicle valve itself,

folded over at a sharp angle, but from the apparently small amount

and general direction of the compression suffered this explanation is

not so likely. In any event, the brachial valve is undoubtedly im-

perfect around the posterior margin and the idea conveyed by Whit-

field’s figures is highly misleading. They represent the specimen as

it is, without showing that it is fragmentary, and they seem to bear

out the generic diagnosis in a way that is most deceptive. They show,

it is true, a shell that at first recalls some of the broader, more spatulate

lingulas, but in Lingula it is the pedicle valve that projects and is

pointed, and the brachial valve that is short and more blunt at the

posterior end; here the relation is precisely reversed, the brachial

valve is long and pointed, the pedicle valve short and rounded at the

posterior margin. This is, to be sure, not at variance with what the

description says, though it is at variance with what the description

seems to imply—an agreement of some vital sort with Lingula. How-

ever this may be, the relation between the valves as they now exist

in the specimen are in all essentials as they are shown in Whitfield’s

figure 3, the pedicle valve rounded across the posterior end, the

brachial valve pointed and projecting well beyond it. Such, one can

say with almost perfect safety, could not possibly be the original con-

dition of any brachiopod shell and the fact affords clear evidence, if

246. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

only evidence of an abstract character, of serious imperfections in the

specimen. It is conceivable that in shells constructed on the discinoid

plan the upper valve might be so oblique that its apical point projected

beyond the pedicle valve, but the margins of the two valves would of _

necessity have the same outline.

The original of Whitfield’s figures 5 and 6 is a brachial valve which

has a depressed convex shape and a nearly circular outline. It is

apparently unbroken around the posterior margin. This specimen is

not unfairly represented by Whitfield’s figure 6, but his figure 5, which

is a side view, seems to be faulty. It represents the convexity as too

low and the slope to the posterior margin as not sufficiently abrupt.

The specimen itself gives indication of having been flattened, for it is

dissected by numerous cracks. Whether on account of this, or of

other imperfections, the exact location of the beak is hard to determine.

It is perhaps more clearly seen if the valve is viewed from the side than

if it is viewed from above, and is recognizable more by an abrupt

change of direction in the outline from a gentle curve to a straight,

steep descent backward than by a pointed prominence on the surface.

‘Thus determined the apex appears to be a little posterior to the point of

greatest convexity and to be situated some little distance up from the

posterior margin (about 3 mm.). When the valve is viewed from

above, however, the beak through foreshortening appears much more

marginal.

Whitfield’s figure 7 represents the original specimen fairly well,

although it fails to allow sufficiently for the breakage that is clearly

indicated at the right side, so that the true shape was more nearly

circular than it is represented. The beak, as shown in the figure, is

probably the true beak, but, as the legend states, the shell is folded

inward at the anterior end so that the beak is not marginal as one

might infer from the figure, but well up from the margin. Perhaps

even more of the infolded shell was originally present than is actually

uncovered. At all events in shape this specimen seems to have been

very similar to the one last considered, for the convexity was low and

the beak situated posterior to the highest point and not very far from

the posterior margin, though it was by no means marginal.

Figure 8 of Whitfield represents the specimen that Hall doubtfully

referred to Lingula exilis. The specimen is too imperfect to yield any

facts relative to the genus Lingulidiscina, but it is without much

doubt a discinoid shell instead of a Lingula and it may well belong to

the same species as Whitfield’s other types.

In addition to the specimens actually figured by Whitfield there was

MAY 4, 1928 GIRTY: LINGULIDISCINA 247

sent to me as part of the typical material another brachial valve whose

characters appear to have been essentially like those of the brachial

valves already considered. The outline was circular, the convexity

low, the beak strongly posterior but not marginal. Finally the bor-

rowed material includes one of the type specimens of Orbiculoidea doria

(that shown by figure 22 of Plate 2, Hall). The label is inscribed

“Lingulidiscina exilis, a type of Discina doria Hall.’”? Whether this

expresses Whitfield’s opinion or some other I do not know. In any

event according to my conception of the species as derived from

Whitfield’s specimens, the brachial valve of Lingulidiscina exilis

must have approximated very closely that of L. doria, though on a

larger scale, and the specimen of L. dorta loaned to me may well be a

young specimen of L. ezxilis.

Only two pedicle valves are included among Whitfield’s typical

specimens, both of them figured. One of them is fairly well shown

by his figure 3, though as the projecting part of the brachial valve is

figured with it, the reader may fail to appreciate that the pedicle valve

is broadly rounded at the posterior end and is very nearly symmetrical

with a generally elliptical outline, a fact to which allusion has already

been made. The major part of the valve is essentially flat; the margins

are slightly upturned, producing a gentle concavity, but the parts of

the shell adjacent to the pedicle scar are strongly introverted. The

details of this scar are obscured. ‘The second pedicle valve (shown

by figure 4 as a mold of the exterior) corresponds closely in character

with the first one, aside from being more circular in outline. It is

gently concave over most of its extent owing to upturned margins,

and has a large, deeply introverted pedicle scar. Whether the pedicle

had an exit through an oblique tube as in Orbiculoidea or through an

open fissure as in Oehlertella is not clearly shown by either specimen.

For my own part I am strongly of the opinion that it issued through

an inclosed tube, partly because no marginal slit has been observed,

but more especially because an intense deflection of the surface at the

locus of the pedicle, such as we have in these shells wouid more natu-

rally accompany an oblique tube than an open slit. Incidentally, the

specimen last described is associated with its fellow valve, which,

however, is highly imperfect. Without showing any characters

clearly it tends to corroborate the characters ascertained from the more

perfect brachial valves already commented on.

The superficial characters of these shells are to some extent a matter

of surmise. It is perhaps remarkable that all the brachial valves

appear nearly smooth whereas the pedicle valves show the thin,

248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

widely spaced, concentric lirae so characteristic of Orbiculoidea.

All the specimens are more or less macerated or exfoliated, but there

is no apparent reason why from this cause the one valve should not be

defaced equally with the other. It1is possible that the lower or pedicle

valve retained these markings while the brachial valve which protected

it, but which was itself liable to all the chances of abrading and cor-

roding substances, might have lost them. On the other hand, I recall

having seen orbiculoideas which showed a similar variation in sculp-

ture. In both valves the central region was marked in the usual man-

ner by spaced concentric lirae, but these gradually became obsolete

toward the margins, deteriorating into feeble rounded striae of growth.

The obsolescence of the sculpture was commonly more pronounced

on the brachial valve than on the pedicle valve. If among these

lingulidiscinas several that retain the upper and lower valves in con-

junction have the one almost smooth and the other sharply striated,

others, especially Hall’s specimen of Lingula exilis, are not without

suggestion of the characteristic Orbiculoidea sculpture in a defaced

condition.

To sum up the conclusions that seem to follow from my observations

on the typical specimens of Lingulidiscina: The outline is as a rule

almost circular, though elongated specimens occur in which the

length is decidedly greater than the width.

The brachial valve was depressed-convex, with the beat obscure

but in position posterior to the highest point and not far from the

margin in that part, though obviously by no means marginal. The

configuration is in general like that of Orbiculoidea; it may be somewhat

extreme in the lowness of the arch and in the excentric position of the

apex, but it is not without parallel among specimens that seem prop-

erly to belong in that genus.

The pedicle valve also appears to be constructed like that of Orbicu-

loidea. My observations do not establish this, although none bears

evidence to the contrary. The pedicle slit is here especially in mind;

the configuration otherwise is not quite typical, for whereas in Orbicu-

loidea the pedicle valve is gently convex rising to a point in the central

part (see Hall and Clarke’s figure on p. 125), in these shells the pedicle

valve is faintly concave, though it has a strong deflection in the

posterior quadrant if the pedicle scar is taken into account. In

configuration this type would thus appear to be somewhat inter-

mediate between Orbiculotdea and Roemerella, though it is much more

like Orbiculoidea. On the other hand, many recognized orbiculoideas

have a pedicle valve that is almost flat, or even faintly concave,

May 4, 1928 COBB: NEW SPECIES OF SYRINGOLAIMUS 249

whether by nature or by accident it is hard to tell. Few that have

come under my observation are so strongly arched as Hall and Clarke’s

diagrammatic figure.

The sculpture is in a general way that which is common to most

Paleozoic discinoids. ‘That of the pedicle valve appears to be perfectly

normal but that of the brachial valve, if not defaced, has more or less

degenerated from widely spaced sharply elevated concentric lines into

relatively inconspicuous fascicles of growth lines.

From the facts as they appear to me I would not hesitate to describe

Whitfield’s shells as representing a somewhat unusual species of

Orbiculoidea.

ZOOLOGY .—A new species of the nemic genus Syringolaimus; with a

note on the fossorium of nemas.1 N. A. Coss, U. 8. Department

of Agriculture.

The writer’s collection of Syringolaims shows them to live on tem-

perate and tropical sea coasts in many parts of the world. Among

other places, his Syringolaims (1888-1927) represent the East Indies

(Larat), Polynesia (Noumea, Hawaii), the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts

of Panama, the Atlantic Coast of the United States, and the English

Channel. The manuscript record of these collections contains full

descriptions of a number of new but unpublished closely related species.

Our knowledge of this genus has increased but little since de Man

described the type species, his S. striatocaudatus. The present publi-

cation adds information concerning (1) the labial papillae, (2) the

amphids, (3) the phasmids (?), (4) the fossorium, (5) the intestine,

(6) the male gone, (7) the food habits, and (8) the geographic distribu-

tion.

Syringolaimus smarigdus, n.sp. $4 oo 325 er ane eS be Edt ay g20-76mm

The transparent, colorless eae. = traversed by plain ae ot striae

very difficult, or almost impossible, to resolve, which are not altered on the

lateral fields. Faint traces of wings occur, beginning near the head and end-

ing on the tail. Longitudinal “‘striae,’’ due to the attachment of the muscula-

ture, are visible in nearly all regions of the body. No series of pores have

been seen in the cuticle. Of the highly mobile lips there probably are three,

but they are no more than sub-distinct, and are small and somewhat rounded.

The pharynx is armed in front with three duplex (somewhat lobster-claw-

like), in profile somewhat inverted-comma-shaped, subacute odontia (Fig.

1, mnd) having an outward throw of about 180°, a movement seen on more

1 Embodying investigations made largely at the Laboratories of the U. S. Bureau of

Fisheries at Woods Hole, Mass. Received February 25, 1928.

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

PLD a

()) e ( 1 vice

ra S\\ iii

jheaf-

Msc SOM

Sheu

MAY 4, 1928 COBB: NEW SPECIES OF SYRINGOLAIMUS 251

than one occasion to occur every second or so when the live nema was placed

under the microscope under slight pressure (Fig. 1). The cross-section of the

pharynx is round-triquetrous, almost circular, with faint subordinate mark-

ings in the middle of each side, indicating on the whole a hexagonal structure.

There are no eyespots. The base of the pharynx may be surrounded by a

very faint ellipsoidal swelling. There is only a faint pharyngeal muscular

swelling, though there are fairly well developed mandibular muscles, lying

along the outside of the pharynx (Fig. 1, msc mnd). There is a rather distinct

but small conoid cardia, one-third as wide as the base of the neck, or less.

The ventriculus stains differently from the remainder of the intestine, showing

a distinct function to be discharged here; in the living condition however the

ventriculus appears somewhat “‘structureless” (vnirc). The granules in the

cells of the intestine are of several distinct kinds: some of them are colorless

(grn trnsp int), others are emerald-green (grn vrd int)—hence the specific

name smarigdus; none are birefringent. The content of the intestine is

usually reddish or greenish, and often is derived specifically from an alga be-

longing to the family Ralfsiae (Fig. 3), among which specimens of Syringolaimus

smarigdus are often found. There is no prerectum. From the somewhat

elevated lips of the anus, of which the anterior lip is the more elevated,

the cutinized rectum extends inward and forward a distance about equal to

Fig. 2—Snails, natural size, covered with a very dark green “‘pile’’ or “‘felt’’ consist-

ing of microscopic algae. The nature of this growth is illustrated in Fig. 3.

two-thirds of the corresponding body diameter. The lateral chords enlarge

from one-fifth (terminad) to one-half (mediad) as wide as the body. From

the medium-sized continuous vulva, the cutinized vagina leads inward at

right angles to the ventral surface three-fifths the way across the body. The

uteri contain only one egg at a time, are straight, three to four times as

long as the body is wide, and from one-fourth to one-sixth as wide as long.

The two opposite, equal, symmetrically arranged ovaries, about half as wide

as the body, are reflexed about two-thirds the distance back to the vulva and

contain ten to fifteen ova, mostly in single file. The elongate egg may be

3 to 4 body-widths long, appears relatively narrow, and seems to be deposited

= eee On.

G9 Me AD. SITES... 8% 59.85mm The single gubernaculum (gub)

may consist of two arcuate, subslender, parallel, amalgamated pieces, and is

rather closely applied to the spicula. Phasmids(?) (Fig. 1) occur on the

Fig. 1.—Male of Syringolaimus smarigdus, together with four different views of the

head end. Below, a diagrammatic drawing of the front viewof the head. Above, three

sketches showing different attitudes of the ‘‘mandibles’’ or fossores. The fossores are

also shown in both the other illustrations. The lettering of the illustrations consists

of self-explanatory abbreviations arranged in the Latin order; grn urd int—granulum

viride intestinalis,—green granule of the intestine; etc.

JOURNAL

252 OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

lateral lines near the middle of the tail on

both sexes. While there is no distinct bursa,

the cuticle is faintly thickened in the sub-

median region near the anus, possibly a very

rudimentary bursa.

Habitat: Common among minute filamen-

tous algae on the surface of marine mollusks,

especially the snail Alectrion obsoleta (Fig. 2).

Also found in sand on beaches, and in sand

and in several feet of water off shore. Woods

Hole region, 1916 to 1927. There is good

fo reason to suppose it ranges both north and

Yen south from Woods Hole along the Atlantic

Coast. It occurs in beach sand from near

orange + almouth; and in clear white sand in five

feet of water in a cove at the entrance to

Buzzard’s Bay; also at Waquoit, Mass.,

among algae on the shell of the living snail,

~- Shell of

= mollusk

Fig. 3.—Slight portion of the

algal growth from the snails shown

Alectrion obsoleta (Nassa); and on the shells

of live snails from the Eel Pond at Woods

Hole. Its food seems always to be vegetable

matter, and in many cases consists entirely

of the contents of the cells of a microscopic

alga belonging to the genus Ralfsia (?).

in Fig. 2, broken or dissected away.

Below is the shell of the mollusk.

On it an “‘incrustation,’’ orange in

color, consisting of an alga belong-

ing to the family Ralfsiae, prob-

ably to the genus Ralfsia. On this

incrustation there is a thick felt-

like growth, consisting of blue-

green and yellow-green algae.

Syringolaimus smarigdus feeds

upon the orange-coloréd alga,

which it can reach only by digging

through the green algal growth

above.

OutwaRp ActING Nemic ‘‘MANDIBLES”’

The writer’s study of the attitudes in

which the mouth parts became fixed led

to the conclusion that in Axonolavmus

and its relatives, as well as in a large

number of other nemas, the onchia (and

odontia) had an outward throw. If so, it

was an obvious deduction that these

organs were digging organs, for which

the word fossor? seems indicated. ‘This deduction led the writer long

ago to introduce into generic names of such nemas root words indi-

cating a digging function on the part of the mouth organs, as for

instance in the genus names Scaptrella, Diploscapter.

It is, however, difficult to observe these organs in operation, and

hence of interest to record that such organs have been seen in action

in a Syringolaim (Fig. 1), and furthermore that S. smarigdus has been

observed under conditions constituting strong additional circum-

stantial evidence that these organs are verily digging organs. S.

2 Fossor (plural, fossores; collective, fossorium); a tool or organ used for digging,

usually existing in a plurality and acting symmetrically outward from a plane or axis.

Related to ‘fossorial’’—said of animals that dig.

MAY 4, 1928 COBB: NEW SPECIES OF SYRINGOLAIMUS 253

smarigdus is found in algal ‘‘incrustations”’ of the family Ralfsiae,

and probably genus Ralfsia.s It is very apparent that the nema feeds

upon the Ralfsia, for the color and structure of the contents of the cells

of this alga are strikingly characteristic, and the intestinal content of

the associated Syringolaims not only has exactly the same color, but

frequently is otherwise of such a character that it could be derived

only from the interior of the Ralfsza cells. Often, however, there are

scattered foreign birefringent particles (carbonate of lime) mixed with

the ingested food; but these birefringent particles are similar to those

found among the filaments of the Ralfsia, and, taking into account

the relative size of the mouth parts of the Syringolaim, it is very

natural to suppose that some of this foreign matter would be taken in

with the food.

No one had previously explained the precise nature of the mouth

organs of Syringolaimus. They consist of three small, arcuate, more

or less acute odontia with a spirally outward throw, well adapted to

boring and digging (Fig. 1). Now, it so happens that the location and

structure of the incrustation formed by the Ralfsia would require

digging on the part of the nema in order to obtain food from it, for the

Ralfsva incrustation on the snail shells (Alectrion) is usually overgrown

with a thick comparatively impenetrable felt of filamentous green

algae (Fig. 3); hence the Ralfsza can be reached by the Syringolaimus

only by digging.

The snail, Alectrion obsoleta (Nassa), lives between tide-marks and

hence twice daily is exposed to the air, and on each such occasion any

algal growth on it naturally dries up more or less. Here then is an

additional complication in the environment of the Syringolaim—a

highly and rapidly variable temperature and salinity. It is reason-

able to suppose these unusual circumstances might give rise to a pecu-

liar nemic form adapted to the environment. Thus a clue is found to ©

the marked peculiarities of form and structure noted in Syringolaimus.

3 Ralfsia; fide Dr. I. F. Lewis.

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 9

ARCHEOLOGY .—Check-stamped pottery from Alaska... Henry B.

Couns, Jr., U. S. National Museum (Communicated by D. I.

BUSHNELL, JR.)

Check-stamped pottery as an archeological type in America is

restricted to the south Atlantic and Gulf region from North Carolina

to western Louisiana, and the only modern Indians known to have

made it were the Cherokee. It was with some surprise, therefore, that

while cataloging the material collected by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka in Alaska

in 1926, I found a sherd of otherwise typically Eskimo pottery bearing

a check-stamp design. This sherd was picked up on the beach east of

Cape Nome on Norton Sound.

Last summer, while engaged in anthropological work on Nunivak

Islands, Alaska, I found more of this pottery. Some three dozen

sherds, all apparently fragments of the same vessel, a large flat-

bottomed jar, were found together, about a foot below the surface

near the ruins of some old houses at the present village of Koot, on

the northeastern end of Nunivak Island. A sherd of similar type was

obtained from an Eskimo who claimed to have found it while making

the excavation for a new house at the same village.

In the accompanying figures are shown three of these cher to-

gether with the one found by Dr. Hrdlicka on Norton Sound, and for

comparison, two sherds from southwestern Louisiana. ‘The practical

identity of these pieces, as far as ornamentation is concerned, is appar-

ent. The ornamentation was produced by applying to the soft clay a

wooden paddle or stamp, on the surface of which was carved a checkered

pattern.

Most of the pottery from the Eskimo area is sir except for simple

punctate, incised, or corrugated ornamentation about the rim. Some-

times, however, the entire outer surface of the vessel has a rough pitted

appearance brought about by the application of a paddle less carefully

carved than those which made the impressions on the pottery here

illustrated.

The manufacture of pottery is no longer practiced among the Eskimo

but the process has been described by Gordon, as related to him by an

old eskimo at Cape Nome who had observed it. ‘‘A quantity of clay,

procured from certain localities on the tundra, was reduced to a smooth

paste by mixing with walrus blood and kneading it with the hands.

A quantity of sand from the beach was added, together with fine

1 Received March 7, 1928.

MAY 4, 1928 COLLINS: CHECK-STAMPED POTTERY 255

Figs. 1-3, potsherds from Nunivak Island, Alaska. Fig. 4, from Norton Sound,

Alaska. Fig. 56, from southwestern Louisiana.

256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

feathers from the breast of the ptarmigan. From this material the

vessel was built up by means of the hands with the aid of a flat piece

of wood shaped like a paddle. Sometimes the exterior was finished

smooth and either left plain or decorated with incised lines and dots by

means of a pointed stick. Instead of a smooth finish a pitted surface

was sometimes produced by means of a roughly carved paddle or by

wrapping the unbaked vessel in a piece of grass matting which left its

impression. The finished product was then baked in a wood fire.

Women, and not men, were engaged in this industry.’”?

More than merely showing the presence of a certain type of ceramic

decoration in Alaska, the finding of this pottery, identical in ornamen-

tation with that from a distant region, is believed to be of interest as an

example of how two totally unrelated cultures have produced an iden-

tical result. The check-stamped pottery of Carolina and Louisiana is

obviously related in origin, but the sporadic occurrence of the same

decoration among the Eskimo is of no more significance, as an indica-

tion of cultural contact, than would be the presence of, for example,

an occasional circle and dot design in the Gulf region.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

198TH MEETING

The 198th meeting was held jointly with the Washington Society of

Engineers, the Chemical Society of Washington and the American Society

for Steel Treating (Washington Chapter) in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club on Thursday, March 19, 1925.

Program: Dr. Cart Brenepicks, Director of the Metallographic Institute

of Stockholm, The theory of high speed steel. Three different factors are

known to increase the hardness—the resistance against permanent deforma-

tion—of a given metal.

1. Deformation at low temperature, or ‘‘coldworking.” This may be

explained, without any assumption of a dubious ‘‘amorphous,’’ hard state,

by considering the mode of deformation called in crystallography twin

translation; the increase in hardness is the result of intercrossing twin lamellae.

2. Admixture of substances hard in themselves. ‘Thus the hardness of

iron is increased by a content of the hard carbide, cementite, which occurs in

carbon steel.

3. The occurrence of. a substance in the state of solid solution. In 1901

the speaker pointed out that the solid solutions of the metals are much harder

than the metals themselves; Kournakow has since shown this to be true for

solid solutions in general. The speaker further, in his thesis of 1904, pointed —

2G.B.Gorpon. Notes on the western Eskimo. Trans. Dept. Arch. Univ. Pa. 11 (1):

83-84. 1906.

MAY 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 257

out that a metal is hardened if another element is made to occur in it as a

supersaturated solid solution.

In every case where the metal—such as iron—possesses two different al-

lotropic states, the gamma and the alpha states, quenching may cause two

different solid solutions to occur simultaneously: a supercooled solution (as

“austenite’”’) and a supersaturated solution (as “martensite’’). The slow

transformation of the first into the second explains a number of hardness

problems which otherwise demand special assumptions.

For high speed steel it has been established by X-ray analysis that tungsten

possesses the same atomic lattice as alpha iron, differing from that of gamma

iron. Hence it was natural that the tungsten is more easily mixed with alpha

iron than with gamma iron. According to a general rule of physical chem-

istry, this implies that the stable region of the alpha iron was raised to much

higher temperatures than would otherwise prevail. The alpha iron thus

acquired a stability at high temperature that would not otherwise occur.

In the case of carbon steel, a supersaturated, hard solid solution is obtained

on quenching the high speed steel from a temperature so high that its carbide

phase is dissolved. ‘The main difference produced is the raising, due to the

presence of the tungsten, of the range of temperature for the existence of

alpha iron. (Awthor’s abstract.)

199TH MEETING

The 199th meeting was held jointly with the Washington Chapter, Ameri-

can Society of Foresters, in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on the

evening of Thursday, April 16, 1925. The general subject was a Symposium

on Forest Science. The opening address was given by Col. W. B. GREELEY,

Chief of the U. S. Forest Service, after which addresses were given by E. N.

Mouwnns on Timber growing and protection from fire, by H. S. Berrs on Timber

utilization and by-products, by HAVEN MetcatF on Forest diseases and their

control, and by T. E. SNypER on Forest insect pests and their control.

Col. W. B. Gree ey, Forest Science in the United States. Forestry in the

United States thus far has largely had the aspect of a crusade, a subject for

state or federal legislation, an activity of public agencies, and a field for

popular education. ‘These all have their place in a national movement but

they represent only a preliminary stage. We are now entering a much

broader phase of forestry. The United States has used up two-thirds of its

virgin timber supply. Like all the progressive countries of the Old World,

which went through an identical process of depleting natural resources, the

value of wood in this country is creating a demand for a new source of supply.

The force behind the current progress in forestry is becoming more and more

largely one of cold economics.

It is perhaps worth while to take the measure of the job cut out for forest

science in the United States. We now consume about twenty-two and one-

half billion cubic feet of wood annually, or more than two-fifths of all the

forest-grown material utilized by the entire world. In no great length of

time this enormous volume of raw material must be produced by the practice

of forestry. It is equivalent to about 280 million tons of material a year.

This is nearly four times the tonnage of iron ore produced in the United States

and well over ten times the annual production of cement. The quantity of

wood required annually by the United States is over twice the total annual

production of all cereal crops.:

The size of the forestry problem of the United States is not, however,

258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES .VOL. 18, No. 9

gauged correctly simply in terms of raw material. Another very important

side of it is the effective use of land. About one-fourth of the soil of the

United States is now either forest land or land apparently fit only for pro-

ducing wood. There is small prospect that this area will be materially re-

duced, at least for many years to come. The profitable employment of land

and the rural prosperity that depends upon it loom just as large in our national

economy as the problem of providing a sufficient supply of forest-grown

materials.

The task of forest science in America is to create the basis of ascertained .

facts upon which and only upon which this far-reaching economic evolution

can be soundly predicated. We often compare forestry with agriculture, and

in sketching the field of forest science analogies may readily be drawn with

the development of agricultural science. Forestry, like agriculture, involves

(1) the protection of crops from destructive agencies, (2) crop culture and the

betterment of yields in quantity and quality, (3) the utilization and market-

ing of crops, with a view particularly to the most effective conversion of raw

materials into commodities of commerce, and (4) the economics of crop

production and land use which guide sound investments of capital and labor.

The protective phase of forest science deals with the preservation of both

old and growing timber from destruction or serious injury by fire, insect

pests, and disease. It is not readily appreciated perhaps that there is an

important scientific aspect to the protection of forest areas from fire.

Forest insects and tree diseases offer a large field for the expert entomologist

and pathologist. Not only are the aggregate losses of forest-grown material

enormous; not only must reasonable security from such losses be provided

for the capital and labor invested in timber culture; in many instances the

productive side of forest science cannot be soundly developed without direct

correlation with the prevention or control of destructive pests. And on the

other side it seems probable that much of the loss from forest insects or

diseases will be effectively reduced only by proper methods of silviculture or

timber management.

The second division of forest science, so to speak, is timber culture. In this

as in the protective side of forestry there is an immense field for creative work

in America. While certain principles and much in the way of practical

experience can be borrowed advantageously from the Old World, the silvi-

culture of the United States can only be an outgrowth of its own soil, climatic,

and biological factors. Its problems include the more or less distinct growth

requirements of at least 100 commercial species of trees.

American foresters have undertaken to develop and apply the art of timber

culture in our woodlands from the more obvious facts deduced through

superficial observation and the principles of forestry developed by European

experience. It has thus far been more a reliance upon faith than upon exact

knowledge of the sort which backs up the undertakings of the chemist or the

engineer. We cannot yet predict with any close accuracy the yields of timber

to be obtained in many portions of the United States under even the simpler

and more rudimentary principles of timber culture.

The third phase of forest science deals with the utilization of timber after

it has been grown. Wastefulness in the exploitation of American forests and

in the manufacture of their products has been engendered by the very abun-

dance and cheapness of our virgin timber. More economical use of wood is

just as essential a part of forest conservation as the growing of new crops of

timber.

This may appear to be a field for engineering or chemical or physical

ee ee

May 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 259

science rather than forest science. Unquestionably it will call for the expert

services of many trained engineers, chemists, and physicists. However you

may view it as a field of scientific endeavor, its problems are closely linked with

those of forestry.

And finally, forest science will not be complete without a comprehensive

understanding of the economics of timber growing, timber transportation, and

timber use. The business man wants to know whether forestry will pay,

particularly since timber growing enterprises represent investments of

capital over such extended periods. Only genuine scientific study can

develop the economic background of forestry in the United States.

We are appreciating more and more clearly that no group of scientists lives

unto itself; and that no field of scientific work can be marked out by sharp

barriers cutting it off from other fields. This is true particularly of forest

science. Its lines of work and interest reach out at many points into the

fields of pathology, entomology, plant physiology, chemistry, and the en-

gineering sciences. It is fruitless to attempt to say where one domain ends

and the other beings. The development of forestry needs the active participa-

tion of many scientific groups and agencies, each marching under its own

colors. (Condensed from speaker’s manuscript.)

E. N. Munns, Timber growing and protection from fire. Timber growing

research has been conducted for the most part at the federal forest experiment

stations. The whole question of timber production is involved, including

such things as nursery and planting practice, development of the best methods

of harvesting the mature crop in order to insure the establishment of a new

forest in the shortest possible time, and the determination of the yields which

can be obtained at different ages and for different types of forest. Investiga-

tions have indicated that the Douglas fir regenerates after cutting from the

seed which had been stored in the forest litter previous to cutting: that the

western white pine seed can be held over in the forest soil up to six years:

that it is necessary to save all the advance growth in the western yellow pine

forests because climatic conditions are so severe. Investigations have shown

that in various forest types the debris resulting from logging must be disposed

of in different ways; in one region it can be scattered over the ground, in

another it must be piled and burned, in another burned broadcast at certain

seasons of the year. Already marked results have been obtained by following

the practices indicated by the work of the forest experiment stations. One

of the interesting recent developments has been in our knowledge of forest

fires, how and why they burn, and how they may be better controlled. De-

tailed studies have indicated that forest fire weather can be predicted and

that there is a close relationship between weather conditions and the spread

of fire. As a result, there is now developing a technique of fire protection

which is displacing the manual-labor method by one of scientific accuracy,

and we are now better able to appraise the damage that fires do. The

problem of the forest experiment station is that of how to obtain the maximum

forest crop in the shortest possible time. (Author’s abstract.)

WaLTeR D. Lambert, Recording Secretary.

260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

434TH MEETING

The 434th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 11, 1928, Presi-

dent HrwEtT presiding.

Program: F. E. Matruss: Evidence of three glaciations in the Yosemite

region. Inaprevious communcation the speaker has set forth the facts which

in his judgement prove conclusively that the Yosemite region has been

subjected to glaciation twice during the Pleistocene epoch. He now desires

to present certain evidences that would seem to point to a third stage of

glaciation that antedated the others. These evidences were noted by

Frank C. Calkins and himself as early as 1918, but they then seemed hardly

conclusive enough to be made the basis of a positive statement. A recent

reinspection of certain critical areas, however, leads the speaker to believe

that there is warrant for at least a tentative recognition of this third, very

early stage.

The evidence found thus far for three stages of glaciation in the Yosemite

region may be summed up as follows:

The latest stage, which corresponds in all probability to the Wisconsin

stage of the continental ice sheet, is indicated by a series of well preserved,

sharp-crested moraines containing a large proportion of unweathered boulders.

The rock surfaces that were overridden by the glaciers of this stage have

suffered but little from weathering and still retain their polish and striae over

considerable areas.

An earlier stage of glaciation that was marked by a much greater extension

of the ice streams than was the Wisconsin stage is indicated by another series

of moraines of greater volume but less well preserved than those mentioned.

They are as a rule inconspicuous and difficult to trace because of the de-

struction of their crests and the smoothing of their flattened bodies by a

surficial layer of sand derived from disintegrated boulders. Most of the

boulders within these older moraines are enveloped by a ferruginous coating,

and are decomposed and rust stained to a depth of at least half aninch. The

rock surfaces that were planed by the glaciers of this earlier stage, far from

retaining their polish, have been stripped of disintegrated rock to a depth

of several feet. This is shown by the height of residual pedestals preserved

under protecting boulders and still better by the height of dikes of resistant

aplite that now project above the granite which forms the country rock.

Some of the dikes on Moraine Dome stand from 7 to 10 feet high above the

granite.

The third and earliest glaciation is believed to be indicated by isolated

erratics situated at levels from 100 to 200 feet above the highest of the older

moraines, and composed only of the most durable rock types such as quartzite

and highly siliceous granite. In some places, as notably on the upland to

the east of Mount Starr King, such isolated erratics occur on nearly level

tracts where the washing action of rain water can not have been especially

vigorous and where in general moraines would have a good chance to be pre-

served for a long time. They lie, moreover, in places where there is good

reason to believe that fairly heavy moraines were once laid down. It is en-

tirely probable, therefore, that these erratics are the sole remnants of moraines

of much greater antiquity than those which make up the so-called older series.

(A uthor’s abstract.)

WituiaM W. Rusey: Possible varves in marine Cretaceous shale in Wyoming.

Microscopic examination reveals laminations about 1/100 of an inch thick

May 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 261

in marine shale in many Upper Cretaceous formations in the Black Hills

region. These laminations are of different kinds, marked by three types of

alternations: (1) coarse and fine particles, (2) much and little organic matter,

and (3) CaCO; and silt. Examples intermediate between (1) and (2) form a

gradational series, with those laminations made by alternations of particle

size the thicker, and those made by alternations of organic content the thinner.

This gradation indicates that at least these two kinds of laminations were

formed by the same process and during approximately equal time intervals.

Storms or floods might have caused the alternations of coarse and fine

particles but the laminations marked by varying content of organic matter

and lime seem to call for recurrent cycles of organic growth or temperature

changes. The fact that thin laminations have been preserved indicates

that sporadic storms rarely disturbed the sea floor and the regularity of the

alternations suggests that the cause, whether storms or not, recurred peri-

odically. Seasonal changes in temperature, rainfall, and food-supply or

periodic shifts of marine currents probably afford the simplest explanation

of all three kinds of alternations; and, of these two possibilities, seasonal

changes appear the more likely.

It is conceivable that annual layers might have formed in the Upper

Cretaceous rocks of the Black Hills region, for fossil wood and other evidence

indicate that the climate was seasonal; and flocculation, which might possibly

prevent the separation of sand and clay into coarse and fine layers, probably

would not prevent the formation of layers rich in organic matter and lime.

And once formed, thin layers might have been preserved, for the deepest

part of the Upper Cretaceous interior sea probably lay near the present

Black Hills; also, wave action may not have extended as deep during the

widespread equable climates of Upper Cretaceous time as it does today.

The hypothesis that the laminations are annual is tested roughly by com-

paring the thickness of the observed laminations with the thickness that

annual layers might be expected to have. Varves in glacial deposits from

other regions are commonly much thicker but many varves in lake deposits

and in some marine rocks are of about the same thickness as these laminations.

Estimates of the expected thickness of varves in the Upper Cretaceous rocks

near the Black Hills also appear to support the hypothesis. Three methods

of estimation—(1) The probable area of land draining into the Upper Cre-

taceous sea and the supposed rate of erosion on the land, (2) the total thick-

ness of Upper Cretaceous rocks in the region divided by Barrell’s estimate of

the number of years in the Upper Cretaceous, and (3) the rhythmic alterna-

tions in Upper Cretaceous rocks in eastern Colorado which Gilbert suggested

were formed during precession cycles—all indicate annual layers only slightly

thinner than the observed laminations. A modification of the second method

(total thickness of Upper Cretaceous rocks divided by old estimates of Upper

Cretaceous time based on the amount of salt in the ocean) indicates annual

layers somewhat thicker than the observed laminations.

Thus, the laminations are of about the right thickness to be annual; they

were not caused by daily variations or by cycles several thousand years long.

However, this is no proof that they are annual for they might have formed

every few months or years. In fact, more detailed comparisons (a) of the

length of Upper Cretaceous time indicated by the laminations with that

estimated by Barrell and (b) of the rate of eastward transgression of the

Upper Cretaceous sea (calculated from the number of laminations and the

distance of the transgression) with present rates of strand-like movements,

“suggest this latter possibility. Yet these two relatively small discrepancies

262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

might be explained equally well (1) if the average thickness of the observed

laminations is not typical of the series in the region, (2) if Barrell’s estimate

of Upper Cretaceous time is too long, or (3) if there are many inconspicuous

unconformities or diastems in the stratigraphic section.

Whether or not the laminations are annual, they suggest some of the

conditions of deposition. The degree of preservation of the laminations indi-

cates that the fine grained, organic shales accumulated in deep water or at

times of gentle winds. And if the different kinds of laminations formed

during equal time intervals, their relative thicknesses indicate that, in

general, the sandier shales accumulated more rapidly and the finer grained

and more organic shales, more slowly. (Author’s abstract.)

W.C. AupEN: The Gros Ventre (Wyoming) flood of 1927.

435TH MEETING

The 435th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 25, 1928, Presi-

dent HEwsTT presiding.

Informal communications: A. J. CouLiER showed pictures, taken in Mon-

tana in 1927, of hailstones one and three-quarters inches in diameter and of

the impressions they. made on the ground by their impact. He inferred

that some so-called fossil raindrop imprints were probably fossil hailstone

imprints. ;

Davip WHITE discussed the diagrammatic representation of the length

of geologic periods and showed a diagram with the geologic time estimates |

of Holmes and Lawson plotted on a logarithmic spiral. (Diagram and note

on pp. 201-203, vol. 18, this JouRNAL).

Program: Dr. E. C. ANDREws, Government Geologist, New South Wales,

Australia: Geology of the Broken Hill district, Australia.

436TH MEETING

The 436th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 8, 1928, Presi-

dent HEwErT presiding. |

Informal communcations: F. L. Hess described the occurrence near

Hebron, Maine, of pollucite, a hydrous caesium aluminum metasilicate

(HeCs.Al, (SiO3)9), associated with albite in pegmatites that contain lithium

minerals. The pollucite is one of the last minerals to form in the pegmatites

but it is partially replaced by albite. Blocks of pollucite that weigh several

hundred pounds have been found at this locality. This abundance and the

great resemblance to quartz led Mr. Hess to infer that pollucite may have

been mistaken for quartz in pegmatites in other areas. The mineral has been

a source of caesium for filaments in radio tubes.

Program: C. WytTHE Cooke and L. W. StepHENSON: The Eocene age of

the supposed late Upper Cretaceous greensand marls of New Jersey. ‘The

Hornerstown marl, the Vincentown sand, and the Manasquan marl, three

formations of the Coast Plain of New Jersey that have heretofore been

referred to the Upper Cretaceous series, are now correlated with the Eocene

on the basis of a new analysis of their contained fauna and because of the

transgressive overlap of the Hornerstown across formations of undoubted

Upper Cretaceous age. Together with the ‘overlying Shark River marl, the

Eocene age of which has not been questioned, they appear to be approxi-

mately equivalent to the Pamunkey group (Eocene)gof Maryland, which

they resemble both in lithology andfauna. (Author’s abstract.)

MAY 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 263

JAMES GILLULY: Jsostasy as a factor in Basin Range faulting in the Oquirrh

Range, Utah. The statement has frequently been made that given an original

uplift of a mountain mass above the adjacent country, the resulting transfer

of material by erosion from the uplifted mass and deposition upon the adjoin-

ing territory will tend to continue the differential movement of the two earth

blocks in accordance with the isostatic principle. There is no question that

such is the tendency. Quantitative measure of the actual effect of the

transfer in continuing the relative movement is, however, rarely available.

It is the purpose of the present paper to present some results of a study of this

question with respect to the Oquirrh Range, Utah.

The Oquirrh Range is a typical Basin Range, bounded along its western

base by normal faults which are demonstrable on structural and stratigraphic

as well as physiographic grounds. The recognition of a submature pre-

faulting topography permits the reconstruction of the pre-faulting surface,

within fairly satisfactory limits. The reconstruction of this pre-faulting

topography over the part of the range which is tributary to Rush Valley per-

mits the approximate determination of the volume of rock eroded from the

mountain block since the uplift began. This computation reveals the erosion

from this part of the range of a rock layer with an average depth of 1100 feet.

Assuming that all this material was deposited within part of Rush Valley

which now contains fans sloping out from the Oquirrh Range (which assump-

tion is contrary to the exact facts, but tends to favor the efficacy of isostasy)

we find that the valley block has sustained loading equivalent to 670 feet of

solid rock. The couple set up between the mountain and valley block could

not, then, account for more than 1770 feet of the difference in elevation be-

tween them, even if we assume that the subcrustal material (which is on the

assumption of perfect compensation transferred at depth in the reverse

direction) has a density equal to that of the surface rock. If the subcrustal

material has a density of 3.3, which is a more probable value, the couple set

up by erosion can only account for about 1,550 feet of the observed 3,000 to

5,000 feet difference of elevation of mountain and valley block. Obviously,

we must concede that surface transfer of material is of little moment in main-

taining the elevation of the Oquirrh Range and that whatever caused the

original uplift relative to the valley blocks is still the effective agent in

maintaining their relative positions.

Post-Bonneville faulting along the west front of the Oquirrh Range prob-

ably averages about 20 feet in displacement. If we estimate 25,000 years

as this duration of post-Bonneville time and take Dole and Stabler’s figures

for the rate of erosion in the Great Basin province (using a factor of 100 per

cent to take account of the traction load, neglected by Dole and Stabler)

we arrive at a maximum estimate of post-Bonneville erosion of 3feet. Study

of the physiography of the fans reveals that this figure is absurdly high, but

even if we accept it, we find it wholly inadequate as a cause of the fault

movement which is fully six times as great.

Attention is called to the great work of Gilbert in connection with his

study of Lake Bonneville, in which he attacked this problem from several

other viewpoints, including particularly the negative evidence afforded by the

waterload to which the valley blocks were subjected in Bonneville time.

His conclusion that the Basin Ranges are sustained by the strength of the

earth’s crust seems to be supported by the study of the Oquirrh Range. In

conclusion it is pointed out that the limit of load which Bowie concludes from

geodetic evidence may be carried by the crust without compensation is large

enough to permit this conclusion not only with regard to the Oquirrh Range,

264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

but also to practically any other single Basin Range with the exception of |

the Sierra Nevada and possibly the Wasatch. There is no reason to question

the isostatic balance of the province as a whole, but it seems likely that its

individual ranges are not compensated by deficiency in density of the rock

columns directly beneath them. (Author’s abstract.)

T. S. Loverine: Geology of the Moffat Tunnel, Colorado. The Moffat

Tunnel cuts through the continental divide on D. & S. L. R. R. about 50

miles west of Denver, Colorado. It is a standard railroad tunnel 16 by 24

feet in cross section and over six milesin length. The original estimate of its

cost, $5,250,000, was based on the supposition that nothing but hard rock

would be encountered. Unfortunately several thousand feet had to be driven

through material so soft that costs were increased fourfold.

The writer made a study of the geology of the tunnel in November, 1927.

This study showed that a relatively weak schist had been brought against

granite and injection gneiss by a profound fault about 24 miles east of the

West Portal. Substantial support was needed throughout most of the

tunnel driven in the schist but in the granite and gneiss on the east of the

fault there are long stretches of unsupported rock tunnel. In the pilot

tunnel much of the schist is supported by timbering which needs renewal

about once a year. Anyone familiar with mining in the nearby schist areas

would find nothing unexpected in the character and behavior of the rock

encountered in this section of the tunnel. |

However, some surprisingly bad ground was encountered near the large

fault and soft swelling ground extends about 700 feet to the west and 300

feet to the east of the main break. In this zone the walls, roof, and floor

steadily close in at a rate varying up to a maximum of three inches a day.

Strongly reinforced concrete is necessary to withstand the pressures de-

veloped in this part of the tunnel: Little water was encountered but the rock

is slightly moist when opened.

The rocks in this belt have been thoroughly shattered, and chalcedonic

quartz and a clay-like mineral have developed as the cementing material of

the minutely brecciated rock mass.. Experiments on the elasticity of the

rock indicate that relief from the rock pressure obtaining in the tunnel could

not account for the swelling of the rock by elastic expansion. Experiments

on the hydration of the rock indicate that absorption of water even by

thoroughly dried samples of the bad ground causes practically no expansion.

As the rock in the tunnel is already moist when first opened, swelling can not

by caused by hydration. Tests show that although the rock is weak when

dry it is even more devoid of strength when wet.

It is probable that the abundant flakes of moist clay in the rock act as a

lubricant along the innumerable free surfaces in the brecciated mass. ‘Thus

the swelling of the ground probably expresses the integration of minute

slippages between the extremely small fragments in the shattered granite

and schist. In the fault zone the rock pressure is essentially all-sided or

hydrostatic in its nature and causes a uniform inward movement of the bad

ground from top, bottom, and sides of the tunnel. In the course of time the

rate of swelling grows gradually less. Continued excavation and shaving

of the tunnel walls probably relieve the strain in the nearby ground to a

marked degree and these factors are chiefly responsible for the gradual

improvement in conditions. The strengthening of the rock mass as it dries

out is an additional factor working towards the sameend. (Author’s abstract.)

MAY 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 265

437TH MEETING

The 487th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 22, 1928,

President HEWETT presiding.

Informal communications: W.'T. ScHALLER described briefly the organiza-

tion of a sulphur company recently on trial in New Orleans for fraud.

Program: WiLtu1AM Bowls: Changes in geographic position in California

as determined by triangulation.

Discussed by Messrs. Ferguson, Butts, and ALDEN.

C. 8. Ross: Report on the studies of clays. An investigation of the clay

minerals, under the auspices of the National Research Council, is in progress

in the United States Geological Survey laboratories with the codperation

of mineralogists of the National Museum and of Dr. Paul F. Kerr of Columbia

University. This work thus far indicates that the important clay forming

minerals are not large in number, and that a large proportion of those

formerly described are not valid mineral species. The clays may be divided

into 3 main groups. The kaolin group includes kaolinite, halloysite and the

macroscopically crystalline form of halloysite. These have moderate indices

of refraction, low birefringence, and good crystals are not rare.

The montmorillonite group contains montmorillonite, beidellite, nontro-

nite, the iron bearing member of a beidellite-nontronite series; and two

unnamed members of the group. The members of this group are hydrous

aluminum silicates with variable proportion of MgO and CaO, and of FeO;

which latter replaces Al,O3.\ The silica ratios are as follows:

Montmorillonite SiOz, Al,O3 = 5:

Unnamed mineral “ SON

Beidellite 7 DARIO LEM IS Goll

Unnamed mineral ‘“ ee SG aN

The part played by MgO in the mineral composition is not fully known and

must be further investigated.

A group of potash-bearing clays has been found but their study is in

preliminary stages.

Dr. Kerr has studied the clays by means of X-ray diffraction patterns and

thus supplemented optical and chemical studies and added important new

information. It has been found that the clays,even though very fine grained,

can be investigated by the research methods now at the disposal of the min-

eralogist. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. StosE, MERWIN, RuBrEy, and HEWETT.

H. 8. WaAsHINGTON: Review of Lacroix’s paper on the Rocks of the Pacific

Islands. A review of “‘La Constitution Lithologique des Iles voleaniques

de la Polynésie Australe,” by A. Lacroix. This is a very important paper,

embodying our present knowledge of the petrology and petrography of the

lavas of the volcanic islands of the Pacific Ocean. Details cannot be gone

into here, but it may be said that the main conclusions of Lacroix—who gives

some 75 new and good chemical analyses of the lavas (many of islands hitherto

unknown)—are in general agreement with the views of those who have made

a study of the Pacific Island voleanoes. The most important conclusion,

one that was known before from study of some of the island groups, is that

practically all of them, while they are predominantly basaltic and andestic,

show trachytic and other alkalic rocks. This connects the rocks of the

Pacific volcanoes with those of the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans, and is

adverse to the distinction between the ‘‘Pacific’ and ‘‘Atlantic’’ clans of

rocks. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Mr. Bowlz.

266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 9

438TH MEETING

The 438th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 14, 1928, President

HEWETT presiding.

Informal communication: L. W. STEPHENSON displayed specimens of

Upper Cretaceous chalky limestone of about Austin age from Guatemala,

in which were closely associated the fossil remains of at least two species of

marine shells of the genus Jnoceramus and two species.of very well preserved

land plants, one a fertile pinnule of a fern and the other a twig of a coniferous

tree.

Program: N. W. Bass: The origin of the asymmetrical stream valleys of

Kansas. In Kansas, streams that flow eastwardly and those that flow west-

wardly are eroding their south banks; the north-facing slopes are steeper than

the opposite slopes, and the profile of the interstream areas is asymmetrical,

the north side being the shorter. Southward trending valleys do not show

this asymmetry.

The principle of Ferrel’s law that all streams in the northern hemisphere

should exert pressure on their right banks does not apply because it is only

eastward flowing streams that are eroding their right banks; westward flowing

streams are crowding to their left banks and southward flowing streams appear

to maintain a neutral course. Regional tilting southward could have caused

the condition noted but the scant evidence indicates that it has not.

Certain climatic factors—more direct rays of the sun on southward-

facing slopes; prevailing southerly winds, acting more directly on the south-

facing slopes; and abundant rainfall during the hot and windy part of the

year—are believed to have broken down and removed the rocks on the north

side of the streams more rapidly than those on the south side. The nature

of the prevailing strata—interbedded limestone and shale, some interbedded

sandstone and shale, and loosely cemented very calcareous sand and gravel

beds—is no doubt favorable to the operation of these agents. The greater

inwash of ‘material from the north sides than from the south is believed to

crowd the streams southward. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Szars, Capps, WHITH, RuBEY, BRADLEY, MATTHES,

Misrr, THOMPSON, and SCHRADER.

H. D. Misur: Structure of the Ouachita Mountains of Oklahoma and Ar-

kansas. The Ouachita Mountains, 200 miles in length and 50 to 60 miles in

width, extend westward from central Arkansas into southeastern Oklahoma,

about half of the mountain region being included in each State. The rocks,

which are mostly shale and sandstone, with some chert and novaculite, range

in age from Cambrian to Pottsville (Pennsylvanian) and aggregate in thick-

ness 25,000 feet. All the strata were deformed, presumably in late Penn-

sylvanian time, by folding and faulting that were produced by compressive

movements from the direction of Llanoria in Louisiana and eastern Texas.

!? The crustal shortening in the Ouachita region in Arkansas is about half

the original extent of the strata, but in Oklahoma it is apparently greater than

half. The shortening in Arkansas is due to close folding and a minor amount

of thrust faulting, but the shortening in Oklahoma has been brought about

by many long parallel thrust faults, as well as folds. The folds in Arkansas

are characteristically isoclinal in large areas, whereas the folds in most of the

Oklahoma area are open, though asymmetrical.

Of the several major faults in Oklahoma the two longest, the Choctaw and

the Windingstair, reach into Arkansas. They are 125 and 110 miles in

length, respectively. The usually accepted idea is that the planes of the

MAY 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS* GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ; 267

major faults have steep dips—between 30° and 90°. The discovery by the

writer in 1927 of a window through an overthrust mass in and near Round

Prairie in the Potato Hills, west of Tahhina, Okla., indicates the presence

of low angle thrust planes in the Ouachita Mountains. The actual horizontal

displacement by the fault surrounding the window is at least 3 miles. The

fault is interpreted to be the cropping edge of the Windingstair fault plane,

which comes to the surface at the south base of Windingstair Mountain,

3 miles north of the hills. The total apparent known extent of the fault plane

from Windingstair Mountain into the Potato Hills is 6 miles. The actual

extent, of course, exceeds this distance. The plane in this distance is some-

what folded, but the folding of the involved rocks took place for the most part

before the thrusting. The discovery of the window leads not only to the

obvious conclusion that low angle thrusts exist in the Ouachitas, but points

toward the conclusion that the major faults there bound thin slices of the

earth’s crust.

A greater northward movement of the rocks of the Ouachita region of

Oklahoma in comparison with that of the rocks of the same region in Arkansas

is suggested by the arcuate forms of the structural trends. In Arkansas most

of the trends are west and west-southwest, then along and near the west side

of the State they bend to a west-northwesterly direction, and next they swing

to the southwest in Oklahoma.

The arcuate trends of the folds and faults in Oklahoma, when considered

in connection with the considerable crustal shortening of the rock strata in

the Ouachita Mountains, indicate that the rocks of the mountains have been

moved in a northerly direction past the east end of the Arbuckle Mountains.

The east end of the Arbuckles is, in fact, only about 12 miles from the west

end of the Ouachita Mountains.

The proximity of the Ouachitas to the Arbuckles, when considered in

connection with their strikingly diverse rock facies, suggests, as has been

pointed out by C. L. Dake, that the Ouachita rock section in this part of

Oklahoma has been thrust northward a long distance over rocks of the Ar-

buckle facies. How great the distance is we do not know, but it is perhaps at

least 20 miles. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Mr. Utricu and Miss Jonas.

CiypE P. Ross: Salient features of the geology of south-central Idaho. It

is now possible to formulate conceptions of the major features of the part of

Idaho between 45° 30’ N. latitude and the Snake River Plain. No Archean

rocks are known in this region, with the possible exception of some schist near

Ivers. There was a great accumulation of marine beds in the Algonkian, at

least in Lemhi County, and such beds probably overspread the whole region.

These rocks in places are crumpled and overthrust and it appears that much

of this deformation is pre-Cambrian. It appears that almost or quite con-

tinuously from the late Algonkian or possibly early Paleozoic to the present

the region in which the Idaho batholith is now exposed has been above the

sea, although in east-central Idaho seas persisted through most of Paleozoic

time. Uplift in the part of Idaho where the Idaho batholith outcrops was

dominantly a matter of igneous intrusion rather than of folding of strata

in a geosyncline.

The Idaho batholith is now exposed over 16,000 square miles and there are

numerous exposures of granitic rocks in areas surrounding this large one.

Most of the main batholith and its outliers is composed of a characteristic

type of quartz monzonite. This rock all came in during one tremendous

268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

period of intrusion. It is at least as old as Cretaceous and present data

suggest it may be Jurassic. It is younger than Triassic.

Granite on the Middle Fork of Salmon River was intruded as a sill or

irregular laccolith in Miocene or Pliocene time. Sedimentary rock on which

this mass rests was converted into injection gneiss through the agency of the

Idaho batholith and was again injected by the Tertiary granite, in spite of

the thin cover the latter must have had.

The region was eroded nearly or quite to a peneplain and then had stream

valleys sharply incised in it before Tertiary volcanism started. After the

close of Miocene(?) volcanism the region was again eroded, virtually to a

peneplain. Since then the history has been essentially one of intermittent

uplift and active erosion. The much discussed “lake beds” along Salmon

River are largely water-sorted tuff forming an integral part of the Miocene(?)

volcanic series, and their influence on the development of the Salmon River

drainage appears to have been of minor importance. (Auwthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. LinpGrREN and LouGHLIN.

W. W. Rusey, A. A. Baxer, Secretaries.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The four hundredth meeting of the Chemical Society took the form of a

dinner in honor of Dr. F. W. Cuarke, Dr. Harvey W. Winery, and Prof.

CHARLES E. Munrog, all of whom were early members of the Chemical

Society of Washington which later became the Washington Section of the

American Chemical Society. About one hundred and sixty members and

guests were present.

The Petrologists’ Club met at the Geophysical Laboratory on March 20.

D. F. Hewett discussed Dolomitization as related to ore deposits, and C. P.

Ross described Tertiary injection gneisses in Idaho.

The 9th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union was held on

Thursday and Friday, April 26 and 27, in the National Academy Building.

The Sections of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity, Seismology, and

Geodesy joined on Thursday morning to hear a symposium on Geophysical

methods as applied in the study of geological structure. The Sections of Meteor-

ology and Oceanography joined on Thursday morning and afternoon to hear

a symposium on Interrelations between the sea and the atmosphere, and the

effect of these relations on weather and climate. This symposium was in three

parts: (1) Problems related to solar radiation, (2) Problems related to

surface water temperature, and (3) Problems related to atmospheric circula-

tion. The Section of Geodesy met on Friday morning to hear reports on the

progress of geodetic work in Mexico, Canada, and the United Stated, and a

symposium on The figure of the earth. The Section of Voleanology met on

Friday morning to hear papers in its field, and the general assembly of the

Union was held on Friday afternoon. H. 8S. Wasuineron, Chairman, pre-

sided over the general meeting, and Witit1am Bowrs, Geodesy, L. H. ADAms,

Seismology, T. W. VauGHaNn, Oceanography, H. H. Kimpauz, Meteorology,

T. A. Jaccar, Jr., Voleanology, presided over the sectional meetings. G.

W. Li’TLEXALEs is Vice-Chairman, and Joun A. FLemiInG General Secretary

of the Union.

Safatarday, May 5.

_ Wednesday, May 9.

ee naredey, te 10.

ES if | Saturday, see 12.

- Tuesday, May 15.

_ Wednesday, May 16.

“a e emma May 19.

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_ ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

The Biological Society.

The Medical Society.

The Chemical Society.

Program: F. C. Wuirmore, Chairman of the Division of

Chemistry and Chemical Technology, National Research

Council, The habits of the atoms.

The Philosophical Society.

The Historical Society.

The Medical Society.

The Helminthological Society.

The Biological Society.

_ The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

“sent to the editors mx the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

hee Ae | ;

Lay 4 f

4 ve B

“Ae* teint

, °

: Ue 2 eelogy.— Again on Pleistocene man ieee) Florida,

- Paleontology.—Characters of the oe genus Lingulia

Are ‘ - Guorgu H. Girrv..........6..0005

Rett aaar Zoology. —A new species of the nemic g

ay _ \gorium of nemas. N. A. Goma.) ys)

avety. ak srr tdaeah Gi cinch teyasin pottery from ia

ER Wag Acer) fae

sane The Geological Society.-.....-....-...,

‘ ScrENTIFIC Notes AND. News.. * eee . sa is Nah iG . : ugk

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Soe. MEETS SS May 19, 1928 No. 10

— JOURNAL |

ASHINGTON ACADEMY

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JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 May 19, 1928 No. 10

RADIOGEOLOGY .—Lead isotopes and the problem of geologic time.!

CHARLES SNOWDEN Piccot, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie

Institution of Washington.

This paper seeks to point out a means of experimentally measuring

the lead which has been actually produced by the radioactive dis-

integration of uranium alone, and thereby to provide definite figures

for the uranium-lead ratio in its application to the determination

of geologic time.

Of the various methods which have been tried or suggested for ob-

taining a more or less accurate estimate in terms of years of geologic

time, that one which uses the uranium-lead ratio is by far the most

promising and the most definite. This method is based upon the fact

that uranium and thorium are the original elements which produce,

by spontaneous disintegration, the long series of radioactive substances

which undergo radioactive changes one into the other until finally

they produce in each case lead. This lead appears to have no further

radioactivity? and is assumed to be the final and end product of these

radioactive changes.

The time required for these changes to take place has been accurately

determined in the case of the uranium series and with much less ac-

curacy for the thorium series, so that we now know just how many

years are required for a given amount of uranium to change into its

corresponding amount of lead.

It would seem, therefore, that all that is needed to determine the age

of a mineral containing considerable amounts of uranium or thorium

or both, together with their corresponding lead, would be a careful

1 Received April 19, 1928.

* However, the term “radioactive lead’’ has come into the literature, and signifies

that lead which is known to have been produced by radioactive means.

269

270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

chemical analysis to determine the amounts of these various constitu-

ents, and the substitution of the figures obtained in a suitable formula.

However, as is usually the case, the actual practice is not so simple

as the theory would indicate. ‘The necessary chemical analysis is

exceedingly difficult and tedious, and the amounts of the significant

elements obtained are so small that minute analytical errors have

disproportionately great effects upon the ultimate result. The ex-

trapolation in terms of years over vast geologic ages is so great that

legitimate analytical errors may cause a difference of hundreds of

thousands of years in the indicated age.

This aspect of the problem must depend upon the completeness of

the analytical separations and upon the care and skill of the analyst.

But the chemical analysis alone, however satisfactory it may be as

a mineral analysis, cannot show whether or not the lead obtained is

all of radioactive origin, or whether it came partly from uranium,

partly from thorium, or partly from some other source.

The possibility of enrichment by lead from some non-radioactive

source must be considered, and also the partial removal of the lead

already radioactively produced. ‘These considerations, however, are

outside the scope of this paper.

But assuming that the above Teuiremonts have all been satisfac-

torily met, there yet remain two grave uncertainties which make this

method unsound and unsatisfactory in its application. They are

the most troublesome uncertainties inherent in this procedure and as

yet there has been no direct experimental method for dealing with

them. ‘They are:

(1) The uncertainty associated with the disintegration of the

thorium series—the time required and the amount and origin of the

lead produced. |

The thorium series of radioactive disintegrations has not yielded

to experimental examination as readily as the uranium series has.

Consequently there is considerable uncertainty associated with the

time required for a given amount of thorium to form its corresponding

amount of lead. Also the quantity of lead produced by a given quan-

tity of thorium is not known with satisfactory accuracy.

Therefore the presence of thorium in a mineral to be used for an

age determination injects a considerable element of uncertainty into

the result, and as some thorium is always present this cannot be

avoided. The formula now used contains a corrective factor to take

care of the thorium content, but it is admittedly unsatisfactory.

-_t

MAY 19, 1928 PIGGOT: LEAD ISOTOPES AND GEOLOGIC TIME 271

(2) The fact that there is no actual measure of that proportion of

the total lead which is known to have been produced from the uranium

alone.

If this latter could be determined by actual experimental measure-

ment the thorium uncertainty could be disregarded and the only

other uncertainty which would remain inherent and unmeasured in this

method would be the existence of possible isotopes of uranium which

might have disintegrated more rapidly in the past than the uranium

which we know today.

If the lead in any given mineral being studied could be obtained in

sufficient quantity and converted into some compound capable of

giving lines in the mass-spectrograph, and if the intensity of these

lines could be accurately measured, we would then have a direct ex-

perimental method for determining the actual amount of uranium

lead present. The position of the line would identify it with the

uranium-lead isotope and its relative intensity would furnish a measure

of its relative amount, and since the actual weights of uranium and

lead would be known from the chemical analysis we would then have

all the information necessary for a direct comparison of the amounts

of uranium and uranium-derived lead. Any other isotopes of lead

could be disregarded and no reliance need be placed upon assumed

proportions figured from atomic weight determinations of lead associ-

ated with uranium and thorium, while any enrichment by ordinary

lead would probably be revealed by an abnormally intense “207

line.”’

It was with these considerations in mind that the author, in October,

1926, wrote to Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S., and requested his criticism

and codperation in a proposed plan to convert samples of lead into

some volatile organic compound such as lead tetramethyl, lead

tetraethyl, lead phenyl, etc., and to endeavor to secure with it the

identification and determination of any isotopes by means of the

mass-spectrograph. After some correspondence it was decided that

lead tetramethyl was the most promising material, and that the

first efforts should be directed toward a separation and identification

of the isotopes of ordinary laboratory lead.

For this purpose the author took a sample’ of lead tetramethyl

to Dr. Aston in July, 1927, and shortly thereafter Dr. Aston carried

out several experiments with this material. The results were most

3 Prepared for him by Mr. 8. C. WirHEersroon of the U. S. Chemical Warfare Service.

272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

satisfactory and were first published by Dr. Aston in a brief note to

Nature dated July 30, 1927.4

The experiments demonstrated very clearly the existence of the

three anticipated isotopes, namely, those of masses 206, 207, and 208

in the approximate ratios of 4, 3, and 7 respectively, and also revealed

the existence of other isotopes of lead, present in very small propor-

tions, of which 203, 204, and 205 were indicated, and 209 was

reasonably certain.

The isotopes having been thus vom separated and identified,

the next step was to do the same for ‘‘radioactive lead,’’ i.e., lead which

had been formed mostly or entirely by the radioactive disintegration

of uranium and thorium.

For this purpose the author secured some very pure Norwegian

_bréggerite, a mineral which contains considerable proportions of

uranium and lead but a very small proportion of thorium. This

material was carefully analyzed® for uranium, thorium, and lead and

a sufficient quantity ‘‘worked up” to yield about 15 grams of ‘‘radio-

active lead” chloride.

Five grams of this material was converted into lead tetramethyl®

and sent in a sealed tube to Dr. Aston. Unfortunately, this tube

was broken in transit and the material lost, but another quantity of

radioactive lead tetramethyl has been prepared and it is proposed

to try this in the mass-spectrograph this summer.

Meanwhile Dr. Aston has been developing an instrument for

accurately measuring the relative intensities of the lines on the

photographic plates from his mass-spectrograph. This will eliminate

the personal equation from this determination and render it capable

of exact repetition and comparison.

Since there is very little thorium, relative to uranium, in this

bréggerite it is anticipated that these next experiments will show

a very heavy line at 206, a very light one at 208, and possibly none at ’

all at 207. It will be interesting to see whether any of the other

isotopes show up stronger from this radioactive lead than they Be

with the ordinary lead tetramethyl:

From the data obtained from these two series of pea ea han meas-

urements we hope to be able:

4 Nature 120: 224. 1927.

5 By Dr. C. N. Fenner of the Geophysical Laboratory.

6 See note 3.

‘

MAY 19, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 273

(1) To determine directly the uranium:uranium-lead ratio for

this sample of bréggerite and thereby secure a reliable

estimate of its age.

(2) To determine definitely the thorium:thorium-lead relation-

ships.

(3) To throw some light on the other isotopes of lead and their

origin.

BOTANY.—New plants from Ceniral America—XIII.1. Paut C.

STANDLEY, U. 8. National Museum.

The Central American plants here proposed as new belong to the

family Rubiaceae. Seven of them are representatives of the vast

‘genus Psychotria. Formerly it was believed that this group was

poorly represented in Central America, but continued exploration

suggests that the Central American species may finally equal in number

those known from the Antilles.

Psychoitria Alfaroana Standl., sp. nov.

Erect shrub 30-60 em. high, usually simple but sometimes with a few

short branches above, the stems terete or obtusely quadrangular, the inter-

nodes mostly short, about 1 em. long, or sometime elongate; stipules decid-

uous, 8-18 mm. long, often ciliate, the base oblong-ovate, deeply cleft to

below the middle, the lobes linear, long-attenuate; leaves opposite, the petioles

1-2 em. long, stout, often marginate nearly to the base; leaf blades obovate-

oblong to elliptic, 11.5—26 em. long, 3.5-9 cm. wide, acute or abruptly acute,

usually long-attenuate to the petiole and decurrent, sometimes merely

acutely cuneate at base, thick-membranaceous, deep green above (often

glaucescent when dry), glabrous, usually marked on both surfaces with

numerous short linear raphids, beneath somewhat paler, often minutely

puberulent on the nerves, at least when very young, but soon glabrate,

the costa stout, prominent, the lateral nerves slender, about 13 on each

side, divergent at a wide angle, arcuate, anastomosing rather remote from

the margin, the intermediate nerves inconspicuous; inflorescence terminal,

cymose-umbellate, the primary peduncles several, 4-7 mm. long, sordid-

puberulent or glabrate, each bearing few or numerous flowers, these borne

on stout puberulent pedicels 2-4 mm. long (in fruit); whole inflorescence

compact, subglobose, in fruit 2—4.5 em. broad, borne on a stout erect peduncle

1.5-3.5 em. long; bracts deciduous; fruit at maturity red, ellipsoid, 8-10 mm.

long, 5-6 mm. thick, glabrous; pyrenes 2, sharply 3 or 4-costate dorsally,

plane on the inner surface.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,253,966, collected in wet

forest at El Arenal, Province of Guanacaste, Costa Rica, altitude 500 meters,

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. For the

last preceding paper of this series see this JourNAL 18: 178. 1928. Received December

27, 1927.

274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

January 18, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal Valerio (no. 45179).

The following collections are referable here:

Costa Rica: El Arenal, Valerio 62, Standley & Valerio 45200. El

Silencio, Guanacaste, alt. 750 m., Standley & Valerzo 44585, 44620, 44603,

44771. Los Ayotes, near Tilardn, Guanacaste, alt. 700 m., Standley &

Valerio 45359. La Tejona, near Tilardn, Guanacaste, alt. 600 m., Standley

& Valerio 45845, 45855. Pejivalle, Prov. Cartago, alt. 900 m., Standley

& Valerio 46985.

The species is named for Don Anastasio Alfaro. It is an unusually well

marked Psychotria, easily recognized by its dwarf habit and condensed

globose inflorescence.

Psychotria haematocarpa Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub 1-2.5 m. high, the branches slender, terete or the younger ones

obtusely quadrangular, glabrous, the internodes mostly about 1 cm. long but

often much longer; stipules persistent, green, united to form a very short ~

sheath, this bicuspidate on each side, the cusps linear-filiform, 3-4 mm.

long, glabrous; leaves opposite, the petioles slender or stout, 3-8 mm. long,

not sharply differentiated from the blade, glabrous or sparsely puberulent;

leaf blades oblong-elliptic, broadest at the middle, 8.5-14 em. long, 2.5—5 em.

wide, abruptly or gradually long-acuminate, with narrow, often falcate,

attenuate-acute acumen, at base gradually or abruptly acute or attenuate

and decurrent upon the petiole, membranaceous, glabrous, somewhat lus-

trous, deep green above, the costa prominent, beneath slightly paler, the

costa and lateral nerves slender, prominent, the lateral nerves about 9 on

each side, divergent at a very broad angle, slightly curved, irregularly anasto-

mosing remote from margin, pale, the intermediate nerves prominulous,

laxly reticulate, the margins plane; inflorescences terminal, capitate, dense,

few-flowered, the peduncles 3-4 mm. long, green, puberulent or glabrate;

outer bracts lance-linear, acute, green, glabrous, 1.5-2 mm. long; flowers

sessile or nearly so; fruit globose, bright red, glabrous, 5 mm. long; pyrenes

- obtusely 5-costate dorsally, the inner surface plane, not grooved.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,254,627, collected in moist

forest at Naranjos Agrios, near Tilaran, Guanacaste, Costa Rica, altitude

600 to 700 meters, January 29, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal Valerio

(no. 46407). One other collection i is referred here:

Costa Rica: Pejivalle, Prov. Cartago, alt. 900 m., Standley & Valerio

47194.

The relationship of this plant is evidently with P. znvolucrata Swartz, a

species widely dispersed in tropical America. ‘The latter differs in the

strongly ascending nerves of the leaves, and in the ample, usually branched

inflorescence with large bracts.

Psychotria sylvivaga Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub 1-3 m. high, the branches stout, the older ones brownish, obtusely

quadrangular, the young branches mi inutely puberulent or glabrate, 1.5-4 em.

long; stipules distinct, caducous, broadly ovate, 8-10 mm. long, thin, brown,

glabrous, marked with numerous short linear ‘raphids ; leaves opposite, the

petioles slender or stout, 0.8-2.5 cm. long, glabrous; leaf blades oblong-

oblanceolate or rarely elliptic-oblong, nearly always broadest above the

al be a id ot —_—S —r

EE ———

MAY 19, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 275

middle, 9-17 em. long, 2.5-5.5 em. wide, usually abruptly acuminate or

short-acuminate, with obtuse tip, gradually long-attenuate to the base and

decurrent, thick-papyraceous, deep green above, lustrous when fresh, glab-

rous, narrowly suleate along the costa, beneath slightly paler, usually sparsely

and obscurely short-barbate in the axils of the lateral nerves, the costa and

lateral nerves slender, prominent, the lateral nerves 11—16 on each side,

divergent at a wide angle, arcuate, irregularly and laxly anastomosing near «

the margin, the intermediate nerves obscure; inflorescence terminal, cymose-

paniculate, lax, many-flowered, the peduncle 5.5-7 cm. long, erect; panicles

4.5-9.5 em. long, 5.5-11 em. wide, the primary branches opposite, divaricate,

minutely puberulent, the terminal cymes few-flowered, umbelliform, the

pedicels in anthesis 1-3 mm. long, puberulent, in fruit sometimes 8 mm.

long; bracts minute, triangular, green, brown-ciliate, caducous, their scars

brown-pilose; hypanthium globose-turbinate, 1—-1.5 mm. long, minutely

puberulent; calyx 1 mm. long, shallowly 5-dentate or subtruncate, the

teeth broadly triangular, green, obtuse, minutely ciliolate; corolla salverform.

greenish white, glabrous, the tube 5 mm. long, 1.2 mm. thick, the lobes

triangular-ovate, 1.5 mm. long, obtuse; fruit green, globose, 5-6 mm. long,

glabrous; pyrenes 2, obtusely 5-costate dorsally, plane on the inner surface,

the seeds not grooved.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,306,274, collected in wet

forest at Yerba Buena, northeast of San Isidro, Province of Heredia, Costa

Rica, altitude 2,000 meters, February 28, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and

Juvenal Valerio (no. 49989). The following collections are conspecific:

Costa Rica: Wet oak and bamboo forest near Laguna de la Escuadra,

northeast of El Copey, Prov. San José, alt. 2,200 m., Standley 41974, 41924.

Laguna de la Chonta, northeast of Santa Maria de Dota, Prov. San José,

alt. 2,000 m., Standley 42212.

Psychotria chiriquina Standl. differs from the present plant in its smaller

leaves, glabrous inflorescence, and short corolla. P. Jimeneziz Standl.,

which also is related, has nearly sessile leaves, a short corolla, and more

evidently pubescent inflorescence.

Psychotria eurycarpa Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub or small tree, 2.5-5 m. high, the branches stout, green, glabrous,

the internodes 1-8 cm. long; stipules persistent, green, glabrous, forming an

intrapetiolar ring 1-2 mm. long, this cuspidate between the petioles, the cusp

subulate, 1-2.5 mm. long; leaves opposite, the petioles stout, 4-18 mm. long,

glabrous; leaf blades chiefly elliptic or broadly elliptic, rarely oblong-elliptic,

broadest at the middle, 7.5-15.5 em. long, 2.5-9 em. wide (averaging about

9.5 by 4.5 em.), abruptly acuminate or short-acuminate, with acuminate

tip, sometimes rounded at apex and short-cuspidate, at base varying from

acute to narrowly rounded, sometimes short-decurrent, papyraceous to

thin-coriaceous, glabrous, deep green and lustrous above, the costa elevated,

beneath paler, lustrous, the costa and lateral nerves rather stout, pale, prom-

inent, the lateral nerves 6 or 7 on each side, divergent at a wide angle, strongly

arcuate and directed upward, extending nearly to the margin and there

irregularly anastomosing, the intermediate nerves prominulous, pale, coarsely

reticulate; inflorescences terminal, cymose-paniculate, the peduncle 0.7-3

em. long, stout, erect; panicles corymbiform, 2-3 em. long, usually broader

than long, the primary branches green, compressed, glabrous or minutely

pulverulent, divaricate or usually ascending, densely few-flowered, the

276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

flowers sessile; bracts persistent, green, inconspicuous, linear to triangular,

1-2 mm. long; hypanthium globose-turbinate, 1 mm. long, pulverulent;

calyx 0.8 mm. long, shallowly 5-dentate or subtruncate, the teeth broadly

triangular, broader than long, green; corolla in bud 4-6 mm. long, pulveru-

lent; fruit at first green, at maturity blue-black, subglobose, 9-12 mm. long,

glabrous, shallowly bisulcate; pyrenes 2, sharply 5-sulcate dorsally, deeply

and narrowly sulcate on the flat inner surface from base to apex.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,254,544, collected in moist

forest at Quebrada Serena, southeast of Tilardn, Guanacaste, Costa Rica,

altitude about 700 meters, January 27, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal

Valerio (no. 46237). As representative of the species may be listed several

other collections: |

Costa Rica: Forests of San Pedro, near San Ramon, alt. 1,300-1,400

m., Tonduz 17657. Finca Montecristo, near Hl Cairo, Prov. Limon, Standley

& Valerio 48435. El] Arenal, Guanacaste, Valerio 98.

The species is well marked by the unusually large fruit.

Psychotria orchidearum Standl., sp. nov.

Small erect epiphytic shrub 15-30 em. high, glabrous throughout; older

branches stout, 3-4 mm. thick, ochraceous, rimose, the younger ones quad-

rangular, ochraceous, lustrous, the internodes mostly 3-6 mm. long; stipules

intrastipular, forming an indurate truncate sheath 1-2 mm. long; leaves

opposite, the petioles slender, 2-4 mm. long, or often nearly obsolete; leaf

blades elliptic or oblong-elliptic, 15-32 mm. long, 6-12 mm. wide, obtuse or

acute, apiculate, usually cuneate-acute or attenuate at base, rarely obtuse,

thick and fleshy, deep green above, the venation obsolete, beneath paler, the

costa evident but the other nerves obsolete; inflorescence terminal, cymose-

paniculate, lax, few-flowered, the peduncle slender, 10-13 mm. long, erect,

the panicles 1.5 em. long and broad or smaller, the branches very slender;

bracts persistent, greenish, linear or linear-subulate, 1-3 mm. long; pedicels

slender, mostly 3-5 mm. long; hypanthium obovoid, 1 mm. long; calyx 1 mm.

long, 4-dentate to the middle, the teeth triangular, acute; fruit subglobose,

3 mm. long, red, shallowly bisulcate laterally; pyrenes 2, smooth dorsally,

the inner face slightly concave, deeply and narrowly sulcate from base to

apex. 7

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,306,503, collected on tree in

wet forest on Cerros de Zurqui, northeast of San Isidro, Province of Heredia,

Costa Rica, altitude about 2,200 meters, March 3, 1926, by Paul C. Standley

and Juvenal Valerio (no. 50863). No. 50757, from the same locality, repre-

sents the same species.

Psychotria orchidearum is closely related to P. Maxonzi Standl., a common

plant of the same region. P. Mazxonii has long slender branches and is

usually a larger plant; its leaves are much narrower than those of P. orcht-

dearum, being chiefly linear-lanceolate.

Psychotria grandistipula Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub 3m. high, the branches slender, subterete, green, very minutely

puberulent, the internodes 1.5-4.5 cm. long; stipule one at each node, cadu-

cous, forming a sheath about the young leaves, cleft on one side, 3-4.5 em.

long, long-attenuate to a subulate apex, thin, brown, glabrous; leaves oppo-

site, the petioles slender, 1.5-4 cm. long, minutely puberulent; leaf blades

MAY 19, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 277

lance-oblong to oblong-ovate or elliptic, 5.5-14 em. long, 2.2—6 em. wide,

abruptly long-acuminate or cuspidate-acuminate, with attentuate acute

tip, at base usually very obtuse to truncate but sometimes (even on the

same branch) acute, thick-membranaceous, deep green on the upper surface,

glabrous, the venation not elevated, beneath scarcely paler, minutely puber-

ulent on the nerves, the costa and lateral nerves slender, elevated, the lateral

nerves 9-14 on each side, ascending or the lowest divaricate, shghtly arcuate,

extending nearly to the margin, there laxly and irregularly anastomosing,

the intermediate nerves obsolete; inflorescences terminal, sometimes appear-

ing lateral by the continued erowth of the main axis, cymose-paniculate,

usually sessile, 4-13 em. long, lax, many-flowered, the branches slender,

minutely puberulent, divaricate or ascending; bracts caducous; pedicels

3-12 mm. long, straight, minutely puberulent; calyx persistent on the fruit,

less than 1 mm. long, shallowly and remotely 5-dentate; fruit subglobose,

bright red, 7 mm. long, glabrous; pyrenes 2, obtusely 5-costate dorsally;

seeds narrowly sulcate on the inner surface from base to apex.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,253,164, collected in moist

forest near Santa Maria de Dota, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude

about 1,600 meters, December 26, 1925, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal

Valerio (no. 43268). Additional collections are at hand, as follows:

Costa Rica: Santa Maria, Standley 42402, 41806; Standley & Valerio

43187, 44098. La Colombiana Farm, Prov. Limon, alt. 70 m., Standley

36871.

The last specimen cited has no stipules and may not belong here, although

it does not appear to differ essentially in other respects from the collections

made at Santa Maria. It is rather unusual to find in the wet coastal forest

a species that grows in such a high and comparatively dry region as that of

Santa Maria.

Psychotria grandistipula is unique among the Costa Rican species of

the genus in its exceptionally developed stipules.

Palicourea vestita Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub 1.5-2.5 m. high, the branches slender or stout, subterete, densely

villous with short slender spreading yellowish many-celled hairs, the inter-

nodes 1.5-7.5 cm. long; stipules persistent, green, united to form a sheath

5 mm. long, this truncate, densely short-villous, bicuspidate on each side,

the cusps linear, erect, 5-7 mm. long, stiff, attenuate to the apex, puberulent;

leaves opposite, the petioles stout, 1.5-3 em. long, densely short-villous or

tomentulose; leaf blades lance-oblong, broadest at or sometimes slightly

above the middle, 10—18 em. long, 2.5—-6 em. wide, rather abruptly acuminate

or long-acuminate, with narrow acute tip, narrowed to the acute or obtuse

base, thick-membranaceous, bright green above, short-villous along the costa,

beneath slightly paler, densely villous on the nerves with short slender

yellowish spreading hairs, elsewhere velutinous-pubescent or sometimes

glabrate, the costa stout, elevated, the lateral nerves slender, prominent,

about 20 on each side, arcuate-divaricate, irregularly anastomosing close to

the margin; inflorescence terminal, cymose-paniculate, many-flowered,

narrowly pyramidal, 7-9 cm. long, the peduncle stout, 2.5 em. long, the

branches stout, reddish green, divaricate at right angles, densely pubescent;

bracts green, linear, 2-4 mm. long; pedicels 2-5 mm. long, stiff, hirtellous;

calyx lobes 5, persistent on the fruit, 1 mm. long, triangular, acute, hirtellous;

278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

fruit blue, obovoid-globose, 5 mm. long, slightly compressed laterally and

bisulcate, hirtellous; pyrenes 2, each with 3 broad rounded dorsal costae.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,253,015, collected in wet

oak forest near Quebradillas, about 7 km. north of Santa Maria de Dota, ~

Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude about 1,800 meters, December 24, 1925,

by Paul C. Standley (no. 42909).

Among the Costa Rican species of Palicourea this may be recognized by

the copious pubescence of all parts, and by the numerous lateral nerves of

the leaves.

Palicourea macrocalyx Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub 2 m. high, glabrous throughout, the young branches green, sub-

terete, the internodes 2.5-4.5 cm. long; stipules green, persistent, 6-9 mm.

long, cleft nearly to the base, the lobes triangular-oblong, 2-3 mm. wide,

attenuate to the acute apex; petioles slender, 2—2.5 cm. long; leaf blades

elliptic-oblong, 8-12 cm. long, 3.8-5 cm. wide, abruptly short-acuminate,

with obtuse tip, at base broadly obtuse to acutish, subcoriaceous, somewhat

lustrous, the costa and lateral nerves prominent on both surfaces, the costa

stout, the lateral nerves about 14 on each side, divaricate, strongly arcuate,

extending nearly or quite to the margin, the intermediate nerves prominulous,

reticulate; inflorescence terminal, cymose-paniculate, much branched, dense,

many-flowered, about 6 cm. long and broad, the peduncle 5 cm. long, the

branches dark purplish; bracts oblong to broadly ovate, 4-5 mm. long,

green, obtuse or rounded at apex; pedicels 4-6 mm. long, jointed at apex;

hypanthium turbinate, 2 mm. long; calyx 5 mm. long, pale yellow, 5-lobate

nearly to base, the lobes ovate, narrowed to the obtuse apex, conspicuously

3-nerved; corolla pale yellow, the tube 9 mm. long, 1.5 mm. thick, the 5

lobes broadly triangular-ovate, 2-5 mm. long, obtuse, spreading.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,306,801, collected in wet

forest on Cerro de las Lajas, north of San Isidro, Province of Heredia, Costa

Rica, altitude about 2,200 meters, March 7, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and

Juvenal Valerio (no. 51611).

Among the Central American species of Palicourea this may be recognized

easily by the unusual development of the calyx.

Palicourea pauciflora Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub or small tree, the branches green, the older ones terete, the young ones

obtusely quadrangular, the internodes 1-3.5 em. long, densely and minutely

puberulous; stipules 4-5 mm. long, green, persistent, distinct or nearly so,

bilobate nearly to the base, the lobes narrowly triangular, narrowed to the ob-

tuse apex, minutely puberulous; petioles slender, 5-15 mm. long, puberulent;

leaf blades elliptic-oblong, 4-7 cm. long, 1—2.2 em. wide, abruptly cuspidate-

acuminate, the acumen 8-13 mm. long, narrow, acute, at base acute or

attenuate, subcoriaceous, deep green above, glabrous, dull, the venation in-

conspicuous, beneath paler, minutely puberulous, the costa slender, salient,

the lateral nerves very slender, prominulous, about 10 on each side, ascending

at a wide angle, arcuate, extending nearly or quite to the margin, the inter-

mediate nerves obsolete; inflorescence terminal, cymose-paniculate, open,

sparsely branched, few-flowered, short- pedunculate, 4—5 em. long and broad,

the branches puberulent: bracts lance-oblong, green, 3-4 mm. long; pedicels

3-7 mm. long, glabrous, jointed at apex; hypanthium obovoid, 2—2.5 mm. long,

May 19, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 279

glabrous; calyx 4-6 mm. long, 5-lobate nearly to the base, green, glabrous,

the lobes ovate-oblong, unequal, acuminate; corolla greenish purple, glabrous,

funnelform, the tube 7-8 mm. long, 2 mm. broad at base, 3 mm. broad in

the throat, the 5 lobes broadly ovate, obtuse, 4 mm. long, spreading.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 677618, collected in humid

forest between Alto de las Palmas and top of Cerro de la Horqueta, Chiriqui,

Panama, altitude 2,100 to 2,265 meters, March 18, 1911, by H. Pittier (no.

3222). One other collection is at hand:

PanaMa: Top of Cerro de la Horqueta, alt. 2,265 m., Pitizer 3237.

Palicourea pauciflora is well marked by the large calyx. From P. macro-

calyx it differs in its small leaves with inconspicuous venation, and in the

narrow acute calyx lobes.

_. Palicourea montivaga Standl., sp. nov.

Slender dense shrub 1.5—2.5 m. high, the branches subterete, green, glab-

rous, the internodes short, usually 0.5-1.5 em. long, sometimes longer;

stipules green, persistent, connate, 2-2.5 mm. long, bicuspidate, the cusps

less than 1 mm. long; leaves opposite, the petioles slender, 7-15 mm. long,

glabrous; leaf blades lance-oblong, 5.5-7 em. long, 1-2 em. wide, gradually

or abruptly very long-acuminate, with acute tip, acute at base, thick-

membranaceous, glabrous, deep green above, slightly paler beneath, the

costa and lateral nerves slender, prominent, the lateral nerves about 9 on

each side, arcuate-ascending, irregularly anastomosing near the margin, the

intermediate nerves obscure; inflorescence terminal, cymose-paniculate,

many-flowered, about 3 cm. long and broad, the branches ascending, greenish

yellow, sparsely and minutely puberulent or glabrous, the peduncle 1.5-3

em. long; lowest bracts linear, green, 1.5-2 mm. long, the upper ones shorter

and broader, green; pedicels 2.5 mm. long or shorter, jointed at apex, some of

the flowers sessile; hypanthium broadly turbinate, 1 mm. long, green, glab-

rous; calyx about 0.6 mm. long, 5-lobate to the base, the lobes broadly

triangular, obtuse or acute, erect; corolla yellow or greenish yellow, glabrous,

the tube 7 mm. long, slightly curved, enlarged at base, broadened above and

2.5 mm. broad, the 5 lobes broadly triangular, obtuse, 1.5 mm. long, spreading.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,306,225, collected in wet

forest at Yerba Buena, northeast of San Isidro, Province of Heredia, Costa

Rica, altitude about 2,000 meters, February 28, 1926, by Paul C. Standley

and Juvenal Valerio (no. 49850). The plant is represented by the following

collections:

Costa Rica: Yerba Buena, Standley & Valerio 49205, 49874. Cerro de

las Caricias, alt. 2,300 m., Standley & Valerio 52107, 52226. Cerros de

Zurqui, alt. 2,200 m., Standley & Valerio 50541, 50551.

From the species of Palicourea reported heretofore from Costa Rica, this

is distinguished by its small leaves, small inflorescences, and short corolla.

Palicourea adusta Standl., sp. nov.

Weak shrub, 30-90 cm. high, usually decumbent, sparsely branched, the

branches slender, subterete, green, the internodes 1-4.5 cm. long, sparsely

pilose with short thick spreading hairs or glabrate; stipules persistent, green,

short-connate, bicuspidate, the cusps linear, acute, green, 1-2.5 mm. long;

leaves opposite, the petioles 6-10 mm. long, glabrous; leaf blades elliptic

280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

to elliptic-oblong, 4—6 cm. long, 1.5-2.5 em. wide, gradually or abruptly acu-

minate or long-acuminate, with obtuse or acute tip, at base obtuse or acute,

firm, deep green above, usually marked with numerous linear pale cystoliths,

at first puberulent on the costa but soon glabrate, beneath paler, when young

pubescent with short, pale, appressed or spreading hairs, in age glabrate

except on the principal nerves, the costa slender, prominent beneath, the

lateral nerves very slender, evident, about 9 on each side, arcuate-ascending,

extending to the margin; inflorescence terminal, cymose-paniculate, sparsely

branched, many-flowered, the panicles 3.5—6 em. long and nearly or quite as

broad, the branches divaricate, sordid-puberulent, violet; bracts green, 2-4

mm. long, linear or subulate, acute; pedicels 1-2 mm. long, puberulent, jointed

at apex; hypanthium rounded-turbinate, violet, 1-1.5 mm. long, sparsely

puberulent or glabrate; calyx 5-lobate to base, the lobes less than 1 mm.

long, unequal, broadly triangular or triangular-ovate, acute to obtuse and

apiculate; corolla violet, 8 mm. long, the tube glabrous, enlarged at base,

nearly straight, nearly 2 mm. broad, slightly broadened in the throat, the

5 lobes broadly ovate, 1-1.5 mm. long, obtuse or acutish, erect or ascending,

obscurely puberulent on the margins.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,253,350, collected in wet

forest on Cerro de las Vueltas, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude

3,000 meters, January 1, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal Valerio

(no. 43666). ‘The following additional collections are referred here: _ ;

Costa Rica: Cerro de las :Vueltas, Standley & Valerio 43780, 43908.

El Paramo, Jan., 1897, Pzttier 10486.

In general appearance this plant resembles P. montivaga, but that is a large

shrub with narrower leaves and greenish yellow inflorescence. In habit

P. adusta is unlike the other Central American species of Palicourea, which

are tall erect shrubs.

Palicourea salicifolia Standl., sp. nov.

Slender shrub 1.5-3.5 m. high, glabrous throughout, much branched, the

branches rather stout; subterete, the older ones ochraceous, the younger ones

green, the internodes mostly 1-2 em. long but often longer; stipules persistent,

short-connate, deeply bilobate, the lobes linear, acute, green, 1.5-2.5 mm.

long; leaves opposite, the petioles stout, 4-17 mm. long; leaf blades narrowly

oblong to elliptic-oblong, 5.5-10 em. long, 1.3-2.5 cm. wide, long-acuminate,

with narrow obtuse acumen, at base acute to long-attenuate, thick and firm,

deep green above, somewhat lustrous, beneath paler, the costa prominent

beneath, slender, the lateral nerves very slender, about 13 on each side,

divaricate at nearly a right angle, arcuate, irregularly anastomosing near

the margin, the intermediate nerves obscure; inflorescence terminal, cymose-

paniculate, many-flowered, about 4 em. long and often much broader, the

branches usually divaricate, the peduncle usually less than 1 cm. long; bracts

green, linear to oblong or spatulate, usually obtuse, mostly 4-7 mm. long,

but the upper ones often smaller; pedicels jointed at apex, in fruit sometimes

1 cm. long but usually shorter, bearing 1 or more small green bractlets;

hypanthium broadly turbinate, 1.5 mm. long; calyx 1.5-2 mm. long, 5-lobate

nearly to the base, the lobes oblong, oval, or broadly spatulate, rounded at

apex, green; corolla not seen; fruit bluish green, subglobose, laterally com-

pressed and bisulcate, about 6 mm. broad, the 2 pyrenes sharply 3-costate

dorsally.

MAY 19, 1928 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 281

Type in the U, 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,252,646, collected in wet

forest at Laguna de la Chonta, northeast of Santa Maria de Dota, Province

of San José, Costa Rica, altitude 2,000 meters, December 18, 1925,' by Paul C.

Standley (no. 42174). The following additional collections are at hand:

Costa Rica: Laguna de la Chonta, Standley 42178. Near Finca La

~ Cima, above Los Lotes, north of El Copey, alt. 2,100 to 2,400 m., Standley

42795, 42806, 42713, 42642.

In foliage characters this plant resembles. P. montivaga, but it differs from

that species in the large bracts of the panicles and in the larger calyx with

very different lobes. The corolla has not been seen, and it may be that

the plant should be referred rather to the genus Psychotria.

Cephaelis latistipula Standl., sp. nov.

Plants simple, 30-100 em. high, suffrutescent, glabrous throughout, the

stems stout, subterete, the upper internodes 2-3 cm. long; stipules distinct,

rounded, 14-22 mm. long and nearly or quite as broad, persistent, thick and

firm, conspicuously nerved, bilobate at apex, the lobes about 5 mm. long,

acutish, undulate or shallowly and irregularly dentate, the sinus closed or

nearly so; leaves opposite, the petioles slender, 2-7 cm. long; leaf blades

oval-elliptic to broadly elliptic, broadest at or slightly above the middle,

14-21 em. long, 7-9 em. wide, rounded or very obtuse at apex and abruptly

short-pointed, with acute tip, shortly narrowed to the acute base, chartaceous,

deep green above, paler beneath, the costa stout, prominent, the lateral

nerves 11 or 12 on each side, divergent at nearly a right angle, arcuate, faintly

anastomosing close to the margin, the intermediate nerves obsolete; inflores-

cences axillary, capitate, dark red, very dense, many-flowered, sessile or

nearly so, about 1 em. long and 2 cm. broad; outer bracts broadly oblong,

7-8 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, obtuse, the inner bracts narrower, irregularly

denticulate and ciliolate about the acute apex, the innermost bracts linear;

flowers sessile, the hypanthium broadly turbinate, 1.5 mm. long; calyx 2—2.5

mm. long, deeply 5-lobate, the lobes lanceolate, long-acuminate, denticulate;

corolla 5 mm. long, funnelform, the lobes spreading, triangular, acute or

acutish, much shorter than the tube, short-villous within; anthers exserted.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,153,168, collected in moist

forest at Orosi, Province of Cartago, Costa Rica, March 30, 1924, by Paul C.

Standley (no. 39695). One other specimen has been seen:

Costa Rica: El Mufieco, Prov. Cartago, alt. 1,500 m., Standley & Torres

51252.

Cephaelis latistipula is a well-marked species, easily recognizable by its

reduced stature, large leaves, broad stipules, and sessile heads.

Coussarea latifolia Standl., sp. nov.

Tree, glabrous throughout, the branchlets stout; stipules (of uppermost

leaves) semiorbicular, 5 mm. long, intrapetiolar, short-connate, broadly

rounded at apex, soon deciduous; petioles stout, 1.7-2.5 em. long; leaf blades

broadly elliptic-obovate to broadly ovate-elliptic, 16.5—25 em. long, 9-16.5

em. wide, rounded at apex and apiculate, acute or obtuse at base, papyraceous,

concolorous, pale green when dry, the costa and lateral nerves stout, salient

beneath, the lateral nerves about 9 on each side, arcuate-divaricate, irregu-

282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

larly anastomosing close to the margin; inflorescence terminal, cymose-

racemose, 6 cm. long, the peduncle 3 cm. long, compressed, the cymes 2 or

3- flowered, borne on ascending secondary peduncles 6-15 mm. long; bracts

deciduous; pedicels stout, 1-4 mm. long; hypanthium obovoid, 4 mm. long;

calyx tubular-campanulate, 5-7 mm. long, the limb truncate; corolla (in

bud) yellowish white, the tube 1 cm. long, the 4 lobes linear-oblong, 13-15

mm. long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 938840, collected in forests

of Tsaki, Talamanca, Costa Rica, altitude about 200 meters, April, 1895,

by A. Tonduz (no. 9574).

The species-is distinguished from other Costa Rican species of Coussarea

by its large flowers and broad leaves.

Coussarea paniculata (Vahl) Standl.

Froelichia paniculata Vahl, Eclog. Amer. 3. 1796.

Coussarea froelichia A. Rich. Mem. Soc. Hist. Nat. Paris5:177. 1834.

Coussarea enneantha Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub 3 m. high, the trunk 3.5 cm. thick; young branches subterete, slender,

the internodes 1—2 cm. long, densely fulvous-hirsute with short spreading

hairs; stipules connate, forming a sheath 3 mm. long, hirtellous, tardily

deciduous; petioles slender, 12-18 mm. long, densely short-hirsute; leaf

blades elliptic-oblong, 9-12.5 cm. long, 3.2-5.3 em. wide, abruptly acuminate

with obtuse tip, at base acute or acutish, membranaceous, when young

shortly fulvous-hirsute above along the nerves, glabrate in age, the venation

prominulous, beneath green, hirtellous on the nerves, the costa and lateral

nerves slender, prominent, the lateral nerves about 10 on each side, divergent

at a wide angle, nearly straight, anastomosing toward the margin to form an

irregular but, distinct collective nerve, the intermediate nerves prominent,

coarsely reticulate; inflorescence terminal, sessile, trichotomous, the branches

slender, 2.8-3.8 em. long, densely fulvous-hirsute with short spreading hairs,

each branch 3-flowered at apex; pedicels 2-11 mm. long; bracts linear-subu-

late, 1-2 mm. long, deciduous; hypanthium obovoid, 2-3 mm. long, densely

brown-hirtellous; calyx tubular, 8-9 mm. long, 2.5 mm. thick, hirtellous, the

4 lobes ovate-oblong, obtuse, over half as long as the tube; corolla white,

the tube slender, 2.5 cm. long, sparsely pilose with slender spreading hairs,

the 4 lobes linear, spreading, about 15 mm. long and 2 mm. wide, obtuse,

sparsely hirtellous outside; fruit ‘‘white,’”’ not seen.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 678317, collected in the vicinity

of Cana, Panama, altitude 600 to 1,950 meters, April to June, 1908, by R. 8

Williams (no. 841).

The proper position of this plant is very uncertain, but it seems to agree

better with Coussarea than with any other group of Rubiaceae known from

Central America.

May 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 283

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

200TH MEETING

The 200th meeting was held jointly with the Chemical Society and the

Philosophical Society in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on the evening

of Thursday, May 28, 1925. Dr. H. Freunpuicu of the Kaiser Wilhelm

Institute at Berlin-Dahlem delivered an address on the State of aggregation

and form of colloid particles.

201ST MEETING

The 201st meeting was held jointly with the Chemical Society in the

Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on the evening of Friday, September 25,

1925. Dr. ALEXANDER Frnuay of the University of Aberdeen delivered an

address on the Appeal of science to the community. The address is published in

Science, Vol. 62, Oct. 23, 1925.

202D MEETING

The 202d meeting was held jointly with the Geological Society in the

Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on the evening of Thursday, November 19,

1925.

Program: Dr. Wrtu1aM H. Hopsss of the University of Michigan, The poles

of the atmospheric circulation. ‘The two continental glaciers—the ice mantles

which overlie the continents of the Antarctic and Greenland—possess each

an autocirculation which is anticyclonic in character, but possessed of a vigor

which removes it from all comparison with the so-called anticyclones of other

areas. The circulations above the continental glaciers—the glacial anti-

cyclones—are to be ascribed to the domed surface of the inland ice and to the

excessive irradiation from the snow-ice surface throughout the year. Such

irradiation being a function directly of time, a calm is favorable to the de-

velopment of centrifugal surface movement of the air upon the domed surface.

On the other hand, the descent of the air from the high interior of the con-

tinent brings about an adiabatic elevation of temperature, and since this is

proportional to the vertical component of the air movement, the high velocity

that is developed in the outflowing air currents tends to halt the flow with

great suddenness and to restore the condition of calm. The weather above

the continental glaciers is thus an alternation of calms with blizzards, which

latter evolve gradually but terminate abruptly with rapid elevation of

temperature—the foehn phenomenon.

The vigor of these powerful circulatory systems over areas that are

measured in hundreds of thousands of square miles, is such as to extend the

air movement up to near the ceiling of the troposphere and to include the

cirrus level. Because of this vigor the central areas of the glacial anticyclones,

instead of being dry and characterized by an excess of evaporation over

precipitation, as is the case within the central areas of the shallow and inert

migrating anticyclones, are regions of high relative humidity and of large

precipitation of moisture in the form both of fine ice needles and of minute

water droplets. The source of this moisture, amply confirmed by observa-

tion, must be ascribed to the water which was locked up in the ice needles of

284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

the cirri and of other high-level clouds, this moisture being first melted and

later vaporized adiabatically during its descent to the glacier surface.

The two glacial anticyclones of the earth, one centered: relatively near,

though not over, the southern geographic pole, and the other centered fully

nineteen degrees of latitude from the northern pole, are thus the wind poles

of our atmospheric circulation. The north polar area itself, as is clearly

shown by observations, is an area of monotonously normal barometric

pressure, of relatively warm air, of shifting wind direction, and of high

humidity.

The continental glaciers with their overlying fixed glacial anticyclones are

the two marked refrigerating regions within our atmospheric envelope, and

their function in stimulating the circulation is comparable in importance to

that of the heating belt of high insolation near the equator. The strong

development of climatic zones in the present geological period must be as-

cribed to the contributory action of the refrigerating engines in developing

the present vigor of the atmospheric circulation; for, if we consider the geologic

past, the present is an altogether abnormal period, climatically considered, of

the earth’s history. As has been clearly shown by David White and F. H.

Knowlton, the distribution of delicate plant organisms during the geologic

past, since at least the early Paleozoic, shows that no strongly developed

climatic zones have existed save only during the Permian and Pleistocene

periods, with which later period the present is climatically included. It is

of the greatest significance, therefore, that these exceptional periods of climate

in the earth’s history are the only ones of which it is known that continental —

glaciers existed which, through their refrigerating effect, could have stimu-

lated to unusual vigor the circulation within the atmosphere. (Auwthor’s

abstract.)

203D MEETING

The 203d meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on the

evening of Thursday, December 17, 1925. Dr. Erwin F. Smite of the

Department of Agriculture delivered an address on Recent views as to the

cause of cancer.

The address dealt with some of the newer researches on cancer and was

substantially the same as that prepared for the New Haven Symposium,

which appeared in The American Naturalist, May-June, 1926. The author

was inclined to believe, with Gye and Blumenthal, that cancers are due to one

or more parasites, but he also gave quite fully other views as to causation,

namely, the irritation hypothesis and the views of Warburg of Berlin and

Burrows of St. Louis.

204TH MEETING

The 204th meeting, the 28th Annual Meeting and a joint meeting with the

Anthropological Society, was held in the Administration Building of the

Carnegie Institute of Washington on Tuesday, January 12, 1926, with

President Jupp of the Anthropological Society in the chair. The program

consisted of an address by Dr. Byron Cummines, Director of the State

Museum and Professor of Archeology, University of Arizona, on the subject,

Certain metal objects found near Tucson, Arizona. A brief abstract of his

address follows the minutes of the annual business meeting.

A short intermission followed his address, after which the annual business

meeting was held.

OP wee ye eee, See. ee -

MAY 19, 1928 : PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 285

The minutes of the 27th Annual Meeting were read and approved.

The Corresponding Secretary, F. B. Sizspen, reported briefly on the ac-

tivities of the AcApEMy during 1926. During the year 1925, 24 persons were

elected to regular membership, 18 of whom had accepted and qualified during

the year, and one of whom had declined. Thirty who had been elected

before January 1, 1925, also qualified. Six resignations were accepted, and

three members were dropped for non-payment of dues. Eleven deaths oc-

curred among the members, as follows: J. C. BRanNrER, F. D. CAMPBELL,

MitcHett Carrou, T. L. Caszny, D. T. Day, W. F. HILuepranp, W. D.

Hunter, W. G. Miuter, B. H. Ransom, T. L. Watson, J. B. Woopwortu.

The Board of Managers held five meetings devoted mainly to routine

business. The list of One hundred popular books on science was revised, and

the biennial directory was issued. The report was ordered accepted and

filed.

The report of the Recording Secretary, WALTER D. LAMBERT, was read.

There were held during the year ten public meetings, many of them jointly

with one or more aftiliated societies. The names of the affiliated societies

and of the speakers, and the titles of the addresses and additional items of

interest, were given. ‘The report was ordered accepted and filed.

The report of the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, was read. It showed total ©

receipts of $5,485.39 during the year, and total disbursements of $5,970.01.

The value of the AcaApDEMy’s investments was $17,036.37, cash on hand was

$2,656.18, and the estimated net worth $19,187.83.

The report of the Auditing Committee, consisting of N. H. Hucx, V. K.

CuEsNut and D. L. Hazarp, was read, verifying the Treasurer’s figures.

The reports of the Treasurer and the Auditing Committee were then accepted.

The report of the Editors of the Journal was presented by EK. P. Kr1uip,

Senior Editor. It detailed the distribution of the articles in the various

fields of science, and noted a slight increase in the cost per page over the

preceding year. ‘The effort to obtain articles in as wide as possible a field of

scientific interest was continued. The report was ordered accepted and filed.

The report of the Committee of Tellers, F. B. Sruspnzn, G. W. Vinau and

E. R. Weaver, was presented by the chairman. In accordance with the

report, the following officers were declared elected: President, G. K. Bur-

GEess; Non-resident Vice-Presidents, RayMOND PEARL, W. W. CAMPBELL;

Corresponding Secretary, Francis B. SinsBEE; Recording Secretary, W. D.

poubaRt ; Treasurer, R. L. Farts; Manager, Class of 1929, A. H. Cuarx, L. A.

OGERS.

The following Vice-Presidents nominated by the affiliated societies were

then elected: Archeological Society, WALTER Houau; Society of American

Bacteriologists, W. D. Bicgrtow; Biological Society, H. C. OBERHOLZER;

Botanical Society, R. Kent Beattie; Chemical Society, ¥. W. SMITHER;

Institute of Electrical Engineers, A. R. CHEYNEY; E’ntomological Society, A. G.

Bovine; Society of Foresters, G. B. Supwortu; Geographic Society, F. V.

CovitLE; Helminthological Society, H. C. Hauxu; Historical Society, ALLEN

C. Ciark; Mechanical Engineers, H. L. Wuitrremore; Philosophical Society,

Pau R. Heyu.

At 10.15 P.M. the meeting adjourned.

Dr. Byron Cummines, Certain metal objects found near Tucson, Arizona.

In September, 1924, Mr. Charles E. Manier and his father, while inspecting

an old lime-kiln about nine miles northwest of Tucson, noticed a bit of metal

projecting from the side of the trench that had been cut through the formation

286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES . VOL. 18, No. 10

to open an entrance to the bottom of the kiln. On digging away the gravel

and caliche in which it was embedded, the object proved to be a cross made

of lead alloy. It had been cast in a crude mold on the surface of ground over

which were scattered fragments of ore, caliche and gravel. Made in two

parts, the inside of each half had been smoothed and engraved with in-

scriptions in Latin.

Excavations were then made to the right and to the left of this trench by

Mr. Thomas Bent, who owns the land, and Mr. Manier. Scattered over

considerable area at between two and a half to six feet below the surface

have been found four other double and three single crosses. Besides these

crosses there have been uncovered three swords and four parts of swords,

three spears and two spear heads, and a peculiar paddle-shaped object that

may be called a labrum. All of these are more or less engraved with in-

scriptions in Latin and various symbols and drawings. On the two unusual

crosses entwined with serpents are found some Hebrew inscriptions and

symbols.

None of this superimposed material shows any evidence of having been

disturbed since laid down by natural forces. All of these articles were found

embedded in caliche and gravel at practically the same level. This caliche

is a lime crust formed irregularly through sand and gravel deposits by the

leaching of the calcareous material from the superimposed and surrounding

soil and rock. It settles into pockets, spreads out into sheets and cements the

sand and gravel together in hard masses that can be broken up only by a

sharp pick or a charge of dynamite. Many of these objects were embedded

in part or the whole in this solid caliche and could be removed only by vigorous

effort with a good pick. Some lay in pockets or thin strata of sand which

were overlaid with strata of caliche. Lenses of gravel and sand extend along

horizontally above these articles which, if they had been ‘‘planted” in recent

years and the holes filled up with caliche and gravel, would be broken and the

lines of demarcation readily distinguishable.

The articles are made of a lead alloy. Assays show lead and antimony

with traces of tin, gold, silver and copper. Ores of this character are mined

in the Tucson mountains, a few miles away, and in other mountains further

away to the south. The ores have probably been crushed and crudely

smelted, the metals puddled and then used in the manufacture of these

weapons and emblems. All are crudely fashioned and show such work as

you might expect to be produced by men in the desert country of Arizona,

with few tools and no mechanical appliances.

The Latin is the capital script that was in common use for records and

religious inscriptions up to about the eighth century A.D. The words are

separated by dots,‘and the construction follows that of the classic Latin of

Caesar and Vergil. One would judge that they had been carved by one

who had a limited knowledge of classical Latin and had woven expressions

with which he was familiar into the record he desired to make. The Hebrew

inscriptions on the two serpent swords are words and expressions such as

“Jehovah,” “peace,” ‘‘mighty empire,” ete.

On the face, these evidences would indicate the work of men who, slightly

versed in classical Latin, Roman affairs and Jewish history, wished to record

this evidence to astonish their contemporaries. But would any people,

one or more centuries ago in this remote region, have had time or means or

desire either to hoodwink other men by their show of learning or to deceive

posterity? The white men who lived in and traversed this region even fifty

MAY 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 287

years ago had very little time for fun or fiction of this elaborate character, if

any possessed the ability to manufacture or inscribe these articles. The

problem remains unsolved. (Condensed from author's manuscript.)

205TH MEETING

The 205th meeting was held jointly with the American Institute of Electri-

cal Engineers (Washington Section) in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club

on the evening of Tuesday, March 9, 1926.

Program: Dr. GEorGE C. SoutTHwortTH, of the American Telephone and

Telegraph Company, Some interesting things about radio transmission. The

electromagnetic waves used in radio transmission differ from light only in

wave length. Both represent a power transfer, and the intensity of either

may be measured by the electric field strength or by the power propagated

through a given area. A simple picture of a radio wave may be developed

from the Faraday conception of lines of electric and magnetic force. This

view is furthermore consistent with other phenomena, such as power flow in a

simple battery circuit or an electric light line, or the propagation of speech

energy over a telephone circuit.

The power per unit area propagated in a broadcast signal of ordinary

strength is so small as to be measured in millionths of a watt per square meter.

In addition to propagating power a broadcast wave exerts a pressure on

conducting objects on which it happens to fall. This pressure has been

computed and is found to be extremely small. Thus the total force due to

waves impinging on a tall skyscraper seldom exceeds a millionth of a mil-

lionth of a pound.

There is a threshold value below which the human eye will not respond to

light. If this value is interpreted in terms of the units used in measuring

broadcast signals, we find that the eye is only a hundredth or a thousandth as

sensitive as a good radio receiver. The sun sends to us relatively strong

electric waves. ‘These are of the order of a million times as intense as those

used in radio communication and amount to perhaps 7.5 volts per centimeter.

When radio waves such as employed for transatlantic telephony are

propagated over considerable distances, their intensity is impaired on account

of both the spreading of the wave energy into greater space and the attenua-

tion caused by the terrain over which they pass. This attenuation is less

when the waves pass over water than over land. If the transmission be over

relatively great distances, the attenuation undergoes wide changes throughout

the 24 hours. At night it is sometimes so little as to permit of transatlantic

communication with relatively small amounts of power, but in daylight, it

may be so great as to require hundreds of kilowatts of transmitting power.

The change in the received signal caused by this varying attenuation is

known as its diurnal variation and has been quite thoroughly studied by Bell

System engineers in connection with transatlantic telephony.

* The utility of radio waves as vehicles of intelligence is determined not only

by their intensity but also by the amount of interfering noise, making the

ratio of signal-to-noise of great importance. This ratio for transatlantic

communication is a maximum during the hours when darkness prevails over

the path between England and America, and has a very definite minimum

during the late afternoon when the wall of darkness is passing from England

to America. On account of the five hours’ difference in the standard times

used in Europe and in America, the business days overlap but a few hours

during our forenoon. If a commercial telephone circuit were to be set up

288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

between England and America, probably it would be during these hours that

the circuit would have its greatest usefulness. It happens that they come at a

time when transmission is neither very good nor very bad.

When radio is used for broadcasting, its interest is frequently a local one,

in which case diurnal variation is not of great importance, but there are local

effects which are important. For instance, when broadcast waves pass over

metropolitan areas, they are sometimes seriously distorted and very definite

shadows are produced in which the signal strength is much reduced. Further- —

more, in these areas the quality of reproduced speech may be injured, while

that just outside the shadow may be excellent. This quality distortion has

been improved by stabilizing the transmitter so that only the very smallest

frequency changes can result. Although pronounced shadows have been

noted in the vicinity of New York City, the transmission over Washington,

D. C., seems to be very normal. (Author’s abstract.)

206TH MEETING

The 206th meeting was held jointly with the Philosophical Society and the

Chemical Society in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on Thursday,

March 18, 1926.

Program: Dr. Epwin E. Stosson, Editor of Science Service, The chemical

interpretation of history. If we can find out the laws of biochemistry we can

not only improve the present generation and control the future but interpret

the past. The historian in the light of these laws will be able to tell what

happened and why. History will then cease to be a mere chronicle and

become part of the science of human behavior. Astronomy was for the first

five thousand years a mere observational science, but now has become the

extra-mundane branch of physics and chemistry.

Historians record the rise and fall of races. They point out that the decline

is often due to a lowering of the birthrate and they ascribe this to various

causes, moral, financial, political or social. These are plausible surmises,

| yet it may be that the real cause was a lack of vitamin E. It might happen

that a people or clan or class might die out suddenly through a change of diet,

while seemingly well nourished and as vigorous as ever. Until this factor is

taken into consideration a charge of race suicide must be held not proven in

spite of what the moralists may say.

Why does India present such a strange spectacle in the decline of the

vigorous races that have successively invaded the country in past centuries?

Why does the conquering caste lose its stamina in a few generations? The

cause commonly adduced is the climate, the excess of sunshine? Possibly—

and possibly the lack of it. We must take into consideration the ‘‘purdah

disease.”” The seclusion of the women and children of the aristocratic classes

keeps them in the shade. May not one of the causes of racial decay in India

be lack of Vitamin D, which is induced by sunshine and is essential for bone

formation?

If you belong to the school of historians which holds that the human factor

is all important, that history is merely a chain of biographies of the great men

of each generation, then here also chemistry may supply the key. For

instance, even the historians who lay most stress upon the climatic and

economic factors must admit that the course of the world’s history was ma-

terially affected by the personal peculiarities and temperament of Napoleon

Bonaparte. But all histories agree that the Little Corporal at Lodi was a very

different person from the Emperor at Waterloo; different in disposition,

enterprise and ability. And no wonder, for his chemical composition had

May 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 289

changed in the nineteen years between. He was as unlike his former self as

carbolic acid is unlike sugar although they are composed of the same elements.

And in science explanation is the first step toward control. The oldest,

most stable, most democratic, and within their limitations most efficient

commonwealths in the world have adopted chemical methods of political and

industrial management. ‘These are the ants and bees, where the workers

have been in absolute control for some five million years. They do not choose

the head of the state by popular vote from among their own number as is

done in representative governments like ours. They get a fit ruler by feeding.

When the workers decide by their silent plebiscite that a new queen is needed,

they make one to order.

Then there is the climatic theory of history: that the capacities and

activities of a people are due to the effects of climate. But what does the

climate affect? Obviously the chemical composition and balance of the

pody through temperature, humidity, pressure, sunshine, diet and mode of

The laws of heredity are concerned solely with the combinations of the

determinants in the germ plasm. But what determines the determinants?

Obviously the difference in their chemical composition. Some day we may

find out their chemical structure. Some day we may be able to alter it.

Already it has been found possible by means of X-rays to reach the factors

of heredity inside the germ cell and so to transform them as to produce strange

creatures, such as have never appeared in nature, and this is not only in the

first but in the second generation. Such synthetic animals are mostly

monsters, but might it not happen that improved species could be produced

in some such way? (Condensed from author’s manuscript.)

207TH MEETING

The 207th meeting was held jointly with the Philosophical Society and the

Biological Society in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on the evening

of Thursday, April 15, 1926, with President Burcress in the chair. On

behalf of the New York Geographical Society, Major-General Charles McK.

SALZMAN presented the Charles P. Daly medal to Brigadier General Davip

L. Brartnarp, retired, for his Arctic explorations. General Brainard ac-

cepted with a few words of thanks. Major General A. W. GREELY, retired,

gave some reminiscences of Arctic exploration and of his association with

General Brainard.

Acting for the Secretary of the Navy, Capt. W. 8. CrossLtrey presented the

Cullom Geographical Medal to Dr. Harvey C. Hayes for his discoveries in

acoustic sounding. Dr. Hayes accepted with a short address of thanks.

Program: Dr. Pauut R. Hey, of the Bureau of Standards, Vzszons and

dreams of a scientificman. Contrary to a rather widely current idea, science

and scientific men are not purely matter of fact and prosaic. There is a

human, even a pottic side to the study of Nature. The visions which Nature

presents to us contain the three characteristic features of poetry: the lyric,

the epic, and even the tragic. In addition, they contain what is often lacking

in the dreams of the poet and the mystic—an element of reality. (Author’s

abstract.)

208TH MEETING

The 208th meeting was held jointly with the Philosophical Society and the

Chemical Society in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on the evening

290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

of Saturday, May 29, 1926. Professor Ernst CoHEn of the University of

Utrecht delivered an address The metamorphosis of matter and the alleged

constancy of our physico-chemical constants.

209TH MEETING

The 209th meeting was held jointly with the Smithsonian Institue the

Carnegie Institute and the Biological Society in the auditorium of the Na-

tional Museum at 10th and B Streets on Friday, June 4, 1926. Dr. ALEx-

ANDER WETMORE of the Smithsonian Institution presided. Dr. JOHANNES

ScumipT of the Carlsberg Laboratories, Copenhagen, delivered an address on

Danish oceanographic expeditions and investigations of the life history of the eel.

After the address President Burcuss of the Academy announced that Dr.

Schmidt had been elected an honorary member of the Academy and presented

him with a diploma of membership.

210TH MEETING

The 210th meeting was held jointly with the Chemical Society in the As-

sembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on the evening of Thursday, December 16,

1926. Dr. Louis C. Hermann for the Board of City Trusts of Philadelphia

conferred on Dr. Harvey C. Hayss the John Scott Medal, the actual delivery

being made by Mr. E. C. Warnur, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, who

made a brief presentation address.

Program: Professor J. N. BRONSTED, of the University of Copenhagen,

The metal amines and their significance for the physical chemistry of solutions.

The study of metal amines has played a considerable role in the theory of the

structure of inorganic compounds. It promises to have a similar significance

for the theory of solutions.

Cations as well as anions are known in great numbers in this group. They

combine to form salts which have as a rule characteristic and well defined

properties, raging in solubility from about 10~ to 1 mol per liter. These

salts are very suitable for a study of the solubility laws of electrolytes and have

been so used to a large extent. Such data have been of service in verifying

the laws of the activity coefficient in dilute solution.

The complex metal amines may contain anions in complex combination

with the central metal atom. In many such cases the anion is split off in

aqueous solution with measurable speed (aquotation). The reverse reaction

is also measurable. ‘These data are very useful in building up the recent

theory of the statics and kinetics of ions.

The usefulness and applicability of the definition of abida and bases by

the scheme

Acid = Base + Ht

is exemplified in a number of cases in this group of compounds. When water

instead of ammonia enters the complex ion, the ion becomes an acid, one of the

H atoms in the H,O molecule being partially split off as H+. The behavior

of such metal amine ions verifies the idea of the significance of the electric

charge in determining the acidic or basic character of the molecule.

Basic metal amine ions are of highly catalytic effect upon the decomposition

of nitramide. The high positive charge of such ions may be expected to

throw some light upon this peculiar catalytic reaction.

The aquotation of the various complex ions follows widely different laws.

In some cases the velocity is independent of the H+ concentration, in other

cases extremely sensitive toward it. This phenomenon can be explained on

ek Dn ee

MAY 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 291

_ the basis of the different acidity of the ions involved in combination with

the effect of the electric charge. This explanation may be of value in many

similar cases in other fields of investigation, where the presence of small

amounts of acid shows a stabilizing effect. (Author’s abstract.)

Water D. Lampert, Recording Secretary.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

969TH MEETING

The 969th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club February 4, 1928.

Program: W. G. BromBacHer: Instrument technique in aircraft flights

for international records. Aircraft flights for international records are made

under rules and regulations promulgated by the Fédération Aéronautique

Internationale (F. A. I.), the United States member of which is the National

Aeronautic Association (N. A. A.). Instruments carried in such flights are

submitted to the Bureau of Standards for calibration tests, which certifies

the results of such tests to the N. A. A. Of the various types of records such

as duration flights, greatest speed and highest altitude with and without

useful load, the instrumental problems relating to the highest altitude are

of the most interest. The rules provide that one or two sealed barographs

be carried in order to determine the lowest pressure reached in the flight

which is converted to altitude by use of the altitude-pressure relation of the

_F, A. I. standard altitude. The method of calibration has consisted in sub-

jecting the barograph to a “‘flight-history”’ test in which the temperature

and pressure are controlled so as to approximate the flight conditions both as

to the values and the rates of change. The pressure in the bell jar in which

the instrument is placed is controlled so that the pen of the instrument

follows the trace made during the flight. Coils in the bell jar through which

carbon dioxide is expanded, enable the reduction of the instrument tempera-

ture to values as low as —48°C. The pressure when the pen is on the trace

at the ground level and at the highest level is measured by means of a mercu-

rial barometer. The difference in these two pressures when subtracted from

the pressure at the ground level at the time of the flight gives the lowest

pressure attained. This method of calibration, when certain precautions

are observed and assuming the use of first quality barographs, enables the

lowest pressure to be determined with an accuracy of 1 to 3 millimeters of

mercury. The F. A. I. regulations now in force are far from ideal from a

scientific point of view. This country through the N. A. A. has submitted

modifications which if adopted will insure more satisfactory results. The

lack of complete testing facilities in most of the countries has no doubt

prevented adoption of these modifications. (Author’s abstract.)

A. H. Bennett: Recent methods for the measurement of aberrations of

telescope objectives. The failure of geometric optics to explain the light

distribution in a star disc is pointed out. Physical optics explains the

effects at the focus of a telescope objective in a satisfactory manner. Methods

of measuring aberrations of a lens system are divided into two classes, geo-

metric and interference methods, with the results expressed in terms of

geometric or physical optics, respectively. The Hartmann geometric method

and its modifications, by Merland and by Kingslake, are discussed.

The interference methods of Waetzmann and of Twyman, and the modi-

cation of the Hartmann method based on interference by Gardner and

Bennett are described. The details of an extension of the latter method,

292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

as applied by the author to several astronomical objectives, are presented.

Some results of this method are shown in the form of phase contours.

(Author’s abstract.)

F. Wenner: A seismometer employing electromagnetic and optical magni-

jication, and electromagnetic damping. The seismometer was designed for |

use with a particular galvanometer of the fluxmeter type; that is, a galvan-

ometer having a fairly long period and very high damping when the externally

connected resistance is low. When the average value of the impressed e.m.f.

is zero and the rate of change is not excessively high or excessively low, such

galvanometers give deflections approximately proportional to the time integral

of the e.m.f. The e.m.f. impressed upon the galvanometer is developed in

a winding attached to the steady mass of the seismometer and so is propor-

tional to its rate of displacement. Therefore the time integral of the e.m.f.

is proportional to the displacement of a steady mass with respect to its

support. Consequently the performance of the apparatus approximates

that which would be obtained with a direct mechanical connection between

the steady mass and the mirror which produced the record photographically.

However, for very short period displacements such as are caused by traffic

and very long period tilts caused by temperature changes, there is practically

no response.

Magnification. Magnification of earth displacements of periods corre-

sponding to the initial phases of distant earthquakes is high, somewhat more

than 1000. In the range of periods of earth displacements from 2 1/2 to 30

seconds, the magnification decreases as the period increases as it does with

the usual type of seismometer having the same free period and critical

damping. Further, the period of earth displacements for which the magni-

fication is a maximum is practically independent of the period of the seismom-

eter and the stiffness of the suspensions of the galvanometer coil.

Damping. ‘The damping both of the seismometer and of the galvanometer

is brought about by the use of a single bridge or shunt across the line connect-

ing these two units instead of by the use of additional magnets and a copper

plate located on the seismometer, and the use of a suitable resistance in the

galvanometer circuit. The period is determined and the damping adjusted

from the position of the galvanometer, which normally would be in a room

other than that in which the seismometer would be located and might well

be in another building. The steady mass is displaced by the momentary

passage of a small current through the winding of the seismometer. This

current is led to and from the system at two points so selected that the

electric circuit constitutes a balanced Wheatstone bridge with the galvanom-

eter in its normal position. If then the bridge or shunt is opened, the electro-

magnetic damping is practically removed so the period may be observed by

noting the time between turning points of the deflection of the galvanometer.

If the bridge is not open, it may be adjusted so as to critically damp the

entire system, as shown by the deflections of the galvanometer.

Coupling. The electromagnetic coupling between the galvanometer and

the seismometer is very close. If the steady mass of the seismometer is

held against one of its limiting stops, the damping of the motion of the

galvanometer is approximately ten times critical. It is this close coupling

or excessive over-damping of the galvanometer which is responsible for

operating characteristics differing materially from those of apparatus of the

Galitzin design.

Design. In the design an effort was made not only to produee an instru-

;

‘

;

MAY 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 293

ment having improved operating characteristics but one of simple construction

requiring but few adjustments of a type easily made.

Records of several earthquakes have been obtained and some of these

show both the initial and later phases very nicely. (Auwthor’s abstract.)

970TH MEETING

The 970th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club February 18, 1928.

Program: H. L. Dryprn and G. C. Hit: Wind pressures on cylinders.

The Bureau of Standards has been engaged in the measurement of wind

pressures on cylinders in the neighborhood of the critical region in which the

field of flow changes character, with a view toward determining coefficients

applicable to large chimneys. After a survey of experiments on the flow

about cylinders of all sizes and speeds, attention was focused on the critical

region and the results of pressure distribution measurements. ‘The principal

changes in the pressure distribution at the critical region are as follows:

1. The zonal angle at which the pressure equals the static pressure de-

creases by several degrees.

2. The maximum value of the decrease in pressure nearly doubles.

3. The mean value of the decrease in pressure over the rear quarter de-

creases greatly.

4. The resultant force coefficient decreases by more than 50 per cent.

The results of wind tunnel measurements can not safely be applied to

large chimneys because of the large extrapolation required. Some prelim-

inary observations on a 10-foot stack in the natural wind were mentioned

as indicating the persistence of the low values of the resultant force coefficient.

(Author’s abstract.)

F. W. STEVENS: The gaseous explosive reaction at constant pressure. 'Ther-

modynamic studies of the gaseous explosive reaction have been made under

conditions of constant volume. In these studies a spherical steel bomb

with central ignition was found the most effective. The speaker called

attention to the advantages of the use of constant pressure methods in the

study of gaseous reactions and pointed out the possibility of realizing this

condition in the case of gaseous explosive reactions by the use of temporary

soap film containers likewise fired from the center. This unusually simple

and easily manipulated device is found to function as a bomb of constant

pressure (not necessarily atmospheric). It therefore provides the comple-

ment to the bomb of constant volume in the relation

pv = nkT

By either method, the final pressure or the final volume, as the case may

be, corresponds to the equilibrium constant of the reaction for that condition.

Alm RB’ om: Palace as tenet we

K ie n n n

A™ B™ & Se

The deviation from this constant due to the presence of an inert gas in the

zone of explosive reaction permits the specific heat of gases to be determined

at the temperature of the reaction. Likewise from the final pressure or the

final volume corresponding to the equilibrium constant K, the degree of

dissociation of the combustion products CO, and H.O may be determined over

wide ranges of temperature and pressure.

294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

The application of constant pressure methods to the study of explosive

gaseous reactions, made possible by the bubble device, led to the discovery

of an interesting kinetic relation connecting the rate of propagation of the

zone of explosive reaction within the active gases with the concentrations

(partial pressures) of those gases. It was found that the rate of propagation,

-s, of the zone of reaction measured relative to the active gases, is proportional

to the product of the initial concentrations (partial pressures) of those

gases: :

sS=hA*B2C™

This fundamental kinetic relation found to exist between the rate of propaga-

tion of the zone of reaction ;within the active gases and the concentration of

those gases, is further found to bear much the same relation to the kinetics

of explosive gaseous reactions as does the fundamental thermodynamic re-

lation expressed by K bear to the thermodynamics of the reaction. That is,

the deviations from this kinetic expression due to the presence of an inert

gas in the zone of reaction may be analyzed and interpreted by it, as may

also the effect of known mixtures of active gases and the effect of pressure.

(Author’s abstract.) ‘

971ST MEETING

The 971st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club March 3, 1928.

Program: F. M. DrranporrF: The corona voltmeter. ‘The definiteness of

the voltage at which corona glow appears at the surface of round wires con-

nected to an alternating voltage source led Prof. J. B. Whitehead to utilize

this property in the design of a device for measuring the crest value of alter-

nating voltage, that he called the Corona Voltmeter. It consists of a

grounded outer cylindrical electrode and a polished concentric inner electrode

which is connected to the high voltage source. Aural detection of corona

formation was used in preference to visual and ionization methods. Initial

corona formation has been shown to be a function of the inner and outer

cylinder radii, the temperature of, pressure of, and kind of gas surrounding

the electrodes. Dr. H. B. Brooks modified Whitehead’s corona voltmeter

by providing more accurate control of pressure, temperature, and humidity,

previous to its calibration at the Bureau of Standards, where it was found that

fouling the corona forming surface with a very small amount of impurity

(cylinder oil) altered the corona voltage appreciably. With the surface in

an undisturbed ‘‘cleaned”’ condition check readings to within 0.02 per cent

could be made. Increase in humidity may raise or lower corona voltage by

as much as 3 per cent depending on the size of rod and gas density. The

observed data were shown to be in fair agreement with a modified law of

corona, and a monogram designed by Brooks for rapid determination of corona

voltage from the pressure and temperature measurements for dry air was

shown. The apparent superiority in accuracy of the corona voltmeter over

the sphere gap was discussed briefly.

W. P. WuitTE: Some surprising adsorption effects.

RaupH E. Gipson: The influence of pressure on the high-low inversion of

quartz. The temperature at which quartz inverts from the low to the high

form is raised by the application of a uniform hydrostatic pressure. From

observations made at pressures from 1 to 3000 megabaryes the rise in the

inversion temperature is given as the following function of the pressure:

T =.= 03 + 2.1% 10m po 80 cs op

MAY 19, 1928 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS | 295

From these results the latent heat of inversion and the specific heat of low

quartz are calculated.

Underlying the calculation of the specific heat of low quartz are two

assumptions which are justified from considerations of the nature of the

inversion. (Author’s abstract.)

H. E. Merwin, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. E. G. Zres of the Geophysical Laboratory will spend several months in

the Dutch East Indies, in a study of the gases and other volatile products of

the voleanoes of that region. Messrs. E. T. ALLEN and C. N. FENNER will

_ spend the summer in a chemical and geological study of the geysers and hot

springs of the Yellowstone National Park.

Two lectures supplementary to the annual series of the Carnegie Institu-

tion of Washington were given in April. The lecturers and their subjects

were: April 18, Francis G. BENEpIcT, Director of the Nutrition Laboratory,

Basal metabolism, the modern measure of vital activity; April 20, CHAR LEs B.

Davenport, Director of the Department of Genetics, Race crossing in

Jamaica.

The Petrologists’ Club met at the Geophysical Laboratory on April 17.

H. G. Frereuson described the Gold quartz veins of the Allegheny region,

California; G. W. Morey gave a Review of the critical phenomena in poly-

component systems. Officers for the next season were chosen, as follows:

Secretary-Treasurer, G. TUNELL; Steering Committee, D. F. Hewett, F. C.

ScuarrReER, W. T. SCHALLER.

At the April meeting of the Anthropological Society, Nem M. Jupp, Cura-

tor of American Archeology, U. 8. National Museum, the retiring president,

delivered an address on The present status of archeology in the United States.

At the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences on April 23, 24, and

25 the following papers were read by Washington’ scientists: R. M. LANGER

and GERALDINE K. WaLkKeErR, Models of the Schrédinger atom; E. O. HuLBURT,

Ionization in the upper atmosphere of the earth; FRANK WENNER, A seismometer

employing electromagnetic and optical magnification and electromagnetic damp-

ing; Davin Wuite, Algal deposits of Unkar Proterozoic age in the Grand Can-

yon, Arizona; Henry 8S. WasHincTon, The bearing of the Pacific lavas on the

question of the Atlantic and Pacific rock clans; ALES HrpuicKa, Traces of pre-

historic man in Alaska; JAMES W. GipLEyY, Additional evidence on Pleistocene

man in Florida; WALTER T. SWINGLE, Metazenia in the date palm, possibly a

hormone action exerted by the endosperm; CHARLES F. Craic, Observations upon

complement fixation in infections with Endamoeba hystolytica. ARTHUR KEITH,

U.S. Geological Survey, was elected to membership in the Academy.

Dr. J. WALTER FEWKEsS made the presentation address at the unveiling

of the bust of Louis Agassiz at the Hall of Fame in New York, May 10.

Dr. Fewkes was a pupil of Agassiz.

Dr. C. Pounsen, Mineralogical Museum, Copenhagen, is spending April

and May at the National Museum in connection with his study of the Silurian

fossils collected in North Greenland by Dr. Lauge Koch.

0 ea ae

as iss

296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY‘OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 10

A. A. Baxsr, U. 8. Geological Survey, has left Washington to continue

work on the geology of southeastern Utah, and C. H. DANEz, of the same

organization, is studying the geology of the southeastern part of the San Juan

Basin, northwestern New Mexico.

H. W. Hoots has recently resigned as a geologist in the U. 8. Geological

Survey to engage in commercial geology.

@Obituary

Dr. JosepH NE Son Rose, a member of the Academy, died May 4, 1928.

He was born in Union County, Indiana, January 11, 1862, and educated at

Wabash College. In 1888 he came to Washington as assistant botanist in

the Department of Agriculture, and on the reorganization of the National

Herbarium in 1896, and its transfer to the custody of the Smithsonian Insti-

tution, became assistant curator, and later associate curator, which position

he held at the time of his death. Dr. Rose made extensive botanical explora-

tions in the American tropics and in the Andes, particularly in connection

with his monographic study of the cactus family. He is the author of a

large number of papers on systematic botany, extending over a period of

forty years. Aside from a series of papers on the flora of Mexico, his principal

publications have dealt with the Apiaceae and several groups of succulents.

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Radiogeology.—Lead isotopes and Ne Mesblein pee ponkdeis’ (oe

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Botany.—New plants from Central America.—XIIL. Pav C. Sranpui

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Scretpre Nowes AND NEWS.../.sccssersseseyeeeestiseneestaneeesase

OBITUARY: J. N. hock ak Ae ee ee

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: Ropert B. SosMan, Geophysical i Ae ee

Corresponding Secretary: L. B. Tuckerman, Bureau of Standa

Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, sei eure nanan

Treasurer: ‘R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

JUNE 4, 1928 No. 11

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

a OF SCIENC

SINSORIAE INSTHIGHy > ~

Bes. A BOARD OF EDITORS

ss Aas Cuase Joun B. Reesipz, Jr, E. W. Wootarp

t BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL MUSEUM

WEATHER BUREAU

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

L. H. Apams S. A. RonpwEr

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

E. A. GoLpMAN G. W. Srosze

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

R. F. Griacs J. R. Swanton

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Roger C. WEtLs

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY

EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY

BY THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Mr. Rorat anp Guttrorp Avzs,

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may pt ary a oghe Matter, January il, oe at - ven Hr yened at Baltimore, at 2 the

ugust Acceptance for m g at speci postage pro or

in section 11 103, Act of October 3, 1917, Authorized on July 3, 1918.

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

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gee i eee

= s

4 Ae, pee oe Sy 4

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 JUNE 4, 1928 No. 11

PHYSICS.—The thermodynamic characteristic for all bodies. <A.

Press. (Communicated by E. W. Woouarp.)

Starting with the fundamental energy equation of thermodynamics

we have

ee se pl iW sia sa! «wine sya se ide «tye (1)

In general, of course, dU, representing the internal energy, is a perfect

differential—not so pdv. To integrate (1) we require to turn the whole

equation into a perfect differential. The common mathematical

device of multiplying with a known integrating factor can therefore be

resorted to. For generality let this integrating factor be

Figs on TIN) alg een RRS Ae Pitta RI SS (2)

The energy equation (1) then takes the form

oU oU

1 dQ = pao + u(o + 2) a ES oihce aan eC (3)

The usual condition that now needs to be satisfied for a perfect differ-

ential is that we have

Mo aa a (4)

which reduces to

1 Received March 20, 1928.

297

298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

It is to be remembered that thermodynamically speaking equation

(5) applies to all bodies. No matter what the U may be, as a function

of v and 6 for a particular body, it nevertheless is true that (5) obtains.

Yet the whole of ordinary thermodynamics rests on the basis that

the three variables, p, v and @ for example, are sufficient to specify a

thermodynamic surface function. In the above, five variables

OU) thy: De Dy Oe, < vines ethan ee (6)

occur. The question arises, can a surface characteristic function

such as

p= F 0, p).0.cc. ee (7)

be formed in view of (2), (thereby giving p = F (uv, 6) if desired), that

will satisfy (5) and obtain for all bodies. Equation (7) therefore

needs to be a very comprehensive, that is, functional type.

Let us therefore postulate the following:

(a) That afunction » = f (v, @) exists which as an integrating

factor will be common to all bodies characterized by the energy

equation (1).

(b) That for any » so taken, and a p given, a body can always

be found that will enable U to be arbitrarily chosen, making U

_ therefore an independent variable with respect to a given u and p.

If then the above postulates are accepted, a solution of (5) can be found

by the method of separation of variables.

Thus we can take as one independent variable

xX. = (up) a. 6 le). ¢ ele) eraiiete Ww 6 el tele (8)

On the other hand for the same yu applying to all bodies we can intro-

duce a further independent variable defined by the relation

z — Umm _ Ue

06 Ov ov 6

This should appear possible in view of postulate (6). We then have by

(5) that

In an equation of the type of (10), or its equivalent (5), we are

JUNE 4, 1928 PRESS: THERMODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC 299

therefore entitled to seek a “particular solution’? by setting each

side in turn equal to zero.2. Thus for the right hand term we have

ra) 1

a Gp) = Os pV = ie a Rete ayes iat wat at PS on (11)

Where V is an arbitrary function of v arising as a “‘constant”’ of integra-

tion. This is a very simple relation for the thermodynamic character-

istic for all bodies.

In fact if we wish to determine the integrating factor u for any

characteristic applying to a particular body, equation (11) indicates

the method if the V-function is known. ‘This will be exemplified.

An equation such as (11), or its equivalent

— HH 0 eee. AQ)

09 o6

ee Are ce OR eat ROME ne (13)

Ov Ov

showing that we must also have

eS OO alee hs. posto est ae Ling cnten (14)

The integrating factor is then a function of the internal energy U.

For the perfect gas we would thus have

Of course having found the ‘particular solution” given by (11) we

can attempt to find a more ‘‘complete solution.’”’ Let us then write

R= M PG is cde Sree Su eh ae Sw hee relte aw baie (15a)

where M=¢(U):-yv(e,6) +1

ESE REESE carck MO INN oH Nit ee yo (16)

giving w= wo + F (v, 8)

and ig ODF SIR AE AS: 2: (14)

2? Or to aconstant. The latter alternative does not check with the requirements for

an ideal gas.

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

Taking note of (12) and (15a) we have

x), = 4 (SS) + = (Z)

(34) = a See Ov / 4

a), -™ (3) Pe

(3) M (2) + ws 06 /,

O O re)

sq (Ho P) = M =, (uo p) + mp (%)

Substituting back it follows that

MS. — M2 — MS wo)

ee =) 00g AOU re. eS (18)

HONS) J, 00 NO on. ee aa

The first line of (18) then vanishes because by (14) yo is already the

particular integrating factor. That is to say, (18) must reduce to the

following

oU ‘ = ia ( —

Pay ( ov J, =\p+ = 0. (19)

A simplification of (19) is in order because by definition in (16), M

is assumed a function of v and 6 so that

yep i eee

(2i8) 5; reese ees (20)

00 /,

That is to say, we can write (19) in the following manner

oU =) oU

Dp + a = - ap i Sa. rn (21)

The function M then does exist, for thermodynamically speaking

the latent heat function p + oa = / must be in some manner related

CU.

Da da Ce

Applying the above to the equation of a perfect gas by way of ex-

ample, let

to the specific heat at constant volume

JUNE 4, 1928 PRESS: THERMODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC 301

WR IRONS te ih cte KE Se al Og wa (22)

Then for the integrating factor uo we can set according to equation

(11) that

— = R6; wo = vs (23

; — 407, fo — Besos = hee ane )

’ Again, knowing that for a perfect gas = in (21) would be equal to

zero we have

oU oU

= LS 1p = Cs a Tee ee TY a) Se (24)

Therefore by (21) and (22)

O86 Re at

—a- (2) ree eS (25)

The integral of (25) is consequently

PAP PPR EE COL ek Tere Gay

and for the simplest form of f (7) = M we have

: R ete

SO Soe hoa

pu = 0 eR Ee te oe (27)

In other words a further integrating factor is a function of v only

dy: 1

whereas the original one was yu fy,

- Multiplying the Energy Equation with the u of (27) we have for an

4 ideal gas in view of (24) and (22) that

R R

a OU a

R,dQ =v >>, :d6+v -p-+d

; = R..

= 9 9a. 00.4 RB? 0) 2 dB... venleen’ (28)

mets: ve 23

ela) ae (ee ) ee ee (29)

302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

- Elsewhere I have shown that the particular integrating factor given

by-:.. oi

DV ta

Be Pa ne anaes (30)

with » = f (U)

leads to a consideration of a new type of cycle analogous to that of

Carnot. ‘The new cycle comprises two adiabatics and two iso-U curves

instead of two isothermals.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.—The crystallography and optical properties

of B-lactose.1 Epagar T. WuHerry, Bureau of Chemistry and

Soils.

Although the crystallographic features of ordinary a-lactose have

been fully described, there appear to be no data on the 6-form. In the

study of the development of minute crystals of sugars in ice cream,

the. Bureau of Dairy Industry of the United States Department of

Agriculture found it desirable to have means for distinguishing these

two forms of lactose from one another as well as from sucrose, and the

examination of the grains by the immersion method under the polariz-

ing microscope seems well adapted to the purpose. Accordingly

O. E. Williams of that Bureau prepared and turned over to the writer

a sample of crystallized 6-lactose, in order that its properties might be

determined and contrasted with those of other sugars. ‘The crystals

were obtained by holding a concentrated lactose solution at a tempera-

ture of about. 94°C. ‘They were then washed several times with hot

glycerol and hot ethanol. The melting point was found to be 252.4°C.;

since the melting point given in the literature is 252.2°, their idan

was thus confirmed.

The crystals, which range from 1 to 5 mm. in diameter, are trans-

parent and colorless. They have a pronounced polar development,

and the distribution of their faces show that they belong to the holo-

axial-polar (sphenoidal) class of the monoclinic system. Measure-

ments of 10 crystals were made on the two-circle goniometer, with the

results presented in Table 1.

1 Received March 19, 1928.

JUNE 4,1928 | WHERRY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHY OF $-LACTOSE 303

TABLE 1.—AnGtEs or 6-LACTOSE

Monoclinic, holoaxial-polar; a: b: ¢ = 0.817: 1: 0.377; » = 88° 15’

Symbols Angles

he Description Measured Calculated

Gold- | Miller

schmidt | *

SSS Oe Oe

ae 0} 001 Prominent but distorted 80°-85° |} 1° 45’ | 90°00’ | 1°45’

2.m co | 110 Dominant, reflecting well | 50° 45’ | 90° 00’ | 50°45’ | 90°00’

3.L —2 ! 210 Prominent, much curved 65°-75° | 90° 00’ | 67°46’ | 90°00’

4.X | —1—2 | 323 Moderately curved 58°-60° | 25°-27° | 59°44’ | 26°29’

For the most part the faces are more or less rounded, but the angles

could be measured with sufficient precision to make the second decimal

place certain, so that the axial ratios are stated to the third place.

The form having the most nearly perfect faces was taken as the posi-

tive unit prism, and used for orienting the crystals on the goniom-

eter. The value of the acute monoclinic angle » (often called 6 by

American crystallographers, although this symbol more properly

belongs to the obtuse angle) was then obtained by measuring the

p angle of the principal terminal plane, which

was taken as the basal pinacoid. ‘To obtain

the axial ratio c it was necessary to use meas-

urements on a distinctly curved form, so that

the value of this axis is especially uncertain.

That form was taken to be a negative back

pyramid, and the symbol for it which gave

the most reasonable value for c was found by Eu SO ees

trial to be (823). Figure 1 shows the habit, aoa

the plan at the top having been drawn with

straight edges in the theoretical positions, the Fig. 1

parallel-perspective elevation below with the

edges in part curved as they are in reality.

When examined by the immersion method under the polarizing

microscope, the substance appears in irregular fragments, showing

between crossed nicols first to third order colors, and yielding on trial

with successive liquids the refractive index values: a = 1.542, 6 =

1.572, y = 1.585. As the positions of the grains are random, means

of these values are usually exhibited, although it is not difficult to

find grains with the different index directions lying horizontally, so

that matching with the corresponding liquids can be obtained. In

convergent polarized light negative biaxial interference figures having

a rather large axial angle, 2E = 120°, are occasionally obtained, the

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

axial plane lying in the ortho-zone, and the acute bisectrix lying in

angle » about 30° from axisc. ‘Table 2 shows these values, contrasted

with those of a-lactose and sucrose.

TABLE 2.—Oprticat Constants oF THREE SuGARS

Substance a B 7 oe

GUSTO TOS wl erte Heat tthe a aish wn! cheba -rahontagele Le DAT 0s 1.088 bad 1.559 ccatt 333°

BAB CLOSE Ane hele coc rete bie ks aa EES. ee LsS¥Qe.. Peay 1 OBS. eee 120°

TEUERORG Le Oe |. HAUL. ay 2, Ge Lt anne RAO: os 12567) ea L725 ee 79°

The reason that the refractive indices of the 6-lactose are so much

higher than the corresponding ones of the e-form is that the former is

anhydrous, whereas the latter is a monohydrate. The value of 6

given for a-lactose represents a redetermination, and accords with the

small axial angle better than the value usually ascribed to this sub-

stance. In all three cases, however, 6 is less certain than are the other

two indices, because of the random positions assumed by the grains.

For distinguishing these three sugars in practice the procedure

given in Table 3 may be used. Oily immersion liquids of refractive

indices 1.520, 1.540, 1.555, 1.570, and 1.585 are required. All observa-

tions should be made on grains brought to an extinction position by

rotating the stage until the grain attains its maximum darkness as

viewed between crossed nicols, and then removing the upper nicol

(analyzer). The rule for ascertaining the relative values of the

refractive indices is simply that on razsing the microscope-tube slightly

a band of light is seen to pass into that substance—crystal or liquid—

having the higher index in the direction of the vibration plane of the

polarizing nicol. In making such observations in white or yellowish

light, the ordinary eye is unable to distinguish differences in refractive

index between two substances in contact less than about + 0.003;

apparent matching means, then, that the index of crystal and liquid

agree with this degree of approximation. .

TABLE 3.—D1re&cTIons FOR DISTINGUISHING a-LACTOSE, 6-LACTOSE, AND SUCROSE

Immerse in liquid 1.520. If the boundaries of numerous grains disappear, repeat

with liquid 1.555; if this is also matched by a number of grains the substance is

Be sage hess ss Sie SeUeh eM NRIRESE Make ve dow clas ats2Ce Ia cen MaRS entra lhe Ma ee Me eR oe i a-lactose.

In case the refractive indices of the grains.are all decidedly higher than the first liquid,

try liquid 1.540. If this matches the lowest index of some grains, repeat with liquid

1.570; if some grains match this and none show a higher value, the substance is

SORT co eRe en Ary tai MRC SRM Cat, Cho. SMe RGA eaRURN eM RL Sac 3 sucrose.

If one refractive index on many grains proves to be distinctly higher than the last

liquid tried, immerse next in liquid 1.585. If this matches the highest refractive

index of any of the grains, the substance 18)).\.........56. suas eseewlcaebes GB-lactose.

Should none of these requirements be fulfilled, the substance under examination is

neither lactose nor sucrose.

JUNE 4, 1928 JOHNSON: NEW LOCALITY FOR FOX HILLS FOSSILS 305

GEOLOGY.—A new locality for Fox Hills fossils in Colorado. J.

HarRLaN JOHNSON, Colorado School of Mines (Communicated

by JoHn B. REESIDE, JR.).

In August, 1926, the writer discovered a new and rather prolific

locality for Fox Hills fossils that seems worth recording because of

_ the fine preservation and unusual variety of forms present. It is

located in secs. 21 and 22, T. 11 N., R. 68 W., southeast of Round

Butte and about 12 miles north of the town of Wellington in Larimer

County, Colorado.

The fossils occur in a relatively thin zone at about the base of the

Millikin sandstone member, as defined by Henderson.2. The strati-

graphic section at the locality is as follows:

SECTION OF PART OF THE Fox HILLs SANDSTONE IN Secs. 21 AND 22, T. 11 N.,

R. 68 W., LarRtMerR County, CoLoRabo.

Bed Fee

8. Sandstone, greenish yellow, massive though rather soft............. 25

7. Sandstone, white, containing many small limonite concretions....... 9

6. Sandstone, soft, massive, white with light brown streaks; some buff

Sean AMER MEER PRAEDI ie i oc ree dito ayia ehh chen, 2 Sle 18

me emanione hand. dati. browit.: | .).0. 6664 sos) scans eae hi snu Bid’ 1

4. Sandstone soft, massive, white; contains irregularly scattered con-

cretions as much as 4 feet in diameter....................--. 12

3. Sandstone, soft, buff; contains brown concretions of varying size..... 15

2. Shale, brown, sandy, with much concretionary limonite in small

RE SUM Aca a BAe. SEAT oy aE ET, idea Sas ee sei

ermine dark pray to- black, slightly sandy . «02.0.4 oi.) . oso ae es ae ?

Most of the fossils collected came from beds 5 and 6. There were

also, in bed 4 and bed 6, sandstone casts of pelecypods, sometimes

showing remnants of the shell, but usually in a poor state of preser-

vation. No fossils were noted in beds 1, 2, or those below the meas-

ured section. The best preserved specimens came from concretions

in bed 4, though a number of well preserved fossils came from other

concretions at the base of bed 6.

The fauna of the locality, as determined by John B. Reeside, Jr.,

of the U. 8. Geological Survey, is as follows:

Pelecypoda: Callista nebraskensis Meek and Hayden, Cardium

speciosum Meek and Hayden, Gervillia subtortuosa Meek and Hayden,

Mactra formosa Meek and Hayden, Modiola meeki Evans and Shumard,

1 Received March 13, 1928.

2 Junius Henperson. Colo. Geol. Surv. Bull. 19: 22. 1920.

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

Nucula larimerensis Reeside,? N. weldensis Reeside,? Ostrea gillulyt

Reeside,*? Ostrea sp.?, Protocardia subquadrata Evans and Shumard,

Pteria nebrascana Evans and Shumard, Teredo? tubes, Veniella humilis

Meek and Hayden.

Seaphopoda: Dentaliwm gracile Hall and Meek.

Gastropoda: Anchura americana Evans and Shumard, Cylichna

voluaria Meek and Hayden, Fasciolaria (Piestocheilus) scarborought

Meek and Hayden, Fasciolaria sp., Fusus (Serrifusus) dakotensis

Meek and Hayden, Fusus? sp., Gyrodes jgohnsont Reeside,? Haminea

subcylindrica Meek and Hayden, Lunatia occidentalis Meek and

Hayden, L. subcrassa Meek and Hayden, Pyropsis bairdit Meek and

Hayden?, Pyropsis sp., Trachytriton vinculum Hall and Meek.

Cephalopoda: Discoscaphites conradt Morton.

Associated with the invertebrates were shark teeth, small verte-

brae of fish, and silicified wood, in part showing the effects of attack

by boring mollusks.

PALEONTOLOGY.—New Cretaceous mollusks from Colorado and

Utah.:. Joun B. Rexsipg, Jr., U. 8. Geological Survey.

This paper describes three species of pelecypods and a gastropod from

the Fox Hills sandstone (Maestrichtian) of northeastern Colorado

and a gastropod from the base of the Colorado group (lower Turonian)

of Utah. ‘The geographic location, stratigraphic position, and faunal

association of the Fox Hills species are described above by Professor

J. Harlan Johnson (pages 305-306).

Genus Nucuta Lamarck

Nucula larimerensis Reeside, n. sp.

Figures 7-9

_ A single specimen from the Fox Hills sandstone in sec. 21 or 22, T. 11 N.,

R. 68 W., Larimer County, Colorado, collected by Prof. Johnson, is the basis

of this species.

Shell moderately large, heavy; broadly subelliptical, moderately gibbous;

proportion of length to height about as 5 to 3. Beaks blunt, subcentral.

Lunule and escutcheon but little differentiated. Posterior margin narrowly

rounded, anterior margin a little broader; basal margin gently convex, cre-

nate inside. Dorsum declining with very slight convexity both before and

behind the beaks; gross angle formed by the dorsum at the beak of. the

valve 130°.

3 See pages 306-312 for description of these species.

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. 8S. Geological Survey. Received

March 18, 1928.

JUNE 4, 1928 REESIDE: NEW CRETACEOUS MOLLUSKS 307

Sculpture consists of fine, irregularly spaced concentric lines of growth;

and very faint radial lines scarcely visible without the assistance of a hand

lens, 2 per millimeter at the posterior margin and 3 in 2 millimeters at the

anterior margin.

Hinge and other internal characters not seen. |

Length, 35 millimeters; height, 22 millimeters; convexity of a valve,

8 millimeters.

This species.is characterized by its medium size, broadly subelliptical

outline, and very faint radial sculpture. No other species from the Western

Interior is close enough to it to deserve comparison. WN. percrassa Conrad?

in the Ripley fauna of the Coastal Plain resembles N. larimerensis but the

latter has much fainter radial sculpture, is less gibbous and more evenly sub-

elliptical in outline, and has the beaks lower and placed farther forward.

N. larimerensis also resembles N. slackiana Gabb* but has again much

fainter radial sculpture, lower and more anteriorly placed beaks, and sub-

elliptical outline.

The type is in the U. 8. National Museum (Cat. No. 73454).

Nucula weldensis Reeside, n. sp.

Figures 16-18

Five specimens collected by Prof. Johnson from the Fox Hills sandstone

in sec. 21 or 22, T. 11 N., R. 68 W., Larimer County, Colorado, are the basis

of this species.

Shell small, moderately heavy; subtrigonal, rather inflated; proportion

of length to height about as 4 to 3. Beaks not very prominent, posterior,

opisthogyrate. Lunule elongate, ill-defined, bordered by an indistinct

angulation of the valve; escutcheon nearly smooth, cordate, of moderate size,

sharply defined by an angular shoulder. Anterior and posterior margins

rounded, basal margin semielliptic in outline, apparently smooth inside.

Dorsum declining with moderate convexity anterior to the beaks and with

slight concavity behind; gross angle formed by the dorsum at the beaks about

75°.

Sculpture of fine concentric growth lines and only the faintest suggestion

here and there of radial sculpture.

Internal characters unknown in type. Cross-section of another specimen

indicates a series of 20 teeth before the beak and one of 9 behind, diverging

at an angle of 90°.

Length of type, 20 millimeters; height, 15 millimeters; convexity of a

valve, 6 millimeters.

This species is characterized by small size; relatively high, subtrigonal,

inflated shell; distinct escutcheon; smooth inner margins; and lack of radial

2T. A. Conrap. Observations on a group of Cretaceous fossil shells found in Tippah

County, Miss. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. (2) 3: 327. pl. 35, f. 4. 1856; Bruce WADE.

The fauna of the Ripley formation on Coon Creek, Tenn. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper

137: 39. pl. 8, f. 1-4. 1926.

3W.M. Gass. Descriptions of new species of American Tertiary and Cretaceous fos-

sils. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. (2) 4: 397. pl. 48, f.37. 1860; Jutta GarpNner. Md.

Geol. Surv. Rept., Upper Cret., p. 511. pl. 19, f.1-4. 1916.

308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

sculpture. It differs from the nearest forms of the Western Interior as follows:

from N. planimarginata Meek and Hayden‘ in its smaller, stouter shell,

higher subtrigonal outline, and lack of radial sculpture; from N. cancellata

Meek and Hayden® in smaller size, higher subtrigonal shell, and lack of

radial sculpture; from N. coloradoensis Stanton® in its larger, stouter shell

and lack of radial sculpture; from an unnamed species in the Eagle sandstone

of Montana in its lack of radial sculpture and smaller escutcheon. JN.

weldensis differs from similar species of the Coastal Plain as follows: from

N. stantoni Stephenson’ in its lack of radial sculpture, lesser height, stouter

shell, and greater umbonal angle; from N. amica Gardner® in its lack of

radial and strong, regular concentric sculpture; from N. microconcentrica

Wade? in its subtrigonal form.

The type is in the U. S. National Museum (Cat. No. 73455); four para-

types are at the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado.

Genus OstreA Linnaeus

Ostrea gillulyi Reeside, n. sp.

Figures 1-6, 10, 11

This species is represented by 6 individuals from 6 localities and a some-

what doubtful lot of 10 specimens from a seventh locality.

Shell of medium size, subovate to subtriangular, more or less arcuate.

Shell thin in most specimens, moderately thick in some. Beaks narrow to

pointed, slightly twisted, and turned posteriorly. Left valve swollen, rather

evenly rounded; right valve flat to slightly concave, fitting within the margins

of the left valve.

Hinge high, triangular, sharply inclined posteriorly. Ligament area

crossed by fine growth lines and in the right valve by fine longitudinal lines

also; groove well-defined, deep. Margins of right valve near the hinge

coarsely dentate; of the left valve pitted to correspond with the denticles

of the right valve. Muscle scar large, oval, situated toward the middle

posterior of the valves. Margins of the lower part of both valves smooth.

Surface of left valve covered by irregular, rounded radial ribs, 2 to 4 milli-

meters wide, which bifurcate and are variable in height; and by sharp

concentric lamellae. Surface of right valve with sharp concentric lamellae

and obscure, irregular radial ribs or striae.

The height of the type is 75 millimeters; length, 40 millimeters; convexity

of the left valve, 15 millimeters.

4F. B. Meex. Invertebrate Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils of the Upper Missourt

Couniry. Rept. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr.9:101. pl. 15, f. 8; pl. 28, f. 16. 1876.

Ph Bi Mun, Opvets p.102.,. pl. 28,3) atho-

6T.W. Sranton. The Colorado group and its invertebrate fauna. U.S. Geol. Surv.

Bull. 106: 94. pl. 21, f.9. 1898.

7L. W. SrepHenson. Cretaceous formations of North Carolina. Rept. N. Car.

Geol. Econ. Surv. 5(1): 79. pl. 11, f. 1-6. 1923.

8 JULIA GARDNER. Op.cit., p. 514. pl. 19, f. 5-6.

§ Bruce WapE. Op. cit., p. 40. ‘pl. 8, f. 7-8.

JUNE 4, 1928 REESIDE: NEW CRETACEOUS MOLLUSKS 309

This species is characterized by its strong radial sculpture, somewhat

arcuate form, and its size. No species now known in the Western Interior

is very close to it. In the Coastal Plain O. tecticosta Gabb” is similar but

seems a consistently smaller, less arcuate, and more coarsely ribbed shell.

Some Tertiary species also are similar to O. gzllulyz but hardly enter into

consideration here.

The type specimen (U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 73457) was collected by

James Gilluly from the Fox Hills sandstone in the NW 1/4 sec. 7, T. 9 N.,

R. 67 W., Weld County, Colorado. Other specimens (U. 8. Nat. Mus. Cat.

No. 73456) from the Fox Hills of Colorado were collected by Prof. Johnson

in sec. 21 or 22, T. 11 N., R. 68 W., Larimer County. It is also represented

in a collection made by V. H. Barnett from the top of the Lewis shale in

the SW 1/4 sec. 34, T. 34 N., R. 77 W., Converse County, Wyoming; in a

collection made by C. E. Dobbin from the lower part of the Lewis shale in

NW 1/4 sec. 8, T. 21 N., R. 78 W., Carbon County, Wyoming. A collection

made by T. W. Stanton from the Mesaverde formation at James Lake,

Laramie Plains, Albany County, Wyoming, contains a number of specimens

of an oyster that appears to be this species, though all the individuals are

small and none are especially well preserved. The range of O. gillulyi would

appear to be through the upper half of the Montana group.

Genus GyropDES Conrad

Gyrodes johnsoni Reeside, n. sp.

Figures 12-15

Three specimens from the Fox Hills sandstone in sec. 21 or 22, T. 11 N.,

R. 68 W., Larimer County, Colorado, collected by Prof. Johnson, are the

basis of this species.

Shell small for the genus, very much depressed, approaching a thick disk

in general form. Volutions about 3 in number, the outer one constituting

perhaps three-fourths of the bulk of the shell; well rounded in cross-section,

showing neither shoulder nor umbilical carina. Surface of the shell in part

preserved in the type and showing only lines of growth parallel to the aperture.

Suture impressed. Aperture obliquely ovate; outer lip thin, sharp; inner lip

thin, nearly straight. Umbilicus deep, open.

Maximum diameter of shell, 21 millimeters; altitude, 14 millimeters.

This species is distinguished from most species of Gyrodes by the lack of

shoulder and umbilical carination, from others by the great depression of the

whorls. G. petrosa Morton" and G. depressa Meek” are perhaps the nearest

species but both have an umbilical carina and are relatively higher shells.

10W.M.Gass. Op. cit., p.403. pl. 68, f. 47-48; L.W. StepHENSON. Op. cit., p. 143.

pl. 38, f. 1-9.

11 StuarT WELLER. Cretaceous paleontology of New Jersey. N. J. Geol. Surv., Pal.

ser. 4: 689. pl. 77, f. 13-18. 1907.

122T,W.Sranton. Op. cit., p. 135, pl. 29, f. 11-14.

310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

This type is in the U. 8. National Museum (Cat. No. 73458), and two

paratypes are at the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado.

Genus ANCHURA Conrad

Anchura? forresteri Reeside, n. sp.

Figure 19

The scar of attachment of a large lower valve of Exogyra olisiponensis

Sharpe var. oryntas Coquand, from the basal part of the beds of Colorado

age at Black Bluff, Utah, constitutes a fairly sharp mould of a gastropod

not at present known by any other specimen.

Parts of three whorls and the exterior of much of the wing-like extension

of the outer lip are shown. ‘The species is high-spired, the volutions of the

spire moderately convex with numerous longitudinal, somewhat inclined,

rounded ribs and only faintly visible spiral sculpture. The body-whorl

shows both axial and spiral sculpture and is cancellated. The expanded

outer lip bears a distinct, rounded keel, curved posteriorly into the sharp

tip of the wing. ‘The suture of the body whorl near the outer lip extends

posteriorly across the preceding whorl but there is no clear evidence in the

specimen of a posterior extension of the lip along the spire.

The writer knows no American species very close to Anchura? forresteri

and though the type is somewhat indefinite believes it worthy of a name.

It is best characterized by the size, the form of the extension of the outer

lip, and the sculpture. It is strikingly like Aporrhais (‘“‘Chenopus’’) olisipo-

nensis Choffat!® from the lower Turonian of Portugal, though on the basis

of the single specimen available it seems better to keep the two under separate

names. It is difficult to tell from either Choffat’s figures or the present

specimen whether the two species belong to Anchura or Aporrhais, though

they are in some respects more like certain species definitely assignable to

Anchura. :

The type is in the U. 8. National Museum (Cat. No. 73459).

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures 1-6. Ostrea gillulyt Reeside, n. sp., outer, inner and anterior views of the two

valves of the type, a complete shell from the Fox Hills sandstone in the NW 1/4

sec. 7, T.9 N., R. 67 W., Weld County, Colorado. (p. 308.)

Figures 7-9. Nucula larimerensis Reeside, n. sp., basal, anterior, and right views of

the type, a complete shell from the Fox Hills sandstone in sec. 21 or 22, T. 11 N.,

R. 68 W., Larimer County, Colorado. (p. 306.)

Figure 10. Ostrea gillulyi Reeside, n. sp., a left valve with strong radial sculpture.

Same locality as Figs. 1-6. (p. 308.)

Figure 11. Ostrea gillulyi Reeside, n. sp., a left valve with strong concentric sculpture.

Same locality as Figs. 7-9. (p. 308.)

Figures 12-15. Gyrodes johnsoni Reeside, n. sp., apical, umbilical, dorsal, and aper-

tural views (2) of the type, a cast retaining parts of the shell. Same locality as

Figs. 7-9. (p. 309.)

18 Pau Cuorrat. Faune crétacique du Portugal1(1): 12. Prosobranches pl. 2, f.8-9.

1886; 1(4). Prosobranches pl. 5, f. 1-2. 1902.

a.) eae eee eh

OO OO =

— .—- =F

JUNE 4, 1928 REESIDE: NEW CRETACEOUS MOLLUSKS

Figures 1-9.

1-6, Ostrea gillulyi; 7-9, Nucula larimerensis

oll

312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

Figures 10-19. 10-11, Ostrea gillulyi; 12-15, Gyrodes johnsoni; 16-18, Nucula weldensis:

19, Anchura? forresteri

Py a eee eS ee Se ee ee

i ue

JUNE 4, 1928 PIGGOT: RADIUM CONTENT OF GRANITE 313

Figures 16-18. Nucula weldensis Reeside, n. sp., right, posterior, and top views (X2)

of the type, a complete shell. Same locality as Figs. 7-9. (p. 307.)

Figure 19. Anchura? forresteri Reeside, n. sp., plaster cast from the type, a mould

from the basal part of the beds of Colorado age at Black Bluff, Utah. (p. 310.)

RADIOGEOLOGY.—The radium content of Stone Mountain granite.}

CHARLES SNOWDEN Piacot, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie

Institution of Washington.

This paper refers to the first measurements by the author, of what is

intended to be a comprehensive study of the radium content of the

various classes of rocks of the Earth’s structure. It is of a preliminary

and introductory nature only. <A paper describing in detail the appa-

ratus and technique used and the results obtained from a study of

several rocks will be published shortly.

DESCRIPTIVE

The sample used was a gray biotite-muscovite granite from Stone

Mountain, Georgia, and was a part of the same block as used by Day,

Sosman and Hostetter? in their determination of densities at high

temperatures.

The density of this material at 25° is 2.633 and the chemical com-

position as determined by Packard? is as follows:

ANnaLysis, NorM, AND MopE oF STONE Mountain GRANITE

I i Ban eee tia Tac cued Jy a Lge dh 5 oe cgi 71.66

PEE UR iy SP TERNS 8 ia osama hase ae aa, imino! F0- GRAMmN ads saw enw ld: «od Re. 16.05

Fe:O; ete a ee iete cat aienare ee Sietola wale a ee Sue ee co's See Wied a ee state oe Sete c theatw elo 0.86

RE A es duis Vath «ast wie CAMBER AW OIE TL « SA ADONIS « Not determined

ee eer ee te 8 LE Bo tw ids ic avai on depts ae beta « 0.17

Sey, Zoe 9 sesaepiaie te vine Nei SACRE. NE Sera 6 Fyne 1.07

eR te eee er ee Salle ees One te oe Tee a ane ee biee cutee 4.66

Sener SEMAN Shot et FED Pees CE tll, Salad! eR 4.92

ee ee A Sk er Ll, fe bd & oases eo beds eid wen bho dee mK oa 1.00

NORM? MODE!

Be Shee es & ees eee 22.80 Omrtay eG ee Fb A 20

OrthooclAse.:<. ainsi i. owls. 28.91 Wierochme. gi) cme. wal . da tiyah 40

(| gear AC 39.30 Plagioclase AbgsAnis........... 30

PRESTR MILO P52 bcs adhere ia Sus 0 ule 5.28 Mica, nearly all muscovite...... 10

Gerongwm: 2.20284 fee 24 1.12

Hypersthene.......22..0:.5.- 1.72

1 Received March 14, 1928.

? ArTHUR L. Day, R. B. Sosman and J. C. Hostetrer. Am. Journ. Sci. 37: 1-39.

1914. Also Neues Jahrb. Beil. Bd. 40: 119-162. 1915.

3H. S. Wasuineton. Chemical analyses of igneous rocks. U. S. Geol. Survey,

Prof. Paper 99: Analysis No. 51, p.173. 1917.

4L. H. Apams and E. D. Witiiamson. The compressibility of minerals and rocks at

high pressures. Journ. Frank. Inst. 195: 483. 1923.

314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

The rock was crushed, and ground to a fine powder in a ball mill.

A 25-gram sample was mixed with 100 grams of a flux, consisting of

equal parts by weight of anhydrous sodium and potassium carbonates,

and the mixture was fused in a furnace of special design, in a slow

stream of pure carbon dioxide gas.. Any radium and thorium emana-

tion was carried out of the melt by the carbon dioxide produced by the

fusion and was swept along in the stream of CO,. This latter was

absorbed by hot sodium hydroxide solution, and the unabsorbed gases, —

consisting of air (adsorbed on the mix), helium, and minute quantities

of other gases from the rock, and containing the radium and thorium

emanations, were collected over mercury, which was regulated by a

leveling bulb. From there they were subsequently drawn into an

evacuated emanation chamber and the remaining vacuum relieved by

drawing CO,-free air through the entire apparatus and thereby insuring

the assembly of all emanation within the emanation chamber.

‘This chamber® is a closed cylinder of brass of one liter capacity

with a brass rod projecting down the center through insulation of pure

amber. After allowing the chamber to stand under a static charge

of 650 volts potential difference for three hours, to permit of the

elimination of any thorium emanation, an alpha-ray determination

was made in the usual way with a gold-leaf electroscope of the detach-

able Lind type.°

Calibration was effected by making a number of runs with the

granite alone, and then making another series, identical in every

respect except that a known amount of radium, in equilibrium with

its disintegration products, was added.

This added radium was secured by pipetting a standard radium solu-

tion into small thin-walled glass bulbs, evaporating slowly to dryness

and then sealing the bulbs. These were allowed to stand for more

than thirty days, after which time the radium was again in equilibrium

with its emanation, and the bulbs could be used. Bulbs containing

1 and 3 cubic centimeters of solution, respectively, were used. A

bulb would be embedded in the mix and the fusion carried out in

the usual way.

The standard radium solution used was such that 1 cubic centi-

meter contained 32.2 x 10-” grams radium element.

The flux alone was found to have some radioactivity. That this

5 A development of the detachable electroscope and chamber of 8. C. Lind. Vide,

Bull. 212, Bureau of Mines. Also Journ. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 7: 406. 1915; 7: 1024-

29; 12: 469-72. 1920.

JUNE 4, 1928 PIGGOT: RADIUM CONTENT OF GRANITE 315

was a true effect is indicated by the fact that a run made on 100 grams

of flux gave an electroscope reading of 0.0014 divisions per second,

while a 200-gram sample of the same material gave a reading of 0.0029

divisions. A number of runs were made which confirmed these

figures.

The ‘‘natural leak’’ of the electroscope assembly was always taken

before each measurement and applied as a subtractive correction to

all readings. In every case the apparatus remained under charge

long enough for the insulation to take up any “electrical soak’’ and

come to a condition of stable equilibrium. After each measurement

the emanation chamber was blown out for several howrs with dry,

CO.-free air drawn from outside the laboratory building.

EXPERIMENTAL

The effect on the electroscope of the granite alone was determined

by a series of sixteen fusions, the results constituting the following

table. ‘The numbers represent divisions of the scale, as seen in the

telescope, which were passed over, per second, by the gold leaf of the

electroscope.

No. Divisions No. Divisions

per second per second

1 0.0100 9 0.0115

2 .0110 10 . 0096

3 .0100 11 .0119

4 .0133 12 .0102

5 .0106 13 . 0093

6 .0127 14 .0127

7 .0102 15 .0097

8 .O111 16 .0105

These give an average of 0.01089. If the effect of the flux (0.0014)

is subtracted from this the reading for the granite alone is 0.0095.

The addition of a 1-cubic-centimeter bulb of radium to an otherwise

normal run produced the following effect:

0.0137 divisions per second

.0137 2 sc ‘

.0131 i “ «

Average 01350 5 “ ‘

Less the effect of the

flux and rock .01089 “5 “y “

1 cc. Ra solution .00261 Ps - é

316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

On adding a 3-cubic-centimeter bulb to a normal run the readings

were:

0.0179 divisions per second

.0176 as te ‘

.0197 « «“ «é

.0197 as «“ ‘

.0179 x «6 ‘“

Average 01856 NLD, ek

Less the effect of the

flux and rock .01089 $ o &“

3 cc. Ra solution . 00767 a ee ‘6

One-third of which is 0.00256 divisions per second.

The average effect of 1 cubic centimeter of standard radium solu-

tion as obtained from the two series of experiments is therefore 0.00259.

Since 1 cubic centimeter of radium solution is equivalent to 32.2 x

10-” grams radium element, 0.00259 divisions per second fall of the

electroscope leaf is equivalent to 32.2 x 10-” grams, or

O22 Oe

di e d SE Y 2 il, ‘

1 div. per secon 0.00259 12702 X 10-4 grams Ra

So that:

Electroscope reading & 12702 |

resale Ac aa Maia le grams X 10712 of Ra per gram rock.

CONCLUSION

According to the experiments described above the sixteen measure-

ments of the radium content of Stone Mountain granite vary from

a low of 4.018 x 10-" to a high of 6.757 < 10-”; with an average for

the series of 4.826 X 10-” grams of radium per gram of granite.

BOTANY.—A new tree fern from Haiti.. Witt1am R. Maxon,

U.S. National Museum. 4

Among a number of critical pteridophyta from Haiti recently sub-

mitted to the writer by Dr. Carl Christensen for identification isthe

following undescribed tree fern:

Hemitelia minuscula Maxon, sp. nov.

Fronds small, akout 1 meter long, spreading, the stipe (incomplete) about

30 cm. long, slender, arcuate, pale buff from a darker, finely brownish-fur-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

April 21, 1928.

JUNE 4, 1928 MAXON: NEW TREE FERN 317

furaceous base, freely aculeate, the spines narrowly conical, blunt, nearly

straight, 1.5-2 mm. long; scales not collected. Blade of an oblong-ovate

type, about 70 em. long, 35 cm. broad, bipinnate-pinnatifid, the rachis pale

bufi, 3-5 mm. thick, minutely subfurfuraceous above, glabrate beneath,

unarmed; pinnae alternate, spreading or slightly decurved, oblong, abruptly

short-acuminate, about 18 em. long, 8—10 cm. broad, short-stalked, the distal

basal pinnule distant 5-8 mm. from primary rachis, the proximal one as much

as 1.5 em.; secondary rachis densely substrigose above with curved yellowish-

gray hairs, subpersistently paleaceous beneath, the scales pale rufous-brown,

thin, lustrous, minute, deeply bullate, mostly with an attenuate flexuous

tip (hairs wanting); pinnules 13-15 pairs, spreading (the basal ones often

decurved or reflexed), nearly sessile (stalked about 1 mm.), narrowly oblong,

4-5 em. long, 9-12 mm. broad, attenuate in the outer third, pinnatisect at

base, pinnatifid beyond to 0.5-1 mm. from the costa, obliquely crenate at the

subcaudate apex, the costa clothed like the secondary rachis; segments 10-12

pairs, oblong, 3 mm. broad at base, slightly curved, rounded- obtuse, rather

close, the strongly revolute margins lightly crenate, the costule sometimes with

1 or 2 short weak hairs above, beneath conspicuously bullate-paleaceous

throughout; veins 5 or 6 pairs, impressed above, forked just below the middle;

sori 5 or 6 pairs, the receptacle strongly elev ated, subeapitate, freely septate-

paraphysate; indusium a minute, delicately membranous, rufous proximal

scale, incised, the divisions lacerate. Leaf tissue thick-herbaceous, dull

yellowish-green, discoloring, glabrous.

Type in the Copenhagen Botanical Museum, from Massif du Nord, Anse-

a-Toleur, Morne Colombeau, Haiti, alt. 900 meters, June 20, 1925, H. L.

Ekman H 4365; co-type in the U.S. National Herbarium.

The present species is referable technically to the genus Hemitelia because of

the presence of a proximal indusial scale, which, though small, is only partially

eoncealed and on account of its divided or deeply cleft form approaches the

usual condition found in Eu-hemitelia. Of the West Indian tree ferns H.

minuscula resembles in a general way Alsophila aquilina Christ, but that

species differs rather widely in its strongly coriaceous leaf tissue, its conspicu-

ously stalked pinnae and pinnules, its non-furfuraceous vascular parts, and

its very few, larger, and widely scattered bullate scales of the under surfaces,

these usually solitary on the costules. A very minute vestigial indusium

scale is usually present in A. aguzlina, as in a few other species of Alsophila,

but it is dark colored, distinctly chitinous, closely appressed, and subentire,

wholly lacking the filamentous processes seen in H. minuscula and several

other Hu-hemitelia species of tropical America.

318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES.

THE ACADEMY

211TH MEETING

The 211th meeting, the 29th Annual Meeting, was held in the lecture room,

East Building, of the Bureau of Standards on Tuesday, January 11, 1927,

with President Bureuss in the chair. President Burgess gave a brief talk

illustrated by lantern slides descriptive of various phases of work of the

Bureau of Standards. This was followed by an intermission during which

guests of the AcapEmy left the room to begin an inspection of the laboratories.

After this the annual business meeting was held. It was voted to dispense

with the reading of the minutes of the 28th Annual Meeting.

The Corresponding Secretary, F. B. SrLssBexz, reported briefly on the

activites of the AcapEMy during 1926. His report showed that 20 regular

members and one honorary member had been elected and had qualified during

the year, 4 had resigned, and 9 had died, showing a net gain of 8. Those

who died were: G. N. Acksr, F. H. Bicrtow, C. K. Wrap, F. C. CumMine,

E. W. SaFrrorp, C. V. Prrer, W. T. Len, C. W. Exiot, F. H. KNow.ton.

The report was ordered accepted and filed.

The report of the Recording Secretary, W. D. LAMBERT, was read. ‘There

were held during the year several public meetings, all of them jointly with

one or more affiliated societies. The names of the affiliated societies, speak-

ers, and the details of the addresses, and additional items of interest were

given. ‘The report was ordered accepted and filed.

The report cf the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, was read. It showed total

receipts, $5,647.27; total disbursements, $6,094.72; academy’s investments,

$18,000.37; cash on hand, $2,208.73; estimated net worth, $20,433.32.

The report of the Auditing Committee, Messrs. Avers, WHERRY, and

PEFFER was read, verifying the Treasurer’s figures. ‘The reports of the

Treasurer and the Auditing Committee were then accepted.

The report of the Editors of the Journal! was presented by AGNES CHASE.

It detailed the distribution of the articles in the various fields of science and

gave statistics concerning Volume No. 16 of the Journal. The report was

ordered accepted and filed.

The report of the Committee of Tellers, Messrs. SrtsBEE, GARDNER, and

LoMBARD, was presented by the Chairman. In accordance with the report

the following officers were declared elected: President, A. WETMORE;

Corresponding Secretary, L. B. TuckmrmMan; Recording Secretary, W. D.

Lampert; Treasurer, R. L. Faris; Non-resident Vice-Presidents, 'T. LYMAN,

H. F. Pirrier; Managers, R. 8. Bassurr; F. B. SrusBEe. .

The following Vice-Presidents nominated by the affiliated societies were

then elected: Archaeological, Watrser Hovucu; Bacteriological, W. D. Bic3-

Low; Biological, H. C. OBERHOLSER; Chemical, F.T. WHERRY; Entomological,

A. G. Bovine; Geographic, F. V. Covi; Geological, N. H. Darton; Hel-

minthological, M. C. Hatu; Historical, A. C. CuarK; Mechanical Engineers,

H. L. Wuirremore; Philosophical, J. P. Aut.

The meeting adjourned at 9.15 and was followed by an inspection of the

laboratories in the East and Industrial Buildings at the Bureau of Standards

and a social hour.

JUNE 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 319

212TH MEETING

The 212th meeting, a joint meeting with the Philosophical Society, was

held on Thursday, February 17, 1927, in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club.

Program: Dr. ArTHUR Haas, of the University of Vienna, The atom as a

source of energy. The Bohr theory of the atom was first discussed and

attention called to the enormous amount of energy available both in the

planetary system of the atom and in the nucleus. The possibility was pre-

sented that by collision of electrons and protons matter might be entirely

transformed into energy. The reverse phenomenon, the generation of matter

out of radiation, would only be possible for rays of a very high frequency.

This frequency ought at least to be so high that one light-quantum of the rays

would possess the same amount of energy as would be liberated by the an-

nihilation of a single hydrogen atom. One possible way in which it could

occur seems to be suggested by the Compton effect. If atoms or nuclei

colliding with light-quanta were in enormously rapid motion, the frequency

could be raised in a considerable degree. Collisions with rapidly moving

material particles thus might impart to a light-quantum that critical

frequency which qualifies it for a transmutation into a hydrogen atom.

(Author’s abstract.)

213TH MEETING

The 213th meeting, a joint meeting with the Anthropological Society,

was held on Thursday, February 24, 1927, in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club.

Program: Dr. ALFRED V. KipprrR, Chairman of the Division of Anthro-

pology and Psychology of the National Research Council, The Cliff Dwellers

of Arizona and their predecessors. The Southwestern archaeological field

embraces those parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah, which

contain the remains of the sedentary, agricultural type of Indian, commonly

known as Pueblos. The present range of the Pueblo Indians is restricted to

the drainage of the Rio Grande and the Little Colorado. Ruins of ancient

villages closely similar to those of the historic Pueblos are found throughout an

infinitely greater range. They consist of cliff houses, valley towns, and mesa-

top dwellings, ranging in size from a half dozen to a thousand rooms.

The problem of Southwestern archaeology is the arrangement of these ruins

in relative chronological order and the determination of the origin and growth

of the culture responsible for them. Until about fifteen years ago the early

stages of Pueblo civilization were not recognized. The explorations of the

Peabody Museum of Harvard, the Natural History Museum of New York,

the National Geographic Society, and other institutions have resulted in the

discovery and description of these early stages, the first being the Basket-

maker, a phase marked by primitive agriculture, lack of pottery and of stone

architecture. This was followed by the post-Basket-maker period which

saw the introduction of pottery and the beginnings of masonry construction.

The post-Basket-maker was succeeded by the pre-Pueblo, in which pottery

was greatly improved, houses were enlarged and strengthened, and the typical

massed type of dwelling first introduced. We are thus now in possession of

= outline of the entire growth of the Pueblos from nomadism up. (Author's

stract.)

320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

214TH MEETING

The 214th meeting, a joint meeting with the American Chemical Society

(Washington Section) and the American Society for Steel Treating (Wash-

ington-Baltimore Section), was held on Friday, March 4, 1927, in the As-

sembly Hall of the Cosmos Club.

Program: Dr. Crctt Duscu, of the University of Sheffield, The growth

of crystals. (Given in full in a paper entitled The growth of metallic crystals

presented at a meeting of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical

Engineers in February, 1927 and published in the proceedings of that In-

stitute.) Geometrical crystallography, which has reached a state of such

remarkable perfection since its beginnings a century and a half ago, is con-

cerned with the conditions of symmetry in crystals and with their possible

faces, but it attaches little importance to the relative development of those

faces, so that variations of habit, of such interest to the mineralogist, are

mostly ignored. Since crystals of strikingly different habit, such as the many

varieties of calcite, may all be derived from the same primitive crystal, their

peculiarities must be due to variations in the conditions during growth, and

this fact gives to the study of the growth of crystals a special importance. A

simple crystal immersed in a solution of the right degree of supersaturation

may continue to grow whilst retaining its original shape unimpaired, as in the

perfect octahedra of the alums which have been prepared by some manu-

facturing firms. Such crystals may grow to a large size without change of

shape, and when an octahedron of chrome alum, for instance, is allowed to

grow in a solution of the isomorphous common alum, the regularity of growth

is obvious from the uniformity of the colourless sheath enveloping the coloured

nucleus. ‘The increase in size has been brought about by the deposition of a

uniform layer of new material on each face. On the other hand, faces may

disappear or new faces may make their appearance in the course of growth,

and an explanation has to be sought in the external conditions and in the

internal structure of the crystal, both factors being concerned in producing

the result.

It has long been known, certainly since the eighteenth century, that the

presence of small quantities of foreign matter will sometimes produce a

change of crystalline form. Common salt, which usually crystallises in

cubes, forms octahedra if grown in a solution containing urea. When the

quantity of urea is small, crystals with the faces of both the cube and the

octahedron are produced. The crystals of organic compounds often vary

very greatly according to the solvent which has been used. Such facts as

these give the first clue to the problem of growth.

The use of X-rays in the study of crystal structure has placed crystal-

lography on an entirely new footing. All modern studies of crystals start

from the idea of the space lattice. The atoms, whether occurring singly or

grouped to form molecules, are so arranged in space that a single unit is

exactly repeated at regular intervals in three dimensions. ‘Through such an

assemblage planes may be drawn in any direction. Certain planes so drawn

will contain a greater number of atoms in a given area than any planes drawn

in a different direction, and it is these closely packed planes which play the

principal part in crystal structure. Moreover, in crystals in which the atoms

are of more than one kind, different planes may contain the atoms in different

relative proportions, so that they may be assumed not to be chemically

identical. Any plane may be imagined as a possible face of the crystal,

although only a few of them are realisable in practice. The several planes

JUNE 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 321

must have different chemical properties. This follows from our conception

of the space lattice. The forces which hold the atoms in position are electrical

in character, and depend on the number and arrangement of the electrons

in each atom. The chemical behavior is dependent on the same conditions,

and the chemical properties of a crystalline surface must vary with the

grouping of the atoms within it. What chemists often call residual affinity

must vary with the denseness of packing of the atoms in a plane, so that each

set of similar faces must have its own chemical characteristics. This sup-

position is confirmed by the action of chemical agents on crystals. In the

etching of metals by acids, it is easily seen that the reagent penetrates more

readily along certain planes than in any other direction, as clear facets, of

cubes or octahedra in most instances, make their appearance and give the

characteristic lustre to the etched surface.

It has been shown by Johnsen, Gross and others that the faces which

survive during growth are those which have the lowest velocity of growth in a

normal direction, and that these are in general the most closely packed planes.

More openly packed planes have a higher velocity of growth, but their relative

area diminishes as the crystal increases in size, and they ultimately disappear.

The experiments of Nacken on salol and benzophenone are instructive. By

attaching a small crystal of salol to a copper hemisphere immersed in the

molten substance maintained at a constant temperature, and withdrawing

heat by cooling a copper rod attached to the hemisphere, the rate of cooling

could be varied, and it was found that when this was very slow, the liberation

of latent heat by the solidification of the salol and its removal by conduction

kept pace with one another, and the surface of the growing crystal was

spherical or nearly so, being determined only by the thermal conductivity,

which varies only slightly in the direction of the different crystallographic

axes. As the rate of cooling is increased, the growth perpendicular to certain

directions fails to keep pace with the rest, and faces having a low velocity of

perpendicular growth begin to make their appearance, at first with oval

outlines. As the crystal increases in size, the area of such faces increases

until their boundaries meet, and the erystal at last assumes its typical furm,

with plane faces and straight edges.

The experiments of Volmer and others on the formation of crystals of zinc

and mercury in an evacuated vessel, by the impact of a stream of molecules

of the metal on a plane surface, have thrown much light on the process.

Nuclei are at first formed, and those grow which have the basal plane (the

crystals being hexagonal) perpendicular to the direction of the stream. This

plane has the lowest velocity of growth in a direction normal to itself.

With mercury at — 60°C thin leaflets result, the thickness of which is only

one ten-thousandth of the diameter. A quantitative interpretation of these

experiments, together with those of Marcelin, which proved growth to be a

discontinuous process, occurring by the formation of successive thin sheets,

leads to the conclusion that atoms or molecules are first adsorbed as a layer

of unit thickness, the atoms or molecules in which have a certain freedom of

movement. In the course of such movement, groupings which may be re-

garded as two-dimensional crystal nuclei may arise, and the whole layer then

assumes an orderly arrangement, in conformity with the underlying space

lattice. Since adsorption plays so large a part in growth, it is not surprising

that an alteration of habit may be produced by the presence of impurities.

The observations of Gaubert on lead nitrate are particularly instructive.

This salt separates from water in octahedra, but when methylene blue is added

322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

cubic faces appear, these faces being stained blue while the octahedral faces

remain colourless. As the quantity of the dye is increased, the crystals

become completely cubic, with blue faces. Evidently adsorption of the

colouring matter by the cube face has lessened its rate of growth, so that it

survives at the expense of the more rapidly growing octahedral face. It is

probable that differences of habit in naturally occurring minerals are largely

due to the influence of small quantities of foreign matter, but a very small

quantity may suffice, so that the impurity responsible for the result may not

have been detected in the course of an analysis.

Well developed crystals are usually formed by comparatively slow growth,

so that as material is withdrawn from the solution, or as heat is given out by

the solidification of a melt, there is ample time for readjustment. Miers

has shown that the solution in immediate contact with the growing face of a

crystal of a salt is actually denser than the bulk of the solution, suggesting

that the dissolved molecules undergo a preliminary rearrangement in the

liquid before separation as a solid. For this view there is some evidence,

notably from the fact, observed by Nasini and others, that solutions which are

undercooled through the freezing point show small discontinuities in proper-

ties, although no solid separates. It will be of interest to examine this point

by means of the X-ray method. On the other hand, when growth is very

rapid, the supply of material by diffusion may not keep pace with it, and the

conditions are disturbed. Simple geometrical considerations show that the

sharp angles of the crystal are more favourably placed for the reception of

material by diffusion than the middle parts of faces, so that growth occurs at

the angles by preference. The effect is cumulative, so that the crystal as-

sumes a star shape, which in course of time undergoes branching, the process

being repeated at each branch. This is the origin of dendritic crystals, which

are so common in nature. They are most easily obtained by allowing crystal-

lisation to take place rapidly, as when a solution of a salt is evaporated

quickly on a glass slide. The internal symmetry of the crystal is not de-

stroyed, and most such crystals may be regarded as parallel growths, one

axis being usually favoured. Thus native copper branches in the direction

of the octahedral axis, whilst common salt forms growths parallel with the

trigonal axes. Diffusion may be hindered, and dendritic growth encouraged,

by making the solution more viscous, as by adding gum. In highly viscous

materials, such as glasses, slags, and pitchstones, very beautiful dendritic

growths are frequently present. The ‘“‘trees’”’ formed by the electrolysis of

solutions of metallic salts have a similar structure.

Periodic crystallisation is an interesting phenomenon, which again has a

bearing on the origin of naturally occurring mineral structures. It was

observed more than 70 years ago by Brewster in ancient glass which had

undergone a process of decay. It may arise from several different causes in

different substances. The effect is very simply observed in molten salol.

When a thin layer is melted on a slide and allowed to cool, slender needles are

seen to radiate from each centre. The advancing point of each needle with-

draws material from the liquid, and a gap is left, the molten salol standing

up as a wall in front of the erystal edge. Owing to its viscosity, an ap-

preciable time is required for the liquid to flow until it is again in contact

with the crystal, when growth is resumed. ‘This process is repeated, so that

the advance of the needle is intermittent, and the crystal when complete is

marked by transverse lines indicating the stages of growth. The process

may be followed under the microscope with ease. Some salts crystallise

JUNE 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 323

from water with a very definite periodicity, the best example being potassium

dichromate, a thin layer of a solution of which, if rapidly evaporated, will

yield concentric rings of minute crystals with very regular intervals. The

effect is here no doubt one of supersaturation, the solution being impoverished

by the separation of one ring of crystals, so that the process is interrupted until

the right concentration is again reached by diffusion, and so on. Similar

structures are seen in glazes on porcelain and, although more rarely, in slags.

They are closely connected with the phenomenon of periodic precipitation in

jellies, the formation of Liesegang’s rings. The study of periodic crystallisa-

tion throws light on some natural structures, especially of agates, which are

in all probability formed by the periodic crystallisation of silica from the

gelatinous contents of a cavity in arock. Ruskin maintained that the band-

ing in agates was due, not to periodic infiltration of a liquid, but to segrega-

tion, and his view is confirmed by modern work. In particular, the so-called

canals which have been supposed to represent the passages by which liquid

entered and left the cavity are seen, by laboratory experiments on periodic

crystallisation, to be merely geometrical effects produced by the meeting of

different systems of advancing bands.

Dendritic and periodic crystallisation depend on more complex causes

than change of habit, and are correspondingly more difficult to study in a

quantitative manner, but there can be little doubt that the examination of

the chemical properties of the several planes in crystals will throw much

light on these as on other problems of crystallisation. (Author’s abstract.)

215TH MEETING

The 215th meeting, a joint meeting with the Anthropological Society,

was held on Thursday, April 21, 1927, in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club. .

Program: Dr. FreprericK W. Hones, The Zui Indians of New Mezico.

(Illustrated by lantern slides and moving pictures.) The speaker reviewed

briefly the history of the Zui Indians during the Spanish regime, commencing

with the year 1539, when their pueblos first became known to civilization as

the “Seven Cities of Cibola.”’ A glimpse of Zufiiland, together with views

of the salt-gathering ceremony at the sacred Salt Lake, was offered in motion-

pictures. Other pictures illustrated the process of pottery-making from the

preparation of the clay, through the fashioning and painting of water-jars

and food-bowls, to the finished receptacles. The grinding of corn and the

manufacture of wafer-bread, one of the most ancient and still the most im-

portant food staple of Zufii, was illustrated as further showing a part of the

domestic life of a people whose primitive customs have been little changed.

Still retaining most of their ceremonies of old, the Zufii perform rites at their

sacred Rainbow Spring for the purpose of bringing rain, the ceremony shown

in the picture being in the native belief the direct cause of the first showers

for nine months. Following this rite, on the next day, a masked rain-dance

was performed at the main pueblo of Zufii, views of which, showing the

dance-steps and the costumes of the participants, together with the antics of

the ‘‘mud-head” clowns, were presented as affording an impression of re-

ligious ceremonies that probably have been practised unaltered for many

centuries. (From notes supplied by the speaker.)

W. D. Lampert, Recording Secretary.

324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 11

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Pau C. Stanpuey, formerly of the U. 8. National Museum, has been

appointed Associate Curator of the Herbarium in Field Museum of Natural

History, Chicago. He began work in his new position the first of June.

Dr. E. O. Uuricu, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, is spending four weeks

in May and June in field work-in Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. Dr.

T. W. Stanton, will spend the latter half of June and the month of July in a

continuance of his studies on the Cretaceous of western Texas. Drs. EDWIN

Kirk and G. H. Girty will spend several months in examination of the

Paleozoic rocks of the Eureka district and other parts of Nevada. Dr.

JOHN B. RExsIDE, JR., will visit Geological Survey parties in connection with

work on the Mesozoic formations of the Rocky Mountain region.

Dr. JuLIA GARDNER is spending the summer in Louisiana and Texas in a

continuation of her studies on the Tertiary formations of the Gulf Coastal

region.

Professor A. 8. Hircucocx, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and Custodian

of Grasses in the U. 8. National Herbarium, has left Washington for a col-

lecting trip to Newfoundland. He will first visit the New York Botanical

Garden and the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University to study the grass

collections of these institutions. The months of July and August will be spent

in Newfoundland and Labrador studying and collecting grasses. Many

species of grasses have been described from Newfoundland the identity of

which is uncertain. It is hoped that some of these species may be found.

The work is in connection with the preparation of a Manual of the grasses of

the United States.

To select a successor to Dr. FEwKss recently retired from the position of

Chief of theBureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, a special

board of examiners, composed of Secretary Abbot, Dr. A. V. Kidder, Carnegie

Institution, and Frederick W. Brown, Assistant Chief of the Examining Divi-

sion of the U. 8. Civil Service Commission has been formed, in view of the

importance of the position. The examination will consist solely of the con-

sideration of qualifications by the special board. The minimum qualifications

are recognized eminence in American ethnological research, experience in the

direction and prosecution of ethnological research, administrative capacity,

and familiarity with the literature of American ethnology and archaeology,

and with the activities of scientific and professional organizations and insti-

tutions concerned with the subject.

’ AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

SS =

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY

The Entomological Society.

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by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month,

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- WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

| BOARD OF EDITORS

Agnes CHASE Joun B. Reesipez, Jr, E. W. Woorarp

BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL MUSEUM WHATHEE BUREAU

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

L. H. Apams 8S. A. Ronwsr

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY § ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

E. A. GotpMaANn G. W. Srosz

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

R, F. Grieas J. R. Swanton

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Roger C. WeEtts

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY

EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER; WHEN MONTHLY

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Mr. Roya anp Guitrorp AvEs.

BattTmmore, MARYLAND

scraper hips re yg gg January a. 1923, at We feat ph Vg? pace roe oh My sod the

5 ° Acceptance f ng a Tate r

“Er section 1103, Act ot October 3, 1917 Authorized on July 3, 1918. E

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

This Journat, the official organ of the Washington oui of Sciences, aims to

present a brief record of current scientific workin Washington. To

(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2)

short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington;

(3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (4

notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JOURNAL is issu

semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer ~

whenit appearsonthe nineteenthonly. Volumes corres nd to calendar years. Prompt

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this end it publishes: _ e

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 June 19, 1928 No. 12

SPECTROSCOPY .— Multiplets in the Co II spectrum. Wruutam F.

Meracers, Bureau of Standards.

A study of the absorption spectra of iron, cobalt, and nickel? as

produced by condensed sparks between metallic electrodes under

water revealed for each metal several hundred lines characterizing

the neutral atoms and a much smaller number ascribed to ionized

atoms. Extensive classifications of the lines from neutral atoms

showed that practically all of the absorbed lines involved low-energy

states of the respective atoms. A similar interpretation for the ab-

sorbed lines due to ionized atoms was indicated by Russell’s’ analysis

of the Fe II spectrum, and the observations were useful in the cases

of nickel and cobalt for detecting the first regularities among their

spark lines. The Ni II spectrum has since been more fully analysed

by Shenstone;* the purpose of the present note is to give some pre-

liminary results for the Co II spectrum.

A portion of the spectrum (2150-5000 A) has been remeasured,

relative intensities have been estimated on an expanded scale and

several classes of spark lines have been recognized by comparison of

their behavior in the spark and are. Thus certain groups of lines in

the spark spectrum appear with almost equal intensity in the arc

spectrum while others are much weaker in the second case, and still

others show very weak or not at all in the are but strong and usually

more or less diffuse and unsymmetrical in the spark. The first class

includes all the lines observed in the absorption experiments referred

1 Publication approved by the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the U. 8S.

Department of Commerce. Received May 8, 1928:

2 Meccers and Watters. Sci. Pap. Bur. Stand. (551) 22: 205. 1927.

8’ RussELL. Astrophys. Journ. 64: 194. 1926.

4SHENSTONE. Phys. Rev. 30: 255. 1927.

325

326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

to above, and some of them have been observed partially self-reversed

in the spark in air. Such a group lies between the wave length limits

2249 A and 2449 A; it has been arranged as a trio of multiplets ®F’-

5(D’, F, G’). This is the most prominent feature of the entire spec-

trum interval thus far examined. A somewhat weaker group of lines

extending from 2192 A to 2339 A, overlaps the other group: it has

been arranged on the basis of line intensities as a second trio of mul-

tiplets, 7D - *(P, D’, F). The triplet-D term was recognized in a

strong group of lines between 3353 A and 3621 A constituting the

intersystem combinations *D - *(D’, F). These three sets of com-

binations are presentedin Table 1. ‘Term symbols and relative term

values appear at the top and left margin, the term values being relative

to °F;’ = 0.0. Each combination of levels is represented by the

observed wave length and estimated intensity (in parenthesis) of

the spectrum line, and by the wave number in vacuum. The in-

terval ratios for levels of the °F’ term are 254.1 :389.3 :531.9:678.5 =

1.9:2.9:3.9:5.0 while the theoretical ratios are 2:3:4:5. When the

interval ratios are in such good agreement with the theoretical values

it is a good indication that the term either represents the normal

state or a very low metastable one. )

Although neutral cobalt is fairly strongly represented by absorption

lines in the solar spectrum no spectroscopic evidence for the presence

of ionized cobalt in the solar atmosphere has been put forward. In

this connection it is interesting to note that the intersystem combina-

tions *D - 5(D’, F) between 3353 A and 3621 A appear to be the only

set of strong Co II lines lying within the range of solar spectrum

transmitted by the earth’s atmosphere, practically all of the other

strong lines being less than 2900 A in wave length. The presence or

absence of ionized cobalt in the solar spectrum must therefore rest

with this group of spectral lines. Comparison of the wave lengths

and intensities of these lines with absorption lines in Rowland’s Pre-

liminary table of solar spectrum wave lengths, is shown in Table2. My

wave length data for the Co II lines appear in the second column and

Rowland’s values for solar lines (the original and the reduced value

on the International Angstrom scale) are given in the fourth column.

My intensity estimates are in the third column and Rowland’s in the

fifth. The last column indicates special reasons for regarding the

coincidence of five of the Co II lines as doubtful. For the remaining

nine lines the mean difference between my values and the corrected

Rowland wave lengths is +0.02 A, which is the average probable

JUNE 19, 1928 MEGGERS: MULTIPLETS IN THE Co II sPEcTRUM 327

TABLE 1.—McttTIPLets IN THE Co II Spectrum

SF’ oF,’ oF,’ 5! sR,’

0.0 678.5 1210.4 1599 .7 1854.2

sp,’ 2378.62(100) 2417.66(40) 2449.15(10)

42028 .3 42028 .3 41349 .7 40818 .1

3’ 2383 .45(80) 2414.06(40) 2436.98(10)

42621 .7 41943 .2 41411.4 41021.9

sD,’ 2386 .37(50) 2408.76(25) 2423.61(10)

43102 .3 41891.9 41502.5 41248 .2

5D,’ _ 2389.54(40) 2404.17(20)

43436 .0 41836 .3 41581 .7

5D,’ 2386 .74 (25)

43739 .6 41885 .4

5F; 2388.90(100) 2428.29(10)

41847 .4 41847 .5 41168.7

5F, 2326.48(25) _ 2363.79(80) 2393.91(10)

42970 .4 42970 .2 42292 .0 41759 .9

5F; 2324.30(40) 2353.43(60) 2375.19(15)

43688 .S 43010.5 42478 .2 42089 .0

5F, 2326.12(30) 2347.40(30) 2361.52(10)

44187 .0 43976.8 42587 .3 42332 .7

5F, ag sid a NS 2330 .35(80) ~ 2344.26(25)

44498 5 42898 .8 42644 .3

5G,’ 2286.16 (100)

43728 .0 43728.0

5G,’ 2272 .26(8) 2307 .84(75)

43995 .6 43995 .4 43317 .2

5G,’ 2248 .66 (2) 2283 .52(15) 2311.60(50)

44457 .1 44457 .1 43778.5 43246 .8

5G,’ 2265 .74(3) 2293 .39(20) 2314.04(40)

44800 .6 44122 .0 43590 .1 43201 .2

5G,’ <n+ - ann n 29RD -O6 (4) 2301 .40(15) 2314.97 (30)

45038 .0 43827 .6 43438 .4 43183 .8

328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF

3P,

59994.4

3P,

60315 .4

3P 5

60420.6

s—,’

57890 .8

3D,’

57910 .2

3—),’

57734 .2

3B,

58037 .8

3F,

59208 .8

3h,

60017 .2

5—,’

42028 .3

5—D,’

42621 .7

B-),’

43102 .3

5D,’

43436 .0

5-—,!

43739 .6

14421 .2

2193.58 (15)

45573 .3

2299 .76 (20)

43469 .4

2298 .73 (8)

43488 .9

2291 .98 (40)

43616 .6

2232 .05 (15)

44787 .9

2192 .48 (10)

45596 .1

TABLE 1—Continued

3D»

14681 .2

2206.18 (12)

45313.0

2190.65 (10)

45634 .2

2313.58 (8)

43209 .7

2312 .54(10)

43229 .2

2322 .01 (5)

43052 .9

2245 .11 (30)

44527 .4

2205 .06(3)

45336.0

3621 .22 (100)

27607 .2

3545 .03 (25)

28200.5

28681 .0

3578 .03 (30)

27940 .4

3517 .48 (10)

28421 .3

28754 .8

SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

sD,

14988 .5

2221 .22(5)

45006 .2

2205 .50(5)

45327 .0

2200 . 40 (6)

45432 .1

2329.11 (10)

42921 .7

2338 .69 (6)

42745 .9

2220.11 (15)

45028 .8

3555 .93 (10)

28114.0

3514.21 (5)

28447 .8

28751 .1

Fy,

41847 .4

sk,

42970 .4

sy,

43688 .8

5F,

44187 .0

SF,

44498 5

Terms

8D.-5F;

5D3-5F 2

8D,-5Fy

5D .-5 Fs

8D;3-5F 3

3D,-°F 2

8D.-5F

"Ds",

8D,-5D,’

8D.-*D,’

8D;-5D,’

8D,-*D2’

5D;-*Ds’

3-);-5D,’

JUNE 19, 1928 MEGGERS

3D;

14421.2

: MULTIPLETS IN THE Co II sPECTRUM

TABLE 1—Concluded

3501 .73 (200)

28549 .2

3415.78 (75)

29267 .5

3358 .59 (10)

29765 .9

3D,

14681.2

3446 . 40 (100)

29007 .5

3388 .2 (50?)

29505 .8

3352 .80 (30)

29817 .3

3D,

14988.5

3423 .84 (75)

29198 .6

3387 .72 (60)

29509 .9

TABLE 2.—Co II Lines 1n THE Souar SPECTRUM

3302 .80

3308 .59

3387 .72

3388 .2

3415.78

3423 .84

3446.40

3501.73

3514.21

3017 .48

3545 .03

3555.93

3578 .03

3621 .22

3352 .908

0.771

58.771

0.634

87.854

0.715

88.311

0.172

15.922

0.782

23.972

0.832

46.536

0.395

01.841

0.700

14.382

0.240

17.653

0.511

45.194

0.053

56.088

5.947

78.138

7.997

21.340

0.200

Intensity

0000 N

000 N

0000

000 Nd?

0000

Doubtful

329

SS OE Oe nn

Co I coincident

Double in sun?

Masked

330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

error of my determinations. The systematic difference for the same

nine lines is only +0.002 A, and the intensities are roughly parallel.

In other words, the lines are coincident and the presence of ionized

cobalt atoms in the reversing layer of the sun is thus established.

It is noticed that the intensities of these Co II lines are very low

in the sun, but it should be remembered that the lines in question

involve excited states of the ionized cobalt atoms. The lines involv-

ing lower metastable states or the normal state should be considerably

stronger in the solar spectrum but unfortunately these are all in the

ultra-violet which is shut off by the earth’s atmosphere. The strong

lines of the *F’ - 5(D’, F, G’) multiplets which were absorbed in the

under-water spark are also assumed to end with a metastable state.

This quintet F’ term is ascribed to the electron configuration s d’ to

which the metastable *D probably also belongs, but the true normal

state is thought to be a triplet-F’ term from the configuration d?.

According to the method which Laporte® outlined for predicting the

relative positions of such terms the low *F’ (d8) term is expected to

lie about 3500 em-— lower than °F’ (s d’) in the energy diagram of the

Cot atom. This term has not yet been found but before its existence

can be denied the spectrum must be more carefully studied in the ultra

violet between 1800 A and.2200 A. However, Shenstone’s® failure to

find similar predicted low terms in the Ni II and Cu II spectra makes

it appear probable that the explanation required for the apparent ab-

- sence or low intensity of certain expected combinations will apply also

to the Co II spectrum.

Note added in proof.—Lang (Phys. Rev. 31:773. 1928) has recently

identified the lowest terms in the Nill and Cu II spectra from wave

length measurements in the ultra violet below 1900 A.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.—The diameter of the CH, chain in ali-

phatic acids.| CHARLES SNOWDEN Piacot, Geophysical Labo-

ratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

This paper gives a brief account of some of the earlier measurements

in this particular field of investigation. They were made in the

spring of 1923 at the laboratory of Sir William Bragg, at University

College, London, and were part of a more comprehensive investigation

5 LAPORTE. Zeitschr. Phys. 39: 127. 1926.

6 SHENSTONE. Phys. Rev. 30: 264. 1927.

1 Received May 2, 1928.

i per ae ee ee

ce es Be!) ee i Ae

JUNE 19, 1928 PIGGOT: CH», CHAIN IN ALIPHATIC ACIDS 331

being carried out by Dr. Alexander Miller, to whom acknowledgment

is hereby made for guidance and assistance in the work. Their

earlier publication was delayed by the pressure of other duties.

When ordinary paraffin wax was exposed to a beam of X-rays, in a

suitable apparatus, it gave lines similar to those produced by sub-

stances generally recognized as crystalline. This was rather an

unexpected result, since paraffin wax had been regarded by many

as an excellent example of an “amorphous” substance. This ob-

servation, however, indicated that it was either actually crystalline

in the ordinary sense, or else possessed regularly recurring units which

had the property of reflecting X-rays in a manner analogous to that

of a substance possessing a recognized crystalline structure. It raised

the question whether or not there might be crystalline compounds in

paraffin wax which were similar to the higher aliphatic acids. These

considerations led to an X-ray investigation of these substances.

Preliminary experiments showed that paraffin wax and stearic acid

gave very similar lines on the photographic plate, and, furthermore,

that there were two principal lines, of the first order, which seemed to

be identical in the two substances.

Since paraffin wax must consist of a large number of chemical

compounds, the above observation would indicate that some funda-

mental unit must be common to them all and have at least one dimen-

sion the same, or nearly the same, in each. Also that this dimension

is the same, or nearly the same, in stearic acid.

In an homologous series such as must exist in paraffin wax, or such

as is the series of aliphatic acids, the length of the molecules must

obviously vary with the number of carbon atoms in the chain. This

variation in length should reveal itself by varying distances between

similar lines on the X-ray plate. Paraffin wax gave the two principal

lines mentioned above, and also a great many other lines, some of

which were extremely indistinct. The lines of varying distances

might correspond to the varying lengths of different molecules and

the apparently fixed lines to the cross-sectional dimension of their

chains.

The above is briefly the sequence of reasoning, based on the first

unexpected results obtained from exposing paraffin wax to a beam of

X-rays.

The conclusion was reasonably obvious that a great number of

organic compounds had one dimension in common, capable of in-

fluencing X-rays; also, that this dimension was most likely the cross-

section of the aliphatic carbon chain; and that this same dimension,

or one very close to it, occurred in stearic acid.

332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

The suggestion was therefore obvious to measure this dimension in a

number of pure aliphatic organic compounds. The aliphatic acids,

because they could be crystallized, and so obtained in a state of great

purity, were selected.

A further consideration which influenced their delpolian was the

speculation regarding the possible influence of the -COOH, or carboxyl

group which is attached to one end of the chain, whether or not this

heavy group would influence the close packing and thereby the

diameter of the chain. If it should, then its influence would probably

be greater in the short chain molecules than in the long chain ones.

EXPERIMENTAL

Since the equipment available did not permit of studying the acids

which are liquid at ordinary temperatures (formic, acetic, ete.)?

there was prepared? a number of the higher acids which are solids at

ordinary temperatures. These were: pentadecylic, CuH.COOH;

palmitic, CisH;,COOH; _ stearic, Ci;H;;COOH; and _ behenic,

CxiHisCOOH acids and they were recrystallized to a high degree of

purity. They were studied by the “powder method” using copper

rays. The results are tabulated below.

TABLE 1

; Dist

Name of acid Formula Pie ee Aue units

Pentadecylice. ... 2... foie es Were oped oe A C,.H.,COOH 3.898 4.26

Palmitic Be etre oicct ee carat Datel antat ere fer eTcetioetat eee Lok Siremeniaitie Meats Cy 5H33C00H 3.931 4

18/2 12) (Oe eR MRR ac etAR Dd Bled RR oa C,7,H3;;COOH 3.930 4.22

We MC) aie we a rue Boe a Ae Co1H.COOH 3.943 4.24

JENS (E562 | | ce RRR RS ARCO PEAS UROL NS CMR EPL Lee RO BEET, 4.235

CONCLUSION

It is apparent that, within the limits of experimental error, the short

dimension of all the acids studied is the same, i.e., 4.235 & 10-8 cm.

This would indicate that the chains of all the aliphatic acids have

the same diameter. Apparently this diameter of the chain, which is

really a measure of the close-packing‘ of the atoms making up the

2 Apparatus enabling the sample to be cooled by liquid air is now in process of

development.

3 By Mr. N. K. Apam, of London.

4 See ALEx. Minter and G. SHearger. Trans. Chem. Soc. 123: 3160. 1923.

JUNE 19, 1928 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN BIGNONIACEAE 333

chain, is not influenced by the carboxyl group. However, the shortest

chain here investigated was comparatively long, possibly too long

to be influenced by the carboxyl group, and it may be that the differ-

ence between fourteen and twenty-one carbon atoms is not sufficient

to reveal any influence.

The indications are that all organic CH. chains are of the same

diameter and that this is about 4.235 A.

BOTANY.—Studies of Venezuelan Bignoniaceae.—III. New species

of the genus Arrabidaea.! H. Pirrimr, Caracas, Venezuela.

The study of the materials of the genus Arrabidaea collected in

Venezuela by the author and his coworkers has resulted in almost

doubling the number of species known in that country. As before,

the author is indebted to Mr. T. A. Sprague of the Royal Gardens at

Kew for the preliminary examination of the specimens and for many

useful indications. Besides, this well known authority on the Big-

noniaceae has described recently under the name of Arrabidaea calo-

dyctios, one of our most interesting discoveries in the family. The

best thanks are here extended to him.

1. ARRABIDAEA P. DC., Rev. Bign. 10. 1838 (ex parte)

CLAVIS SPECIERUM VENEZUELENSIUM USQUE ADHUC COGNITARUM

Ovula pro loculo 4-seriatim affixa; folia nonnulla saltem biternata, plerumque

ternata; foliola plus minusve oblonga, breviter obtuso-acuminata,

mucronulata, glaberrima; corolla extus subtomentosa; ovarium lepidotum

(Sect. 1. PARACARPAEA) 1. A. inaequalis

Ovula pro loculo biseriatim affixa

Ovula pro loculo 6-8; flores parvi; paniculae multiflores (Sect. 2. Mr-

CROCARPAEA) 2. A. carabobensis

Ovula pro loculo plura vel plurima; flores pro rata generis magnis;

capsula magna; calyx pro rata brevis, campanulatus, raro breviter

tubulosus vulgo truncatus vel denticulatus (Sect. 3. MAcROCARPAEA)

Folia stirpium adultarum praeter lepides probabiliter ubique etiamsi

interdum parcissime obvias glabra i.e., pilis simplicibus destituta

(Ser. 1. Glabrae)

Inflorescentia praecox; folia 3-foliolata; calyx bilabiatus; ovarium

puberulum 3. A. acuminata

Inflorescentia coaetana, paniculata, terminalis, amplia;foliola concolora

Folia simplicia (?) vel raro binata rarissime ternata, coriacea

4. A. platyphylla

1 Studies of Venezuelan Bignoniaceae.—II appeared in this JourNAL 18: 170-172.

1928. Received May 2, 1928.

334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

Folia ternata vel conjugata cirrho simplici clausa

Calyx subturbinatus, herbaceus, truncato vel minute denticulato,

9-10 mm. longus, corolla 3.5 cm. longa 5. A. corymbifera

Calyx truncato-campanulatus, integerrimus vel denticulatus, sub-

tomentosus

Foliola obtusiuscula vel obtuse acuminata, sicca castaneo-viridia

vel obscure ferruginea 6. A. florida

Foliola lata, obtusa vel plus minusve acuminata, sicca nigra vel

purpurea; flores color rubro abundantes

Corolla 3.5-8.7 cm. longa; foliola plus minusve acuminata,

venis primarlis vulgo 5-6 7. A. Chica

Corolla 1.4-1.8 cm. longa; foliola lata, obtusa, venis primariis

vulgo 6—7 8. A. larensis

Folia stirpium adultarum praeter lepides pilos simplices vel raro ramosos

gerentia, ulteriores interdum ope microscopii tantum conspicui (Ser.

2. Indutae)

Foliola concolora (nec colore nec textura nec indumento discolora (Sub-

ser. 1. Concolores)

Rami novelli pilis divaricatis instructi; folia supra opaca, rigida, her-

bacea; calyx 4—5 mm. longus; corolla 4—4.5 cm. longa; ovula pro

loculo 16-18 9. A. guaricensis

Rami novelli pilis appresis haud divaricatis induti;ovula pro loculo 20

Foliola apice rotundata supra glaberrima, subtus in axillis venarum

conspicue pilosula, demum glaberrima; calyx 7-9 mm. longus;

capsula parce lepidota, 1.8-2 em. lata 10. A. ovalifolia

Foliola supra subtusque plus minusve tomentosa 7

Foliola apice acuminata, olivaceo nigra, subtus dense et molliter

induta; calyx 4mm. longus; corolla 44.2 cm. longa; capsula

dense mollissimeque tomentosa 1 cm.] ata 11. A. mollissima

Foliola apice obtusa, cinerea vel ferruginea; calyx 8mm. longus;

corolla 4.5-5 cm. longa; capsula puberula vel glabrata,

1.2-1.7 cm. lata 12. A. rotundata

Foliola discolora, subtus indumento interdum minuto vel brevissimo

non raro canescenti-tomentella (Subser. 2. Dzscolores)

Ovula pro loculo 10-16

Folia summa saltem simplicia parva; foliola supra minutissime lepi-

dota, sicca atro-purpurea, subtus tomentella, incana vel sub-

violacea; corolla circa 1.6 cm. longa 13. A. carichanensis

Folia omnia ternata vel conjugata

Foliola utrinque ovali-rotundata, apice saepe emarginata, supra

glabrata, venis subtus in axillis barbata, demum puberula

vel glabrata; corolla 3.7-3.8 mm. longa 14. A. Spraguei

Foliola ovalia vel elliptico-oblonga, acutata vel acuminata, supra

glabra, subtus canescentia; corolla 3.2 cm. longa

15. A. barquisimetensis

Ovula pro loculo 18-22

Folia subtus obsolete reticulata, late ovata, supra nitentia in sicco

nigrescentia, subtus minute sericea, plus minusve roseo-

rubescentia 16. A. calodyctios

Foliola subtus conspicuiter reticulata

Foliola basi plerumque leviter emarginata

Corolla 5.5 cm. longa; foliola supra costa venaeque exceptis

glabra subtus parce pilosula 17. A. lenticellosa

i ia i i, ee Gee

JUNE 19, 1928 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN BIGNONIACEAE 335

Corolla 2.7-3 cm. longa ;foliolasuprasubmollia, subtus utrinque

tomentella 18. A. Sieberi

Foliola basi rotundata vel sub-truncata, haud emarginata, supra

elaberrima

Foliola supra in sicco nigrescentia, subtus canescentia, minute

sericea; corolla 2.5 em. longa; ovarium muricatulum

19. A. zuliaensis

Foliola supra in sicco plus minusve cupreocolorata, subtus in

nervis nervulisque crispulo-hirtella demum glaberrima;

corolla 2.2-2.4 cm. longa; ovarium lepidotum

20. A. cuprea

1. ARRABIDAEA INAEQUALIS (P. DC.) Baill. Hist. Pl. 10: 28. 1891.

AMAZONAS TERRITORY (BRAzIL): Rios Cassiquiare, Vasiva y Pacimoni

(Spruce 3272). The type from Dutch Guiana.

2. Arrabidaea carabobensis Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex scandens, ramulis parce verruculosis, petiolis, petiolulis, rhachide

inflorescentiarumque minute et dense tomentello-pubescentibus; foliis dis-

coloribus, ternatis conjugatisve cirrho simplici clausis, modice petiolatis,

petiolo tereto, supra applanato, foliolis (in specimine utrinque conjugatis)

submembranaceis, petiolulis teretibus, laminis ovatis vel ovato-lanceolatis

basi rotundatis, plerumque complicatis, apicem versus attenuatis, subacutis

vel breviter acuteque acuminatis, marginibus leviter revolutis, supra minute

pilosulis costa venisque inconspicuis impressis, subtus canescentibus dense

tomentellis, costa venisque primariis 7-8 prominentibus venulis prominulis;

cirrho plus minusve fulvovel cano-pubescente; paniculis floribundis, elongatis,

terminalibus, ramis inferioribus e foliis summis axillaribus; bracteis bracteolis-

que ovatis ovato-oblongisve, obtusis; calyce pariter cano-tomentello, tubuli-

formi, minute penicillo-denticulato, purpurascente; corolla infundibuli-

tubulosa, lobis late ovatis, acuminatis, subaequalibus, extus puberula vel

minutissime pubescente, intus prope insertionem staminum villosa, lobulis

puberulis; staminibus inclusis, glabris, thecis. antherarum divergentibus,

connectivo apice inconspicuo; disco breve, cupulato; ovario dense lepidoto,

ovula pro loculo 6-8, biseriatis; stylo glabro; stigma bilobulato, lobulis

lanceolatis, acutis; capsula deest.

Petiolus 1.8-2.4 em. longus; petioluli 1-1.5 em. longi; laminae 4.5-9.5 cm.

longae, 2.5-4 cm. latae. Paniculae 15-30 em. longae. Pedicelli 1.8 mm

longi. Calyx 3-3.5 mm. longus. Corolla 8-10 mm. longa. lobulis circa 2.5

mm. longis, 2.5-3.5 mm. latis. Stamina circa 2 mm. supra basin aequialte

insidentia, 3.2-4 mm. longa; staminodium 1.5 mm. longum. Discus 0.6-—0.7

mm. altus. Ovarium 1.7 mm. longum; stylus 6 mm. longus.

CaraBopo: Hacienda de Cura near San Joaquin, in bushes, flowers

July 8, 1919 (Pitter 7915, type).

The only species of section Microcarpaea met with in Venezuela up to the

present, it is evidently related to Arrabidae Agnus-castus P. D.C. but differs

in the indument of the flowers, the shape of the corolla lobes, the hairy inser-

tion of the stamens, the connective equalling the parallel thecae of the anthers,

the ovules twice more numerous in each cell, ete.

336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

3. ARRABIDAEA ACUMINATA (Johnston) Urban, Rep. Nov. Sp. Fedde 14:

306. 1916.

Ista Marearira: El Valle (Johnston 345, type).

4. sme PLATYPHYLLA (Cham.) Bur. & K.Schum. in Mart Fl. Bras.

: 38. 1896.

are Guanare, Calvario hill. (Pittier 12048). The type from

Brasil.

5. ARRABIDAEA CORYMBIFERA (Vahl) Bur. in Engl. & Prantl., Pflanzenfam.

4%: 213. 1895.

Lara: Vicinity of Barquisimeto (J. Saer d’ Héguert 252). The type from

State of Rio Grande, Brazil.

6. ARRABIDAEA FLORIDA DC. Prodr. 9: 184. 1845.

FEDERAL District: San Andrés de Caruao (Piitier 11937). Type from

Japura Valley, Rio Negro basin, Brazil.

7. ARRABIDAEA CHICA (Huma. & Bonpl.) Verlot, Rev. Hortic. 1864: 154.

1864.

Margins of the Orinoco and Casiquiare rivers near Maypures, Esmeralda

and Mandavaca (Humboldt & Bonpland, type); Maypures, on the Orinoco

margin (Spruce 3618, var. thyrsoidea).

8. Arrabidaea larensis Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex scandens, ramulis verruculosis, petiolis, petiolulis rhachideque

inflorescentiarum minute puberulis et parce lepidotis; foliis vix discoloribus

ternatis conjugatisve cirrho simplici clausis, breviter petiolatis, juveniis

subtus molliter pubescentibus; petiolo valido, supra canaliculato; petiolulis

petiolo brevioribus supra anguste canaliculatis; laminis oblongis, interdum

ovato-oblongis, basi rotundatis, utrinque insigniter reticulato-venosis, supra

nitidissimis atro-purpureis, costa prominula plus minusve pilosula, subtus

opacis cupreo-purpureis, costa interdum pilosula venisque 6-7 primariis

subprominentibus; panicula terminali, angusta, floribus pedicellatis, apice

ramulorum congestis; bracteis bracteolisque parvis ovato-lanceolatis, acutis,

minute pubescentibus; pedicellis modice longis; calyce tubuloso-campanulato,

tomentoso, parte superiore distincte nigro-glanduloso denticulis 5 interdum

glandulosis insidentibus; corolla tubuloso-campanulata, tubo basilari angusto

apice abrupte expanso, lobulis late ovatis, basi constrictis apice obtusis,

extus minutissime tomentella, intus minute puberula, circa insertionem

staminum glanduloso-villosula, lobulis tomentellis; staminibus glabris, thecis

divaricatis, staminodio apice capitellato; ovario glaberrimo, ovulis pro loculo

circa 22, biseriatis; stigmatibus obtusis; capsula deest.

Petioli 0.7-1.2 em. longi; petioluli 0.5-1 cm.; laminae 4.8 cm. longae,

1.5-3.2 em. latae, Panicula 12 cm. longa. Pedicelli 2-3 mm. longi. Calyx

4-5 mm. longus. Corolla 1.4—1.8 em. longa, lobulis 3-3.5 mm. longis, 2.7—-3.5

mm. latis. Stamina circa 3 mm. supra basin corollae aequialte insidentia,

majora 8 mm., minora circa 6 mm. longa; staminodium 3 mm. longum.

Discus 0.8-1 mm. altus. Ovarium circa 2.5mm. longum; stylus plus minusve

9 mm. longus. |

_ Lara: Near El Tocuyo, flowers September 25, 1922. (Dr. A. Jahn

1186, type).

Closely allied to A. Chica Verlot, but differs in the minute indument of the

stems, petioles and panicles, the distinct shape and size of the leaflets which

» ie ee —- ~~ .

JUNE 19, 1928 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN BIGNONIACEAE 337

are but seldom entirely glabrous, in the dense short glandular pubescence of

the insertion of the stamens and in the capitellate staminode and glabrous

ovary.

9. Arrabidaea guaricensis Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex deciduus, altissime scandens, basi crassus, ramis teretibus, striatis,

glabris, cortice griseo hine inde lenticellato tectis, ramulis novellis plus

minusve tomentello-pubescentibus, pilis divaricatis; foliis subconcoloribus,

membranaceis, ternatis conjugatisve, cirrho simplici clausis, longe petiolatis,

petiolo tereto anguste canaliculato petiolulisque brevibus supra applanatis

tomentoso-pubescentibus; laminis foliolorum late ovatis basi rotundatis

subtruncatis subemarginatisve, apicem versus rotundatis et abrupte an-

gusteque acuminatis, acumine fere mucronulato, supra opacis, minutissime

reticulatis, costa venisque primariis 6-7 impressis minute pubescentibus,

demum glaberrimis, subtus reticulatis, parce pubescentibus, costa venis

venulisque prominentibus, marginibus ciliatis; cirrho gracili, pubescente,

apice unguiculato; paniculis praecocibus, elongatis, angustis, terminalibus,

pedunculis pedicellisque hirtello-pubescentibus; bracteis bracteolisque minu-

tis, pubescentibus; calyce brevi, campanulato, extus pubescente, parcissime

glanduloso, distincte 5-denticulato; corolla elongata, tubuloso-campanulata,

lobulis late ovatis, obtusis, extus tubo basilari glabrato excepto dense pubes-

cente, pilis retroflexis, intus insertionem, staminum pilis albis glandulosis

interspersis vestita excepta, lobulisque glabra; staminibus glabris, thecis

antherarum valde divaricatis; disco annulari, pulvinato, glabro; ovario apice

minutissime hirtello-puberulo, utrinque lepidoto, ovulis biseriatis pro loculo

16-17; stylo glabro, stigmate acuto; capsula lineari, apice obtusa, plus

minusve fulvo-pubescente; seminibus pro loculo 11-12.

Frutex basi 10 cm. crassus. Petioli 3-6 cm. longi; petioluli laterales 0.5

em., terminales 1-5 cm. longi; laminae 5-12 cm. longae, 3.5-8 cm. latae.

Panicula 15-30 cm. longa; bracteae et bracteolae plus minusve 0.5 em. longae.

Pedunculi et pedicelli 0.8-1 cm. longi. Calyx 4.5 mm. longus. Corolla

4-4.3 em. longa, lobulis 1 em. longis et latis. Stamina minora 0.9-1 cm.,

majora 1.3-1.4 em. longa, subaequialte 6 mm. supra basin tubo corollae

innixa; thecae antherarum circa 2 mm. longae. Discus 0.8-1 mm. altus.

Ovarium 4 mm. longum; stylus 4—4.2 cm. longus. Capsula 14-17 em. longa,

1.3 cm. lata, fulvescente; semina 0.9—-1.1 cm. longa, 2.5-3 cm. lata.

GuArico: Alrededores de Ortiz, in dry forests, flowers December 27,

1923 (Pittier 11308, type); same locality, fruits February 18, 1924 (Puttier

11432, type of the capsules); vicinity of El Sombrero, flowers and fruits

February 19, 1924 (Pittier 11436).

This species occurs frequentiy in the deciduous forests along the tributaries

of the Gudrico river, between Ortiz and El Sombrero. It is a high climber,

reaching the top of the tallest trees, where it spreads at flowering time like a

brilliant crown of pale pink. Its affinities seem to be with A. arthrerion Bur.,

from which, however, it differs somewhat in most of its characters. The

plant is distinctly deciduous and the bloom is always precocious.

10. Arrabidaea ovalifolia Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex alte scandens, ramis glabris cortice griseo plus minusve lenticelloso

tectis, ramulis virgatis petiolis petiolulis pedunculis pedicellisque puberulo-

338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

pubescentibus; stipulis desunt; foliis ut videtur plerumque ternatis, ecirrhosis,

longiuscule petiolatis, petiolis teretibus indistincte canaliculatis; foliolis

petiolulatis, petioluli saepe longiusculis, supra vix applanatis, laminis ovalibus,

basi rotundatis, lateralibus vix obliquis, apice rotundatis, anguste emarginatis,

supra glaberrimis, reticulatis, costa venisque 5-6 prominulis, subtus in axillis

venarum conspicue pilosulis, demum glaberrimis, laxe reticulatis, costa ven-

isque subprominentibus; paniculis ex apice ramulorum axillarium auctis,

elongatis; pedunculis longiusculis, dichotomis; pedicellis gracilibus; calyce

campanulato, apice parce ciliato, 5-dentato (basi indistincte glanduloso,

glandulis magnis?), extus dense lepidoto; corolla infundibuli-campanulata,

extus minute furfuracea intus circa staminum insertionem, piloso-hispida,

pilis canescentibus, demum parce furfuracea, tubo basin angustato, lobulis

late ovatis apicem rotundatis; staminibus glabris, thecis divaricatis; disco

crasso, glabro, pulvinato; ovario minutissime muricatulo, ovulis pro loculo

20, biseriatis; stylo glabro; capsula linearis, basi angustata, apicem mucro-

nata, marginibus incrassatis; valvis applanatis, parce lepidotis, plus minusve

impresso-punctatis ; seminibus crassiusculis, alis hyalinis.

Petioli 3.5-7.5 em. longi; petioluli 1.5-2.5 em. longi; laminae 7-10 cm.

longae, 4-6.5 cm. latae. Racemi usque ad 30 cm. longi; pedunculi I 24.5

em., II 1-2 em., pedicelli 0.8-1 cm. longi. Calyx 7-9 mm. longus. Corolla

4 em. longa, lobulis 0.9-1 cm. longis, 0.9-1.1 latis. Stamina minora 0.9

cm., majora 1.3 cm. longa; staminodium 4 mm. longum. Discus 2 mm.

altus. Ovarium 3 mm. longum; stylus 1.6 cm. longus. Capsula 27-33

em. longa, 1.8 cm. lata; semina 1.5 cm. longa, 4 em. lata.

ARraAGuA: Banks of river near San Juan de los Morros, flowers and fruits

April 9, 1927 (Pittier 12311, type, in Herb. Mus. Comm., Caracas, cotype in

U. S. National Herbarium, Washington); between Parapara and Uberito,

Gudrico, fruits May 7, 1925 (Puittzer 11799).

_ [have not been able to match this species with any described. It evidently

should be placed very near Bignonia glabrata H.B.K. and Arrabidaea ro-

tundata Bur. From the first it differs in having longer and pubescent petioles

and petiolules, barbulate nerve axils and dull, distinctly emarginate leaflets

(Kunth’s diagnosis of B. glabrata, does not, however, extend to all important

details and he did not see the flowers, which in our specimens were of a dark

pink color). Arrabidaea rotundata, on the other hand, is described as having

almost tomentose leaves, pubescent calyx, and a corolla tomentose without and

papillose at the insertion of the stamens within; the capsules are shorter than

in our specimens and slightly narrower; only the seeds do not seem to differ

except in the greater width.

11. ARRABIDAEA MOLLISSIMA (H.B.K.) Bur. & K. Schum. in Mart. FI. Bras.

87: 46. 1896.

Valleys of Aragua (Humboldt & Bonpland, type).

12. ARRABIDAEA ROTUNDATA (H.B.K.) Bur. & K. Schum. in Mart. Fl. Bras.

87: 48. 1896.

Caraposo: Isla de las Aves, Valencia Lake (Humboldt & Bonpland,

type).

13. ARRABIDAEA CARICHANENSIS (H.B.K.) Bur. & K. Schum. in Mart. FI.

Bras. 87: 62,. 1896:

BourvaR: Between Carichana and Encaramada, on the Orinoco margins

(Humboldt & Bonpland, type).

JUNE 19, 1928 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN BIGNONIACEAE 339

14. Arrabidaea Spraguei Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex alte scandens, ramis crassis longitudinaliter striatis minute parceque

lenticellatis, ramulis teretibus minute pubescentibus mox glabris; foliis

coriaceis, discoloribus, ternatis conjugatisve, petiolis validissimis teretibus

petiolulisque 2—3—ve brevioribus superne canaliculatis, laminis basi truncatis,

leviter emarginatis, vel juveniis in petiolum distincte breviterque attenuatis,

apice obtusis vel saepe emarginatis, supra glabratis, in aetate sublucidis,

reticulatis, costa venisque primariis circa 8 impressis, subtus in axillis barbatis,

demum puberulis glabratisve, costa venisque prominentibus; cirrhis vulgo

validissimis; paniculis axillaribus terminalibusque, rachi ramulisque minute

pubescentibus, pedunculis pedicellisque divaricatis trichotomis; bracteis

bracteolisque caducissimis vel subnullis; calyce campunulato, 5-nervato

mucronatoque, plus minusve fissi-lobato, extus minutissime puberulo margini-

bus plus minusve ciliatis; corolla campanulato-infundibuliformi, purpureo-

rosea, tubo basilari angusto, lobulis late ovatis, marginibus sinuatis, extus

papilloso-puberula, intus insertionem staminum villoso-glandulosam excepta

parce papillosa vel glabrata lobulis puberulis; staminibus glabris, inclusis,

filamentis tenuibus, thecae valde divaricatis; staminodio elongato, apiculato;

disco toruloso, laevi, glabro; ovario oblongo, minutissime lepidoto, ovulis

pro loculo circa 15-16; stylo plus minusve pilosulo; stigmatibus puberulis,

oblongis, apice obtusis; capsula lineari, basi apiceque cuneata, valvis coria-

ceis, extus rugulosis, glabris, nervo mediano tenui percursis; seminibus 12-14.

Petioli 2.5-4.2 em.; petioluli 1.2-3.5 em.; laminae 5.5-13 em. longae, 3.5-9

em. latae. Paniculae 10-35 cm. longae, 10-25 em. latae; pedicelli 5-12 mm.

longi. Calyx 0.9 cm. longus. Corolla 3.7-3.8 em. longa, lobulis 1.1—1.2

em. longis latisque. Filamenta 5 mm. supra tubi basilari basin inserta,

1-1.3 cm. longa; thecae 2.5-3 mm. longae; staminodium circa 4 mm. longum.

Discus 1 mm. altus. Ovarium 2 mm. longum; stylus 1.5 em. longus; stigma

circa 2mm. longum. Capsula 19-20 cm. longa, 1.7 cm. lata; semina 1.3 cm.

longa, usque ad 4.5 cm. lata.

ARAGUA: San Juan de los Morros, in bushes, flowers February 22, 1924

(Pittier 11476, type).

GuArico: Between Guarumen and Caimana bridges, road El Sombrero

to Ortiz, flowers February 21, 1924 (Puittcer 11469).

Lara: Banks of La Ruesga near Barquisimeto, flowers and fruits Sep-

tember 1923 (J. Saer d’ Héguert, 1922).

The leaves of this species are distinctly paler underneath than above, hence

there would be no mistake in placing it in subsection D7scolores, near A.

tuberculata and A. subincana P. DC. If, however, it should be assigned to the

Concolores, its place should be with A. rotundata Bur. Its characters agree

well enough with the description of Bignonia balbisiana P. DC., but not at all

with that of A. rotundata Bur., as given in the Flora Brasiliensis.2 It

is more than likely that we really have here a new species, which we take

pleasure in naming for Mr. T. A. Sprague, the learned authority on Big-

noniaceae.

15. Arrabidaea barquisimetensis Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex scandens, caule ramisque cortice griseo verruculoso tectis, ramulis

annotinis et praecipue novellis hirtellis vel dense villosis; foliis ternatis

2 8?: 48. 1896.

340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

conjugatisve cirrho crasso simplici apice valde incrassato interdum clausis,

petiolis modice longis, gracilibus, teretibus, supra vix applanatis petiolulisque

brevibus dense villosis; laminis ovatis, ovato-oblongis oblongo-ellipticisve, basi

rotundatis plerumque complicatis apice sensim acutatis acuminatisve acumine

nunc angusto et acuto, nunc lato obtusoque, supra nitentibus in sicco nigres-

centibus, glabris, minute reticulatis, costa venisque impressis, subtus canes-

centibus primum dense villoso-tomentosis, in aetate glabrescentibus costa

venisque 5-7 prominentibus villoso-hirtellis; paniculis terminalibus, brevibus,

paucifloribus, pedicellis petiolulis multo longioribus pedunculoque brevi

tomentoso-villosis; calyce campanulato, bilabiato, eglanduloso, extus parce

villoso, lobulis subacutis; corolla infundibulari-campanulata, extus dense

canescente furfuraceo-villosula, intus prope insertionem staminum glanduloso-

villosula, lobulis villosulis, demum glaberrima, tubo basilari brevi, lobulis

ovato-rotundatis, apice plus minusve denticulatis; staminibus glabris thecis

valde divaricatis, connectivo vix prominente; staminodio subulato, apice vix

incrassato; disco tubuloso, pulvinato, extus suleato; ovario parce tubercu-

lato, lepidoto, ovulis pro loculo 10-12, biseriatis, stylo glabro, stigmatis ovato-

lanceolatis; capsula elongata, lata, basi cuneata, apice acutato-attenuata,

glaberrima, seminibus pro loculo 6-8.

Petioli 1-5.5 cm. longi; petioluli 0.4-1.5 longi; laminae 4.5-11 cm. longae,

2-5.7 cm. latae. Paniculae 5-8 cm. longae. Pedicelli 0.8-1.5 cm. longi.

Calyx circa 8 mm. longus, lobulis 2mm. longis. Corolla 3.2 cm. longa, tubo

basali 2.5-3 mm. longo, lobulis 0.7-1 cm. longis, 0.8 cm. latis. Filamenta

1.2-1.5 cm. long, 4 mm. supra basin corollae aequialte insidentia; thecae

circa 3 mm. longae; staminodium 5 mm. longum. Discus circa 1.5 mm.

altus. Ovarium 4 mm. longum ; stylus circa 2 cm. longus. Capsula 27-31

cm. longa, 2 cm. lata; semina 1.6—1.7 cm. longa, circa 5.5 cm. lata.

Lara: La Ruesga near Barquisimeto, flowers and fruits May 1925 ie

Saer d’ Héguert 214, type).

Open land species, growing in arid savannas and at times simply frutescent,

and other times a climber. On account of its glandular and distinctly

bilabiate calyx it may be questioned whether it really belongs in Arrabidaea.

If so it may be placed in series [ndutae, subseries Discolores, near A. cinerea,

from which, besides in the already mentioned peculiarities of the calyx, it

departs in the number of ovules, the shape of the disc and the indumentatum.

Could it be identical with A. mollissima (H. B. K.) Bur. & K. Schum.?

16. Saas CALODYCTIOS Sprague, Bull. Misc. Inf. Kew 1927: 358.

1927.

FEDERAL District: On the road from La Guaira to Caracas, 900 m., in

thickets, flowers September 6, 1925 (Putter 11888, type); same locality,

flowers June 23, 1922 (Pitter 10377).

Mfripa: Lagunillas, 700 m., flowers April 3, 1922 (Dr. A. Jahn 1077).

17. Arrabidaea lenticellosa Pittier, sp. nov.

- Frutex scandens, caulibus ramisque creberrime lenticellatis, glabris, ramulis

modice crassis, subvirgatis, striatis, Juveniis dense tomentellis, vestutioribus

glabrescentibus; foliis leviter discoloribus ternatis conjugatisve cirrho simplici

primum puberulo clausis, breviter petiolatis; petiolo canaliculato, plus

minusve tomentello vel pubescente; foliolis modice petiolulatis, petiolulis

JUNE 19, 1928 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN BIGNONIACEAE 341

canaliculatis pubescentibus glabratisve, laminis ovalibus basi obtusis vel

leviter emarginatis apice abrupte breviterque acuminatis acumine obtuso,

supra costa venisque impressis, breviter villosulis exceptis glabris, subtus

reticulatis, costa venis primariis 6-7 prominentibus venulisque prominulis

parce pilosulis; inflorescentiis ad nodos supremos ramulorum defoliatorum

paniculariformibus insertis; bracteis bracteolisque minutis, deciduis; pedun-

culis pedicellisque tenuibus villosulis; calyce membranaceo, violaceo, cam-

panulato, insigniter 5-denticulato, lateraliter plus minusve fisso, extus

praecipue basin cano-puberulo; corolla tubuloso-campanulata, tubo basilari

angusto, lobulis magnis, ovato-oblongis, extus puberula, intus circa in-

sertionem staminum villosa, lobulis puberulis; staminibus glabris apice

corollae tubo basilari inserta, thecae valde divaricatis; staminodio filiformi,

apice apiculato plus minusve spiraliter convoluto; disco cupulari, extus laevi;

ovario minutissime denseque cano-lepidoto, ovulis pro loculo 18-24; stylo

glabro, stigmatibus elongatis anguste lanceolato-apiculatis; capsular elongata,

basi cuneata, apice longiuscule acuminata, marginibus incrassatis, valvis

planis, glaberrimis nervo mediano prominulo percursis; seminibus pro loculo

18-24.

Caules ut videtur 4-6 m. longa, 2-3 cm. diam. Petioli 2-3 cm. longi;

petioluli 1.2-1.5 em. longi; laminae foliolorum 8-10 em. longae, 5-6.5 em.

latae. Pedunculi I 5-7 cm., II 1-2 cm. longi; pedicelli 0.7-1 cm. longi.

Calyx 0.8-1 em. longus. Corolla 5.5 em. longa, lobulis 1.3-2 cm. longis, 1.5

em. latis. Filamenta 5-11 mm. longa; thecae circa 2.5 mm. longae. Discus

1.5cm.altus. Pistillum circa 2.3 em. longum; stigmata circiter 4 mm. longa.

20-33 cm. longa, 1.6-1.8 cm. lata; semina 1.3 cm. longa, 4~4.2 em.

ata.

GuArico: Mesa of El Sombrero, in clusters of low bushes scattered over

the savanna, flowers April 17, fruits and leaves September 10, 1927 (Pittier

12370, 12481, type).

This species has to be placed in subseries Dzscolores of the Indutae, near the

Brazilian A. tuberculata and A. subincana P. DC. It is the first species re-

ported from Venezuela of a group characterized by the peculiar pubescence

of the leaves. The name refers to the appearance of the stems, densely

covered with whitish lenticels.

18. ARRABIDAEA SIEBERI P. DC. Prodr. 9: 186. 1845.

FEepDERAL District: Hills above La Guaira (Pittier 9852).

Miranpa: Cerros de los Mariches (Pittier 12449). Gudrico: Mesa de

El Sombrero (Pitter 12494).

19. Arrabidaea zuliaensis Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex alte scandens, ramis floriferis pendulosis, striatis, parce verruculosis

minutissime puberulis; foliis coriaceis, basi ramulorum verosimiliter 3-

foliolatis, superioribus 2-foliolatis cirrho simplici clausis; petiolis petiolulisque

modice Jongis, canaliculatis, minutissime puberulis, laminis oblongo-ellipticis,

basi rotundatis subcuneatisve saepe complicatis, apice sensim attenuatis,

acuminatis, mucronulatis, supra opacis parcissime puberulis costa venisque

circa 7 subprominentibus, subtus laxe reticulatis, minute velutinis, costa venis-

que prominentibus; paniculis amplis basi longe ramulosis, multifloribus, rhachi

anguloso, pedunculis pedicellisque minute puberulis; floribus pedicellatis, in

cymis umbelliformibus 3-8 dispositis, bracteis bracteolisque minutissimis,

342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

caducis suffultis; calyce tubuloso apice versus sensim et leviter ampliato,

truncato, edentulato, extus velutino-canescente; corolla violaceo-rosea vel

purpurea, infundibulari-tubulosa, extus dense et minute, tomentello-puberula,

intus prope staminum insertionem villosula lobulis tomentello-villosis, tubo

basi angustissimo, calyce subduplo longiore, lobulis orbicularibus; staminibus

glaberrimis, filamentis filiformibus, thecis valde divaricatis, arcuatis; stami-

nodio filiformi, apice leviter expanso; disco tubuloso-annulari; ovario muri-

catulo; ovulis circiter 22 pro loculo, biseriatis; stylo glabro, stigmatibus ovatis,

acutis; capsula deest.

Petioli 1.5-3.5 cm. longis, petioluli 1-1.5 em.; laminae 5-12.5 cm. longae,

2-7 cm. latae. Pedunculi 0.5 mm., pedicelli 2-4 mm. longi. Calyx 4 mm.

longus. Corolla 2.5 em. longa, tubo basilari 7 mm. longo, lobulis 5 mm.

longis et latis. Stamina circa 7 mm. supra basin corollae insidentia; fila-

menta 1.2-1.5 em. longa; thecae circa 2 mm. longae. Discus 0.6 mm. altus.

Ovarium 2 mm. longum; stylus circa 1.2 em. longus.

Zuuia: Banks of Lora and Santa Ana, rivers, in semihumid forests, flowers

December 19, 1922 ( Pittzer 10992, type).

TrusiLtLo: El Dividive, in savanna bushes, flowers November 28, 1922

(Pittier 10827).

Arrabidaea zuliaensis is a very near relative of A. Schomburgkii Klotzsch,

of British Guiana, but it has larger flowers, a distinctive indumentatum

leaves with more numerous primary veins, and the ovules in each cell con-

stantly 22 instead of 18-20. :

20. Arrabidaea cuprea Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex sarmentosus, ramulis floriferis minutissime puberulis, striatis,

foliis coriaceis, ternatis conjugatisve, cirrho simplici clausis, petiolis elongatis,

angulosis striatisque, ecanaliculatis, petiolulisque canaliculatis plus minusve

hirtellis, pilis crispulis; petiolulo terminale lateralibus 2-3-plo longiore;

laminis ovalibus, basi rotundatis, apice breviter obtuso-acuminatis, mucro-

nulatis, lateralibus valde obliquis semirotundatis semicuneatis, terminale

basi rotundato supra plus minusve cupreo-coloratis, glaberrimis, minute

reticulatis, costa venisque primariis circa 7 profunde impressis, subtus pallide

viridibus, reticulatis, costa venis venulisque prominentissimis parce crispulo-

hirtellis exceptis glaberrimis; paniculis terminalibus ramulosis, multifloribus,

ramulis basilaribus ex axillis foliorum superiorum auctis, rhachide pedunculis

pedicellisque brevibus minutissime furfuraceo-puberulis; bracteis bracteo-

lisque parvis, ovatis, pariter pedicellis vestitis; calyce campanulato, apice

truncato hine inde denticulato, violaceo, extus plus minusve fulvescente

puberulo; corolla infundibulari-tubulosa, tubo basilari brevi angusto, lobulis

inaequalibus, late ovatis suborbicularibusve, extus minute furfuraceo-

puberula, intus prope staminum insertionem villosula, lobulis puberulis,

demum glabra; staminibus glabris, filamentis tenuibus; thecis divaricatis,

connectivo vix conspicuo; staminodio filiformi, apice capitellato; disco

cupulato, glabro, lateraliter suleato; ovario utrinque lepidoto, ovulis pro

loculo 18-20 biseriatis; stylo glabro, stigmatibus lanceolato-acutis.

Petioli 5-8.5 em. longi; petiolulus terminalis 1.7-2.5 cm. longus; petioluli

laterales 0.4-1 cm. longi; laminae 8-12 cm. longae, 4.5-7.5 cm. latae. Pedun-

culi 0.5-1.2 em., pedicelli 1-2 mm. longi. Calyx 4-5 mm. longus. Corolla

2.2-2.4 em. longa, tubo basilari 4 mm. longo, lobulis 5-7 mm. longis, 6-8

JUNE 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 343

mm. latis. Stamina circa 4 mm. supra basin corollae insidentia; filamenta

9-13 mm. longa; thecae 2.8mm. longae. Discus 0.8-1 mm. altus. Ovarium

2.3 mm. longum, stylus 12-13 mm. longus.

Miranpa: Vicinity of Petare in low bushes in savannas, flowers September

11, 1927 (Pittier 9791, type).

Distinguished from the other species of the Discolores group by its glabrous

leaves tinged ‘above with purplish-red, the veins all deeply impressed, and

covered with curly hairs on the opposite face. The thecae of the anthers

show on their anterior side diminutive scars which correspond to the line of

dehiscence.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

216TH MEETING

The 216th meeting, a joint meeting with the Geological Society, was held

on Wednesday, December 7, 1927, in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club.

Program: Captain N. E. Opett, F.G.8., of Toronto, Scientific aspects of

the Mount Everest Expeditions. The three Expeditions to Mount Everest—

of 1921, 1922, and 1924—though having primarily for their object the attain-

ment of the summit of the world’s highest mountain, have nevertheless

yielded important scientific data from a region previously unexplored by

white men. The results obtained relate to physiology, zoology, botany,

geology, glaciology, as well as, in a more limited degree to meteorology and

ethnography. In addition, an area of Southern Tibet amounting to more

than 10,000 square miles was surveyed topographically, and upwards of 8000

square miles was mapped geologically.

Although the expeditions were at the outset equipped, as recommended by

physiologists, with an apparatus providing oxygen for the high climbing

parties, yet on the third expedition it was definitely ascertained that such a

degree of natural acclimatisation can be attained that it would appear possible

to achieve the summit of the mountain (trigonometrically determined first

in 1849, and later found to be approximately 29,141 feet in altitude) without

the aid of an artificial supply of oxygen. An elevation greater than 28,000

feet was reached entirely without its use.

New and interesting species of insects were discovered; bees, moths, and

butterflies were found at 21,000 feet, and attid spiders occurred living in an

environment solely of rocks and ice at 22,000 feet, while the alpine chough was

seen manoeuvring easily and gracefully at 27,000 feet.

Lichens have been found to grow at higher Arctic latitudes, as well as at

higher altitudes, than any other plants, but Arenaria muscosa was collected at

20,400 ft., and the common alpine edelweiss at 17,500 feet in the Everest

region. However in 1905 Delphinium glaciale had been found at 20,600 feet

on Kangchenjunga by Dr. Jules Jacot Guillarmod.

The southern portion of Tibet traversed consists predominantly of Meso-

zoic rocks, principally Jurassic shales and quartzites but moderately folded.

The southern border of these are steeply upturned, together with a limited

calcareous series in a subjacent position, against the gneisses of the main

344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

Himalayan axis. The above calcareous series is of probable Permo-Trias

age, at least in part, and would appear to compose as highly metamorphosed

outliers the upper part of Everest itself and the neighboring mountains.

Below this calcareous facies occur extensive biotite gneisses, which in turn

rest on other calcareous metamorphics, of doubtful, though possibly Pala-

eozoic, age. The whole formation has been intruded by extensive granite-

pegmatite veins and sills. There is evidence that a good deal of horizontal

thrust has taken place, but the last movements in this region have been

predominantly radial or vertical. The incoming of the Himalayan ortho-

gneiss, found deep down in the range, has been accompanied by the uplift

of the superimposed para-gneisses, which now form in many localities im-

mense fault-scarp features overlooking the younger sediments of the Tibetan

Plateau. The latter are cut locally by granitic and dioritic differentiation

phases of the ortho-gneiss, and also by basic dyke-rocks of younger age.

There is evidence on all hands in the Mount Everest massif of waning’

glaciation. Old morainic terraces are to be seen bordering the valleys, and

these extend far out on the plains to the north. Moreover there is evidence

that during the maximum phase of the glacial cycle the ice mass accumulated

in the area between the Great Himalayan Range and the Trans-Himalayan

Ranges was sufficient to reverse tMe present direcfion of drainage and

to have its outflow over many of the lower passes on to the southern

slopes of the Great Range. ‘This condition, especially during the wane of the

maximum stage, would have a decided effect upon the trend of the subsequent

of drainage of the region, and be a contributing cause no doubt to the astound-

ing course taken by the Arun River in its upper reaches of the Yaru Chu.

On account of the unique combination of physical conditions of this

region the existing glaciers hold many unusual features and structures. Of

particular interest was a significant developement of the “vein structure’

in part of the East Rongbuk Glacier. This phenomenon here gave rise to a

remarkable feature called the ‘“Trough,”’ extending for more than 3 miles

longitudinally down the glacier. Another interesting feature was the im-

mense ice-pinnacles, often as much as 100 feet in height.

On the first expedition it was definitely ascertained that the Tibetan name

for. Mt. Everest is ‘‘Chomolungma,” signifying “Goddess Mother of the

Mountain Snows.” This poetic name will in future be applied to the whole

group, Mount Everest (named after Sir George Everest of the Indian Tri-

gonometrical Survey, during whose regime the mountain was first measured)

being retained for the highest point of the group. (Author’s abstract.)

217TH MEETING

The 217th meeting, the 30th Annual Meeting, was held in. the lecture room

of the Carnegie Institution Building at 16th and P Sts., on Tuesday, January

10, 1928. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M. by Vice-President

Auut. The retiring President, ALEXANDER WETMORE, delivered an illus-

trated address entitled Prehistoric Ornithology in North America. (This

JOURNAL 18: 145-157. 1928.)

At the conclusion of the address there was a brief intermission, after which

President WETMORE took the chair and called the annual business meeting

to order. The minutes of the 29th annual meeting, held January 11, 1927,

were read by the Recording Secretary and approved.

The report of the Corresponding Secretary, L. B. TucKERMAN, was pre-

—

JUNE 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 345

sented. He reported the election of F. A. Ventnc Mernesz to honorary

membership and the death of the following members: L&on PrerRE Manov-

vrRiER, Honorary Member, CHoartes D. Watcott, Past President, W1iLLIAM

H. Daut, Cart H. E1GENMANN, JAMES F. Kemp, Cuartes G. Nuttine,

FREDERICK B. Powzmr, [RA*REMSEN, CHARLES S. SARGENT, ERwIN F. Situ,

pea B. Supwortu, IsraEL C. WuHiTE, Mitton WuitNey, WILLIAM P.

ILSON.

On January 1, 1928, the membership consisted of 15 honorary members,

three patrons, and 576 members, one of whom was a life member. The total

membership was 594, of whom 384 reside in or near the District of Columbia,

178 in other parts of the continental United States, and 32 in foreign countries.

The Board of Managers held five meetings which were devoted mainly to

routine business. The average attendance was thirteen members.

During the year the Washington Post of the Society of American Military

Engineers was added to the societies affiliated with the Acapemy. ‘There

are now eighteen affiliated societies.

The report of the Corresponding Secretary was ordered accepted.

The report of the Recording Secretary was presented by him. It showed

that during 1927, in addition to the annual meeting, five meetings had been

held, all in connection with affiliated societies. The subjects of the addresses

at these meetings and the names of the speakers were given. The report was

ordered accepted.

The report of the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, was presented by him. Among

other items of interest it showed the following: Total receipts during 1927,

$5,936.33; Total disbursements, 1927, $5,205.65; Cash on hand, January 1,

1928, $2,939.41; Value of Academy’s investments, $17,536.37; Estimated net

worth, $19,884.74.

The report of the Auditing Committee, Paut Bartscu, Chairman, S. F.

BuakeE and H. C. FuLuer, was presented by the Chairman. The Committee

found the Treasurer’s report and records to be correct in every detail. The

reports of the Treasurer and of the Auditing Committee were ordered

accepted.

The report of the Board of Editors was presented by W. J. Peters. The

seventeenth annual volume of the Journal contained 564 pages and 72 princi-

pal articles, the distribution of which in various fields of science was indicated.

The average cost per page was $6.53. In accordance with the recommenda-

tion of the Editors approved by the Board of Managers, no charge to authors

was made for illustrations. The report of the Editors was ordered accepted.

The report of the Committee of Tellers, consisting of L. B. TuckERMaAN,

Chairman, L. V. Jupson and H. E. Mrrwin, was presented by the Chairman.

In accordance with the report the following were declared elected: President,

R. B. Sosman; Corresponding Secretary, L. B. TucKERMAN; Recording Secre-

tary, W. D. LAMBERT; Treasurer, R. L. Faris; Non-resident Vice-Presidents,

B. W. EverMann, J. G. Lipman; Managers, W1tu1AM Bows, F. E. Wricut.

The newly elected President was escorted to the Chair by Vice-President

Avuutr. After taking the chair he announced the appointment of E. W.

Woo.arp as Editor and of L. H. Apams as Chairman of the Committee on’

Membership.

The Corresponding Secretary reported that the following members of the

Academy had been nominated for Vice-Presidents by the affiliated societies:

Water Hovucu, Archaeological; E. A. GotpMAN, Biological; G. W. Morey,

Chemical; A. G. Bovine, Entomological; Paut G. Repineton, Foresters;

3046 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

E. V. Covitun, Geographic; BENJAMIN ScHWaRTZ, Helminthological; ALLEN

C. Ciark, Historical; H. L. Wairremore, Mechanical Engineers; P. R. HEeyYt,

Philosophical. .

The members so nominated were unanimously elected Vice Presidents.

No new business being presented, at 9.40 P.M. the meeting adjourned.

WaLterR D. LampBsrt, Recording Secretary.

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

439TH MEETING

The 439th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 28, 1928, President

HEWETT presiding.

Informal commumcation: C. S. Ross presented evidence that the St.

Francis dam near Los Angeles, California, failed because the foundation

rocks were weak. Investigations have shown that the part of the dam which

failed rested on a pebbly clay known as ‘“‘red conglomerate” and the part

which remained standing rested on schist. Mr. Ross’ microscopic examina-

tions indicate that a band of clay two feet thick between the pebbly clay and

the schist may be fault gouge. ‘The failure of this weak clay (perhaps further

weakened by water leakage along a fault) probably started the undermining

of the dam. Discussed by Messrs. Hoots and Srars.

Program: C. W. WASHBURNE, New York City: The origin of normal faults.

Which is the more active side of a normal fault? Equal activity of both walls

is impossible if the resulting regional tilt toward the direction of upthrow

results from curvature of the fault-surface. Tilt of this prevailing type

requires that the fault-surface be concave toward the more active side, toward

the downthrow of gravity faults and toward the upthrow of upthrust normal

taults. That the rotation of blocks occurred generally against curved sur-

faces is deduced from the indications that the action was one of rather high

rigidity, the associated bending of the rock being in most cases wholly inade-

quate to permit the observed tilt to occur against a plane surface of fracture.

Systematic curvature thus becomes a logical requirement, but it is difficult to

detect because generally the curve is too gentle, having a radius of many

miles.

Faults of short radius of tilt, especially if the angle of tilt be high, should

have the sharpest curvature. Such are the faults across the Elk Basin anti-

cline, Wyoming. Here the close spacing of oil-wells permits the determina-

tion of the curvature of a few faults, all concave in section toward the up-

thrown side.

Study of the tilt and form of simple lone normal faults, so fully isolated

from other coeval structures that the stresses making the latter did not

interfere with those making the faults, leads to the conclusion that nearly all

their activity lay on the upthrow sides. Examples are the Sierra Nevada; the

fault-line of the main Mexican oil fields running from Dos Bocas through

Huasteca, Naranjos, Cerro Azul and El Alamo; also the Kurrajong fault,

west of Sydney, Australia; the Jackson Fault, Alabama, etc. Definite

examples of gravity faults are unknown to the writer, except a few small

examples that are better regarded as superficial land-slide settling. |

The driving upward of a foot-wall could arise from the upbending of com-

pressive shears. In fact it would increase the regional compression, if the

radius of curvature of the fault be greater than the width of the tilted block.

= Soa ar

JUNE 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 347

On the other hand the gravitative subsidence of hanging walls could occur

only under regional tension, and would make nearly vertical striae. Regional

tension would create breccia along countless steep fissures wherever the

hanging wall could not subside, which would occur more commonly than

would the ability to subside. Brecciated fissures should be more common

than normal faults, instead of being comparatively rare. Tension would

create types of intersection of rock joints, such as dropped wedges, which the

writer cannot find among the joints exposed in faulted regions, nor elsewhere.

Rock is too weak to transmit effective tension, in fact one joint across a line of

tension would suffice to nullify its power beyond that joint. Except as a

weak superficial and local phenomenon, there is probably no tension in the

earth’s crust.

There seems to be ground for questioning the existence of tension even on

the upper surface of growing anticlines. No evidence of it can be seen in the

folded Pleistocene sea-beaches of New Zealand, nor in anticlines of the

Columbia River basalt, which probably had little cover when folded. No

breaks are visible over the tops of these folds, and none are present on the

steep limbs of many of them but where faults occur on the limbs they fail to

satisfy the probable effects of tension and permit a better interpretation.

In these anticlines apparently each layer crept over the underlying layer far

enough up the limbs to prevent any visible cracking of the top of the arch, as

would have happened had their bending been like that of a rigid beam.

Other anticlines, however, may be found whose outer surfaces display tension.

In a region subject to compression in one direction there could be no

tension in another direction, because joints inclined at various angles to the

main line of compression would transfer some of the pressure laterally, as

would also any weak masses that could be mashed or squeezed. The intimate

association of normal faults with many anticlines, with which they grew

concomitantly, the inclination of their striae, the associated bending of the

rock, and other phenomena, indicate that many normal faults were formed

when the rock was under compression in all directions. General considera-

tions make it probable that most normal faults were formed under com-

pression.

A foot-wall under compression could not rise slowly without lifting the

hanging wall with it. The motion must have been so rapid that the momen-

tum of the active foot-wall made it slip upward beneath the relatively inactive

hanging wall, which was held by inertia, or which more likely had a relatively

small elastic rebound downward, equal movement being improbable because

a subsiding hanging wall would have to displace a continuous solid mass below

it, while the rising foot-wall need only lift the weight of overlying rock.

The velocity required to bring into play the elements of momentum and

inertia is unknown, but according to Harry Fielding Reid, in a personal

communication, it is much less than the writer had thought. Velocities of 10

feet per second probably will suffice to create these effects. The slip during a

single earthquake may amount to 20 and possibly to 50 feet, but the seismo-

grams suggest that these slips occur in two or more stages, so that each slip

amounts to only a few feet. Microscopic study of a few slickensides indicates

that the heat generated did not melt quartz, but theoretically it must have

been appreciable.

Great significance is attached to faults intimately associated with anti-

clines. There are: (1) faults nearly normal (60° to 90°) to the anticlinal axes;

and (2) faults parallel to the axes. (1) The cross-faults of anticlines run

348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

nearly parallel to the line of greatest stress that made the anticline and are

thought to have originated as bldtter from the shear created by local difference

in the horizontal stress. A break would dip away from the side receiving the

more intense stress and moreover the foot-wall side presented greater area

across the line of main stress. This made it thicken and rise more than the

hanging wall side, which rose less. The striae now remaining on these faults

are nearly vertical at their points of maximum throw high on the anticline but

have low inclination where the faults die out, low on the two limbs. That

the growth of the faults was at least slightly aided by pressure also at right

angles to this, or along the axis, is indicated by the fact that the faults at

Elk Basin, Wyo., that have observable curvature are concave in section

toward the upthrown sides. At Elk Basin the cross-faults upthrown on their

northwest sides are older, smaller and less numerous than those upthrown on

the southeast. The comparatively rare first type of normal fault is formed

during the main stages of folding, while the more common second type, men-

tioned below, appears to form during its last stages and to continue into

stages wherein the rock-bending can hardly be detected. (2) Faults parallel

to the axis of anticlines are especially characteristic of the steeper limb of

asymmetric folds, where they invariably help to uplift the structure, pointing to

the common origin of fault and fold. Such structures are called ‘“fault-

folds.” In many cases, as at Casper Mountain, Wyoming, they are steep

reversed faults near their termini, but are normal faults along the central

parts of their courses, judging usually from the inclination of the main joints

and minor slips which are there visible. Because of talus the inclination of the

main fault rarely is determinable at such places, but at Mexia, Texas, an

incipient or very small fault-fold is characterized by normal (N. W.) dip of the

fault along the higher part of the structure and by reversed (S. E.) dip along

the low southern part of the structure. In fault-folds the greatest displace-

ment occurs in front of the highest part of the structure where both axis and

fault generally have a small bend or bulge toward the “downthrown” area.

Sharp ‘‘capes” and similar projections toward the ‘‘downthrown” area

generally result from irregularities in the original fault fracture, rather than

from later cross-faults. This class of faults generally has steep striae.

The second class of faults is thought to be analogous to the prevailing type

of normal fault, which is thought to break nearly at right angles to the direc-

tion of main stress. Such breaks parallel to the main lines of folding charac-

terize the great faulted regions of the earth, such as the late Tertiary faults of

western North America. Horizontal motion along them, as along the San

Andreas rift, California, arises probably from a later shift in the direction of

stress.

The intersection of little faults in several regions, most thoroughly studied

at Elk Basin, Wyo., and in several parts of New Zealand, shows a persistent

relation in the relative age of parallel faults of opposite dip, those dipping

one way being invariably older than those dipping the other way. It shows

also a persistent relation in the relative age of faults of different trend. In

other words there was no movement of “blocks” between little parallel faults

of opposite dip, leading to the presumption that such movement probably did

not occur in the large “blocks” within which many of the small observations

were made. The same relation seems to hold between faults of different

trend, except where those of one trend have low striae. Certainly many

thrust-faults terminate in cross-faults with nearly horizontal striae, and

isolated normal faults that can be followed to their termini bend strongly

JUNE 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 349

toward the direction of upthrow. Where a fault is not isolated, its course will

be affected by the concomitant strain of neighboring coeval breaks, as in a

group of en echelon faults, each of which trend with typical concavity toward

the upthrow, except at one end where with relatively small displacement it

bends the other way to connect with the next en echelon fault. This relation

is reported personally by Leon Pepperburg to hold for at least some members

of the Mexia zone of faults. On the other hand the course of normal faults

seems rarely to be affected by older breaks, which they cross at sharp angles

without visible deviation. The course of the new break is more often affected

by an old line of weakness nearly at right angles to it, which may make a

sharp “‘cape’’ in the scarp, but usually a new fault cuts nearly straight across

all older breaks, as though they did not exist.

These age relations between normal faults are readily explainable under the

hypothesis that they arose from compressive shear, but not under the tensional

theory, because there is no conceivable cause of systematic pull across a region in

one direction during the first period of faulting, in the opposite direction during

the next period, and in another opposing pair of directions during the next two

periods of faulting. This is the problem presented for solution by the intersec-

tion of little faults at Elk Basin, Wyo., in various parts of New Zealand, and

probably at other places where studies are less complete. It is explicable if we

assume that the main stress across the area was exerted first in one direction

and later in another, and that each of the two periods be divided in two parts, in

the first of which the greater yielding to compression occurred to one side of

the district in question, and in the second part of which the greater yielding

occurred on the other side. Fach period of faulting was too long to let us

explain this alternation of stress through the operation of elastic rebound or

other yielding to elastic stress. The elastic relief of compression, thought by

some to create tensional faults, would tend merely to maintain compression.

Displacement is thought to arise generally from movements widely dis-

tributed through the rock, largely in its softer and more yielding parts, and

originally inclined at low angles, but bending upward toward faults. Local

thickening and bending of the more yielding rocks is thought to make an

- incipient fault-fold at right angles to the line of principal stress, the growth of

which cracked the harder layers. Such a crack is thought to concentrate the

movements distributed in the more yielding rock, the distributed movements

bending gently upward toward the break that relieves them, and so feeding

displacement to the fault. The distributed movements in the more yielding

rock may be minute over-thrusts or pseudo-flowage. Where they have been

most concentrated either through greater intensity or through longer applica-

tion, the displacement is greatest, as viewed either in plan or in cross-section.

Thus the systematic cross-faults of Elk Basin and other Wyoming anticlines

seem to gather their displacement within the Cretaceous shales. The dis-

tributed movements that feed displacement to the trunk-fault may be

regarded as its roots. Where the reverse action occurs, in the parts of a fault

that lose displacement upward, even where part of the loss goes into mono-

clinal bending and where there are no visible branches, the phenomena corre-

spond, except that they are reversed, displacement there being scattered into

disseminated movements, instead of being gathered from the former.

The concentration of the disseminated movements in space would in itself

cause their concentration in time, or greater velocity, but the high velocity of

slipping is due mainly to the operation of elastic rebound, as explained by

Harry Fielding Reid. The disseminated movements press with increasing

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

force against a line of fracture until the accumulated force exceeds the resist-

ance, when a slip occurs. At that moment the rock is bent and compressed

elastically and the relief of this condition is a sudden fling forward along the

fault. The possible velocities are much higher than those required to create

effects of momentum. 7

Under this theory, normal faults not only gather their displacement largely

below, but they also start at depth and crack their way upward. On the other

hand, under the theory of gravity faults, the force is applied from above,

where the faults originate, cracking their way downward. Definite test of the

two theories can be found in the character of the offsets of little faults wherever

a district can be found in which there has been a second reversal of stress back

to its original direction. So far the writer has been unable to find such a place,

but some field doubtless will furnish the required proof. .

These opinions arise from studies in broad sheets of sedimentary rock.

Many of them do not apply to areas of igneous activity, although the broader

principles probably hold true. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Sears, Capps, GintuLty, Hess, FerGuson, Lover-

ING, Bass, Bowrn, HEwntt, GReIG, and RuBEY.

440TH MEETING

The 440th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 11, 1928, President

HEWETT presiding.

Informal communication: Davip WuiTsE exhibited two small vertebrate

fossils, a salamander and a fish, collected at Mazon Creek in the northeastern

part of the Illinois coal field. The fossils are in ironstone nodules from rocks

equivalent to the Allegheny (Pennsylvanian) formation. The Mazon Creek

locality is noted for the fossil plants that have been collected there.

Program: Dr. CuristiaAN Poutsen, Mineralogical Museum, Copenhagen:

The Danian formation. The Danian formation consists almost exclusively

of organic sediments which form a series of strata 30-40 feet thick. Three

different main facies are found: Bryozoan limestone, Coccolite limestone and

Coral limestone. The Bryozoan and Coccolite lmestones are widely dis-

tributed in Denmark and found both in the lower and upper Danian, whereas

the third important type of rock, the Coral limestone, is confined to the upper

Danian and known only from a few localities, where the conditions were favor-

able to these animals.

The lower Bryozoan limestone and the base of the Danian outcrop in the

famous Stevns Cliff section: This section shows the white chalk of the

Belemnitella mucronata zone the uppermost part of which contains a little

terrigenous material and numerous Bryozoa; the chalk is overlain by a thin

layer of clay, the so-called Fish clay, which forms basins in the surface of the

White chalk. Then follows a layer of -limestone 2-3 feet thick, the Cyclaster

limestone, which is overlain unconformably by the Bryzoan limestone.

Dr. A. RoSENKRANTZ,! who has recently studied the Stevns Cliff section and

especially the strata between the White chalk and the Bryzoan limestone,

outlines the geological history as follows: At the end of Senonian time the

sea bottom on which the White chalk had been deposited was elevated to

about sea-level. It is uncertain whether the basins in which the Fish clay was

deposited existed at that time or were formed by erosion after emergence of

the Senonian strata. Following this emergence the Fish clay was deposited.

1 Meddelelser fra Dansk geologisk Forening 6. 1924. »

JUNE 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 351

Gradually the waters became clearer, resulting in a transition from the Fish

clay to the pure Cyclaster limestone. This limestone was probably formed

by material derived from the White chalk. After the deposition of the

Cyclaster limestone the sea bottom rose above sea level. Erosion then leveled

the land surface, leaving some of the Cyclaster limestone in the Fish clay

basins. Weathering of the very flat and presumably low land hardened the

surface layers so that the Cyclaster limestone as well as the White chalk in the

spaces between the Fish clay basins was considerably hardened. At the same

time the numerous sponges found in these sediments were decomposed, leaving

more or less dendritic holes in the surface. After this land period the Danian

sea swept in and covered the area. ‘The holes in the sediments beneath were

filled with Bryozoan limestone and thus Senonian and Danian species are

found apparently in the same bed, as, macroscopically, there is not much

difference between the limestone varieties in question.

The contact line between the Cyclaster limestone and the Bryozoan lime-

stone is the lower limit of the Danian formation.

The fauna of the Bryozoan limestone is not greatly different from that of

the Coccolite limestone, except for the presence of the Bryozoa. The only

facies that shows essential faunal differences is the Coral limestone at Faxe.

The Coral limestone at this famous locality contains, in addition to species

known from the other facies, a very rich fauna of corals, lamellibranchs,

gastropods, cephalopods and crustaceans. The corals are closely related to

the forms now living on the bottom of the rather deep sea west of northern

Norway.

Lithologically the Coccolite limestone shows a striking resemblance to the

White chalk, but its fauna has the normal Danian aspect.

It is possible to divide the Danian into two subdivisions which, however,

differ little in fauna or lithology. In the upper Danian the fauna contains a

few characteristic species which are unknown in the lower Danian, such as

Crania tuberculata Nilsson, Terebratula lens Nilsson and Ditrupa schlotheimi

Rosenkrantz.

Toward the end of the Danian the sea became shallower as shown by intra-

formational conglomerates at some localities.

The Danian is overlain by greensand and glauconitic marls containing a

typical Paleocene fauna.

Originally the Danian was regarded as the youngest subdivision of the

Cretaceous system, but now several Danish geologists accept the opinion

of De Grossouvre, that this formation should be considered the lowermost

Tertiary. The position of the Danian, however, is still a matter of discussion.

The fact that ammonites are not found above the Cyclaster limestone ought to

be taken in consideration. On the other hand, the Danian fauna contains a

very great number of persistent Senonian species, whereas only a few Danian

species are found in the lowermost Paleocene; in other words the break

beneath the Danian represents only a relatively short space of time, whereas

the upper break must have been of long duration. These last mentioned

facts are strong evidence that the Danian is the youngest subdivision of the

Cretaceous system.

Typical Danian, or formations which can be correlated with it, are probably

not to be found outside Scandinavia, perhaps with the exception of the

Caleaire 4 Lithothamnium at Vigny, France, which contains Hercoglossa

danica (Schlotheim), and Nautilus Bellerophon Lundgren; in addition to

these species a certain number of Montian species are found in the Vigny

352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

fauna. E. Haug? therefore regarded the Calcaire 4 Lithothamnium as

passage beds. The Calcaire 4 Lithothamnium probably corresponds to

the lacuna above the Danian in Denmark as suggested by J. P. J. Ravn.?

(Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Capps, STANTON, SCHALLER, RESSER, GOLDMAN, and

Miss GARDNER.

H. W. Hoots: The structural history and unusual rock types of the Santa

Monica Mountains, southern California. The Santa Monica Mountains are

one of the prominent structural features which adjoin the Los Angeles Basin in

southern California, one of the most prolific oil producing districts known.

Fven though the eastern part of the Santa Monica Mountains will themselves

probably yield no oil, the importance to the petroleum industry of knowledge

concerning the rock types and detailed geologic history of this area is apparent.

The area contains many striking geologic features and, inasmuch as it adjoins

a thickly populated educational center and is easily accessible by automobile,

it provides an interesting field for the trained geologist and for student classes

from the several universities of southern California.

The eastern part of the Santa Monica Mountains, east of Topanga Canyon,

presents a section of varied rock types including coarsely crystalline plutonics,

‘“‘basic’”’ and “‘acidic’”’ intrusives and pyroclastics, metamorphic strata consisting

of slate and schist, and a wide assortment of sedimentary rocks. The strati-

graphic record is far from complete; the presence of Paleozoic rocks is very

doubtful and there is a gap in the early Tertiary record representing much of

middle and late Eocene and Oligocene times. The Mesozoic appears to be

fairly well represented although Jurassic deposits may not be present and the

age of the Triassic (?) rocks is not established beyond dispute. Except for a

fragmentary exposed Pliocene record and a gap representing an important but

unknown thickness of middle Miocene rocks, the late Tertiary and Quaternary,

beginning with lower Miocene, is fairly complete.

The accompanying table gives a list of the rock formations exposed in the

eastern part of the Santa Monica Mountains and information regarding their

probable ages and general characteristics.

Structurally, the eastern part of the Santa Monica Mountains is a broad

open anticline, the axis of which lies in the extensive central area of Santa

Monica slate and plunges westward from the major granitic intrusive mass

just north of Hollywood. The attitudes of younger rocks, particularly those

of Miocene age which cover so much of the north and south flanks of the moun- _

tains, conform in a general way to this anticlinal structure. It is apparent

from the presence of several pronounced unconformities, however, that this

major fold has experienced several stages of growth and deformation. The

anticlinal structure is still clearly obvious in the central part of the district, but

in the eastern and western parts the original fold has been so intricately de-

formed by block faulting and igneous intrusion that much of the fold is either

difficult to recognize as such, oris down faulted and entirely concealed beneath

alluvium. Pre-Modelo diastrophism produced an anticline which, judging

from the westward plunge of the fold, was complete in the district east of

Topanga Canyon, although similar major uplifts of this age no doubt oc-

curred farther west; post-Modelo diastrophism, however, was responsible

for anticlinal uplift which affected a larger area as a unit, an area which in-

cluded the district west of Topanga Canyon as well.

2 Traité de Géologie 2: 1406. Paris, 1908-11.

3 Danmarks geologiske Undersg@gelse, 2 Rekke, No. 43, p. 40.

JUNE 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 353

From the distribution of spotted slate and the known relation of this slate

to the major exposed granitic intrusion, it is believed that much of the area

along and north of the anticlinal axis is underlain by a much larger intrusive

body of granitic rock. The broad open character of the fold, a unique struc-

tural feature for the Coast Ranges of California, is that which might be

expected to result from bodily uplift by a large deep-seated intrusion. How-

ever, since most of the folding occurred during and since Miocene time, and

since there are no known granitic rocks of Tertiary age on the west coast, it

seems improbable that intrusion of granite has itself produced this fold. It

does seem probable, however, that the character of the fold produced by late

Tertiary uplift was controlled in some measure by the presence of a large,

much older body of granitic rock beneath the folded area.

The structural features of this district are particularly striking. One is

the post-Topanga (Middle Miocene), pre-Modelo (Upper Miocene) uncon-

formity which represents the only period of folding (see table on pp. 354-355),

which contests in importance that deformation which occurred near the close

of the Pliocene. The other is the remarkably close association between faults

and intrusions of basalt in the pre-Modelo rocks of the Topanga and Santa

Ynez Canyon district, an association which forces the conclusion that faulting

and intrusions of basalt had a close genetic relation during the period of

post-Topanga, pre-Modelo diastrophism.

Several types of rock occur in this area which, judging from the literature,

are not common in California. Some of them are known elsewhere but have

not yet been described in detail. The spotted slate, a contact metamorphic

facies of the Santa Monica slate, is worthy of additional study and is to be

described in a paper now in preparation.

In the Martinez formation (lower Eocene), and possibly also in the Chico

formation (Upper Cretaceous) of some areas, occur prominent reefs of white

limestone from a few feet to 50-60 feet thick. These reefs commonly extend

for not more than a few hundred feet and terminate in an abrupt wall; the

largest reef is approximately 500 feet long. This limestone is distinctly

nodular, has irregular bedding, and is characteristically spotted, due to the

abundance of nearly white irregularly shaped algae and algal colonies im-

bedded in a limestone or argillaceous matrix of light brown or gray color.

The algae are of the lithothamnion type but have not as yet been studied in

detail.

The Modelo formation contains several rock types of unusual interest.

A massive bed at the base, lying directly upon the Santa Monica slate, has a

typical dark gray color due to the abundance of slate fragments. According

to the terminology of some geologists this slate-fragment sandstone may be

classified under the group name graywacke. Locally it is very fossiliferous;

in other places it is absent and its stratigraphic position is occupied by a 4 to

6 inch bed of oolitic phosphate, another type of rock which does not appear to

be common in the California Tertiary.

The siliceous shale of the Modelo is not in the least unusual for the Miocene

of California but its siliceous character and association with beds of voleanic

ash and bentonite, its micro-fossil content, and its remarkable banding provide

ample material for a number of interesting speculations. (Auwthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Hewett, Rusty, Burts, and STANTON.

W. W. Rusey, A. A. Baker, Secretaries.

354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

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GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

PROCEEDINGS

JUNE 19, 1928

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356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Mr. H. W. Hoots has resigned from the U. 8. Geological Survey to engage

in petroleum engineering with the Union,Oil.Company, Los Angeles, Cali-

fornia.

The offer of the Smithsonian Institute to take over and maintain the

Mycological Collection of the late C. G. Lloyd of Cincinnati, which had

been without a curator since the death of the founder in 1926, has been

accepted by the trustees of the Lloyd Library and Museum; and the col-

lection has been moved to Washington and is now in process of installation.

This outstanding collection of the larger fungi, gathered together during the

life time of Curtis Gates Lloyd, contains a number of specimens variously

estimated at 50,000 to 100,000, nearly 10,000 negatives of fungus subjects,

hundreds of photographic prints, half-tones of all the illustrations issued in

Mr. Lloyd’s numerous publications, voluminous correspondence with prac-

tically all the mycologists of the world active during his life time, many note-

books, and a great mass of manuscript records pertaining to the specimens.

The collection will be maintained as a separate unit by the Office of Mycology

and Disease Survey, in the Bureau of Plant Industry, under the immediate

supervision of a custodian to be named by the Smithsonian Institution.

It will be housed in steel herbarium cases and in a fire-proof building. The

cataloging of the herbarium and the arranging and indexing of the other

materials constituting the collection will be commenced shortly, and it is

expected that this work will be completed within two years. The herbarium

and supporting collections will then be available for the use of all interested

mycological workers.

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Keoondiny Sect ciara: Wey sikieaasen Wineel alison an

CONTENTS: RN ae Ga cn

ORIGINAL Paras — . |

Spectroscopy. —Multipets in the Co 1 spectrum. Wanarase F.

“-Proceapinas

he Ackman, 5 UM i caueate tc nena eee ae

The Geological Botiety. oe ee ev tiee vith nha Seu inniane hina. saan

Bemmene Nora me Na ison

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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY ) < f

Treasurer: R. L. dees oy and Geodetic Survey.

Vou. 18 Juty 19, 1928 No. 13

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GEOLOGY.—Variations in Appalachian stratigraphy.1 CHARLES

Butts, U.S. Geological Survey.

The truly scientific investigation of the stratigraphy of the Ap-

palachian Valley may be said to have begun in the period 1835-1842

with the work of W. B. Rogers in Virginia and H. D. Rogers in Penn-

sylvania. They recognized the broad outlines of the stratigraphic

succession and reached a substantially correct understanding of the

general geologic structure. In the period 1855-1869 Safford studied

and described the geology of Tennessee, making finer subdivisions

than the Rogers brothers had done and introducing the British and

New York classification and systemic names. Still later, from 1875 to

1885, the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania made still finer

subdivisions of the stratigraphic column and followed still more

closely the New York classification. In 1894 the report on the

Paleozoic rocks of Alabama, prepared mainly by Henry McCalley

under the direction of E. A. Smith, the State Geologist, was published.

Here also the general British, Canadian and New York classifications

were followed. In both the Alabama and Pennsylvania reports the

stratigraphic subdivisions were in part of a broad, inclusive character.

For example, it has been found possible to break up formation No. II

of the Second Survey of Pennsylvania into 14 mappable units, ranging

from Middle Cambrian to Trenton in age, and in Alabama the ‘‘Pelham

limestone” included rocks from middle Beekmantown to rocks of

upper Richmond age and was thus nearly synonymous with Ordovician

in the broadest sense.

Subsequent to 1880 large areas of the Valley were mapped in

greater detail than ever before by the geologists of the U. 8. Geological

1 Address of the retiring president of the Geological Society of Washington, delivered

December 14, 1927. Received May 8, 1928. Published by permission of the Director

of the U. S. Geological Survey.

357

358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

Survey, Hayes, Keith, Campbell, and Darton. They had the aid of

fair topographic maps, which were wanting to their predecessors.

Their work consisted mainly in mapping the various lithologic units,

and their discrimination of the map units was in general satisfactory

and the mapping carried out consistently. Owing, however, to the

almost complete neglect of paleontology, various errors were made in

correlation and identification of formations in different belts of outcrop

within the Valley. For example, the shale of Martinsburg age of

the northwestern belts in Tennessee and Virginia (Trenton to

Maysville ages), was identified with the much older Sevier shale (of

upper Chazy age) of the southeastern belts. The lower part of the

Sevier really corresponds to the Ottosee limestone of the northwestern

belts, which is separated from the younger Martinsburg shale by the

Moccasin limestone. In like manner the essential equivalency of that

part of the Chickamauga limestone corresponding to the Lowville

limestone in the most northwestern belts adjacent to the coal fields with

the Moccasin limestone of the middle belts and the Bays sandstone of

the southeastern belts was not recognized.

It remained for one who through years of intensive paleontologic

and stratigraphic studies had become a master of the criteria by which

alone correct stratigraphic correlation is possible to point out such

errors as I have mentioned and put the systematic stratigraphy of the

Valley on a sound basis. I refer, of course, to Ulrich, who began work

in the southern Appalachians in 1896, and in 190.2, after a few seasons’

work zigzagging back and forth across the Valley, published in col-

laboration with Schuchert, the paper on Paleozoic Seas and Barriers

(Bulletin 52 of the New York State Museum). In this paper the

basic concepts of the authors regarding the history of Appalachian dep-

osition as suggested by the distribution of the deposits were set

forth. Briefly their thesis was that the Appalachian geosyncline was

occupied by a number of subordinate, relatively long and narrow

troughs of deposition, having in part separate oceanic connections,

and separated by long narrow barriers. They thought that at times

the geosyncline was almost entirely submerged and contemporaneous

deposition extended clear across it and along nearly its whole length.

Ulrich continued work in the Valley and in 1911 his great work, the

Revision of the Paleozoic Systems, was published. In this he elaborated

or modified the ideas set forth in Paleozoic Seas and Barriers, and

applied them to the revision of the classification of the Paleozoic

strata up to the top of the Beekmantown, which he included in his

guLy 19,1928 = = BUTTS: APPALACHIAN STRATIGRAPHY O09

Canadian system. The idea of long, narrow barriers was largely

abandoned and the idea of continental tilting and shifting of troughs

of deposition was stressed.

My own connection with this work has been mainly in detailed

mapping for folios and State maps all along the Valley from Penn-

sylvania to Alabama, and in this I have, of necessity, had to depend

upon Ulrich for precise stratigraphic correlation. I have had oppor-

tunity to check to a large extent Ulrich’s determination of strati-

graphic equivalency and it is my purpose in the rest of this address to

present some concrete examples of stratigraphic variations that have

come under my own observation, point out their possible causes, and

show their possible bearing upon Ulrich’s general hypothesis of local

warping and shifting troughs in the Appalachian geosyncline.

The variations of which I shall speak are of two kinds—variations

in the sequence of formations from place to place and variations in the

character of the same formation in different parts of the Valley, or

facies variations.

I will first take up the variation in sequence and afterwards the

variations in facies.

GENERAL SEQUENCE OF FORMATIONS

The general formational sequence in the Valley is fairly well dis-

played in the group of sections shown in Figure 1.

At the base of the Paleozoic succession a group of quartzites and

shales of Lower Cambrian age rests upon the Archean rocks of the

Appalachian Mountains or on those of the Piedmont plateau. These

Cambrian rocks border the Appalachian Valley on the southeast from

Pennsylvania to Alabama. They make the Blue Ridge for much of

the distance from Potomac River to Roanoke, Virginia. They are

variously subdivided and named but in general may be appropriately

designated by Safford’s name Chilhowee sandstones and shales or,

more briefly, the Chilhowee group. (See Figure 1, section 6.)

The overlying Shady limestone, mainly dolomite, is persistent and

fairly uniform in character throughout the length of the Valley. The

same is true of the next overlying Watauga shale, to which other names

have been given in different areas, as Rome in parts of Georgia,

Alabama, and Tennessee, Waynesboro in Pennsylvania, ‘‘Russell’’

on the northwest side in Virginia, and ‘‘Buena Vista” in the vicinity of

Lexington, Virginia. Recently the U. S. Geological Survey has

adopted the name Watauga shale for the southeast side of the Valley

060 JOURNAL OF 'THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

in Virginia and the name Rome formation for the belts on the north-

west side in which the name ‘“‘Russell’’ has formerly been used. The

writer would prefer to abandon all other names as synonyms and apply

the prior name Rome throughout, for the unit is generally acknow]l-

edged to be substantially the same from end to end of the Appalachian

Valley. The next overlying unit, Honaker limestone, is persistent but

of variable facies, as will be shown later. The Nolichucky shale,

succeeding the Honaker, is well-defined in northern Tennessee and

southern Virginia but loses its identity north and south of that general

region.

Next above the Nolichucky is the Jonesboro limestone in the south-

eastern belts of outcrop and the Copper Ridge dolomite in the north-

western belts. The relationship of these will be discussed farther on.

Succeeding the Jonesboro (as here redefined), or the Copper Ridge,

according to locality, is the Nittany dolomite, containing the Lecano-

spira zone—one of the great persistent units, extending in faunal and

lithologic integrity throughout the Valley. This general zone is

known to persist from the northwest highlands of Scotland (Durness

limestone, in part) via Newfoundland, Quebec, Lake Champlain and

the Appalachian Valley to southern Missouri, where it is represented

by the Roubidoux formation. The zone is everywhere marked by its

characteristic genus of gastropods, of which Ulrich recognizes several

species, the genotype being “‘Ophileta’’ compacta Salter. The genus

is, however, quite distinct from Ophileta, and Ulrich has given to it

the name Lecanospira.

The Nittany is overlain by 50 to 200 feet of beds containing the

gastropod genus Ceratopea, which are in turn succeeded by the

Mosheim limestone, and that by the Lenoir limestone. The Lenoir

limestone represents the middle Chazyan Crown Point limestone of

the Lake Champlain region and contains the well known Maclurea

magna zone. The Lenoir is represented in the northwestern belts in

the Stones River limestone shown in Figure 1, section 2.

The Lenoir is followed by coarse limestone or marble named Holston

marble in Tennessee and Holston limestone in southwestern Virginia.

This unit has also been called Murat limestone in Rockbridge County

and neighboring parts of Virginia.

_ Next in upward sequence is the Athens shale, carrying the Norman-

skill graptolite fauna. At Knoxville, Tennessee, the Athens is absent

and the Holston marble is directly succeeded by the Tellico sandstone.

The Tellico is succeeded in turn by the Sevier shale, the lower part of

Hy]

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Figure 1.—Sections showing stratigraphic sequence in Alabama, Virginia, and Cahaba Valley; sections Nos. 2to6in southwestern Virginia, as shown in key map; sec-

Pennsylvania, Section No. 1 is in the Birmingham District, Alabama, the part above tion No. 7 in Center, Huntingdon, and Blair counties, central Pennsylvania. Scale of

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JULY 19, 1928 BUTTS: APPALACHIAN STRATIGRAPHY 361

which is represented in the northwestern belts in Tennessee and

throughout southwestern Virginia by the Ottosee limestone. ‘This

new name was given by Ulrich to a smaller unit of a very different

facies in the northwest part of the Valley. Northwest of Clinch

~ Mountain in Tennessee and throughout the areas covered by folios

in southwestern Virginia, the Martinsburg shale was erroneously

identified and mapped as Sevier shale, whereas the actual representative

of the typical Sevier (with its basal caleareous part now called Ottosee)

was included in the Chickamauga limestone.

Next above the Ottosee in the middle belts is the Moccasin lime-

stone, which is approximately the same as the Lowville limestone of

the northwestern belts, as shown in section 2, Figurel. The Moccasin

is succeeded in the middle belts by the Martinsburg shale, which in-

cludes in its lower part the equivalent of the true Trenton limestone.

In the northwestern belts the Trenton becomes recognizable as a

limestone and the post-Trenton part of the Martinsburg, composed

largely of shale, is made a separate formation, named the Reedsville

shale.

Overlying the Reedsville or Martinsburg, according to locality, a

formation composed mainly of red shale and sandstone extends

throughout most of the Valley from Pennsylvania to southwestern

Virginia. In Pennsylvania it is named the Juniata formation, but in

southwestern Virginia, where marine fossiliferous limestone comes into

it, it is named the Sequatchie formation. This unit was wrongly

called Bays sandstone in the southwestern Virginia folios, the typical

Bays, as said before, being equivalent to the older Lowville or Moc-

casin limestone.

The Sequatchie or Juniata is succeeded throughout the Valley and

southward to central eastern Tennessee by a ridge-making quartzite

called Tuscarora in Pennsylvania and Clinch in Virginia. It makes

the crest of Clinch Mountain. The Clinch or Tuscarora is followed

by the Clinton formation, so well known through the Valley from

New York to Alabama on account of its deposits of stratified iron ore.

Next above the Clinton in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and northern

Virginia, lie shale and limestone of Cayuga age, followed in turn by the

Helderberg limestone. The Helderberg, however, does not extend

southward in Virginia to the region covered by the sections, although

in the extreme northwestern belts adjacent to the coal fields, as in the

vicinity of Big Stone Gap, both Cayuga and late Helderberg are repre-

sented. In southern Virginia, in the middle belts, the Clinton is

362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

overlain by a thin representative of the Oriskany sandstone and that

by limestone and chert of Onondaga age. This is followed in turn by

black shale of Marcellus and Genesee age, and the latter by a varying

thickness of Upper Devonian shale and sandstone in the main repre-

senting the Portage and Chemung formations of western New York.

Next above the Chemung comes the basal Mississippian Price

formation, of New Providence (Burlington, Pocono) age, and this. is

followed by later formations of Mississippian (Meramec and Chester)

ages up to the Pennington formation. Southeast of Clinch Mountain

there is a hiatus due to the absence of beds of Keokuk age, and on the

northwestern side of the Valley this hiatus is increased by the addi-

tional absence of the Warsaw and most of the St. Louis limestones.

VARIATIONS IN SEQUENCE

Intercalation of the Blount Group of Ulrich—I have selected a

few of the more clear-cut and extreme variations for presentation.

The first is the intercalation of the Blount group of Ulrich along the

strike between Pennsylvania and Alabama, as illustrated in Figure 2.

In this figure the photograph on the right, turned a quarter way around

to facilitate drawing the correlation lines, is a view in one of the quarries

at Bellefonte, central Pennsylvania. The strata dip 50° northwest.

At the top, above the junction of the correlation lines, is the Lowville

limestone; just below the junction of the lines is the Lemont member

of the Carlim limestone, of Chazy age.

The Lemont here is only 10-15 feet thick and at both its top and

bottom is a bed of clayey composition not more than 1 foot thick,

identified by Ross and others as voleanic ash or what has recently been

identified by them as bentonite, which occurs at several horizons and

which has been found at many places in the Appalachian valley and

the more interior parts of the eastern United States.

The limestone above the Lemont is known to be Lowville from the

presence of its guide fossils, Tetradiwm cellulosum, and Cryptophragmus

antiquatus (Beatricea of Ulrich). The Lemont is known to be of

middle Chazy age by the presence in it in some localities in central

Pennsylvania of the well known guide fossil Maclurea magna eas well

as the occurrence of other equally good middle Chazy fossils.

Going south to the general region marked by Knoxville, Tennessee,

the Lemont limestone is represented by the Lenoir limestone, with

Maclurea magna and a profusion of other fossils, and the Lowville

limestone is represented southeast of Knoxville by the Bays sandstone.

This is proven by the occurrence of T'etradium cellulosu:m in limestone

363

BUTTS: APPALACHIAN STRATIGRAPHY

JULY 19, 1928

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064 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

in the base of the Bays in that locality, as shown in the section between

the photographs. The significance of this fossil will be discussed

further on. However, as shown in Figure 2, the Lenoir limestone in

the Knoxville region is separated from the beds of Lowville age by a

group of formations which aggregate 7,500 feet in thickness and which

are absent in central Pennsylvania. ‘This thickness is obtained by

taking the maximum well-determined thicknesses of the several units

in different parts of the Knoxville region. These thicknesses are used

for the purpose of emphasizing the time interval between the Lemont

and Lowville, or between their equivalents, Lenoir and Bays. The

left hand photograph of Figure 2 is a view of a quarry in Birmingham,

Alabama. The situation is here nearly the same as in central Penn-

sylvania. As will be shown a little further on, the limestone above the

prominent parting at the level of the man’s head is of Lowville age;

the limestone below the parting contains a characteristic fossil,

Plectambonites subcarinatus and represents the Lebanon limestone, the

top formation of the Stones River group of the Nashville Basin,

Tennessee. Ulrich, from the fossils present, believes the Ridley

limestone also to be represented in the section at Birmingham by

beds below those representing the Lebanon. Now Ulrich assigns the

Ridley, which in the Nashville Basin lies immediately beneath the

Lebanon, to about the same stratigraphic level as the Lenoir lime-

stone, which in turn is approximately the same as the Lemont lime-

stone, with the result that the Lowville horizon at Birmingham is

separated from the Ridley horizon (possibly Lenoir or Lemont) by

only 50 feet of beds of Lebanon age not present in the eastern and

northern parts of the Appalachian valley.

Proof of the Lowville age of the limestone above the parting in the

quarry at Birmingham is found at a quarry on the same outcrop just

northeast of Gate City, 4 miles northeast of Birmingham. The same

prominent parting as that shown in the left hand photograph is

present as a rubbly bed reaching a thickness of possibly a foot and on

which is a reef-like accumulation of fossils, Solenopora, Columnaria,

Bryozoa, and brachiopods. Ten feet above the parting at this place

Tetradium cellulosum and Cryptophragmus antiquatus (Beatricea

gracilis Ulrich), the two principal guide fossils of the Lowville lime-

stone, occur and extend 20 feet higher. The specimens of Crypto-

phragmus and Tetradium collected here have been figured by the

writer.2. The sequence below the break is the same as that shown in

the photograph of the quarry at Birmingham.

2 Geology of Alabama. Alabama Geol. Surv. Spec. Rept. 14. pl. 32, f. 1-6. 1926.

JULY 19, 1928 BUTTS: APPALACHIAN STRATIGRAPHY 365

Cryptophragmus is a unique fossil; nothing like it is known from

any other horizon in the Appalachians. It occurs together with

Tetradium in an identical faunal and stratigraphic sequence from

Canada to Alabama, and the two mark a continuous zone in the Low-

ville limestone along the northwest margin of the Appalachian Valley

and in the lower part of the Moccasin limestone in the middle belts of

the Valley. The Tetradium occurs in the limestone at the base of the

Bays sandstone and just above the typical Sevier shale southeast of

Knoxville, Tennessee. )

A most remarkable feature of this great hiatus at the base of the

Lowville limestone is the perfect parallelism of the bedding above and

below the unconformity and the absence of any physical evidence that

the time that elapsed between the deposition of the Lemont and the

beginning of the deposition of the Lowville was long enough for the

deposition of 7,500 feet of beds in northeastern Tennessee and Virginia.

This concordance of bedding and perfect appearance of continuous

deposition is not an occasional phenomenon but is manifested in every

exposure of the sequence.

The intercalation of the Blount group of Ulrich into the general

Appalachian sequence is illustrated by the diagramatic section at the

bottom of Figure 2. The Athens shale is recognized in the vicinity of

Strasburg, Virginia, 20 miles southwest of Winchester. It extends in

one syncline or another into northeastern Alabama and was originally

a continuous deposit. The Holston limestone is known as far north

as Staunton, Virginia and extends 50 miles or more southwest of

Knoxville, Tennessee. The Tellico sandstone seems to be restricted

to the Knoxville region in a broad sense. The Ottosee limestone is

known as far north in Virginia as Tazewell and Wytheville, some 40

miles north of the Tennessee line, and the typical Sevier shale, in-

cluding the Ottosee in its lower part, reaches its maximum develop-

ment southeast of Knoxville. It may be represented in part in

Alabama by the Little Oak limestone, which in Cahaba Valley lies

between the Lowville-Moccasin-Bays horizon above and the Athens

shale below. At any rate, the Little Oak, as determined by Ulrich

from its fossils, is of Chazy age, and this conclusion is corroborated by

its stratigraphic relations. It certainly falls within the same limits as

the Tellico sandstone and Sevier shale.

No actual superposition of rock units such as that shown in the

diagram beneath the word Tennessee (Figure 2, bottom) is known.

The diagram only represents the chronological sequence of the units

366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

and roughly indicates their distribution along the strike of the Valley

and at the same time shows the extent of the time that elapsed between

the deposition of the Lowville and Lemont in Pennsylvania and be-

tween the deposition of the equivalent formations in Alabama.

Other variations along the Valley.—There are other great variations

in the sequence of formations along the length of the valley. Asshown

in Figure 1, section 1, in Alabama there wedges in between the Copper

Ridge dolomite and the Conasauga limestone, the upper part of which

is equivalent to the Nolichucky shale, 2,000 to 2,500 feet of dolomite

(Brierfield, Ketona, and Bibb dolomites) not present in Virginia and

most of Tennessee. In Alabama also the Chepultepec dolomite, 1,000

feet thick, intervenes between the Copper Ridge dolomite and the

Longview limestone, which is equivalent to the Nittany dolomite. In

central Pennsylvania, as shown in Figure 1, section 7, there is the

Stonehenge limestone, 600 feet thick, between the Nittany and the

horizon of the Chepultepec. In Pennsylvania too, there is the Gates-

burg formation, 1,750 feet thick, in the central part and the Conoco-

cheague limestone in the southeast belts of the Valley that appear to

be about. equivalent to the dolomite between the Nolichucky and

Copper Ridge in Alabama. In the intermediate regions of Virginia

and Tennessee there is therefore an important hiatus between the

Nolichucky and Copper Ridge and between the Copper Ridge and

Nittany. Between the Nittany and Mosheim there is a great hiatus

due to the absence of a large part of the Bellefonte dolomite of central

Pennsylvania, 2,000 feet thick and of the still younger St. Peter

sandstone and associated formations of the Mississippi Valley. There

are also great differences in the Silurian and Devonian systems that

IT will not touch upon.

Variations across the Valley.—Taking up now a transverse section

of the Valley rocks in southwestern Virginia, about midway between

Pennsylvania and Alabama, it appears that the sequence of the lower

formations up to the top of the Nolichucky shale is constant. How-

ever, nothing is known of the Shady dolomite or the Chilhowee group

on the northwestern side of the Valley where their horizons are not

exposed. The Rome (‘‘Russell’’) formation of the northwestern side

is substantially equivalent to the Watauga shale of the southeast

side, the Honaker limestone is about the same as the Rutledge,

Rogersville, and Maryville combined of the northwestern side and the

Nolichucky probably extends clear across, and is represented in the

upper part of the undivided mass of dolomite and limestone in the

ih i a

gJuLY 19, 1928 BUTTS: APPALACHIAN STRATIGRAPHY 367

southeastern belts included in the Honaker in Figure 1, section 6.

In the case of the Rutledge, Maryville, and Honaker, and in that of

the Nolichucky, there are marked changes of facies in the different

belts as will be described subsequently. At the horizon of the Copper

Ridge dolomite, however, the section on opposite sides of the Valley

is strikingly different. The sequence in the northwesternmost belts,

as shown in sections 2, 3, and 4 of Figure 1, holds in all the belts

southeastward across the strike to that part of the Valley southeast of

the line of the great Pulaski overthrust. Southeast of that line the

place of the Copper Ridge, namely, the space between the Nolichucky

shale and the Nittany dolomite, is occupied by 2,000 feet of rock which

is predominantly limestone and which in 1911 was included by Ulrich

in his Jonesboro limestone. As defined by Ulrich, the Jonesboro was

made to include beds corresponding to the Nittany dolomite and still

higher beds to the base of the Mosheim. However, it is agreed now

that the Nittany is a distinct and easily separable unit in southwestern

Virginia, and the name Jonesboro limestone is here redefined and

restricted to the limestone which near Jonesboro, Tennessee, underlies

the Nittany dolomite and rests on the Nolichucky shale.

The change from the 1,200 feet of cherty dolomite of the Copper

Ridge to the 2,000 feet of banded limestone of the Jonesboro in the

distance of a mile across the strike is startlingly abrupt. In the Copper

Ridge of most of the northwestern belts no limestone has been ob-

served, but in the belt next northwest of Abingdon extending northeast

along Rich Valley between Clinch and Walker Mountains—the belt

nearest to the Jonesboro limestone—layers of limestone appear

scattered through the main mass of Copper Ridge and there seems to

be rather more limestone at the top. On the other hand, in one place

or another, heavy dolomite 50 to 300 feet thick occurs between the

fossiliferous limestone in the top of the Nolichucky and the limestone

of the Jonesboro. On the evidence of fossils, mainly gastropods of

‘“‘Canadian’’ (Beekmantown) types which, so far as I have observed,

occur only in about the upper 1,000 feet of the Jonesboro and mainly in

the upper 500 feet, as lam here restricting it, Ulrich has classed the whole:

formation as ‘‘Canadian’”’ (Beekmantown). If that is correct it must

be in part equivalent to the Stonehenge limestone of Pennsylvania,

which it resembles lithologically. The Stonehenge underlies the

Nittany, as does the Jonesboro. If too, this interpretation is correct,

the difference in southwestern Virginia at this general horizon between

the succession shown in sections 2 to 4 and that shown in sections 5

368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

and 6, Figure 1, is a difference in sequence. So, although Ulrich

regards the Jonesboro as all ‘‘Canadian’’ (Beekmantown) yet, in view

of the occurrence of limestone layers in the nearest northwest belt of

Copper Ridge dolomite and a considerable thickness of dolomite in the

base of the Jonesboro in places, and in view of the facts, first, that no

identifiable fossils have yet been obtained from the lower 1,000 feet of

the Jonesboro to prove its age, and, second, that in some cases forma-

tions of dolomite to the northwest change to limestone to the southeast

side of the Valley, the possibility that the lower two-thirds or so of the

Jonesboro is a limestone facies of the Copper Ridge or possibly of

Copper Ridge and Chepultepec, should not be excluded from con-

sideration. ‘This subject will be touched upon again.

The Nittany dolomite is one of the persistent units extending both

the length and breadth of the valley, and marked throughout by

Lecanospira.

Above the Nittany and immediately succeeding Ceratopea zone in

the middle and southeastern belts of the valley, the Mosheim and

Lenoir limestones and the Blount group of Ulrich are present but in

the northwest belt represented in section 2, Figure 1, they are not

present. Except possibly in Mosheim time the northwest side of the

Valley seems to have been separated by a barrier from the middle and

southeastern sides so that the Stones River group on the northwest

and the Lenoir limestone on the southeast were deposited in separate

troughs, as shown by the almost complete difference of their fossils.

No species, or very few, are common to the Stones River and Lenoir,

although the Lenoir and Stones River seas were in part contempo-

raneous.

The Holston limestone occurs in the first two belts northwest of

Clinch Mountain but no farther northwest. This formation has been

proved to be the same as the Murat limestone, occurring in the

vicinity of Lexington, Virginia, but Holston is the older name. The

Athens shale nowhere extends northwest of Clinch Mountain, which

indicates that that region was land in Athens time. The Ottosee

limestone extends farthest northwest, being present in Rye Cove,

8 miles northwest of Gate City, and at the southeast base of Big A

Mountain in Russell County. The land that existed northwest of the

line of Clinch Mountain during Athens time was submerged in Ottosee

time. The Ottosee extends southeastward to the belt next southeast

JULY 19, 1928 BUTTS: APPALACHIAN STRATIGRAPHY 369

Figure 3.—A. Nodular Ottosee limestone unconformably overlying massive Holston

limestone. The Athens shale, which normally follows the Holston, as shown in B, is

absent. Highway cut on Little Indian Creek near the boundary between Russell and

Tazewell counties, Va., looking southwest.

B. View of an abandoned quarry of the Mathieson Alkali Works, 2 miles southeast

of Saltville, Va., looking east and showing the Athens shale immediately overlying the

Holston limestone. The Ottosee limestone follows the Athens here, but its outcrop is

hidden by the high ground above the quarry. This locality is southeast of Clinch

Mountain and about 12 miles southeast across the strike from the locality of A.

0/0 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

of Little Walker Mountain. Southeast of that belt the Athens shale

is the youngest formation present. |

The differences in sequence within the Blount Group of Ulrich

between the belts northwest and southeast of Clinch Mountain are

shown on Figure 1, sections 3 and 4 and also in the photographs of

Figure 3. In Figure 3A, the characteristic nodular limestone of the

Ottosee is shown resting directly upon the thick bedded Holston

limestone, the normally intervening Athens and Tellico being absent.

This photo was taken on the road between Lebanon and Tazewell,

near the line between Russell and Tazewell counties and northwest of

Clinch Mountain. In Figure 3B the Athens is shown in contact with

the Holston limestone near Saltville, southeast of Clinch Mountain,

at the location 4 on the map, Figurel. There is about 600 feet of Athens

here, with characteristic Normanskill graptolites and other fossils

peculiar to the graptolite zone. The Ottosee, 300 feet thick, is present

here above the Athens and beneath the Moccasin limestone, both

Ottosee and Moccasin cropping out on the slope beyond the quarry,

not shown in the photograph.

The next notable example of variation in sequence selected for

particular description is in the Birmingham district, Alabama. Here,

as shown in Figure 4, there is a very great difference between the

section in Cahaba Valley as shown in the right. hand section from that

of the Birmingham Valley shown on left hand section. The two belts

are barely 8 miles apart across the strike and the distance from the

southeast side of Cahaba Valley to the northwest side of Birmingham

Valley is about 15 miles. The Conasauga limestone, 2,000 feet thick

in Birmingham Valley, is not present on the northwest side of Cahaba

Valley in the vicinity of Helena 14 miles south of Birmingham. Lime-

stone and shale referred to the Conasauga are present in the south end

of Cahaba Valley but, so far as known, it is of Middle Cambrian age

and older than the Conasauga of Birmingham Valley. The Bibb and

Brierfield dolomites of the south end of Cahaba Valley are absent

farther north in that belt and also are absent from Birmingham Valley.

The Ketona and Copper Ridge dolomites extend clear across both belts.

The Chepultepec dolomite and Longview and Newala limestones,

aggregating a thickness of 2,500 feet, occur only in Cahaba Valley,

leaving a large erosional unconformity between the Copper Ridge

dolomite and Chickamauga limestone of Birmingham Valley. The

Longview is the same as the Nittany dolomite (Lecanospira zone)

of Virginia and Pennsylvania, while the Newala includes the upper

- ‘

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Figure 4.—Sections in the Birmingham District, Alabama, to show differences in

sequence between Cahaba and Birmingham valleys. Reproduced from the Bessemer-

Vandiver folio with change in the lower part of Cahaba Valley section. The formations

below the Fort Payne chert are not exposed in Shades Valley but, except the Rome,

crop out on the northwest of Red Mountain (which bounds Shades Valley on the north-

west). They, and the Rome also, crop out southeast of the Cahaba coal field, which

bounds Shades Valley on the southeast, so there is no reasonable doubt of their presence

beneath Shades Valley. The part of the Cahaba Valley section from the Bibb dolomite

down represents the sequence in the southern part of Cahaba Valley in the Montevallo

region. In the part of Cahaba Valley beginning about 10 miles north of Montevallo

and extending a considerable distance farther northeast, the Bibb and Brierfield dolo-

mites, and the Conasauga limestone are absent and the Ketona underlies the Copper

Ridge and rests upon the Rome formation. Scale, 1 inch = 2000 feet.

371

372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

Beekmantown (Ceratopea zones), not well represented in southwest

Virginia but strongly developed in Pennsylvania and Alabama. Its

distribution is another example of variation along the length of the

Appalachian Valley. The Chickamauga includes representatives of

the Stones River, Black River (including Lowville), and Trenton

limestones. The Lenoir limestone, 500 feet thick in Cahaba Valley,

is represented by a much smaller thickness in the midst of the Stones

River part of the Chickamauga, as indicated by the correlation lines.

While regarded as approximately contemporaneous, as noted above,

the Lenoir and its representative in the Stones River, both fairly

fossiliferous, have almost no fossils in common, from which fact it is

believed that they must have been deposited in separated troughs.

These troughs of deposition were probably farther apart than the

belts of the formations at present for there is a fault between the belts

along which the horizontal movement may have been several miles.

Above the Lenoir in Cahaba Valley are the Athens shale and the Little

Oak limestone, both entirely absent in Birmingham Valley and their

horizons represented by the extensive hiatus between the Lowville

and Stones River limestones shown in the photographs of Figure 2.

It is to be noted, too, that the ore-bearing Red Mountain formation

does not occur in Cahaba Valley, as shown on the right hand section.

The Fort Payne chert, lower Mississippian, however, spread over the

whole region and far to the southeast of Cahaba Valley. It marks a

period of wide transgression of the sea.

It is believed that these differences in stratigraphic sequence between

Cahaba and Birmingham Valleys were caused by a longitudinal barrier,

effective intermittently, the location of which is now marked by the

Helena fault along the southeast side of the Cahaba coal field.

Higher in the Alabama section the Parkwood formation is a most

notable case of extreme variation. Along the northwest side of the

Cahaba coal field, as shown in the Shades Valley section, the Parkwood

is over 2,000 feet thick; on the northwest side of the Coosa coal field

10 miles to the southeast, its thickness is about 1,000 feet, while on the

southeast side of the Warrior coal field, northwest of Birmingham

Valley, as exhibited in the Birmingham Valley section, the Parkwood

and, it is believed, the Shades sandstone member and overlying shale,

also of the basal coal measures (Pottsville formation) of the Cahaba

field, aggregating a thickness of about 3,000 feet, are entirely absent.

The northwest side of the Cahaba field and the southeast side of the

Warrior field are now only 6 to 7 miles apart with a thrust

fault between.

JULY 19, 1928 BUTTS: APPALACHIAN STRATIGRAPHY BYES)

VARIATIONS IN FACIES

Honaker limestone.—Passing now to variations in facies, I take up

first the Honaker limestone, which is mainly dolomite, and equivalent

formations in southwestern Virginia. In the northwestern belts of

the Appalachian Valley there are three recognizable divisions, in

ascending order, Rutledge limestone, Rogersville shale, and Maryville

limestone. In the middle belts there is no Rogersville shale and the

corresponding rocks are nearly all heavy-bedded dolomite hardly to be

distinguished lithologically from the Copper Ridge and Nittany

dolomites. In the extreme southeastern belts, where the Rogersville

is also absent and the Nolichucky not a distinct unit, the mass is made

up of a variable succession of thick-bedded or shaly dolomite with

many intercalated layers of pure light gray limestone. In a belt a

mile or two wide lying, in general, northwest of a line connecting

Marion, Abingdon, and Bristol and extending from the State line

northeastward to Marion, still another facies of this unit is developed.

Thick portions of it are largely mixed with insoluble clastic material

so that on weathering and leaching only a soft, mealy, yellowish

brown mass remains, preserving plainly the original bedding. Inter-

bedded with such material is laminated or shaly dolomite; thick-

bedded dolomite weathering down to a dark pulverulent mass; and

toward the top relatively pure, banded, limestone, lithologically so

similar to the overlying Jonesboro that I found myself unable to

separate the two until I discovered that, as described in the Greenville

folio, a section 100 to 200 or more feet thick, which I refer to the base of

the Jonesboro, carries a number of layers of sandstone. This sandy

zone persists for miles in the region, and as it can be easily recognized

by its abundant sandstone debris on the surface of a predominantly

limestone area, it constitutes a guide to the boundary between the

Jonesboro and the limestone facies of the immediately underlying

Nolichucky (which in the southeastern belts, as shown in Section 6,

is included in the Honaker). Owing to the difficulty of making the

separation of the Jonesboro and the underlying Upper Cambrian

limestone, and owing to the fact that the Copper Ridge dolomite, at

least in the usual facies that gives the characteristic expression of the

Knox dolomite, did not exist in this broad belt between Bristol and

Abingdon, the entire succession from the Rome (‘‘Russell’’) formation

to the Athens shale was, in the Bristol folio, thrown together as the

Shenandoah limestone. Within this mass it is possible to discriminate:

first, the Honaker limestone, or perhaps a new unit which will include

374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

the Honaker and the limestone equivalent of the Nolichucky shale;

second, the Jonesboro limestone; third, the Nittany dolomite, overlain

by a thin representative of the post-Nittany Ceratopea zone; fourth,

the Mosheim limestone; and fifth, the Lenoir limestone.

Jonesboro limestone.—As I have already pointed out, the Jonesboro

limestone may be in part a limestone facies of the Copper Ridge

dolomite—that is a question that may be definitely decided in the

future. Trilobites occur in the lower part of the Jonesboro and will

afford an answer if ever found in a matrix from which they can be

extracted. The facts next to be presented may have a bearing upon

the formation of opinion in the matter. .

On the northwest side of the Valley from Pennsylvania to Alabama,

the Beekmantown formations (Canadian of Ulrich) are, with the

exception of the Stonehenge and Axemann limestones in Pennsylvania,

all dolomite. Along the southeast side of the Valley the corresponding

formations are nearly all limestone. In Center County, Pennsylvania,

the Beekmantown formations are 4000 feet thick, all dolomite except

650 feet of Stonehenge at bottom and 100 to 200 feet of Axemann

limestone in the midst. In the Mercersburg-Chambersburg area,

Pennsylvania, a belt which, across the strike, is 40 miles southeast of

the Center County area, the Beekmantown is described by Stose as

limestone. In Tuckaleeche Cove, on the extreme southeast side of the

Appalachian Valley southeast of Knoxville, Tennessee, are deposits of

Beekmantown age according to Ulrich, which, according to both

Keith and Ulrich, are also limestone. The same is true in Alabama

where, in Cahaba Valley, southeast of Birmingham and along that

strike into Georgia, rocks of Beekmantown age are predominantly a

very pure limestone above and include a large proportion of limestone

in the lower 500 feet (the Longview limestone or Lecanospira zone).

There seems thus to be a decided tendency for the Beekmantown rocks

to consist of limestone to the southeast and dolomite to the northwest.

It would be in accordance with this tendency for the Jonesboro lime-

stone to be in part a southeastern facies of the Copper Ridge dolomite.

On the other hand, the Jonesboro is a lithologic unit, the upper 500

feet of which at least seem to be clearly of Beekmantown age and

Ulrich thinks it very probably is all Beekmantown.

‘ - Athens shale—Another striking example of facies differences is

found in the Athens shale. In the middle belts of the Valley from

Lexington, Virginia, to Marion, Virginia, the Athens is composed

largely of thin-bedded, dark limestone and of black shale in varying

proportion. At Lexington practically the whole thickness is lme-

JULY 19, 1928 BUTTS: APPALACHIAN STRATIGRAPHY ovo

stone, which has been named the Liberty Hall limestone. At Marion

and ‘in the vicinity of Wytheville there is an alternating succession of

beds of shale and limestone. In great contrast with the limestone

facies is a sandstone facies in the belts along the southeast side of the

Valley in the Wytheville-Bristol region. The Athens here includes

black shale several hundred or perhaps 1000 feet thick at bottom and an

unknown but great thickness of thick-bedded, coarse-grained, loosely

cemented, arkosic sandstone above. ‘This sandstone facies extends

to the top of the Athens throughout these southeastern belts, no

younger beds being present. The total thickness of the sandstone

and of the entire Athens in these belts is therefore unknown but,

from the great width of the area, which southeast of Bristol is about

five miles, and the steep dips, one gets the impression of a very great

thickness—several thousand feet at least. The sandstone in the

Athens has been mapped here as Tellico, but its Athens (Normanskill)

age is proven by characteristic genera and species of graptolites

occurring in the shale partings high up in the sandstone part of the

formation.

An interesting fact is disclosed by the distribution of the sandstone

and limestone facies of the Athens. A narrow syncline immediately

southwest of Wytheville occupied by the sandstone facies, is exactly

like the synclinal belts southeast of Bristol and Abingdon. Not a

layer of limestone is present in a thickness of a thousand feet or more

in this strip. On the other hand, at Marion, in a small fenster, 2 to

3 miles east of Wytheville, and in Crockett Cove about 4 miles north

of Wytheville, the limestone facies of the Athens is well developed and

contains not a layer of sandstone. This apparent anomaly, namely the

presence of the sandstone facies of the Athens southwest of Wytheville

lying directly in the strike between the limestone facies at Marion and

that of the fenster 2 miles east of Wytheville, is explained by the fact

that the elongated area west of Wytheville has been shoved several

miles northwest from its position at the time of deposition by the

movement on the great Pulaski fault. It belongs in the strike of the

belts southeast of Bristol and Abingdon, while the areas of the lime-

stone facies are in their normal places. ‘They belong to the part of the

crust beneath the Pulaski thrust that has not been displaced.

Lowville, Moccasin, and Bays formations——The next example of

facies difference is the Lowville-Moccasin-Bays unit. On the north-

west side of the Valley from Pennsylvania to Alabama and west over the

Nashville Basin, only the typical Lowville blue or dove limestone

376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

facies occurs. In places as along the northwestern slope of Wallen

Ridge in southwestern Virginia, however, layers of greenish, argil-

laceous crumbling limestone or calcareous mudrock occur in the

formation. This mudrock is lithologically identical with such rock in

the Moccasin facies except that the latter is red. In the middle belts

of the Valley in southwestern Virginia, as shown in sections 3, 4, and 5,

Figure 1, and through Tennessee and northwestern Georgia to the

northern part of Cahaba Valley, Alabama, the Lowville is represented

by the Moccasin limestone, distinguished by the red shale, or mudrock,

and the red argillaceous limestone, which make the bulk of the forma-

tion. In northwestern Georgia, as at Rocky Face, a few miles north-

west of Dalton, a formation of red mudrock estimated to be as much as

1000 feet thick is believed to be the representative of Moccasin. In

northeastern Alabama, in Colvin and Beaver Creek Mountains,

between Calhoun and Etowah counties, and in St. Clair County,

extending southwest to Odenville and in strike with the area at Rocky

Face this lithology, although not so thick as at Rocky Face, is changed

still more by the introduction of fossiliferous sandstone. In eastern

Tennessee, along the southeastern side of the Valley, the beds of

Lowville age also carry much sandstone as well as red shale and some

limestone. This is the Bays facies, the formation in these southeastern

belts being named the Bays sandstone. That these regional develop-

ments are but different expressions of contemporaneous deposition is

proved by the all but universal occurrence of the Lowville guide

fossils somewhere in the mass in all these areas except that at Rocky

Face, where if present, they have not yet been discovered. In all

areas of the Moccasin and Bays facies in Virginia, gray limestone in >

the lower part of the formation contains either T'etradium cellulosum

or Cryptophragmus antiquatus, or both. In northeastern Alabama

Tetradium cellulosum has been found in limestone at both top and

bottom of the formation, and characteristic Lowville species of os-

tracods also occur. In contrast to the clastic or impure limestone

(Moccasin or Bays) facies of the southeastern or middle belts, the

Lowville of the northwestern side of the Valley is in large part very

pure. Twenty-one samples from the quarries at Bellefonte, Center

County, Pennsylvania, show an average content of about 97 per cent

calcium carbonate, 1 per cent magnesium carbonate, and 2 per cent —

insoluble matter.

Like the Lowville, the next overlying limestone, of Trenton age, is,

in the northwestern belts and in the Cincinnati and Nashville regions,

JULY 19, 1928 BUTTS: APPALACHIAN STRATIGRAPHY ol7

a relatively pure limestone, easily enough recognized as a distinct

group of minor units by its lithology and fossils. In the middle belts

of the Valley, and in Pennsylvania also in the country to the southeast

of the Valley proper, the Trenton, as determined by its fossils, is

represented by the lower part of the Martinsburg shale, as shown in

sections 3 to 5, Figure 1.

Formations of Richmond age.—lf identifications of fossils and cor-

relations of formations are correct, one of the most noteworthy

examples of facies differences is found in the Medina group of the

New York classification and its equivalents elsewhere. In Penn-

sylvania the Juniata formation is non-marine red shale and red sand-

stone. In southwestern Virginia it is red shale with layers of impure

limestone carrying marine fossils, the Sequatchie formation. On the

escarpment south of Lake Ontario its equivalent is the red Queenston

shale. Going from Queenston through Ontario, Canada, to the nor-

thern end of Lake Huron and thence southward into southeastern

Indiana, this non-marine red shale of Pennsylvania and New York can

be traced step by step into the highly fossiliferous limestone of the

Richmond group of southern Indiana and southwestern Ohio. From

Indiana and southwestern Ohio, the Richmond, still fossiliferous, can

be traced into northwestern Alabama and unmistakably identified in

Sequatchie and Big Wills Valleys in Tennessee and Alabama, where,

however, red color begins to appear in the argillaceous limestone.

From Big Wills Valley it can be'traced far into Tennessee and prob-

ably into southwestern Virginia where, as noted above, the unit is red

shale with layers of impure limestone. The upper part of the old

Medina group, now named Albion sandstone, so fully displayed in the

Niagara gorge and containing in its lower part a few marine fossils, is

almost certainly the same as the non-marine Tuscarora quartzite of

Pennsylvania and the Clinch sandstone of Virginia. Thestratigraphic

position of the Albion, Tuscarora, and Clinch is identical—between

the Queenston-Juniata-Sequatchie below and the Clinton above.

Northwestward through Ontario the Albion, in part at least, is the

same as the fossiliferous, partly limestone Cataract formation, and

this in turn is correlated through its fossils with the fossiliferous

marine Brassfield limestone of Ohio and Kentucky. The Brassfield

through its fossils is identified by Ulrich with part of the iron ore-

bearing Rockwood formation at Rockwood, Tennessee, and at Jasper,

Sequatchie Valley, Tennessee, and with the part of the Red Mountain

formation of Alabama below the “‘Big Seam” of iron ore. The part of

the Red Mountain formation overlying and including the ‘“‘Big Seam”’

378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

is of Clinton age. At Cumberland Gap, Virginia-Tennessee, the Brass-

field fauna is found in beds that are limy at the top and gritty at

the bottom and which, like the Clinch sandstone of Virginia and the

Tuscarora quartzite of Pennsylvania, lie between the Clinton above

and the Sequatchie or Juniata below. ‘There seems no considerable

doubt that the Albion, Cataract, Brassfield, Clinch, and Tuscarora are

all different facies and names for essentially one time unit.

Mississippian formation.—As a last example of facies change, I

will mention that which takes place in the Mississippian formations of

southwestern Virginia. At Cumberland Gap the Keokuk and St.

Louis are very thinly represented and the intervening Warsaw is

absent. All the other Mississippian formations at Cumberland Gap

are relatively thin, aggregating barely 1000 feet. In the trough south-

east of Clinch Mountain (Figure 1, section 3), the Keokuk is absent,

but the Warsaw and St. Louis are well represented and the total thick-

ness of the Mississippian is around 6000 feet. It is one of the thickest

Mississippian sections known. Except for the Price and Pennington

formations, which are clastic in both regions, there is a marked differ-

ence in composition of the formations in the two regions. The change

in thickness and composition is particularly striking in the Ste.

Genevieve and Gasper formations. At Cumberland Gap they are

composed of thick-bedded oolitic limestone of high purity and their

combined thickness is about 200 feet. Southeast of Clinch Moun-

tain, on the other hand, these formations are predominantly highly

argillaceous, thinly laminated limestone which weathers to a soft

material much like a shale and their thickness is over 2300 feet as

against 200 feet at Cumberland Gap. ‘This difference is probably due

to the proximity of the southeastern area to the sources of the clastic -

sediment which is mixed with the calcareous constituents of the

formation.

CONCLUSIONS

The most important conclusion to be drawn from the distribution of

the various formational units of the Appalachian Valley is that the

Appalachian Geosyncline and a great area to the west were in a state

of intermittent warping. At a given time one part was above water

and another part below. Ata later time the conditions were reversed.

Sometimes, as in Nittany and Lowville times, submergence was cer-

tainly widespread if not universal; at other times, as in the time when

the Tellico sandstone was laid down in the Knoxville region, emergence

prevailed Through all of upper Chazy (‘‘Blount’’), time the dis-

JULY 19, 1928 BUTTS: APPALACHIAN STRATIGRAPHY 379

tribution of formations and faunas indicate that the middle part of

the Valley in the Virginia-Tennessee region, especially on the south-

east side, was depressed while the north and south ends, and especially

the northwest side, were elevated. This elevation also affected a

great area extending far to the westward over the present sites of the

Nashville and Cincinnati domes, where deposits equivalent to Ulrich’s

Blount group are unknown and where the Carters limestone, equiva-

lent to the Lowville limestone, rests upon the Stones River limestone

with so strong an appearance of conformity that Ulrich was for a long

time puzzled as to their relations, in fact, until he had discovered the

existence of the beds which he called the Blount group intervening in

time between them and had established the Lowville age of the Carters

through its fossils.

Contemporaneous local warping occurred and controlled the dis-

tribution of the members of the group itself. First the deposition of

the Holston limestone extended westward for 10 miles or more beyond

the northwest limit of the Athens shale. Emergence of the trough

progressed, as proved by the restricted distribution of the Athens to-

ward the northwest as compared with that of the Holston, though the

apparent shrinkage was possibly of the nature of an uplift in the

northwest and depression in the southeast side of the trough, causing a

southeastward shift of the trough in Athens time. But emergence

and shrinkage of the area of deposition continued some time, as attested

by the small area of the Tellico as compared with that of the Athens or

Holston. After Tellico time, however, a downward warping set in,

as witnessed by the northwestward extension of the Ottosee limestone

beyond the limits of the earlier Holston. This movement continued

until in the succeeding Lowville-Moccasin-Bays time the entire

geosyncline and the area westward beyond the present location of the

Mississippi River, where the Lowville is represented in the Plattin

limestone of Arkansas and Missouri, was submerged.

As to the matter of barriers—in only one case does a relatively

narrow longitudinal barrier separating two troughs within the geosyn-

cline seem to be needed to explain the facts. I refer to the appar-

ently contemporaneous Lenoir limestone and the Ridley limestone of

the Stones River group. In Alabama these two formations occur

within less than 10 miles of each other across the strike. Both are

fossiliferous, yet so far as known, there are no species, or at most only

very few, in common and these were of cosmopolitan oceanic dis-

tribution.

380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

The Lenoir fauna is of Atlantic origin and has closer affinity with the

Ordovician faunas of Scotland and Scandinavia than with the fauna

of the Ridley, 10 miles away, which on the other hand, carries a fauna

of the interior Nashville basin. However, as there is a great over-

thrust between the two areas, the Lenoir was doubtless deposited at a

distance from the Ridley greater than that by which they are now

separated. At that, however, itis difficult to understand how animals

with free swimming larvae and other means of distribution did not

commingle if there were open water connections between the areas in

which they lived or, in other words, if they had been deposited in the

same sea. 7

Finally, it seems to me that these variations in stratigraphy, of

which a few examples have been given, are a record of a constantly and

gently oscillating crust or exterior shell of the earth which caused a

continual shifting of the areas of land and sea within the Appalachian

geosyncline throughout Paleozoic time. That the oscillations or

pulsations were gentle is proved by the absence, throughout the entire

Paleozoic sequence of the Appalachian Valley, of strong angular

unconformities between deposits separated by long periods of time, the

physical relations between such deposits, as revealed within the limits

of actual exposures, very closely simulating continuity of deposition

even where the breaks are greatest. See the photographs of Figure 2.

As a matter of fact, it is only through tracing certainly identifiable

formations over large areas and finding that they become separated

by thick intervening deposits absent at the place of starting, or through

the determination of the age of contiguous formations or contiguous —

parts of a seeming lithologic unit by means of fossils, that the existence

of many great stratigraphic gaps or unconformities can be detected at

all. The causes of the earth movements involved in these geologic

phenomena are a fascinating and tantalizing subject of speculation

but their investigation falls within the province of the geophysicists.

JULY 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 381

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

394TH MEETING

The 394th regular meeting was held June 2, 1927, in Room 43 of the

National Museum. In absence of the president, the corresponding secre-

tary-treasurer presided. The entire evening was devoted to brief notes and

exhibition of specimens.

Dr. T. E. SnypEr spoke of the genus Coptotermes which was established

in 1896 by Wasmann, the oriental species gastroc Wasmann being the geno-

type. There are approximately 43 species, 21 oriental, 9 Australian, 9 Ethio-

pian, and 4 neo-tropical. The status of some of the species is as yet in doubt.

The genus Coptotermes is in the family Rhinotermitidae, the intermediate

family between the higher and lower termites. Most of these termites are

subterranean in habit; a few of them make hard carton true nests, but most of

them burrow in soil and wood with diffused nests. Soldiers of species of

Coptotermes have a frontal gland which exudes an acidulous secretion coagu-

lating and hardening in the air which is used as defense against ants. With

this secretion it is possible to dissolve lime mortar in stone and brick founda-

tions. ‘The Japanese Government has prohibited the use of lime mortar in

consequence. Species of Coptotermes attack buildings, bridges, telephone

poles, and various growing crops. They are a serious enemy in rubber

plantations. About 1913 a Coptotermes, at first supposed to be the Australian

species C. lacteus Froggatt, was discovered on the Island of Oahu at Honolulu.

In 1920 the Japanese entomologist, M. Oshima, described it as a new species,

C. introdens, close to but distinct from C. formosanus Shiraki. In 1924 it

was found on the Island of Hawaiiat Hilo. In 1926 American entomologists

decided that zntrudens is a synonym of formosanus of southern Japan, Formosa

and the south China coast. Another species of Coptotermes, a new species

doing 95 per cent of the damage to buildings done in the Philippines, was in-

tercepted in Hawaii and has not become established. Owing to the fact that

Coptotermes formosanus has been found infesting floating dry docks, coal

barges, and other vessels in the harbors of the Hawaiian Islands, it is quite

possible that it may be introduced into continental United States, especially

California. Every effort will be made by the Federal Horticultural Board,

the State Board of Agriculture of California, and officials at Hawaii, to prevent

this. The insect builds a concentrated nest, hence fumigation is an effective

control measure. A photograph was shown of such a nest found in the hold

of a floating dry dock from which nest earthlike shelter tubes went down on

timbers below the water level, i.e., were submerged in salt water. This

ability of the insect to live below the water line is a strong point in its life

history.

Dr. SNYDER also discussed Insect damage to yellow and white pine timbers in

the roof of the White House. During May 1927 an examination was made of

the timbers from the roof of the White House which were being removed in

repair work. The supporting timber trusses had been pulled out of place so

that they no longer structurally served as trusses but carried the heavy load as

beams. This caused the roof to sag to a dangerous degree. It was found

that the white and yellow pine timbers had become infested by Hexarthrum

ulket Horn, one of the Cossind beetles in the family of weevils Curculionidae.

382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

This insect is one of the so-called powder-post. beetles which reduce the wood

fiber to a powder-like condition. There are several earlier records of similar

damage to the woodwork of buildings and flooring, caused by this insect,

some of these records occurring in Washington, D. C. The ends of heavy

timbers were badly weakened where they had been eaten by these insects—

some were even broken off. The insect also invaded sound lathing attached

to the infested timbers. There was no decay in some of the timbers infested

by this beetle nor in the lathing. However, decay was present in the ends of

some of the timbers supporting the roof of the tall portico in front of the

White House. These powder-post beetles usually lay their eggs in joists or

crevices of timber under conditions of darkness and poor ventilation. Im-

pregnation treatments of timbers with zinc chloride would prevent such

infestation and even coats of varnish would probably be effective. Fre-

quent inspection of untreated timbers is advisable, especially in old

buildings. Where timbers are not structurally weakened the insects infest-

ing them can be killed by thoroughly saturating the wood with orthodichloro-

benzene, applying the liquid with a saturated rag or mop, or as a spray.

Several applications may be necessary to kill the insects. If this chemical

is used as a spray it is advisable to open the building, as the odor of the chemi-

cal may prove disagreeable in a closed room. In spraying timbers overhead,

care should be taken not to let the liquid drip down as it might slightly burn

the face and hands and would be especially injurious to the eyes.

Dr. H. Morrison discussed briefly the Cockerell types of Coccidae in the

U.S. National Museum. According to most recent lists there are now over

3000 described species of Coccidae, of which 512, or approximately one sixth, ©

have been described by Dr. Cockerell. The National Collection of Coccidae,

according to a preliminary check, contains types or co-types of all but 81 of

the species described by Dr. Cockerell. Mr. Rouwer spoke briefly of Dr.

Cockerell’s 19-month fossil collecting trip now in progress.

Dr. Morrison also reported arrival of two shipments of scale insects sent

for identification over a year ago by Mr. Kincaid from Seattle, Washington.

These proved to be Lecanium coryli (Linn.), a species reported once from Nova

Scotia many years ago, though there is no certainty that the identification

was correct. It was introduced some 15 years ago into British Columbia and

has recently attained importance as a pest of shade trees. It is a general

feeder on shade, ornamental and rosaceous fruit trees, and occurs in consider-

able numbers in Stanley Park, Vancouver, and in Seattle and adjacent terri-

tory. Some efforts have been made to obtain an appropriation from Con-

gress for work on it. Material was exhibited by Dr. Morrison.

Dr. Scuauss reported the recent gift by Jordan of a paratype of Sthen-

auge parasitus Jord. He discussed briefly its larval habits, especially its

rather curious feeding habits. He also read a paragraph from Novitates

Zoologicae (vol. 33, 1926) containing additional very interesting information

regarding it.

Mr. BarBer exhibited local forms of Lampyridae and spoke of the contrast

between “species” as they have been recognized by taxonomic study and

“species” as they occur in nature. He thinks of a species as a living popula-

tion, reproducing its kind, but isolated from other species by specialized

habits or adaptations. These may be evident in distinctive mating instincts,

in peculiar.ecological habitat, in time of appearance, etc., as well as (more

fortunately from our standpoint) in differences in structure. The Lampy-

ridae differ from their near relatives the Lycidae and the Cantharidae (Tele-

JULY 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 383

phoridae) in the almost universal persistence of the photogenic function which

so far as known remains in the larval stages of even those forms whose adults

have lost their lights by becoming diurnal in their activities. Those retaining

their crepuscular or nocturnal flight period have modified the photogenic

organs for use in courtship signals, and the light emissions have become so

distinctive in species maturing concurrently as to constitute a barrier against

hybridization. About 30 species have been found in the vicinity of Washing-

ton but the taxonomy of the group is so confused that but few can be identi-

fied. The differential characters are usually not recorded in descriptions,

most of the types are inaccessible, the recorded synonymy is based almost

entirely on opinions formed from superficial resemblances of poorly preserved

and unauthentic samples. Of the 69 species of the family listed from the

_ United States in the Leng Catalogue about 14 appear to be known from the

vicinity of Washington but this number will rise to more than the 30 species

thus far encountered when the incorrectly suppressed species, and the new

forms are untangled and elucidated.

Mr. BarBeEr cited Phanaeus carnifex as an example of specific misidenti-

fication which has been so consistently overlooked that almost 170 years have

passed without a single correct application of this name to the species de-

scribed in Linnaeus’ 10th edition. He exhibited specimens of the three well-

known species confused by Linnaeus under the name Scarabaeus carnifex

and showed that the original description was probably not based upon speci-

mens but upon two figures. One of the latter is the Jamaican species well

known as sulcatus Drury 1770, the other became Scarabaeus festivus Linn.

1767. On the latter date Linnaeus applied the name carnifex to our well-

known tumblebug of the Atlantic Coast. The three species involved being

merely collectors’ prizes, the name not as yet entering economic, medical, or

popular literature, the case seems one for simple adjustment in conformity

with nomenclatorial rules rather than for recourse to the International Com-

mission on Zoological Nomenclature which has plenary power and might set

the rules aside to validate the established usage in this case. Thus carnifex

Linn. 1758 would suppress sulcatus Drury 1770 (a coal-black species from

Jamaica), carnifex Linn. 1767 (being a homonym) would be rejected in the

synonymy of the next available name, and our brilliant Carolinian species

would be known henceforth as vindex Macleay 1819, while the glorious red

Venezuelan Oxysternon festivum (Linn. 1767) remains unchanged.

C. T. GREENE spoke of two species of Diptera which were external parasites

on aquatic hosts. He exhibited two pamphlets as follows: (1) ‘“The Larva of

a Chironomid (Trissocladius equitans n. sp.) which is parasitic upon a May-fly

Nymph (Rithrogena sp.)”’ by P. W. Claassen. The larval and pupal stages

of this fly are passed under the wingpads of the host. (2) “Le Cycle Evolutif

de Dactylocladius commensalis sp. nov. Chironomide 4 larve commensale d’une

larve de Blepharoceride (Diptera)’”? by A. Tonnoi. This larval parasite

lives on the under side of the Blepharocerid larva passing both the larval and

pupal stage there.

Dr. MANN narrated an incident of one of his collecting trips some time ago

in Honduras in which his curiosity had been considerably aroused by rumours

of a mysterious tree called by the natives the ‘“‘rain-tree,’”? and which he

supposed would prove to be one bearing some form of Cercopid drip. When

at last he had opportunity, however, to examine the tree he found that there

indeed came from it tiny spurts of water as reported, but instead of Cercopids

being the cause of this he found the trouble was caused by an infestation in

384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

considerable numbers by a large species of Cicada, specimens of which he

duly collected for the National Museum.

Dr. G. F. Wuits reported briefly on studies he is making on a protozoan

(sporozoan) and a bacterial disease of the Mediterranean flour moth (Ephestia

Kuehmniella Zeller). The protozoan disease is particularly infectious in cul-

tures of this insect and has proven to be a very troublesome factor to different

workers using this species in their studies. Infection takes place through the

food ingested. Death may occur at any stage of the insect following infec-

tion. The disease is not limited to Hphestia. A bacterial disease of this

species was first described in Germany and its causal organism determined

and named. This infection has been encountered in cultures of the insect in

Washington. Death takes place during the larval stage, the mortality some-

times reaching 100 per cent. The possible use of these maladies in the con-

trol of this insect pest was suggested. A further discussion of these diseases

will be given at a later time.

Mr. Rouwer called attention to a circular letter which was being distrib-

uted by Dr. C. W. Stites asking for the opinion of American zoologists

regarding the objections of Dr. Franz Poche, of Vienna, to certain rules and

procedures of the Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Dr. Poche has

circulated a letter requesting zoologists to petition the Commission to make

certain radical changes in the Code, and also to make a radical change in the

method of handling matters of nomenclature. These circular letters by Dr.

Poche have received the approval of a great many zoologists, but some of

them have probably not had sufficient opportunity to study the question from

all angles. Hence Dr. Stiuzs has felt it desirable to bring the matter to the

attention of the American zoologists. In discussing Dr. Stiuss’ circular

letter, Mr. RouweEr touched briefly on two of Dr. Poche’s propositions.

The first proposes that problems of nomenclature be brought before the

General Congress for discussion by a majority vote of members of the Com-

mission instead of by a unanimous vote. He stated that this would not be

fair to the countries which have only one representative on the Commission,

as sometimes this representative cannot be reached promptly and a matter

might be presented to the General Congress without his having even con-

sidered it. Another objection to the majority vote is that the attendance at

the meetings of the General Congress is always predominantly from the

country in which the meetings are held; therefore if a proposition should be

presented without the unanimous approval of the Commission, it is fairly

certain that the ideas of the country in which the meetings are being held

would prevail. This is obviously unfair to the other countries, and would

destroy the international unity which now prevails in settling nomenclatural

problems. The second proposition of Poche discussed by Mr. Ronwer deals

with the reversion to the principle of elimination in fixing genotypes. Mr.

RouWER pointed out that a controversy had taken place a number of years

ago between the school which advocated the fixation of types by the elimina-

tion principle and those who wished to adopt the first species rule. A com-

promise was reached in which both methods were adopted, and in addition

the principle of priority was introduced and certain machinery for the selec-

tion of genotypes was set up by the International Commission in Article 30.

The adoption of Poche’s proposition of fixing genotypes only by the method

of elimination would break faith with those people who agreed to the com-

promise which was reached in 1907, and would create chaos, inasmuch as it

would set aside many designations which have been made on the recommenda-

tions of Article 30.

JULY 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 385

Mr. RouweEr stated that the Committee on Nomenclature of the Society

had already replied to Dr. Stiles’ circular, and as individuals had opposed all

of the propositions advanced by Dr. Poche. He urged each member of the

Society to study the matter carefully and to sign the circular submitted by

Dr. St1LzEs so that he could have a complete record of the opinions of Ameri-

can biologists.

395TH MEETING

The 395th regular meeting was held October 6, 1927, in Room 43 of the

National Museum. President J. A. Hystop presided.

In commenting on the minutes of the previous meeting, Dr. Howarp

stated that he had recently met in Prague a Mr. C. Blattney who informed

him that Lecanium coryli (Linn.) and L. cornet were very heavily parasitized

there, and that he would be glad to furnish us with material if needed here.

The Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer read a letter from the Honorary

President, Dr. E. A. Scowarz, presenting to him for the society one thousand

dollars in securities of the American Building Association of this city, the

income of which is to be used year by year to augment the printing fund. An

enthusiastic and unanimous vote of thanks was tendered to Dr. ScHwarz for

this gift, the characteristic generosity and thoughtfulness of which are very

deeply appreciated by every member.

Dr. 8. B. Fracker, formerly of Madison, Wisconsin, now of this city, was

elected to membership. Upon request, Dr. FRacknR made a few remarks

ed briefly the lack of opportunity for research in administrative

work.

Greetings and felicitations were extended to Dr. Howarp upon his safe.

return from Europe. He will discuss his recent trip in some detail at a later

meeting.

Mr. GREEN reported the death of Mr. H. S. Harsecx at Philadelphia,

October 2. Mr. Harsecx’s interest had been in collecting Diptera.

Program: F. L. CaMpBELL: The toxicology of arsenic as an insecticide.

Methods and apparatus for the determination of acute and chronic minimum

lethal doses of arsenic for individual insects were described. The M. L. D.

of arsenic for insects from the data now available appears to range from 0.003

to 0.03 mg. of arsenic per gram of insect, the dose varying with the species of

insect, its age, and the compound of arsenic employed. The M. L. D. of

arsenic for insects and mammals is of the same order of magnitude.

Discussed by MecInpoo, Howarp, RicHarpson and BRIDWELL.

Dr. W. H. Larrimer: Results of the ten-million-dollar European corn borer

campaign. A summary of the results of the campaign and opinions thereon

were given under three subdivisions: (1) United States Department of Agri-

culture: Surveys of 743 townships in the heavily-infested states indicate that

the ten-million-dollar spring campaign against the European corn borer

has retarded the insect’s rate of increase. Census of the borer population,

as determined by actual count in the field during the past two months in

Michigan, Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania, shows that there is now an

average of fourteen borers per one hundred stalks in the campaign area, as com-

pared with an average of nine borers per one hundred stalks last year. In 1925

the borer population inthe area wastwo borers per one hundred stalks. Though

this means an increase of fifty percent in borer population this year, it com-

pares favorably with the increase of over three hundred percent in borer

population registered in 1926 when there was no control campaign. Had

386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

there been no campaign this spring, judging by the increase in 1926, we

might now find about thirty-two instead of fourteen borers per one hundred

stalks. The increase from nine to fourteen borers per one hundred stalks

came this year despite a clean-up that destroyed ninety-five percent of the

borers. Five borers left of an original population of one hundred will produce

on an average one hundred fifty mature borers. The clean-up this spring was

even more effective than the Department had expected. (2) Executive

Committee of the International Corn Borer Organization: After due considera-

tion of the data presented, and after observing conditions, it is the judgment

of the Committee that the campaign has been successful as far as humanly

possible. (3) Joint Committee of the American Association of Economic

Entomologists, the American Society of Agronomy, and the American Society

of Agricultural Engineers: The committee of entomologists, agronomists,

and agricultural engineers cooperating, endorse the efforts to control the corn

borer and commend those engaged in directing the research, regulatory

and extension activities designed for its control. Especial commendation

is given to the multitude of farmers who cooperated in the clean-up cam-

paign. It is believed that the compulsory clean-up of 1927 not only greatly

reduced the rate of infestation increase, but has been successful in preventing

serious commercial losses, and that the expenditure of large funds for this

purpose has been completely justified.

Discussed by Wrss, McInpoo, Howarp, Hystop, BisHor and Morrison.

Mr. Rouwer discussed the recent generous gift by will of the late Dr. C. F.

Baker to the U. 8. National Museum of his insect collection, and of Mr.

CusHMAN’s trip to the Philippines to procure it. He gave a brief outline of

Dr. Baker’s career, and spoke appreciatively of his arduous labors in the

advancement of entomology. This gift is a very notable addition to our

national collection, and doubtless will be worked over by investigators for

many years to come. A committee, consisting of Howarp, GraFr and

ROHWER, was appointed to draw up appropriate notice of Dr. BAKER’s death.

396TH MEETING

The 396th regular meeting was held November 3, 1927, in Room 43 of the

National Museum. President J. A. Hysuop presided.

Dr. F. L. Campspgetu, Mr. H. H. SHeparp and Mr. R. 8S. FILMER were

elected to membership.

Resolutions regarding the death of Dr. C. F. Bakr were read by Dr.

Howarbp, and incorporated into the minutes as follows: ‘“The Entomological

Society of Washington, by formal and unanimous action, not only expresses

its great sorrow on learning of the death of its long-time member, Cart F.

Baxkesr, but here records its very high esteem for the man and its admiration

of the very wonderful work that he accomplished in his comparatively short

life. ‘The Society considers that his life efforts to increase our knowledge

of insects have been of the very greatest importance to science, and

believes that his achievements are almost unparalleled in the history of

entomology. The Society is deeply gratified to know that Dean Baker held

Washington entomologists in such high esteem that in his will he arranged to

have his extraordinary collections in entomology brought to Washington and

deposited in the U.S. National Museum.” It was recommended that copies

of this minute be sent to the family of Dean BakmEr.

JULY 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 387

Dr. Stanistow MinxiEwicz of Pulawy, Poland, gave a brief summary of

his tour the past summer over various parts of the United States and Canada.

During this trip he was able to visit and review entomological work at Ithaca

and Geneva, New York; portions of Canada and Nova Scotia; Melrose

Highlands and Arlington, Massachusetts; Riverton, New Jersey; Columbus

and Wooster, Ohio; West Lafayette, Indiana; Urbana, Illinois; Manhattan,

Kansas; Salt Lake City, Utah; various places in central and southern

California; Portland, Oregon; Seattle, Washington; Vancouver, British

Columbia; Madison, Wisconsin; and East Lansing, Michigan. He also

touched briefly on some of the agricultural and entomological problems in

Europe, and contrasted conditions there with those in this country, dwelling

especially on the lack of parasites here for control of the imported injurious

insects. He expressed his thanks to Washington entomologists for courtesies

extended to him.

Dr. H. T. FerNaup, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass.,

discussed the value of professional contacts offered by the entomological

organization in Washington and deplored the comparative isolation in which

many entomologists like himself were obliged to work.

Prof. R. A. Cootey, Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana,

discussed a parasite (Ixodiphagus teranus Howard) of the spotted-fever tick.

Dr. C. F. Doucette, of Santa Cruz, California, described some recent

bulb work on the West Coast.

Mr. C. H. Haptey, of Toledo, Ohio, and Dr. F. W. Poos, of the Norfolk

(Va.) Truck Experiment Station, also spoke briefly.

The first address on the regular program was given by Dr. Howarp, who,

with the help of lantern slides, told about some of the entomological high-

lights of his summer in Europe. During the trip he visited England, France,

Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary and Jugoslavia. He

showed portraits of a number of entomologists known to the members of the

Society by reputation but who never have been in this country. Excellent

work is being done at the newly instituted parasite laboratory of the Imperial

Bureau of Entomology at Farnham Royal, England, by 8. A. Neave, J. F.

Myers and R. Stenton, and also at the Biologischen Reichs-Anstalt, in

Berlin, under Dr. A. Haase. Active work is being carried on in Poland and

Czechoslovakia. An exact description of the entomological material which

has been brought together in great quantity by Dr. J. Obenberger in the

National Museum at Prague since the conclusion of the great war had been

placed in Mr. Rohwer’s hands by the speaker. Two young Russian refugees,

S. Novicki at Skierniewice, Poland, and L. Oglobin at the Prague Museum,

are intensely interested in the parasitic Hymenoptera. A brief account of the

Tenth International Zoological Congress at Budapest the first week in

September was given, illustrated by portraits of most of the entomologists in

attendance, including especially striking pictures of Dr. 8. Bodenheimer of

Palestine and Dr. L. Biro of Budapest.

Dr. E. A. Back: Some facts regarding moth proofing solutions. The speaker

renewed the investigations to date, and by means of lantern slides and actual

samples of injured materials brought out details of much interest. Tests

made in the Bureau of Entomology indicate that no solution now on the

market will permanently and absolutely protect fabrics from attack by

fabric pests, though it appears to be true that the better solutions when

applied properly do impart a protection that is worthconsidering. Solutions

that impart a real degree of resistance to moth attack when properly applied

088 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 13

have been found to be worthless when merely sprayed over the fabric in a

casual manner. It is believed that the present use of so-called moth proofing

solutions by certain fabric manufacturers will either automatically stopmoth

damage or will force the manufacturers of the solutions to withdraw their

extravagantly worded advertisements.

Discussed by SIEGLER and GRAF. ,

J. S. WavE, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. Ropert B. SosmaAn has resigned from the Geophysical Laboratory,

Carnegie Institution of Washington, to join the staff of the newly established

Department of Research and Technology of the U.S. Steel Corporation, with

headquarters at the plant of the Federal Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co.,

Kearny, New Jersey.

WituiaM R. Maxon Associate Curator, Division of Plants, National

Museum, left for Europe on July 4, to study the fern collections of several

of the larger European herbaria. Mr. Maxon’s principal investigations will

be carried on at the British Museum and at the Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew, in connection with the preparation of the fern volume of the Flora

of Jamaica, a work now in course of publication by the British Museum.

From England Mr. Maxon expects to go to Stockholm, Copenhagen, Berlin,

and Paris, and will return to Washington in October.

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BOARD OF EDITORS

Acnes CHaAsE Joun B. Ressipe, Jr, E. W. Woorarp

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 Aucust 19, 1928 No. 14

MATHEMATICS.—On Fermat’s Last Theorem.! Vau. Mar. SPUNAR,

Chicago, Ill. (Communicated by Pau R. Hryt.?)

It is well known that the equation

Bit wyose yy be geolubta. A AV an (1)

n being any positive integer, cannot be solved in integers if n be a

multiple of 4. If, therefore the equation (1) has integral solutions

for any n this exponent must contain an odd prime, say \, where

» > 3. If then the equation (1) has an integral solution (2, y, 2)

the equation

will have the solution (a, y”, 2”) where m = n/X.

If the equation (2) has a solution, it evidently has one in which

x, y, 2 are relatively prime. We shall suppose that one of these

solutions is that we are considering: Then, since

1 Received May 10, 1928.

2 Note.—In the Mathematical Gazette for October, 1923, the undersigned showed that

in Fermat’s equation (2), for a given value of z, there is a critical value of the exponent

above which no integral solution is possible. But since this critical value of \ is an

increasing function of z, this result leads to no general proof of Fermat’s Theorem. In

the following article Mr. Spunar shows that no integral solution of Fermat’s equation is

possible unless z is greater than a certain function of \, or conversely unless ) is less than

a critical value, which is also an increasing function of z. Mr. Spunar’s critical limit is

far more stringent than that of the writer, and is thus a contribution to the literature

of this subject along an almost unworked line.—P. R. Heyl.

389

390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 14

nN d

ROTEL ES 7 i EN Sees Bay exe Ae

N= zZ a ie

= E ae © fe Fen Se. e =e =|

5 Ue ray

wr ; : . pol ee

=y igi 4s Pay a = +1+ as |

ay is Jie Aa

= y + ae 5 aie Chiidy he wate Te ar A-—1 |

7] Y UT]

=~ +-yy +e-Py +....4 85-7)

=3w +é-yU

= J

where U is an integral function of y and z, J and z — y can have no

common factor except ». If then

fo=eg -y = —g)d

any factor of z — y other than \ must divide x*, and there must be \

such factors if there is one; whence it follows that z — y is a perfect

\th power, unless z2 — y =0 (mod d).

If then (still excluding the \ factor), 2 — y = a* it follows that

X=aé.

Since the same reasoning applies whether x, y, or z be taken, we

may set ,

x r

nN aS

x= ag a = ee Yop ee (3)

mene |

See

x r ==

9S Bq P= See 6S (4)

Xr n »

X x

2 Cy 2) = ena i (5)

a - ¥

where a, B, 7, é, 7, ¢, and \ are all relative primes.

AuG. 19, 1928 SPUNAR: FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM 391

~ It follows, then, that

252% 2G te (6)

Ss oy ite fh hae, Mow yyy Bom (7)

Poy sana were ce PLA LGR ER AT SOR (8)

ee en Te eee ey ea (9)

where

ee ee a aba 8 Say 2). bd)

and

Since

r r

Oy Meee ee

=@-y) +P

where P is an integer, and by Fermat’s minor theorem

y= os 1 (mod 4)

it follows that

: = 1 (mod 4)

Moreover, (AX + 1)*- 1 = 1 (mod 2) by Firtwangler’s theorem.

Multiply both members by hA + 1 and apply (AX + 1)*=1 (mod 2?)

and we find that h=0 (mod i) and é = A)? +- 1.

Similar results can be found for 7 and ¢. Hence:

Be NT a Ae wer ig eves ae (11)

Sh ne Soi OS) ROY ae ae ok be)

¢(=2h;"4+ 1 piswee Maks) sa) wei 0) Abe ee male wire ett)

Substituting these values of £, 7, and ¢ in equation (2) and develop-

ing by the binomial theorem, we obtain:

ie ee? me iad: MCD ete ns oes (14)

392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 14

and by (9), (10), and (14)

where a, 8, y, M and 2 are relatively prime.

Employing equation (2) in the form

ev? as) te-a(? = = e+0(? tU) oti

z2-Yy 2-2 iN

and applying (3), (4), (5), (11), (42), (13), we obtain

(¢—-y) @he +1) +@-2) @hxw+) =@t+y) @hw +1)

Expanding and reducing, we have

(g-—y) + (2 -— 2) =(@+y) (mod }')

a +6 =7 (mod d*)

Therefore

¢ + y=z2 (mod WN) /.. 3 (I)

Employing (8) in the form

o=(2-yf =@-y @hx+))

= (2 9) Gnod \9) pace) 0.08. 0 OS (II)

and subtracting (II) from (1) we get «* =x (mod 43). Doing simi-

larly for y and z, we obtain

= nS = 1 (nod x) tees ke (16)

ee \~'=y7. =I (mod) ot a (17)

Again, substituting the values of £, 7 and ¢ from (11), (12), and (13)

into (9 bis), viz.,

gal Oe ae SE ash, (18)

we obtain, aiter an easy reduction

¥. wate 2 2M (hat hep — hay —

AuG. 19, 1928 SPUNAR: FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM 393

whence a + 68 = y + 6, where 6 is any positive integer greater than

zero; for if 6 = 0, then, by (19), y = a + 8. Equations (6), (7), and

(8) give

eee es ee le Bo. exes. 2. 20)

Sh elie gg we ge ee eka p. 5 f2)

ee ad Ft 8 le eB) — XB le | BY ane at3

aE Gee 8 ia OR ee ED (22)

whence

nN 1

f=At go A, 2 1 Re ae are (20 bis)

’ A-1

ee em (21 bis)

A-1

AB :

g=C+ 2 ee ee. ee? (22 bis)

where A, B, and C are any integers whatsoever. This is, however,

contrary to the hypothesis.

If we suppose

pyle SW. eee ee an 2 ee en er Cae (23)

then, obviously, we have

+ gat a es a Sea Re SaaS Te Pee (24)

If, however, we assume

SE ee cage ae RO ae eee (25)

then it is easy to show that (24) holds good here also. For this

purpose we add the following two series of inequalities where x < y < z:

x 2 e\* r\* ae

> (:) > ih iamneas > (5) > (2) > (2) Pls a. 2 eee

Zz Zz

9 A-1 r A+1

dein be ten > (2) > (4) aes ee

394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 14

Therefore

9.5 Ee ee

2 a Z

A+1 A+1

ap =e

> I > te & 5 io. 0...

Hence

2 ey ee ck te cae (29)

By (8;) and the last equation

Poke) Site Dy >. (30)

Hence

buds ie cee aa

where H = n/é. Thus

PO aay km eh PANS 2 Cally

east eine ieee ee

or |

d<-Da treat f 2.. eee (32)

Therefore

A =—1

he ai 8 OE Dea, ae ee

Substituting for y its value from (25), and developing it by the

binomial theorem and reducing, we obtain

he A ah " ae

rB ‘asa4()e (Ge ule)! the 95 ga

4 alos RO EAT Be

Therefore, as — < » < ¢ by (83), (43), and (53), and the general as-

sumptions 2 <q. <feu ak.

AuG. 19, 1928 DENSMORE: AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC 395

We remember here that 6 = 0 (mod 2?) from (19), and note that

from (33)

A-1 A-1 nN

AL <AY ik

Therefore

ST <a ae iin i Rn oat (25)

By (19) we see that 6 always contains the factors 2 and \?._ Hence

by (24) and (25), ;

ee ee le TA oa (26)

[Note.—Mr. Spunar furnishes also a proof that 6 always contains

in addition the factor 3, which gives the still more stringent condition

2 1

a a Ge oye se

The proof of this is rather too long to be added here, but the fact is

worthy of mention.—P. R. Heyl.|

In conclusion, I wish to give my best thanks to Dr. Paul R. Heyl

for the great interest he has taken in preparing my paper for

publication.

ETHNOLOGY.—Some results of the study of American Indian

music... FRANCES DENSMORE, Bureau of American Ethnology,

Smithsonian Institution.

First of all, let me express my high appreciation of the honor of the

invitation from M. Const. Maltezos, asking that I send him a note

upon my study of Indian music, for transmission to the Academy of

Athens. I am aware of M. Maltezos’ deep and extended research

in the music of ancient peoples, in both the old and new worlds.

To that research he has brought the scholarly attainments of the

physicist. My own work is done from the standpoint of a musician

and an observer of human nature. Music is essentially a vital and

human expression, especially in a primitive race like the American

Indian. It has been said that “the North American Indians give us a

fuller knowledge than any other existing race affords of the manner of

1 Paper prepared by request and submitted at the sitting of the Academy of Athens,

Greece, on March 22, 1928. The paper was translated by Professor Const. Maltezos

and is being published by the Academy of Athens. Received May 4, 1928.

396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 14

working of the primitive creative mind.”’ ‘The study of Indian music

has, therefore, a relation to the general subject of primitive music in

all races. :

The Indians living in North America did not share the high develop-

ment of those living in Central America and in certain parts of South

America. ‘There are no records in stone to tell us of their early art.

The minds of the old men were the repositories of the wisdom and

experience of the tribe, and it was the duty of the old men to transmit

this orally to the next generation, each man instructing his oldest son.

In development of memory the Indian excelled, but in logic and deduc-

tions from facts he did not excel. His culture and mental habit were

not such as to produce a musical system comparable, for example,

to that of the Hindu or the Chinese. The Indians are not a homo-

geneous people or nation but consist of many tribes which differ in

language and important customs.

The following incident shows the manner of reasoning by a Sioux

Indian who was highly respected among his people. He found a

globular stone on top of a hill, similar to stones that were abundant

in a river not far distant. On being asked how he explained the

peculiar shape of the stone he said it had become globular by looking

at the sun since “things that look at each other for a long time will

come to have a resemblance.’ He carried this stone on his person

and attributed the good health of himself and his family to its presence.

In order to stimulate the supposedly magic power of the stone he

sang a song, according to an Indian custom which will be described

in this paper.

Agassiz, the great naturalist, said that “‘the function of science is to

strive to interpret what actually exists.’ In the study of Indian

music the facts are the vocal sounds produced by the Indians and

recorded by means of the phonograph. The interpretation must

concern itself with the life and customs of the Indian, and with his

mental attitude. If we were to try to understand Indian songs with-

out taking all these into consideration we would become involved in a

maze of speculation. Although we admit the kinship of all humanity,

the Indian belongs to a different race from our own. His habit of

thought and his standard of beauty are not like ours, and even more

different is his idea of the function of music in his daily life. Musie,

to the American Indian, was not primarily an art to be cultivated for

pleasure. It was part of the means by which he exercised magic,

and it lay, in part, in the field of religion. :

a ae aaa

AuG. 19, 1928 DENSMORE: AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC 397

In the oldest times of which we have any knowledge, the Indians

believed that songs were received in dreams, and this continues to the

present time among many old Indians. The “dream”’ of the Indian

is a trance-like condition induced by abstinence from food and intense

eoncentration of the mind. While in this condition the Indian im-

agines himself visited by a supernatural being which promises its aid

in any difficulties that may befall him. The mysterious visitant

usually sings a song which the dreamer learns and 1s told to sing when

asking for the promised aid. On awaking, he remembers the song

and it becomes his most valued possession. It can hardly be supposed

that such songs are based upon an intelligent musical system. The

profound students and thinkers among the Indians were concerned

with means of obtaining supernatural help, not with calculations nor

material facts. They were mystics and their old songs can not be

separated from their mysticism.

A type of song which is probably as old as the “dream song”’ is

that connected with folk-tales, many of which were of cosmic sig-

nificance and intended for the instruction of the people. Melodies

were introduced at intervals during a long story and were sung by the

narrator. In the most primitive tribe under observation the melody

was sung only once, after which the narrator resumed his story. It

appears that the song broke the monotony of the narrative in an

agreeable, rhythmic manner, and it usually represented the expression

of some character in the story, either human or otherwise. For

example, one story recorded by the writer was concerning a contest

between a beaver and a plant called “‘fox-tail’’ as to which could cause

rain to fall. Each sang his own magic song and the beaver produced

the heavier downpour of rain. In explanation it was said that the

beaver had a stronger supernatural helper than the flower. Can we

expect to find in such material a consciously evolved musical system?

I began my study of Indian music in 1893, and have conducted

that research for the Bureau of American Ethnology of the Smith-

sonian Institution since 1907. In the pursuit of this study I have

visited many Indian reservations and recorded songs on the phono-

graph, transcribing and analysing about 1700 of such records. For

transcriptions, I use the ordinary musical notation with only a few

additional signs. If a tone is sung less than a quarter-tone higher

than the indicated pitch I place a plus sign above the note, and if a

tone is sung less than a quarter-tone below the indicated pitch a minus

sign is placed above the note. A slight extending or diminishing of

the length of the tone is indicated by a sign for a “hold,” placed

398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 14

vertically above the note, the opening of the curve being toward the .

left if the tone is shortened and toward the right if it is prolonged.

By this simple and familiar notation it is possible to present a large

amount of material in a form convenient for observation. A more

elaborate graphic representation would make it necessary for students

to master a new medium of expression and, if accurate and adequate,

would require the services of a large staff of workers. The writer has

no assistants and the opportunity to secure genuine Indian songs is

rapidly passing away. These are among the circumstances which

justify the use of ordinary musical notation in the transcription of

Indian songs. It is not claimed that Indians sing all the tones of the

diatonic scale with accuracy but it will be shown that the upper

partials (overtones) of a fundamental tone constitute the framework of

many Indian songs. These tones are usually sung with a degree of

accuracy that would be considered acceptable in a cultured singer.

The Indian produces his tone in the back of his throat, holding the

lips and teeth motionless and separating the tones by a peculiar action

of the throat muscles. This tone is unfocused and frequently re-

sembles the vocal sound produced by an animal. There is a mul-

tiplicity of by-tones which suggests that the song is progressing by

minute intervals of pitch, and one of the first decisions that must be

made by a student of Indian music is concerning the degree of im-

portance to be attached to these small gradations of pitch.

It may safely be assumed that if exceedingly small intervals or

gradations of pitch are consciously produced, the Indian must have an

ability to discriminate such intervals when hearing them. In order

to test the pitch-discrimination of Indians the writer took with her,

to Indian reservations, a set of eleven standardized tuning forks, one

of which gave the fundamental tone of the series (a’, 485 vibrations,

international pitch) while the other forks produced tones respectively

1/2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 12, 17, 283 and 30 vibrations above the fundamental.

These forks were lent by Dr. C. E. Seashore, Dean of the Graduate

College, University of Iowa, who kindly examined the tabulated

report of the result of the test. He expressed the opinion that “the

abilities here shown are about as good as one would find among the

average American whites under similar conditions.’’ The ear of the

Indian is trained to hear sounds which we do not notice but this test

does not indicate that he has a superior perception of differences in

the pitch of tones. A practical experience with Indians has convinced

me that, among uncultured people, small variations in the pitch of

vocal sounds are not directed by an intelligence which would entitle

eV eee

AuG. 19, 1928 DENSMORE: AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC 399 ©

them to serious consideration. I do not think that a voluminous

study of them would reveal any underlying system or laws. Lacking

that definite purpose, the undertaking does not seem justified.

During the first year of my work with the recording phonograph I

made an experiment which has an important bearing on this subject.

Two phonographs were placed opposite each other in such a position

that the ends of the recording horns were together. Selecting a

typical record of an Indian song, I played it on one phonograph and

recorded it on the other. A duplicate was made from this record and

so on until I had the sixth duplication of the original record. This

was much softer than the original but the tones were those of the

diatonic scale, sung with reasonable accuracy. ‘The duplications had

eliminated the by-tones, leaving the kernel of tone which had been

obscured by the Indian’s manner of rendition. As so much depended

upon the accuracy of my hearing I underwent a test by Dr. C. E.

Seashore in his laboratory, the result being entirely satisfactory.

This may be regarded as a standardizing of the human ear in order

that it may safely be used as an instrument of measurement.

An Indian seldom strikes the drum or shakes his rattle precisely

with the corresponding tone of his song. Through the courtesy of

Dr. Dayton C. Miller, head of the department of physics, Case School

of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio, this peculiarity of Indian music

was given a graphic proof. The writer’s phonograph was installed

in Dr. Miller’s laboratory, portions of two records were played by the

phonograph and the sound recorded graphically by the phonodeik, an

instrument of Dr. Muiller’s invention. In one of the songs thus

studied, the portion photographed by the phonodeik was of about 23

seconds’ duration, as reproduced by the phonograph, and made a film

record about 38 feet in length. In a detailed report on this test Dr.

Miller stated that “‘the first beat of the pair of drumbeats follows the

beginning of an accented voice tone with great regularity. Of 25

such instances identified on the photograph the drumbeat follows the

voice by 0.12 second in 12 cases and in no instance does the interval

differ from this by more than 0.02 second.’’ Other interesting results

of this test are apart from our present consideration.

In order to determine whether Indian music resembles that of a

European people, a comparison was made between the structure of

Indian and Slovak songs, the latter being analysed by the same method

employed in analysing Indian songs. The material used in this

comparison consisted of 710 Indian songs from widely. separated

tribes and 10 typical Slovak songs selected for the purpose by Mr.

~400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 14

Ivan Daxner, secretary of the Slovanian League of America, whose co-

operation is gratefully acknowledged. The Slovak songs included the

Slovak national anthem, a song concerning Janosik, a very ancient

melody entitled “In praise of song,’’ a “dialogue on melody,” several

love songs, and folk-songs concerning the plowboy and the girl who

watched the geese. On comparing the structural analyses it was

found that the resemblances were fewer than the differences. The

Indian and Slovak songs under analysis differed in trend and in the

principal interval of progression; it also appeared that the Slovak

songs had more directness in beginning and more simplicity of rhythm.

In order to obtain representative material it is necessary to exercise

great care in the selection of Indian singers and interpreters. To this

phase of the work one must bring a knowledge of Indians which can

be gained only by experience. The Indians have their standards of

good singing and recognise only one correct version of a song. This

version must be obtained if the work is to be reliable. One of the

requirements of a good singer among the Indians is that he shall

repeat a song with absolute accuracy. ‘To the credit of the Indians

it may be said that repetitions after a period of weeks, months or (in

one instance) after the expiration of two years have been found identi-

cal in tempo, pitch and note-values. Similarly, it is not unusual for

as many as ten renditions of a song to be recorded on one phonograph

cylinder without the slightest differences in the renditions. This

accuracy appears in ceremonial songs and in records made by the best

singers. There are other instances in which we find slight and un-

important variations in the renditions. The first is usually the best

rendition in such cases but transcription is made from the clearest,

wherever it occurs on the cylinder.

Mention has been made of a system of analysis devised and used

by the writer. This consists at present of 18 tables of classification.

Four additional tables were used in the analysis of 710 songs and the

results were so similar in the tribes under analysis that these bases of

classification were discontinued as being no longer necessary. The

discontinued tables concerned the metronome tempo of voice and

drum, a comparison of these tempi, and the pitch of the keynote of

the song. The tables now in use are as follows:

1. Tonality (determined by the interval between the keynote and its third

and sixth). 2. First note of song—its relation to keynote. 3. Last note of

song—its relation to keynote. 4. Last note of song—its relation to compass

of song. 5. Number of tones comprising compass of song. 6. Tone material.

7. Accidentals. 8. Structure (melodic or harmonic). 9. First progression—

AuG. 19, 1928 DENSMORE: AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC 401

downward and upward. 10. Total number of progressions—downward and

upward. 11. Intervals in downward progression. 12. Intervals in upward

progression. 13. Average number of semitones in an interval. 14. Part

of measure on which song begins. 15. Rhythm (meter) of first measure.

16. Change of time (measure-lengths). 17. Rhythmic unit. 18. Rhythm

of drum or rattle.

Each song is analysed according to these tables as soon as it is

transcribed. ‘These analyses are combined into a tribal group, and

the tribal groups are, in turn, combined in a large total which shows

the characteristics of all the songs under consideration. About 1700

songs have been transcribed and analysed but only 1073 have been

combined in the large total. The data to be presented are based

upon this group of 1073 songs, comprising songs of the Chippewa,

Sioux, Ute, Mandan, Hidatsa, Papago, and Pawnee tribes. The

songs analysed singly but not included in this total are those of the

Yuma, Cocopa, Yaqui, Makah, Menominee, Winnebago, Tule Indians

of Panama, and the Salish and Tsimshian songs recorded in British

Columbia. A large number of Indian songs have been heard at tribal

gatherings and not recorded phonographically. In all the tribes an

effort has been made to obtain the oldest songs, recorded by the most

reliable singers. Special attention has been giyen to songs connected

with magic or with the treatment of the sick. A limited number of

comparatively modern songs have been récorded for purposes of

comparison.

The tables of analysis which chiefly interest us at present are Nos.

2, 3 and 6 from which the problem of scale in Indian music may be

discussed. The term ‘‘keynote’”’ is applied to the tone which, by the

test of the ear, appears to be the fundamental tone in the series of

tones comprising the song. This does not present a claim that the

Indian regards it in this manner. The term is used for convenience,

similarly to the ordinary notation in which the songs are transcribed.

Having decided upon the tone to be designated as the keynote, the

analysis of the song proceeds upon that basis. In a limited number of

songs there is no apparent feeling for a keynote, such songs being

pure melody without tonality. These occur chiefly in the songs of

tribes which are not included in the present total. They are classified

as irregular in tonality and await further study.

On examining Table 2 we find that 216 songs (20 percent) begin

on the octave above the keynote, 150 songs (14 percent) begin on the

twelfth, and 285 songs (27 percent) begin on the fifth above the

keynote. The ratios of these intervals are respectively 2/1, 3/1, and

402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 14

3/2. On examining Table 3 we find that the keynote is the final tone

in 597 songs (56 per cent), and the fifth is the final tone in 342 songs

(32 percent). The data in these two tables indicate a feeling for

tones having simple vibration-ratios, such tones forming what may be

termed the boundaries of the songs.

At this point it should be stated that the writer uses the term ‘“‘seale”’

for convenience. It is applied only to the series of tones commonly

known as the major and minor diatonic scales, appearing either in

complete or incomplete form, and to the five five-toned scales .which

are designated by Helmholtz, appearing in complete form. The

vibration ratios in the first-named are as follows:

Major diatonic scale

9/8, . 10/9, 16/15, .9/8, 10/9;. 19/8... 16/15,

Minor diatonic scale

9/8, 16/15, 9/8, 10/9, 16/15, 9/8, 10/9

The tone material of the songs is presented in Table 6 and, before

considering the principal groups, mention should be made of a group

of 71 songs (6 per cent) which contains a large variety of songs not

otherwise classified. In this group are 42 songs which, in the first

year of the writer’s work, were transcribed in outline, no keynote being

designated. There are 12 songs classified as irregular in tonality,

and other series of tones appearing only twice in the 1073 songs.

The largest subdivision of this group consists of 10 songs containing

the first, second, fifth and sixth tones of the diatonic octave (vibration

ratios 9/8, 4/3, 9/8, 6/5). This group may contain material of value

but our present concern is with the larger groups.

The seven tones, or degrees, of the diatonic octave (major or minor)

occur in 62 songs (5.3 per cent). Six tones occur in 204 songs (19

percent) and four tones in 319 songs (29 per cent). The number of

tones preferred by the Indian is five, since 499 songs (46.4 percent)

contain 5 tones or degrees of the diatonic octave.

Within the group of songs with five tones we find that 236 (47.1

percent) contain the series of tones designated by Helmholtz as the

fourth five-toned scale and commonly known as the major pentatonic

scale, having the following vibration-ratios:

O78, 10/9, 6/5, £079,675 7

Next in number are 106 songs (20 percent) which contain the

series designated by Helmholtz as the second five-toned scale and

commonly known as the minor pentatonic scale, having the following

vibration-ratios:

6/5, 9/8, 10/9, 6/5, 10/9

AuG. 19, 1928 DENSMORE: AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC 403

A small group, 18 in number, contains the first five-toned scale

according to Helmholtz which has the following vibration-ratios:

10/9, 6/5, 9/8, 10/9, 6/5

Only 2 songs are based on the fifth five-toned scale which has the

following vibration-ratios:

6/5, 10/9, 6/5, 9/8, 10/9

The other songs containing 5 degrees of the diatonic scale are in

many combinations of tones and are not regarded as on any scale.

In 107 of these five-toned songs (not on the pentatonic scales desig-

nated by Helmholtz) the seventh and one other degree of the octave

are absent. The total of 1073 songs does not show this group in

detail but in a previous total of 820 songs we may examine the number

of songs in which two degrees of the diatonic octave are absent. In

this we find the largest group to be 29 songs which lack the seventh

and sixth degrees, this series having the vibration-ratios 9/8, 10/9,

16/15, 9/8, 4/3. Next to the largest group comprises 26 songs which

lack the seventh and second degrees, this series having the vibration-

ratios 5/4, 16/15, 9/8, 10/9, 6/5. The general proportions would

be the same if this detailed observation were extended to the analysis

of 1073 songs. In the five-toned songs we find that 19 omit the sixth

and one other tone, while in 10 songs the fourth and one other tone

do not occur. It is, therefore, apparent that the seventh degree

of the octave is omitted in a larger number of these Indian songs than

any other degree of the octave.

Table 7 is devoted to a consideration of accidentals, or tones chro-

matically altered. In 923 songs (86 per cent) there are no accidentals.

In 25 songs (minor in tonality) the seventh is raised a semitone, and

in 22 songs the fourth is similarly raised. These are the largest groups

containing only one accidental. Songs containing two accidentals

number 89 and are of so many sorts that a detailed consideration of

the group is not practical at this time.

From the foregoing it appears that tones with simple vibration-

ratios are preferred by the Indians under observation as the boundary

and the tone material of their songs, also that the seventh is the

scale-degree most frequently omitted, and the seventh and fourth

are the scale-degrees most often altered chromatically in the songs.

It is not enough for our purpose, however, to consider the tones

used by the Indians in their songs. Equally important is the sequence

in which these tones are used. For example, Indian songs containing.

404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 14

the tones of the ‘‘major pentatonic scale’ (fourth five-toned scale)

do not resemble the Gaelic songs based on that scale, and the tone

material frequently is not discerned until the song is analysed. The

sequence of tones is shown in Tables 11 and 12 in which the number and

sort of intervals are considered. These tables show that the interval

occurring most frequently is the whole tone, or major second (9/8).

The entire number of intervals in the 1073 songs under analysis is

28,956, and the whole tone progressions comprise 11,741 (40 percent)

of that number. Next in frequency is the minor third (6/5) which

comprises 8,029 (29 percent). The interval of a fourth (4/3) con-

stitutes 3,717 (13 percent), and the semitone, or minor second (16/15),

constitutes 1,117 (4 per cent). Attention is directed to the relatively

small number of semitone progressions, which does not encourage the

hypothesis that the Indian possesses a musical system consisting of

small intervals or gradations of pitch. The intonation on the semi-

tone is more variable than on any other interval. The tone tran-

scribed as a minor third is more frequently a non-major third than a

correct minor third. It is interesting to note that the major third

comprises only 2,932 (10 per cent) of the total number, as that interval

is part of the harmonic series already shown to be prominent in the

framework of the melodies.

The interval of a fourth has been found to occur most frequently

in songs concerning birds, animals and motion. Indeed, it may be

said to characterise such songs. For example, it is a prominent

interval in songs with the following titles which are derived from the

words of the songs: ‘‘The ravens are singing,” ‘“‘The big bear, to his

lodge I often go,” ‘‘I am raising my pipe,” and ‘‘A bubbling spring

comes from the hard ground.’”’ ‘The fourth may be called a progressive

interval, implying action that is to be completed.

The foregoing general observation on a large number of intervals

is, in the writer’s opinion, more important than an intensive study

of a limited number of intervals. Indian music is mental in its origin

and the Indian evidently ‘‘thinks’’ most clearly the intervals which

have simple vibration-ratios. His deviations involve a _ personal

element. To follow such deviations is apart from our present purpose.

We will now proceed to a peculiarity of Indian songs which can

hardly be tabulated but which is observed when the songs are studied.

This may be termed an “‘interval formation’’ and has no counterpart

in the music of civilization. It occurs most frequently in songs that

lack a keynote and are classified as irregular in tonality. Perhaps, at

some future time, the basis of classification may be changed and the

AauG. 19, 1928 DENSMORE: AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC 405

songs divided into those which have a keynote and those which are

formed by successive intervals. In many of the latter songs a few

measures are within a small compass, the next few measures are

within a different compass, and so on to the end of the song with no

binding intervals that would unite these small groups in relation to a

common keynote. For example, a song for the treatment of the sick,

recorded by Pigeon-hawk, begins with a few measures on the descend-

ing fourth A to E, these are followed by a few measures on the descend-

ing fourth G to D, and the song closes with measures on the tones

D to A. Each phrase is complete in itself, like a separate melody.

In the songs of the Northwest Coast, not included in the present

collective analysis, this peculiarity appears as a whole-tone formation,

many songs having a compass of three or four tones with phrases

based on whole tones, repeated within that compass. In such songs

the feeling for a keynote is less prominent than the stepping from one

tone to another which is adjacent or desirable for some other reason.

This indicates the complexity of Indian music and the danger which

lies in the making of generalizations.

It is difficult to trace the history of an Indian song more than 150

years and, with the utmost care in selection, we cannot be certain

that every recorded melody is of purely Indian derivation. The

Indians are imitative and when visiting other localities they are

particularly eager to hear and learn new songs. In this manner

there may have been alien influences in their music which they do not

recognise. The Yaqui Indians, living on the Mexican border, said

they had two sorts of songs, one of which was their own and the other

was “‘like Mexican music.’”’ Examples of both were recorded, the

former being ceremonial songs and the latter being modern songs

accompanied by the guitar. One song was recorded on Cape Flattery

on the northwestern boundary of the United States, which closely

resembles the Cocopa dancing songs recorded in southern Arizona

by members of a tribe which lives partly in the United States and

partly in Mexico. It is said that long ago the Spaniards visited Cape

Flattery and this coincidence is interesting. Other songs recorded

on Cape Flattery resemble chants, yet are not like the chanting in

the Roman Catholic Church and we are reminded that the Russian

Church is widely established in the far north. Possibly this may have

influenced the Indians from Cape Flattery on some of their journey-

ings. Songs recorded by Indians living on the west coast of British

Columbia are characterised by a fluency and easy tunefulness that

bears no resemblance to typical Indian songs but is like the easy,

406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 14

pleasing melodies used in missions of the Roman Catholic Church.

The writer was not surprised to learn that the Roman Church has

missionaries in that region and that certain of the recorded songs were

used in Christmas festivities. The presence of such songs demon-

strates the necessity for collecting a large amount of material on which

to base conclusions.

The most conservative songs of the Indians are those connected

with old ceremonies, the songs hereditary in families, the songs

received in fasting dreams, and the songs used in the treatment of the

sick. A very large majority of the songs collected and analysed by the

writer belong to these classes, but other songs are also collected in

order to secure a complete representation of a region and to’ afford

material for comparison. Jf modern songs should be found to pre-

dominate in a region the writer would go elsewhere to collect songs.

The desirability of a field for research is estimated by the number of

medicine men still living and by the extent to which the native reli-

gious customs are observed. Distance from towns is also a factor.

For example, the village on Cape Flattery where work has been

conducted for two seasons is reached only by water and there is only

one steamer a week, carrying freight and a few passengers. In winter

this boat is often unable to land because of the high waves. The

isolation of this village adds value to its musical material. Other

songs have been recorded in a mountain village about 130 miles from a

railroad. The Indians came a considerable distance to this village

in order that their songs might be recorded phonographically. On

the southern desert the writer has travelled more than 80 miles from a

town or a telephone to record songs from the Indians, once spending

Christmas in such a locality and attending a remarkable dance that

was held only on Christmas night. This dance was given on the

desert sand and was a wonderful sight in the moonlight. Many

similar incidents could be related but do not concern our present

purpose.

Mention may here be made of the use of a rest in Indian songs. A

pause for the taking of breath is noted only in records made by younger

Indians. It occurs rarely and can be distinguished from a musical

rest as it does not occur uniformly .in all renditions of the song. A

rest occurred in only 10 Chippewa songs (less than one-half of one

per cent) but was found in 13 (more than 11 per cent) of the Ute

songs, being given with care and distinctness. It is used to a much

larger extent in the songs of southern Arizona and in those recorded on

Cape Flattery. If we were to form our opinion of Indian songs

AuG. 19, 1928 DENSMORE: AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC 407

according to those of the Chippewa we might imagine a resemblance

to the songs of the Hindu concerning which it is said that ‘“‘Rests are

seldom written (except in order to break up the meter intentionally

in a dramatic way) in any of their songs. . . . . They appear to

take breath when they want to take it, not at the end of words.’”

Further experience shows that such a conclusion would be erroneous,

as rests are effectively used in the songs of many Indian tribes.

The suggestion that Indian melodies are based on the tones produced

by an instrument is untenable, as the only instruments used by the

Indians that produce tones of different pitch are the flute and whistle.

The first was formerly made according to the physical measurements

of the man who was to play it, and the second produces two tones

by a peculiar manner of blowing it. Neither instrument produces

tones of sufficient accuracy to form the basis for songs.

The rhythm of Indian songs is characterised by accents unevenly

spaced, transcribed as measures of different lengths. The tempo of

the voice and the accompanying drum or rattle are frequently differ-

ent, yet each is steadily maintained. When the tempo is the same,

they frequently do not synchronize, as proven by the test conducted

by Dr. Dayton C. Miller and described in this paper.

Summary: The music of the American Indians is formed and pre-

served mentally, not visually. The collective analysis of 1073 songs

shows a perception of tones with simple ratios of vibration. These

tones, however, are frequently used in what may be termed an “‘in-

terval-formation”’ of melody which does not suggest a keynote and

has no counterpart in our musical usage. The analysed songs of the

North American Indians do not suggest a resemblance to the songs of

Asiatic or European countries. Interesting resemblances to less

distant music are occasionally noted but are considered less important

than the larger data obtained through collective analysis. A group

of songs now designated as irregular in tonality is reserved for further

study.

The rhythm of Indian songs shows more striking peculiarities than

the melodic progressions. In this connection we repeat the statement

that Indian music was originally associated with the working of

magic and the treatment of the sick and that its use in the old manner

persists, in many localities, until the present day.

The music of the American Indian is not an art, in our use of the

term, but is primarily a means by which the Indian believes that he

? Fox Srraneways, Music of Hindustan, pp. 192-193.

408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 14

puts himself in communication with the mysterious forces of the earth,

sea, and air. ‘These are beneficent forces, though he regards them

with awe and reverence, and he looks to their aid for safety in his

daily life and for success in his undertakings. The study of Indian

music cannot be separated from a study of the Indian himself, his

traditions and his highest beliefs.

ZOOLOGY .—A new francolin from Abyssinia.: HERBERT FRIED-

“MANN, Amherst College. (Communicated by A. WETMORE.)

Among the birds collected by the late Dr. Edgar A. Mearns while

on the Childs Frick Expedition to Abyssinia and East Africa, 1911-12,

are two examples of a francolin unlike any known form. They are

nearest to Francolinus africanus pstlolaemus, but are much darker and

more abundantly and heavily marked with both rufous brown and with

black on the breast, abdomen, and flanks. This new form I propose —

to name in honor of the leader of the expedition

Francolinus africanus fricki subsp. nov.

Type: U.S. N. M. no. 243201, adult o, collected in the Arussi Plateau

(altitude 10,500 ft.), Abyssinia, 18 February 1912, by Edgar A. Mearns.

Subsp. Characters: Similar to psilolaemus G. R. Gray, but much darker

above, the feathers largely blackish, the underparts as in pszlolaemus but the

breast, abdomen, and flanks heavily marked with arrow-shaped black, sub-

terminal marks as well as with broad spots of deep rufous brown, while in

psilolaemus the black marks are very few and narrow, only the rufous brown

ones being abundant; also the size is larger (wing & and Q 174 mm. as

against 164-167 mm. in pszlolaemus).

Measurements of type: wing 174 mm.; tail 81 mm.; culmen from base

27 mm.

Measurements of Q (topotype): wing 174 mm.; tail 83 mm.; culmen from

base 26.5 mm.

Range: known only from the type ay topotype, both of which come

from the heath zone at 10,500 feet, Arussi Plateau, Abyssinia. According

to Dr. Mearns’ field notes, ‘it is abundant up to 11 000 feet.

Remarks: I have been able to compare these two birds with but a single

example of pszlolaemus, an adult female from Antoto, Abyssinia, and with

the colored plate in the Catalogue of Birds in the British Museum,? with

which the Antoto specimen agrees very closely.

The female of frickz is similar to the male but is very slightly darker above,

has more of the black markings and less of the reddish brown ones below.

It seems that fricki is the representative of pszlolaemus in the very high

districts of the Arussi country.

1 Received July 9, 1928.

2 Vol. 22, pl.3. 1893.

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VoL. 18 SEPTEMBER 19, 1928 No. 15

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.—Petroleum and the filtering earths.!

P. G. Nuttine, U.S. Geological Survey.

It has been well known to chemists for many years that many

clays, soils, ete., are attacked by certain salt solutions, giving off

some things and taking up others.2. In 1907, E. C. Sullivan of the

U.S. Geological Survey published a comprehensive review of the subject

including his own investigations (Bull. 312). Sullivan powdered his

mineral, covered it with twice its weight of known salt solution and

after several days standing with repeated shakings, analyzed the solu-

tion for changes. What happened was simply a base exchange according

to the mass law. Copper sulphate solution in contact with kaolin, for

example, gives up copper to the kaolin and takes up calcium in its

stead. The solution of mineral by the solvent (water) and the adsorp-

tion of basic ions from solution by the solid were both found to be

relatively small but either may have played an important intermediate

role in the base exchange.

In the case of earths used in filtering oils, the liquid contains many

organic radicals varying widely in basicity. The filtering earths are

silicates which are combinations of bases with the weak silicic and

aluminosilicic acids. There can be little base exchange proper between

the oils and the untreated filtering earths, however, for the exchange-

able organic radicals are too weak. Furthermore, in such filtering

action as may occur, the reaction products (silico hydrocarbons)

are not generally soluble in oil. To get good filtering action the filter

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received

June 20, 1928; revised July 23, 1928.

*H. S. Toompson. Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc. 11: 68-74. 1850; J. THomas Way.

ibid. 11: 313-379. 1850;13: 123-143. 1852;15: 491. 1854.

409

410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

must have its basic radicals removed, leaving open bonds ready to

attach to the radicals of the oil to be filtered. In other words the

filter is chosen or prepared so as to have terminal hydroxyl (—OH)

radicals. Heating drives off water from these, leaving the open bonds

essential for filtering. The filtering action is a removal of the less

firmly bound alkyl radicals of certain hydrocarbons.

A theory of oil adsorption and filtration essentially as given above

was advanced by the writer in 1926 on the basis of known data and

some preliminary investigations.* Supplementary work since that

time has confirmed this theory and supplied many interesting details.

The ideal filter of this class is of course silica gel. In this case a

hydrosilicon chain

| Rell ON:

Fa Ok ae cage

| |

OnSG0 O O

| | | |

H al H H

(n+1)H.O-nSiO. or Sin(OH)on420,-1, containing about 23 per cent

water is heated nearly to red heat until the water is reduced to about

3 per cent and used before more water can be taken on from the air.

The stripped chain will have somewhat the form

i oe

the free bonds extending out partly from Si and partly from O atoms.

The last of the water is driven off only by heating to very high temper-

atures (800-1000°C.) for some time. Such treatment destroys filtering

power and the power of taking up water, perhaps because the free

bonds unite with each other, reducing the silica gel to inactive quartz

O=S8i=O having but slight affinity for water or for acid or basic

— radicals. |

3 Geochemical relations between petroleum, silica and water. Econ. Geol. May

1926.

SEPT. 19, 1928 NUTTING: FILTERING EARTHS 411

Alumina and ferrie oxide make almost as good filters as silica if

prepared by drying the hydroxide gel. ‘Their action appears to be the

same as that of silica gel toward hydrocarbons. Colloidal silicates of

the metals (Cu, Zn, Ni, Pb, Mn, ete.) precipitated from salt solutions

by sodium silicate, washed and dried, were also found to be good filters.

A slight trace of acid remaining on a filter does not affect its action; a

trace of alkali destroys it.. A large surface area, and free percolation

of oil are essential.4

This theory of the filtering action of silicates on oils assumes an

affinity or surface reaction between the silicates and certain hydrocar-

bons resulting in a film of organic silicate (or silico hydrocarbon) over

the surface. Many hundreds of such compounds are known. Much

of the earlier work on them was done by Friedel, Crafts and Ladenburg

and a number of them are listed in Beilstein. Much recent work on

the structure of the more complex compounds has been done by F. S.

Kipping® and by Schlenk. A common characteristic of their structure

is of interest here.

In a hydrosilicon molecule, Si atoms are usually not directly at-

tached to each other, an oxygen atom intervening. In the hydro-

earbons, carbon is bonded directly with carbon without interven-

ing oxygen. In the structure of the organic silicates a mixture of

the two habits prevails. Triethylsilicol is considered (C:H;)3SiOH;

the hydrogen.is bonded through O, the ethyl radicals are not. In

C.H;Si(OC.H;)3, three of the ethyls are bonded through O while one

isnot. <A partly stripped (of H,O) hydrous silicate, as indicated above,

has open bonds partly from Si and partly from O atoms, hence might

well be selective toward alkyl radicals of various kinds.

This selective action may account for the varied action of different

filters toward oils. Many filter to water white, some filter to an

amber color, some (slightly alkaline or moist) filter to a canary yellow.

Some natural earths are best on mineral oils, others on vegetable oils.

Some will even render fish oils tasteless and odorless. Fats and vege-

table oils containing oxygen would be expected to require a different

filter from petroleum containing little or none. Using very dilute

solutions, the writer has prepared silica gels (also those of alumina and

* The adsorption of piperidine, nicotine and sixteen other organic compounds from

water solution by silica, alumina and ferric oxide has recently been studied by GRmTTIE

and Wiuuiams. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. March 1928. They found adsorption by silica

gel to be roughly proportional to the basicity of the adsorbed compound. The adsorp-

tion of ferric oxide varies widely with mode of preparation.

8 Cf. Organic derivatives of silicon XXXII. Journ. Chem. Soc. 1927: 104.

412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

ferric oxide) so powerful as to break up paraffin hydrocarbons, even

paraffin itself and very stable oils of the nujol type.

A spent fullers earth cannot be washed clean by even the most

powerful solvents (such as tetrachlorethane) or detergents. Even a

boiling sodium carbonate solution fails to lift the film coating the

grains. Burning to 800°C. in air simply carbonizes it though some

earths may be used four or five times by burning off. Burning in pure

oxygen removes most of it. This behavior indicates the formation of

some compounds much more stable than any simple hydrocarbon.

A good filter may be flushed with even a heavy clear oil and this

afterward driven out by a black crude. The filtering action is not

impaired. A filter with all its —OH radicals in place (i.e. with no

open bonds) would be expected to filter out only basic radicals stronger

than OH. This appears to be substantiated by experiment. An

undesiccated filter takes out the black and dark brown near-carbons

from petroleum but passes the lighter yellow and orange colored oils.

The matter of color in oils, fats and waxes is a vast subject in itself.

Considering briefly only the petroleum hydrocarbons, if we plot as

ordinates the series C,Hoen—2, CaHen, CaHon—2, CaHen—s, etc., and as

abscissae the number of carbon atoms, the region of colored hydro-

carbons lies to the left of the diagonal C,H, (acetylene, benzene, retene,

etc.) where the hydrogen atoms are fewer than the carbon atoms in

the molecule. The higher the carbon ratio, the higher the color. It

is the near carbons that are filtered out (retained by the filter) while

the colorless hydrocarbons, having more hydrogen than carbon atoms

per molecule, are passed by the filter or are very loosely held.

Many of the best filtering earths must be acid treated and washed

before being dried for use as filters. These have terminal —OK,

—ONa or —O.Mg radicals. Acid treatment converts these to —OH

and salts. Washing out the salts and drying produces the open bonds

necessary to filtration. Greensand and serpentine make excellent

filters after acid treatment. Even natural weathering and leaching is

sufficient for some serpentines. Tests with natural clays high and low

in alkalies and alkaline earths (selected by C. 8. pas amply verified

the theory just stated.

Still a third method of preparing filters is of scientific interest. A

‘nondescript mixture of clays, such as Texas gumbo, in itself almost

without filtering power, may be converted into good filters by dissolv-

ing in fused sodium or potassium carbonate. Dissolving the fusion in

hot water gives (1) an alkaline solution which is rejected, (2) a floc,

chiefly colloidal alumina which is a good filter after washing and drying,

SEPT. 19, 1928 NUTTING: FILTERING EARTHS 413

(3) a solid residue, the acid extract of which yields a good filter after

precipitation by an alkali, washing and drying and (4) a final residue

not soluble in acid, which is a fairly good filter after grinding, washing

and drying. It is theoretically possible to split up complex silicates

by fused alkalies and to convert the components into filters by acid

treatment.

In an oil sand, that oil is considered adsorbed on or combined with

silica which will not yield to washing with gasoline. The thickness of

the fixed layer is readily determined, for it may be completely removed

from a non porous sand with chromic acid. Using a very pure and

uniform silica sand (Tensleep, Oregon Basin, Wyoming, 3850 feet) a

thickness of 0.75u was found, which is 15 to 20 times the thickness of

the water film adsorbed by the same silica at ordinary room humidities.

The clean sand, soaked in an asphalt base oil over night, acquired a

new film of very nearly the same thickness. This method may be of

assistance in the analysis of heavy oils and asphalts as silica is a definite

weak acid.

Some geological and practical applications of the principles just

advanced are of interest. The question is often raised, how could

petroleum have replaced water solutions in oil sands when tests show

that water drives out oil and oil can not be made (by pressure) to drive

out water except from the larger pores. The answer is simple. If

the petroleum contains heavy unsaturated hydrocarbons, the whole

or some part of which is stronger than OH, these first coat the sand

grains which then in effect become tar grains and absorb oil in prefer-

ence to water. |

In the soda process for petroleum recovery, developed by the writer

in the laboratory and now being used in the field, a soda solution was

found to be very effective in freeing the sand from petroleum. With

tar coated sand grains the action of the soda is much slower as the

diffusion of the soda through the adsorbed film is necessarily very slow.

Nevertheless in the end very clean removals are obtained. Much

effort has been spent on the measurement of the retention of oil by

sand ignoring the enormous effect of but a few parts per million of tarry

constituents in the oil.

Trinidad asphalt contains uniformly 35.5 per cent of silicate matter

in the form of clay and fine earth and 10 per cent water of hydration.

If this mineral matter is partly a filtering earth as defined above, then

it is not difficult to account for the formation by the upward percola-

tion of an asphalt base petroleum. With the clay wet, only the heavier

tars would be strongly adsorbed, carrying the clay with it in a definite

proportion.

414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

In summary then we may say that filters filter because of open O

and Si bonds. These are produced by removal of H.O from terminal

OH radicals. They act by attacking certain alkyl or weakly basic

radicals of the hydrocarbons. The result may be mere adhesion but

is In many cases a surface reaction in which a film of organic silicate

is formed over the surface of the filter grains. Many of the organic

silicates thus formed are insoluble in any single known solvent.

Clays of the kaolin type (kaolinite, halloysite, anauxite, H,A1.S8i,0,)

do not filter because they contain no veal water that can be driven

off leaving open bonds.

Clays of the bentonite type make only poor filters even after acid

treatment because they contain only a little alkali replaceable by

hydroxyl.

Good filters, either artificial or natural, are of two types; (1) those

well supplied with hydroxyl water removable by moderate heating and

(2) those having originally had terminal alkali radicals subsequently

converted to hydroxyl by acid treatment.

The selective action of filters is readily accounted for by the varying

activity of open bonds toward organic radicals retained by bonds of

varying strength.

The penetration of petroleum into water-soaked sand and the possi-

ble formation of Trinidad asphalt are discussed.

_& GEOLOGY —The stratigraphy and age of the Pleistocene deposits in

; Florida from which human bones have been reported. C. WYTHE

Cooks, U.S. Geological Survey.

Human remains in close association with extinct vertebrates of

Pleistocene aspect have been found at three places along a hundred-

mile stretch of the east coast of Florida. In 1916 E. H. Sellards

announced the first discovery at Vero, a town 65 or 70 miles north of

West Palm Beach. In 1924 F. B. Loomis found artifacts mingled with

a similar extinct fauna at Melbourne, 30 miles north of Vero, and later

Gidley and Loomis found human bones there apparently in the same

bed with the extinct fossils. Early in 1928 Gidley made additional

finds at Melbourne and discovered another locality at New Smyrna,

a town 15 miles south of Daytona and 100 miles north of Vero. In

1 Read before the Geological Society of Washington, May 9, 1928. Published by

permission of the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Received May 18, 1928.

SEPT. 19, 1928 | COOKE: FLORIDA PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS 415

a paper recently presented before the National Academy of Sciences,

Gidley reaffirmed his previous conclusions that man and extinct animals

were contemporaneous. In view of these repeated discoveries of fossil

man in Florida, it seems desirable to summarize again the stratigraphy

of the region and to attempt to determine the age of the deposits

in which the human bones are reported to have been found. I shall

assume throughout this paper that the human remains really occurred

in and formed part of the bed to which they have been attributed by

their discoverers, although it should be distinctly understood that the

burden of proof of this very important fact lies directly upon those

who have found the bones. It is to be hoped that Doctor Gidley will

soon publish an account of his latest observations and discoveries.

References to the literature are listed in the footnote.’

The stratigraphic succession at Vero, Melbourne, and New Smyrna

is essentially the same. The bed rock at all three localities is a marl

composed of sea shells and sand and known as the Anastasia formation.

Most previous writers have referred to it as the Number 1 bed. This

formation underlies the East Coast from St. Augustine to Palm Beach

County. It is obviously a littoral marine formation. The shells in

it are nearly all of living species and give no clue as to what part of the

Pleistocene it belongs.

The Number 1 bed is overlain unconformably by the Number 2 bed,

or, as I prefer to call it, the bone bed. ‘The bone bed consists chiefly

of fine sand. At Melbourne the sand varies from white to light brown

and contains a few local irregular lenses of marine shells that appear

*E. H. Sevuarps. Literature relating to human remains and artifacts at Vero, Fla.

Am. Journ. Sci. (4) 47: 358-360. 1919; Florida Geol. Surv. 12th Ann. Rept., pp. 1+.

1919 (cites 24 titles). H.F.Wickuam. Fossil beetles from Vero, Florida. Am. Journ.

Sci. (4) 47: 355-357. 1919; Florida Geol. Surv. 12th Ann. Rept., pp. 5-7. 1919. T.C.

CHAMBERLIN. Investigation versus propagandism. Journ. Geol. 27: 305-338. 1919.

F. B. Loomis. Artifacts associated with the remains of a Columbian elephant at Melbourne,

Florida. Am. Journ. Sci., (5) 8: 503-508. 1924. W.H.Houtmes. The antiquity phan-

tom in American archeology. Science, (N.S.) 62: 256-258. 1925. F.B.Loomis. Early

man in Florida. Nat. Hist. 26: 260-262. 1926. J. W. Giptey. Investigations of evi-

dences of early man at Melbourne and Vero, Florida. Smiths. Misc. Coll. 78: 23-26.

. 1926. O. P. Hay. On the geological age of Pleistocene vertebrates found at Vero and

Melbourne, Florida. This JourNAL 16: 387-392. 1926. J. W.GuipueEy and F. B. Loomtis.

Fossil man in Florida. Am. Journ. Sci. (5) 12: 254-264. 1926. J.W.GipuEy. Fossil

man in Florida (Abstract): Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 37: 239-240. 1926. C. WytTHE Cooke.

Fossil man and Pleistocene vertebrates in Florida. Am. Journ. Sci. (5)12: 441-452. 1926.

O. P. Hay. A review of recent reports on investigations made in Florida on Pleistocene

geology and paleontology. This JourRNAL 17: 277-283. 1927. O. P. Hay. Again on

Pleistocene man at Vero, Florida. This JouRNAL 18: 233-241. 1928.

416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

to have been washed or blown in from the sea at a time when the shore

stood close by. Where shell lenses are absent the bone bed appears

massive or is streaked horizontally by dark carbonaceous sand. The

bone bed ranges in thickness from a thin film up to perhaps 10 feet.

No muck, peat, or leaves have been found in it at Melbourne, although

the bed that has been correlated with it at Vero contains local accumu-

lations of vegetable matter in old drainage channels. :

It is possible that the bed at Vero called ‘“Number 2” by Sellards is

younger than the Number 2 bed at Melbourne, for ‘“‘within the stratum,

filling holes or channels in the underlying deposit, are found local

accumulations of muck, including often wood, sticks, acorns, snail

shells, and vertebrate fossils. As a rule the sand near the base of this

stratum is light-colored and distinctly cross-bedded.’’? This description

fits the stream deposits much better than it fits the bone bed which I

saw in a freshly-dug trench at Vero in 1926. Sellards’ original exea-

vations are filled or overgrown.

I have called the Number 2 bed the bone bed because it contains

great numbers of bones. Many of the bones represent species that are

now extinct. Among them are camels, horses, mastodons, elephants,

tigers, and armadillos. Man lived among them, for Doctor Gidley has

found a skull, crushed as if trampled by an angry elephant. These

extinct animals, according to Dr. O. P. Hay, comprise a fauna of very

early Pleistocene aspect that is usually referred to the Aftonian or

first interglacial stage. The association of human remains with this

fauna is of the utmost significance, for it proves either that man has

been in America since the early Pleistocene or that the so-called

Aftonian fauna did not perish at the close of the first interglacial stage.

A few words as to the manner of accumulation of the bone bed are

appropriate at this point. Sea level had been depressed and the

newly-emerged shell-covered bottom stood a few feet above tide.

Back of the sandy beach ridge lay poorly drained, grassy meadows,

the pastures of countless herds, upon which wind-blown sand gradually

accumulated and buried the skeletons of animals that died there.

It is quite likely that the meadows were occasionally flooded by torren-

tial rains, by back water from lagoons, or by salt water blown ashore by

gales, just as the plains around Moorehaven were overwhelmed by

Lake Okeechobee during the recent hurricane. The presence of a

few lenses of marine shells in the bone bed, a continental deposit, may

thus be accounted for. Some of the animals whose bones are found

3H.H.Sevuarps. Journ. Geol. 25: 8. ° 1917.

SEPT. 19, 1928 | COOKE: FLORIDA PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS 417

in the Number 2 bed may have been drowned in floods; more, doubtless,

died the natural deaths of the wilderness.

Sometime during this episode man appeared on the scene. Some of

his bones and implements were buried by the drifting sand and became

part of the bone bed. Others, remaining longer on the surface, were

eventually covered by the stream and bog deposits that I shall now

describe. ,

Lying upon the bone bed and effectually sealing it from the acciden-

tal intrusion of objects from above, are patches of fresh-water deposits

that have been called the ““Number 3 beds.’’ At Vero and Melbourne

the ““Number 3 beds’’ are swamp and stream deposits that consist of

muck and partly decomposed roots, bark, and leaves, interstratified

with yellowish sand. Fresh-water mussel shells are abundant in the

stream deposit at Melbourne. At New Smyrna, according to Doctor

Gidley, there is no clearly-defined stream channel, but the bone bed,

Number 2, is covered by a peaty bog. It is very unlikely that human

bodies could have been buried in the bone bed by sorrowing relatives

without leaving easily discoverable traces of the hole in the peat bed

through which the remains of the iate iamented were interred. Neither

Doctor Sellards nor Doctor Gidley has detected any evidence of such

intrusion. The human bones must have been there before the peat

bed accumulated.

The Number 3 beds are obviously recent. The accumulation

probably began immediately after a rise of sea level that drowned the

valleys of Van Valkenburg Creek at Vero, Crane Creek at Melbourne,

and St. Johns River at Jacksonville on the East Coast and produced

Charlotte Harbor and Tampa Bay on the West Coast. The fresh-

water deposits continued to accumulate until the process was inter-

rupted by the cutting of drainage canals a few years ago. How many

years elapsed during this interval I am not prepared to say. Estimates

based upon the thickness of the Number 3 beds (about 5 feet at Mel-

bourne) and the rate of accumulation of various kinds of fresh-water

deposits might be attempted but there are so many variable factors

that such estimates would not be very reliable.

The topography of the region throws some light on the probable ages

of the beds. The fossil-bearing localities near Vero, Melbourne, and

New Smyrna are all on a nearly level plain that extends inland a

distance of 20 or 25 miles and stands chiefly between the altitudes of

20 and 30 feet above sea level. They lie back of a low sandy ridge

whose crest is less than 40 feet above sea level in the vicinity of Mel-

bourne but which is more conspicuous and perhaps somewhat higher

418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

near Vero. ‘This ridge probably is a former beach ridge that marks a

temporary position of the shore during emergence of the sea bottom.

The plain that I have just described is the lowest well-defined mem-

ber of a series of terrace plains that front the Atlantic Ocean from Dela-

ware Bay to the Straits of Florida. In Georgia it is called the Satilla

terrace. It probably corresponds to the Chowan terrace of North

Carolina and to the Talbot terrace of Maryland. It obviously is an

emerged sea bottom, for it is floored with sea shells. Before its

emergence the shore line stood at an altitude of approximately 60 feet

above the present sea level. Farther north in Florida and in Georgia,

still older shore lines can be traced on topographic maps at altitudes

100 and 160 feet above sea level and there are even higher terraces that

also may be marine.*

These ancient shore lines and the flight of step-like terraces that lie

between them are supposed to represent different stages of the Pleisto-

ceneepoch. ‘The highest terrace, being presumably the first to emerge,

is the oldest; and the lowest, being most recently under water, is the

youngest.> The Satilla terrace with the 60-foot shore line does not

correspond to the very latest stage of the Pleistocene, for, although the

Satilla is the lowest well-defined terrace, there appears to be a still

lower and younger terrace with a shore line 20 or 25 feet above sea level

and bordered by the somewhat higher beach ridge mentioned above.

Stephenson has recognized such a low terrace in North Carolina and

named it the Pamlico. Wentworth has detected it also in Virginia.

Doctor Hay has recently published the statement that none of the

terraces, not even the one on which the fossil bones are found, is marine

because they do not contain any marine fossils. This statement seems

surprising in view of the fact, well known to Doctor Hay, that the

Anastasia formation or Number 1 bed is composed chiefly of sea shells.

He is evidently confusing the deposits on the terrace with the terrace

4 For a description of the terraces in Georgia see C. WyTHE CookE. Physical geog-

raphy of Georgia. Georgia Geol. Survey Bull. 42: 21-35. 1925.

5 Melting of the existing polar ice caps would raise the level of the sea to a height

comparable to that of the highest shore line definitely recognized in Florida. If the

land has remained stationary and the elevated shore lines correspond to inundations

caused by melted ice, then deglaciation during the interglacial stages of the Pleistocene

was more complete than now, and the height of each shore line is a measure of the extent

of deglaciation during the corresponding period. If, as is commonly assumed, the

highest terrace is the oldest and the lower terraces are progressively younger, the highest

terrace should have been under water during the first interglacial stage or before the

first glaciation and the lowest terrace during the last interglacial stage. During the

intervening glacial stages sea level may have been depressed below its present position.

§6O,.P. Hay. This Journai 18: 236. 1928.

SEPT. 19, 1928 COOKE: FLORIDA PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS 419

itself—the table cover with the table. A marine terrace is an emerged

sea bottom. The marine terrace at Vero and Melbourne, strictly

speaking, is the surface of the Number | bed, which was the old sea

floor. The Number 2 and Number 3 beds, which are nonmarine, are

on the terrace. They correspond to the table cover.

It is true, as Doctor Hay contends, that no sea shells have been

found on the higher terraces, but that fact does not outweigh other

evidences of their marine origin. The marine deposits on the higher

terraces consist only of a thin veneer of loose sand. What chance

would sea shells embedded in porous sand have of resisting through

many centuries the corrosive action of organic acids in the soil? Great

caves have been dissolved in solid limestone by rain water in no longer

time than the higher terraces have been above the sea.

What agency but the sea could distribute a cover of fine white sand

over a plain several thousand square miles in extent on the divide

between the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico? What agency

but the sea could build on the outer edge of this plain a sand bar 130

miles long and 2 to 4 miles wide extending parallel to the present coast

and 40 feet higher on the seaward side than on the landward side? I

refer to the Okefenokee terrace and Trail Ridge.

Let us now trace the principal events in the history of Florida during

the Pleistocene epoch. Early in Pleistocene time, possibly during the

first interglacial stage, much of the peninsula of Florida was submerged

beneath the sea and the shore line stood at the 160-foot level. A long

sand bar, now Trail Ridge, was built northward into Georgia from an

island and shut off a sound similar to the present Pamlico Sound of

North Carolina. Later the sea withdrew to the 100-foot level, Trail

Ridge became the sea shore, and the sound was converted into Oke-

fenokee Swamp. Once more the sea lowered, and came to rest at an

altitude of only 60 feet above its present level. The shore line then

stood at most places west of the present course of St. Johns River.

The sites of Vero, Melbourne, and New Smyrna were still under water.

As a result of the next oscillation the sea halted about 20 feet above

its present level. Shell-covered barrier beaches separated from the

mainland by lagoons appeared above the waves, were covered with

vegetation, and became the home of a great variety of land animals

and turtles. Sand blown from the beach gradually silted up the

lagoons and accumulated in hollows in the lee of the beach ridge. Man

at last appeared. This was the period during which the bone beds at

Vero, Melbourne and New Smyrna accumulated.

420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

The next event appears to have been a further emergence of perhaps

60 feet. The sea retreated to a position about 40 feet below its present

level, the lagoons were emptied, and streams began vigorously to erode

their channels.

Erosion had not progressed very far before it was checked by a

submergence that drowned the lower courses of the streams and

brought the sea to its present level. This event may logically be

considered the beginning of the Recent epoch.

The more important facts of history and stratigraphy can be sum-

marized as follows: Bones of prehistoric animals of early Pleistocene

aspect and human bones were buried by sand blown from the neigh-

boring seashore and deposited on the Satilla terrace, a newly-emerged

sea bottom. Further emergence of 60 feet removed the shore to such

a distance that deposition of sand ceased and streams began to trench

the deposits already formed. Partial submergence then choked the

lower courses of the streams and made them boggy.

Deposits of three ages have been distinguished: First, a Pleistocene

marine shell marl, known as Number 1 bed. Second, a Pleistocene bone

bed with human remains, called Number 2 bed. Third, Recent stream

and bog deposits called Number 3 beds.

As to the age of the bone bed: In view of the long succession of

Pleistocene events that preceded the emergence of the Satilla terrace on

which it rests, it seems scarcely possible that the bone bed can be as

ancient as the Aftonian or first interglacial. On the other hand, it can

hardly be the very latest Pleistocene, for we have to allow time at the

close of the Pleistocene for an uplift and a depression. If the emer-

gence that followed the accumulation of the bone bed was contempora-

neous with the Wisconsin glaciation, the bone bed might well have been

formed during the Peorian or fourth interglacial stage. |

The purpose of this paper has been simply to describe the stratig-

raphy of the region in which human remains have been found and to

endeavor to ascertain the ages of the various beds. I have given no

details regarding the manner of occurrence of the human bones and

artifacts because I have not been so fortunate as to find any human

remains myself nor to be present when they were discovered by others.

I have assumed that the association of human remains with the Pleisto-

cene fauna as reported by Dr. Gidley is so well authenticated that

there seems little reason to doubt that man actually lived in Florida

during the latter part of the Pleistocene.

Is it after all so surprising to find him there? Need we assume for

SEPT. 19, 1928 HAY: EARLY PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS 421

man a more rapid evolution than that of other almost equally complex

mammals? Nearly all of the existing species of mammals are survivals

from the Pleistocene. The essential difference between the Pleistocene

and the Recent faunas is one of quantity rather than kind. Many

species became extinct during or at the close of the Pleistocene, but

few new species or subspecies originated during that time. One would

therefore expect to find that the Pleistocene progenitors of the modern

man are indistinguishable from ourselves. Other contemporary races

of primitive man that are now extinct represent collateral lines and are

not our ancestors.

The presence of man in America, assuming that he originated inthe

old world, is no more difficult to explain than the presence here during

by-gone ages of camels, horses, elephants, rhinoceroses, and other

genera that are now restricted to Africa or Asia.

PALEONTOLOGY —Characteristic mammals of the Early Pleistocene.

OLIvEeR P. Hay, Washington, D. C.

For the writer the Pleistocene is the equivalent of the Ice Age.

We may say that it began when the first ice sheet, the Nebraskan, had

pushed southward to about the 55th degree of latitude. It had perhaps

even then begun to disturb the ancient drainage systems. It ended

when the Wisconsin glacier had retreated to the same latitude, opening

up the main river systems of our times. Within that interval there

had occurred momentous changes in the physiography of our continent,

in its climates, and in its highest forms of animal life.

I wish to discuss especially the composition of the mammalian life

of the Pleistocene and some of the changes which it underwent.

The kinds of mammals that existed on our continent during the

late Pliocene are not sufficiently well known. We know, however,

that there were present a few edentates, various carnivores of dog-like

and cat-like forms, mastodons, tapirs, horses (possibly not yet Equus),

peccaries, camels, and antelope-like hoofed animals. After the close

of the Pliocene no doubt some of those mammals, somewhat modified,

lived on into the Pleistocene. We are sure that a few of the edentates

did so; also some of the tapirs, peccaries, camels, and some of the early

horses. ,

About the beginning of the Pleistocene a passage was opened up

1 Received July 20, 1928.

422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

between Asia and North America. Over this many kinds of Old World

mammals entered our continent. Elephants of perhaps several

species, new mastodons, bisons, musk-oxen, deer, moose, wolves, tigers,

possibly horses and camels, descendants of former migrants from this

country into Asia, pressed in and spread over the land. About the

same time, perhaps a little earlier, a highway was established between

South America and North America and our land was invaded by the

strange fauna of the southern continent. The most conspicuous of

these animals belonged to the order of Edentates, and consisted of

huge ground-sloths, armadillos, and glyptodons. More than a dozen

genera of these edentates have been described; and they varied in size

from that of the existing Texan armadillo to that of an elephant. Our

early Pleistocene mammalian fauna was, therefore, a product of three

continents and it wasa fauna probably more abundant in numbers and

more diverse in species than any other known.

About the genera and species of mammals which existed in our

country during the first glacial stage we know little or nothing, I mean

little that is derived from actually discovered remains. We can only

judge as to their general nature from those which preceded them and

those which followed them. |

I shall now attempt to show that certain important elements of the

mammals I have mentioned existed in our country in what is believed

to be the first interglacial stage.

Along the Missouri River, from the northwestern corner of the State

of Missouri to the mouth of Sioux River and along this to the north-

western corner of Iowa, at many localities, have been discovered de-

posits, gravels and sands, intercalated between the first (Nebraskan)

and the second (Kansan) drifts. These gravels and sands are known as

Aftonian deposits. In these have been discovered a considerable

number of fossilmammals. In one gravel pit near the town of Missouri

Valley, 18 species have been reported. Of these, 90 percent are extinct.

They represent eight families and twelve genera.- There are two

species of ground-sloths (Megalonyx and Mylodon), three species of

elephants, one or two of mastodons, four species of horses, at least one

species of camel, a moose, a bison, a musk-ox, a goat, the existing bear,

and a beaver.

In this one pit, therefore, have been found representatives of 8

families of mammals, Megatheriidae (ground-sloths), Castoridae

(beavers), Elephantidae (elephants), Equidae (horses), Camelidae

(camels), Cervidae (deer), Bovidae (oxen), and Ursidae (bears).

SEPT. 19, 1928 HAY: EARLY PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS 423

Near Akron, Plymouth County, were found two teeth of Stegomas-

todon mirificus in Aftonian deposits. In a deposit of the same stage,

at Mapleton, Harrison County, was found a fine tooth of Elephas

imperator. At Afton, Iowa, were collected foot bones and a tooth of

Hipparion. At Rockport in northwestern Missouri, in the Aftonian

sands and gravels, were found a foot-bone of a horse, a tooth of a

camel, and a molar tooth of Hipparion.

Near the present post-town of Peters, Sheridan County, in north-

western Nebraska, near Niobrara River, in a deposit of sand lying

between 50 and 100 feet above the little tributary of the river, were

collected many years ago about 20 species of mammals. Of these at

least 70 percent are extinct. The fossils represented 13 families and

16 genera. These include two genera of ground-sloths, two dogs, an

extinet genus of bears (Arctothervwm), a prairie dog and a musk-rat,

a field mouse, two elephants, one of them Hlephas imperator, an extinct

genus of peccaries, three species of camels, two species of prong-horn

antelopes, one possibly the existing species, the other the extinct

Capromeryx furcifer. The bed of sand containing these fossils is about

12 feet thick and overlies late Tertiary deposits. Since the bed was

laid down, Niobrara River has cut its valley nearly 100 feet deeper.

I ask you now to consider Pleistocene fossil mammals which have

been found in the canyon of Tula Creek, Briscoe and Swisher Counties,

Texas. During probably the early part of the Pleistocene, by a

quickening of a stream, approximately 100 feet of deposits were re-

moved from the Miocene. Then came a change either in a reduced

slope of the country or in a smaller amount of water or both, and

deposition recommenced. ‘There was laid down first about 30 feet of

coarse sand, over this 15 feet of bluish clay, then again course sand,

and finally 25 feet of fine white sand. This variation in the materials

implies changes in climate and of elevation, and consequently this

deposition of 90 feet of sand and clay required a long time. Then

occurred a more momentous change in affairs. The region must have

been considerably elevated as also the country west of it, for extensive

cutting began. This continued until a broad valley had been eroded

through all of that 90 feet of Pleistocene materials, then through the

Miocene and down into the Triassic clay below. That canyon so cut

is, less than 10 miles farther down, 400 or 500 feet deep. We can not

doubt that those deposits belong to .an early stage of the Pleistocene.

Now in the first coarse sand laid down and in the last stratum of

fine sand have been found numerous specimens of Pleistocene mammals.

424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

About 20 species have been collected. These include a ground-sloth

(Mylodon), a glyptodon, two elephants, one being Hlephas imperator,

from four to six species of horses, a peccary, four species of camels and |

two species of dogs. All of the species collected are now extinct.

I ask you now to consider a fourth important locality, one whose

geology certifies to the age of the fossils discovered.

Frederick, Tillman County, is in southwestern Oklahoma, about

12 miles north of Red River. From the town there runs northward for

about ten miles a prominent ridge, and this near the town stands about

100 feet above the adjacent country. In one side of this ridge a sand

and gravel pit has been opened and is being extensively operated.

The ridge is found to be a filled-up and abandoned river bed, probably

that of the ancient North Fork of Red River. The filling consists of,

first, a stratum a foot or two thick, of broken rocks and gravel cemented

by carbonate of lime, forming a mass of considerable hardness. Above

this is a rather hard sandstone of about the same thickness. ‘This is

overlain by some ten to fifteen feet of compact sand and gravel; while

above all comes about three feet of a red clay. The whole rests on a

red clay of Permian age. At present the North Fork runs about ten

miles west of Frederick and at.a level of 200 or more feet lower down.

Now principally in the lowest cemented layer, but to some extent in

the compact sand, have been discovered numerous fossil bones of

mammals. Since they were buried there the river valley was filled

and choked up, the-river diverted into other channels, and the imme-

diate region has been eroded away more than 100 feet, while further

west probably more than 200 feet. It will be understood at once that

a very long time must have been required to accomplish that work.

Inasmuch as the animals found there are in general the same as those

found in the three other localities mentioned it is concluded that the

time of their burial was during the first interglacial stage. The fossils

~ collected consist of a megalonyx, a mylodon, a mastodon, a glyptodon,

three or four horses, a large tapir, a large and a small camel, a peccary,

an elephant more primitive than HL. imperator, two other elephants,

a mastodon which appears to belong to the long-jawed genus Gompho-

thervum. All of the species are extinct.

Collecting together then the animals found in the western Iowa

localities (1), that on Niobrara River (2), that in Tula Canyon (3),

Texas, and that at Frederick (4), Oklahoma, we have the following

list

SEPT. 19, 1928 HAY: EARLY PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS 425

Megalonyx jeffersonii 1, 2, 4 Symbos ecavifrons 1

Mylodon harlani 1, 2, 3, 4 Aftonius calvini 1

Glyptodon petaliferus 3, 4 Bison sp. indet. 1

Equus complicatus 1, 3, 4 Elephas haroldeooki 4

E. niobrarensis 1, 2 E. imperator 1, 2, 3

E. laurentius 1 E. columbi 1, 2, 3, 4

E. scotti 3 E. boreus 1, 4

E. excelsus 1, 2, 3 E. primigenius ? 4

E. ealobatus 3 Mammut americanum 1

E. tau? 3 M. progenium 1

E. semiplicatus 3 Stegomastodon mirificus 1

Tapirus haysii 4 Gomphotherium sp. nov. 4

Platygonus compressus 3 Castor canadensis 1

P. sp. indet. 2, 4 Castoroides ohioensis ? 2

Camelops huerfanensis ? 3 Microtus sp. indet. 2

C. vitakerianus 2 Ondatra nebrascensis 2

C. macrocephalus 3 Thomomys sp. indet. 2

C. kansanus 2 Cynomys ludovicianus 2

C. hesternus 3 Lepus sp. 4

C.niobrarensis 4 Ursus americanus 1

Lama sp.nov. 4 Arctotherium sp. indet. 2

Camelus americanus 2 ‘Enocyon dirus 3

Eschatius conidens 3 Canis occidentalis ? 2

Alces shimeki 1 C. texanus 3

Capromeryx furcifer 2 C. latrans 2

Antilocapra americana ? 2 Smilodon nebrascensis 2

In this list there are included more than 50 species which appear to

have lived during the first interglacial stage. I do not see how this

conclusion can be escaped. Most of those of the list represent mam-

mals which are to be found in deposits all over the Great Plains into

Texas and Mexico and many of them are found in Florida and South

Carolina. When white men discovered this continent the great

majority (80 percent) of the animals here listed no longer existed.

Now the question arises: Did all of these animals that are now

extinct, and many others not here mentioned, live on until near or into

the Recent epoch and then suddenly disappear, or did the extinctions

occur at various times during the first interglacial stage and since that

time?

What can we learn about the longevity of mammalian genera and

species on comparing them with genera and species of mollusks?

Several genera of mollusks have persisted ever since the Jurassic;

many more from the Cretaceous. The oldest living genus of mam-

mals is, I think, Didelphis, the opossum, and this comes down to us

from only the Eocene. Following Matthew’s list? we find that of

2 Bull. U. 8. Geol. Surv. No. 361.

426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

90 Miocene genera only 11 now exist (12 percent); of species none.

With few exceptions the Miocene species do not continue from one

formation to the next. In a geological sense, therefore, mammalian

genera and species are short-lived. ‘This being true I hold that it is

improbable that all of the species of the list presented lived until the

close of the Pleistocene. In that first interglacial stage there were

thrown together three incongruous faunas, and it was inevitable that

in the struggle for existence some would succumb. This would have

happened even if the physical environment were favorable, but with

the changes resulting from three or four glacial stages and two or three

interglacial stages extinctions would be multiplied.

The fact that the collections from the older Pleistocene deposits

show a much higher percentage of extinct forms than from known

later ones is evidence that the extinctions occurred at all times. Had

all the first interglacial species lived until the end of the Pleistocene,

- collections from all of the stages would show approximately the same

percentage of extinct species.

The history of the Pleistocene animals of Europe shows that the

older deposits contain a higher proportion of non-existing species, the

majority or all of the earliest. deposits being extinct.

Out of the list which has been presented I select the following species

as being a part of those of which we find no traces after the close of the

first interglacial stage, or at least, after the Kansan glacial stage.

Glyptodon petaliferus C. vitakerianus

Equus niobrarensis C. macrocephalus

E. laurentius C. kansanus

E. excelsus Eschatius conidens

E. semiplicatus Camelus americanus

E. calobatus Elephas haroldcooki

Camelops huerfanensis E. imperator

C. hesternus : Smilodon nebrascensis

C. niobrarensis

To these I add the following because they have been found associated

with those of the number just given and are evidently of the same

geological age. 3

Smilodon floridanus Megatherium mirabile

Neocheerus pinckneyi Chlamytherium septentrionale

Stegomastodon mirificus

Here are listed 22 species of large and important animals of which the

writer affirms that they have not been found at any locality the

SEPT. 19, 1928 HAY: EARLY PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS 427

geology of which can be determined as being later than the first inter-

glacial or the second glacial stages. In support of my position I

present the following five sources of evidence.

1. Remains of none of these species have been found in deposits

overlying either the Kansan, the Illinoian, or the Wisconsin drift

sheets. Many other extinct species have been found in such deposits,

ground-sloths, a horse or two, the giant beaver, various species of

peccaries, elephants and mastodons. Species of the last list furnished

may be found around the borders of these drift sheets; and it isfor those

who believe in their late existence to explain why these animals did not

venture to cross the moraines. The mastodons and the elephants,

Elephas boreus and E. columbi, which more than once were driven from

the glaciated regions returned to their old pastures. The camels which

inhabited western Iowa did not return.

2. In a fissure in northwestern Arkansas Barnum Brown collected

about 50 species of mammals. ‘These appear to have lived about the

tine of the Illinoian drift stage. Not one of the species of the last

list presented was found there.

3. A considerable number of collections of fossil mammals have

been made in the Appalachian Mountains from Lookout Mountain, in

southern Tennessee, to Frankstown, Pennsylvania. At Lookout

Mountain have been found a small horse, a ground-sloth and a tapir.

From Winterburg, in northeastern Tennessee, there have been de-

scribed 18 species of mammals, including 2 horses, a tapir, 3 deer, and

Elephas boreus. In Wythe County, Virginia, Cope long ago collected

19 species of Pleistocene mammals, among them a megalonyx, a tapir,

a horse, a peccary, a bison, and an extinct bear. From a cave in

western Maryland the writer has recorded 24 species of mammals,

including 2 horses, 6 peccaries, 2 deer, an elephant, probably Elephas

columbi, and one species of saber-tooth tiger. From a fissure in lime-

stone, near Corriganville, Maryland, Gidley collected 40 or more species

of mammals, among them an extinct bear, a mastodon, a horse, a

tapir, 5 species of peccaries and many small species of rodents.

Near Frankstown, Pennsylvania, 10 miles south of Altoona, in a

limestone cave, were collected by the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh,

a considerable number of fragmentary fossils, a megalonyx, a tapir,

a peccary, a bison, a mastodon, 2 bears, the dog Mnocyon dirus, a

musk-ox, and a horse.

Now all of these collections made in the Appalachian ranges appear

to belong somewhere about the middle of the Pleistocene, in possibly

428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

the Yarmouth or the Sangamon interglacial stages. In none of them

are there any of the forms which I regard as peculiar to the first inter-

glacial. If these species were then living it is hardly comprehensible

that they did not occupy that region. At Nashville a large camel,

perhaps a species of Camelops, has been found, accompanied by 2

species of horses, a Mylodon, and a deer; but these fossils occurred in

stratified deposits at a depth of 30 feet and on a level with low water

in the river; so that there is no reason for believing that they are not

old. ‘The occurrence of these at that locality shows that these animals

were once able to visit that region.

4. The Mississippi embayment extends from Cairo to the Gulf. On

each side of the river is a deposit which has been called the Port Hudson.

In this deposit at various localities have been found important fossils.

From a deposit of blue clay believed to belong to this Port Hudson,

and overlain by some 50 or more feet of a later deposit, situated near

Natchez, Mississippi, or possibly partly collected from the later deposit,

have been described the following seventeen species of mammals:

Megalonyx jeffersonii Symbos cavifrons

~ M. dissimilis Bison latifrons ?

Mylodon harlani Mammut americanum

Ereptodon priscus Elephas columbi ?

Equus complicatus Castoroides ohioensis

E. leidyi Ursus americanus

Tapirus haysii U. amplidens

T. terrestris Felis atrox

Odocoileus virginianus

In Louisiana, in this Port Hudson, have been discovered at various

localities mastodons, elephants, mylodons, megalonyx, horses, and

tapirs. These genera and species are such as lived during the middle

portion of the Pleistocene. We have, however, no account of there

having been found, either in Louisiana, or any of the states bordering

on the Mississippi as far north as Cairo, any camels or any of the other

extinct animals the writer named as characterizing the first interglacial

deposits. They abound, however, in Texas, and again in Florida. On

account of the mild climate we might expect to find in this embayment

Megatherium, Glyptodon, Elephas imperator, various camels, capabaras

and saber-tooth tigers. If they ever left their bones and teeth in this

Mississippi River region the remains appear to have been swept away

by the floods of that great stream or to have been buried out of sight

in its later deposits.

5. There is another important deposit in which we might expect

SEPT. 19, 1928 HAY: EARLY PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS 429

to find descendants of the early Pleistocene animals named, if there

were any such descendants. This deposit, laid down during probably

two distinct stages of the early middle and late middle Pleistocene, is

known as the loess, a wind-laid element. It is found as a deep deposit

along the Mississippi River from Natchez to northern Wisconsin and

along the Missouri River to western Iowa and beyond. In places it

abounds in land shells, but it has afforded here and there a few verte-

brate fossils. In a deposit of loess at Alton, Illinois, the following list

of 15 species of mammals were discovered many years ago.

Megalonyx jeffersonii Bison sp. indet.

Equus sp. indet. Mammut americanum

Platygonus cumberlandensis ? Castor canadensis

Sangamona fugitiva Marmota monax

Cervalces roosevelti Castoroides ohioensis

Rangifer muscatinensis ? Geomys bursarius

Taurotragus americanus Ursus americanus

Symbos cavifrons

It will be observed that at least two-thirds of these fossils are of

extinct species. This suggests that their time of existence was well

back in the Pleistocene. Dr. Leighton, who studied* the situation,

was unable to determine with exactness the ages of the two beds of

loess which overlay the bones. The lowest bed may be as old as the

late Illinoian or early Sangamon stages. At any rate, none of the

species regarded by the writer as belonging to the early Pleistocene are

present in the collection.

The writer maintains therefore that he has demonstrated that the

list of 50 species of mammals given on page 425 lived during an early

stage of the Pleistocene, probably the first interglacial, or Aftonian,

and that, further, he has shown that those species have not been found

to have existed after that stage.

If we extend now our investigations into Florida we shall find some

interesting facts.

At Arcadia many years ago about 25 species of vertebrate fossils

were obtained. These consist of 15 mammals, an alligator, turtles,

sea fishes, and sharks. The principal mammals are a megalonyx,

Chlamytherium septentrionale, two species of Glyptodon, two horses, a

tapir, a mastodon, and two elephants, one of which is Elephas imperator.

Here we have many of the same genera and some of the same species

as we have found in the four localities we have examined west of the

3 Journ. Geol. 29: 505-514.

430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

Mississippi River. Chlamytherium we have not mentioned in any

collection until now, but it is found in Texas associated with other

early Pleistocene fossils.

A second locality furnishing similar fossils is near Vero, St. Lucie

County. From a deposit about 2 feet thick have been described about

30 species of mammals besides birds and reptiles. Among the mam-

mals are Chlamytherium, three species of horses, two tapirs, a camel,

a bison, the mastodon, the giant capybara (Neocherus), a large tiger,

and the floridan saber-tooth, Smzlodon. In a sandstone of quite cer-

tainly the same geological age the skull of Hlephas imperator was

collected.

At Melbourne, Brevard County, Dr. J. W. Gidley and Dr. F. B.

Loomis collected many vertebrate remains, among them Elephas

umperator, three species of horses, one or more camels, Chlamytherium,

and Glyptodon. It is wholly improbable that if these species existed

during the middle and late stages of the Pleistocene, they had become

so degenerate that they could not occupy the regions that I have

mentioned. } |

The writer believes, therefore, that he is justified in maintaining that

the deposits and their fossils found in the localities named and in other

places in Florida and in Texas belong in the first interglacial stage. If

there are yet those who believe otherwise it seems to be incumbent on

them to present their reasons therefor.

PALEONTOLOGY .—A new species of bear from the Pleistocene of

Florida. James W. Gipiey,! U. 8. National Museum.

Two excellent papers recently published, one by Merriam and

Stock?, the other by Kraglievich?, have done much to lessen the

confusion which for many years has existed regarding the proper

classification and relationship of. the Arctotheres of the Western

Hemisphere. Merriam and Stock placed the group under a sub-

family of the Ursidae, Tremarctinae, to include the living genus

Tremarctos, Arctothervum, and, doubtfully, Arctodus. They recognized

five described species from the Pleistocene of North America, and

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

August 138, 1928. :

2 Relationship and structure of the short-faced bear, Arctotherium. Contr. Paleont.,

Carnegie Institution of Washington, 347: 1-33, 10 plates, 1925.

3 Los Arctoterios Norteamericanos. Ann. Museo Nac. Hist. Nat., 34: 1-16, 1 plate,

1 text fig., 1926.

SEPT. 19, 1928 GIDLEY: NEW PLEISTOCENE BEAR 431

placed them, with the exception of Arctodus pristinus, in the genus

Arctotherium, which is based on a South American Pleistocene species,

A. latidens. These authors recognized the nearer approximation of

A. haplodon Cope (Port Kennedy Cave) to the living Tremarctos as

compared with the western species.

In his valuable work cited above, Lucas Kraglievich has pointed

out the generic differences between Arctotheriwm latidens and other

South American species and the North American species referred to

that group, proposing a new genus, Tremarctotherium, to include the

species yukonense Lambe, simum Cope, californicum Merriam, and

doubtfully haplodon Cope. This arrangement, satisfactory in other

respects, still leaves in doubt the status of Arctodus Leidy,‘ the first-

named genus of this group. As is generally known, the genotype,

A. pristinus, was based on a single lower second molar from Pleistocene

deposits of the Ashley River at Ashley Ferry, South Carolina. The

type has apparently been lost and by some this has seemed sufficient

reason for discarding both the species and genus as indeterminate.

Since, however, the excellent figures and description given by Leidy

are sufficiently clear and the characters shown are such that its place

in the Arctothere group can be established without much question,

the name should be retained regardless of what disposition is made

of Tremarctos and the other genera of the group.

Several specimens from the Pleistocene deposits at Melbourne,

Florida, representing a new species here described, evidently belong

to the Arctodus group and furnish additonal reasons for reestablishing

the genus.

A critical comparison of Leidy’s figures and description of the type

specimen with the corresponding tooth in Cope’s type of Arctothervum

(“Ursus’’) haplodon seems to leave little doubt regarding the close

relationship of these species. Their size and general proportions are

identical, the only difference of importance being the slightly greater

width of the talonid portion of the tooth in A. haplodon, a difference

which seems not of more than specific significance and may come

within the range of individual variation.

The new species from Florida is in many ways intermediate between

Arctodus and the living Tremarctos, but certain features seem to

exclude it as well as A. haplodon, and, by inference, also, A. pristinus

from the South American genus. Arctodus then, as now recognized,

comprises the following species: pristinus Leidy, haplodon Cope, and

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 7: 90, 1854; Lerpy in Houmes, Post-Pleistocenz of Suuth

Carolina, p. 115, pl. 23, figs. 3, 4, 1860.

432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

floridanus Gidley. It may be distinguished from Arctotherium by

the greater relative length of the molars; the relatively greater expan-

sion of the heel, or posterior expansion of upper m2; and the relatively

broader, flatter, and finer tuberculated area in the upper molars

included between the continuous protocone-hypocone ridge and the

bases of the main two outer cusps forming the paracone-metacone

ridge. Arctodus may be distinguished from Tremarctos by its dis-

tinctly longer relative space occupied by the premolars, indicating

a longer muzzled species; the relatively deeper proportions of the

jaw; and the distinctly higher position of the point on the anterior

border of the coronoid process where it is met by the anterior end of

the ridge which divides the masseteric fossa and the antemasseteric

pit.®

There are doubtless other and perhaps better generic characters

that may be observed when the species comprising the genus are

better known.

In March, 1926, Peterson described some fine material of a bear

which he referred to “Arctotherium haplodon (Cope), with which it

agrees very closely in size. However, if the figures may be relied on

for comparison, it seems to belong rather definitely to the western

genus T'remarctotherium Kraglievich, as is decided by the very narrow

talon of m? and the apparent absence of the finely tuberculated areas

of the molar in general.

-Arctodus floridanus, new species

Type: Parts of skull and jaws with dentition represented by upper I*; all

the canines; left lower pm,; left lower m: « 3, right lower m2; upper m! & ? of

both sides; and alveoli of the left upper incisors and left pms 2 & 3. (Cata-

logue number 11,833, U. S. National Museum.)

Paratypes: Teeth from the same locality and horizon as the type (Cata-

logue Nos. 11,478, 11,474, 11,475, U. S. National Museum) and an upper m?

from Florida, exact locality not known (No. 11,476).

Type locality and horizon: Country Club golf course, 2 miles west of

Melbourne, Florida. Lower stratum of ‘‘No. 2 bed” of Sellards; Pleistocene.

Diagnosis: Size intermediate between the large Arctodus haplodon Cope and

the living South American bear Tremarctos ornatus Gervais. Molars rela-

tively long as in T.. ornatus; relatively long diastema between lower premolars

2 and 3 and a somewhat shorter one between p3; and ps. Lower jaw relatively

deep, depth at mi, including this tooth, as great as the combined length of

a molar series; antemasseteric fossa relatively deeper and larger than in

. ornatus.

Arctodus floridanus is distinguished from A. pristinus and A. haplodon by

> This name is proposed to avoid the use of the customary misnomer, ‘‘double mas-

seteric fossa.’

6 The fossils of the Frankstown cave, Bliss County, Pennsylvania. Ann. Carnegie

Mus., 16: (no. 2) 286-292, pls. 24, 25. 1926.

“all

SEPT. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 433

its smaller size and relatively narrower molars as well as by a tendency to

greater numbers of the minute tubercles of the flat triturating surfaces of

the molars.

CoMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS

: Tremarctos

Arctodus Arctodus ornatus Gervais

floridanus haplodon Cope No. 210324

Gidley Type Cast of type Dept. Biol.

U.S. N.M.

mm. m7 77. mm.

Upper dentition

Senet of 1° (base of crown)-.........-....- AE Sd (mei ee 7.7

ne ee ee Lan aoe adhe ine oe Bel ke ae 8.0

Length of canine (base of crown)............ 1) AN lie Sai 18.3

6 Oe by ee be ee Pe ee a | Ley | os Ih Ba

Seensteeas ys. Pea. cf eel tk... rrr es MES SC! 17.5

Greatest width of m! (posterior half)......... Page as tet), 14.2

Peer Miesettes. 60 ests. Se. 5st ere. thu ie 25.5

Greatest width of m? (anterior half)......... Penis Ios % 14.2

Lower dentition

Length of canine (base of crown)............ 22.5 30.5 17.0

eperian emmine.” 02 cits ete $id. 14.5 16.6 11.0

LE ATE fie oe dp Redes 2). geese eae 9.0 11.0 (est.) 8.0

Oe ae eg ate eg oe 0, i ee ae mrGt te fee Jee 5.5

ee ES ee) ee 2 es 22.3 28.0 20.0

EL ye a a 9.5 ms 8.5

Ce MtneNtA Mites: Ct Slee tre. 2 ES 2k 1-3 15.0 10.0

eB Oo ee EA, ae ee ey 22.0 25.6 20.0

Ey CT 2 ee a 14.2 18.1 12.0

UE pg a a Sg ee deg Oe Fat 14.2 19.0 12.0

ee Lee a Boas fee eee ey ee 18.2 21.2 14.5

a oo gh eg i Ea ga ees Ce Dg ots Ey 13.8 16.3 12.0

Length of dental series (canine to ms;)........ 133.7 164.0 (est.) 103.5

Depth of jaw at and including m............ 65.0 75.0 49.0

Diastema between p2 and p3................- 11.3 9.0 none

Diastema between p; and p;................. | 3.5 7.5 none

7 Length = antero-posterior diameter. Width = transverse diameter.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

397TH MEETING

The 397th regular meeting was held December 1, 1927, in Room 43 of the

National Museum. Vice-president J. E. Graf presided.

Program: Dr. 8S. B. Fracxer: Control activities on the pink bollworm in

the Southwest. This subject is of interest from two standpoints: (1) The

insect is attacking a crop of enormous value, a leading agricultural resource

of this country; (2) the apparent total eradication of the pink bollworm where

it became established in the main cotton belt of eastern Texas and Louisiana

was a noteworthy achievement. The present distribution of the insect

434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

includes practically all the cotton-growing areas between the Pecos River in

Texas and New Mexico on the east and Tucson, Arizona, on the west. Of

these areas the Arizona and western New Mexico portions are now the subject

of clean-up measures and attempted eradication. In the Rio Grande Valley,

however, the United States is subject to continuous infestation from Mexico

and the elimination of the pink bollworm from that section is not being

attempted. Present operations include search for new infestations, steriliza-

tion of all cottonseed in the infested areas, compression and fumigation of all

cotton lint produced before being moved to outside points, the maintenance

of road stations to prevent tourists from transporting cotton bolls, and

clean-up activities in the western part of the area to eradicate infestations if

possible.

Discussed by Maruatr and Howarp.

Dr. A. C. Baker: The campaign of eradication of the Mexican fruitworm

Anastrepha ludens. The speaker gave a brief summary of the origin of the

work and its progress and growth to date, and indicated on a map the various

areas of infestation and centers of control operations. Details illustrating

the various ramifications of the work were brought out, especially the co-

operation of citrus growers, Rotary clubs, Chambers of Commerce, press

service, and prominent citizens in eradication campaigns. A résumé of

inspection activities was also given.

Discussed by BisHopp, CurRRiE, MARLATT, and Howarp.

President Davip L. Crawrorp of the University of Hawaii made a brief

address, emphasizing his special interest in Dr. Baker’s paper because of his

own work several years ago on the same problem. He discussed some of his

observations made in Hawaii on the pest and outlined the status of the

parasite control work. He also gave a short account of the work and scope

of the Entomological Society of Hawaii.

Dr. GEorGE Sat, of Bussey Institute, discussed recent observations on

banana insects in the San Marcos region of Colombia, notably a bee, Trigona

amalthea Oliv., and a beetle, Colaspis hypochlore Laf. He gave information

regarding the life history, habits and control-of Colaspzs hypochlore Laf.,

which in recent years has been an important pest of bananas, especially

in low and wet areas. Good results have been obtained by drainage when

lack of rainfall permitted.

Mr. C. P. CuausEn referred briefly to some of his recent activities in India

in connection with collection and study of parasites of the Japanese beetle

Popilliajaponica Newm. At Shillong, he was especially fortunate in having

the best possible location in the entire country for handling the parasite work

on a large scale. .

Mr. 8S. S. Crossman, of the Gypsy Moth Laboratory, Melrose Highlands,

Massachusetts, gave an account of the conditions following the recent flood

disaster in Vermont. He also gave a short résumé of the present status of

_ the gypsy moth work in New England, including a review of the parasite

situation since 1905. He emphasized the fact that the data thus far assem-

bled in Europe, on parasites, especially the marked variations in species

that predominate in certain sections, indicate that studies of this kind should

be made over a considerable period of years in order to obtain best results.

The regular program was followed by the annual election of officers.

Those elected for the year 1928 are as follows: Honorary President, EK. A.

Scuwanrz; President, S. A. Ronwer; First Vice-president, J. E. Grar; Second

Vice-president, A. C. Baker; Recording Secretary, J.S. WADE; Corresponding

Secretary-Treasurer, S. A. Ronwer; Editor, W. R. Watton; Executive Com-

SEPT. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 435

mittee, the officers and C. T. GrreEN, A. N. CAuDELL, and T. E. SNypzER;

Representing the Society as a Vice-president of the Washington Academy of

Sciences, A. G. BOVING.

398TH MEETING

The 398th regular meeting was held January 5; 1928, in Room 43 of the

National Museum. President RoHwer presided. The annual reports of

the Recording Secretary, the Editor, and the Corresponding Secretary-

Treasurer were read and approved, and the latter referred to an auditing

committee.

The President reported the recent death of a member of the society, Mr.

Jacob Kotinsky. T. E. SNypER and A. N. CAUDELL were appointed to

draw up suitable resolutions for presentation at the next meeting, for the

records of the society, and for the bereaved family.

Program: R. C. SHANNON: Experiences in the Argentine. The speaker

gave a brief general survey of the Argentine, its location, physical contour,

agriculture, imports, exports, character of inhabitants, social customs, ete.

Then he outlined his itinerary and summarized his entomological observa-

tions, especially his work on various species of mosquitoes, notably Anopheles

pseudopunctipennis Theobald and related species, concerning which much

detail was given. Maps of the region were shown and locations of more

important studies and observation points were indicated. Mr. Shannon

hopes at some future date to give a paper covering trips to Patagonia, the

Bolivian border, and the Cataracts of Iguazu. Mr. Shannon adds the

following: “I would like to state that my references to the life zones of

Argentina, about which there was some controversy, were very brief remarks

abstracted and summed up from a paper which I presented at the Argentine

Entomological Society and which has probably been printed by this time in

the Anales de la Sociedad Entomologica Argentina. This paper is entitled

‘Contribution to the Study of the Life Zones of Argentina.’ The different

regions which I indicated in my talk are primarily based upon the physio-

graphic and climatic features, coupled with the presence or absence of forests.

In most of these areas, I found species of insects which appear to be peculiar

to them; no doubt many occur, and it is, in general, evident that they repre-

sent natural areas so far as fauna and flora are concerned. In view of the

above, it would be better to call these regions ‘physiographic zones.’ I feel

sure, however, that these different zones will be found to coincide closely with

the life zones which would be proposed by the ecologist.”

Discussed by Hystop, ALDRICH, SNYDER, BisHopp, and ROHWER.

Dr. F. C. CraiGHEAD: Forest insects. A brief summary of major investi-

gations of several of the more destructive species of tree-killing bark beetles

of the genus Dendroctonus was given. By means of maps, blackboard dia-

grams, lantern slides and specimen report forms, the various areas of greatest

infestation were located, the character and extent and methods of estimating

injury were described, and control operations were reviewed. Some note-

worthy details were brought out, such as the recent use of airplanes in esti-

mating losses by forest tree insects, and the relation of ‘‘blue stain’”’ fungus to

insect injury in various sections of the country.

Discussed by AuLpricH, Hystop, St. GrorGE, WALTON, CuRRIE, and

McInpoo.

Dr. B. A. Porter of Vincennes, Indiana, a non-resident member, made a

few remarks. He stated that he especially enjoyed the meeting because there

was no mention of codling moth or of poison residues.

436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 15

399TH MEETING

The 399th regular meeting was held February 2, 1928, in Room 43 of the

National Museum. President 8S. A. Ronwmr presided.

Program: J. A. Hystop: Our most important insects (address of the retiring

president). The speaker commented on the present tendency in economic

entomology to follow the line of least resistance. From a vote cast by the

working entomologists of the country as to the relative importance of the

several insect pests throughout the United States, it would appear that the

ten most important insects, in their order of importance, are: Codling moth,

cutworm, San José scale, bollworm, grasshopper, plum curculio, boll weevil,

Hessian fly, potato leafhopper, and white grub. The insects were then taken

up in detail and a careful analysis made of the actual damage done by each,

as near as can be ascertained. From this analysis the author concluded

that the ten most important insects in the United States, in their order of

importance, are: Mosquito, boll weevil, bollworm, spruce budworm, potato

leafhopper, Hessian fly, grasshopper, cattle grub, cutworm, and chinch bug.

The next ten insects in importance are: Potato beetle, cattle fly (other than

grub), termite, corn root worm, alfalfa weevil, plum curculio, codling moth,

apple aphid, army worm, and bark beetle. The granary pests would rank

seventh in this list if taken asa group. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Rohwer, Howarp, Morrison, LARRIMER, GRAF, BISHOPP,

SNYDER, MANN, SassceER, and BurGEss.

Curtis P. CuausENn: Entomology in Japan. An account of the develop-

ment of entomological science in Japan from the time of its inception, approxi-

mately fifty years ago, to the present time was given, and the leading

entomologists of the present day were mentioned. An account was given of

the lines of investigation being conducted by the various laboratories under

the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, the Imperial Universities,

the Plant Quarantine Service, the provinces and the private institutions.

The principal economic problems were discussed and compared with those

of other oriental countries and of the United States. (Awthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Burcrss, Howarp, and Hys.op.

Dr. Loren B. Smiru, of the Japanese Beetle Laboratory in New Jersey,

spoke briefly about his work. He emphasized the extreme difficulty of mak-

ing really satisfactory estimates of injury by Japanese beetle because of

the many factors to be considered, especially the varying value of injured

trees—some being worth only sale value of the wood therein, whereas others,

located on fine estates, possess a high valuation for aesthetic reasons. He

also reviewed briefly investigations during the past summer on the digestive.

system of the Japanese beetle in relation to the toxic effects of various chemi-

cals, and effects on insects of what may possibly prove to be variations of

radiant energy from various portions of the spectrum.

J.S. Wapez, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND: NEWS

Wo. D. Jonnsron, Jr., has been appointed assistant geologist and RaLPu

M. Leccerre junior geologist in the Water-Resources Branch of the U. 8.

Geological Survey.

Francis G. WELLS has been appointed junior engineer in the same branch

of the Survey.

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sday, Oct. 3, The Medical Society.

Behe sia eo) Engineering Society. )

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 OcToBER 4, 1928 No. 16

MATHEMATICAL STATISTICS.—On damping effects and approach

to equilibrium in certain general phenomena.! BircER MEIDELL,

University of Oslo, Norway (Communicated by RaymMonp

PEARL). : 7

1. INTRODUCTION

In various branches of applied mathematics one is often confronted

with problems.which involve a certain function of the time, called

the resultant W (t) in what follows, that can be looked upon as built up

through a cumulative process started and continually kept up by

another function of time, the originator n (t), the effect of which on

W (t) is brought about through the intervention of a certain function

of elapsed time, the distributor w (£).

The following are some instances drawn from the field of population

statistics: The total existing population, or certain subgroups of the

population, such as the number of men, or women, or men in certain

age groups, at a certain moment of time, or the annual number of

deaths or of marriages, are all resultants, i.e., functions of time which

are originated through another function of time, namely the number of

births in previous years; in these examples, the distributors are certain

functions derived from the age distributions at death, at marriage, etc.

Again, the total reserve at a given moment for a particular kind of

insurance is a resultant which is originated through the ‘‘production,”’

i.e., the new insurance written each year; here the distributor is the

1 Received June 8, 1928. The present paper is a revised and somewhat generalized

version of the author’s article Ueber periodische und angendherte Beharrungszustande,

Skandinavisk Aktuarie Tidskrift. 1926.

437

438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 16

function of elapsed time that represents the total reserve resulting from

a unit of production of one year for the kind of insurance considered.?

In all the above cases the effect of the distributor is limited by the

maximum length of human life. An analogous limitation is present in

a great variety of cases occurring in other fields.

The most important case is perhaps that in which the cumulative

process is such that the originator-element n (7)d7 for the moment of

time ¢ = 7 is the cause of a contribution of amount w (€)n (7)dz to the

resultant at the subsequent moment of time ¢ = 7 + & We then

have, since w (£) = w(t — 7),

Wi =| wb Dadri (1.1)

As, however, the originating process will in general start at some

definite time which we may select for ¢ = 0, we may assume n (7) = 0

for 7 < 0; thus we obtain

. :

w= Vwe- ete Sf wie, ve Ole inci) ca ta toma (12)

If the originator n (¢) is a constant n, we have

. t

Wise \ wt de ee (1.3)

which, upon substituting t — 7 = &,d7 = —dé (since ¢ is a definite

fixed time), may also be written

W (2d) =n | w@ae i ee 2 (1.4)

If the effect of the distributor is limited, i.e., w () = Oforé > T

where 7’ is some positive constant, we get for values of t > T'

VG = n\ ME) Oe = CONS.«8 ee eee Cia)

This last equation expresses a well known equilibrium theorem.

2 The advantages of considering actuarial reserves from this point of view has been

pointed out by the writer in an article in Skandinavisk Aktuarie Tidskrift, 1921, p. 210.

See also the work of Norwegian actuaries in Nyt beregningsgrundlag for livsforsikring,

Oslo, 1922, p. 27, and Fr. Lange-Nielsen, A proposal for a new basis . . . . , Skand.

Akt. T., 1922, p. 235.

Se ee

oct. 4, 1928 MEIDELL: DAMPING EFFECTS AND EQUILIBRIUM 439

In practical cases where the originator and the distributor are

known with sufficient accuracy, these equations give a means of

forecasting the magnitude of the resultant. In particular, if n =

const., and the distributor is limited, equation (1.5) gives a means of

predicting the time from which there will be equilibrium in the sense

of W = const. Itis obvious that it would be of great practical impor-

tance to obtain criteria for cases in which equilibrium will be approxi-

mately reached when the originator n (¢) is not constant; the attempt to

do this is the chief aim of the present paper.

2. THE ORIGINATOR AND THE DISTRIBUTOR AS SOLUTIONS OF

INTEGRAL EQUATIONS

In the following we shall write equation (1.2) in the form

Wi = [wv @ ne Rashad = fw Lessin faihic ia ekeaad

A generalization of this equation would be

Wi) =| zw@ut-Hae Bk oo (2:2)

where w; and n; are two series of distributors and originators; if either

the w; or the n; are identically proportional, this case reduces to (2.1).

In the present paper, attention will be confined to the case (2.1).

Equations (2.1) are integral equations, in w (£) and in n (7) respec-

tively, of the so-called generalized Abel type; to obtain practical solu-

tions of them, it is desirable (when the nucleus remains finite) to

transform them by differentiation with respect to t, whence we obtain?

W’ (8) {wv @ n’ (t —&) dé

(ie (t) + Brg ets Gh a (2.3)

W’ (t) _ [on@ wi t-ndr

w(0) n (i) + BS ee ce eda (2.4)

If in (2.3) the quantity n (0) vanishes, the differentiation must be

repeated until mn” (0) + 0; and similarly if w (0) vanishes in (2.4).

Equations (2.3) and (2.4) are integral equations, in w and n, respec-

3 E. B. Witson, Advanced Calculus, p. 283.

440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES: VOL. 18, No. 16

tively, of the so-called Poisson type; the existence theorems established

by Volterra‘ give a solution of the form

wig | reo W Ode

~ 2 (0) n (0)

or, transforming the variable of integration from & to r = t — &,

T= dé,

ieee Goa

Ww () =

numerical methods for determining I have been given by Whittaker,®

Kameda,‘ and others. If the kernel n’ (¢ — £)/n(0) = K(é — £) in

(2.3) is of the form K (x) = 2; a; exp (cw), where the a; and ¢; are

constants, I will be of the same form T (a) = 2; a; exp (y; x), where

the a; and y; are simple functions of the a; and c;. In particular,

ifn (t) = a + B sin dt, K (t —£) = 26 cos dA (¢t — €), where a, 8B,

\, 6, are constants, we have

T(t) =2be ” (cospt —vsinynd, 2 > Bb

T @ = be" [= vie 4 1 per" on? = BORE ae

wp=b/y = + Vin = b?|

3. SoME GENERAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THE FLUCTUATIONS OF THE

ORIGINATOR AND THE VALUE OF THE RESULTANT

AT A GIVEN INSTANT

Let W> (t) be the function which expresses what the resultant would

have been at time ¢ (with the given form of w) if the originator had

been equal to a constant .; and let us find an expression for the.

deviation U (t) = W (t) — Wo (t).

If no = n (0), we have from (1.4) and (2.6), remembering that

W (0) = O and that the value of a definite integral is independent of

the particular variable in terms of which the integrand is expressed,

4 GoursatT, Cours d’ Analyse, 3ed., T. III, chap. xxx.

5 WHITTAKER. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. 94: 367. 1918. WuitTTakEeR and RoBINsOoN,

The Calculus of Observations, p. 376.

6 KaMEDA, Tohoku Math. Journ. August, 1924.

—e-» ~,

we so be Dee fs

oct. 4,1928 MBEIDELL: DAMPING EFFECTS AND EQUILIBRIUM 44]

UW) = WO —\nOw@at

= {ar {re W’ (x —é) dé

or, interchanging the order of the integrations by Dirichlet’s Formula,’

uj@=\aelr@wG-Ha

Hence, evaluating the second integral (in which W’ is now the deriva-

tive with respect to 7), we have

u@=\r@we-dae=fre-ow@ae

Again, from (2.1) we get directly

UW) = | w@nt-Dde-m | w@ds

The deviation U (¢) may be computed from either of these equations

for any value of ¢t. The last equation is also valid if n is an arbitrary

constant.

Generally, let W (¢) and A (t) be two resultants, generated by the

originators (¢) and h (¢) respectively, and with the same distributor

w (€). The function h (tf) will be called the trend function. The

difference u (t) = n (t) — h (t) will represent the deviations or fluctua-

tions of the originator n (¢) measured from the trend function, and

U (t) = W (t) — A (#) will represent the corresponding deviations of

the resultant.

We shall first suppose h (¢) to be an arbitrary function without any

connection with n (t). By (2.1)

U (t) _Sue-ow@ae

BO a -DwOde

RARE ah G) O26)

a h(t — &) w (&) dé

fone ~)w(de

7 GoursatT, Cours d’ Analyse, 4ed., T. I., p. 299.

442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 16

Thus, by a well known property of definite integrals,

uU wl =e)

4 ol a h(t = el pw (@)/ae

@ aT

Hence

c U0 os ae -~Dw@lae

ae i h(t —)w@de|

where M is the maximum of | wu (7) /h (r) | in the interval 0 < +

If h (t—£) w (é) has the same sign throughout the interval 0 < ¢

which in practice it usually will have,’ we have simply

U AO

H PE ee

Therefore we have

THEOREM I. Whatever the trend function h (7), if the product

h (r) w (t—7) does not change sign in the interval 0 < ; < #, the

relative deviation of the resultant W (¢) from the value which this func-

tion would have assumed if the originator had been the trend function

h (r) has at any given point ¢ an absolute value not greater than the

maximum absolute value of the relative deviation of the originator

from the trend function in the interval 0 < 7 < t.

In other words, since this theorem holds for any t, a damping of the

relative fluctuations of W (t) as compared with the relative fluctua-

tions of n (¢) must in all such cases take place. Upon the intensity of

this damping will depend the possibility in practice of computing

W (t) as of n (t) were a suitable trend function h (t) of a less compli-

cated form than n (t) but still representing the main features of n (¢)—

e.g., as if n (t) were a constant in cases where the underlying trend of

n (t) is recognized to have the form of a horizontal line.

The damping effect will be more fully examined below, through the

introduction of the standard deviation as a measure of the fluctuations

of W (t).

8 In most cases, both h (¢) and u (¢) will be positive.

oct. 4, 1928 MEIDELL: DAMPING EFFECTS AND EQUILIBRIUM 443

If the originator n (¢) has a marked variation confined to a short

interval in the neighborhood of time ¢, and if the distributor w (2) is

positive and has a pronounced maximum at x = a, then there will

obviously be a more or less pronounced fluctuation in the resultant

in the neighborhood of time ¢ + a. We may obtain some information

about this effect by considering the originator to be increased over a

small finite interval of length p = 2q, say: Let n; (x) be a function

which is positive in the interval 0 < x < p, and equal to zero outside

this interval; n; (x) might be called the “extra originator.’’ We

wish to know the effect on the resultant W when, starting from any

time ¢, the extra originator is added to or subtracted from n.

The resultant which would be produced at any instant of time

t+y >t+pbyn,alone, viz.,

Wily) = in ote 8) arte) @ Eo ase (3.1)

might be called the ‘‘extra resultant.’’ The problem is to determine

the maximum of this function. If there isa maximum aty = 7 + 4q,

7 must satisfy

[i'w @-dm@+ede=0

if w (x) is symmetric about its maximum x = a, and n; (2) symmetric

about the midpoint x = gq, this equation will be satisfied for » = a.

Hence, the maximum effect on W of a temporary, symmetric fluctua-

tion in the originator n is produced after a lapse of time which, counted

from the midpoint of the fluctuation in n, is equal to a, where a is the

argument for which the symmetric distributor w (2) has its maximum.

The conditions under which this solution holds are often realized in

practise, because several distributors encountered in statistical and

actuarial work, e.g., are approximately of the symmetric type. A

striking instance is the reserve

of a sufficiently great number of whole life insurances entered at age z.

4. THe DAmpiING COEFFICIENT

A formula will now be established that expresses the way in which

the general character of the fluctuations of W (t)inz —q@ <t<z+q

444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 16

depends on the fluctuations of n (¢) in the time previous to z + gq.

The distributor will be assumed limited in its effect, 1.e., w (x) = 0

for x > T; hence fort > T

W (t) -{ w (é)n(t — &) dé = (Pwe-On@ de. 4a)

Assume also that 2 > 7 + q; T is the instant of time at which equi-

librium would have been reached, i.e., the time from which W would

have been constant, if the originator n had been independent of time,

and it will be called the equilibrium point regardless of whether or not

equilibrium actually is reached there. The equilibrium point evi-

dently is independent of the constant value assumed for n, and depends

only on the distributor w (x).

The function

w (2x)

eG) amo

{ w@ae

will be called the normalized distributor, or the distribution function.

We further introduce the means

1 (eee 1 (zt+4¢

h (2) = = ii n(r) dz; Ee) == sett W (1) dr

in which p = 2q; if zis varying, h and H can be regarded as the moving

averages of nand W.® ‘The deviations of n and W from their means

will be denoted by

n (t) — h (2)

W (é) — FA (2)

we 2)

OD)

It should be noted that the position of the interval which determines

the means from which u and U are measured is fixed independently

through z, and does not change with ¢.

9 In my original analysis of the character of the oscillations of W (¢) over a given

interval, I considered only the case of a periodic originator, which evidently amounted

to considering the trend function h to be a constant. The more general definition of

hand H, above, as moving averages has been suggested to be by my friend and colleague

Dr. Frisch.

ocT. 4,1928 MEIDELL: DAMPING EFFECTS AND EQUILIBRIUM 445

Weevidently have for any z

z2+q z+@q

iN w(r,dr = { i ee ee

Mera 2 @

The means and the deviations satisfy the same equations as do the

functions themselves; in fact, we have by (4.1)

(2) "= a une Sh ae = a it ea (4.2)

and

Ui,2) = |) w(t) u(t — &,2 —&) dé.......... (4.3)

fort > Tandz>T7+4q.

The standard deviations s (z) and S (zg) of n (¢) and W (#) over the

intervalz —q <t<z+qare defined by

1 seat)

s? (z) --| u(r, 2) dr

Pedz—a

1 z+q

s@)=—{ aie

Pedz-a

Finally, we introduce the coefficient of correlation C (25, 2) between

the 25-spaced ordinates n ({—6) and n (¢ + 6) of the originator, the

correlation being taken over the intervalz —q <t<z2z+4q:

1 z+q

= u(r +b,2+8) u(r —6,2—S) dr

Cos, 2) (4.4)

s(z +5) s(z — 8)

Since C is a correlation coefficient, we always have —1 < C < 1.

Further C (0, 2) = 1 for any z, which simply means that the correlation

is perfect between infinitesimally spaced ordinates. C is symmetric

in 6.

The relative standard deviation r (z) = s (z)/h (2) measures the

closeness with which the originator n (¢) fluctuates about its mean in

the interval z + q; and the ratio R (z) = S (2) / H (z) has the same

significance for the resultant W (t). The ratio R (z) may therefore

be taken as a measure of the degree to which equilibrium is approxi-

mately realized over the interval z + q.

446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 16

Making use of (4.3), we have for R (z), after some reductions,’ the

expression

G2 fA at

no rt i) o(Batnale—Bs(e—n) (en, 2 Nady. ees

R?(z) =

where

T T

4 weds | h(z—&dé

G (z= T

P\ w@he-Hae

1°

Ro =ah h(zg—&) dé

We can further reduce (4.5) by means of the following formula

due to Frisch:" Let f(2,..,%,) or, for brevity, f., be a function of

b b

the n variables z,,..,%,, and let \ denote { an ‘ d2, +. se

Further let m; = =! f. be the mean of f, and let

10 The reductions consist in writing

fe T ’

(na = { arf d nw (é) w (m) u(r — &, 2 — &) u (7 — 9, 2 — 9)

0 0

then transforming the resulting triple integral

z+q@ fY fh

\ arf ar Theo Mab

z—-@q 0 0

into

and finally putting

11 RAGNAR FriscH. On approximation to a certain type of integrals. Skandinavisk

Aktuarie Tidskrift. 1928. The formula there given is a generalization of a formula

which Frisch had previously given; for other generalizations of Frisch’s formula see

Steffensen. On the sum or integral of the product of two functions. ibid., p. 44. 1927.

oct. 4, 1928 MEIDELL: DAMPING EFFECTS AND EQUILIBRIUM 447

= +YV SS ae:

Rie at

3 Mf

(m; assumed + 0) be the standard deviation and the relative standard

deviation, respectively, of f. Finally, let

i) (fz ah my) (Ge 2 a3 Mg)

(pS

’ Of Og (b = a)”

be the coefficient of correlation between the two functions f, and gz.

Then we have

(b — a)n ue = i Vo. (1 + pr po 1%)

the means m; and m, being assumed += 0. Substituting for p,;, p, and

Tyo, we see that this is an identity.

Applying this to the two functions of two variables

fGém =s(e—-—s(e—7)

aa,

a(n) =o @0() C(t-n2- 5 )

in (4.5), and also to the two functions of one variable w (€) and h (2—£)

in (4.6), we have

ii s(zg—é)dé

Bie = BiG) ote ead oi Ree Gaerne 1a)

fe hte — £) ae

where

1 + pf po Th ft Sushi

Dt (2) = nr (ly eG) e(e— 42-22") dean... (48)

The ratio of the integrals in (4.7) may be regarded as an average

relative standard deviation of the originator for the interval previous

toz+q. Wemay therefore adopt the factor D (z) in (4.7) and (4.8)

448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 16

as the coefficient of damping, which expresses the ratio between the

relative standard deviation of the resultant over the interval z + q

and the average relative standard deviation of the originator over the

interval previous to z + q; the magnitude of D (z) measures the

intensity of the damping. If D (z) is a small fraction, a heavy damp-

ing has taken place. It is true that a small value of D (z) does not

exclude the possibility that there may have taken place, within the

interval z + q, isolated deviations of W of comparatively great magni-

tude, but such fluctuations must necessarily have been confined to

very short intervals of time; in practise, such extreme cases will be of

little importance.

The expression (4.8) enables us to recognize certain cases in which

D (2) will be small; we shall consider, in particular, the case of a

periodic originator.

5. Tue CASE or A PERIODIC ORIGINATOR

If the moving average h is constant, 1.e., if the originator is periodic

with period p, then h, s, H, and S (for z > T + q) will be constants,

hence oy = o, = 0. Furthermore, wu (t, z) and therefore C (6, z) will be

independent of z. The ratios‘r and R, and hence also D, will be

constants. Wehave merely R = Dr = Ds/h, and

Dz = | (ie @o@C@-ndedy Eola aie oe (5.1)

Since w (a) = Oforz > T, we have further

Wetp -WW=) wOmb+p—H —nt—olde=0

fort > T. Hence we have

THEOREM II. If the originator is an arbitrary periodic function,

the resultant will be periodic after equilibrium has been reached, and

the length of its period will be equal to the length of the period of the

originator.

This condition, realized from the point of time 7 on, might be

termed periodic equilibrium. For the constants h and H we have

1 ep 1 c+p

na-{ n(r) dr, H=~{ W (r) dr

DPD ve Dp c

oct. 4,1928 MEIDELL: DAMPING EFFECTS AND EQUILIBRIUM 449

where c > T but otherwise arbitrary. Furthermore, from (4.2)

H=h{ wed

whence

THEOREM III. If the originator is periodic, the actual mean value

of the resultant (after equilibrium) is equal to the constant value

which the resultant would have had (after equilibrium) if the originator

had been constant and equal to its actual mean value.

For the function C (6) = C (4, 2), now independent of z, we have

c+p

«0 (s) = { WONG EO TG Bien et ee (5.2)

where 7

c+p

Qu i u(r) dr »

Since a = 0 isa trivial case, we may assume a > OQ; C (6) is evidently

independent of the constant ¢ in (5:2), and by integrating (5.2) over

6 we find

c+p

\ C (6) ds =0

Furthermore, C (6) is an even periodic function with period p:

C (6+ p) = C (6), C (6) = C (—4). Hence C is symmetric about

6 = kp, where £ is an arbitrary positive or negative integer or zero;

C is even symmetric about 6 = kg, where p = 2q, for aC (¢q + 6) =

a C (—q —6) is equal to

c+p c-+p

\ u(r —q—s)u(s)dr= | u(r +q —6)u(r)dr =aCl (gq — 5)

If wu possesses derivatives of all orders, then (5.2) gives by v repeated

integrations by parts,

Ga) pay BGG)” | Gen By )

aC” (6) ( yr { U (r+ 5)u (r)dz.... (5.3)

From this, we have form = 2p +1,» = p(p =0,1,....),

7a (0) = (= yf du (r)]J2 = 0

450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 16

because [u'” (7)]? is periodic with period p. Hence C+» (0)

= 0, since a > 0. For m = 2p, v = p, we get C® (0) = (—1)? a

where |

1 C70

cop = — ff (ds

We thus obtain the Taylor series (assumed convergent)

(2 p)!

Putting m = 1,» = 0,and m = 1,» = 1, in (5.3), and adding, we have

C5) ed eee Wienke (5.4)

p=0

c+p

200’ () = { [u’ @ +6) —u’ (7 — dl u(r) dr

Hence C”’ (q) = 0.

- We shall next develop Cin a Fourier series. Putting

a 8 C (6) = C (2)

es u() =u)

we have

C 5 c+27 . c+2a7

G@)=e(-9,{ C@d=0,( “i@ ay =0

In the expansion

C(x) == an cos mz

m=1

assumed convergent, the coefficients a,, are given by

c+27 .

ale ‘ C (x) cos mx dx

Introducing the expression for C in terms of u, derived from (5.2), we

get

c+2n (ec+2z7 ;

in dm = { \ u (a + y) u (y) cos max dx dy... (5.5)

oct. 4, 1928 MEIDELL: DAMPING EFFECTS AND EQUILIBRIUM — 451

where

c+2n7

i= [Ce @ a

Assuming that uw (y) can be developed in a Fourier series, let 6, and

Y, be the coefficients of this development, so that

ti (y) =n (24) of n@ar

(8, COS py + y, SIN pYy,........... (5.6)

I M4 8

Now substitute for u (« + y) in (5.4), leaving uw (y) as it stands;

expanding the terms cos (uz + uy) andsin (ux + uy), wesee that in

the integration with respect to x all terms containing sin p x. cos mx, as

well as all terms containing cos ux. cos mz, m + yp, will vanish, while

c+2r7

\\ cos? mz dx =a

Introducing, next, the Fourier development of wu (y) and integrating

with respect to y, we get

aa, =r (6, +7.)

From Parseval’s Theorem”, we have

i 4 8

c+ 27

a= fo w@ ayers Oty

Hence, finally

C() = 2 tm 008 (acca 5D

m=1 Dp

where

An = ea Sie uaitts Pie ate eo wit) OFS wail ewe? “Sys (5.8)

= (6 +7)

8, and y, being defined by (5.6). Since all the a,, are positive, it

follows again that a; + a +.... = C (0) = 1 is the greatest value

122 WHITTAKER and Watson. Modern Analysis, 4 ed., p. 182.

452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 16

that C (6) can assume. Summing up our results concerning C' (6), we

have

Turorem [V. Let u (¢) be an arbitrary periodic function with period

p = 2q, and such that { , u(r) dr = 0. Then the function C (6)

defined by (5.1) is also periodic with period p, and ‘ ; C (8) ds =

If & is an arbitrary positive or negative integer, or zero, C (6) is sym-

metric about all the points 6 = kq, and the first derivative C’ (6)

vanishes at all these points; C (6) attains at the points 6 = kp its

greatest value, viz., unity. The Taylor and the Fourier expan-

sions of C' (6) are given by (5.4) and (5.7), provided these series are

convergent.

This shows that even though the fluctuations of the periodic origina-

tor n (t) be quite arbitrary, the function C (6) which occurs in the

damping coefficient is subject to conditions that put definite restric-

tions on the character of its variation.

It may be seen that cos 27 6/p is a function which satisfies the condi-

tions to which C (6) is subject. |

6. Tor DAMPING COEFFICIENT IN THE PERIODIC CASE

Substituting the Fourier expansion (5.7) in (4.8), we get

D? a 2 Gm bee w (E) COSAmEM e| + Bie (£) sinXnéd | . (64)

where \» = 22 m/p. For convenience, the integration has been

definition » (x) = Oforz < Oanda > 7.

polynomials or parabolic-cylinder functions: Let a and 6 be two

arbitrary constants, and put z = x—a; then

w (1) =o (z +a) =f () = 2 9, (ayia a ieee (6.2)

13 ARNE FisHER. Mathematical Theory of Probabilities, vol. I. The convergence of

this series is discussed in a recent paper by CRAMER, On some classes of series used in

mathematical statistics. Den Sjette Skandinaviske Matematikerkongres i Kébenhavn

pp. 399-425. 1926. See also T. Kamepa, Theory of Generating Functions and its appli-

cation to the theory of probability, Journ. Faculty of Science Imp. Univ. Tokyo, Sec. 1,

1 (1): 1-62. 1925. Proc. Tokyo Math.-Phys. Soc., (2) 8: 262-295, 336-360. 1915. The

Hp» are tabulated by Jorgensen, Underségelser over frequensflader og korrelation, Koben-

havn. 1916. Cf. Whittaker and Watson, Modern Analysis, chap. xvi.

oct. 4,1928 MEIDELL: DAMPING EFFECTS AND EQUILIBRIUM 453

in which

1 =

Roa (2)

biVas NB

ad’

(= Ge @ =(- 07H, (Z)o@

hg :

H, (2) = (- re" Se"

k, =(- af f @ d, (<) Te, se RL Gel (6.3)

the H, being the Hermite polynomials. Substituting (6.2) in the

general term of (6.1), and expanding cos \ (2 + a) andsin \ (z + a),

we see that it is necessary to compute the two integrals

r= cos \ 2° 9, (2) dz

iy ,

K, = { sin \ z° 9, (2) dz

in which for brevity we have written \ =A,. Since g,(z) =(—1)’e,(—2),

we have J2,,1 = K., = 0. Integrating by parts, we have from the

second of (6.4), Ko,41 = —AJ2,. To determine J2,, 2» integrations

by parts of the first of (6.4) give

J (— 1)?d”” ee ite ( 2 ) a

= ___ —_ OS AZ°* CX ie Zz

i bV2x ee .

=.(— 1)’x"’ exp E ue)

hence

_ A 4

K3,41 = (— Itty exp | 9

Using this, we see that the general term of the sum (6.1) will be

i ke, : 2 ky, ; 2 2

[2 eee] | 2, eth Kasi] = exp [- On 84 IB + Ch

454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 16

where

- k 2 a

Bo eS oe =m)

me 2p)!

Ce one Sees

Fi k 2 Nae

Ca (=)

me Te ioe {Eee

The k, have the values given by (6.3); if desired, the k, can also be

expressed in terms of the semi-invariants or the moments of w (2);

the explicit expression for k, for any v in terms of semi-invariants has

been given by Frisch.14

The expression for D is finally

(oe)

D? =" Gy exp (— 2m) (BO CY. a) aa

m=1

where « = 27 b/p, a» being given by (5.8), and B,, and C,, by (6.5).

In numerical work, the arbitrary constants a and 6 would usually

; oc

be disposed of by putting a equal to the mean M = i Ew(E)dE,

and b equal to the standard deviation o2 = \ (§ — M)? w (€) dé.

If this be done, k, and hy will vanish in (6.5).

Since all the a,, in (6.6) are positive, anda, +a, +.... = 1,wehave

where Q is the maximum of

Qn = exp (— cm?) + (BP +C)

for positive integral values of m. Hence we have the interesting

TuroreM V. The limit (6.7) for D? involves the period p, but other-

wise is completely independent of the originator. In particular, the

magnitude of the fluctuations of the originator does not influence the

limit of the damping coefficient if the originator is periodic with pe-

riod p.

If, for instance, the distribution function (i.e., the normalized

distributor) is the normal, or Gaussian, error function, we have B,, = 1

14 RaGnar Frisco. Sur les semi-invariants et moments employés dans l’étude des

distributions statistiques. Skrifter utgitt av Det Norske Videnskaps Akademi, 1926: 23.

Oslo.

——e eS x

——— Oe

oct. 4, 1928 BERRY: PALM FRUIT FROM MIOCENE 455

and C,, = 0; hence Q = exp [—4(zoc/p)*], where oc is the standard

deviation of the normal error function which represents the normalized

distributor. Consequently

D < exp | - 2 (=) PASH ION JS (6.8)

We therefore have

THEOREM VI. If the originator is periodic with period p, and the

distributor is a normal error function with standard deviation co, the

damping coefficient is not greater than exp [ —2 (aa/p)?].

In other words, the ratio of « and p hassuch a powerful influence on

the magnitude of the fluctuations in the resultant that when the

ratio o/p becomes small a practically perfect equilibrium—in the

sense of a small value for D—will be brought about, regardless of

the magnitude of the fluctuations in the originator. The damping

effect is such that, e.g., if ¢ = p, the value of D is less than 3.10-°.

In such eases, it will rarely ever be necessary for practical purposes

to take into account the fluctuations of the originator—the resultant

may, under such circumstances, be computed as if the originator were

constant and equal to its actual mean value.

In view of Theorem V, the extremely low value of D found in the

type of case just considered renders it reasonable to expect that a

heavy damping will likewise take place when additional terms of the

expansion (6.2) have to be taken into account. In each special case,

the exact criteria have to be derived from (4.8) or (6.6) — (6.8); and

the computed value of D has, of course, always to be viewed in relation

to the nature of the particular problem under consideration.

It may be expected that a closer study of the more general cases,

when the underlying trend is not constant, would reveal, in substance,

the same characteristic features in the damping effect.

PALEOBOTAN Y—A palm fruit from the M iocene of western Panama.!

Epwarp W. Berry, The Johns Hopkins University.

The Tertiary flora of Central America is very incompletely known

so that considerable interest attaches to any additions that can be

made to our knowledge of it. The palm fruit described below is such

an addition. Unfortunately it has not been possible to assign this

1 Received May 26, 1928.

456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 16

fruit to an existing genus, but in extenuation it may be mentioned that

- not only are the recent palms of that region very incompletely known,

but the majority are not represented by fruits in existing collections.

Twenty-two genera of palms are enumerated in Standley’s Flora of

the Canal Zone,? but all of these except the genera Acanthorhiza and

Geonoma are quite different from the fossil, and there must be many

species and even genera in Central America as a whole which remain

undiscovered. 3

The present fossil is referred to the form genus Palmocarpon, and

may be described as follows: :

Palmocarpon geonomoides Berry, n. sp. (see fig. 1)

Fruit small, symmetrical, nut-like, nearly spherical—being 18.5 millimeters

long and 17 millimeters in diameter. Lacking a raphe or any trace of a

tripartite division, or of the basal pores of the

cocoid palms. Fibres simple and flat, parallel with

one another to the extreme base, not over 1.25 milli-

meters in maximum width, continuous from the base

to within a millimeter or two of the apex, where their

acute points are slightly raised as if free tipped

in life; united by their edges to form a pseudo-shell.

The single specimen is a sandstone cast with

2 avery slight film of carbonaceous matter in

Fig. 1.—Palmocarpon places. The general form is simulated in ex-

geonomoides Berry, n.Sp:, isting species of Oenocarpus, Geonoma, Acan-

Miocene of western Pan- : ‘

wa thorhiza, etc., and the fibres suggest comparisons

with existing species of Rhopalostylis and the

outer coat of Astrocaryum. The fibres are, however, more regular

than in Astrocaryum, especially toward the base, pores are lacking, -

and there is no trace of an inner fibrous layer which could hardly

have disappeared during fossilization. Nor does it seem possible

that’ the surface in life could have had several layers of imbricated

lanceolate flat fibres without some trace of them having remained on

the fossil. The fact that the specimen is fully inflated and perfectly

round in transverse profile shows that it did not grow in a crowded

inflorescence.

Because of the uncertainties of a positive generic identification and

the lack of adequate recent comparative material it is referred to the

form genus Palmocarpon instituted by Lesquereux in 1878 for palm

fruits of uncertain generic affinities, the specific name being indicative

2SranDLEy, P.C. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 27: 93-100. 1928.

a ee eT ee

oct. 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 457

of my opinion that it belongs to the tribe Geonomeae. The specimen

comes from half a mile northwest of Zembrano, Province of Chiriqui,

in western Panama, and was collected by James Terry Duce, and

presented to the National Museum by T. D. A. Cockerell (U.S. N. M.

no. 37193). It is labelled as having come from the Uscari formation,

which on the Caribbean side of the Isthmus lies beneath the Gatun

formation, but which has not been definitely recognized in Chiriqui

Province. The age is undoubtedly Miocene.

Silicified palm wood was described by the writer? in 1918 from the

Cucuracha formation (Oligocene) in the Gaillard Cut; and an Iriartea-

like fruit was described‘ from the Gatun formation one and a half

miles northeast of Gatun in 1921. These with the foregoing comprise

all that is at present known of the Tertiary palms of Panama. No

palms were represented in the small Tertiary florule described from

Costa Riea in 1921,° but palm rays are not uncommon in collections

from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico.®

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

972D MEETING

The 972d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club March 17, 1928.

Program: F. L. Mouutr: Recombination of atomic ions and electrons.

Spectra result from recombination of atomic ions and electrons. When a

thermionic discharge tube designed to favor high concentration of ions was

operated in caesium vapor with relatively high current and low voltage,

continuous bands appeared at the limits of each series, in general agreement

with theoretical predictions. Electrical measurements of discharge condi-

tions have been made by the Langmuir probe wire method. ‘The current

voltage curves to the probes show that the electron velocities have a strictly

random or temperature distribution with very low average speeds ranging

between 0.2 and 0.3 volts. The ion concentration is of the order of 101* per

cc. On the basis of data on the intensity distribution beyond a limit and the

electron velocity distribution one can compute the chance of recombination of

an electron into the corresponding energy level as a function of the electron

speed. This probability decreases very rapidly as the speed increases.

From this can also be derived the probability of absorption of an atom in this

state. The continuous emission bands beyond the 2P and 3D limits of

caesium give similar absorption curves which drop rapidly from the limit to

? Berry, EpwarpW. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 103: 24. 1918.

‘Berry, EpwarpW. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 59: 21-22. 1921.

5 Berry, Epwarp W. Idem. 169-185.

6‘ Berry, Epwarp W. Idem. 62 (Art. 19): 4, pl. 6, fig. 4. 1923.

458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 16

higher frequency. The form of curve is apparently quite different from the

theoretical, which decreases approximately as the 4th power of the wave

length. It resembles the curve for the 18 state derived by Foote and Mohler

from photoionization measurements. (Author’s abstract.)

R. M. Lancer: Dispersion and quantum theory. ‘The interaction between

radiation and matter can be expressed in terms of a property of the atom,

namely the electric moment. ‘The expressions for the rate of emission and

absorption of light were given and discussed. The connection with the

duration of emission or life of an atom in the excited state was mentioned.

The relation between electric moment and absorption coefficients as well as

refractive index was pointed out. Slides were shown of experimental results

which proved that the positions of anomalous dispersion, absorption and

emission were identical. This fact was decidedly in disagreement with the

picture of the atom developed by Bohr and the discrepancy was one of the

chief sources of dissatisfaction with this older form of quantum theory. The

new quantum mechanics gives rise to a picture of the atom in which there is a

movement of charge which matches in frequency the light given out, or

absorbed. The positions of anomalous dispersion are then those to be

expected from general electromagnetic theory and coincide as, found in

experiment with the absorption lines. We can therefore have more faith in

the new model of the atom given by Schrodinger and it becomes interesting

to calculate some of its properties. ‘The distribution of charge in normal

hydrogen was computed and a section of it was portrayed as the concentration

of white dots on a black background. ‘The atom looked like a spherical

globule of charge with density decreasing gradually from the center outwards.

The sphere with radius equal to the radius of the atom on the Bohr picture

contained only half the charge. ‘The considerable concentration outside this

radius gives the impression of stray fields and fits in with our notions of the

chemical notions of hydrogen. The excited state of hydrogen 2S was shown

on a similar slide. It is also spherically symmetrical but the charge is not so

concentrated, and is distributed as a diffuse shell concentric with the inner

globule. In general S states of quantum number n would have n shells.

The lithium atom is similar to 28 hydrogen, the sodium atom to 3S hydrogen,

and so on. Normal helium was also shown and contrasted with hydrogen.

The density at the center is very much higher but diminishes much more

rapidly with radius so that practically all of the double electronic charge is

within 10—* cm. of the nucleus. This means there is very little stray field as

we should expect from the fact that helium is an inert gas. The helium

structure is characteristic of the outer shell of the elements of the second

column of the periodic table, e.g., Hg and Cd. Another property which can

be calculated with the help of the quantum mechanics is the atomic absorption

coefficient. The total absorption of many molecules will involve an integra-

tion and not a simple multiplication by the number of molecules.

The mean life can also be computed and for the atom in the second quantum

state has a value of about 1.58 & 10-*%seconds. (Avuthor’s abstract.)

973D MEETING

The 973d meeting was_ held at the Cosmos Club March 31, 1928.

Program: C. J. Davisson: Reflection and diffraction of electrons by a

crystal of nickel. It has been found in recent experiments by the writer and

oct. 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 459

Dr. L. H. Germer that a stream of electrons is regularly reflected from a face

of a nickel erystal. This phenomenon could be understood if electrons were

waves, but is incomprehensible in terms of atoms and electrons and their

interactions as we have pictured them. Reflection is not observed from a

polycrystalline target, which suggests that if electrons are waves, their

wave-lengths, like those of x-rays, must be comparable with the distances

between atoms in solids. The reflection from the crystal is selective in speed

of bombardment; intensity maxima occur at nearly equal intervals in this

variable. This would be comprehensible if electrons were waves of wave-

length inversely proportional to their speed. These results suggest by

analogy with x-ray phenomena, that electrons will be regularly reflected also

from sets of atom planes which do not lie parallel to the surface of the erystal.

Beams of electrons of this type are found issuing from the erystal at

critical speeds of bombardment, but their directions are not those of regular

reflection from the principal atom planes. The difference between x-ray and

electron diffraction in this respect is due apparently to a difference in the

refractivity of nickel for the two kinds of radiation. It is shown that if this

is the case the wave-length of the diffraction beam will nevertheless satisfy

the plane grating formula with respect to the atomic plane grating lying

parallel to the crystal face—files of atoms serving as the lines of a grating.

This formula which does not involve the refractive index of the crystal is used

to calculate electron wave-lengths,and all values so found agree, within the

limits of accuracy of the measurements, with the corresponding values of

h/mv—Planck’s constant of action divided by the momentum of the incident

electron. They agree, that is, with the wave-length associated with a freely

moving particle in the undulatory mechanics introduced by L. de Broglie.

The regularly reflected beams cannot be used for calculating wave-lengths.

The Bragg formula cannot be used because the refractive index of the erystal

is not unity, and the plane grating formula cannot be used because the beams

are of order zero. Assuming h/mv to be the wave-length of the incident

beam the data of regular reflection may, however, be used to calculate indices

of refraction. When this is done it is found that the index of refraction of

nickel for electrons decreases from about 1.15 to 1.01 as the bombarding

potential is increased from 60 to 600 volts. (Author’s abstract.)

H. L. Curtis in an informal communication called attention to the close

agreement between the recently measured velocity of light and value of the

ohm, and the calculations of Rosa and Dorsey twenty-one years ago based

upon their measurements of the ratio between the electromagnetic and electro-

static units of electricity.

974TH MEETING

The 974th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 14, 1928.

Program: L. W. Kepuart: Plant hunting through East Africa.

H. E. Merwin, Recording Secretary

460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 16

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

In connection with the Thirteenth Annual Meeting of the Optical Society

of America an exhibition of optical instruments, apparatus and products will

be held under the joint auspices of the Bureau of Standards and the Optical

Society, from October 31 to November 3.

Dr. A. 8. Hitcucock has returned from Newfoundland and Labrador,

where he has been studying and collecting grasses. In Newfoundland he

collected at Port-aux-Basques, St. Georges, Corner Brook, Little Harbor,

Grand Falls, and St. Johns, and in Labrador at Battle Harbor and Cartwright.

Dr. C. G. ABBot, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, returned to

Washington on September 23 after a successful expedition to Mount Wilson,

California. Bolometric observations of the infra-red solar spectra and radio-

metric observations of the spectra of many stars formed his principal work.

The results, which have not yet been fully worked up, appear to be very

gratifying.

Mr. M. W. Streuine, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, attended

the meeting in New York City of the XXIII Session of the International -

Congress of Americanists, which convened on Monday, September17. Mr.

Stirling was appointed by the State Department to represent the United

States Government at the Congress. He returned to Washington Septem-

ber 24.

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VoL. 18 OcToBER 19, 1928 No. 17

GEOPHYSICS.—Evaporation from large bodies of water and ‘some

figures for Chesapeake Bay.1 Roamr C. Watts, U. 8. Geological

Survey.

The subject of evaporation may be considered on several different

scales. For the earth as a whole it is obvious that the total evapora-

tion must very nearly equal the total precipitation. Both processes

take place to a much greater extent in warm than in cold regions,

however. In comparing large land and water areas in the same lati-

tude it appears that in the water areas evaporation must exceed

precipitation slightly, the excess moisture passing in the atmosphere

to the land, whereas in most land areas precipitation is in excess, in

spite of the increased surface offered by foliage and vegetation, and

the excess water precipitated returns through lakes and rivers to the

ocean.

Data on rainfall are much more abundant than data on evaporation,

yet in theory the two processes are complementary, and even practical

considerations would seem to warrant further scrutiny of the phenom-

ena of evaporation.

Numerous formulas have been proposed for computing evaporation

from the humidity of the air,? but when any particular humidity has

been specified that near the surface of the water has generally been

used. Unfortunately these formulas are of little use for computing

1 Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Survey.

Received August 6, 1928.

2G. J. Livinaston, Mon. Weath. Rev. 1908 and 1909. Humpureys, Physics of the

Air, p. 249. Duryea and Harent, Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Engr., 80: 1829. 1916. Hor-

TON and Grunsky, Hydrology of the Great Lakes. Engineering Board of Review of the

sanitary district of Chicago, Pt. III, Appendix II. 1927.

461

462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

evaporation from most natural bodies of water, either because no

weather station is located near by with available records, or, as may

be the case, the humidity at the weather station is different from that

at the lake or other body of water. The variation of humidity with

altitude has been very little studied, so that extrapolation to distant

points is rather uncertain.

Formulas of the kind referred to are nearly all modifications of the

so-called Dalton equation, but it may be noted in passing that a differ-

ent line of attack is offered by Cummings and Richardson? in an equa-

tion in which evaporation depends on the “‘heat budget”’ of a unit area

of the water, but this method also must rely, apparently, on tests with

pans and observations at the localities under study.

The relative humidity at the surface of a natural body of water

must be very close to 100 per cent, and similarly the absolute humidity

at high altitudes where the temperature falls below the freezing point

must be very low. But what is the average distribution of moisture

or vapor-pressure gradient between these two extremes?

The gradient is certainly not linear. It must resemble the concen-

tration gradient of a dissolved salt in diffusion experiments. ‘True

diffusion of the water molecules through the air from the water sur-

face will account for the rate of natural evaporation only when that

may prove to be the slowest feature of the process. Now moist air

is lighter than dry air, so that convection currents are set up, and an

entirely different rate of transfer is developed. Winds assist in causing

some vertical transfer in a way that G. I. Taylor has attempted to

cover by the concept of ‘‘eddy diffusion,’”’® in which the “diffusion

constant” remains to be evaluated and may possibly be a function of

the altitude or some other factors.

Some observations of the vapor-pressure gradient were made by

Professor Bigelow at the Reno reservoir, Nevada, in 1907.6 ‘The data

referring to tower No. 3, which was located near the middle of the

reservoir, are of greatest interest. Each of his figures is an average of

a week’s daily observations of the partial vapor pressure of the mois-

ture in the air, p’(=ea), at different hours of the day. In Table I

are shown the averages of two weeks’ observations. The figures for

zero altitude show the vapor pressure of water at its temperature at

s“PhygKevso0: S277 1027

4H.8. Tayzor, Physical Chemistry, p. 933.

Phil, rans (| Z2Eb ei. . 195:

6 Mon. Weath. Rev. 36: 28. 1908.

ocT. 19, 1928 WELLS: EVAPORATION 463

TABLE I.—Varor Pressure, p’, ABOVE THE SURFACE OF RENO RESERVOIR, AUGUST

1-10, 12-17, 1907

p’ in mm. of mercury

Height Sam ep a 2 OS iene

la.m 5a.m 8 a.m 11 a.m. 2 p.m 5 p.m 8 p.m

45 feet 5.9 6.0 7.2 Feat 6.2 6.4 5.8

35 5.9 6.0 7.4 €.2 OFT tT el 5.6

25 6.2 6.1 6.6 6.7 6.9 6.1 5.9

15 7.1 6.3 7.6 7.0 Yea! 6.7 6.3

7 7.5 6.7 7.5 7.8 8.2 7.5 6.9

2 7.8 6.8 row | 8.1 8.1 7.9 6.9

0.5 inch 11.0 Sy4 10.0 11.8 14.4 12.6 9.7

0 15.3 14.6 15.2 18.6 20.3 18.1 15.2

Diminution of vapor pressure with the altitude expressed as percentage of the difference

between the pressure at 0 and 45 feet altitude

‘ 45 feet | 100 100 100 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100

5 35 100 100 | 98 99 98 102 102 100

| 25 97 99 107 104 95 102 99 103

15 87 97 95 101 94 97 95 95

7 83 92 96 94 86 91 88 90

2 S0 91 94 91 86 87 88 88

0.5 inch 46 64 65 59 42 47 59 55

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

: the time of observation. As the air above the water was never satur-

ated its temperature does not concern us here. The change of the

diffusion constant with temperature is very small for water vapor.

Unfortunately figures for the wind velocities corresponding to the

vapor pressures shown in Table I are not given in Bigelow’s paper.

He says, however, ‘‘In the forenoon it is calm until about 10 o’clock,

when a breeze begins in the southeast, increasing in strength up to 30

or 40 kilometers per hour on many afternoons.” The average velocity

at the surface of the water for all winds ranging between 20 and 40

kilometers is given as 28 kilometers for the period 2 to 5 p.m. The

actual velocity of the wind for any particular period is not stated.

The influence of the wind can perhaps be seen in the humidity.

The highest absolute humidity at heights from 15 to 45 feet occurs

at 8 a.m. In the afternoon, when the breeze has sprung up, the

humidity at these heights is lower in spite of the fact that the humidity

at the surface of the water is much higher.

As Table I and figure 1 show, the vertical vapor-pressure gradient

is very steep indeed immediately above the surface of the water.

464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

Over 50 per cent of the diminution observed at 45 feet is found in the

first half inch above the water. At a height of 2 feet we have simi-

larly 88 per cent as an average of the figures for the seven periods.

The diminution at heights above 45 feet must go on slowly though

doubtless with considerable irregularity. Further data obtained by

Bigelow at the Salton Sea, California,’ 7500 feet from the shore, show

a vapor pressure gradient that is slightly steeper but otherwise similar

to the one found at the Reno reservoir. ‘The values plotted in figure

1 are the means of the percentages given in Table I.

For the purpose of developing a formula for evaporation in terms of

the humidity of the air it would seem that the humidity at an alti-

tude of at least 1 foot, or perhaps best that

at 2 feet, should be used, on account of

the more steady relation it holds both to

the vapor pressure of the water and to

the partial vapor pressure at higher alti-

tudes.

One form of the Dalton equation is

H=2(-p)Q+e) (0)

in which # is the evaporation in centi-

meters per hour, 6 the barometer in milli-

meters of mercury, p the vapor pressure

of the water evaporating and p’ the partial

pressure of moisture in the air, both in

millimeters of mercury, w the velocity of

100 80 60 40 20 0 7 the wind in kilometers per hour, and & and

Fic. 1.—Vapor pressure-gra- c constants.

dient, Tower No. 3, Reno Res- The writer has derived values for & and

ervoir, Nevada, according to ; . jl

Tiwalog fejabdensanvend in, 1907,..° from some of Bigelow’s data shown in

Table II. Here p’ is the vapor pressure

of moisture in the air determined with a sling psychrometer 1 or 2

feet above the water surface. The figures are averages grouped

according to different values of the velocity of the wind.

On plotting

, against w it is seen that the values fall into three

groups and are rather discordant. A graphic linear solution for

7 Mon. Weath. Rev. 38: 310. 1910.

———- ~~ —

oct. 19, 1928 WELLS: EVAPORATION 465

TABLE II.—BIcetow’s RESuLTs ON EVAPORATION FROM A 6-FOOT TANK FLOATED IN

THE MIDDLE OF THE RENO RESERVOIR (TOWER 3, PAN 1)

Wind Temp. of water | Vap. Pr. of water tc Lope ul PP" Evaporation

Km. per hr. 7G. Cm. per hr.

1 15.3 13.0 6.7 6.3 0.033

2 16.1 13.7 6.6 ral .035

2 16.7 14.3 7.0 7.3 .032

2 17.2 14.7 7.0 ets .037

4 19.7 17.2 7.5 9.7 .040

+ 18.3 15.8 7.0 8.8 .042

6 21.3 19,0 i.3 11.7 .047

6 20.0 17.5 Gv 10.5 .047

13 17.6 15.1 7.3 7.8 .043

13 17.8 15.3 8.8 6.5 .039

14 18.0 15.5 8.7 6.8 .039

14 17.5 15.0 6.5 8.5 .046

15 18.0 15.5 6.5 9.0 .055

16 19.2 16.7 6.7 10.0 .051

17 21.2 18.9 7.8 tas h .061

17 20.2 17.8 7.3 10.5 .059

21 17.0 14.5 9.3 9.2 .044

22 16.9 14.4 5.4 9.0 .049

22 17.6 15.1 6.6 8.5 .044

24 16.7 14.3 5.7 8.6 .052

25 18.4 15.9 6.3 9.6 .059

26 17.0 14.5 6.3 8.2 .061

27 20.2 17.8 ‘a 10.7 -069

28 19.3 16.8 7.6 9.2 .068

Shien w = 0 gives = 0.0044, whence, as B = 658 for Reno,

alec

k = 2.90 and c = 0.018, or = = 0.0038 for a barometer of 760 mm.

When equation (1) was applied with these constants to test some

evaporation records for 6-foot pans sunk in the ground at several

localities® the calculated results were generally too high for the higher

temperatures and too low for the lower temperatures, with wide individ-

ual variations, ranging from 77 to 217 per cent of the observed evap-

oration. It is clear either that the Dalton equation is of little value

or that some factors of these records with pans have not been correctly

determined. On the assumption that the latter alternative may be

the correct one an attempt has been made to apply the equation to

8 Horton, Mon. Weath. Rev. 49: 553. 1921.

466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

compute the annual evaporation from Chesapeake Bay from data

available in the Weather Bureau records for Baltimore and Norfolk.

Even if the result is only approximate, it may serve to induce further

study of the problem, or calculations by others by other methods.

The steps of procedure are as follows.

We have the mean monthly temperature and humidity for 37 years

at Baltimore and Norfolk. These figures are first interpolated slightly

in order to obtain figures corresponding to the upper half and the

lower half of the bay, by adding 28 per cent of their difference to the

Baltimore readings and subtracting 21 per cent of their difference

from the Norfolk readings. The water and air temperatures were

considered to be the same. ‘The vapor pressure of water at each

temperature is corrected very slightly, only 0.7 and 1.0 per cent for

the upper half and lower half of the bay, respectively, for the salinity

of the water, giving po,,.. The instruments at Baltimore and Nor-

folk are about 100 feet and 170 feet respectively above the level of

the bay, so that the interpolated humidity of these heights, p,, should

be increased to correspond with an altitude of 1 or 2 feet above the |

water. It is difficult to decide just how great this increase should

be. On the basis of the curve in figure 1, and allowing slightly for the

greater altitude of the instruments a figure of 87 per cent of the differ-

ence Poor.— Px» has been used to reduce the available data on humid-

ity to an altitude of 2 feet above the water. This gives the figures in

Table III.

TABLE III.—Hvumipity

Observed Computed for 2 feet above water

Month

Baltimore Norfolk Ree L oe if

FAmaea4r yee FS RAAT. ORAS 71 ris. 75 77

Hee Waty tops beer deen ak dbs cert oo 68 75 74 cere

Weare tani sei saan cords. weak 3c 67 74 2 77

SAGES ioe. eee eo es 62 72 70 74

IWhaty etek SSE Lede eee tu ote c 65 74 a2 75

MINE 25 ohn ore: dee Ub Ce oa Be: 68 rie 75 79

SUE is ep a Ae a ett 69 79 76 80

PAVESI E ee cl osha ce Seas ee 72 80 Vics 81

September’ (fh 7 0) 024 eae, aes 73 80 78 81

Octoberzi. eet ees athe RR es 7G 78 76 80

No Vein oer i. obs code er ee, ae 69 74 74 76

December gon) ss huce ce eee ee 70 75 74 76

oct. 19, 1928 WELLS: EVAPORATION 467

TABLE IV.—EVAPORATION FROM CHESAPEAKE Bay

Mean |

eat cel p (cor.) p’ | p-p’ w $oye E

ture

Northern half

; °C Mm. | Mm. Be ee ce ee

9 ee eee 2.1 5.3 4.0 1.3 8.1 | 0.0057 4.3

BEIT ok crepstesaw. 6 e este’ 3.0 5.7 4.2 Leo 8.7 .0066 4.4

A is Bae cs 6.6 te gee 1.9 8.0 .0082 6.1

PE Se ee ee ee 12.3 10.6 0.5 ee | 9.3 .0138 9.9

ee eee 18.3 15.7 11.4 4.3 8.0 .0186 | 13.9

: Beno iG. 2b. 1o.06 (st SEC 2398 i207 Ap 18.6 5.1 TB ASs, O29i} (45 8

a ee ae: eee 25.4 24.1 18.4 ey | €:0 .0244 18.4

oo SE eS eee 24.5 22.9 1”.9 5.0 6.7 O212 "| 15.8

MEMLCIIDET og. ee 20.9 18.4 14.5 3.9 6.3 .0164 | 11.8

Seeretie LS. LOT TY 2. 15.2 12.9 9.9 3.0 ice :0128 9.6

. Maveniher: 2:4. Svado. .< 8.8 8.4 6.3 Bede's pet iat .0089 6.4

USS ee ee 3.6 5.8 4.4 1.4 Th .0060 4.5

120.9

Total annual evaporation = 48 inches

Southern half

Morea 2. 16: cla). ove yo 4.0 6.0 4.7 1.3 10.6 | 0.0059 4.4

} SS ae oe 5.0 6.4 5.0 1.4 10:3 .0063 4.2

; MEAS tee sce oes Bemis teria wiseih be: bo saOSA b Ga

; 1 TN RA cote UA eee ie 8 eB! 11.4 8.5 2.9 11.1 .Q132 9.5

Meer EGS Ti asia ls 18.8 16.1 12.3 3.8 9.3 .0169 | 12.6

vse EA een 23.3 21.3 16.8 4.5 8.3 .0197 | 14.2

SE eee po coer 25.2 23.8 19.2 4.6 8.3 0201 | 15:0

ROI ae ee 25.0 23.6 19.2 4.4 8.0 .0191 | 14.3

September... 2... 2.6... 21.6 19.2 15.8 3.4 rae .0146 | 10.5

CMIWEELE bt iia's rac yptart | 16.4 13.9 L122 Due 9.0 .0119 8.9

PURER Fo, ca’ aan o 10.2 9.2 ae 2.2 9.1 .0093 CT f

ROI boon oi as we 5.0 6.7 5.2 £5 9.5 }O00c |). 0

111.4

Total annual evaporation = 44 inches

The anemometers at Baltimore and Norfolk are respectively 113

feet and 205 feet above the ground. Bigelow found a uniform rise

F - jn wind velocity over the Reno reservoir of 0.66 per cent per foot of

| altitude. This rate was used up to 25 feet. Above 25 feet the varia-

tion was calculated by the Stevenson formula, quoted by Humphreys,

so that, as a result, the Baltimore and Norfolk wind observations were

reduced by 37 per cent and 49 per cent respectively, in order to repre-

468 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

sent wind velocities at the surface of the bay. The figures given in

the tables were obtained by reduction from observations for 1907,

1908, 1920, and 1921. For the earlier years the anemometer altitudes

were different.

Table IV is calculated by equation (1) for the special case in which

p is the vapor pressure corrected for salinity and p’ is the partial vapor

pressure derived for the humidities of Table III corresponding to a

height of about 2 feet above the surface of the water. It is easily

seen that ;

pp = 0.87 (peg.= Pr)

The final result in Table IV is an annual evaporation of 46 inches

(which happens to be almost exactly equal to the rainfall, 45 inches).

The evaporation calculated by using the humidity observed at the

Weather Bureau stations directly, without any correction for altitude,

is 538 inches. This is probably too large. On the other hand, if the

vapor-pressure gradient for the upper part of the curve is taken to be

twice as steep as that used, an improbable assumption, the result is

38 inches. ‘These results indicate for one thing the need of further

study of the vapor-pressure gradient above natural bodies of water,

although, as has been stated, there may still be fundamental errors in

the Dalton equation, or even in the Reno data from which the con-

stants were derived. However, the results are of the same order as

some actual measurements of evaporation from large stretches of water

near Arles, France, 15 miles from the shore of the Mediterranean, with

about the same mean annual temperature.®

SUMMARY

Some new constants have been derived for the Dalton equation for

evaporation, to be used for large bodies of water when the humidity

at a point 1 or 2 feet above the water, the temperature, and the velocity

of the wind can be obtained or calculated from available data. Ap-

plied to Chesapeake Bay the formula gives an annual evaporation of

46 inches.

*Huety, Ingénieur en Chef, Ponts et Chaussées, Chaumont (Haute-Marne),

France. Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Eng. 80: 1994. 1916.

oct. 19,1928 | HARPER: UNIT OF THERMAL RESISTANCE 469

PHYSICS.—U nit of. thermal resistance: the ‘‘fourter.”"! D. RoBERTS

HARPER 3D, Union College, Schenectady, N. Y.

The proposal is advanced to assign to the practical metric unit of thermal resistance

the name ‘‘fourier,’’ in honor of the foremost contributor to the theory of thermal con-

duction. The absolute unit of energy, the erg, being too small for many purposes, the

joule is regarded by the author as the practical metric unit of energy, and the watt for

rate of energy transfer.

Accordingly the fourier is defined as that thermal resistance which will transfer heat

energy at the rate of one joule per second (one watt) for each degree (Centigrade) tem-

perature difference between its terminal surfaces.

The “‘laboratory fourier’ may be visualized as a prism of silver or copper about 4cm.

long and 1 cm?. cross section.

The paper outlines briefly the psychological reasons for naming some elementary

units in each branch of physics, and discusses various possible choices of metric and

English units for heat transfer problems.

Two tables are given; one, the author’s estimate of the most suitable values to use for

thermal resistivities of about 30 common materials; the other, a conversion table be-

tween 9 of the units of heat transfer per unit area, common in the literature of today.

The Ohm-Fourier law is, in its application to electrical quantities,

familiar to every schoolboy who has taken a course in physics. In

the application to thermal problems, it is not so generally recognized,

and more or less haze surrounds the concepts involved in heat-con-

duction calculations. Would not the psychologist locate one of the

reasons for this in a lack of definite names for the thermal units?

When a high school student first learns that “‘amperes are volts

divided by ohms,” he is generally learning words only, and has scant

understanding of the fundamental concepts, but nevertheless he very

soon acquires a sufficient grasp of elements to make correct calcula-

tions in a surprisingly large percentage of the problems which come

to him. The familiarity gained with these three terms seems to lay

a foundation that assists greatly in his more advanced studies, when

developing the philosophy of electrical relations and determining the

logical order in which units must be defined. Would the same result

be secured if we had no term ‘‘volt,’’ but only a phrase ‘‘work per

unit quantity of electricity,’’ or if instead of the single term ‘“‘ampere”’

we had a dozen or so of expressions, each nameless, for rate of transfer

of electric quantity? There is more to it than mere clumsiness of

language. Not alone is one’s vocabulary impoverished and the ease

of expressing ideas hampered by lack of names; ideas themselves are

by no means so clear when no name can be associated in the mental

process. Every laboratory student in physics and engineering early

gets a rather definite visualization of, let us say, 1000 ohms, a megohm,

1 Received August 10, 1928.

470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

afew microhms. Few amongst even mature workers have any such

concrete mental picture of thermal resistance.

There will be a distinct advance in the understanding of ihe ele-

ments of problems in thermal conduction, if physicists and engineers

can agree upon the use of a few primary units in which to express

relations, and will give those units names. Sporadic attempts to do

so have been noted in the literature. Dr. Hering’s proposal for a

temporary use of the term “thermal ohm”’ pending selection of a more

permanent convention, is an example.

For the thermal ‘“‘difference of potential’’ we have well recognized,

universally adopted units, the degree Centigrade and degree Fahrenheit,

and nothing further needs to be said regarding this quantity.

For the measure of rate of transfer of quantity of heat, correspond-

ing to current in electrical parlance, the literature isnot so well off.

Instead of a single unit like the ampere, which everyone may be

expected to use, we find many in fairly common use. It happens that,

because of the extended areas through which heat transfer takes place

in so many of the practical problems, it is much more usual to calculate

in terms of heat flow per unit area than in terms of total heat flow.

Interest centers, thus, on the analog of current density, pet per

unit area, rather than just amperes.

' In Table I are collected nine of the units for current density of Re

transfer which are in most common use. To assign names to all of

these would confuse things far worse than they are at present. It

would be absurd to burden a memory with the effort to recall which

definition went with which name, and to recite its definition every

time you use a name is cumbersome. ‘To select some unit or units

from the nine, for a christening, is a task which the author prefers to

dodge. The advocates for each unit which is tabulated could marshal

plausible reasons for not retiring it too far into the background, al-

though probably not all of the combinations present equal claims to

precedence as a primary unit. Any committee or individual who

essays such selection will have no mean task.

In the metric units, the author inclines very strongly toward em-

phasis upon the watt as the unit for measuring rate of heat flow, in

preference to calories per second or kilocalories per hour. Modern

physics is inseparably associated with the concept of heat as identical

with energy, and the erg is the natural unit for both if it is for the

one. The multiplier, 107 (ergs to joules), is invariant, but the multi-

plier 4.18 x 10” (ergs to calories) rests upon experiment and has to be

471

UNIT OF THERMAL RESISTANCE

HARPER

oct. 19, 1928

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472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

redefined every time a more accurate experiment on mechanical equiva-

lent of heat is recognized. |

There has always been a considerable confusion between the gram

calorie and the kilogram calorie and, for exact work, between 20°

calories, 15° calories, mean calories, etc. Although there are stand-

ardization movements on foot which are gradually lessening this

confusion, the simplest way of reaching international agreement is

the gradual discard of all calories in favor of the absolute joule, re-

garding which no differences of definition can arise. Most calorim-

eters are standardized today primarily by electric heating, so that

their basis of reference is really the electric joule, and not the calorie

at all. 3

For heat transfer work let us adopt, in the metric system, the watt

per cm?. as the primary unit for heat flow per unit area, in other words,

the watt as the unit of rate of heat transfer, the ‘‘current.’”’ As this

unit already has a name, no new proposal is involved in regard to

naming it.

The unit of thermal resistance in the metric system will then be one

degree Centigrade per watt, which needs a name. The physicist

whose name is always associated with the subject of heat conduction

is Fourier, and if his name is to be given to any unit it would seem

most appropriate that this unit be one of those fundamentally involved

in the transfer of heat by conduction. The logical one is the metric

unit of thermal resistance.

The fourter will thus be visualized as that resistance between two

isolated surfaces, one degree Centigrade different in temperature,

which makes the rate of heat transfer one watt (107 ergs per second).

It happens that the thermal properties of an average brass at room

temperatures are such as to give us a concrete model in terms of a

slab 1 em. thick. Such a slab with a temperature difference of 1°C.

between the faces has a heat flow of 1 watt per cm?. of area, so that its

resistance is 1 fourier for each cm?. of cross section.

Silver and copper have approximately four times the thermal con-

ductivity of brass, or one-fourth the resistivity, so that we picture the

fourier in terms of these metals by noting that a slab of 1 cm. thick-

ness has a resistance per cm?. cross section of about 1/4 of a fourier,

or a slab 4 em. thick secures a resistance of 1 fourier per cm?.

To make a laboratory fourier, we might cut a right prism of copper

1 cm?. in cross section (the prism may be circular, square, or any other

shape) and about 4 em. long. The model is just as definite as is

(approximately) 60 meters of copper wire 1 mm?. in cross-section for

ocr. 19, 1928 HARPER: UNIT OF THERMAL RESISTANCE 473

anelectricalohm. The difference as regards laboratory use of the two

pieces of apparatus is, of course, that the wire ohm requires few pre-

cautions to keep electric current from “leaking off the sides,’’ while

the metal fourier needs some auxiliaries to keep the heat flow axial.

Just as we might make our ohm (in wire of 1 square millimeter sec-

tion) from either 60 meters of copper or about 1 meter of nichrome

alloy so we may visualize our fourier in a variety of ways. In prisms

of 1 square centimeter area, it is 4 cm. length of copper, or 1 cm. of

brass, or about 0.1 mm. of glass, a few microns only of asbestos, or of

cork or of air.

A few approximate values of thermal resistivities are collected in

Table II to illustrate relative orders of magnitude:

It may be noted in passing that while resistivity of a material in-

volves linear dimensions of a unit specimen thereof, resistance does

not involve these (except insofar as a unit of distance is inherently a

part of the definition of an-erg). ‘That is to say, a fourier is defined

when the degree Centigrade and the watt have been specified, and the

user of the unit may, if he likes, combine it with feet or inches instead

of with centimeters, in any computation. ‘The unit should therefore

prove acceptable not only to physicists and chemists, but also to the

large class of engineers, especially electrical engineers, who are accus-

tomed to watts and degrees Centigrade. It will obviously not be

acceptable to those engineers who prefer British thermal units to

watts and Fahrenheit degrees to Centigrade. Instead of the fourier,

the mechanical engineers engaged upon refrigeration problems, boiler

insulation, etec., will want a unit of thermal resistance based on British

measures. The difficulties which will be encountered in selecting one

have been hinted above, in the section devoted to heat current-density.

Common practice among heat insulation engineers in America today

is to base heat transfer computations on the use of a dimensional unit

which is the board foot of the lumber industry. Dimensions in two

codrdinates are taken in feet, and the third codrdinateininches. This

“commercial conductivity’ as it has been named (B.t.u. per hr. per

sq. ft. for rate of heat flow, and °F. per inch for temperature gradient),

while very useful as a secondary unit for computation in many practi-

cal applications, is clearly unsuited to give a primary unit of resistivity.

Any system which measures distances east and west in inches and those

north and south in feet, is fraught with pitfalls. Imagine the mental

gymnastics for a measurement northeast and southwest. In other

words, the moment we attack problems where thermal resistivity is

to be combined with viscosity or velocity or any other physical prop-

474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

TABLE II.—THERMAL RESISTIVITIES aT 20°C. EXPRESSED IN FOURIERS FOR A

CENTIMETER CUBE

Sil Were. 4 bajcte hahsqreieed dy. Heyden cid ih ieee ee eter aren Ae eiet hae hd pea Salinas 0.239

COpDGP a) sj..<aptte Viger sre Ne lc alae cea Ui ot ee ee dee 0.258

BMA e Ua CU ca RR a Ma. eS A Io Fp OMI aU SIN ea mi a 0.49

Brass (80% ‘Zins Fre Me SSE a SE a URE 0.93

ATOM eho e|. Sayts A RR re oT OUR 6 AR ai te ee LEE ara ee are 1.6

IN TCO 8 i aarti aloes Acct old, hen de age Sun IOS aera eae MOR os Bo Ld

ECOL CBG Oca s ce Were ere. wine 4 Alle MR sc Re als SoM IMEC enna? i a ZL

COMSCAMLAN CS eee ee eee oe oe et Oe Oke ee eee ne eee ee 4.4

Miereiiys 1isteee Ha VASES ESATO OR. SEER E AF eee ae 12.0

ee at wOs@ ale: 4... sited densstsyh phish a 0a ts. ie RCN Secs As ic a ae 45

GHARS ire Crue che o:6 iia sk @ plncouukee Bee oiteealn ts Sapa ema I Na cab ita al he tr ee ae 133

OMCTOUC se ete els oun. ee Soe she eel Ree ee ae GR ee anc Ste ce Rene 140

Veber! UN. cess Cities ah wa BSS AS Ree Se EE Ee ES a Cae 170

Mica*..chdlaminations)..i.casesacuhen «elas betel) sateen < aoe Inet ee ae 200

WGC 207 ok vase, > ateeeceei wale seus hte en onan Se, cl ea ee ot a 200

(Firebrick. 25°C. to. TOOU GE... 3.0 vce Sas noses cyte De hice Li eee 90

Brick ‘masonby le See eae ERY OE ea ERS AO Sa CO DT a 250

Theater esse 710 VO eh eee re eS DS OU es a ea 600

EV OOP GINS ook Bp aa hah ee I kd eye ae i a ae Re er 600

TUG “SUDDEN sed dodo atl sigs + Se beserce Sal Zee eBags: eine cay ale By sen aa eae ae oe 610

Fire inn 2 Se RR SAE BRE ec Lee renee Tere eter Cer 690

Rubber *((overQ0 7%) siugvne Oh eee |.. TU Cees rey, I aes 0 Paes 700

Wood. (Virginia pple ACROSS yOPaIN,) 4... dstamjouctel hy tesa cde avers bene ah el ee 710

PAE oi ode ace 5, Sag aah veg be aa aout ce sake ade va tel oe gd alee eis ek 1000

PXSDESUOS (WOOL)! . freee. see cues ce ke Gai cee Tee cea a MaMneR ae eke: ete a 1100

Worle Mee MAEM EY aL a) ee 2000

Cotton: batting::(loose) icdz Ankh. ivehedwat anhige! aie eee enh ie tae 2500

WOOL MOOSE) ig As 6 iso) Sarco iis Re arc Oe aa as eile CGE, «ee ee . 2500

Carbon idioxidet si >5. £0 las an@ih Leds PES, Be ee 2 Reka Re eae 6790

* Substances marked with the asterisk vary widely in thermal conductivity according to composition. For

limits of such variation, consult International Critical Tables, Vol. II. The figure listed above for any such

material represents the author’s estimate of the ‘‘best guess’’ for use in those cases where the composition of the

material is not specified.

In preparing this table, the author has consulted Vol. II, I. C. T. and has courteously been furnished advance

values for some other materials by the editors of I.C. T. For still other materials, grateful acknowledgment is

made to the staff of the U. S. Bureau of Standards, for advice in selecting most probable values in the light of

present information.

erty, we are obliged to have a unit which is self-consistent, feet through-

out or inches throughout, but not both at once. The board foot as a

geometrical unit for resistivity can never be more than a secondary

choice used for a particular class of problems. |

Dropping the geometrical factor of resistivity and considering a

unit for resistance, we note that commercial conductivity is expressed

in B.t.u. per hour, while the second is the universally accepted unit of

time. This means that although a resistance unit based on the hour

would contain no inherent inconsistency, constant vigilance would

ocr. 19, 1928 HARPER: UNIT OF THERMAL RESISTANCE 475

have to be exercised with respect to using a conversion multiplier if

it were brought into a formula with other physical quantities, for

example ‘‘g,’’ which would surely be in seconds, not hours.

The logical primary unit for thermal resistance in British measure

is of course based on the British thermal unit, second, foot and Fahren-

heit degree. The argument against dragging such a unit into the

foreground, is the very cogent one that aside from a very few papers on

theory of heat transfer, nobody would use it. The simple fact is that

this combination has not found favor in calculations pertaining to

engineering structures.

All in all, the author is inclined to beg the question of selecting and

naming a unit of thermal resistance in British measure. The multi-

plicity of usage is too discouraging. In deference to this lack of

standardization, would it not be quite as well to promote the universal

tabulation of resistivities (and reciprocally, conductivities) in fouriers

for the centimeter cube, and suggest to each engineer that he write in

his handbook at the margin of the table, the multiplying factor which

converts the tabulation in fouriers to that particular combination of

British measure elements which his past experience has led him to

prefer for his thermal conduction calculations.

The fourier is proposed as the name for a thermal resistance such

that each °C. of temperature head applied at its terminal surfaces

gives a heat flow of 1 watt (107 ergs per second).

APPENDIX

Factors by which to multiply a value of thermal resistivity, expressed in fouriers for a

centimeter cube, to‘get values in other systems of units

Heat flow in Temperature Gradient Multiplier

Watts per cm?. °C. per em. 1

roe er cm?, °C. per cm. 4.18

sec.

a per m?, °C. per m. 0.0116

— per ft?. °F. per ft. .0172

°F. per inch .00143

°C. per inch .00080

ae per in’. °F. per inch .206

°C. per inch 115

B.t.u. i d :

ae. per in’. F. per inch 745

°C. per inch 414

H.P. per ft?. °F. per foot 44

°F. per inch 3.67

Watts per in?.

a Oe

per inch

0.394

476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—A preliminary note on blue-green algal

~ marl in southern Florida in relation to the problem of coastal subsi-

dence.' ALFRED P. DacHNowskI-StTokEs, U. 8. Bureau of

Chemistry and Soils, and R. V. Auuison, Florida Agricultural

Experiment Station.

In 1922 a paper was presented before the National Academy of

Sciences in which the broad outlines of the stratigraphic successions

between American and European peat deposits were pointed out, and

a correlation was attempted of glacial, climatic and life stages since

the last Ice-age. |

In a later paper, dealing with the profiles of peatlands in New Eng-

land, which appeared in 1926 in Ecology, evidence was set forth show-

ing that the Atlantic Coast of North America had suffered a geologi-

cally recent subsidence or a rise of sea-level. The observations offered

in the present paper are believed to demonstrate coastal stability

during the last few thousand years.

Wide expanses of the bedrock floor of limestone in the southern

part of the Florida Peninsula are covered by gray marl. The material

varies in thickness from 1 to 2 feet and on it are found mangrove is-

lands, saw-grass marshes, prairie vegetation north of Flamingo, and

portions of the great cypress swamps to the west of the Everglades.

In origin, appearance, and manner of deposition, this marl is unlike

that representing chemical precipitation, the aggregation of shells,

fragments of chara, or the calcareous ooze produced by bacterial

action. In the present case blue-green algae constitute the bulk of

the organisms which are building up and extending to a surprising

degree the marly soil of the lower glades and of the shores along the

southern mainland.

Notwithstanding their great economic interest to man as agents of

decay, fermentation, and disease, the aggregate work accomplished

by these organisms is far from ‘being understood. Until recently

bacteria and blue-green algae received little attention as agencies that

encrust themselves with lime carbonate and thus stand out as builders

of extensive areas of mineral soil. ‘Today there is evidence to show

that precipitation of calcium, silicon, iron, sulphur, and part of the

colloidal organic material in soils is caused by algae and bacteria.

From the geologist’s standpoint Glock (4) and Diener (2) have re-

viewed the bibliography establishing these forms as reliable fossils of

stratigraphic value and for the interpretation of past climatic changes;

1 Received July 30, 1928.

oct. 19, 1928 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES AND ALLISON: ALGAL MARL 477

Fig. 1.—Profile features of gray marl along the Ingraham Highway between 10 and 20

miles north of Flamingo, Florida. Photographed February 22, 1928, by R. V. Allison.

the organisms have been recorded since early geologic times, and are

reported as existing in peat deposits. Botanists and ecologists, on

the other hand, are beginning to direct attention to the lower order of

plants as indicators, whose habitat includes extremes of temperature,

geographic conditions, and aerial situations.

Investigations and views concerning the active organisms, the

process, and the secondary changes accompanying precipitation of

calcium carbonate have not, as yet, thrown much light on the formation

of marl under natural field conditions. In regard to bacterial or-

ganisms Drew (3) and Vaughan (11) have discussed in considerable

detail the accumulations of calcareous sediments and oolite made by

the action of denitrifying bacteria in shallow water adjacent to the

keys and living coral reefs of Florida. The specific identification of

the living forms has been attended with difficulty, owing to the close

478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

connection between bacteria and blue-green algae. Further experi-

mental evidence pointing to bacterial forms which precipitate calcium

carbonate has been offered by Kellerman and Smith (7). The several

researches in sedimentation reported more recently to the National

Research Council (10) will also serve, it is hoped, to give in a short

time an intimate knowledge of the number and character of the bac-

terial organisms as well as the nature and potency of their work in

mild or subtropical regions like Florida.

Fig. 2.—Profile section in dense growth of Distichlis spicata, about 6 miles north of

Flamingo, Florida, along southern extension of Dixie Highway. Photographed Febru-

ary 22, 1928, by R. V. Allison.

With reference to blue-green algae there is apparently a great lack

of information regarding their number and geographical distribution

in the southern part of the United States. Tilden (9) records the

specific description of only 31 filamentous blue-green algae so far

known to exist in Florida. They are grouped chiefly among 5 families

and 19 genera.

Some of the material described below was collected in the Ever-

a A a

oct. 19, 1928 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES AND ALLISON: ALGAL MARL 479

glades in 1919 and kept dry for subsequent study. It was not until the

winter of 1927 and 1928, during a reconnaissance trip made in coéper-

eration with the Agricultural Experiment Station of Florida, that algal

forms were found to contribute so materially to the deposition of cal-

careous matter at the surface of the soils.

The greater part of the blue-green algae has been identified by

means of Tilden’s volume on Myxophyceae (9), but they are classified

here only on general resemblances of form.2 The most abundant algae

are the fresh-water plants belonging to the genera Scytonema, Calothriz,

Lyngbya, and Dichothriz. The latter, together with others, occurs as

a thin, soft, greenish-blue matted coating, closely attached to the

friable, calcareous material about 1 or 2 inches below the surface.

They form gray, laminated or flaky and nodular incrustations, which

present a cavernous structure to a depth varying from 5 to 8 inches.

Underneath is grayish-white, compacted, harder marl, more or less

amorphous, plastic when wet, and frequently dark gray in color and

mottled from rootlets to the contact line with the underlying bedrock

limestone. Plate 1 shows a profile exposure at type localities

along the Ingraham Highway between 10 and 20 miles north of Fla-

mingo.

The vegetation of these places is similar in aspect to that of other

parts of southern Florida, but it differs in composition. The trees

and shrubs are woody evergreens. Among the herbaceous plants

commonly observed on the ‘‘Ingraham marl’ are sedges and grasses,

(Cladium mariscus, Eleocharis cellulosa, Rhynchospora tracyi, Dvi-

chromena colorata, Spartina bakerz), reeds, and species of Aletris,

Crinum, Flaveria, Ludwigia, and Sisyrinchium. The principal types

of vegetation native to this region have been described from diverging

viewpoints by Harshberger (6) and by Harper (5) whose paper con-

tains many bibliographic references.

Very little use has been made thus far of any of this type of soil,

but some of it has recently been cultivated for early tomatoes.

There are no detailed soil surveys for southern Florida, and hence

the distribution and acreage of this material are practically unknown.

The marls described by Matson and Sanford (8) in their paper on the

geology and ground waters of Florida extend over hundreds of square

miles, but too little is known to map them as asoiltype. The northern

boundary of the gray algal marls appears to coincide with a line near

the Tamiami trail between Miami and Collier County. South of this

line the marl was observed along the Ingraham Highway between

2 A more detailed identification is being made in connection with precipitation studies

to be published later.

480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

Homestead and Flamingo, merging into the limy ooze of the islands

along the shores of the southern mainland.

The average rapidity with which algal marl is now accumulating is

not known, nor the rate of increase under favorable and unfavorable

circumstances. ‘The thickness is nowhere great and is only moderately

irregular, in part due to the uneven surface upon which the marl was

deposited at a particular place. From the profile features of the layer

it may be inferred that throughout the time following the emergence

of southern Florida from the sea, the conditions governing the deposi-

tion of the calcareous material were not marked by great disturbances.

The emergence of the “‘lower Glades” and mainland with respect to

sea level has been small and began probably only a few thousand (per-

haps 3000 to 4000) years ago. In comparison with the series of pro-

files obtained in the “upper Glades’’ and on Torrey Island in Lake

Okeechobee, already noted in another connection (1), the evidence

discovered seems to prove essential coastal stability during the past

few thousand years. The algal marl layer was formed during rela-

tively recent or late Pleistocene times, and since then there has been

no appreciable change in the relative positions of land and sea in

southern Florida. A fuller treatment of this question is reserved for

a later paper.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Dacunowsk1, A. P., The correlation of time units and climatic changes

an peat deposits of the United States and Europe. Proc. Nat.

Acad. Sci. 8: 225-231, 1922.

(2) Dimnur, C., Grundztige der Biostratigraphie. Leipzig, 1925.

(3) Drew, G. H., On the precipitation of calcium carbonate in the sea by

marine bacteria. Tortugas Lab. Carnegie Inst. Washington,

5: 1914.

(4) Guocx, W.S., Algae as limestone makers and climatic indicators. Amer,

Journ. Sci. Ser. V. 6: 377-408, 1923.

(5) Harper, R. M., Natural resources of Southern Florida. Eighteenth

Ann. Rep. Fla. State Geol. Surv. 27-206, 1927.

(6) HarsHBEerRGER, J. W., The vegetation of South Florida, south of 27' 30°

north, exclusive of the Florida Keys. Trans. Wagner Free Inst.

Sci. 7: 49-189, 1914.

(7) KELLERMAN, K. F., and Smitu, N. R., Bacterial precipitation of calccum

carbonate. This JourNauL 4: 400-402, 1914.

(8) Matson, G. C. and Sanrorp, 8., Geology and ground waters of Florida.

U.S. Geol. Survey, Water Supply Paper 319, 1913.

(9) TiupEN, J., Minnesota algae. I. The Myxophyceae of North America

and adjacent regions. Bot. ser. 8, 1910.

(10) TwenuoreL, H. H., Researches in sedimentation. National Research

Council, Washington D. C., 1927.

(11) Vauenan, T. W., Remarks on the geology of the Bahama Islands and on

the formation of the Floridan and Bahaman oolites. This JouRNAL

3: 302-304, 1913.

ocT. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY | 481

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

218TH MEETING

The 218th meeting was a joint meeting with the Philosophical Society and

was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on the evening of Thurs-

day, January 19th. The general subject of discussion was methods of elec-

tion, including the election of officers and governing bodies of Scientific

Societies.

Program: L. B. TuckerMAN of the Bureau of Standards: Theoretical

principles underlying balloting. 'The complete expression of the will of an

electorate on a plurality of candidates for the same office or plurality of

similar offices would be contained in a single preferential vote if all questions

of expediency could be eliminated from the vote. Certain mathematical

conditions must be imposed on the count to ensure the complete elimination

of expediency from the vote.

These conditions are not realized in any count so far devised, and may be

impossible of realization. The mathematical problem, being a problem in

combinatory analysis, is difficult. A number of able mathematicians have

worked on the problem with the result that it is known that in certain broad

classes of counts expediency can not be wholly eliminated from the vote.

Further investigation is desirable.

Although expediency may never with certainty be eliminated from the

vote, two different counts have been devised, meeting two distinct needs, in

which expediency in voting has been so nearly eliminated as to be negligible

from a practical standpoint. These are the Hare count for electing a repre-

sentative body and the Condorcet count for filling a single office. These

counts of a preferential ballot are far superior to any other known methods of

election, and may be considered a practical solution of the problem of secur-

ing an effective expression of the will of an electorate. (Author’s abstract.)

Gerorce H. Haett, Jr., Secretary of the Proportional Representation

League: An appraisal of election methods. Dr. Tuckerman has suggested

as a criterion for a perfect method of election the requirement that it shall

always give most effect to a person’s vote if he expresses on the ballot his

real wishes. This seems a reasonable requirement, but unfortunately it con-

flicts with another which seems just as reasonable and perhaps even more

important. It can be proved that a method of election under which it

would never be profitable for the voter to falsify his real wishes would some-

times defeat a candidate for a single office who was preferred to all other

candidates by an absolute majority of the voters.!. Under such circumstances

the unsolved question whether Dr. Tuckerman’s test can be satisfied at all

is one of considerable academic interest but probably not of great practical

importance.

This does not mean that the test has no value. It can and should be

satisfied for most practical purposes without sacrificing anything else of more

importance.

The most workable system so far proposed seems to be the Hare system of

proportional representation. This system is not mathematically perfect.

1 The proof is given in footnote 14 on pages 396-397 of Proportional Representation by

Hosea and Hatwtert (Macmillan).

482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

It defeats arbitrarily the candidate who stands lowest on the poll and occa-

sionally such a candidate might be preferred to each other candidate considered

singly by a majority of the voters. It is possible to overcome this defect

also by introducing complications in the rules for counting,? but the Hare

system in its usual simple form offers a small probability of error and its

political as well as theoretical advantages over our ordinary methods are very

great. It is in use for the election of important single officers in Australia

and in the provinces of Manitoba and Alberta.

When a group of officers are being elected together to a legislative body, it

is possible to do still better. For when a single place is to be filled it is only

possible at the best to satisfy one point of view, but when a number of placés

for the same office are to be filled together it is possible to give just representa-

tion to all important points of view.

On this question of representation there is a great deal of confusion in the

public mind. It is quite generally assumed that the principle of majority

rule demands that each particular member be a majority choice. This is

frequently qualified by a division of the whole territory to be represented

into districts, in some of which a minority party may have a local majority

and so get representation, but the idea of assuring representation to minorities

whether they are a majority in any one neighborhood or not is thought to

conflict with majority rule.

In fact, however, there can be no assured maj jority rule in a representative

body without a representation of all elements in proportion to their voting

strength.

The so-called majority methods of election very frequently defeat the .

majority will. In the last two Congressional elections in the State of New

York the Republicans have polled a majority of the votes for Representatives

and the Democrats have elected a majority of the members. This was be-

cause the Republican minorities in Democratic districts (ike the Democratic

minorities in Republican districts) were unrepresented. In 1888, when

Harrison was elected President over Cleveland, Cleveland had 100,000 more

popular votes. A similar miscarriage of justice happened on two other

occasions. This was because the minorities in each state were unrepresented

in the electoral college.

Though minority rule does not usually stand out so glaringly on the face

of the election returns, it is in fact the rule rather than the exception. The

remarkable phenomenon of machine rule the country over, with a majority

of the people almost everywhere opposed to machine rule, is due simply to

the fact that we do not provide a means of representation for the minorities

into which the anti-machine majority is divided.

This situation can easily be remedied by a change in ‘election methods to

give representation to all elements in proportion to their voting strength. -

Three things are needed: first, districts large enough to elect several members

each; second, a single vote for each voter instead of as many votes as there

are members to be elected in the district, so that the largest group cannot

-elect its entire slate to the exclusion of others; and third, a vote that is trans-

ferable, so that, if the voter’s first choice cannot be elected by it, it will not

be wasted but be transferred to his second choice or third.

_ This combination of principles gives us the Hare system of proportional

representation, otherwise known as the single transferable vote. In its

usual forms it is not mathematically perfect and contains various minor

2 Hoag and Hauuett, Proportional Representation, pp. 494 ff.

oct. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 483

defects which could be remedied by the introduction of considerable compli-

cations in the counting rules. Such complications, however, would have

little effect on the results secured and without them the Hare system offers

a practical remedy for most of our political ills which are not inherent in

the people themselves. It is used for city elections in Cleveland, where it

has secured the services of such able independent councilmen as Professor

A. R. Hatton, charter consultant of the National Municipal League; in

Cincinnati, where it immediately deposed one of the most thoroughly en-

trenched political machines in the country and changed the city from one of

the worst-governed to one of the best-governed to be found anywhere; in

Ashtabula and Hamilton, Ohio, and Boulder, Colorado, and in many cities

abroad. In other countries it has been inaugurated for provincial elections,

as in Manitoba, Alberta, and Tasmania; and even in national elections, as

in the Irish Free State, and in Great Britain for a few university members of

the House of Commons. It requires no primaries and in one election gives

a free and practically complete expression of the real wishes of the voting

public. (Condensed from author’s manuscript.)

A demonstration election was then given with the audience as voters.

The votes were counted by members of the audience under Mr. Hallett’s

direction and the results put on a blackboard and explained.

219TH MEETING

The 219th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club

on the evening of Thursday, February 16th, 1928.

Program: Dayton C. MILuEr, Professor of Physics in the Case School of

Applied Science: Photographing and analyzing sound waves. The address

was illustrated by latern slides and by experiments, including experiments

with the “phonodeik,” an apparatus devised by Dr. Miller for projecting

“living” waves directly onto a screen.

220TH MEETING

The 220th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the National Museum

on the evening of Thursday, March 15th, 1928.

Program: Showing of a moving picture film entitled The Mechanics of the

Brain, prepared by Prof. Ivan P. Pavuov, Director of the Physiological

Laboratories in the Russian Academy of Sciences. ‘The picture presented

a series of experiments on children and animals chosen to illustrate the

mechanism of the reactions to various external stimuli. Especial attention

was given to the development of “conditioned reflexes,’ a subject that has

been especially studied by Pavlov and his collaborators. The film was ex-

- hibited through the courtesy of the American Society of Cultural Relations

with Russia.

221sT MEETING

The 221st meeting was held in the Auditorium of the National Museum

on the evening of Wednesday, May 16th, 1928.

After calling the meeting to order the President of the Academy announced

that a proposed revision of the By-Laws of the Academy, intended to clarify

doubtful points and to meet changing conditions, had been duly proposed by

three members of the Academy. Under the provisions for amending the By-

Laws these proposals were automatically referred to the Board of Managers

484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 17

for further consideration and for submission to the Academy at a future

meeting.’

Program: Friptsor NansEn, Arctic explorer, professor of Oceanography at

the University of Oslo and President of the International Society for the

Exploration of the Arctic by means of the Airship: Problems of Arctic ex-

ploration. The speaker emphasized the importance of polar exploration as

against the popular view that polar expeditions are quests for adventure or

bids for notoriety. He especially emphasized the importance of a knowledge

of meteorological conditions in the polar regions and compared a study of

meteorology with the polar regions omitted to a study of the steam engine

with the condenser omitted. Many modern developments of meteorology are

based on the ‘“‘polar-front” theory.

The speaker then described the methods of polar exploration as they

were in the nineties when he and his companions drifted across the polar sea

in the Fram and told of some of the adventures encountered in that memor-

able expedition. He then described the advantages of exploration by air-

ship and outlined the plans for a proposed expedition. At the conclusion of

the address the audience gave the speaker a rising vote of thanks. .

Water D. Lampert, Recording Secretary.

3 The proposed changes are in fact the work of a special committee of the Board of

Managers and have been considered by the Board itself at several meetings and ap-

. proved in principle. Requests for further information regarding these changes may

be addressed to the Corresponding Secretary, who is also Chairman of the special

committee.

‘ es at ; oe . ; “

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY

3 cies AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

: Satur October 20. The Biological Society | | ae

ei : The Helminthological Society Fes.

Re i 5 Vednesday, October 24 The Geological Society

‘Sparse The Medical Society

cen ve), Saclay; October 27. The Philosophical Society 3 ee.

_ Wednesday, October 31. The Medical Society — “4 ee

ere TY ursday, November. 1 The Entomological Society so:

z riday, November2 ‘The Geographic Society

i Saturday, Nevermber 3 The Biological Society

We yi ia ata of the jdhsetinivs of the affiliated societies will appear ¢ on this page if | ,

seats to the saitore by: the eleventh and Sconiatin day of each month.

a ‘

ese SE aes (he

ee gO ME ey ie ay Oa

am a)

CONTENTS

Onramvat Papers

ea thlorshe eric ar ants note on ape ae algal Hatt in yuther:

Florida in relation to the problem of coastal qiheigante. ALFRED a -

NOWSKI-STOKEs and R. Y. pamenunture eate c k ode Na <

PROCEEDINGS i

ate Oho

crime aes i ah sa

Pac ae

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY -

President: Rospert B. Sosman, Department of Research. nk T

U. S. Steel Corporation. eee

Corresponding Secretary: L. B. Tuckerman, Bureau ef Standards, bs

Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic pve

Treasurer: R. L. hgndcc) Coast and Geodetic Spiete) |

MEP FO MS Pee RCE tee . Pye 2 a ee

Seg Smite) FAR Mee 8 ibe ge Se a oo

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NovEMBER 4, 1928 No. 18

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 NOVEMBER 4, 1928 No. 18

BOTAN Y.—WNew South American species of Werneria.! 8. F. BuaKe,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

Werneria H. B. K. is a medium-sized genus of Asteraceae of the

tribe Senecioneae, closely related to Senecio and distinguished from

it by no definite character except the connation of its phyllaries to

the middle or beyond. On the basis of this feature, Werneria is in-

eluded by Bentham & Hooker and by O. Hoffmann in the subtribe

Othonninae (Othonneae of Bentham & Hooker) along with several

other genera which are restricted to southern Africa.

Werneria itself, with the inclusion of the 10 new species here de-

scribed, is a genus of some 62 species, about 7 of which? (aside from

the species described from the Old World) are of somewhat doubtful

status. Fifty-eight species occur in the South American Andes from

Venezuela (a single species) and Colombia to Chile and Argentina at

high altitudes, usually 3000 to 5000 meters. The lowest altitude defi-

nitely recorded for any species is about 2750 meters, at which W. nubi-

gena and W. villosa were collected in Peru by Macbride and Feather-

stone. ‘The only species known outside this range in America is W.

nubigena H. B. K., which occurs from Ecuador to Peru and Bolivia,

and is found on the mountains of Guatemala at about 3355 to 3660

meters elevation in a form, described by DeCandolle as W. mocin-

niana, which I am unable to distinguish in any way from the typical

South American one.

1 Received August 11, 1928.

2 Werneria acerosifolia Hieron., from description not clearly distinguishable from

W. villosa A. Gray, but perhaps identical with W. canaliculata Sch. Bip.; W. apiculata

and W. brachypappa Sch. Bip., perhaps not separable specifically from W. pygmaea

Gill.; W. calyculata Turcz.; W. disticha H. B. K., very close to W. nubigena H. B. K.;

W. dombeyana (Wedd.) Hieron., imperfectly described; W. mandoniana Wedd., very

close to W. orbignyana Wedd., the latter known to me only from description.

485

486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 18

Four species are accredited to the Old World, Werneria africana

Oliver & Hiern and W. antinorw Avetta? from Abyssinia, W. ellisiz

Hook. f. and W. nana (Decaisne) Benth. from the western Himalaya

of India and western Tibet, at high altitudes. The distribution of

these four makes it extremely improbable that they are very closely

related genetically to the typical South American species. I have

seen no material of them and so cannot speak with assurance about

their position, but the probability, almost the certainty, of their ori-

gin from Senecio independently of the South American species is in

itself no obstacle, in my opinion, to their being placed unequivocally

in Werneria if their characters agree with those of that genus. <A tend-

ency to connation of the phyllaries at base is widespread in the vast

genus Senecio. The accentuation and fixation of this tendency in

one or more Senecio prototypes is undoubtedly the source of the genus

Werneria as represented in South America, where its considerable

variation in habit makes it probable that it arose from Senecio at

several different foci. The appearance of this same widespread tend-

ency to a gamophyllous involucre in two regions of the Old World is

in no way remarkable. It is indeed surprising that it has not hap-

pened more frequently, particularly in the high altitudes with which it

appears to be in some way correlated.

As originally described by Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth the

genus Werneria included six species. Six were added by Schultz

- Bipontinus in 1856 from Lechler’s Peruvian collections; eight by Wed-

dell in 1856, and two more in 1894, the latter manuscript names pub-

lished with descriptions by Klatt; four by Asa Gray in 1861, from the

Peruvian collections of the Wilkes Expedition; six by Hieronymus in

1895, and two more in 1901. One was described from Chile by Philippi

in 1873, and four more in 1891. The other accessions to the genus have

been mainly single species described by various authors. Weddell’s

monographic treatment of 17 species in his ‘‘Chloris Andina”’ (1856)

is the only available recension of the American species as a whole and

is quite inadequate at present, including less than a third of the species

now known. <A working key prepared by the writer several years ago

for the identification of the material of the genus accumulated at the

United States National Herbarium from the South American collec-

tions of Dr. F. W. Pennell, E. P. Killip, and J. Francis Macbride has

been entirely remade after the study of many more specimens, but is

3 Ex O. Hoffm. in Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 4: 301, 302. 1892, hyponym.

Omitted from Index Kewensis. Said to be transitional to Euryops.

Nov. 4, 1928 BLAKE: SOUTH AMERICAN WERNERIA 487

still not in state for publication owing to lack of material of several

described species. A tentative grouping of the species, with partial

keys, is here presented as an aid to future students of the genus. It

is based on the material in the United States National Herbarium, the

entire collection of the New York Botanical Garden and Columbia

College (about 100 sheets), and a considerable amount of material

borrowed from the Gray Herbarium and the Field Museum, as well as

several photographs and fragments of authentic specimens obtained

at Kew Herbarium.in 1925 or (in the case of W. rigida Benth.) re-

cently sent by Dr. A. W. Hill. I wish to express my thanks to the

curators of the herbaria mentioned for the opportunity to examine

the collections under their charge. In the following key the dagger

indicates that no material has been examined by the writer; the plac-

ing of a name in parentheses, that the species is doubtfully a member of

that group. In the first four groups the leaf blade is toothed or lobed;

in the remaining three the blade is entire, although the margin is

sometimes of different texture and pectinate-ciliate or finely glandular-

denticulate.

One species of the genus, Werneria poposa Phil., of northern Chile

and northwestern Argentina, is much valued in its native habitat as a

remedy for intestinal colic, being used in the form of infusions and

decoctions. It has been studied histologically and chemically by Dr.

Fidel Zelada,* who extracted from it a glucoside which he calls ‘“‘popo-

sina”’ (“‘poposa”’ is the vernacular name of the plant).

I. Group of W. pinnatifida. Leaves pinnatisect.—A. Leaves strictly

glabrous, their lobes 2-6 pairs, subequal, entire. W. solivaefolia Sch. Bip.

AA. Leaves usually pilose along rachis above, their lobes 5-20 pairs, alter-

nately unequal, often lobulate. B. Phyllaries 20-25; leaves about 9 cm. long.

W. pinnatifida Remy. BB. Phyllaries 8-15; leaves mostly 6 cm. long or

less. W. heteroloba Wedd., W. obtusiloba Blake, sp. nov.

II. Group of W. dactylophylla. Leaves bifid, trifid, or 3-lobed (the lobes

sometimes again 3-lobed), small, 1 cm. long or less; plants leafy-stemmed,

suffrutescent.—A. Leaves bifid. W. rosenii R. E. Fries. AA. Leaves tri-

fid or 3-lobed. B. Stem and upper leaf surface densely pilose-lanate. W.

dactylophylla Sch. Bip. BB. Stem and upper leaf surface glabrous, or apex

' of leaves loosely pilose (W. amblydactyla). C. Leaf segments linear, mostly

24 mm. long, acutely subulate-tipped. W. digitata Wedd. CC. Leaf

segments not linear, 1.5 mm. long or less, obtuse. D. Leaves loosely pilose

at apex when young, 1—1.5 mm. wide at apex, the linear petiole under 1 mm.

wide and not glandular-denticulate. W. amblydactyla Blake, sp. nov. DD.

Leaves not pilose. E. Leaves practically linear, cylindric-prismatic, 4-6

mm. long, barely 1.5 mm. wide above. W. incisa Phil. EE. Leaves linear-

4 Estudio botdnico y quimico de la Werneria poposa Philippi (n.v. poposa). Univ.

Nac. Tucumdn, Mus. Hist. Nat. Bol. 10. 17 pp., illust. 1927.

488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 18

cuneate, 8-10 mm. long, 2-4 mm. wide above, densely pectinate-ciliolate

with stiff acute non-glandular cilia. W. decora Blake, sp. nov.

III. Group of W. pygmophylla. Leaves crenately 3-9-lobed, 2 cm. long

or less.—W. pygmophylla Blake, sp. nov.; (| W. melandra Wedd.?).

IV. Group of W. orbignyana. Leaves (at least in part) 3—5-dentate or

-denticulate at apex, spatulate to linear-cuneate or obovate, mostly 3-9

em. long.—t W. orbignyana Wedd., W. mandoniana Wedd.

V. Group of W. pectinata. Leaves small, spatulate or linear-spatulate,

rosulate at base of head and scattered on short horizontal rhizomes, with

densely pectinate-ciliate margin (the cilia ca. 0.5 mm. long, stiff, em

not glandular) —W. pectinata Lingelsh.,> +t W. knocheae Perkins; (| W

denticulata Blake?).

VI. Group of W. lycopodioides. Truly leafy-stemmed, suffrutescent, ree

stems densely covered with uniform small unlobed leaves 11 mm. long or

less. (Through W. marcida and W. sedoides, this group nearly connects

with the minor group in VIII centering about W. humilis. In all of the lat-

ter the leaf axils are woolly.)—A. Leaf axils woolly. { W. poposa Phil.,

W. lorentziana Hieron. AA. Leaf axils not woolly. W. decumbens Hieron.,

W. marcida Blake, sp. nov., W. lycopodioides Blake, sp. nov., W. sedoides

Blake, ee nov., W. weddellii Phil. , 1 W. guniperina Hieron., (7 W. denticulata

Blake?

VII. Group of W. caulescens. Radical leaves tufted but scarcely rosulate,

much larger than cauline, grass-like or plantain-like, or subacicular, erectish;

stem evident, subscapose, 2-30 em. high.—A. Larger leaves 1 cm. wide or

more. W. stuebelii Hieron., W. plantaginifolia Wedd. AA. Larger leaves 6

mm. wide or less. B. Rays white. W. staticaefolia Sch. Bip., W. caulescens

(Wedd.) Griseb., | W. dombeyana (Wedd.) Hieron.? BB. Rays yellow in-

side, red or purple outside. W. villosa A. Gray, (t W. acerosifolia Hieron.?).

' VIII. Remaining species. Leaves entire (or margin glandular-denticu-

late), rosulate or densely crowded on very short or sometimes elongate cau-

dices, occasionally rather scattered on spreading rhizomes; heads usually.

sessile, sometimes short-peduncled. A varied group, capable of subdivision.

—A. Leaf sheaths not ciliate and without axillary tufts of hairs. B. Heads

discoid. C. Anthers black or violet. + W. melanandra Wedd. CC. An-

thers yellow. W. carnulosa A. Gray.—BB. Heads radiate. C. Leaves 4-6

cm. long, linear or very narrowly linear-oblanceolate, the blade not distin-

guished from the petiole; involucre 13-17 mm. high. W. glaberrima Phil.

CC. Leaves much shorter, or else spatulate and scattered on short rhizomes;

involucre 7-12 mm. high. D. Leaves scattered on slender rhizomes, defi-

nitely spatulate, the blade 2-6 mm. wide. W. spathulata Wedd. DD. Leaves

rosulate or densely clustered. E. Involucre 4-5 mm. high. W. aretioides

Wedd. EE. Involucre 7-12 mm. high. W. ciliolata A. Gray, W. cochlearis

Griseb., ({ W. denticulata Blake).

AA. Tieat sheaths long-ciliate or with axillary tufts. B. Leaves densely

setose-strigose on surface. W. strigosissima A. Gray. BB. Leaves not se-

tose-strigose. C. Leaf blades glandular above, pilose beneath, ovate to

subspatulate, 6-10 mm. wide. W. glandulosa Wedd. CC. Leaf blades

'W. ciliata Wedd., never described, was published by Schultz Bipontinus as a

synonym of W. ciliolata A. Gray. Examination of Mandon 99, chirotype collection, in

the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, shows that the name is synonymous

with W. pectinata Lingelsh., described in 1910. :

Noy. 4, 1928 BLAKE: SOUTH AMERICAN WERNERIA 489

glabrous on both surfaces. D. Leaf sheaths marcescent (whole leaf some-

times so), long-persistent, conspicuous, nearly or quite as long as the blades.

E. Leaves bristle-tipped. W. leucobryoides Blake, sp. nov. EE. Leaves

obtuse to acute, not bristle-tipped. F. Rays rosy. W. rosea Hieron. FF.

Rays white. G. Involucre 12-18 mm. high; leaf blades 12-28 mm. long.

W. crassa Blake, sp. nov. GG. Involucre 5-8 mm. high; leaf blades 6-9

mm. long. H. Leaves articulate at or just below junction of sheath and

lamina, the latter normally deciduous in all but the younger leaves. W.

articulata Blake. HH. Leaves not definitely articulate, the whole sheath

and blade persistent, becoming corky. I. Lamina of leaves about 4-6 mm.

long, 1-1.2 mm. wide; leaves mostly spreading. W. humilis H.B.K. II.

Lamina of leaves 3-4 mm. long, 1 mm. wide or less; leaves mostly erect or

appressed. W. soratensis Hieron.—DD. Leaf sheaths not marcescent or

long-persistent or conspicuous, usually very much shorter than the blades.

E. Rays yellow. F. Leaf blades 1.8 mm. wide or less, the costa prominent

beneath. W. canaliculata Sch. Bip., W. cornea Blake, sp. nov. FF. Leaf

blades mostly 2-3.5 mm. wide, the costa obsolete or impressed beneath.

W. pumila H.B.K. (including W. densa Benth.!), W. rigida H.B.K.; (7 W.

calyculata Turez.?).—EE. Rays white. F. Leaf blades usually 3-12 mm.

wide. G. Achenes and ovaries glabrous. W. graminifolia H.B.K. GQ.

Achenes and ovaries silky. W. nubigena H.B.K., — W. disticha H.B.K.—

FF. Leaf blades mostly under 1.5 mm. wide. G. Leaves very densely

rosulate, acicular, the blades 5-20 mm. long, 0.3-1 mm. wide, mucronate.

W. caespitosa Wedd. GG. Leaves looser, less densely rosulate; plants when

well developed with short spreading rhizomes bearing more or less scattered

leaves (doubtfully so in W. brachypappa). H. Leaves acutely mucronate.

W. apiculata Sch. Bip. HH. Leaves obtuse. W. pygmaea Gill., tT W.

brachypappa Sch. Bip.

Werneria obtusiloba Blake, sp. nov. Fig. a.

Acaulescent perennial; rhizome very short, erect; leaves rosulate, the broad

searious sheaths glabrous, 1.3-2 em. long, the blades linear or lance-linear

in outline, 1-2.5 em. long, 4-7 cm. wide, pilose along costa above, pinnati-

sect into 5-11 pairs of very unequal obovate, ovate, or oval, obtuse, entire or

3-lobed segments, the larger about as long as the breadth of the rachis be-

tween them; heads discoid, short-peduncled; involucre 8-10 mm. high,

11—13-fid.

Rhizome thick, 1 em. long or less, glabrous; leaves stellate-imbricate,

2.5-4.5 em. long, the petiole (“‘sheath’’) amplexicaul, 3-nerved, 3-5 mm. wide

at base, often purplish-margined, the blade fleshy, glabrous beneath, the

lobes obtuse to broadly rounded, 1-4 mm. long, 0.6—2 mm. wide, the larger

often with 1-2 supplementary lobules at base; peduncle essentially glabrous,

clavate, 1 cm. long or less, sometimes with 1 or 2 linear entire bracts; involu-

cre campanulate, glabrous, the teeth triangular or deltoid, 3-3.5 mm. long,

1.8-2.4 mm. wide at base, obtuse, ciliolate at apex, the subscarious margin

often purplish; flowers numerous, their corollas white becoming purple-

tipped, 6-6.5 mm. long, the tube 3.2-3.5 mm., the funnelform throat 2 mm.,

the ovate teeth 0.8-1 mm. long; ovaries glabrous; pappus white, in age purple,

6 mm. long; style tips truncate, minutely hispidulous around apex.

Perv: In sandy soil, with cushion and rosette plants, cordillera east of

Carumas, Prov. Moquegua, alt. 4500-4600 m., 7-8 Mar. 1925, A. Weber-

bauer 7362 (type no. 552591, Field Mus.; dupl. no. 44298, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 18

Wet seepy soil along streamlet, Vincocaya, Dept. Arequipa, 4370-4380 m.,

18 Apr. 1925, F. W. Pennell 138338 (Field Mus., Gray Herb.).

Closely allied to Werneria heteroloba Wedd., of which it may eventually

prove to be aform. In that species,.as described by Weddell and as repre-

sented by a considerable series of specimens before me, the principal leaf

segments are linear or essentially so and acute or acuminate to the callous tip.

Werneria amblydactyla Blake, sp. nov. Fig. B, c.

Rhizomes short, branched, the branches or stems tufted, about 2.5 cm.

high, densely leafy above, glabrous; leaves about 9 mm. long, loosely crisped-

pilose toward apex when young, glabrate, the scarious-margined, barely

amplexicaul sheath about 2 mm. long and 2 mm. wide, entire or slightly

denticulate at base, the petiole 5 mm. long, 0.6—1 mm. wide, linear, thick,

flat above, rounded beneath, entire, the blade 1.5 mm. wide or less, of 3

ovate-oblong, obtuse, erect, connivent, thick lobes 0.6-1 mm. long, sub-

equal or the middle one usually slightly shorter than the lateral; heads sub-

sessile, radiate; involucre 9-10 mm. high, 9—13—(-‘‘20’’)-fid about to middle.

Rhizomes about 3 mm. thick, covered with the persistent bases of the

sheaths, the erectish branches about 4-7; leaves densely imbricated; heads

campanulate, solitary, terminal; lobes of involucre triangular, acuminate to

an obtusish apex, sparsely pilose above along midline, scarious-margined,

4 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide at base, 1-vittate; receptacle convex, alveolate,

glabrous; disk 10-11 mm. high, 8-12 mm. thick; rays slightly exserted, gla-

brous, the slender tube 3 mm. long, the narrowly obovate lamina entire, 3-

nerved, 7.5 mm. long, 1.8 mm. wide; disk corollas glabrous, 6 mm. long, the

tube 1.6 mm., the funnel form throat 3.4 mm., the ovate teeth 1 mm. long;

disk achenes (immature or infertile) glabrous, columnar, 2.5 mm. long,

about 7-nerved; pappus brownish white, 6 mm. long, the bristles somewhat

united in groups at extreme base; style tips hispidulous around the subtrun-

cate apex, usually tipped with a setose tuft nearly 0.5 mm. long.

Prru: Alpamarca, in the Andes, Wilkes Expedition (type no. 44300, U.S.

Nat. Herb.).

Related to W. digitata Wedd., as a form of which it was recorded and briefly

described by Gray.6 The examination of material clearly referable to that

species (Ff. L. Herrera 1033, Hacienda Churu, Prov. Paucartambo, Peru,

3700 m., Jan. 1926, U.S. Nat. Herb.) makes it evident that the Wilkes speci-

mens are to be separated specifically. In W. digitata the plants are much

larger and coarser, the considerably broader leaves are without the loose

hairs of W. amblydactyla, their lobes are longer (mostly 2-4 mm.) and acutely

subulate-tipped, and the broader sheaths and petioles are definitely ciliolate

or denticulate. As already noted by Dr. Gray in his examination of the same

specimens, the conspicuous tuft of bristles terminating the subtruncate style

tips is sometimes absent (at least in more mature flowers of the disk). I have

not found any of the “‘truly opposite” leaves described by him, although some

subopposite leaves, apparently due to the obsolescence of the internodes, can

be seen.

6 Proc. Amer. Acad. 5: 140. 1861.

Nov. 4, 1928 BLAKE: SOUTH AMERICAN WERNERIA 491

Werneria decora Blake, sp. nov. Fig. D, 5.

Suffruticulose, about 1 dm. high; rhizome branched, the branches erect-

ish, thick, densely leafy above, covered below with the imbricated bases of

old sheaths; leaves 7-10 mm. long, conspicuously ciliolate throughout, lin-

ear-cuneate in outline, 3-vittate, the scarious sheath 2.5-3 mm. wide at base,

amplexicaul, the flat petiole 1.8-2 mm. wide, the blade passing gradually

into the petiole, 2.56-4 mm. wide, 3-lobed, the lobes rounded or subtruncate,

thickish, the lateral about 1-1.3 mm. long and wide, the middle one usually

about half as long and wide, sometimes obsolete; heads sessile, radiate, ‘‘the

rays white, the disk yellow;’ involucre 12-14 mm. long, about 13-fid to

middle.

Rhizomes 4-7 mm. thick, much branched, densely covered with the im-

bricated bases of old sheaths, the green leafy tips 24.5 em long; leaves some-

what yellowish green, fleshy, thickened above, their cilia stiffish, subulate,

acuminate, eglandular, 0.1-0.3 mm. long; disk shorter than or equaling the

involucre; involucre campanulate, the tube multivittate, the lobes oblong,

very obtuse, 3—5-vittate, often somewhat erose on the narrow subscarious

margin, minutely ciliolate-tufted at apex, 6-7 mm. long, 2—2.5 mm. wide; rays

about 18 (more numerous than phyllaries), glabrous, the tube 3.5 mm. long,

the lamina linear-spatulate, 10 mm. long, 1.5—2 mm. wide, 4—7-nerved, entire

or obscurely emarginate; disk corollas glabrous, 7.5 mm. long, the tube 2.5

mm., the funnelform throat 4 mm., the teeth ovate, obtusish, 1 mm. long;

achenes (immature) glabrous; pappus brownish white, about 7.5 mm. long;

style tips of disk flowers truncate-rounded, hispidulous in a ring all around

at apex, with terminal rounded naked umbo, of ray truncate-rounded, irregu-

larly and unevenly hispidulous, sometimes with a short terminal tuft of hairs;

anthers ‘‘reddish in age.”

Peru: In loose soils of alpine basin slopes, Casapalea, Dept. Lima, alt.

about 4725 m., 21 May 1922, Macbride & Featherstone 849 (type no. 517377,

Field Mus.; dupl. no. 1,185,462, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

An attractive and very distinct species, at once distinguished from W,

rosenit R. E. Fries by its conspicuously ciliolate leaves with much broader,

very blunt lobes, normally 3 in number, and from W. incisa Phil. by its much

larger and broader, ciliolate leaves, and much larger involucre.

Werneria pygmophylla Blake, sp. nov. Fig. F, G.

Tiny, caespitose, acaulescent, spreading-pilose throughout; leaves rosulate,

without axillary tufts, the petiole linear, about 1 cm. long, the suborbicular

blade 24 mm. long and wide, crenately 3-—9-lobed, conduplicate; heads

discoid, small; involucre 6-8 mm. high, about 18-fid, the blunt teeth ustulate-

tipped; achenes densely papillate.

Plants in small tufts, altogether 1-1.8 em. high; rhizomes branched, short,

slender, leafy only at apex; leaves 8-15 mm. long; petioles subscarious toward

base, 3-vittate, flat, ciliate, sparsely pilose on back above, 7-11 mm. long, 2

mm. wide or less at base, scarcely amplexicaul; blades abruptly distinguished

from petioles, green, fleshy, strongly conduplicate, often slightly inequala-

teral, very obtuse and often slightly cucullate at apex, at base subcordate to

rounded-cuneate, shallowly crenate-lobate with rounded lobes, pilose on

both surfaces; peduncles 4 mm. long or less, bearing a few linear entire leaves;

heads campanulate-hemispheric, about 8 mm. high, 9 mm. thick (as pressed),

492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 18

about 49-flowered; receptacle flattish, alveolate, glabrous; involucre loosely

pilose especially on the lobes, these mostly oblong, obtuse, 2.5-2.8 mm. long,

1-1.5 mm. wide, sometimes irregularly united nearly to apex, narrowly scari-

ous-margined, with blackish brown tips, minutely brown-ciliolate at apex;

disk corollas ‘‘now greenish-, now bluish-white,” glabrous, 4.2-4.5 mm. long,

the tube much swollen at base, 2.2-2.4 mm., the cylindric-campanulate

throat about 1.7 mm., the ovate teeth 0.5 mm. long; immature achenes ob-

long, 1.5 mm. long; pappus whitish, copious, easily deciduous, 4 mm. long;

style tips truncate, minutely hispidulous at apex; ‘anthers and stigmas dark

brown.”

Prru: On sandy soil, growing with cushion and rosette plants, Cordillera

east of Carumas, Prov. Moquegua, alt. 4500-4600 m., 7-8 Mar. 1925, A.

Weberbauer 7358 (type no. 552587, Field Mus.; eg no. 1,233,480, U. S.

Nat. Herb.).

A unique species, at once recognized by its rather dense pubescence,

ustulate-tipped phyllaries, papillate achenes, and suborbicular shallowly

crenate-lobed conduplicate leaf blades, resembling in their normal folded

condition a fist, whence the name. The species is closely similar in many

respects to a species of Senecio collected by Pennell in the Department of

Arequipa (Pennell 13344), but in that the phyllaries are distinct essentially

to base, while in W. pygmophylla they are truly connate to well above the

middle.

Werneria marcida Blake, sp. nov. Fig. H, I, J.

Suffrutescent (?), caespitose, glabrous, the rhizomes branched, the branches

apparently erect, densely leafy throughout, 2—4 cm. long, the green leafy

growth of the year only about 1 cm. long or less; leaves at first erect, glau-

cescent green, in age marcescent, brownish, shrunken and spreading, lance-

oblong or ovate-oblong, 8.5-10.5 mm. long, 2.5-4 mm. wide, acute and apicu-

late to obtusish, not at all dilated at base, 1-vittate, subglandular-denticulate

especially above, flat, the petiolar portion 5-7 mm. long, narrowly scarious-

margined, the lamina narrower, about 3.5 mm. long, triangular or triangular-

oblong; heads sessile or subsessile, radiate, the rays ‘“‘white,” the disk ‘“‘yel-

lowish green;’’ involucre 9-10 mm. high, 13—16-fid. :

Branches numerous, about 8-12 mm. thick including the leaves; leaves

densely imbricate; heads 2.2-2.8 cm. wide; disk about 1 cm. high, 1.5 cm.

thick; involucre campanulate-hemispheric, the tube multivittate, the teeth

triangular to deltoid, obtuse or acutish, 3-4-vittate, ciliolate at apex, 5-6

mm. long, 2.5-4 mm. wide at base, the narrow subscarious margin sometimes

denticulate; rays 19-22 (more numerous than phyllaries), glabrous, the tube

3.5-3.8 mm. long the elliptic lamina 10-11 mm. long, 3.5 mm. wide, 2-3-

denticulate, about 5-nerved; disk corollas glabrous, 6.5 mm. long, the tube

1.8 mm., the cylindric-funnelform throat 3.7 mm., the ovate teeth 1 mm.

long; disk achenes (immature) oblong, 2 mm. long, with about 7 thick ribs;

pappus brownish, 4.5—5.2 mm. long, the bristles united at extreme base into

a sort of collar; style tips truncate, minutely hispidulous at tip, in disk flowers

rather conspicuously papillose on back.

Prru: In mounds by brook, Rio Blanco, Dept. Lima, alt. about 4575

, 20-25 Mar. 1923, J. Francis Macbride 3032 (type no. 534102, Field Mus.;

Fe no. 1,191,416, U. 8. Nat. Herb.).

Nov. 4, 1928 BLAKE: SOUTH AMERICAN WERNERIA 493

Nearest Werneria decumbrens Hieron. (ex char.) from between Toma-

rape and Tacora, Peru, in which the leaves have a conspicuous amplexicaul

ciliate sheath 3 mm. long and 5 mm. wide and a subacerose blade 8 mm. long

and 1.25 mm. wide at base. :

Werneria lycopodioides Blake, sp. nov. Fig. k, L, M.

Suffrutescent, glabrous, the rhizomes apparently decumbent, up to 25

em. long, fastigiate-branched, densely leafy above, the leaves scattered

below; leaves triangular, 3-5 mm. long, ciliolate-denticulate below apex, the

short amplexicaul scarious sheath 2.5-3 mm. wide, the blade about 2 mm.

wide above the sheath, fleshy, acute or obtuse, erect or in age spreading;

heads sessile, radiate, yellow, the rays scarcely exceeding involucre (heads

young); involucre about 6 mm. long, 8—9-fid for less than half its length, the

lobes broad and blunt.

Rhizomes about 3 mm. thick below, glaucescent, the internodes on the lower

parts (still bearing green leaves) up to 4mm. long; densely leafy young growth

3-6 em. long; blades flat above, convex beneath, usually acutely whitish-

apiculate when young, becoming obtuse, slightly cucullate at apex, yellow-

ish green; heads 8-9 mm. high, about 41-flowered; involucre campanulate,

5-7 mm. high, purple throughout, glabrous, the tube multivittate, the lobes

‘deltoid or deltoid-ovate, 2—2.5 mm. long, 2-3 mm. wide at base, minutely

ciliolate-tufted at apex, 3-vittate; receptacle convex, alveolate; rays (imma-

ture) 10, definitely yellow, linear-oblong, entire or emarginate, 2—3-nerved,

5 mm. long; disk flowers about 31, their corollas (submature) glabrous, 5.8

mm. long, the tube 1.3 mm. long, the cylindric-funnelform threat 3.5 mm.

long, the ovate acutish teeth 1 mm. long; ovaries glabrous; pappus straw-

color, about 6 mm. long; style branches truncate or rounded-truncate, his-

pidulous or papillose at apex.

CHILE: Cordillera Volean Tacora, Co. Quifiuta, Prov. Tacna, Dept. Tacna,

alt. ca. 5000 m., April 1926, E. Werdermann 1164 (type in Gray Herb.;

photog. and fragm. no. 44297, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

An attractive plant, the deep purple involucres and yellow flowers con-

trasting with the yellowish green Lycopodium-like stems and leaves. Wer-

neria weddellit Phil., which has similar leaves, is distinguished by its con-

siderably narrower, fewer-flowered, green involucre, with longer and relatively

much narrower lobes. The rays of that plant, moreover, are described by

Philippi as whitish.

Werneria sedoides Blake, sp. nov. Fig. N, 0, P.

Suffruticulose, caespitose, decumbent, forming dense mats up to 7 cm.

wide, the very numerous branches mostly 2.5 em. long or less, densely leafy,

glabrous; leaves of the year erect, glaucous green, those of previous years

persistent, blackening, spreading, broadly ovate, 44.5 mm. long, finely sub-

glandular-denticulate throughout, 1-vittate, the sheath,.scarious, about 2 mm.

long, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide, the lamina thickish, flattish with somewhat elevated

margin above, about 2 mm. wide at apex of sheath, about 0.8 mm. wide near

the usually minutely apiculate or sometimes obtusish apex; heads sessile,

radiate, ‘“‘white;” involucre about 10 mm. high, about 13-fid.

Leaves very densely imbricate; involucre broadly campanulate, 9-12 mm.

high, 13—-14-fid, the tube multivittate, the lobes triangular to oblong-ovate,

494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 18

acute to obtusish, 4.5-7 mm. long, 2.5-8.5 mm. wide at base, 3-vittate,

minutely ciliolate-tufted at apex, green, very narrowly scarious-margined;

rays about 18 (more numerous than phyllaries), exserted, glabrous, tube 3

mm. long, the lamina narrowly spatulate, 4-6-nerved, subentire, about 9mm.

long, 2.56 mm. wide; disk flowers numerous, their corollas glabrous, 6.8 mm.

long, the tube 1.8 mm., the cylindric-funnelform throat 3.5 mm., the ovate

teeth 1 mm. long; achenes (submature) oblong, glabrous, 3.5 mm. long, with

about 8 thick ribs; pappus brown, 11 mm. long, the copious bristles deciduous

irregularly in groups; style branches in both ray and disk truncate, hispidu-

lous around the apex.

Peru: In tufts on wet rocky slopes, Punco, Dept. Hudnuco, about 34 km.

west of Huallanca, alt. about 4115 m., 1 Oct. 1922, Macbride & Featherstone

2475 (type no. 518901, Field Mus.; dupl. no. 1,186,098, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Related to W. marcida, W. lycopodioides, W. weddellii Phil., and W. juni-

perina Hieron. In the two last the involucre is much narrower and fewer-

flowered, shorter (7-8 mm. long), and only 8-10-fid; in W. juniperina the

rays are described as only 2-6 with ligules 4.5 mm. long. In W. marcida,

a much coarser and apparently laxer plant, the leaves are much larger and not

at all dilated at base. W. lycopodioides isa much larger plant with less

densely imbricated, yellowish green leaves, very much smaller yellow heads,

and much smaller 8—-9-fid involucre.

Werneria leucobryoides Blake, sp. nov. Fig. q, R, Ss.

Densely caespitose; rhizomes branched, erectish, very densely covered

with marcescent erect leaves, the green growth of the year only 2-3 mm.

long; leaves linear-subulate, acuminate, tipped with a more or less deciduous

bristle nearly 1 mm. long, flat, densely long-ciliate for about half their length

but glabrous on the surfaces, not amplexicaul at base, not lanate at base

within, 4-5 mm. long, 0.5—0.8 mm. wide near base; heads tiny, sessile, radiate;

involucre 6 mm. high, 11-fid.

Rhizomes up to 6.5 cm. long, 1 mm. thick (when denuded); branches with

their leaves 3-5 mm. thick; leaves densely imbricate, the older ones com-

pletely persistent except for the bristle, becoming whitish and corky, the

younger erect, 1-vittate, the petiolar portion or “sheath” thickish, 2.5-3.2

mm. long, densely ciliate for about 2 mm. with hairs 1-1.5 mm. long, the

thinner light-green lamina 0.5—-1.5 mm. long, often lacerate-denticulate to-

ward apex, passing into the lax bristle, this 0.5—-1 mm. long, deciduous except

for its base, leaving the old leaves acuminate; heads about 6 mm. wide; in-

volucre campanulate, glabrous, the tube multivittate, the lobes triangular,

acuminate, ciliolate on the narrow scarious margin, 1-3 vittate, 3 mm. long,

1 mm. wide at base; rays 12, evidently white, glabrous, the tube 1 mm. long,

the lamina 3.5 mm. long, 0.9 mm. wide, minutely 2-3-denticulate, 2-4

nerved; disk flowers 11, their corollas evidently white, glabrous, 2.6 mm. long,

the tube 0.5 mm., the funnelform throat 1.6 mm., the ovate teeth 0.5 mm.

long; young disk achenes glabrous, about 0.6 mm. long; pappus brownish,

2.8 mm. long; style tips in rays obtuse, essentially glabrous, in disk flowers

tipped with a short obtuse cone, finely hispidulous around its base.

Ecuapor: At level of perpetual snow, Mount Quilindafia, Dec. 1897,

A. Sodiro (type in herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.; photog. and fragm. no. 44299,

U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Nov. 4, 1928 BLAKE: SOUTH AMERICAN WERNERIA 495

A species of the W. humilis group, nearest W. soratensis Hieron., as which

the type was distributed. In that species, according to Hieronymus’s de-

scription, the leaves are about 8 mm. long, 1.25-1.5 mm. wide at base, and

merely acute, the “sheath” is lanate within, and no reference is made to

the characteristic bristles terminating the leaves.

Werneria crassa Blake, sp. nov. Fig. v.

Acaulescent herbaceous perennial; rhizome (apparently solitary) vertical,

densely covered with matted sheaths and tomentum, the whole forming a

cylindric or conical body 1.5-3 em. thick and usually 5-15 cm. long; leaves

rosulate, the petioles (‘‘sheaths’’) linear, 1.3-2 em. long, long-silky-lanate on

margin and with long silky tufts within, the blade nearly linear, fleshy-cori-

aceous, entire, obtusely callous-tipped, 1.2-2.8 cm. long, 1.3-3 mm. wide;

heads appearing sessile, large, radiate, white; involucre 1.2-1.8 em. high,

about 19-fid.

Leaves densely stellate-imbricate at base of head; petioles about 2 mm.

wide at base, not amplexicaul, their cilia more or less deciduous; leaf blades

deciduous after the year of flowering, slightly narrowed toward apex and base,

erect or spreading, l-nerved, the nerve usually slenderly impressed on both

sides, the tuft of hair within the sheath about equaling the latter, arising from

the rhizome at base of blade; heads about 2.5-3.3 em. wide, borne on short

thick peduncles concealed by the leaves; involucre campanulate, glabrous,

its lobes linear or linear-triangular, obtusish, finely ciliolate above and at

apex, obscurely lucid-papillate, narrowly subscarious-margined, 7-9 mm.

long, 1-1.2 mm. wide at base; rays 19-20, white, glabrous, the tube about 4

mm. long, the lamina elliptic, 14 mm. long, 3 mm. wide, entire, 4-nerved;

disk corollas numerous, white, glabrous, at maturity 8.5 mm. long, the tube

4mm., the subcylindric throat 3.7 mm., the ovate teeth 0.8 mm. long; mature

disk achenes prismatic-subcylindric, about 8-ribbed, glabrous, whitish, 3.5

mm. long, 1 mm. thick; pappus brownish white, 14 mm. long, the bristles

irregularly deciduous in groups; style tips in ray flowers obtuse, minutely

hispidulous, in disk flowers truncate, hispidulous.

CoLoMBIA: Swale along stream, Paramo del Quindio, Dept. Caldas, Cor-

dillera Central, alt. 3700-4200 m., 15-20 Aug. 1922, F. W. Pennell & T. E.

Hazen 10031 (type no. 1,141,291, U.S. Nat. Herb.; dupl., N. Y. Bot. Gard.);

same locality, 4100-4300 m., Pennell & Hazen 9878 (U.S.,N. Y. Bot. Gard).

Swale, Paramo de Ruiz, Dept. Tolima, 3500-3700 m., 16-17 Dec. 1917,

Pennell 3062 (U. S., N. Y. Bot. Gard.); in bogs, same locality, 3000-3500

m., 1918, M. T. Dawe 778 (N. Y. Bot. Gard.). Paramo de Buena Vista,

Huila group, Central Cordillera, State of Cauca, 3000-3600 m., Jan. 1906,

Pittier 1205 in part (U. S.).

A species of the W. humilis group readily distinguished by its very large and

thick rhizome, comparatively large leaves, and large heads and involucre.

The rhizomes, as preserved, are almost always solitary, but no. 9878 is de-

scribed as forming large tufts. In some numbers the flowers are said to be

white; in no. 9878 the rays are described as white, the disk yellow. In dried

specimens the disk flowers appear to have been white or whitish.

496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 18

blydactyla; D, E, W. decora; F, G, W. pygmophylla; H, I, J, W. marcida; K, L, M, W.

lycopodioides; N, O, P, W. sedoides; Q, R, S, W. leucobryoides; T, U, W. cornea; V, W.

crassa. All drawn from specimens of the type collections. Habit figures all X 1,

leaves X 2. :

Nov. 4, 1928 BLAKE: SOUTH AMERICAN WERNERIA 497

Werneria cornea Blake, sp. nov. Fig. T, v.

Rhizomes creeping, branched, densely clothed with persistent leaf sheaths

and tufts of hair; living leaves rosulate, rather few, the sheath scarious, tri-

angular, about 7 mm. long, 3 mm. wide at base, densely long-pilose-ciliate

and with a fringe of still longer hairs within at base, the blade spreading, lin-

ear-spatulate or essentially linear, 7-10 mm. long, 1-1.5 mm. wide above,

very obtuse, coriaceous, somewhat canaliculate below, flattish above, the

margin and costa (this prominent beneath) corneous-thickened; heads sub-

sessile, ‘‘yellow,”’ radiate, small; involucre 9-10 mm. high, 9—13-fid.

Rhizomes up to 7 em. long, 5-6 mm. thick (including the leaf bases);

sheaths 3-nerved, somewhat amplexicaul, appressed, densely ciliate with

whitish hairs 5-6 mm. long, and with a tuft of hairs about 8 mm. long at

extreme base within (arising from the rhizome); blades inconspicuously

lucid-papillate; peduncle short and thick, concealed by the leaves; heads

1-1.2 em. wide; involucre glabrous, the tube multivittate, the teeth triangu-

lar, somewhat callous-thickened at the obtusish tip, with green yellowish-

papillate center and usually deep purple, scarious, above ciliolate margin,

6.5 mm. long, 3 mm. wide at base, 3-vittate, ciliolate at tip; rays about 11,

glabrous, in dried specimens deep violet above, the tube 1.5 mm. long, the

lamina linear-spatulate, 7.5 mm. long, 1.8 mm. wide, 3-nerved; disk flowers

about 23, their corollas glabrous, 5.7 mm. long, the tube 1.5 mm., much

swollen at base, the funnel form throat 3 mm., the ovate teeth 1.2 mm. long;

immature achenes glabrous, about 7-nerved; pappus whitish, 5.5 mm. long;

style tips (ray and disk) with subtruncate hispidulous tips.

Peru: Dry gravelly slopes, Punco, Dept. Hudnuco, about 34 km. west of

Huallanca, altitude about 4115 m., 1 Oct. 1922, Macbride & Featherstone

2477 (type no. 518903, Field Mus.; dupl. no. 1,121,767, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Closely allied only to W. canaliculata Sch. Bip. In that imperfectly known

species, to which I refer Mandon 103 (Gray Herb., N. Y. Bot. Gard.), the

leaf blades, although sometimes no longer (but at times reaching a length

of 3.5 cm.), are proportionately much narrower (0.5-0.8 mm. wide) and de-

cidedly acicular.

WERNERA (sic) BORAGINIFOLIA Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 3?: 184. 1898.

Kuntze’s type, collected by him at Paso Cuchichanchi, Bolivia, alt. 4000

m., is in the herbarium of the N. Y. Botanical Garden, and is identical with

W. strigosissima A. Gray (1861). Of the other species listed by Kuntze,

all of which are in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, his

“W. glaberrima Phil.” is W. pygmaea Gill.; his “W. graminifolia HBK.”’

is W. apiculata Sch. Bip; his ““W. humilis HBK.” is W. dactylophylla Sch.

Bip.; his “W. minima Meyen & Walpers”’ is not at all that plant (which from

description seems correctly referred by Weddell to a variety of W. pygmaea),

but appears to be allied to W. carnulosa A. Gray. It may represent a new

species, but the material is too scanty and poor for description. His ‘‘Wer-

nera wernerodes’”’ (Senecio wernerioides Wedd., Werneria cortusifolia Griseb.)

“4 mei plant, which is certainly a Senecio and to be known as S. wernerioides

edd.

WERNERIA LEHMANNII Klatt, Ann. Naturh. Hofm. Wien 9: 368. 1894.

Werneria glandulosa Klatt, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 8:50. 1886. Not W. glandu-

losa Wedd. 1856.

Klatt’s Werneria glandulosa, renamed W. lehmannii because of the earlier

W. glandulosa of Weddell, was based on Lehmann CXIV from Mount Chim-

498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 18

borazo, Ecuador, and is represented in the United States National Her-

barium by two good specimens of the type collection recently received in the

herbarium of Capt. John Donnell Smith. They agree perfectly with Klatt’s

description, and are normal specimens of Hypochaeris sessiliflora H. B. K.

Klatt’s description referred to the 5-toothed ligules, but he failed to appre-

ciate their significance, and he made no mention of the plumose pappus. His

“W. graminifolia H. B. K.” (Lehmann 425) is W. pumila H. B. K.; his “W.

humilis H. B. K.”’ (Lehmann 423a) is W. articulata Blake. Both the latter are

also in the Donnell Smith herbarium, now a part of the United States Na-

tional Herbarium.

BOTANY .—Seven new species of Valeriana from Colombia and Peru.

ELLSwortH P. Kiuurp, U. 8. National Museum.

Recent collecting in Peru by Dr. F. W. Pennell and in Colombia by

Mr. Albert C. Smith and myself has resulted in the discovery of several

new species of Valeriana. Descriptions of these follow.

Valeriana vetasana Killip, sp. nov.

Plant herbaceous, perennial, forming clumps; rootstock woody, thickened

above to 2 cm. in diameter and densely fibrose with the remnants of dead

leaves; stem up to 35 cm. high, slender, glabrous except at the nodes;

basal leaves narrowly linear to linear-spatulate, 8 to 15 em. long, 1.5 to 5

mm. wide, obtuse, entire, slightly revolute at margin, l-nerved, glabrous,

fleshy; cauline leaves 1 or 2 pairs, bract-like, linear, 6 to 10 mm. long, 1 to 1.5

mm. wide; bracts similar to cauline leaves, 1 to 0.5 mm. long; inflorescence

trichotomous (ultimate branches dichotomous), forming a loose panicle; bract-

lets linear, 2 to 3 mm. long, 0.5 mm. wide, obtuse, at length divaricate, pink;

corolla greenish white to pure white, the tube funnel-shaped, 1 mm. long, the

limb 2mm. wide, 5-lobed to middle; anthers slightly exserted; fruit oblong,

about 2 mm. long, compressed, 3-nerved on one face, 1-nerved on other,

glabrous, the pappus white, 10-rayed.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,353,163, collected on the

Pdéramo de Mogotocoro, near Vetas, Department of Santander, Colombia

(Eastern Cordillera, 3,700 to 3,800 meters altitude), January 18, 1927, by

EK. P. Killip and Albert C. Smith (no. 17601).

Additional specimen examined:

Cotomstia: Department Santander, Péramo de Las Vegas, 3700-3800 meters,

Killip & Smith 15665.

This is a much more slender plant than its relatives, V. longifolia, V.

plantaginea, and V. tatamana, with narrower leaves and a less compact in-

florescence, and with more evident, spreading bractlets. The fruit is nearly

twice as long as in V. longifolia.

The description was drawn from living material at the time of collection.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived September 6, 1928.

Nov. 4, 1928 KILLIP: NEW VALERIANA 499

Valeriana smithii Killip, sp. nov.

Plant perennial, herbaceous, erect, 75 to 100 cm. high, the rootstock appar-

ently woody, the stems stout, 5 to 7 mm. thick toward base, striate, glabrous

except at nodes; lower leaves narrowly oblong-lanceolate, about 10 cm. long,

1.5 em. wide, widest just above middle, acute, sessile at base, finely glandular-

serrulate, thickish, minutely puberulous and dark green above, pilosulous on

midnerve above, otherwise glabrous, paler beneath; cauline leaves varying

from cordate-ovate to lanceolate, from 3.5 cm. long and 2 em. wide to 6 em.

long and 1 em. wide, (uppermost smaller), acute or acuminate, distinct to

base, glandular-serrulate (serrulation more pronounced toward base); bracts

linear-lanceolate, 1 em. long, 0.5 cm. wide, acute; inflorescence paniculate, re-

peatedly trichotomous, the flowers in dense clusters at the ends of the branch-

lets; bractlets linear-oblong, 3 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. wide, rounded at apex,

purplish at center, light green at margin; corolla tube funnel-form, 2 mm.

long, very slender in lower half, abruptly dilated at middle, the limb 5-cleft

to throat, the segments about 1 mm. long, rounded at apex; anthers slightly

exserted; fruit subcylindric, 2 mm. long, trigonous, glabrous, purplish, pap-

pose, the pappus yellowish white.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,353,481, collected on the

Pd4ramo Frailejonale, near Vetas, Department of Santander, Colombia (East-

ern Cordillera, 3750 to 3850 meters altitude), January 21, 1927, by E. P.

Killip and Albert C. Smith (no. 17984).

Valeriana smithiz is allied to V. longifolia, but is differentiated by glandular-

serrulate leaves, the cauline leaves being proportionately broader, and by the

elongate, 3-angled, rather than short and much flattened fruit.

It is a pleasure to name this species for my companion on a four months’

trip through the heart of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, from the Mag-

dalena River to the Venezuelan border.

Valeriana pennellii Killip, sp. nov.

Perennial herb, 40 to 45 ecm. high, glabrous throughout; rootstock

thickened, woody; basal leaves lanceolate, 4 to 7 cm. long, 1.5 cm. wide,

long-petiolate (petiole 8 to 12 em. long), pinnately compound, the terminal

leaflet ovate, 1.5 to 2 cm. long, 0.7 to 1 cm. wide, obtuse, subentire, the lateral

leaflets 4 to 6 pairs, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, 0.5 to 0.8 mm. long, 0.3 to 0.5

mm. wide, obtuse or acutish, sessile, subentire; cauline leaves 1 pair, subses-

sile, similar to the basal but the leaflets slightly longer and more acute; bracts

linear-spatulate, 1 cm. long, 0.25 em. wide, obtuse; flowers densely congested

in globose, sessile (or the lower short-peduncled) heads up to 1 cm. in diameter,

borne on the main stem or on axillary branches; bractlets linear-spatulate,

about 3 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, rounded or truncate at apex, light brown,

purplish toward apex; fruit oblong, 1.5 mm. long, obscurely nerved, densely

purple-dotted, pappose, the pappus 6-rayed, white.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

507,927, collected on rock ledge, in cascade, La Raya, Department of Cusco.

Peru, altitude 4,400 to 4,500 meters, April 22, 1925, by F. W. Pennell (no.

13510). Duplicate in U. 8. National Herbarium.

This species is nearest V. cephalantha, from which it is distinguished by

fewer and larger leaflets, the terminal one being much larger than the lateral,

more obtuse bracts, and proportionately narrower fruit.

500 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 18

Valeriana parvula Killip, sp. nov.

Low, perennial herb, glabrous except at base of bracts; rootstock thickened;

leaves all basal, petiolate (petioles up to 10 mm. long, dilated), orbicular or

ovate-orbicular, 7 to 10 mm. long, 7 to 8 mm. wide, rounded, at apex, ab-

ruptly narrowed at base, entire or obsoletely lobulate, fleshy; stems several,

erect or decumbent, 2 to 4 em. long; bracts linear-oblong, about 3 mm. long,

0.8 mm. wide, obtuse; flowers in small cymes up to 5 mm. wide, the lowest

pair of cymes often distant and peduncled; bractlets oblong, 2 to 3 mm. long,

obtuse, hyaline, the midnerve dark; corolla white; fruit broadly lance-ovate,

2mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide at base, acute, glabrous, compressed, 1-nerved on

one face, obscurely 3-nerved on other, apparently epappose.

- Type in the herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphing

no. 635,824, collected on open grassy pufia, Cerro de Colquipata, Department

of Cusco, Peru, altitude 4,000 to 4,200 meters, by F. W. Pennell (no. 13756).

- Valeriana oblongifolia Ruiz & Pay., to which the proposed species is ob-

viously allied, is a much larger plant, pilose throughout, and has deeply

dentate cauline leaves. In general appearance V. parvula more nearly re-

sembles V. globiflora, but in that species the basal leaves are deeply pinnatifid.

Valeriana linearifolia Killip, sp. nov.

Plant suffrutescent, erect, about 75 em. high; stem terete, striate, minutely

pilosulous, woody below, herbaceous above, few-branched; leaves linear, 2

to 4 em. long, 0.2 to 0.4 em. wide, obtuse at apex, slightly narrowed below,

dilated at base, sessile, entire and subrevolute at margin, minutely pilosulous,

the upper internodes becoming elongate and the leaves decreasing toward in-

floresence; inflorescence cymose-paniculate, the branches dichotomous, ascend-

ing; bractlets linear-lanceolate, 3 to 5mm. long, about 1 mm. wide, acuminate,

green below, deep purple toward apex; corolla white, the tube funnel-form,

0.5mm. long, the lobes 5, orbicular; - style exserted, purplish; fruit lance-ovate,

2 mm. long, 1 mm. wide at base, compressed, 3-nerved on one ie 1-nerved

on other, pappose, the pappus white, 12-rayed.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,340,661, eesiboeged, on rocky

paramo banks, Paso de Tres Crucis, Cerro de Cusilluyoe, Department of

Cusco, Peru, altitude 3,800 to 3,900 meters, May 3, 1925, by F. W. Pennell

(no. 13856). Duplicate in herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural

History.

The position which this species occupies within the genus is problematical.

The suffrutescent habit and general aspect suggest V. hartella and V. alophis,

of Graebner’s section Galioides. In the branching of the inflorescence and

the shape and size of the bractlets and fruit the species resembles V. pinnatz-

fida and V. pedicularioides. Valeriana ledoides, the only Peruvian species of

Galioides, is described as having densely brown-tomentose stems and much

smaller oblong or linear-oblong, petiolate leaves.

Valeriana stenophylla Killip, sp. nov.

Cespitose perennial herb, forming clumps; rhizome repent (?), thickened

above to 2 cm. in diameter, branched at summit; leaves all basal, erect or

spreading, narrowly linear-spatulate, 2 to 2.5 em. long, 0.1 to 0.2 cm. wide,

————

Nov. 4, 1928 KILLIP: NEW VALERIANA 501

obtuse or acutish at apex, dilated at base, conspicuously 1-nerved, entire,

subrevolute, fleshy, retrorse-hirtellous with white hairs or glabrous; scapes

about as long as the leaves, erect; bracts ovate-lanceolate, about 5 mm. long,

connate, fleshy; flowers white, in clusters of 3 or 4; corolla funnel-shaped; the

tube 2 to 3 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide at throat, the lobes 5, oblong, about 1 mm.

long, obtuse; stamens slightly exserted, the anthers orbicular.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,351,519, collected on the

Paramo de las Vegas, east of Bucaramanga, Department of Santander,

Colombia (Eastern Cordillera, 3,700 to 3,800 meters altitude), December 20,

21, 1926, by E. P. Killip and Albert C. Smith (no. 15673).

Additional specimens examined: |

_ Cotompia: Department Cundinamarca, Paéramo de Choachi, near Bogota,

Pennell 2260 (U. S. N. H., N. Y. B. G., Field Museum), Killip &

Ariste Joseph 11953 (U.S. N. H.) .

_ This has the general appearance of two species occurring farther south in

the Andes, Valeriana crassipes (Wedd.) Hock, and V. niphobia Briq. (V.

hispida (Wedd.) Héck). Both of these plants, however, have 3-lobed corollas,

on the basis of which they were originally placed in the genus Phyllactis

by Weddell. Valeriana stenophylla is doubtless more nearly related to V.

bracteata—from which it differs in having much shorter and narrower leaves,

1-nerved instead of several-nerved. The type specimens are more hairy than

the other collections cited here, but it is doubtful if more than a single species

is represented by the material. ,

Valeriana imbricata Killip, sp. nov.

Low, matted shrub, freely branching at base, the branches 4 to 6 cm.

high; leaves closely imbricate, 4-ranked, linear-spatulate or linear-oblong, 3

to 5mm. long, 1 to 1.2 mm. wide, obtuse or acutish, 1-nerved, sessile, entire,

(opposite leaves connate at base), revolute at margin and ciliate with stiff,

spreading hairs, fleshy, ascending, at length recurved; flowers in a single ses-

sile cluster at the tip of the stem, nearly hidden by the uppermost leaves

(bracts); bractlets linear, 1.5 mm. long, acute, hyaline at margin; corolla

narrowly funnel-shaped, 5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide at throat, 3-lobed, the lobes

triangular-ovate, about 1.3 mm. long, acutish; anthers long-exserted.

Type in the Field Museum of Natural History, no. 548,677, collected

above Huancabamba, Province of Huancabamba, Department of Piura, Peru,

altitude 3,200 meters, April, 1912, by A. Weberbauer (no. 6088).

This apparently has a relationship to the species grouped by Graebner in

the segregated genus Aretiastrum, namely A. aretioides, from Ecuador, A.

sedifolium, from the Falkland Islands, and A. aschersoniana, from Peru.

All of those plants, however, have 4 or 5-lobed corollas, and each differs from

V. imbricata in various details. This group of species may well constitute a

genus distinct from Valeriana, but in view of our present imperfect knowledge

of the lines of demarkation between the genera of Valerianaceae, the proposed

species is tentatively referred to Valeriana.

502 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 18

BOTANY.—A new representative of the grass genus Timouria from

Mongolta.:! Dr. R. Rosuevitz, Principal Botanic Garden, Len-

ingrad, Russia. (Communicated by A. 8. HircHcock.?)

Recently? Dr. A. 8. Hitchcock, the well known American agrostolo-

gist, published anoteentitled ‘““Twonew grasses, Psammochloa mongolica

from Mongolia and Ortachne breviseta from Chile,” in which he de-

scribed a new genus and new species of grass collected by R. W. Chaney

(nos. 502 and 443) on the Third Asiatic Expedition of the American

Museum of Natural History. The drawing accompanying the de-

scription, illustrating the analysis of the spikelet of the new grass, at

once recalled to me my new genus Jimouria.t A detailed comparison

of the characters of the two genera confirmed my impression that they

were the same. ‘The species described by Dr. Hitchcock (Psammo-

chloa mongolica) is, however, evidently different from the original

species of Timouria, T. Saposhnikowi. The latter species is found in

the upland steppes of the main ridge of Tian-Shan, while the former

inhabits the dunes of Mongolia at an altitude of about 1000 meters.

It is therefore necessary to reduce Psammochloa Hitche. to a syno-

nym of Timouria Roshev. The species described by Dr. Hitchcock

being transferred to Timourta becomes: Timouria mongolica (Hitchc.)

Roshev. (Psammochloa mongolica Hitche.).

In conclusion it may be mentioned that the finding of a second

species of the genus Timouria is of great botanical interest as proving

that this genus which includes several characters of the genera Stipa

(Section Lasiagrostis) and Oryzopsis, is apparently a very ancient

group. The fact of having been found in such distant localities as

the mountain chain of Tian-Shan and the dunes of Mongolia, is proof

that the genus was spread over vast areas in early times and seems to

indicate that the two species here considered are survivals that have

maintained themselves in only a few places in the immense Asiatic

continent.

1 Received April 15, 1928.

2 Soon after the publication of Psammochloa I found the genus Timouria described in

the Flora of Asiatic Russia, a work which had not been earlier accessible because of the

world war. I at once recognized that Psammochlou was the same as Timouria but that

the Mongolian species was distinct. I had planned to make the correction, transferring

that species to the earlier genus Timouria. Happily Dr. Roshevitz, a recognized author-

ity on the flora of central Asia, has come to the same conclusion, which he has presented

in the short paper here published. A.S. H.

3 This JOURNAL17: 140. 1927.

4 Timouria Roshev. in Fedtsch. Fl. Ross. Asiat.1!2: 173. pl.12. 1916.

nov. 4, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 503

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

Q75TH MEETING

The 975th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, May 12, 1928.

Program: Colloquium on units and standards. L. V. Jupson: Length.

The accuracy at present obtainable in length measurements at the Bureau

of Standards, when two line standards of length having the same nominal

length are compared, was shown by a chart on a lantern slide. The per-

centage accuracy was given as a function of the magnitude in question and the

distinguishing features of the graph were a maximum for one meter compari-

sons,.a dip for 5 meters, and a slight rise for 50 meters. It is possible that the

falling off for magnitudes greater than 1 meter may be to a considerable

degree due to the fact that there have not been urgent reasons for develop-

ing methods to increase the accuracy above that rather easily obtainable.

The recent work of the Japanese in measuring a five-meter bar directlyin

terms of cadmium wave-length was given as an illustration of the possibility

of increasing the accuracy should there be a real demand. The present un-

certainties of the true corrections to apply to the platinum iridium standards

were referred to and the opinion expressed that these would be remedied at an .

early date. (Author’s abstract.)

A. T. Prenxowsky: Mass. Recomparisons of about 30 of the National

Prototype Kilograms just like the International Kilogram have indicated that

they, and presumably the international standard itself, are remaining con-

stant within 0.02 mg. or less, except where there were known causes for change,

and except one or two that gained about 0.02 mg.

Limiting the discussion to magnitudes measured in the laboratory, and for

which real standards are maintained, and omitting exceptional degrees of

precision and the measurement of small differences where the total mass is

not known, the curve of per cent precision versus total mass has a sharp maxi-

mum at one kilogram.

At 10-* kg. (1 mg.) the precision of measurement is about one in 10+;

at 1 kg. it is one in 108; and at 10° kg. it is about one in 10°.

With one type of microbalance, quantities from 10~* kg. to 10-* kg. (100

mg. to 1 mg.) have been measured with a precision from one in 108 to 10°.

The most conspicuous factor limiting the precision is the density of the air,

which varies slightly even under standard conditions and in the same locality,

while weighing in a vacuum involves unknown effects on the gases and vapors

adsorbed on the surfaces. The most important subjects needing investiga-

tion for increasing the precision of measurement are: adsorbed surface films,

air density, and methods of determining and controlling the buoyant effect

of the air. (Author’s abstract.)

PauL SoOLLENBERGER: Time. In the measurement of time we have to

deal with two different sorts of problems, depending on whether the interval

is of comparatively long or short duration. In the former case the interval

may be measured in terms of the Earth’s rotation whereas in the latter case it

must be measured by the use of some auxiliary timekeeping device, which

must in turn be rated by comparison with the Earth’s period of rotation. In

order to observe the rotation, telescopes are employed. There has not re-

cently been any decided improvement in dealing with this part of the prob-

504 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 18

lem; the best instruments in actual use for this purpose are probably the

small reversible transit telescopes with self-recording micrometers.

Probably the best known work in the field of timepieces which has been

recently performed has been the development of the Shortt clock; it is claimed

that its long period running is much better than that of clocks heretofore

in use.

In the matter of time distribution the steady improvement in radio trans-

mission and of apparatus for the accurate reception of time signals has made

possible increased accuracy and usefulness.

The measurements of short periods of time, as a few seconds, must obviously

depend on the accuracy of artificial timekeeping devices, and upon the ac-

curacy with which they can give signals. The rates of the very best clocks

may perhaps be determined to within one part in ten million. The accuracy

with which a single second can be measured is not anything nearly so good.

The best mechanical break circuit devices may give signals having errors

less than a thousandth of a second, and by special electrical means this error

may possibly be decreased by another decimal place. If the interval to

be measured is only a fraction of a second we can not use the precision pen-

dulum, but must bring in some other device, as a tuning fork, to be calibrated

at the time of use by the more accurate pendulum.

The measurement of long time periods, as a number of days, give the great-

est possible relative accuracy. In fact the only limit in the increase of ac-

curacy as the period lengthens is the variation in the Earth’s rate of rotation.

Concerning the exact amount of this variation we, of course, still remain in

doubt. (Author’s abstract.)

H. L. Curtis: Electrical units. Resistance. Resistances of the value of

one ohm can be intercompared with an accuracy of one or two parts in

10,000,000. ‘The accuracy of intercomparison decreases with both higher

and lower values of resistance. With a value of a millimicrohm the accuracy

is not more than 10 per cent while the same accuracy can be obtained with a

megamegohm.

Electromotive force. ‘Two cells having a value of about one volt can be in-

tercompared with an accuracy of about one part in 10,000,000. A micro-

volt can be measured with an accuracy of about | per cent whereas a megavolt

can be measured with an accuracy of about 10 per cent.

Current. Currents of one ampere can be intercompared with an accuracy

of about one part.in 1,000,000. However, a micromicroampere can be meas-

ured with an accuracy of only 10 per cent whereas a kiloampere can be de-

termined with an accuracy of one part in 10,000.

Inductance. Inductances of a value of millihenry can be intercompared

with an accuracy of about one part in 100,000. A millimicrohenry, however,

can be determined with an accuracy of only about 10 per cent while a kilo-

henry can be determined with an accuracy of | per cent.

Capacitance. ‘Two microfarads can be intercompared with an accuracy of

one part in 100,000. A micromicrofarad can be determined with an accuracy

of about 1 per cent. Also a millifarad can be determined with the same ac-

curacy. (Author’s abstract.)

E. F. Mun.urr: Temperature.

C. V. Hopason: Angle.

976TH MEETING

The 976th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, May 26, 1928.

Program: R. W. Boyus: Ultrasonics.

H. E. Merwin, Recording Secretary.

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ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Tuesday, November 6

Wednesday, November 7

Thursday, November 8

Friday, November 9

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Tuesday, November 20

The Botanical Society

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THe ACADEMY

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sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

CONTENTS

Onrern at Papers

Botany. Now South American species of Wernéeia. 8. F. BUARR.--.ssen0

Botany.—Seven new species of Valeriana from Colombia and Peru.

P, Rite ace ee ee

Botany.—A new representative of the grass genus Timouria ‘yee Mongoli

PRoceEDINGS | Tee

>*F

_ OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY _

Proslone Bouerr B. Sosman, Department of Research and 1

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Treasurer: Bek, Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

i AT oP it

a = 4 x r

NovemBer 19, 1928 No. 19

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 18 NovEMBER 19, 1928 No. 19

PHYSICS.—A new equation for the determination of surface tension

from the form of a sessile drop or bubble... N. ERNEsT Dorsey,

National Research Council.

Although the value of the surface tension can not be deduced from

measurements of the dimensions of a sessile drop or bubble with as

high an accuracy as it can be obtained by other methods, yet the

method of sessile drops and bubbles, especially with the aid of photog-

raphy, is particularly well adapted to the investigation of any secular

change that may occur in the surface, such as the progressive decrease

in the effective tension when the liquid contains certain colloidal

substances.

The measurements can be made upon a suitable photograph of the

profile of the surface. Photographs can be taken at such intervals as

may be desired, and the time at which each is taken can be accurately

determined. While doing this, the surface under study is not dis-

turbed in any way. By none of the methods commonly used can such

a series of measurements upon an undisturbed surface be obtained.

Furthermore, the measurements of the photographs can be made at

one’s leisure, and can be repeated as often as may be desired.

Heretofore, the only means available for computing the surface

tension from the dimensions of a sessile drop or bubble have been

formulae (1), (2), (3),and (4) and a table prepared by Heydweiller? from

Siedentopf’s graphical computations and the formulae (2), (3), and (4):

1 Received October 6, 1928.

2A. HEYDWEILLER. Wied. Ann. 65: 311-319. 1898.

505

506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 19

eee

A? i oes eng ae (1):

4 cos? = - oo ae 4

(Z) +508 (5) (5) + [720 + 2520 (F)'] (G)

r\?2 r\é r\? R—-r

+ | 17280 + 2880 (5) + (*) \ (=) = 138240 (“——) (2)4

i 3 A? Pie

1 |

/ ‘i R Ko A BKaa

- 9 4 Kn 7” Ke Jo pe hn | 8a vc

4 ea rR

A 2 V2 x Ne vs) Cia ae |

a “a a 4)6

ta he os Ajit we .

In these formulae, A? = T'/g(d — d’), T being the surface tension,

g the acceleration of gravity, and (d — d’) the positive difference in

the densities of the fluids separated by the surface; r is the radius of the

maximum horizontal section of the drop or bubble, # is the radius of

curvature of the vertex (B, Fig. 1) of the surface, and the quantities

represented by the other symbols are as indicated in Fig. 1. |

Heydweiller’s table is based on the quantities r and K4, covers the

entire range of sizes, and is estimated to be of such accuracy as to give

T with an error not exceeding 1 per cent in excess of that introduced

by errors in the measurements. He seems to have prepared and

checked the table with care, but it appears to have remained unused

by others.

’W. F. Magare. Phil. Mag. (5)26: 162-183. 1888; Wied. Ann. 25: 421-437. 1885;

A. Frreuson. Phil. Mag. (6)25: 507-520. 1913; J. E. VerscHarrett.. Proc. K. Akad.

Amsterdam 21: 836-849. 1919; Leiden Communications, Suppl. 42e. 1918; 8. D. Pors-

son. Nouvelle théorie del’ action capillaire. 1881.

4TH. Lonnstern. Wied. Ann. 54: 713-723. 1895.

5 TH. LoHnstTeIN. Wied. Ann. 53: 1062-1073. 1894.

6S. D.Porsson. Nouvelle théorie del’ action capillaire (See Heydweiller, /. c.).

Nov. 19, 1928 DORSEY: SURFACE TENSION 507

All the formulae involve the quantity R, and, excepting (2) and (4),

the quantity AK. Under suitable conditions, the value of & can be

determined with fair accuracy from observations made upon the sur-

face itself, but it can not be satisfactorily determined from photo-

graphs of the profile. The determination of Ay. volves an exact

determination of the position of the plane of maximum horizontal

section; this can not be done satisfactorily. Equation (1) might be

used with any value of 6, but in each case the difficulty of determining

the position of the plane at which the surface has that inclination

arises, except when @ corresponds to the line of contact of the surface

with the solid against which the drop or bubble rests. In that case,

Figure 1

6 must be determined experimentally, and such a determination is

beset with difficulties.

The table and all the formulae involve quantities that can not be

determined satisfactorily from measurements of the profile of the sur-

face. Furthermore, the formulae are awkward to use, and the order

of approximation of the one (1) that is simplest and most frequently

used is quite unsatisfactory except for large drops or bubbles. For

example, if r? = 10A?, which corresponds to a water drop about 1.7 cm.

in diameter, the values of A? as computed from equation (1) with @ =

0°, 90°, and 135° will be too great by 3.7 per cent, 6.6 per cent, and

16.5 per cent, respectively.

508 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 19

Hence, in view of the special adaptation of this method to the study

of secular changes in the surface, it seemed desirable to attempt to ob-

tain from the tables of Bashforth and Adams’ an empirical equation

that contains only such linear quantities as can be readily determined

from a photograph of the profile of the surface, and as require no exact

knowledge of the position of the horizontal plane at which the surface

has a specified inclination. This equation should have an accuracy

well in excess of that set by the inherent errors in the measurement

of the photograph.

Equation (5), in which f = Bie Ba 0.41421, fulfills thes

Ye ae ee — 0.12268 + 0.0481 (5)

conditions. The value of (213; — K4.35) is equal to the distance CB

(Fig. 1), which is equal to (DE — DB) where E is any point upon

the 135° tangent. Consequently, it is not necessary to know either

the exact point of tangency or the exact position of the horizontal

plane at which the inclination of the surface is 135°. If the surface

were a true sphere of radius 7, CB would be equal to (,/2-— 1) r

= 0.41421r. Hence f may be regarded as’ a measure of the flat-

tening of the drop or bubble. Both the radius r and the difference

(%135 — K.i3s;) can be determined directly from a photograph of the

profile of the surface. An error of 0.001 in f will produce an error of

0.8.per cent in A2, and this is probably as high an accuracy as should

be expected. The computed percentile correction that must be added

to the right member of equation (5) in order to make it equal to the

true value of A? does not exceed +0.06 per cent if r lies between 1.54

and 3.2A (Table 1), and actually differs little from the errors of com-

putation. Hence, equation (5) itself is of ample accuracy, and the

computed data in Table 1, covering the entire range of the Bashforth -

and Adams’ tables, indicate that this equation will be quite satis-

factory for still larger drops. For such drops, the accuracy of the

values derived by equation (5) can be checked, within the limit of

accuracy with which Ky. can be determined, by means of Heyd-

weiller’s table.

7BasHrortaH and ApAms. An attempt to test the theory of capillary action.

Cambridge Univ. Press, 1888.

Nov. 19, 1928 PAPERS ON VOLCANOLOGY: AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION 509

TABLE 1.—ConsTANTs FOR SESSILE Drors AND BUBBLES

0.05200 dA? d

A? = 7? |——- 0.12268 + 0.04817 | (1 + 4); ibe -o

Tw = value of rif A? = 0.075 cm.,? approximately the value for water.

eee each tential sokuy tae

0.125 0.3466 0.095 cm. +1.34% 0.00624 E0f5 163

1.0 0.8853 0.242 +0.48 0.03739 1.094 29 .2

3.0 1.3350 0.366 +0.10 0.07652 1.206 15.76

6.0 1.6645 0.456 0.00 0.10872 1.311 12.07

12.5 2.0388 0.558 —0.02 0.14595 1.453 9.96

25. 2.4074 0.660 —0.02 0.18147 1.598 8.81

50. 2.7841 0.763 —0.04 0.21543 1.789 8.30

1.991 8.07

100. 3.1646 0.868 +0.01 0.24685

VOLCANOLOGY.—Sctentific papers at the 1928 meeting of the Section

of Volcanology, American Geophysical Union.!

These papers were communicated at the Eighth Annual Meeting of

the Section of Volcanology of the American Geophysical Union, held

in the Board Room of the National Academy of Sciences on April 27,

1928. The manuscript was prepared by Rosrert B. Sosman, Secre-

tary of the Section, and approved by the speakers.

Present volcanic activity over the earth. H. S. WaAsHINGTON, Geo-

physical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

The period covered by these brief remarks includes the years 1926,

1927, and the first few months of 1928. This period was one of moder-

ate activity, with few major eruptions, the main one being that of

Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, in April 1926, which, however, lasted only

about three weeks. Since then it has been quiet. Subsequent to the

very violent explosive eruption of Halemaumau in Kilauea (May,

1924) the crater of Halemaumau has been nearly quiescent, the lava

having sunk out of sight some years ago. Lava appeared for two

weeks in July, 1927, but there are no very striking signs of renewed

activity. The 40 odd voleanoes of the Aleutian Islands would seem

to have had a season of unusual activity during 1927, according to

Dr. Jaggar, who visited them that year. Mageik, near the volcano of

Katmai (Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes) was in eruption in October,

1927, when a large area was covered with ash. Throughout the

Pacific the volcanoes generally have been quiet, except for an eruption

1 Received September 28, 1928.

510 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 19

at the Tonga Islands (1927) and a new volcano at the Galapagos (1926).

Lassen Peak was quiet during most of this period, but there was an

unverified report of an eruption in May, 1927. An observatory was

established at this voleano in 1926 to study the vocanic phenomena

and earthquakes. In Japan there were two volcanoes in eruption on

the island of Hokkaido during 1926 which did considerable damage.

Izaleo, in San Salvador, almost continuously active, had a specially

violent eruption in November, 1926, when 56 people were killed by

a flood of lava. Colima, in Mexico, was reported active in January,

1926, after 12 years of repose.

Vesuvius was in its usual state of minor activity, but had eruptions in

the summer of 1926, when lava is said to have poured down the outer

slope. This was much exaggerated in the newspapers. Thereported

activity of the Solfatara is somewhat doubtful (1926). The eruption

of the Fouqué Volcano at Santorini, Greece, which began in August,

1925, came to an end in 1926, but it is reported to have resumed activ-

ity in May, 1927. The volcanoes of the Dutch East Indies appear

to have been in their normal condition of activity, except that an

apparently somewhat violent submarine eruption at Krakatoa took

place in January, 1928. Itis not known whether this is continuing or

not. This is the voleano that had a first-magnitude explosive

eruption in 1883.

There were no reports of eruptions in South America or in Iceland.

: (A bstract.)

The year’s volcanological publications. ARTHUR L. Day, Geophysical

Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

The volcano reports of the leading periodical of voleanology, the

Zeitschrift fur Vulkanologie, are of two kinds: (1), student’s studies of

individual volcanoes; (2), reports from field observers. The latter

were relatively few in 1927. A descent of Etna was described, but

the conditions as regards gases and smoke must have been very differ-

ent from those met with by the speaker in 1924.

The most conspicuous publication of the year was Karl Sapper’s

Vulkankunde. This is particularly strong on the historical side.

It is the result of about ten years of work. Less attention is paid

in the book to the psysico-chemical side than the speaker would have

liked. Historically, the account is very complete from the Tertiary

down. There is full discussion of the kind of phenomena seen at

volcanoes: gases, lavas, and sequences of products. Silicate relations

are hardly {considered. In all, it is the best available book on

volcanism.

Nov. 19, 1928 PAPERS ON VOLCANOLOGY: AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION 511

Another conspicuous event is the establishment of regular reports

from the Dutch East Indies in languages other than Dutch, in pursu-

ance of a proposal made at the Japanese Pan-Pacific Congress.

The amount of information on hot earth zones in the United States

is increasing. Since the publication of Allen and Day’s monograph

on the steam wells in California, additional borings have been made,

and there have also been added one boring in the Imperial Valley of

California and three in the Dutch East Indies.

(Secretary’s abstract.)

The classification of the hot areas in the Yellowstone Park and the causes

of their development. E. T. ALLEN, Geophysical Laboratory,

Carnegie Institution of Washington.

The numerous hot areas in the Yellowstone Park, though quite

varied in external characteristics, may all be referred to a few distinct

types. These are distinguished from one another by the nature of the

deposits, the composition of the waters, the abundance of the watei-

supply, the thermal intensity, etc. The key to the differences in the

waters and the deposits is found in the ratio of the sulphur and the

water-supplies to one another. The two principal types show a rather

striking segregation into distinct areas. This segregation, as well as

the wide variations in thermal activity, in the depth of springs, and,

in some measure also, in the size of the areas and the abundance of the

water supplies, is tentatively attributed to differences in the character

of the faulting in different parts of the Park.

; : (A bstract.)

The acid gases contributed to the sea during volcanic activity. E. G.

Zizs, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Wash-

ington.

A study of the emanations given off in the fumarolic area of the

Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes brought out the fact that even though

the percentage concentration of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids

in the steam may have been small, yet the aggregate amount emitted

per year was very great.

In this paper attention is directed to the importance of considering

both the intensity and capacity factor involved in gaseous emanations.

These factors govern the kind of work done by the gases. ‘Thus the

amount of halides of the various bases that can be transported from

a deep-seated igneous body to the surface at some given temperature

will depend on the partial pressure or percentage composition of the

512 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 19

acid gas. ‘This is the intensity factor in the steam. On the other

hand, for a given temperature, it is the total quantity of these acid

gases in the steam that is effective in the alteration of the rocks over

which they may be passing. This is the capacity factor. |

A specific case of the effect of the capacity factor is discussed, namely:

The amounts of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids that were con-

tributed per year to the sea. ‘The quantitative basis for these calcula-

tions is presented and the theory put forward by Suess and Becker

that part of the chlorine of the sea is derived from the hydrochloric

acid given off during volcanic activity is discussed. ,

It is also shown that the amount of hydrofluoric acid emitted by the

fumaroles in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes is less than the

amount of hydrochloric acid but that it is of a similar order of magni-

tude. The amount of the former acid that was contributed to the sea

was so large that some mechanism must be invoked by which fluorine

is continuously removed from the sea either through biological or

chemical processes or both.

The various methods by which fluorides can be coprecipitated with

other substances even when only very small concentrations of fluorine

are present in solution are discussed. The great sedimentary phos-

phate beds of the world are cited as an example of the concentration of

relatively large amounts of fluorine through biological and chemical

processes. The fluorine content of these beds is discussed both as to

percentage concentration and total amount present.

Finally, attention is directed to the desirability first of finding a

direct method for the quantitative estimation of small amounts of

fluorine; secondly, of making a careful determination of the average and

regional fluorine concentration in the sea; and thirdly, of making

systematic determinations of the chlorine, fluorine, and boron content

of sedimentary and of altered rocks.

(A bstract.)

Volcano research of the United States Geological Survey. T. A. JAGGAR,

U.S. Geological Survey.

In Hawaii, the tilt, tremor and sulphur accumulation about Hale-

’ maumau during 1926 indicated upward magmatic pressure. On July

7, 1927, lava burst through the talus of the bottom of the pit. It

followed a line parallel to the Kau Desert cracks. The frothy black

basalt spouted at three vents for two weeks, made a new floor about

fifty feet thick, threw up small cones all within the pit, and ejected

flames and incandescent streams, basaltic pumice and Pele’s hair.

Nov. 19, 1928 PAPERS ON VOLCANOLOGY: AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION 513

There was no unusual earthquake frequency such as accompanies

subsidences at Halemaumau. ‘There was no reaction of subsidence

nor any inward tilt following the cessation of visible flowing. On

January 11, 1928, there was avalanching from Halemaumau walls.

One large slide so overweighted the floor of the previous July that

pasty incandescent lava flowed up cracks. There was no gas-activity

and no eruption followed. ‘The flowing endured only a few hours.

The section of Volcanology of the U. 8S. Geological Survey is now

operating seismographs at Lassen Volcano, Kodiak, Kilauea, Keala-

kekua and Hilo. Two stations on opposite sides of Kilauea crater,

northeast and west, are now registering earthquakes. The new west

station is the Uwekahuna observatory on the highest Kilauea summit.

The seismograph is a three-component Imamur instrument built by

Akashi of Tokyo, with modifications suggested by Jaggar. All three

components write on one drum, the damping is magnetic, the sus-

pensions are of wire, and timing devices are being developed by

R. M. Wilson whereby the clock-contacts at intervals register the

clock-error by wireless on an amplifier-controlled chronograph at the

main station. The time at the main observatory is similarly con-

trolled by wireless reception from Pearl Harbor, Mare Island and

Arlington.

A new seismograph has been designed and constructed in the shop

of the Hawaiian Volcano Research Association by the officers of the

Observatory. Three two-component machines are finished and placed

for testing, one at Kodiak, Alaska, one in a new specially constructed

cellar at Hilo, Hawaii, and one at Cheltenham, Maryland, destined for

Sitka, Alaska. These machines hang directly from iron plates in

cellar walls, on cardan hinges, with adjustments for period and center-

ing, with hollow heavy masses to be filled with sand at the installa-

tion locality, oil damping, jewelled pens, magnification 130 and mass

about 80 lbs. The chronograph registers both components on one

sheet of smoked paper, and the time-marks are gaps in the record

made by a Howard clock through lift of the pen-tips electro-magneti-

cally. ‘Time is received by wireless and the correction impressed on the

selsmogram once a day through a telegraph key.

During the past year, geodetic codperation by the Coast Survey

has created a new line of precise levelling to the top of Mauna Loa,

a new tide-gauge station at Hilo and gravity measurements at Hilo,

Kilauea and Mauna Loa. ‘The levelling will be repeated from time to

time to check changes of elevation. The tide-station will be con-

514 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 19

tinued, and the mareograms are recorded by Mr. Wilson with a view

to discovering tidal waves and interpreting changes of elevation of the

Hilo bench-mark datum. ‘The gravity measurements indicated anom-

alies in the direction of excess of mass, Kilauea greater than Hilo, and

Mauna Loa greater than Kilauea.

The Uwekahuna observatory at Kilauea is also a museum and

lecture hall, and this has been transferred to the National Park Ser-

vice for motion-picture lectures to tourists and explanations of the

geology of the crater by ranger-naturalists. Retriangulation of the

Kilauea net and adjustment of the observations by Mr. Wilson has

disclosed constriction of the crater, to match the vertical collapse

that accompanied the explosive engulfment of 1924.

The Lassen voleano observatory has now been in service for a year

and a half under R. H. Finch. No eruptions of Lassen Voleano have

occurred. Occasional local seismic spells are indicated by the seis-

mograph at Mineral. Hot-spring temperatures have been measured

here and in the steam region of Sonoma and Napa Counties.

Dr. Jaggar established a seismograph in the basement of the residence

building of the Agricultural Experiment Station at Kodiak, Alaska,

in August 1927. At the end of August there was an explosive eruption

of Mageik voleano in the Katmai group in the Alaskan peninsula.

This caused falls of pumice and ash in the western bays of Kodiak

Island for several days. In the first week of July he visited Gareloi

and Bogoslof voleanoes in the Aleutian Islands. Gareloi wassending

up dense yellow fumes from its summit crater-cup. Bogoslof was in

full lava eruption after the fashion of 1907. <A pile of steaming ande-

site had risen between Castle Rock and Grewingk, surrounded by a

warm salt-water lagoon at 74°F. The outer sea water was at 50°. The

lagoon was nearly circular, and surrounded by a gravel ridge, without

any channel connecting lagoon and ocean. On the gravel were im-

pact craters and clinkery black bombs and pumice boulders. There

were hundreds of sea lions, and thousands of murres and gulls. The

new activity of Bogoslof had started in mid-July, 1926, as reported by

mariners, and prior to that there had been open sea water between

Grewingk and Castle Rock. ‘There were explosions every few months

in 1926 and 1927. Akutan volcano was wholly quiet in the summer of

~1927, Shishaldin and Mount Martin were steaming.

The 1927 reconnaissance of the Aleutian belt had in view the estab-

lishment of a seismograph station at Dutch Harbor as well as at

Kodiak, and as both of these places are Naval radio stations, good

Nov. 19, 1928 SNYDER: NEW RETICULITERMES 515

time service is assured. The Dutch Harbor instrument will be in-

stalled in 1928. ‘The reconnaissance included a journey to Bristol

Bay, another to Attu and exploration in a motor-boat of Pavlof Bay,

Voleano Bay, Belkoski and Morzhovoi Bays, and examination of the

Izembek shore of Bering sea. ‘These explorations revealed an un-

named voleano approximately 5000 feet high southwest of Pavlof

Peak, to which the name Dutton Peak was tentatively given. It was

also determined that the Aghileen Pinnacles are very remarkable min-

aret peaks apparently encircling a basin. The exploration of the

whole group will be continued, a topographic map will be made, and

photographs, both cinematographic and still, will be taken in the sum-

mer of 1928, by an expedition of the National Geographic Society,

directed by Mr. Jaggar.

Active exploration of the Aleutian belt for natural history purposes

depends onmaps. The making of hydrographic charts and topographic

maps may be done most expeditiously by joint service of the Coast

Survey and the Geological Survey from Dutch Harbor. The build-

ings there are available as a base. There is needed a sea-worthy

Diesel yacht of the halibut-boat class for this purpose; the boat should

be of shallow draft and from 60 to 100 feet long. Both government

services are ready to begin work in 1929. If appropriations for such a

vessel can be obtained, with a small increase of funds, the Volcano

Section of the Geological Survey will place an associate voleanologist

in Alaska permanently.

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new Reticulitermes from Baltic Sea amber (In-

secta—Isoptera).. THomMAs E. SNyprER, Senior Entomologist,

Bureau of Entomology, U. 8. Department of Agriculture.

Among a collection of fossil termites, which I purchased several

years ago, is a very small new species of Reticulitermes, Family Rhino-

termitidae. The other fossil termites in this collection are representa-

tives of the Families Kalotermitidae and Rhinotermitidae; no species

in the highest family, Termitidae, have been found in Baltic amber.

This new Reticulitermes shows that several distinct species in this

genus existed in the warmer Baltic region of the Lower Oligocene

period, several millions of years ago, and that the very destructive

species now living in the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions of the world

are remnants of an ancient genus, once more widely distributed, in- .

cluding in prehistoric times diverse forms not greatly different from

living species.

1 Received September 27, 1928.

516 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 19°

Reticulitermes minimus Snyder, n. sp. (Figure 1)

Winged adult—Head dark castaneous brown, longer than broad, with

scattered long hairs; ocelli separated from compound eyes by a distance

slightly less than the long diameter of an ocellus. Postclypeus lighter colored

than head, dark yellow-brown, bilobed.

Antennae dark yellow-brown, with 14 segments; with long hairs on

segments.

Figure la (below).—The winged adult of Reticulitermes minimus in Baltic Sea amber.

Dorsal view, X 23.

Figure Ib Gibave: —View emia details of wing venation, X 6. é

Pronotum slightly lighter in color and not as broad as the head, roundeay

and shallowly emarginate posteriorly; long hairs on margins.

Wings of a smoky color, costal area darker, membrane markedly retic-

ulate, but no hairs on margins of wings, except at base, on wing scale or

stub.

Legs with tibiae not darkened.

Measuréments:—

Length of entire winged adult: 6.15 mm.

Nov. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 517

Length of head: 0.90 mm.

Length of pronotum: 0.35 mm.

Length of fore wing (to wing scale or base): 4.40 mm.

Length of fore wing scale: 0.50 mm.

Long diameter of eye: 0.22 mm.

Width of head (at the eyes): 0.60 mm.

Width of pronotum: 0.50 mm.

Width of fore wing: 1.20 mm.

Holotype, winged adult, number 41546, U. S. National Museum.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

714TH MEETING

The 714th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 14, 1928, with

President GoLDMAN in the chair and 205 persons present. New member

elected: RoBERT SHOSTECK.

E. A. GoLDMAN was nominated as Vice-president of the WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCEs to represent the Biological Society.

R. M. Lispey mentioned the observation of a saw-whet owl in Arlington

Cemetery on a recent walk of the Audubon Society.

A. N. Pacx, American Nature Association: In Glacier Park with the white

goats, big horns, beavers, and other wild life (illustrated).—The speaker showed

several reels of moving pictures taken on a recent trip to Glacier Park by

himself, W. L. Fintey, and others, and gave an account of the trip. The

pictures of mountain goats were especially noteworthy.

VERNON Baitey: A real live beaver from Michigan.—The speaker exhibited

a beaver about nine months old and weighing about twenty pounds belonging

to Victor J. Evans. For about twenty minutes the animal sat quietly on a

small table in front of the audience and munched a large sweet potato and a

few crusty rolls. The beaver is kept in a special house and presents an un-

usual opportunity for studying its food preferences and general habits. Cap-

tured beavers very quickly become tame and are extremely gentle and in-

telligent pets. A large old beaver weighing 50 pounds is just as quiet and

gentle when first taken from the live trap as was this young one. Further

studies are being carried on, and later it is hoped that something can be

learned of their breeding habits and other habits which are important in the

management of the many beaver farms being started in the north country.

S. F. Buaxen, Recording Secretary.

715TH MEETING

The 715th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 28, 1928, with

President GoLtpMaAN in the chair and 58 persons present. New member

elected: Mrs. Marcaret M. Nice.

E. P. WALKER presented notes regarding the weight of elk.

THomas K. CHAMBERLAIN, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries: Life history and

conservation of fresh water mussels of the Mississippi River (illustrated).—

The speaker outlined research work in progress and the importance of mussels

commercially in button manufacture and pearl production, 40,000 to 50,000

518 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 19

tons of shells being used annually in button manufacture, having an aggregate

value of from $7,000,000 to $8,000,000. ‘The life history of mussels, including

development of the eggs in the marsupium of the mussel gill chamber, the

manner of attachment of the glochidia to fish, their growth, development,

and distribution were discussed. Recent experiments employing a culture

medium designed to eliminate the heavy losses of mussel glochidia under

natural means of development and distribution were described and the im-

portance of making the production of mussels a farming proposition through _

planting of suitable mussel-producing areas was stressed. |

Lewis Rapcuirre: The International Halibut Commission.—The history

and work of the Commission, the importance of the halibut fisheries, and the

life history and habits of these fish. The system of tagging fish as a means of

studying their migration on the various important banks and the significance .

of the percentage recaptured as a means of determining the percentage of all

fish taken in the commercial fisheries was discussed. He also called attention

to the strenuous and often dangerous character of the work of the crews and

scientific staff engaged in the work.

W. H. Ricu discussed the two preceding papers briefly and called attention

to the importance of research work now being conducted upon the salmon of

the Pacific Coast which he stated would be discussed in greater detail by Com-

missioner O’Mauury. Brief comments were also made by President GOLD-

MAN on observations made in connection with the menhadden fisheries. |

W. B. Bett, Recording Secretary pro tem.

716TH MEETING

The 716th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 11, 1928; with

President GoLDMAN in the chair and 135 persons present. New member

elected: Bowrn S. CRANDALL. |

A resolution regarding the recent death of BrapsHaw H. SwWALEs was

presented.

F. L. THonz announced that the translation of WILLSTAETTER’s great work

on chlorophyll by Dr. F. M. Scurrrz has just been published.

C. W. StTILEs reported the receipt from the central West of an interesting.

specimen, consisting of the cyst of the larval stage of an armed tapeworm.

Twelve such cysts were found in the brain of a foreigner, who was taken with

Jacksonian epilepsy and died in a few hours. It was probably a case of re-

versed parasitization. The disease is very rare in the United States.

EpaGar Brown reported that for the last three winters a female cardinal

had been in the habit of flying repeatedly against a window in his house.

The window has been covered with a screen to prevent injury to the bird,

but it still flies against it. Dr. Wermors stated that this habit is well known,

and that it is generally believed that it is an attempt on the part of the bird

to fight its own reflection.

Henry O’Matuey: Life and habits of the fur seal and the salmon of the

Pacific coast (illustrated) —The speaker showed several reels of moving pic-

tures from the Alaskan coast and islands, in part taken by the Finley-Church

Expedition, showing nesting murres, sea lions, blue foxes, fur seals, and the

pursuit, capture, and subsequent disposal of a whale. The different methods

of capturing salmon were also fully illustrated. In conclusion, a film was

shown, taken at the Fish Commission Building, showing the way in which the

male large-mouth black bass guards its young from other predaceous fish.

Discussed by Lewis RapcuiFFe, who mentioned that 75 per cent of the world-

Nov. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 519

take of sealskins comes from the Pribilof Islands and 60 per cent of the world-

pack of canned salmon from Alaska.

717TH MEETING

The 717th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 25, 1928, with

President GoLpMAN in the chair and 110 persons present.

L. O. Howarp gave an account of the last meeting of the New Jersey

Mosquito Extermination Association. Discussed by C. H. Mmrriam.

A. A. DoouiTtLe, referring to the cardinal reported at a previous meeting

as persistently flying against a window to fight its reflection, suggested that

it would be interesting to hang a white curtain behind the window to cut off

the reflection. : :

C. D. Marsa reported the fatal poisoning of a ranger in Yellowstone Park

last year from eating the roots of a species of Crcuta, mistaken for edible

camas. 2

W. B. Miter: Alaska reindeer and forage problems (illustrated) —The

speaker showed numerous slides of Alaskan scenery and animals and discussed

the reindeer situation in Alaska, referring particularly to numbers of animals,

range problems, and the results of cross-breeding experiments with reindeer

and caribou.

C. W. Stites: Zoology and religion.—The speaker presented by request a

paper already given before the Mt. Pleasant Congregational Church, an

-abstract of which has appeared in Science 47 (no. 1729): Suppl. p. xiv. Dis-

cussed by C. H. Merriam, who defined religion as the relation of man to the

supernatural, and illustrated by reference to the religions of the California

Indians.

718TH MEETING

The 718th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 10, 1928, with

President GOLDMAN in the chair and 95 persons present. New member

elected: L. T. GAGER.

Titus ULKE exhibited a specimen of pelicanflower, Aristolochia grandi-

flora sturtevantii, and discussed its fertilization.

A. 8. Hircucock stated that funds are now being raised to finance the

work of the Interim Committee on Botanical Nomenclature appointed at the

International Botanical Congress at Ithaca in 1926. Discussed by C. W.

Stites, who felt that the work of such a committee should be supported by

one of the big scientific foundations. Nomenclature is not a mere academic

matter, and a great amount of time and money is lost through changes in

names which bring no corresponding return to science.

StanteEY P. Youna: Predatory animals and methods for their control

(illustrated) —The speaker described the four main predatory animals in the

far West, the wolf, mountain lion, coyote, and bobcat, as well as the stock-

killing bear. The early history of organized procedure against predatory

animals as practiced by the Biological Survey was briefly discussed. This

brought in brief mention of the rabies epidemic among coyotes occurring

on the far western ranges, particularly in the States of Nevada, Utah, Idaho,

and Oregon, at the same time stressing the fact that the coyote is a harborer

of rabies. The history of the codperative development of predatory animal

control work was also discussed as this codperation pertains to the various

range States, counties, and local stock and game associations. The various

methods used by the Biological Survey in controlling predatory animals were

described, three main methods of control in particular, trapping, poisoning,

520 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 19

and den hunting, being graphically illustrated by lantern slides. Depreda-

tions occasioned by predatory animals to stock and wild game were also

stressed and examples of such depredations shown on the screen. In de-

scribing the wolf infestations which occurred in Colorado in 1921, a brief ac-

count was given pertaining to each individual wolf pack known to exist in that

State, which totalled 8 individual packs, the largest of which contained

33 wolves. In the 8 packs were 9 distinct outlaw wolves which taxed the

ingenuity of the Government hunters to the utmost before they were cap-

tured. (Author’s abstract.)

Ernest P. Watxker: Alaska bird colonies (illustrated).—Bird colonies are

ordinarily supposed to be few and far between, and in most regions they are,

but again Alaska proves the exception. In addition to the notable colonies

of sea birds on Forrester, Hazy, St. Lazaria, Tuxedni, Bogdslof, St. Matthew,

Chamisso, and the Aleutian Chain, administered by the Biological Survey,

and the Pribilof Islands, administered by the Bureau of Fisheries, there are

numerous less well-known islands and portions of the mainland coast where

large numbers of sea birds nest. The ledges and cliffs of both islands and

mainland coast supply nesting sites for more than twenty-five species of birds.

The swampy delta regions and tundra country, so extensive in some sections,

afford choice homes for myriads of ducks, geese, brant, swans, and shore-

birds of a number of species. The sand and gravel bars and glacial moraines

as well as the swampy sections afford nesting sites for the Aleutian and arctic

terns, gulls, and shorebirds. (Author’s abstract.)

719TH MEETING

The 719th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 24, 1928, with

President GoLDMAN in the chair and 135 persons present.

C. W. Stites exhibited a bottle containing 365 specimens of Ascaris lum-

bricoides, all taken from a child about three years old, and commented on the

symptoms shown by such a serious infestation. Cases sometimes terminate

fatally although this one did not.

F. G. AsHsproox: Muskrat farming (illustrated).—The muskrat is now the

most important fur animal, commercially, in the United States, the average

annual production of skins being about 13 million. Its ability to maintain

itself in the face of constantly changing conditions makes it of great eco-

nomic importance, and a large amount of acreage is now devoted to the raising

_of muskrats, particularly marsh areas bordering the Great Lakes and tide-

water marshes of New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Louisiana. The

first essential is good marshland, with luxuriant food and sufficient water

so that it will not freeze solid during the winter. The entire area should be

inclosed in a fence to retain the muskrats and keep out enemies. Marsh

areas on the eastern shore of Maryland have yielded as high as 4205 pelts in a

_ season from 800 acres, while in Louisiana 163,000 acres of marshland pro-

duced 350,000 muskrats. Muskrat raising is particularly profitable because

the carcasses as well as the pelts are salable. In 1904 muskrat pelts were

selling at about 25 cents each and the carcasses at about $1 adozen. In 1925

the pelts were $1.50 each and the carcasses $3 a dozen. ‘The carcasses are

packed in ordinary barrels and sold on the markets of Baltimore, Washing-

ton, Wilmington, and Philadelphia under the name of ‘‘marsh rabbit,’’ but in

using this name no attempt is made to conceal the fact that the offering is

muskrat meat. The flesh, a light mahogany color just after the pelt is re-

moved, becomes darker when exposed to the air. It is almost black after it is

fried and therefore not very appetizing, but is greatly appreciated by some

A, -

Nov. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 521

people. The breeding season starts late in February or early in March in the

northern part of North America, and earlier in the South. The average

litter produced by a young female is about four, but animals two years old

average eight to ten young to the litter. Young born in the first litter in the

spring will produce young in the fall. Pen-raised muskrats produce three

litters a year; but four and sometimes five litters have been born when autumn

weather was mild. The young muskrats are blind and naked when born,

but develop rapidly. Muskrat farmers have shown that the muskrat is

polygamous.

N. B. McCurntocr: The ways of beaver (illustrated).—The speaker, a

member of the faculty of the University of Pittsburgh who devotes his time

to making moving pictures of wild life to be used for educational purposes,

exhibited excellent moving pictures of beaver taken in Pennsylvania and

Michigan. The animals are monogamous and mate for life. The houses

are of two types, bank houses and island houses. The houses are usually

about six feet in diameter inside and may be twelve feet across outside, and

usually have two or more entrance holes. The floor is lifted only four to six

inches above the level of the water, in order that the weight of the stick the

beaver is eating may be supported principally by the water. The animals

do not hibernate, but feed every day during the winter on the supply of

branches gathered during the fall. They swim by alternate strokes of the

hind feet at a rate of about five miles an hour when not frightened. The

speaker found that the beaver could remain under water for at least nine and

a half minutes. They have from three to six young, born in April. The

pictures exhibited showed a mother beaver with six young beavers, beavers

repairing a broken dam, and other aspects of their life. Discussed by C. W.

Stites and P. B. JoHnson, with especial reference to possible correlation

between their ability to remain so long under water and the size of the liver

and suprarenal glands.

S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary.

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

441sT MEETING

The 441st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 25, 1928, President

HeEwETT presiding.

Informal communications: W. C. MANSFIELD called attention to an ex-

posure in a stone quarry about 8 miles south of Emporia, Va., where three

formations and two unconformities are exposed. The lower 50 feet of the

outcrop consists of the basement rocks. Fossiliferous strata 7 or 8 feet thick

occupy a depression in these basement rocks. The fossils indicate that the

formation is marine Yorktown (Miocene), here much farther inland than

previously reported. The Yorktown formation is in turn overlain by un-

fossiliferous terrace deposits. Discussed by R. 8. Bassuer.

WALDEMAR LINDGREN reported the discovery of the bismuth mineral,

wittichenite (3Cu.S-BiS3), in a mine 6 miles from Cerro de Pasco, Peru.

This is the first known occurrence of this mineral in North or South America.

Program: Prof. W. H. Bucuer, University of Cincinnati: Cryptovolcanic

regions. The term ‘‘crypto-volcanic’”’ was coined by Branca and Fraas! for

the structure of the Steinheim Basin in Southern Germany. The basin forms.

1W. Branca and E. Fraas. Das kryptovulkanische Becken von Steinheim. Abh.

K6n. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. 1905.

522 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 19

a ring-shaped depression of 14 miles diameter in the limestone plateau of the

Schwaebische Alp. Its center is occupied by a hill crowned with deposits of

calcareous sinter. Natural exposures and tunnels dug for the purpose of

geological investigation have proved this central hill to consist of older rocks

carried above their normal level in intensely disturbed position. The basin

surrounding it is the result of a depression below the normal level. Origi-

nally, in Miocene time, the basin was occupied by a freshwater lake in which

deposits were laid down that have become famous for their mammal and fish

remains.

The essentially circular outline, an outer ring-shaped depression and a

central uplift, unaccompanied by true volcanic activity, are the characteris-

tics of the American crypto-volcanic structures as well. Two such structures

have been mapped by the writer since 1920: The “Serpent Mount Structure,”

on the boundary line of Adams and Highland Counties in Ohio,? and the

‘“Jeptha Knob Structure,” centering in the isolated Jeptha Knob of Shelby

County, Kentucky. A third structure of apparently similar nature, Wells

Creek Basin, of Stewart County, Tennessee,* will be mapped by the writer

this summer for the Tennessee Geological Survey.

Two major objections have been raised against the interpretation of these

structures as of volcanic origin:

1.—The interior of the United States has since Cambrian time been notori-

ously free from all volcanic activity. It seems unjustified in such a region to

turn to vuleanism for the explanation of structures not associated with lavas or

tuffs, or at least with some evidence of contact metamorphic alterations.

2.—Even if a volcanic origin were conceded, no known volcanic process

seems adequate to account for the peculiar character of the disturbance.

The structures are decidedly not of laccolithic character. Up to the very

edge of the structures the surrounding stata lie undisturbed. The mag-

matic body whose activity is reflected at the surface must therefore have had

the shape of a plug. But no process is known that would allow us to picture

the rise of a volcanic plug, 15 to 4 miles in diameter near the surface, without

making room for the ascending lava column by volcanic explosion.

As to the first objection, it can be shown that while true vulcanism is absent

in the interior of the United States, the number of places is growing constantly

in this region where igneous rock is found to have risen to the now exposed

level of the stratosphere. In all such cases the amount of contact meta-

morphism is negligible. A few especially significant cases referred to in the

address follow. In the case of the peridotite dike of Fayette County, Penn-

sylvania, the contact effects are nil in limestone and extend but a few inches

in the shales. This dike is especially instructive in the fact that it does not

reach the surface and yet, according to L. B. Smith,® at one place it has lifted

a zone 12 feet wide in the Waynesburg sandstone, four feet.

In Hardin County, Illinois, the association of the intricate block faulting,

and especially the nearly circular, abrupt Hicks dome, with lamprophyre and

2W.H. Bucner. Crypto-volcanic structure in Ohio of the type of the Steinheim Basin

(Abstract). Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 82: 74. 1921. Complete report in preparation for

Ohio Geol. Surv.

3W.H. Bucuer. Geology of Jeptha Knob. Ky. Geol. Surv. (6) 21: 193-237. 1925.

4See Geologic map of Tennessee. ‘Tenn. Geol. Surv. 1919; also Erin Quadrangle

topographic sheet, Tenn.

5L.B. Smita. Biennial Rept.1910-12. Pa. Top. Geol. Surv. 1912: 150-156.

nov. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 523

peridotite dikes and with tuff-like materials as in the Sparks Hill plug, is

significant. In Missouri, on the Camden-Laclede County line, in the midst

of an area of abnormal and rapidly changing dips, a pegmatite dike outcrops,

covering but a few square yards. “The rocks for many acres around, rep-

resenting the lower formations, either stand on edge or are greatly tilted.’’?

Metamorphic effects are limited to the immediate contact. On the Rose

Dome, in Woodson County, Kansas, intrusive granite outcrops over some-

thing like 100 acres. Metamorphism is limited to a distance of 15 inches

from the outcrop.®

In Riley County, Kansas, a porphyritic peridotite forms an outcrop of

about one acre. This small size makes it improbable that this, like the other

igneous bodies quoted above, ever reached the surface. In this case the

abundance of shale inclusions is significant. They amiounD to 3 to } of the

volume of rock.

These, together with the scattered discoveries of less ionic volcanic

dikes, show that voleanic materials actually traveled upward into the strato-

sphere in the interior of the United States, and that it is characteristic of

them not to have reached the original surface.

The second objection is removed by observations of Du Toit in South

Africa. He has described volcanic plugs that never reached the surface.

He called them “‘bell-jar shaped intrusions.” The observations were made

in much dissected country of up to 1500 feet relief, with many excellent

natural sections where the details were quite clear, justifying this description:

“The magma welled up along a fracture that was oval in plan and thus

came to isolate a vertical and presumably cylindrical mass of sediments from

the surrounding horizontal strata. It then spread out at the top, thus sever-

ing the enclosed column from the formation above; the nature of the base is

purely conjectural. Deprived of support on all sides, the contents of the

- ‘bell-jar’ collapsed, the strata within became extensively injected with the

magma, suffered tilting—sometimes to a high angle—and as a whole ex-

perienced considerable subsidence as well.’’® It is characteristic that almost

up to the edge of the structure, the surrounding rocks lie undisturbed. Here,

then, we have definite evidence that circular plugs of voleanic material have

risen into the stratified rocks nearer the surface without breaking through.

It is interesting to note that the diameters of these South African bell-jar

intrusions compare well with those of the known crypto-voleanic structures.

The smallest has the same diameter as the Steinheim Basin, 14 miles. The

two larger ones, 33 X 6 miles and 4 X 7 miles, compare favorably with the

largest American example, the Serpent Mound Structure with a diameter of

about 4 miles.

The conclusion seems justified, therefore, that erypto-volcanic structures

represent surficial disturbances produced by circular or elliptical plugs that

rise as ‘‘bell-jar injections” and fail to reach the surface. As such they are

to be expected in regions which are free from volcanic activity and show

§L. W. Currier in Stuart Wetter. The geology of Hardin County. Ill. Geol.

Surv. 41: 237-244. 1920.

7E. M. Sueparp, letter quoted in C. N. Gounp. Crystalline rocks of the Plains.

Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 32: 548. 1923; ArTHuR Winstow. Lead and zinc deposits. Pt. 2.

Mo. Geol. Surv. 7: 432-433. 1894.

8 W.H.Twennoret. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 37: 403-412. 1926.

*A.L.Du Torr. The Karoo dolerites of South Africa; a study in hypabyssal Secion:

_ Trans. Geol. Soc. South Africa 23: 10-11. 1920-(1921).

524 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 19

igneous rocks only in the form of scattered dikes and finger-like plugs that

at the time of intrusion failed to reach the surface, and have been made

visible only by regional denudation. |

Discussed by Messrs. Kerra, GILtLuLY, HEWETT, Stosz, Baker, BAssLER,

and SEARS.

ARTHUR KerTu: Structure composite of North America. (See Bull. Geol.

Soc. Am. 39: 321-385. 1928.)

Discussed by Messrs. G. R. Mansrietp, Bucuer, ReEEsIpE, and

SCHUCHERT. .

442D MEETING

The 442d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, May 9, 1928, President

HEwWETT presiding.

Informal communication: W. C. ALDEN showed several photographs of the,

Sperry Glacier, Glacier National Park, Mont., taken in August, 1913, and 14

years later, in August, 1927. This small glacier, in the west side of the

Continental Divide near Lake MacDonald, lies in a north-facing cirque above

the great cliff at the head of Avalanche Basin. The foot of the glacier is

7,000—7,400 above sea level.

In 1913 the front of the glacier rested on top of the innermost ridge of the

latest terminal moraine. This rock moraine is very fresh, with no soil nor

vegetation upon it. By 1927 the front of the glacier had receded about 100

yards from the 1913 moraine, leaving exposed a bare rock surface with seat-

tered pebbles and boulders upon it. A short distance outside the 1913 mo-

raine is an older moraine somewhat smoothed down by erosion and with

scrubby trees growing upon it... These relations are in accord with the opinion

among geologists that the fronts of glaciers in the United States are, in gen-

eral, receding.

Program: C. W. Cooxe: The stratigraphy and age of the Pleistocene de-

posits in Florida from which human bones have been reported. (This JouRNAL ~

18: 414-421. 1928.)

J. W. GrpLtey: The contemporaneity of man and extinct animals in Florida.

O. P. Hay: Age of the ‘‘No. 2” bed at Vero and Melbourne.

Joint discussion of the three papers by Messrs. W. C. ALpEN, PAuL

BartscH, A. V. Kipper, J. B. Reesipe, Jr., H. G. Fercuson, and W. T.

SWINGLE.

W. W. Rusey, A. A. Baxsr, Secretaries.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

N. Ernest Dorsey, Associate Editor of the International Critical Tables

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oe ae

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MY,

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nee sy PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

DECEMBER 4, 1928 No. 20

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 18 DECEMBER 4, 1928 No. 20

METEOROLOGY and OCEANOGRAPHY .—Scientific papers pre-

sented at the jount meeting of the sections of Meteorology and Oceanog-

raphy, American Geophysical Union.

The joint meeting of the sections of Meteorology and Oceanography

during the ninth annual assembly of the American Geophysical Union

was held in the building of the National Academy of Sciences on April

26, 1928. The joint meeting was devoted to a symposium and dis-

cussion on interrelations between the sea and the atmosphere, and the

effect of these relations on weather and climate. The communications

presented were on problems related to (a) solar radiation, (b) surface-

water temperatures, and (c) atmospheric circulation. Reference to

the papers under (a) will be found in Bulletin 68 of the National

Research Council, and also to one by Sir Frederic Stupart, J. Patterson,

and H. Grayson Smith under (b); the other three papers under (b)

and those under (c) are printed below.

PROBLEMS RELATED TO SURFACE-WATER TEMPERATURE

Reliability of different methods of taking sea-surface temperatures.

CHARLES F. Brooks, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

This discussion is based chiefly on observations by the writer during

46 days at sea in middle and low latitudes of both Atlantic and Pacific,

and on studies of the deck and engine-room logs of eight steamships.

Altogether the conditions investigated cover practically the whole

gamut of marine conditions from iceberg waters to calm tropical seas

and from heavy storm to quiet weather.

Sea-surface temperatures, from a meteorological standpoint, involve

525

526 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

more than the temperatures of the surface film. While it is the sur-

face film alone that is in contact with the atmosphere, warming or

cooling, humidifying or drying the air, the continuation of the influence

of this sea surface at approximately the same level of temperature

depends in considerable measure on the temperatures of the general

surface layer of the sea, the layer that is commonly stirred by the

wind to depths of 5 to 20 or more meters. ‘Therefore, in this discussion

of the reliability of different methods of taking sea surface tempera-

tures, I shall include observations both at or near the actual surface

and at a depth of 5 to 10 meters.

Two years ago an article of mine on “Observing water-surface tem-

peratures at sea’’ appeared with a summary of the discussion that fol-

lowed its presentation before the American Meteorological Society in

Washington three years ago.!. There was appended also a comment

by Mr. F.-G. Tingley, Chief of the Marine Division, U. 8S. Weather

Bureau. Even in the low latitudes of the Caribbean Sea, I showed in

this paper that in March, 1924, the sea was so well stirred by the wind

that its temperature was within 0.1 degree the same at the surface

near the bow, at the stern on the side or in the propeller wash and at

intake depths, 6 or 7 meters. I indicated also that the usual canvas-

bucket method was beset with numerous sources of error and that when

air temperatures were appreciably lower than the sea temperature,

errors of several degrees commonly arise, owing mainly to evapora-

tional cooling of the bucket; and I found that the errors of condenser

intake temperature records were appreciable, but less than those of

the bucket. I concluded that the condenser intake temperature

records were preferable to the canvas-bucket ones as indications of the

surface temperatures under most conditions. I was convinced, how-

ever, that reliance would be placed better on a thermograph record

than on those of uninterested observers. Mr. Tingley’s studies of the

canvas-bucket records made at Greenwich Mean Noon specially for

the Weather Bureau indicated that they were sufficiently reliable,

when used in fairly large numbers, for showing the changes in tempera-

ture occurring along the routes covered. But for well-founded marine

meteorological studies we need to know the actual temperatures as

well as the changes. With care, the errors of the canvas-bucket and

condenser intake records can be reduced to insignificant proportions,

but, unfortunately, that care cannot usually be commanded.

In the discussion of the paper there was no dissent from the general

1 Monthly Weather Rey. 54: 241-254. June, 1926.

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 527

conclusion that seawater thermographs should come into widespread

use. The experience of several present pointed to the bulb-capillary-

and-Bourdon-tube type of thermograph as most rugged and generally

satisfactory, and a condenser-intake pipe installation as best. Some

question was raised, however, as to how far sea temperatures at 5 to

7 or 8 meters depth could be used as representing the surface tempera-

ture in calm weather, especially in summer or in the tropics. A study

of this question, submitted a year later showed that even in summer an

accurate record of temperature at intake depth would, with few

exceptions, represent more closely the slightly higher surface tempera-

ture than the usual evaporationally cooled canvas-bucket observation

of the actual surface temperature.

Since 1925 six seawater thermographs have been placed on American

and three on Canadian ships—two others are about to be installed.

These eleven installations, nine of which are in the Atlantic, at least in

part, are under the auspices of the U. 8. Weather Bureau,? Clark Uni-

versity, The Scripps Institution of Oceanography, The International

Ice Patrol (2), The Carnegie Institution of Washington, the American

Meteorological Society, the Furness-Bermuda Line, and the Canadian

Meteorological Office (3). The Canadian Meteorological Office still

operates its group of three seawater thermographs on the Canadian

Pacific steamers crossing the Pacific. Thanks to a grant from Clark

University, it was possible to purchase a Tycos seawater thermograph

and to travel with it on the FINLAND, on which the Weather Bureau

had installed it, from San Francisco to New York last May. On this

voyage I had an excellent opportunity to check the conclusions, just

summarized, reached after a cruise in the West Indies on the

EMPRESS OF BRITAIN in February and March, 1924, and to make ob-

servations in calm weather under a vertical sun.

The new set of observations made by me on the FINLAND were all

by the same thermometer, calibrated by Mr. S. Chambers at the

Scripps Institution of Oceanography. The necessary thermometric

corrections, 0 to 0°.1C were applied throughout. For obtaining

samples of sea water a rubber-covered tin bucket of broad cylindrical

shape and having a capacity of 1.7 litres was dropped from the lowest

open deck about 9 meters to the water. Experiments with the bucket

before sailing showed that a full bucket cooled 0°.1C the first minute

after leaving the water when it was exposed to a wet bulb temperature

* The Weather Bureau owns 1, operates another and will soon be caring for 2 more.

528 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

6°C below the water and to a wind of 9m/s.? The bucket observations

I made on the ship usually took 30 to 40 seconds from the time the

sample left the sea till the temperature was obtained. Every set of

observations included the wet bulb temperature and the wind velocity.

Under the most extreme conditions it is probable that the bucket cooled

0°.2 in a one minute observation, but the average conditions were

only one-quarter as severe. ‘The average negative error for all the

tin bucket observations is estimated at 0°.03C. Therefore it has

appeared reasonable to accept the tin bucket temperatures as correct

without making any allowance for the insignificant cooling.

The standard observations for checking intake temperature records

by the engineers and the Tycos seawater thermograph were obtained

with the same calibrated thermometer and insulated pail as were used

for the surface data. A large drain faucet was installed for the purpose

at the base of the intake pump by Mr. Schiffmann, refrigerator engi-

neer, and from this faucet the temperature of a rapidly filled second

bucket was obtained. Experiments were made to discover whether

the heat of the room affected the temperature of this bucket of water

to an observable degree in the 10 seconds required for an observation.

No effect was detected.

In windy weather, when the surface layer of the sea is well mixed,

table 1 shows that on the FINLAND as well as on the EMPRESS OF

BRITAIN the difference fore and aft did not exceed 0°.1C more than

once in 23 comparisons, and averaged 0°.05C. In quiet weather,

however, under a nearly vertical sun the contrast between the

warmer surface water sampled near the bow and the deeply stirred

water in the propeller wash becomes appreciable. The following notes

made May 10, 1927 at latitude 15°N. in the Pacific, about 40 miles

from the coast of Oaxaca, Mexico, may be of interest in showing how

large the differences may become on quiet days and how readily they

are erased by light winds.

Today was a bright sunny day, with mostly light airs, and no land in sight.

The sea temperature was from 84 to 88°F, and I found conditions unequalled

for certain comparisons of surface and intake depth conditions. I had

noticed that yesterday afternoon there was no opportunity of obtaining a

constant temperature by any number of full dips, and suspected then that the

farther from the ship the bucketful was obtained the higher would be the

temperature. This afternoon at 2, after much bright sunshine and only a few

ripples to disturb the surface, I found temperatures of 87.2-87.8 when my

3 Details are presented in the 1928 report of the Committee on Submarine Config-

uration and Oceanic Circulation of the National Research Council.

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 529

buckets dipped more than 2 feet from the ship, and 85.3 to 85.5 when actually

or practically in contact with the side when the sample was obtained. At the

same time (just after) the propeller upwell (caught square in the middle)

was 84.0. At 4, after about an hour of wind of B.1 the warm surface layer had

become mixed so that both near and far the temperatures were 87.0 to 87.2.

The propeller upwell was 85.6. More wind B.1 to 2 for 2 hours put the ship-

side temperature constant at 86.6—-7, while the propeller upwell was 85.9.

After two hours more perhaps deeper water was involved in the mixing, for

the temperature fell to 85.8. A water sampling from the stateroom port-hole

at 9 showed 85.7 three-quarter hour after the last 85.8 sample on the stern,

suggesting that the mixing of the top 15 or 20 feet had been fully accomplished

by 9 p.m., with a wind of 1-2 Beaufort.

TABLE 1.—ContTrasts IN SEA TEMPERATURE ABOUT A LARGE SHIP IN MOTION

z g Shipside near bow vs. prop.

5 _ 3 wash temps.

g = OS pes

: 2a A 7 = 4 2

Ship 3% S as ° °C difference Shs

F Bost 8 lee. ai

EMPRESS OF BRITAIN...| 2-5 | Any 10 8 42 |3]51]21 0 |0.04/—0.02

Ne. ok ewes: 2-5 | Any 13 9 78 | 513) 41] 1 (0.06/—0.05

BONGAND ; 2352 2) 50s 3 0-2 | Daytime 8 5 40 0.13

exc.

12-

4:30 p.

MENEAME 37.02.0000... 0-1 5 3 43 | Bow dips 0.9

close in to

ship’s side.

(3) Bow dips away 1.5

from ship’s

side

@ When wind was B.2 the case was included here if the force 2 had been immediately

preceded by light winds.

’ Light winds since morning.

On the afternoons of three days which were quiet and fairly sunny,

the forward hauls ranged from 0°.6 to 1°.4 and averaged 0°.9C warmer

than those from the propeller wash, while dips made by flinging the

bucket some distance out from the ship (1 to 3 meters) from the lowest

open deck forward were 0°.6, 1°.9 and 2°.1, or a mean of 1°.5C the

warmer. In quiet weather other than between noon and 4:30 p.m.

the range of differences was from 0°.1C warmer forward than aft,

and the mean of 8 cases 0°.13C warmer forward. Unfortunately,

530 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

since no lights are permitted on the forward deck, it was impracticable

to make more than a few comparisons (none of these in calm weather)

between the ship-side forward and the propeller wash at night. So

far as all these comparisons may indicate the extreme range of con-

ditions, from sunny tropical calm_to cold stormy weather, it appears

that the temperatures of samples from the upwell from the propellers

may be used interchangeably with those from ship-side hauls forward

except between about 11 a.m. and 5 p.m. in calm sunny weather.

Another limitation should also be noted. It is sometimes difficult to

get clean up-well, and there is always a chance of getting a haul con-

taining some of the hot out-take, In a series of hauls from the pro-

peller wash I once obtained a temperature 0°.4C higher than the

general run, and have at times hauled up an oily film. On the side of

the stern I found the hauls 0°.2 to 0°.4C warmer than forward. Also,

one fairly quiet sunny day, a range of 0°.5C was noted in a series of

true propeller-wash hauls, owing apparently to the varying depth

from which the water was pushed to the surface. |

Table 2 shows that by eye observations the intake drain averages

0°.05C warmer than temperatures obtained by bucket at the surface

in stirred water, but that there is no such close correspondence in quiet

weather, the intake for the mean of three instances being 0°.3 colder

than the surface at the side of the bow:

TABLE 2.—Sea TEMPERATURES AT SURFACE VS. INTAKE DEPTH, BY EYE OBSERVATIONS

Shipside near bow or prop. wash. temps. vs.

refrigerator intake pump drain faucet

gs | 3 Intake the ae Intake

Ship a 2 3 warmer °C mldexeG the

ol eal nee

5 | ra o : Oo

(ie ig a ec aig B15 (5

= 3S | 8 | S [03] 0.2] 0.1] 0.05 01}08) g | ¢/8

a 6 6 3 $ aos

= Za z D =) SaaS

EMPRESS OF BRITAIN .| 2-8 bt 8 3-26 0 | 0 | 4 2 iO ab 0.07 |0.06

FIN GAS D sees Sa e it-4 | 16 12 |10-30) 1 | 0] 3 1 i RC ge 0.09 |0.04

HENTAI OL). Lek O55 Bik 8 1/0/0] 0]0]1/] 1° |0.4 0.3.

¢ When light winds, propellor wash temperature taken instead of bow side

temperature. .

’>Cf. the larger differences, found earlier in the afternoon, between shipside and

propellor-wash temperatures, discussed above.

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 531

Table 3 gives in extenso the same facts as the first part of Table 2,

the intake thermograph data being used for comparison with propeller-

wash temperatures. Here the intake is a mean of 0°.03C, a negligible

amount, warmer than the surface data. |

TABLE 3.—Sea TEMPERATURES AT SURFACE VS. INTAKE DEPTH, BY Eyk OBSERVATIONS

AT SuRFACE (IN PROPELLOR WASH) AND CorRRECTED* THERMOGRAPH

InpIcaTIoNs (““TrRuE INTAKE’’) BEtow. S. S. FINuanp.

Hour SC, bS'a.m.| ~ 10 12

SN ee ee ee a

Number of cases

kitty: 0 0 0 0 |0 0 0 je

0.6] 2 5) 6 aa ae 2 1 Lal

True intake the colder by.{

No difference...........5.-..: 0 7 0 "i 8 | 6 3 6 4 |41

0.6; 4 3 3 3 tL, i22

i gt

True intake the warmer by . { , 0 0 0/0 0 1 Ld We

ee)

TREAD TSI. 3 oe's 6 u's 4 vine hier cks 14 8 16 PS ia tl & 8 11

PMELEMMANE: Wises Ob Si c's as vie 0.2;—0.2|—0.2} O | 0.1 ]0.1/0.4] O | 0.038

* Corrected to pump drain faucet temperatures daily.

Combining the observations made by myself on the EMPRESS OF

BRITAIN and on the FINLAND with those by Lieut. Commander Edward

H. Smith on the mopoc and Tampa‘ we find that except in calm or

nearly calm weather the temperatures at 5 to 7 meters depth were the

same, within 0°.2C, as those at the surface 49 times out of 50. Since

quiet weather is uncommonly met at sea, this fact makes observations

at either surface or 5-8 meters depth generally sufficient for both. In

quiet weather, however, surface temperatures may be much higher

than at 5 meters, the differences exceeding 1°.5C at times. Near

shore these surface excesses of temperature may be greater than any

met with in the open sea. Observations by the Scripps Institution of

Oceanography at 5 and 10 miles west of the Institution’s pier at La

Jolla, Calif., show such surface warming to be the normal condition in

the warmer months there. According to a summary kindly furnished

by Dr. G. F. McEwen® the mean surface temperature during 35

fortnights was 0°.66C + 0.1 warmer than the water at a depth of 5

* Monthly Weather Rev. 54: 252-253. June, 1926.

5 Ibid. p. 252-253; also by surmise from the difference between ship-side and pro-

peller-wash temperatures, of which I observed an extreme of 2.7°C.

§ Details in the 1928 report of the Committee on Submarine Configuration and Oceanic

Circulation of the National Research Council.

5382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

meters at the station 10 miles out, and for 29 fortnights was 1°.34C

+ 0.11 warmer than at 5 meters at the station 5 miles from shore.

The largest fortnightly mean difference was 2°.31C at the 10-mile

station and 3°.96C at the 5-mile one. Half the fortnights averaged

more than 0°.6 the warmer at the surface at the 10-mile station and

more than 1°.1 the warmer at the surface at the 5-mile station. The

data are for the months March, May, June, July, August, September

and October during the period 1921-1926. June had the largest aver-

age difference, 0.92, at the station 10-miles out, while August had the

largest, 1.95, at the 5-mile station. Owing to the upwelling of cold

water and the relative lack of storminess here coupled with brilliant

sunshine, the differences between surface and subsurface temperatures

should approach the maxima to be found anywhere at sea.

We may conclude that in calm tropical regions and in periods of

calm in summer elsewhere actual surface observations are indispen-

sable.

Though many methods of taking sea surface temperatures have been

tried, only two are in widespread use: (1) the reading of the fixed

mercurial thermometer projecting into the condenser intake of a steam-

ship, and (2) putting a mercurial thermometer into a sample of water

obtained with a bucket heaved over the side of the ship. Electrical

resistance thermometers (a) in condenser intake, (b) touching the in-

side of the shell of the ship, and (c) trailing behind, have been used but

found impracticable except when closely supervised.? Outside expo-

sures of thermograph bulbs (bulb and capillary type) have been tried

on the sides of some battleships, I believe, and there is a new keel

exposure of this type on the caRNEGIE. ‘The bucket method has nu-

merous variations, some involving lowering the thermometer in the

bucket.

Condenser intake temperatures are observed once or twice each watch

by an officer in the engine room. Table 4A provides various checks

against these temperatures as recorded by the engineer. ‘The differ-

ence between the two sets on the FINLAND, and especially the poor

showing of the main engine-room observations need further details.

(Table 4B).

One of the engineers told me that temperatures read within 5° would

be closeenough. His watch probably centered on 10 o’clock, the errors

for which are about twice those for the other watches. However, he

came well within a five-degree error. The location or errors of the

7 Discussion by Dr. H. C. Dickinson. Mo. Weather Rev. 54: 251. June, 1926.

pEc. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 533

TABLE 4.—ConpENSER INTAKE TEMPERATURES AS RECORDED BY ENGINEER OBSERVERS

A. Comparison with quick surface observations in stirred water by C. F. B.

Intake minus tin bucket °C atiitcas ees 3 a

. : 2» | So |] ww 3° °

| | blols{[alaAlaleao| & =

: Number of cases

EMPRESS OF BRITAIN (once each watch)..... Pri ro ie aero. | OL Pde eee

FINLAND (Main eng.) (once each watch)....|0|2/}3/7/8{|6|3)/5!]1 | 35/0.8

FINLAND (Refrig.) (twice each watch)....... 0} 1 {10 (39 (34 |6)1)0)0) 91 | 0.2

B. Main engine-room intake minus probable true intake (corrected thermograph)

O 2

Error °C 2 od = - <8

oD anilelt[ualslo = = 3 $3

Miser SAMO RAID | Srp clay Sous Mey iii BS sis

Number of cases

Ravosehpr) iil. ¢! je |o}o}2/6)2\11)6]1 (2 | 0] 0 |30+()| 0.4/-+0.8

a ee 0 |1/o0]0/41/5}t0/5]|2\0 |1/1 ()\284+()| 0.4) 0.8

SO 0 Le pire 23 Gi eS hos | LE je ie

|} |} |} | J | |] ——_}

>. eae ai baled | 3 |i1 | 9 80 fi7 | 9} 2) 5 10)/99+(@)] 0.7] 1.0

C. Refrigerator intake minus probable true intake temperature

Hours—a.m. and p.m. together

°C Totals

ig Peers 4 |4&6] 6 8 |8&10} 10

—0.6 = 1 4 2 4 2 16

0 9 21 18 14 13 7 82

0.6 18 12 11 14 14 20 89

oe 3 0 1 3 2 5 14

MOURA. re ese CAE 33 34 = 34 go 4a 34 201

os Vi er 0.3 0.2. ):0.2 0:3 4.0.2 0.4 0.3

0.3 0.2 0.3

PRINS Rene es. ois seo 0.4 0.2 | 0.3 0.4/0.4 0.5 0.4

+0.3 0.3 0.4

D. Corrected fixed refrigerator intake temperature minus pump drain temperature

°C —01|-005] o | 005 | 01 | 02 | 03 | Total | Mean

ee eee SS) CC *

ING. Of edison. se HI AR 1 4 8 4 4 1 1 23 0.03

* Figures in () were for observations during periods of rapid changes in sea tempera-

ture. They are not included in the means.

534 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

main intake thermometer are unknown tome. Two of the officers told

me that for the log the refrigerator room intake was read instead of the

main engine-room intake. This may have been true much of the

time, but the fact that the departure of the mean for the two best

watches was twice as large as for the regular refrigerator intake record

suggests that the engine-room intake thermometer was read somewhat

higher than therefrigerator-room thermometer, owing probably toacom-

bination of (a) greater heating of the water in the much hotter room,

(b) larger thermometric error, and (c) greater parallax. (Table 4C.)

Subtracting from the means the thermometric error of 0°.3C, the

mean indication of the refrigerator intake is 0 to 0.1°C below the pump

drain temperature. (Table4D.) A warming averaging 0°.03C seems

to occur while the water passes from the pump to the intake ther-

mometer. In connection with the foregoing, this means that the ob-

servers’ parallax in reading is of the order of 0°.1C. This surprisingly

small parallax for a thermometer graduated by 2°F is due to the very

favorable location of the thermometer, about 1 meter above the floor

in an accessible and well lighted position. The top of the scale is up.

These observations, consistently good by all the observers, were made

for checking the thermograph.

The usual condenser intake record is subject to (a) thermometric

error, (b) error of parallax in reading, (c) time error (any time within

a stretch of four hours), (d) personal errors of uninterested observers.

(a) and (b) are readily determinable, (c) is unimportant except where

the sea temperatures are changing rapidly, (d) is serious only infre-

quently. Observations on the EMPRESS OF BRITAIN and FINLAND

(except for 10 o’clock watch) show 70 to 80 per cent of the intake

records to be no more than 0°.6C off from the probable true intake

temperature at the mid-watch hours, 2, 6 and 10.

The refrigerator intake record is likely to be better than the main

engine condenser intake, for the refrigerator engineer in charge has to

keep a closer watch of the temperature. The bihourly record kept on

the FINLAND was 93 per cent within 0°.6C of the probable true intake.

The intake thermograph has the great advantages (1) of showing

when important changes occur, (2) giving a continuous record from

which any number of observations can be taken, and (8) in being

free from erratic indications. But it has the disadvantages of being

expensive and requiring careful attention and needing temperature

and time checks. Experience on the FINLAND has shown, however,

that engineers are capable and very willing to operate a thermograph

and to make accurate observations for checking it.

See ee

pEc. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 535

It is evident from the foregoing discussion of intake observations by

the engineers that any seawater thermograph that is to obtain reli-

able data must itself be of such quality that it may be considered a

standard instrument. The thermograph should have a permanent

adjustment and it should have pen arm attached directly to the coil

and hinged so that the pressure of the pen on the paper will not be

heavy. Joints to transmit the movement of the coil to the pen arm

are very undesirable, for it is difficult to keep these free from corrosion

and consequent “‘freezing.’’

The point of installation should be the intake pipe between the in-

take valueandthe pump. If thereisa choice the hole should be drilled

in the side or bottom of the intake pipe so that heated water cannot

collect about the upper part of the bulb. The capillary should run

directly from the bulb to the recorder, and any extra length should be

coiled near the recorder, where it will have approximately the same

temperature as the recorder.’ Unusually hot locations for the re-

corder are to be avoided. According to the experience of the Canadian

Meteorological Office, the recorder is best placed by bolting it to a

shelf by the shell of the ship. Here it is relatively cool and free from

excessive vibration. In any other location a spring suspension and

guying has been found necessary to dampen the vibrations.

No matter how accurate the instrument itself may be it should be

carefully checked at least once each month or two against a thermome-

ter of known accuracy. Furthermore, since the recorder paper may

not always be placed tight against the basal flange, and since this

paper suffers some change in size with changing humidities, accuracy

demands concurrent observations by engineers once daily or more

often. From what has been said above, however, it is evident that

the engineers’ thermometer must be calibrated and the engineers must

be trained and induced to make careful observations with it. The

reliability of the bihourly checking observations on the FINLAND has

already been mentioned. On the caLawall® the engineer in charge

makes a particularly careful observation to the minute and fraction

of a degree once a day and taps the recorder at this time to make a

vertical mark on the trace. Without such a time mark it is difficult

§ Detailed comment on the performance of the Tycos thermograph is presented in the

1928 report of the Committee on Submarine Configuration and Oceanic Circulation,

National Research Council.

* Los Angeles to Honolulu. Instrument owned and operated by the Scripps Insti-

tution of Oceanography.

536 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

to take due account of the combined effect of clock error and change of

time with change of longitude.

Tabulating the thermograph traces is complicated by four variables:

(1) local time, (2) clock error, (3) departure of check observations from

the stated hour, and, (4) for the Tycos thermograph at least, varying

temperature-error rising vs. falling and at different temperatures.

For the May voyage of the FINLAND I checked the thermograph against

pump drain faucet temperatures and against time once or twice daily

—always about 4:30 p.m., sometimes at 7:30 a.m. in addition. Usu-

ally every twelve hours, at a recorded time and temperature, the

engineer in charge, Mr. Schiffmann, tapped the recorder, thus provid-

ing a ready check against all variables. The thermograph traces were

tabulated in black by hours and directly above each bihourly reading

was placed in red the refrigerator intake observation. Finally, the

more exact corrections that I obtained personally once or twice daily

were entered in their appropriate places. The hours at which the

exact correction from one day would give way to those for the next

were determined by sudden changes of temperature, if any, about 6

hours before or after the check point, otherwise by the refrigerator in-

take value, or simply exactly halfway to the next correction. Without

the pump drain-cock checks it is necessary to average the bihourly

intake observations approximately by 12-hour periods or by intervals

having even temperatures on the thermogram, apply the calibration

correction and heating correction, if any (on FINLAND refrigerator in-

take this was only 0°.08C. See Table 4D), compare this cortected

temperature with the indicated one for the central hour, and apply

the difference throughout the period.

The corrections for the U. 8. Weather Bureau’s thermograph on the

coamo (New York to Porto Rico) are obtained by comparison with

eye-observations of condenser intake temperatures on that portion of

the voyage where the sea temperatures are uniform. ‘These correc-

tions are then applied throughout the smooth and rough parts of the

thermograms.

The common bucket used on commercial ships is a heavy canvas

one of approximately 2 to 4 litres capacity. The base is heavy wood,

to make it sink, and the top rim is stiff, to favor a good catch. ’ Full

catches are not the rule, and the evaporational cooling of the sample

during the haul and while the thermometer is becoming adjusted may

be considerable. The evaporational cooling and other errors are ag-

gravated at night when the observer must carry the thermometer to a

light. Other materials are sometimes used, e.g. leather and lead.

» a

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 537

The bucket on the FINLAND was particularly good, as buckets go,

having a double wall of canvas and a good diameter. It was 26

centimeters high by 15 centimeters in diameter. Of its height, 2.5

centimeters was the block of wood forming the bottom. Its capacity

was 4 litres.

Table 5A shows that the mean error of all the canvas bucket ob-

servations on the FINLAND was less than that on the EMPRESS OF

BRITAIN, probably because chiefly the FINLAND did not encounter so

many days with air temperature considerably under the sea tempera-

ture. The FINLAND error exceeds that of the EMPRESS OF BRITAIN

south of latitude 35. The low deck haul of the FINLAND vs. the high

bridge of the EMPRESS OF BRITAIN and the double walls of the FINLAND’s

bucket should have put its observations to some advantage over those

of the EMPRESS OF BRITAIN, but the lesser carefulness of the FINLAND’S

observers, coupled with some guess-work, seems to have offset these

advantages. ‘Tables 5B and 5C give further details on evaporational

cooling and the personal element.

It is striking that for like conditions, the error of the canvas bucket

observations on the EMPRESS OF BRITAIN (58 cases) and on the FIN-

LAND (69 cases) should be identical. Note, for both ships, the increas-

ing evaporational cooling at lower temperatures of the wet bulb rela-

tive to the sea. The greater cooling effects of stronger winds are of

secondary importance.

Nighttime observations are nearly twice as much cooled as the day-

timeones. The errors of the noontime “observation” (often not made,

but guessed) are with one exception the greatest of the daytime errors.

Significant of the admitted and observed guesswork of the quarter-

masters on duty at 10 and 12 is the fact that the mean departure for

the daytime pairs is for this watch the greatest of all.

There is no reason for believing that these observations on the FIN-

LAND are not a fair sample of those bucket series made more or less

listlessly, without the urge of official scrutiny or iceberg menace. The

crew of the EMPRESS OF BRITAIN, normally crossing the iceberg

region, did better, considering the poorer bucket and higher haul.

On both ships the mean error by day was a cooling of about 0°.5C,

on the FINLAND the mean error by night was a cooling of about 1°C,

with no seawater thermograph on the EMPRESS OF BRITAIN, no numer-

ous comparisons at night were practicable on that ship. 70 per cent

of the canvas bucket observations on the EMPRESS OF BRITAIN were

within 0°.6C of the probable true surface temperature. After correc-

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540 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

tion for thermometer error, 65 per cent of the FINLAND canvas-bucket

observations were equally close. |

The bucket method provides the only generally practicable means

for obtaining the temperature of the actual surface of the sea, but un-

der present usage it has unsatisfactory inaccuracies. Therefore, how

to improve method and practice require consideration. In my pre-

vious paper’ I listed 9 sources of error in the bucket method. I shall

now add the tenth: guesswork. A brief review of these, with means

for improvement in each case, may serve as a satisfactory concluding

section of this paper.

(1) The bucket is not likely to have the same initial temperature as

the sea surface. This would be of no consequence if the thermal

capacity of the bucket werelow. This suggests (a) hanging the bucket

bottom-side up after every observation; or (b) at least making a

pointed base so the bucket will have to empty; and, (c) where practi-

cable, the use of water-shedding fiber, metal, rubber, or paraffined

canvas, instead of water-holding canvas for buckets. Double dips,

the first to warm the bucket closer to sea temperature, were found

to raise the temperature by a mean of less than 0°.1C.1!

(2) The water sample being hauled up is usually cooled by evapo-

ration and conduction. ‘This cooling takes place at the free water

surface in the bucket and by conduction through the walls of the

bucket. The problem, then, is to reduce the cooling at both

places. Experiments with a bare and rubber-covered wide tin bucket |

indicated that for a bucket openly exposing a large free surface the

cooling directly from the surface accounted for one-third the total

cooling. This probably represents the maximum proportionate cool-

ing from the water surface that is likely to be found, for the buckets

used on ships are deeper relative to diameter. Furthermore, they

rarely come up full. A cover or smaller top than body is the logical

solution for the cooling of the surface. The rate of cooling through

the walls of the bucket may be reduced by having the outside of the

bucket paraffined to shed water, or insulated from the inside. A

paraffined exterior, providing a dry surface, cannot be so helpful as

might at first appear, for at sea the wet bulb temperatures rarely get

many degrees below the dry. For insulation, a rubber covering

2-4 mm. thick on a tin bucket was found to hold up the cooling wave

for 15 minutes, or enough time for observation. An outer cone of sheet

10 [bid., p. 245

11 Tbid., p. 246.

——— OO

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 541

iron insulated by air from the inner water-holding cone, both cones

being covered, was found by Mr. Benjamin Parry to be twice as efh-

ciently insulated as was the coverless, rubber-jacketed tin bucket just

mentioned. Under a 9°C depression of wet-bulb temperature below

the water temperature, a condition was rarely experienced at sea,

Parry’s first bucket cooled but 0°.6C in 4 minutes in a brisk wind.”

A full canvas bucket, exposed to a 12°C depression of wet bulb tem-

perature cooled 0°.6C in 3 minutes in a moderate wind. For an or-

dinary partial haul at such temperatures this amount of cooling is

found after only one minute. At sea this bucket gave temperatures

4°C higher than the canvas bucket on 12 out of 15 simultaneous hauls.

The other three hauls with the iron bucket gave 4° (2) and 2° warmer.

Parry’s improved bucket, put into experimental use after the first was

lost at sea, has an inner water vessel with a rubber ball stopper. Its

readings were $°C higher than the canvas bucket’s for 8 of 19 observa-

tions made, <° higher once, 4° lower once, and the same 9 times, sug-

gesting that it too was well insulated, and that its rate of cooling may

be only half that for a full canvas bucket. The average of the 34

comparisons from January to mid-April, under diverse wind and sea

conditions and in both middle and low latitudes, comes out insulated

bucket 0°.4C the warmer—the same as the average error of the canvas

bucket on the FINLAND. If the typical leisurely bucket haul could be

speeded from two minutes down to one, and an insulated covered

bucket used, the evaporational cooling could be reduced to but a

quarter its present average, or to about 0°.1C.

Dr. G. F. McEwen’s new metal water bucket, with valves top

and bottom and lined with hard rubber, cooled but 0°.2C in 12 minutes

in the shade, with wet bulb depression (below water temperature)

of 6°.4C and a wind of 6 m/s. There was no cooling observed in

the first four minutes. In four other tests, made by Dr. McEwen,

there was no cooling in the first four minutes in two and but 0°.04 and

0°.01C in the other two.

(3) The thermometer inserted is seldom at the same temperature as

the water in the bucket. The typical thermometer used is a rather

large mercurial one in a heavy metal case, the lower part of which is

closed into a cistern. After an observation, this cistern may not be

wholly dumped and the water may not evaporate before the next

12 Further details are presented in the 1923 report of the Comm. on Submar. Config.,

etc., loc. cit. ;

13 Personal communication.

542 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

observation. Since the bulb is in the cistern, the original tempera-

ture of the cistern and its water may have an appreciable effect on

the indicated temperature. The essential part of a cure is to remove

the cistern.

(4) While the thermometer is resting in the bucket further cooling,

or perhaps heating, of the water sample may take place. For insu-

lated and covered and, to a less extent, for buckets with water-shed-

ding exteriors, this further cooling is reduced, but speeding up the proc-

ess of determining the temperature of the sample is the easiest cure

for this difficulty. The thermometer should have the quicker re-

sponding cylindrical instead of the usual spherical bulb. The observer

should have the thermometer ready to immerse in the bucket at once.

He should hold the bulb near the middle of the bucket and near the

top and refrain from stirring the water, thereby mixing the usually

cooler bottom and side water through the mass, and he should read it

within a few seconds of the time of immersion. On the FINLAND

readings were usually made in 45-60 seconds. It is possible to ob-

tain the temperature only 20 seconds after the sample leaves the water.

At night the entire bucket should be carried at once to the nearest

light and the thermometer read there while its bulb is still in the

water.

(5) When the thermometer is read it may not have reached the

temperature of the water in which it is immersed. ‘This is unlikely,

but can be obviated by a quickly responding thermometer.

(6) If the thermometer is withdrawn, to be read more easily, the

temperature of the very small sample in the reservoir may change be-

fore it is observed. Omitting reservoirs from sea-water deck ther-

mometers should help, for only the least thoughtful observer would

carry a bare thermometer from bucket to light, and expect it to show

the water temperature. Anyway, a3°"error is better than a 1° one,

for it is more easily spotted and discarded. On the FINLAND I saw an

observer shake the water from the reservoir before reading.

(7) After the markings and numbers have become indistinct, errors

of reading may creep in, and it is easy to see the same temperature as

at the last reading. <A bottle of thermometer-marking ink should be

part of the ship’s equipment.

(8) The thermometer should be calibrated, and its errors noted in |

each log. A spare thermometer with known errors should be carried.

14 Case reported for P. E. James, in loc. cit., p. 247.

15 See Table 4C above.

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 543

On the FINLAND the thermometer in use during the first few days was

0°.9F too high at the temperatures than prevailing. Before com-

parisons were made at higher temperatures this thermometer first

suffered a 4°F separation of the mercury column—much to the ele-

vation of a few observations, and then was broken when an observer

tried to cure the trouble by heating. A galley thermometer brought

into use for the remainder of the voyage was 2°F too high in the eighties

and $°F too low in the fifties, with intermediate errors between.

(9) There is a slight chance that the quartermaster may forget

what the reading was by the time he gets to the log-book, and simply

repeat the preceding figure. A hand pad for the observations would

fix this.

(10) Observers may prefer guessing to observing. On the FINLAND

two quarter-masters openly admitted guessing the sea temperature,

usually 1°F above or below the air. temperature. They had the 8 to

12 watch (see Table 5C). In justification they said such observa-

tions were of no consequence in waters not infested with icebergs and —

that towards noon, especially, they had too much to do to bother with

the unimportant bucket observation. I was told by others, that

some ship captains wouldn’t have bucket observations—they were

so far off in cold weather, and that some deck logs were filled in for

bucket temperatures from the condenser intake temperatures of the

engine-room log. Other quartermasters are faithful to the last degree.

If the officers and observers could all be shown the value of the obser-

vations to investigators when accurately made, and how they were

worse than worthless when guessed, this difficulty would be reduced. |

The canvas bucket now in common use could be measurably im-

proved by simply soaking it in melted paraffine and adding a cone _

of lead to its base. The paraffine would keep its heat capacity low,

provide a water-shedding exterior, and increase the stiffness. The

lead would make it sink better on striking the water and would pre-

vent leaving the bucket in a standing position with residual water

after an observation.

The bucket observation can be made reasonably accurate chiefly

(1) by getting the observers more interested; (2) by having dry or

insulated, non-collapsing buckets; and (3) by doubling the speed of

the observation, both by quicker handwork and by using quicker

thermometers.

Sea-surface temperatures both at the actual surface and at a depth

of say, 5 to 8 meters (15 to 25 feet) are needed by the meteorologist

544 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

who wishes to know the immediate temperature and vapor effects of

the sea surface on the air and the general storage of readily available

heat in the stirred surface layer. Observations on four ships showed

that except in calm or nearly calm weather the temperatures at 5 to 7

meters depth -were the same, within 0°.2C, as those at the surface 49

times out of 50. Since quiet weather is uncommonly met at sea, |

this fact makes observations at either surface or 5 to 8 meters depth

generally sufficient for both. In quiet weather, however, surface

temperatures are much higher than those at 5 meters, the differences

amounting to as much as 1°.5C at times. Therefore, in calm tropical

regions and in periods of calm in summer elsewhere actual surface

observations are indispensable.

The methods most commonly employed for obtaining these sea

temperatures are the bucket and the condenser-intake. A thermome-

ter fixed in the condenser-intake pipe is read by an engineer at any

time once during each watch. These readings are commonly sub-

ject to a mean error of 0°.2 to 0°.5C or more due to parallax and other

coarseness in reading by an observer interested only in the general

temperature of the water that is chilling the exhaust steam. Since the

actual hour of his observation is not recorded, the best that can be

done is to assign the record for each watch to the middle of it. The

temperatures so assigned come within 0°.6C of the actual in about

2 of the cases. Refrigerator intake observers on the FINLAND under

favorable conditions averaged 93 per cent within 0°.6C of the actual

temperature, during a 17-day voyage. A thermograph attached to

the intake provides the most satisfactory service for continuity and

accuracy, though not without due care and checking.

Bucket observations are usually made with a cylindrical canvas

bucket of about 4 litres (1 gal.) capacity. The bucket is dropped

from an open deck forward, hauled up and a thermometer used to

obtain the temperature of the water. Cooling of the sample in the

air is the chief source of error. The average error by day is about

0°.3C (too low) in weather when the wet bulb temperature is not

much below the sea temperature (the average of observations equator-

ward of latitude 35), and up to several times this in severe weather.

The average error at night on the FINLAND was 1°.1C (too cool) (vs.

0°.4C day) for a voyage from San Francisco to New York in May.

The larger cooling at night is owing chiefly to the observer withdraw-

ing the thermometer from the bucket to take the instrument to a

light where he could read it. Some observers when pressed record a

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 54d

fictitious temperature instead of using the bucket. Like the engi-

neers’ observations, about 3 of the daytime bucket observations

were found correct within 0°.6C. The bucket observation can be

improved chiefly by more interest, an insulated bucket, and more

speed.

Accurate observations of surface temperatures and of those at 5 to

8 meters depth are both needed wherever and whenever the weather

iscalmandsunny. Bucket observations show surface temperatures to

within 0°.5 and intake observations show the deeper temperatures

with the same accuracy about two-thirds to three-fourths of the time

and can be made to do better. General reliance on intake thermo-

graphs for sea ‘‘surface’’ temperatures is indicated by this study,

provided that in quiet weather, carefully made bucket or other actual

surface observations be used to supplement.

‘Significance of water-temperature measurements not made exactly at

the surface. G. F. McEwen, Scripps Institution of Oceanography,

La Jolla, California.

The difference between the surface temperature and that at a depth

of five meters is least in mid-winter and greatest in mid-summer. In

general it decreases with an increase of latitude and is negligible when

the wind velocity exceeds about fifteen miles per hour. In the Pacific

at distances ten to twenty miles off the Southern California Coast the

temperature at five meters averages 0°.3 or 0°.4C less than that at the

surface. During summer the difference is about twice this value, and

during a calm clear day it may be as much as 1°.5C but this is very

rare. The prevailing ocean winds are stronger farther from shore,

and their maximum velocity occurs in summer, thus tending to reduce

the temperature difference between the surface and five meter level

below that found near shore.

Owing to the seasonal and regional change in this temperature

difference, and its relation to meteorological conditions an extensive

tabulation of data on surface temperatures and corresponding tem-

peratures at depths of a few meters (those from condenser intakes,

for example) should provide a means of estimating surface tempera-

tures from subsurface temperatures.

An estimate of the accuracy with which the average surface tempera-

ture of a quadrangle thirty minutes on a side could be determined was

based upon hourly observations made by the U. 8. Destroyer Fleet of

about thirty ships during a ten day period of maneuvers south west of

San Diego, California. These temperatures were read from con-

546 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

denser intake thermometers and were divided into two equal groups,

in one of which the thermometers were calibrated and the readings cor-

rected. It did not prove practicable to calibrate those of the other

group. Average temperatures of each of 141 quadrangles were

~ computed from each group. The difference averaged about 0°.1C.

There were on the average 17 observations per quadrangle, from

each group. The average difference in temperature of a quadrangle

found from calibrated thermometers minus that found from uncali-

brated thermometers was 0°.1C. The probable error of a single ob-

servation regarded as an estimate of the temperature of one quadrangle

was 0°.8C. ‘This estimate of error based upon about 5000 observa-

tions includes errors of reading, differences of position in the quad-

rangle and differences of time. The range of a group of readings

corresponding to a single quadrangle was from 4to 10°F. No appre-

ciable difference was noted between means and medians. In order to

obtain an estimate of the temperature of a single quadrangle with a

probable error of 0°.2 about sixteen observations are required.

The time required for temperature-departures to cross from the west-

ern to the eastern side of the Pacific, and changes vn departures during the

crossing. G. F. McEwen.

Surface temperatures observed from Japanese ships and averaged

by months and five-degree quadrangles have been published by the

Imperial Marine Observatory at Kobe, Japan. Preliminary compu-

tations of surface drift have been made at the Scripps Institution from

these data for the period 1916 to 1920.

One method was to plot as ordinates the departures from this five-

year mean for each month using the distance along the direction of

flow from a selected point, off Japan for example. Find by trial that

horizontal displacement of one such curve with reference to that cor-

responding to the curve for one, two, or three months earlier which

results in the best agreement of peaks and depressions. Thus the

distance through which the water flows along this stream line in the

corresponding time interval may be estimated. Sufficiently accurate

data treated in this way should serve to determine seasonal and re-

gional variations of velocity. ‘The departures actually found rarely

exceeded 3°.0C, and were usually less than 2°.0, while not infrequently

greater differences were found between adjacent quadrangles. ‘Tem-

perature variations with respect to distance were especially marked

near the boundaries of the Japan stream. Accordingly data from a

large number of quadrangles could not be used in computations. of

currents.

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 547

The most satisfactory pair of curves tested in this way was for

October and November, 1920, in latitude 325° beginning near Japan.

Comparing peaks and depressions, assuming no lag, there were 7

agreements and 11 disagreements. Assuming one month to be re-

quired for a flow equal to the breadth of one quadrangle, or displacing

the curve corresponding to November one unit to the left, there were

15 agreements and 4 disagreements. The length of one unit at this

latitude is 250 miles, therefore the estimated velocity is about 8 miles

per day. Other pairs of curves gave approximately the same velocity,

but the uncertainty did not seem to justify attempting to distinguish

accurately between different regions or seasons.

Another method is to select a month and quadrangle in which the

departure from the five-year mean is reasonably large. Find by trial

that quadrangle in the general direction of drift having a somewhat

smaller departure. Then find another farther along the stream-line

having a still smaller departure, and so on. Make readjustments, if

necessary to obtain a series of consistently decreasing departures as

far along the stream-line as possible. Then assume the difference

in distance between these successive quadrangles was traversed in the

corresponding difference in time, and estimate the velocity in each

interval. Actually it was found that the reduction of variability ob-

tained by using a three month interval (January, February, March

for the winter season, etc.) resulted in much more consistent results.

For example in the quadrangle 27°.5 N and 142°.5 E the departure was

+ 1°.4in the summer of 1916. Inthe fallit was 0°.8C atadistance of

540 miles. Nine hundred miles from here it was 0°.6 C in the winter

of 1917, and could not be detected by spring at an additional dis-

tance of 900 miles. The estimated velocities are respectively, 6, 10,

and 10 miles per day, which agree with velocities estimated by the first

method. The ‘‘Kobe’’ data when treated in this way frequently failed

to give sufficiently consistent departures to warrant computing the

velocities. ;

Using the stream lines assumed in either of the above methods,

independent computations of velocity can be made from the difference .

between observed and “normal” surface temperatures, by the method

explained on pages 230 to 235 of the publication of the Section of

Oceanography, American Geophysical Union, April, 1927. These ve-

locities were consistent with those estimated by the above methods.

These preliminary results indicate that oceanic circulation can be

computed from temperatures by either of the above three methods.

548 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

However, care must be used in selecting appropriate intervals of time |

and space in order to reduce the effect of accidental variation. Also,

the magnitude of the accidental variation in the ‘“‘Kobe’”’ data is rather

large in comparison to the departures dealt with and thus tends to

complicate the problem. Such data should be carefully examined in

order to decide whether they are of sufficient accuracy to justify the

particular use it is intended to make of them.

PROBLEMS RELATED TO ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION

The effect of surface-winds upon ocean-drift. G. W. LITTLEHALES,

Hydrographic Office.

The theatre of pure wind-driven currents is in the open ocean where

the water is deep as compared with the depth to which the effect of

the wind penetrates and where land masses are remote. When wind

blows over a tract of the ocean, all the air does not pass over the water.

The lowest parts of the air in the boundary between the atmosphere

and the ocean remain in fixed contact with the water, giving rise to

shearing stresses in overlying parts and generating eddies and turbu-

lence whose effect is to produce a tangential pressure upon the surface

of the sea in the direction of the force of the wind. This effect is aug-

mented by the direct pressure of the wind upon the waves of the sea.

The rate of drift thus communicated to the surface-waters varies

directly with the velocity of the wind, relative to the sea and inversely

as the square root of the sine of the latitude of the place, being approxi-

mately two percent of the velocity of the wind in high latitudes and

four percent in low latitudes.

The deflective force arising from the rotation of the globe, which

was passive before the motion of the water began, now comes into play,

so that the direction of the drift does not follow the direction toward

which the wind blows; but deviates 45° to the right-hand in the north-

ern hemisphere and 45° to the left-hand in the southern hemisphere.

And this deviation increases proportionately with the depth.

Descending from the surface into the depths, the vectors represent-

ing the velocity and direction of the movement are related to one

another like the edges of the successive treads of a helical staircase

whose steps decrease in radial extent in geometrical progression to-

ward the bottom, in such a manner that the horizontal projection of

the outer contour of the stair assumes the form of the logarithmic

or equiangular spiral. That is to say, when the velocity of the cur-

rent at any depth is denoted by V, and the angle between the direc-

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 549

tion of the current at the same depth and the direction of the surface

current by a, there exists the relation V = Ce-, in which C is a con-

stant and e is the base of the Naperian system of logarithms. When

the tangential pressure exercised by the wind upon the surface of the

sea decreases or increases in a certain proportion, the velocity of the

current in the depths as well as on the surface will decrease or increase

in the same proportion, while the direction of the motion relative to

the direction of the wind will remain unchanged.

At a depth where the current has turned 180°, the velocity has de-

creased in the proportion e~* = 0.043, or to about one twenty-third of

the surface-velocity.

As one twenty-third of the surface-velocity may generally be dis-

regarded on account of its smallness, it is usual to call the depth, D, at

which the direction of the current has completed its first half revolu-

tion, the drift-current depth. In order to compute the drift-current

depth, it is formulated that the resultant of the frictional forces acting

upon the upper and lower surfaces of a layer must balance the deflect-

ing force acting upon the same layer. ‘The deflecting force acting

upon the layer is for square centimeter 2 A-d-Vw-sin yg, where Ais the

thickness of the layer, d the density of the water, V the velocity, w

the angular velocity of the earth, and ¢ the latitude.

Likewise, the tangential force acting upon the surface of the water,

due to the wind, is u-V-27r?A/D? in which w is the virtual coefficient

of friction.

Whence

, D = x (u/d-w:sin ¢g)'/?

The drift-current depth thus depends not only upon the coefficient

of friction but also upon the latitude of the place. If D is 100 meters

at the Pole, assuming equal coefficients of friction it would be 108

meters in 60° of latitude, 141 meters in 30°, and 240 meters in 10°.

It appears from the above equation that D and wu are mutually de-

pendent, and, therefore, as Eckman has pointed out, that D may be

used in place of uw as a measure of the internal friction. This has

the advantage of simplification, since it has been found, that for prac-

tical purposes, the drift-current depth may be expressed in feet by

the equation

D = 4.5 W/(sin ¢)'?

in which W represents the velocity of the wind in knots, and ¢ the

latitude.

At a depth of one-fifth of D below the surface, the direction of the

550 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

current will be deviated one-fifth of 7 or 36 degrees to the right of the

direction of the surface current in the northern hemisphere, and to the

left in the southern; and its velocity will be one-half of the velocity of

the surface current. ‘Therefore, since the velocity of the surface-

current is from two per cent to four per cent of the velocity of the

wind, according to the latitude, and since the direction of the surface-

current is deviated 45° to the right of the direction toward which the

wind is observed to blow in the northern hemisphere, and 45° to the

left in the southern hemisphere, the direction and velocity of the cur-

rent at the depth D (or any other selected depth) are readily deduced.

Of vital importance is the question, how long a time is required after

the beginning of a new wind for the corresponding drift-current to set

in. The initial influence will set in at the surface in a few minutes,

and, by the time the waves show the effect of being wind-driven by

the wind that is then blowing, the drift-current will have penetrated to

a depth greater than the maximum draft of ships.

Seeing that the effective movement of the water within the range of

the drift-current depth is at right-angles to the direction of the wind,

how comes the concordance between the circulation of the surface-

winds and the circulation of the surface-currents which is observed

when comparison is made between wind-charts and current-charts?

Operating around regions of barometric maxima in the eastern part of

the temperate zone, both north and south of the equator, in all the

oceans,- where action-centers exist through the accumulation of more

than the average amount of the atmosphere, the winds induce surface-

currents in the ocean that move in a clockwise circuit in the northern

hemisphere: and in an anti-clockwise circuit in the southern hemi-

sphere. In the northern hemisphere; these anti-cyclonic winds will all

be driving the water to the right-hand and in the southern hemisphere

to the left-hand, that is, toward the center of the system in each case.

Under opposing pressures at the opposite ends of the diameters of the

closed circuit, an elevation is raised. Down the slopes of the elevation

the water will run under the influence of gravity; but the rotation of

the globe will cause its course to be deviated to the right-hand in

the northern hemisphere and to the left-hand in the southern hemi-

sphere, and when a steady state is reached it will be flowing around the

central elevation in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere

and in an anti-clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere.

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 551

A critical review of the work of. the Indian Meteorological Service in

monsoon-predictions. R. HANSON WEIGHTMAN, Weather Bureau.

From time to time, due to the failure of the southwest monsoon and

its attendant rains, terrible famines have visited India. With some

fore-knowledge of such conditions, precautionary steps can be taken

to provide food, at least, for an otherwise destitute population of many

millions. It was the urgent needs for such fore-knowledge that in-

spired careful studies by the meteorologists of that country which cul-

minated in the issuance by Blanford in 1884 of the first official predic-

tion for a season in advance.

Over India there are two phases of the general wind-circulation

known as the northeast and the southwest monsoon. The former, dur-

ing which the winds are prevailingly from the northeast, is well estab-

lished during December and January. The southwest monsoon con-

sists of two branches, namely, the Arabian Sea current which prevails

from June to September and the Bay of Bengal current which begins in

April and ends in September. Between the northeast and the south-

west monsoons there are transition periods: February to March,

and October to November. These wind-systems are in harmony with

the general barometric pressure-distribution; for during the northeast

monsoon there is abnormally high pressure over Siberia and moder-

ately high pressure over northern India, while during the southwest

monsoon very low pressure prevails over and to the northwest of In-

dia. The southwest monsoon being warm and very moist after its

long journey over the water, produces copious rains over India as the

air mounts upslope. The Arabian Sea current brings rainfall to

Bombay, Gujarat, Rajputana, and even into Punjab, and on the

windward slopes of the Western Ghats the falls are heavy. The Bay

of Bengal current passes along the Madras coast, producing showers but

bearing more generous rains to Orissa, Chota Nagpur, the greater part

of the Central Provinces, and Central India, and excessive rains to

Bengal and Assam. At Cherrapunjii in Assam the rainfall averages

more than 500 inches a year. Over northwest India the amounts di-

minish greatly, a large part of the precipitation being produced by

cyclonic disturbances.

Blanford based his monsoon-predictions on the winter snowfall

in the nearby Himalayas as an excess of snow had been noted to

precede seasons of drought in India. His successor, Elliott, recognized

that Himalaya snowfall exercised only a partial control and attempted

to increase the reliability of the forecasts by considering pressure in

552 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

the Indian Ocean, on the assumption: that high pressure at Mauritius

would lead to stronger northward-moving moist winds over India and

consequently to a more abundant monsoon rainfall. Unfortunately,

this idea was not in accordance with the facts and was later abandoned.

For a while, in fact, publication of the forecasts ceased entirely, but

predictions continued to be made, although treated as confidential

documents. |

It has been known for some years that the larger variations of sea-

sonal weather, whether reflected in rainfall, atmospheric pressure, or

temperature are in general not isolated phenomena, but are linked

up with variations in other parts of the world, sometimes quite remote.

This idea has had quite an application in connection with the develop-

ment of the mathematical formulae of later years for predicting the

monsoon-rainfall. ,

Up to about 1904 graphical or extremely simple mathematical

methods were employed but in that year it was realized that the prob-

lem was too difficult for solution by a priorz methods and recourse was

had to examination by statistical methods. It was necessary to find

empirically what reliable relationships there were between weather

conditions in various parts of the world before attempting a general

theoretical discussion. Pursuant to this plan the well-known statis-

tical method of correlation was developed in addition to the graphs.

By means of correlation-coefficients, numerical relationships were

found between meteorological conditions at many different points

throughout both the northern and southern hemispheres, and also

between these points and the monsoon-rainfall (June to September).

Among the most important of the latter are the following: (1) April

and May pressure in South America (mean of Santiago, Buenos Aires,

and Cordoba), + 0.42; (2) accumulated snow at end of May to the

north and northwest of India, — 0.36; (3) May pressure at Mauritius,

— 0.36; (4) April and May rainfall at Zanzibar, — 0.31; (5) May rain-

fall at Seychelles, — 0.20.

The next step was to devise a method whereby some of these more

important relationships could be brought to bear simultaneously in

estimating the monsoon-rainfall. This was accomplished by Walker

in India by means of the multiple correlation-coefficient. It is inter-

esting to note that the same result was achieved by Carl Pearson in

England at about the same time. The two men working entirely

independently and employing different methods obtained exactly the

same resulting formula.

—

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 553

The formule for multiple correlation-coefficients and regression equa-

tions are given in Yule! and other standard text-books on statistics.

In 1908 a preliminary formula was worked out for India as a whole

with regression-equation as follows:

Monsoon-rainfall = — 0.20, snowfall accumulation — 0.29, Mauritius

(May) pressure + 0.28, South American (May) pressure — 0.12,

Zanzibar (April and May ) rainfall, which gives a multiple correlation-

coefficient of 0.58.

Even as high a coefficient as 0.58 does not justify a forecast unless

the abnormalities are fairly well marked,* but during the period of 16

years (1909-1924) this condition was satisfied in 9 years out of 16,

and in 8 years out of the 9 the rains were in excess or defect when this

was given by the formula.

Later in 1914 the rainfall of each of the 33 rainfall subdivisions em-

ployed in the monthly summaries for India was correlated with (1)

May pressure in India as a whole, (2) May pressure at Mauritius,

(3) April and May pressure in South America, (4) accumulation of

snowfall at end of May to the north and northwest of India, (5) May

rainfall at Zanzibar and Seychelles, (6) May rainfall in South Ceylon,

and (7) the rainfall of Java during the preceding cold season

(October to February), which latter was suggested by the work of

Hildebrandsson.

A study of the results showed that the coefficients for the Ray

Islands, Lower Burma, and Assam were insignificant, while Upper

Burma depends mainly on South America and Seychelles. For the

remainder of northeastern India, in which may be included Bengal,

Orissa, Chota Nagpur, and Bihar, it is characteristic that Seychelles

is unfavorable but in other respects there is lack of uniformity. If we

divide the remainder of India roughly into Northwest India and the

Peninsula, it is fairly conspicuous that, while South America and Zan-

zibar affect them both materially, snowfall and Ceylon rain have more

influence over Northwest India than over the Peninsula, while Java

has more influence over the Peninsula than over Northwest India.

If we select the subdivisions most characteristic in these respects, we

may consider that Northwest India comprises the United Provinces

West, Punjab East and North, Kashmir, the Northwest Frontier

Provinces and Rajputana. Similarly for the Peninsula we may take

Gujarat, Central Provinces, Konkan, Bombay Deccan, Hyderabad,

1G.Unpy Yute. An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics, 8th ed., London, 1927.

2 Mem. Indian Meteor. Dept. 21(2): 31.

3 GILBERT T. WALKER, Discovery (London) 6: 100. March 1925.

554 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

and Madras coast north. The subdivisions Mysore, Malabar, Madras

southeast, and Madras Deccan have been omitted as not sufficiently

uniform with the rest. |

It was evident, therefore, that by considering the Peninsula and

Northwest India separately better forecasts could be made than for

India as a whole, the added reason being that the different independent

variables showed different relations with these two regions, as indi-

cated by the following table.‘

After a number of trials, the regression-equations set out below

were found to give the most satisfactory results.

For the Peninsula a multiple correlation-coefficient of 0.73° was

obtained, based on the regression-equation: Peninsula rain =

+ 0.44, South American pressure — 0.29, Zanzibar rain — 0.41, Java

rain (Oct.—Feb.), while for Northwest India a coefficient of 0.57 was

TABLE 1.—CorRELATION-COEFFICIENTS

South

Indian IEG IG Snowfall | Zanzibar | Ceylon Java Mauritius

Region May can! Accumu-| Rainfall Rain Rain Pres.

Pressure Pre ae lation May May Oct.—Feb. May

INUWic niga + S20, on ee + .22 + .50 — .38 — .24 — .29 — .20 (a)

Pemmsuleiy, 2.5 ue hws week (a) + .47 —.16) —.48;); —.22) —.45 |} —.21

(a) Too small to be considered important.

obtained based on the regression-equation: NW. India rain = + 0.35,

South American pressure — 0.21, snowfall accumulation — 0.14,

Zanzibar rain —0.13, Ceylon rain.

Even with these improvements, the predictions are subject to con-

siderable weakness at times as shown by the tabulation which follows,

giving results® for the period 1891 to 1921 for the Peninsula, which

has the stronger correlation-coefficient.

When predicted values fall between the limiting values at the head

of the columns, the actual departures that occurred are listed in that

column, being separated however into two groups, one in which the

predicted and actual departures have the same sign and the other in

which they have opposite signs. The first part of the table is devoted

to cases where the predicted departures were positive and the second

part to cases where the predicted departures were negative. At the

bottom the percentage of cases in which the correct sign was pre-

4 Mem. Indian Meteor. Dept. 23(2): 25.

5 Mem. Indian Meteor. Dept. 23(2): 26-27.

6 Mem. Indian Meteor. Dept. 23(2): 36-37.

fie

———— es —"

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 555

dicted is given for groups of cases in which the predicted departures

exceeded certain amounts without regard to sign, for example, when

the indicated departure was 3.0 inches or more, the sign of the actual

departure was the same in 86 per cent of the cases.

TABLE. 2—PrrrorMance#, [INDIAN Monsoon Forecasts (PENINSULA), 1891-1921

0”.0 to +1”.0 to +2”.0 to} +3”.0 to +4”.0 and

Prediction limits 40".9 44” .9 49" 9 43” 9 aan

Same} Op- | Same |. Op- |Same} Op-|Same} Op- | Same! Op-

po- po- po- po- po-

site site site site site

+0.8 |—1.7 | +2.6 |—0.5 |+5.7|—0.6|+2.0 +9.9|—0.9*

ee deg ts ! +4.2* +1.0 +8.6* +3.2

etre St? 46.7% 49.0

No. of cases........ 3 1 1 1 3 1 2 0 2 1

os se 0” .0 to —1”.0 to —2” 0 to | —3”.0 to —4” 0 and

Prediction limits _0”.9 _1"9 9” 9 _3” 9 Lats

+4.0*/—10.5*/4+1.0 |-—3.9 —1.3 |+1.97|—16.6

—4.2

Actual departures +4.6' +4.3* —2.4 —8.4

and signs........ —6.2

—7.2

+1.5 —11.1

No. of cases........ 0 3 1 2 1 0 2 1 6 0

For predicted de-

parture? more

meee gS. I 0”.0 $7.0 270 i W) 4” 0

Correct signs........ 68% 75% 84% 86% 89%

No. of cases........ sil 24 19 14 9

* Whether plus or minus.

* Predicted departures differ from actual by 3.0 inches or more.

In studying the table, it will be noted that one-third of the cases are

starred indicating that the predicted departures differ from the actual

by 3.0 inches or more. This may give us pause fora moment. How-

ever, considering that the main object of the forecast is to indicate the

abnormally dry years, it will be noted that when the forecasts indicated

_ 4.0 or more below normal, they were successful in every case, not only

with regard to sign of departure, but substantially as to amount.

Perhaps the most outstanding failure was in 1920 when a deficit of

556 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

10.5 occurred following a prediction of —0.18. Other failures that

deserve mention were in 1909 when +4.3 was predicted and the actual

was —0.9; in 1895 when the predicted was +2.1 and the actual —0.6;

in 1906 when the predicted was —3.6 and the actual was +1.9, and

in 1908 when the predicted was —1.5 and the actual was +4.3.

Attention may properly be invited also to the fact that out of the

seven cases in which predictions were made for departures between

+0.9 and —0.9, four had actual departures of 4.0 inches or more

above normal. h

It seems appropriate to call attention to the statement by Walker’

in which he indicated that even if the relationship indicated by the

correlation-coefficient be fairly high, it will not justify a forecast for

public consumption and that, unless the chances of success are at least

four out of five, i1.e., with a correlation-coefficient of 0.80, a forecast

should not be made.

The results obtained in India justify the issue of the monsoon fore-

casts for that country, which has conditions regarding its rainy

season without parallel in other parts of the world. |

Similar methods have been tried in other parts of the world and there

is every reason to believe that they have their application in the United

States.

In conclusion may I urge that Walker’s criterion be followed and

that caution be exercised in attempting forecasts until we have pros-

pects of four successes out of five cases.

The effect of ocean-currents on the clumate of continents. ALFRED J.

Henry, Weather Bureau.

As every one knows the specific heat of water is much greater than

that of land, equal volumes being considered. ‘This is equivalent to

saying that when equal quantities of heat are received upon equal

areas of land and of water the resulting increase of temperature is

almost twice as great on land as on water, even when in the case of

water the heat expended in the process of evaporation is neglected.

When, therefore, a parallel of latitude runs partly over land and partly

over water, differences in climate are brought about which would not

exist if the parallel passed exclusively over a land or a water surface.

This fundamental fact is the basis of classifying climates into two great

groups: continental and marine. Briefly the part played by the

ocean and ocean-currents in climatic changes is that of a great reg- -

ulator and this function is exercised regardless of the speed of

7 Quart. Journ. Roy. Meteor. Soc. 52: 73-80. 1926.

DEC. 4, 1928 METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY: AM. GEOPHYS. UNION 557

movement of the oceanic waters. The greatest effect is produced, of

course, when the ocean-current flows from low to high latitudes and

vice versa, hence the effect is a graded one ranging from a modest in-

fluence in the case of no current to a very considerable one in the case

of currents or drifts from low to high latitudes and vice versa. The

effects naturally diminish with increase of distance from the ocean but

there is no arbitrary limit at which the effect ceases.

Ocean-currents that originate in low latitudes and flow poleward,

as for example, the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic and the Japan

Current in the Pacific, are in a class by themselves, since they transport

large quantities of heat from equatorial regions poleward and in the

ease of the Gulf Stream drift, even to the Arctic Circle and beyond.

This drift gives us a very striking example of the warming of a conti-

nent in winter as the direct result of heat borne by an ocean-current.

Consider, for example, the region along the fifty-second parallel of

north latitude from the Irish coast at Valentia to Barnaul, Siberia.

The annual mean temperature in this distance of nearlyfour thousand

miles diminishes 8°.4 C (15°.1 F) and the January mean is 23°.7 C

(42°.7 F) lower in Siberia than at Valentia. This is, of course an ex-

treme case.

Consider next, an oceanic current that flows in the reverse direction,

the Humboldt or Peruvian current which flows northward along the

west coast of South America. The effect of this current is two-

fold, first, a lowering of the temperature along the neighboring coast

and, second, a great diminution in the rainfall as explained in the fol-

lowing: Warm currents flowing from low to high latitudes increase the

precipitation on neighboring coasts and highlands because the air

over the water is saturated with water-vapor at a higher temperature

than that which belongs to the latitude in which it finds itself. Natu-

rally its temperature departs but little from that of the dew-point of

air in the higher latitudes, thus favoring precipitation with a small

reduction in temperature.

Conversely currents flowing from higher to lower latitudes diminish

the precipitation because as they gain distance toward the equator,

the moist air over them has a temperature which is below the normal

for the latitude. As this air becomes warmed, particularly over the

neighboring land areas its temperature departs more and more from

that of the dew-point at which condensation occurs and precipitation

becomes more and more difficult. The west coast of South America,

say between the equator and 30° south latitude, has a very small

rainfall and is practically rainless in northern Chile and southern

558 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

Peru. The fogs that are a menace to navigation on the west coast of

North America are a direct result of oceanic temperatures along the

coast.

Many other cases might be cited and described but it seems needless —

to do so.

Just what part the warm ocean-water that is transported to high

latitude plays in the origin and maintenance of the barometric forma-

tions that occupy the northeastern parts of both the Atlantic and the

Pacific has never been evaluated, but it is conceivable that a much

weakened cyclonic circulation would result if the relatively warm

water were absent. The climate of high latitudes in both North

America and in Europe-Asia would then be much different from what

it is at present.

CHEMISTRY.—Further aldehyde condensations with diphenyliso-

thiohydantoin.! Stuart 8. KinesBpury and Kiare 8. MARKLEY,

George Washington and Johns Hopkins Universities. (Com-

municated by NaTHan R. Smits.)

INTRODUCTION

It has been shown by Hann and Markley? that condensation takes

place between aromatic aldehydes and diphenylisothiohydantoin when

heated together in glacial acetic acid solution in the presence of anhy-

drous sodium acetate. The condensation takes place through the

elimination of two atoms of hydrogen from the methylene group in the

substituted pseudo-hydantoin and the oxygen of the aldehyde. The

typical reaction is shown by the following equation.’

BG aes RCH=C—S\,

RCHO+ | 9 CNGH = SCNCG.Hs + 1.0

OCc+=N~“ OC—N”*

CH, CH,

They succeeded in preparing the 5-(aldo)-2-phenylimino-4-thiazoli-

dones of benzaldehyde, o-nitrobenzaldehyde, furfural, vanillin, chloro-

vanillin, nitrovanillin, bromovanillin, cinnamic, salicylic, 3,5-dichloro-

_ salicylic and protocatechuic aldehydes. The present paper is a

continuation of that study.

1 Received October 19, 1928.

? Hann and Markey. This JouURNAL 16: 169. 1926.

3 Numbering is according to the recommendation of BogEerT and ABRAHAMSON,

Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 44: 826. 1922.

pEc. 4, 1928 KINGSBURY AND MARKLEY: ALDEHYDE CONDENSATIONS 559

EXPERIMENTAL

The diphenylthiourea and all the aldehydes, with the exception of

citral, used in these preparations were obtained from Eastman Kodak

Company and were used without further purification. Borie acid

absorption‘ and direct titration of the ammonia with N/14.01 sulfuric

acid was used in the Kjeldahl nitrogen determination. Electric melt-

ing point apparatus and Wheeler total immersed thermometers,

standardized by the Bureau of Standards, were used in determining

the melting points of the compounds.

Diphenylisothiohydantoin.—The parent substance was prepared by

refluxing, for three hours, an alcoholic solution of diphenylthiourea

and monochloracetic acid as directed by Lange.’ After two recrystal-

lizations from 95 per cent alcohol analysis gave 10.49 per cent nitrogen.

Theory for diphenylisothiohydantoin is 10.45 per cent.

AROMATIC ALDEHYDE CONDENSATION PRODUCTS

5-0-M ethoxybenzal-2 ,3-Diphenylisothiohydantoin.—Two and a half grams

of diphenylisothiohydantoin and 1.6 grams of o-methoxybenzaldehyde were

refluxed for 1.75 hours with 25 cubic centimeters glacial acetic acid containing

5 grams of fused sodium acetate. After 45 minutes refluxing crystals of the

condensation product began separating from the reaction mixture. After

the reaction was completed additional acetic acid was added to completely

dissolve the reaction product and the hot solution filtered with suction. On

cooling, the 5-o-methoxybenzaldehyde condensation product separated as a

greenish-yellow, microcrystalline meal. The compound was filtered, washed

with small portions of cold glacial acetic acid, alcohol and ether, and dried at

110° for 24 hours. Yield: 3.4 grams; m.p. 296-7°,

Anal. Subs., 0.2296: ec. of acid, 16.56. Caled. for C.H,,0.N28: Ny 7.205

Found: 7.21.

5-Anisal-2 ,3-diphenylisothiohydantoin.—Two grams of the _ substituted

thiazolidone and 1.15 grams of p-methoxybenzaldehyde were refluxed in

glacial acetic acid for 2.25 hours and the reaction product separated as

described above. After recrystallization from glacial acetic acid and drying

at 110° for 48 hours, 1.46 grams of 5-anisal-2,3-diphenylisothiohydantoin

were obtained in the form of long, thin, bright-yellow needles. Heated in a

capillary tube the compound melted at 199° (97° below the corresponding

ortho compound) to a brownish yellow liquid.

Anal. Subs., 0.2203: ec. of acid, 15.28. Caled. for Co3H;sO.N2S: N, 7.25.

Found: 6.94.

5-V eratral-2 ,3-diphenylisothiohydantoin.—Two grams of the parent sub-

stance and 1.35 grams of 3,4-dimethoxybenzaldehyde were refluxed for 1.75

hours as described above. The reaction mixture was slowly poured into 500

cubic centimeters of cold water. The precipitate thus formed was collected

on a Biichner funnel and washed with water. When recrystallized from

* MarKLEy and Hann. Journ. Assoc. Off. Agric. Chem. 8: 455. 1925.

5 Lance. Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges. 12: 595. 1879.

560 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

glacial acetic acid 2.34 grams of the veratraldehyde condensation product was

obtained in the form of very fine, bright-yellow needles, melting at 177-8°.

Anal. Subs., 0.1646: cc. of acid, 11.07. Caled. for Co;H2.O3N.8: N, 6.73.

Found: 6.73.

§-Piperonal-2 ,3-diphenylisothiohydantoon.—Two grams of diphenyliso-

thiohydantoin were refluxed 3.25 hours with 1.2 grams of piperonal in glacial

acetic acid solution and the reaction mixture filtered with the aid of a heated

Buchner funnel. On cooling beautiful dark-yellow needles separated from the

reaction mixture which were filtered off, washed with water, and recrystallized

from glacial acetic acid and subsequently from 95 per cent alcohol. From

the latter solvent it was obtained in the form of bushy rosettes of bright-

yellow, acicular needles, approximately 1 cm. long. Yield: 2.3 grams;

ImGps 2o2

Anal. Subs., 0.2131: cc. of acid, 15.28. Caled. for C23H1,0;N28: N, 7.00.

Found: 7.17.

5-p-T olual-2 ,3-diphenylisothiohydantoin.—Two grams of the cyclic ketone

and 1.0 gram of p-tolualdehyde were condensed after 2 hours refluxing in the

usual manner. The product separating upon cooling was recrystallized

from glacial acetic acid and subsequently from 95 per cent alcohol. From

both acetic acid and alcohol 5-p-tolual-2 ,3-diphenylisothiohydantoin erystal-

lized in dark-yellow, rather thick, rods, melting at 197-8°.

Anal. Subs., 0.1549: ce. of acid, 11.68. Caled. for C.3;H;;0N.S8: N, 7.57.

Found: 7.54.

5-p-Hydroxybenzal-2 ,3-diphenylisothtohydantoin.—One gram of p-hydroxy-

benzaldehyde after 3 hours refluxing condensed normally and separated from

the reaction mixture on cooling. The product was filtered with suction,

washed with a large volume of water followed by cold absolute alcohol and >

ether. Upon recrystallization from glacial acetic acid the compound was

obtained in the form of greenish-yellow, microcrystalline, rhomboidal plates

which did not melt below 300°. The corresponding ortho compound melted

at 249-50°.§

Anal. Subs., 0.1809: cc. of acid, 13.73. Caled. for Co2HisO2N.S: N, 7.53.

Found: 7.59.

5-0-Chlorobenzal-2 ,3-diphenylisothiohydantoin.—The corresponding alde-

hyde was condensed as usual after 2.75 hours refluxing and after cooling to

allow the reaction product to completely separate, it was filtered, washed with

water, alcohol and ether. After recrystallization from glacial acetic acid in

which the product was only slightly soluble it was obtained as greenish-

yellow, columnar crystals; m.p. 234-5°.

Anal. Subs., 0.2253: ec. of acid, 16.38. Caled. for CoHi;ON2SCI: N, 7.17.

Found: 7.27. |

5-m-Nitrobenzal-2 ,3-diphenylisothtohydantoin.—Two grams of parent sub-

stance condensed with 1.2 grams of the m-nitrobenzaldehyde after 2.5 hours

refluxing. The separated condensate was filtered, washed with water,

followed by a few cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol and ether. The yield

was 1.79 grams of deep orange, short, thin, microscopic needles; m.p. 219—20°.

The corresponding ortho compound melted at 196-7°.’

Anal. Subs., 0.1716. Salicyl-sulfuric acid method. cc. of acid, 18.01.

Caled. for CoxH1;03N;S: N, 10.47. Found: 10.50.

6 HaANN and MARKLEY. This JoURNAL16: 172. 1926.

7 Hann and MarkKLEy. Op. cit., p. 173.

pEc. 4, 1928 GARDNER: NEW MIOCENE GASTROPOD 561

Symmetrical trinitrobenzaldehyde and hydrocinnamaldehyde failed to

undergo this condensation. In the case of trinotrobenzaldehyde a brown,

tarry mass was obtained in the course of a half hour. Hydrocinnamaldehyde

gave a crystalline reaction product which contained no nitrogen but which

was not further investigated.

ALIPHATIC ALDEHYDE CONDENSATION

Previous to this work, one of us attempted to extend the above reaction

to the aliphatic series of aldehydes but without success. Isobutyl aldehyde

and ecitronellal were used but the only product isolated was unchanged

diphenylisothiohydantoin. In the present study the reaction was attempted

again, using citral, and it was found to undergo condensation with diphenyliso-

thiohydantoin with ease and to give the expected product. Whether the

failure with the first two aldehydes was due to the fact that they had become

polymerized upon standing prior to their use or under the influence of the

reactants is not known.

5-Citral-3 ,4-Diphenylisothiohydantoin.—Three grams of citral and 5.3

grams of diphenylisothiohydantoin were added to 25 cubic centimeters of

glacial acetic acid containing 5 grams of sodium acetate and refluxed for

4.75 hours. On cooling the whole reaction-mixture soldified. The cake was

broken up after a second addition of 25 cubic centimeters of glacial acetic

acid. The fine meal thus obtained was filtered and thoroughly washed

with water. Final recrysta!lization from glacial acetic acid gave 2.0 grams of

the reaction-product in the form of long, thin, greenish-yellow needles;

m.p. 230°.

Anal. Subs., 0.1132: ec. of acid, 7.82. Caled. for Co;H2ON2S: N, 6.96.

Found: 6.91.

SUMMARY

Diphenylisothiohydantoin has been condensed with o-methoxy-

benzaldehyde, p-methoxybenzaldehyde, 3,4-dimethoxybenzaldehyde,

piperonal, p-totualdehyde, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, o-chlorobenzalde-

hyde, m-nitrobenzaldehyde and the aliphatic aldehyde, citral. The

condensation products have been analyzed and described. Symmetri-

eal trinitrobenzaldehyde and hydrocinnamaldehyde did not undergo

the reaction, neither did the aliphatic aldehydes, citronellal and iso-

butyl aldehyde.

PALEONTOLOGY.—A new gastropod from the Miocene of Virginia.

JULIA GARDNER, U. 8. Geological Survey.

Turritella pilsbryi Gardner, new species

Shell very large and heavy, acutely conical in outline; spire elevated;

whorls probably about twenty-five in number, laterally compressed, the lower

whorls slightly overhanging at the anterior suture. Protoconch not strongly

differentiated from the conch; first half turn placed almost at right angles to

1 Received November 1, 1928.

562 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 20

the normal plane of coiling; incipient medial carina initiated on the second

whorl, becoming sharper and more elevated anteriorly and migrating from

the median horizontal toward the anterior suture; two equal and equi-spaced

spiral lirations initiated rather abruptly on the fourth whorl between the

keel and the posterior suture; spirals overridden

by microscopically fine incremental striae, retrac-

tive on the posterior portion of the whorl, protrac-

tive on the anterior portion. Usual sculpture in

adolescent stages of three narrow, obtuse, but

prominently elevated lirae, equisized and sym-

metrically spaced with respect to the sutures;

tendency toward an anterior migration of the

prominent spiral sculpture fulfilled on the adult

whorls. Characteristic adult sculpture of two to

four primary spirals, the anterior directly behind

the suture line, and often (as in the type) much

lower and less sharply defined than the one or two

in front of it, the posterior a little behind the

median horizontal and often ill-defined or evan-

escent in maturity, the two intermediate spirals

vigorous, rounded, strongly elevated cords,—the

continuations of the medial and posterior spirals

of the earlier whorls; secondary striations fre-

quently developed particularly on the anterior

portion of the whorl; base of body whorl sculp-

tured with crowded, linear lirae. Sutures im-

pressed on the earlier whorls, slightly undercut

on the later. Aperture holostomous, transversely

ovate; outer lip simple, obtusely angulated at the

base; the inner strongly arcuate. Parietal wall

glazed. Umbilicus imperforate.

Dimensions: Altitude, 110.5 mm.; latitude 22.9

mm.

Type: U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 325457.

Type locality: Schmidts Bluff, 43 miles in an

air line below Claremont Wharf, James River,

Surry County, Virginia. Zone I of Yorktown for-

mation, 26 to 34 feet above the base of the bluff.

Turritella pilsbryt is remarkable for its large

Figure 1.—Turritella pils- a :

Ait and heavy shell, ornamented with ‘coarse spiral

ryt Gardner, Yorktown for- * ; oe

mation. Adult shell x1, lirae, of which two are characteristically more

young stage X6. prominent than the rest, the posterior of the pair

located near the median horizontal, the anterior,

approximately midway between the median horizontal and the anterior

suture. The only form with which T’. pilsbryz is readily confusable is the

Turritella terebriformis of Dall; in the latter, however, the medial portion of

the whorl is demarcated by a concave area; in the former, as a rule, by the

posterior of the two most prominent spirals.

An interesting evidence of the viviparous nature of the genus is offered in

the material upon which this type is based: In cleaning one of the larger

pec. 4,, 1928 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 563

individuals, a sandy core was shaken out in which forty-seven embryos were

embedded. As they are obviously the larvae of the same species, and as no

other shells were present in the core, there seems to be no reasonable doubt

that they are the young of the individual which contained them.

I have the pleasure of naming this fine species in honor of Dr. Henry A.

Pilsbry, for many years the curator of the Mollusca in the Academy of

Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

At the recent meeting of the American Ornithologists Union in Charleston,

S. C., ALEXANDER WETMORE, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-

tution, was reelected President; T. S. Patmsr, Biological Survey, Secretary;

and W. L. McATes, Biological Survey, Treasurer.

Davin Waite and M. R. CaMpBELL, of the U. 8. Geological Survey took

part in the meeting of the National Academy at Schenectady and the Second

International Conference on Bituminous Coal at Pittsburgh.

Professor Riust ENnpo, of the Manchurian Teachers College, Mukden,

China, will arrive in Washington in January. He plans to spend several

years in the study of his collections from the Lower Paleozoic of Manchuria,

obtained during field work under the auspices of the South Manchurian

Railway, which maintains the college. Professor Endo’s collections repre-

sent a region from which little had been previously obtained and are expected

to contribute much to the understanding of the relations between Asia and

North America in early Paleozoic time.

564. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 20

Obituary

JosEPH SILAS DILLER, a member of the AcapEMy, well known for his

studies of the geology of the Pacific Coast, died in Washington, November

13, 1928. He was born at Plainfield, Pa., August 27, 1850, graduated from

Harvard University in 1879 and studied at Heidelberg University from 1880

to 1888. He joined the U. 8. Geological Survey in 1883, serving with that

organization 41 years, until his’retirement from active duty in 1924. His

interest centered in economic geology and petrography.

Tuomas CHROWDER CHAMBERLIN, Emeritus Professor of Geology, in the

University of Chicago and a member of the AcapEmy, died in Chicago, No-

vember 15, 1928. He was born at Mattoon, Illinois, September 25, 1848,

studied at Beloit College and University of Michigan, and held numerous

positions of trust during his long life. He left the presidency of the Univer-

sity of Wisconsin to become head of the Department of Geology at Chicago

in 1892, retiring from active charge in 1919. Professor Chamberlin was well

known for his studies of glacial geology in his earlier professional life and later

for his philosophic discussions of the origin of the earth, in which he proposed

the planetesimal hypothesis to replace the nebular hypothesis of Laplace.

His work brought him many academic and scientific honors both in this

country and in Europe.

Dr. Eugen AMANDUS SCHWARTZ, the well known entomologist, died in

Washington, October 15. He was born at Liegnitz, Silesia, April 21, 1844,

studied at the Universities of Breslau and Leipzig, and came to America in

1873. In 1877 he entered the government service as entomologist and re-

mained under the federal government until his death. Dr. Schwartz was one

of the founders of the Entomological Society, to which he recently presented

his library, and of the Biological Society of Washington.

on er Pe bart ata aay % feWy << * OP te, 2443 i

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CONTENTS (74 37+

Je ann ga Papers : iy re

of the sections of Meteorolony, and ees say ineoae O Geophysi

Chemistry.—Further aldehyde. os aang ge with bepress }

-_ ¢ - mi = -

Screntiric Nores anp Nie Se

Osrrvany: J. S. Diller, T. C. Chamberlin, EA. Schwartz Re AS

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 18 DECEMBER 19, 1928 No. 21

ASTRONOMY .—Exact time in astronomy.' JEAN Boccarpt, Var-

azze, Liguria, Italy.

For about a century, as a result of the establishment of the principles

and rules of the theory of errors, it has been the custom in sciences of

observation and measurement to give, along with the numerical values

obtained, the probable error, or the mean square error, which this

theory enables us to assign. Experience has shown that the more

closely the conditions of observation approximate to the theoretical

conditions for the application of the rules of the calculus of proba-

bilities, the more closely does the assumed error approximate to

the actual error.

In any case, the probable or mean error gives a fairly good idea of

the degree of accuracy attained. In the ordinary routine of daily

observations, however, one is not usually concerned with the accuracy

of the observations—this is a matter for consideration in the de-

termination of geographic coordinates, parallaxes, masses of heavenly

bodies, etc. Nevertheless, now that the radio-telegraph permits the

transmission and reception of the exact time and consequently the

systematic determination of differences of longitude, it is well to know

the degree of accuracy of the time received and of the time determined

on the spot.

On this subject I think there is some need for correcting the ideas

held relative to the accuracy of the determination of local time. In

70 years much progress has been made in this direction, both in de-

termining the time and in keeping it. It has been said that the accu-

racy attained in the transmission and reception of time by radio is

1 Received November 5, 1928.

565

566 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 21

notably superior to the accuracy of the determination of the time

itself. Now, if that holds good at some places, it is not true for all

observatories, especially for those which have good instruments, well

installed, under a clear sky, and in charge of observers skilled in the

manipulation of the so-called impersonal micrometer.

I have cited elsewhere? numerous examples of time determinahenes

made chiefly in connection with differences of longitude between vari-

ous places. From these it is seen that since 1909 an accuracy of 0.01

seconds has been attained; at least the mean square error is of this

order of magnitude and is often less.

The purpose of this article is to indicate the conditions favorable

to the attainment of so high a degree of accuracy in time determina-

tions and also in predicting the corrections to be applied to the read-

ings of a good clock.

To determine time accurately by the transit of stars across the merid-

ian, it is first of all necessary to lay aside large instruments (meridian

circles or simple transit instruments). With such instruments it is

almost impossible to reduce the azimuth constant to a very small

value and especially to keep it so. The collimation cannot be elimi-

nated by the reversal of the telescope, an operation which demands a

certain amount of time and which can be applied only to circumpolar

stars. Besides, when the telescope is reversed the azimuth changes.

The level correction is not well determined, either by means of large

levels or by the mercury bath.

It is necessary, therefore, to employ instruments with broken tele-

scopes, which are not heavy and may be reversed in a few seconds.

The diameter of the objective should be between 70 and 100 milli-

meters. A telescope of 95 millimeters aperture permits the observa-

tion with an illuminated field of stars of the 7th magnitude, oe even

of magnitude 7.5, during twilight.

It has been Dr auoaed recently to use straight telescopes with zeni-

thal eye-piece; but, for one thing, this eye-piece has its inconveniences;

for another, the straight telescopes are heavier and the diameter of

the objective must therefore be reduced to 70 millimeters, or to 75

millimeters at most. Now, to have the determinations of the time

close together, one must profit by all the periods of clear sky, observing

sometimes during twilight. With telescopes of 70 millimeters aper-

2 Journ. Observateurs, 1928; Mem. Accad. Pontif. Sci., 1928.

‘J

SDE BIS AALS,

DEC. 19, 1928 BOCCARDI: EXACT TIME 567

ture small stars may be observed with an illuminated field during the

night only.

Some one may say that the catalogue of fundamental stars does

not give the places of the stars down to the 7th magnitude; but I have

already proposed elsewhere’ that in order to confine the observations to

stars rather close to the zenith, each observatory should make for

itself a list of its own stars and carefully determine their right ascen-

sions, referring them to the same system.

If the instrument chosen possesses good levels, enabling the air

bubble to be adjusted to a nearly constant length, then by reading them

with all the recommended precautions one may rely upon the value

of the inclination. The level will be read for each star, and, of course,

the observer will try to reduce the azimuth and the inclination to a

minimum. The effect of the azimuth is almost null on the stars

culminating within a few degrees of the zenith, not more than 25°.

As to the impersonal micrometer, the observer must learn to use it

perfectly, otherwise, as experience has shown, the personal equation

is not eliminated. Moreover, beyond a declination of 60° the imper-

sonal micrometer adds nothing to the accuracy obtainable by the

ordinary micrometer.

Let us examine now the degree of accuracy that may be attained.

In the clock correction determined by one star there remains:

(1) The residual error of the apparent right ascension. It may be

considered to amount at the most to +0.°02, if the observer

employs the star places of the Auwers’ New Fundamental Catalogue

corrected by A. Kopff, Director of the Rechen-Institut of Berlin.

(2) The azimuth error, which for the zenithal stars amounts at the

most to +0.* 006.

(3) The error of the inclination, which is of the order of +0.°01.

(4) Finally, the error of the observation itself, which is a minimum,

since with the impersonal micrometer the observations of differ-

ent astronomers agree well. Let us assume +0.° 004 for this

error.

The total error will be

V 0.02 + 0.006 + 0.010 + 0.004 = +0.5 0235

But assume even +0.° 03. It follows that in observing 9 stars the

error to be feared in the clock correction is only +0.°01. Even if

the observer did not have special skill, even if the atmospheric con-

ditions were not completely favorable, etc., it will always be granted

> Mem. Accad. Pontif. Sci., 1928.

568 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 21

that except in unusual cases, with 15 or 16 stars an observer of moder-

ate skill will determine the correction Cp or At for the clock with an

error of +0.° 01. |

' Seventy years ago observations were made to the nearest second!

But astronomers are not satisfied with determining the exact time

for a given instant. They must be able to give it at any instant.

They must have a time-keeper. ‘Today good Riefler clocks, kept at

constant pressure and temperature, for several days following a

direct determination give the time with an uncertainty of 0.* 02 or

0..03. But, as with the broken telescopes of the Bamberg type,

one must know how to use these clocks and how to get from them all

that 1s possible in the way of accuracy. It is known that by means

of a pump one may change the air pressure in the metal case in which

the pendulum swings.

To be able to interpolate and extrapolate the exact time when several

determinations of the time are available, it is necessary to determine

the clock-rate and to use first and second differences. _—_.

Abrupt variations, “jumps,” in the rate of a good Riefler clock are

improbable. In any case, it is sufficient to have another control clock

beside the master clock, which enables abrupt variations in the rate

of the latter to be detected. The next direct determination of the

time will permit the elimination of any uncertainty.

I submit here an example furnished by Riefler clock no. 60, the

corrections for which have been furnished me by the Superintendent

of the Naval Observatory at Washington. I here thank him for

them.

_ These corrections come from the time determinations made with the

small, straight, Prin telescope whenever the condition of the sky

permitted. I believe that by using a Bamberg model broken telescope

and the Kopff right ascensions, a greater accuracy would have been

attained. The mean error would be only +0.:01. Furthermore,

clock no. 60 is not of the most recent model.

Let us consider first one point. It is said that by determining the

clock rate by two successive determinations of the time spaced 7 or 8

days apart, the residual errors of these determinations are reduced

as if by dividing them by 7 or 8. For example, if the mean error of

DEC. 19, 1928 BOCCARDI: EXACT TIME 569

one determination of the time is +0.° 01, the error of the rate during

10 days is only

0.201 V2

But this supposes that the clock rate has been constant during 10

days, which is not the case. The value obtained for the rate, suppos-

ing it to have a linear variation, applies exactly only at the epoch

midway between the two dates corresponding to the two determina-

tions of the time. It is the mean rate that is found; and when the

question arises of giving the correction for the clock for an intermediate

date—for example, 5 days after the first date—this correction, calcu-

lated from the mean rate, contains:

(1) The error of the first determination of Hie time.

(2) The difference between the actual rate during the 5 days follow-

ing and the mean rate multiplied by 5.

In the same way, in predicting the correction for the clock for a later

date, the mean rate during 10 days is not as exact as that which one

would obtain with two determinations of the time spaced 3 or 4 days

apart. The conclusion is that it is necessary to observe as often as

possible and to determine the rate by means of first and second

differences. |

As to abrupt variations, they are more probable in an interval of

10 days than in one of 3 days.

The table which follows contains for a complete administrative year

—July, 1926, to June, 1927—the daily rate of Riefler clock no. 60

of the Naval Observatory and the epochs to which they correspond.

To construct this table from the series of clock-corrections that were

so kindly supplied to me, I have grouped two by two all the sucessive

corrections by taking the mean. I have likewise taken the means of

the dates to which these values of Cp correspond. Then I have taken

the first differences between these means of the Cp and I have done

the same for the dates. Finally I have divided respectively the first,

which are the variations of the Cp, by the second, which are the cor-

responding intervals of time. Since small intervals were concerned,

I was entitled to assume that the values of Cp varied linearly. The

rates given in the table thus apply to epochs midway between the

two means of the dates that correspond to them.

An inspection of this table is very instructive. It shows that the

rate of the clock varies very slowly and that the difference between two

successive rates is, on the average, +0.° 005 or +0.°006. These

differences are due to the residual imperfections of the values of Cp

= 0.00141 .

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DEC. 19, 1928 LAMBERT: GEODETIC CONSTANTS 571

and also to the small variations in the clock rate. Rarely does this

difference reach 0.5015. Only during the spring are there greater

variations, which are doubtless due to the variability of weather

conditions. Perhaps the temperature has not been kept absolutely

constant, or the pressure has not been adjusted every time that the

Cp showed the necessity for it. We may conclude that today, with

two good instruments available, in charge of skillful astronomers, and

well-installed, under a sky which permits the determination of the

time, on the average, every 2 or 3 days, the value of Cp may be found

with a mean error of

With one good clock checked against another we can forecast Cp

for 3 or 4 successive days with an uncertainty amounting hardly to

+0.* 02.

It is a splendid triumph for astronomy!

GEOPHYSICS—Geodetic constants. Waiter D. LampBsrt, U. S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The Newtonian constant of gravitation? and the mean density of

the earth are so closely related that if one is known the other may be

at once derived. The Newtonian constant is the quantity actually

determined in the laboratory. The product of the two quantities is

known within about one part in one hundred thousand, although

neither quantity by itself is known within one part in ten thousand.

The formula for the product may be written:

kp = = (0. +5 ea + Se af)

Here k = Newtonian gravitation constant.

p = mean density of the earth.

a = equatorial radius of the earth considered as an ellipsoid

of revolution.

ge = equatorial surface gravity.

w = angular velocity of the earth’s rotation, so that wa repre-

sents the centrifugal force of rotation at the Equator.

f = flattening (ellipticity) of the earth.

1 Presented at the 977th Meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington, October

13, 1928. The general subject of the papers given at the meeting was Constants of

Nature. Received November 15, 1928.

2 This paper followed one by Paul R. Heyl, in which the Newtonian constant of

gravitation was discussed.

572 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 21

If we assume for the value of & that given by the preceding speaker,

namely 6.664 x 10-8 c.g.s. units, and for the values of a and g, those

soon to be stated, the value of the mean density comes out as 5.522.

This mean density may be considered as one of the geodetic constants

to be discussed in this paper.

The dimensions of the earth and the coefficients in the formula for

gravity at its surface are the principal remaining geodetic constants

that we are to discuss. Let us consider the former first. Theoreti-

cally at least, it is not essential to have astronomical observations in

order to determine the size and shape of the earth’s physical surface,

or any portion of it. The work could be done even though the heavens

were perpetually covered with impenetrable clouds. Consider any

portion of the earth’s surface with a number of points on it, each

point visible to its nearer neighbors.. These points could be considered

as the vertices of an irregular polyhedron. The distance between two

vertices could be measured directly and would serve as a base line for

what might be termed three-dimensional triangulation. The face

angles of each polyhedral angle could then be measured, the plane of

the divided circle used being made coincident with the plane of the

face angle. From these data the size and-shape of the polyhedron

could be deduced. All this work would be quite independent of con-

siderations of potential or of level surfaces or of latitude and longitude.

Practically, however, the accuracy of the results would be vitiated

by atmospheric refraction, especially refraction in a vertical plane for

objects near the horizon. This refraction, as every geodetic observer

knows, is exceedingly irregular and tricky. The method just outlined

has therefore only a theoretical interest. Actual determinations of the

figure of the earth depend on astronomical observations, that is, de-

terminations of latitude, longitude and azimuth over a given region,

combined with large-scale surveying operations over the same region.

The ancient Greeks must have done something of the sort, though

their astronomical observations were of the roughest and their deter-

minations of distance probably mere estimates based on travelers’

accounts. Even so, however, the Greeks of the time of Aristotle’

3 ‘Moreover those mathematicians who try to compute the circumference of the

earth say that it is 400,000 stadia, which indicates not only that the earth’s mass is

spherical in shape but also that it is of no great size as compared with the heavenly

bodies.” Aristotle, De Caelo, Book II, Chap.14. This passage follows a long argument

in favor of the sphericity of the earth. Some of the arguments sound modern enough,

others seem strange to our present ways of thinking. This seems to represent the first

scientific attempt or attempts now on record to determine the size of the earth. No

further details are given. The entire treatise has been translated by J. L. Stocks and

published by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, in 1922.

= ea et tg in A gee a ae Bs

’

DEC. 19, 1928 LAMBERT: GEODETIC CONSTANTS 573

had an approximate knowledge of the size of the earth considered as a

sphere. About a century later Eratosthenes‘ obtained an even better |

approximation by a process identical in principle with that used by

every geodesist down to the time when the electric telegraph became

available for determining longitudes. Just how approximate these

early determinations were we can not say because of the uncertainty

regarding the exact modern equivalents of the linear units used.

Let us skip over some two thousand years and consider now the

most modern determinations of the dimensions of the earth. As the

most acceptable figures let us take those adopted in 1924 by the Sec-

tion of Geodesy of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union

and defined by the parameters of the International Ellipsoid of Refer-

ence. These figures are based on Hayford’s® discussion of geodetic

operations in the United States only, but have been substantially

confirmed by Heiskanen’s® discussion of European triangulation and

by other geodetic and astronomical evidence.’

The fundamental parameters are:

a (semi-major axis) = 6,378,388 meters

f (flattening or ellipticity) = 1/297.0

From these there result:

6 (semi-minor axis) = 6,356,912 meters

Q (quadrant of a meridian) = 10,002,288 meters

It is seen that the meridian quadrant is over 2 kilometers longer than

* Eratosthenes, librarian at Alexandria, died about 195 B.C. We owe our knowledge

of his geodetic work to a book by Cleomedes, a Greek writer who is supposed to have

lived about 100 A.D. The account of Eratosthenes’ work is in Chap. 10 of his book, the

Latin title of which is De Motu Circulari Corporum Celestium. Eratosthenes’ result is a

circumference of 250,000 stadia. There is no certainty that the stadium of Aristotle and

that of Eratosthenes represented the same length. If we use 185 meters, which is usually

given as the length of the Attic stadium, we get for the circumference according to

Eratosthenes some 46,000 kilometers, instead of the actual 40,000.

I am indebted to Mr. Otis Hill of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for invaluable help

in connection with these and other references to classical literature.

5 J. F. Hayrorp. Supplementary investigation in 1909 of the figure of the earth and

isostasy. Published by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1910.

6W. Hetskanen. Die Erddimensionen nach den europdischen Gradmessungen.

Veréff. Finn. Geod. Inst. 6. 1926. A slight revision of the conclusions from the same

data is given by Heiskanen in the Vierteljahrsschr. Astron. Ges. 61 (Jahrgang 1926):

215.

7 For references, see W. D. Lampert. The figure of the earth and the new inter-

national ellipsoid of reference. Science 63: 242. 1926. A version revised by the

author and translated into French by Col. Perrier appeared in the Bull. Géod. 10: 81.

1926.

574 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 21

an even ten thousand kilometers, which was the figure aimed at when

the metric system was devised.

What may be os probable limits of error of these figures (not the

“probable errors’ in the technical sense), it is rather difficult to say.

Perhaps fifty meters in the semi-axes and a few tenths of a unit inthe

reciprocal of the flattening.

Let us make our formula for gravity at the surface of the earth

consistent with the International Ellipsoid of Reference. We must

then write as the value of gravity in em/sec?:

= 978.052 [1 + 0.005288 sin? ¢ — 0.000006 sin? 24]

+8 +5

where ¢ = geographic latitude. Only the coefficients within the

square brackets depend on the ellipticity. The coefficient outside,

978.052 cm/sec”, is essentially independent of the dimensions of the

earth and must be determined by observation. The value written

down is the largest of all the more recent determinations? and this

for two reasons: (1) There.is reason to believe, as Bowie® has pointed

out, that a more accurate reduction for the elevation of the station

would slightly increase the values of gravity on land, and it is on

these land values that our gravity formulas have hitherto been based;

(2) The formula is meant to represent average conditions over the

earth’s entire surface, nearly three-fourths of which is ocean, and it

appears from determinations of gravity at sea, which we are just be-

ginning to obtain, that gravity at sea tends to be in excess of gravity

on land even after the latter has been reduced for elevation. Bowie’s

suggested improvement in the method of reduction applies to sea

stations also and should tend to harmonize the results for gravity

stations on sea and on land.

_ [have written beneath the coefficients, estimates of their probable

limits of error. ‘They are largely matters of opinion, for a real basis

of evaluation is lacking. The +8 attached to the 978.052 is intended

to include the error in the absolute determination of gravity, an ex-

ceedingly delicate and difficult operation when an accuracy of a few

~8F.R. Hetmert. Neue Formeln fiir den Verlauf der Schwerkraft im Meeresniveau

beim Festlande. Sitzungsber. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. 1915: 676.

W. Heiskanen. Untersuchungen tiber Schwerkraft und Isostasie. Veroff. Finn.

Geod. Inst. 4.

9W. Bowrzn. The effect of the shape of the geod on values of gravity at sea. Am.

Journ. Sci. 14: 222. 1927.

Rapport de la Sous-Commission spécialement chargée de déterminer les réductions

a faire subir aux intensités observées en.mer. Bull. Géod. 17: 29. 1928.

ON eee ee ee oe

ae eg

DEC. 19, 1928 LAMBERT: GEODETIC CONSTANTS 575

parts in a million is sought. The authors of the most recent absolute

determination, Kiihnen and Furtwingler,!° estimate the mean error of

their result as +0.003 em /sec?.

To return to the apparent systematic difference between gravity on

land and gravity at sea, this may be represented very roughly indeed

by putting within the square brackets a longitude term such as:

+0.000023 cos? ¢ cos 2 (A +5°), where A = east longitude,

so that our formula_becomes:!!

g = 978.052 [1 + 0.005288 sin? ¢ — 0.000006 sin? 2 ¢

+0.000023 cos? ¢ cos 2 (A + 5°)|

The form of the added term is that of a surface spherical harmonic of

the second degree and is conceivably the first of a long series of spheri-

cal harmonic terms related perhaps to the configuration of the litho-

sphere. Parenthetically it should be said that other harmonic

terms of the second degree and terms of lower degree are either already

implicitly contained in the gravity formula or are omitted from it for

sound theoretical reasons.

The presence of such a term is rather puzzling, for it implies an

ability of the earth’s crust to sustain the stresses due to a wide-spread

and rather large excess or deficiency of matter, an ability not in ac-

cord with much other evidence. Yet, unless we are the victims of an

uncommonly perverse combination of accidental errors, we can hardly

escape attributing some reality to this longitude term. It does not

rest solely on the recently discovered systematic difference between

gravity on land and gravity at sea, some of which difference can be

explained by Bowie’s suggested improvement in methods of reducing

for elevation. It appeared thirteen years ago in Helmert’s!* discussion

of gravity observations all made on land. The longitude term in the

gravity formula implies a corresponding term in the figure of the earth,

making the geoid an ellipsoid of three unequal axes instead of an ellip-

10 FR. KUHNEN and Pu. FuRTWANGLER. Bestimmung der absoluten Grésse der Schwer-

kraft zu Potsdam mit Reversionspendeln. Verdoff. K. Preuss. Geod. Inst. 27. 1906.

11 W. HeiskaneN. Ist die Erde ein dreiachsiges Ellipsoid? Gerlands Beitr. Geo-

physik 19: 356. 1928. Or in condensed form in the Astron. Nachr. 232 (5562): 305.

1928. The difference of one unit in the sixth decimal in the coefficients of sin’¢ and

sin? 2¢ between the formulas of Heiskanen and of this article for the same flattening,

1/297, is due to the fact that Heiskanen’s spheroid is not an exact ellipsoid.

122A. Prey. Darstellung der Héhen— und Tiefenverhdltnisse der Erde durch eine

Entwickelung nach Kugelfunktionen bis zur 16. Ordnung. Abh. K. Ges. Wiss. Géttingen.

Math.—phys. Kl. 11: 1. 1922.

13 See note 8.

576 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 21

soid of rotation. Fifty years.ago Clarke deduced from triangulation

and from astronomic determinations a figure of the earth that strongly

suggests recent determinations of the longitude term in the gravity

formula; furthermore, Heiskanen’s recent discussion of European tri-

angulation, in which discussion he allowed for the effects of topography

and isostatic compensation, likewise tends to the same conclusion.

So do results from discussions of the variation of latitude’ and of the

lunar parallax,!* though these latter give at present only rough quali-

tative indications. All these results point to a difference between the

maximum and minimum equatorial semi-axes of the order of two or

three hundred meters, with the longer axis approximately in the plane

of the meridian of Greenwich.

We should like to get a better hold on the real size of the longitude

term and likewise to know whether it stands in the main by itself or

whether it is only one of many spherical harmonic terms of about the

same order of magnitude. If the latter, we should expect these terms

to be related to the configuration of the continents and oceans. But

if not, if this one longitude term stands practically alone, then perhaps

‘we may see in it a vestige of some state of the earth as it was in the

remote past when for some reason the earth was nearly a triaxial

ellipsoid with one axis of the equator decidedly longer than the other.

Perhaps we may imagine that this happened when the moon parted

~ company with the earth, as in Darwin’s theory, being expelled by the

resonance effect of the solar tides at a time when the earth rotated much

more rapidly than now. But this is frankly wild speculation and per-

haps it will be well to close before we get too far away from observed

facts. At any rate the longitude term, its reality, its size if real, and

its geophysical significance, present one of the most interesting prob-

lems in present-day geodesy.

144A, R. CuarKe. On the figure of the earth. Lond. Edinb. Dubl. Philos. Mag.

Journ. Sci. 6: 81. 1878.

1 W.D. LAMBERT. . An investigation of the latitude of Ukiah, Calif., and of the motion

of the pole. Coast & Geod. Surv. Spec. Pub. 80: 59. 1922.

16W.D. Lampert. The figure of the earth and the parallax of the moon. Astron.

Journ. 38 (908): 181. 1928.

DEC. 19, 1928 BARTRAM: MEXICAN MOSSES 577

BOTANY.—Mosses of western Mexico collected by Mrs. Ynes Mexia.!

Epwin B. Bartram, Bushkill, Pennsylvania. (Communicated

by Wiitu1am R. Maxon).

The small but interesting collection of mosses reported on here-

with was made by Mrs. Ynes Mexia in the States of Jalisco and Naya-

rit in the winter of 1926-27, and has been intrusted to the writer for

determination by Dr. William R. Maxon of the United States National

Museum. If it is typical of the moss flora of the Sierra Madre Occi-

dental we may well assume that western Mexico still holds a reserve

of bryological knowledge that will amply reward further exploration.

Specimens representing the species listed below, together with the

types of the new species described, are in the United States National

Herbarium.

CAMPYLOPUS TALLULENSIS Sull. & Lesq.

On rocky precipitous slope, Real Alto, La Bufa, Jalisco, 2,500 meters,

Jan. 30, 1927, no. 1595b.

This species has not been reported from Mexico before and the determination

has not been made without some reservation. The costa is practically smooth

on the back and the leaves are wider in the basal portion, with a relatively

broader costa, than in typical plants from the southern United States; but in

other respects the agreement seems to be complete. The broader costa, up

to 0.06 mm. wide, is more suggestive of C. Roelliz or C. Hellerianus, but these

species are described as having a narrow blade, up to 80u wide, just above the

alar cells, while the leaves of this collection show the blade at least three times

this width. This trio is known only in sterile condition. When the fruiting

characters are available it would not be surprising to find them automatically

reduced to forms of one rather variable specific type.

CAMPYLOPUS INTROFLEXUS (Hedw.) Brid.

Bare gullied hillside, red clay near stream, San Sebastian, Hacienda del

Cura, Jalisco, 1,425 meters, Jan: 2, 1927, no. 1344.

METZLERELLA COSTARICENSIS (C. M.) Broth.

Around earth and roots of oak tree, Hacienda del Ototal, East of San

Sebastian, Arroyo de los Hornos, Jalisco, 1500 meters, March 6, 1927, no.

1822a.

OcTOBLEPHARUM ALBIDUM (L.) Hedw.

On trunk of palm tree in dense nut palm woods, Tuxpan, Jalisco, 20

meters, Nov. 3, 1926, no. 1028.

Merceyopsis mexicana Bartr., sp. nov. (Fic. 1, A-H)

Dioicous? Antheridial flowers not found. Plants in dense cushions,

yellowish green at the tips, paler below, matted together with reddish radi-

1 Received October 29, 1928.

578 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 12

cles. Stems up to 2 em. high, erect or decumbent, irregularly branched by

innovations, abundantly radiculose throughout, without central strand.

Lower leaves not crowded, 2.5 to 3 mm. long, the upper longer, in comal

tufts, up to 3.5 mm. long, carinate, undulate on the edges and strongly

crisped when dry, erect-spreading when moist, lanceolate-spatulate, abruptly

acute, carinate in the lower half, margin narrowly reflexed on one or both

sides from just above the insertion about one-quarter of the way up, flat and

lightly undulate above; costa 65u to 70u wide just above the base, tapering

upward and ending slightly below the apex, reddish at the base, lutescent

above, strongly convex on the dorsal side, smooth, in cross-section showing

two or three guide cells with several smaller cells on the ventral side and a

thick dorsal band of stereid cells with the outer row differentiated; leaf cells

smooth, the upper rounded or transversely oval, about 7u to 10u in diameter,

with incrassate, pellucid walls, the lower cells larger, seriate, several rows

toward the costa rectangular with rounded corners, up to 38u long by 12u

wide, at the extreme base short-rectangular, not or hardly incrassate, occa-

sionally hyaline; seta terminal, erect, filiform, pale yellow, 2 to 3 mm. high;

capsule ovoid-cylindric, pale yellow and lightly striate when empty, about

1.1 mm. long; exothecal cells large, thin-walled, broadly hexagonal, 4 or 5

rows around the mouth smaller and reddish; peristome none; lid and calyptra

unknown; spores light brown, slightly rough, 10u in diameter.

Type: On steep rock, San Sebastian, East of Segundo Arroyo, Jalisco,

Mexico, 1,500 meters, January 25, 1927, Mrs. Ynes Mexia, no. 15684.

- These plants are so nearly identical with*M erceyopsis gedeana (Lac.)-

Fleisch., of Java, that it has been difficult to find any really satisfactory diag-

nostic characters. The leaves of M. mexicana are relatively longer, with

more strongly reflexed basal margins and less incrassate basal areolation;

the setae are consistently shorter, more slender and paler; the capsules paler

in color and striate when empty; but these differences are of degree only, and

not entirely conclusive. The collection is of unusual interest, however, as it

represents the first record for the genus on this continent, all the previously

known species being confined to India, Java, and Luzon.

ANOECTANGIUM EUCHLORON (Schwaegr.) Mitt.

On north side of old rock wall, San Sebastian, north-east of Hacienda del

Cura, Jalisco, 1,425 meters, Jan. 3, 1927, no. 1364.

ANOECTANGIUM CONDENSATUM Schimp.

On rock near stream, San Sebastian, Canyon El Ranchito, Jalisco, 1,500

meters, Jan. 12, 1927, no. 1470.

LEPTODONTIUM EXASPERATUM Card.

Rocky precipitous slope, Real Alto, La Bufa, Jalisco, 2,500 meters, Jan.

30, 1927, no. 1595a.

LEPTODONTIUM SULPHUREUM (C. M.) Mitt.

Growing on small trees near stream, San Sebastian, east of Arroyo del

Cura, Jalisco, 1,425 meters, Jan. 5, 1927, no. 1389.

| WEBERA SPECTABILIS (C. M.) Jaeg.

Jalisco, 1927, no. 1704.

re 85 = OF

Sa rOOD

BU FS580F

<—~

;

—p—~4

ot)

Fig. 1. A—H. Merceyopsis mexicana Bartr. sp. nov.—A, plant X 1.4 dia.; B,

tip of stem and sporophyte X 7.7 dia.; C, D, leaves X 24.5 dia.; E, apex of leaf 112.

dia.; F, one side of leaf base, dorsal view X 112 dia.; G, upper leaf cells and margin X

560 dia.; H, cross-section of costa from upper part of leaf 280 dia.

I—P. Isopterygium dimunitivum Bartr. sp. nov.—I, plant xX 2.1 dia.; J, dry

capsule X 11.2 dia.; K, end of stem X 7.7 dia.; L, M, N, leaves X 56dia.; O, apex of

leaf X 2.80 dia.; P, basal angle of leaf x 280 dia. ‘

579

580 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 21

_ BRYUM INSOLITUM Card.

On top of old rock wall, San Sebastian, north-east of Hacienda del Cura,

Jalisco, 1,425 meters, Jan. 3, 1927, no. 1365. _

BRYUM ROSULATUM C. M.

Rocky precipitous slope, on rock, Real Alto, La Bufa, Jalisco, 2,500 meters,

Jan. 30, 1927, no. 1595b.

PHILONOTIS TENELLA (C. M.) Besch.

On rock in stream bed, Santa Cruz de Vallarta, Jalisco, 700 meters, Dec.

10, 1926, no. 1278.

BREUTELIA TOMENTOSA (Sw.) Schimp.

Steep damp stream bank, San Sebastian, east of Arroyo Santa Gertrudis,

Jalisco, 1,500 meters, Jan. 18, 1927, nos. 1509 and 1510.

FUNARIA CALVESCENS Schwaegr.

On dry clay bank near stream at canyon bottom, trail from San Sebastian

to Arroyo Seco, Jalisco, 1,500 meters, Jan. 8, 1927; no. 1487. Near stream in

gully, in dense shade, San Sebastian, trail to El Ranchito, Jalisco, 1,500

meters, Jan. 11, 1927, no. 1458. Densely wooded, damp north slope, grow-

ing on old tree roots and in earth, Real Alto, trail to El Tajo de Santiago,

Jalisco, 2,500 meters, Feb. 23, 1927, no. 1746a. Santa Cruz de Vallarta,

Jalisco, 700 meters, Dec. 1, 1926, no. 1304.

MACROMITRIUM TORTUOSUM Schimp.

Steep shaded ravine near stream, on rock, Cerro de San Juan, west of

Tepic, Nayarit, 1000 meters, Sept. 19, 1926, no. 696. Steep, damp stream

bank, on tree trunk, San Sebastian, east of Arroyo Santa Gertrudis, Jalisco,

1,500 meters, Jan. 18, 1927, no. 1519.

PILOTRICHELLA PULCHELLA Schimp.

Bare gullied hillside, red clay, by stream, San Sebastian, Hacienda del

Cura, Jalisco, 1,425 meters, Jan. 2, 1927, no. 1343.

THUIDIUM INVOLVENS (Hedw.) Mitt.

On rocks in stream bed, Santa Cruz de Vallarta, Jalisco, 700 meters, Dec.

10, 1926, no. 1277.

ERYTHRODONTIUM PRINGLEI Card.

Rocky precipitous slope, on rock, Real Alto, La Bufa, Jalisco, 2,500 es

Jan. 30, 1927, no. 1595.

ERYTHRODONTIUM TERES (C. M.) Par.

On tree trunk, trail from Tepic to Los Aquacates, near Arroyo Seco,

Nayarit, 1,000 meters, Sept. 11, 1926, no. 551. Steep shaded ravine near

stream, growing on rock, Cerro de San Juan, west of Tepic, Nayarit, 1,000

meters, Sept. 19, 1926, no. 695b.

The reddish setae and striated peristome teeth are characters that are

shared in common by both E. teres and E. densum. I have been unable to

find any antheridial flowers on either of these collections, but the relatively

numerous sporophytes suggest that the inflorescence is probably autoicous.

The broadly ovate, abruptly acuminate leaves are more suggestive of EF.

teres than of the other species.

ENTOpDON ERYTHROPUS Mitt. var. MExtcaNnus Card.

On rocks near canyon bottom, trail from San Sebastian to Arroyo Seco,

Jalisco, 1,500 meters, Jan. 8, 1927, no. 1427. Dense woods, on stream banks

at canyon bottom, San Sebastian, east of Arroyo del Cura, Jalisco, 1,425

—_—— ——

~~ ee

DEC. 19, 1928 BARTRAM: MEXICAN MOSSES 581

meters, Jan. 5, 1927, no. 1386. Bottom of steep ravine, along stream,

Quimixto, trail to San Pedro del Tuito, Jalisco, 60 meters, Dec. 2, 1926, no.

1230.

TAXIPHYLLUM PLANISSIMUM (Mitt.) Broth.

Woods on mountain side, growing on rock, Santa Cruz de Vallarta, Jalisco,

300 meters, Dec. 8, 1926, no. 1258.

SEMATOPHYLLUM HAMPEI Besch.

Around earth and bark of oak, west of San Sebastian, Hacienda del Ototal,

Arroyo de los Hornos, Jalisco, 1,500 meters, March 6, 1927 no. 1823c.

Isopterygium dimunitivum Bartr., sp. nov. (Fig. 1, I-P)

Autoicous; male buds minute, about 0.3 mm. long; antheridia 1 to 3,

inclosed by 5 or 6 concave, loosely areolate, ovate-acuminate bracts. Plants

small, prostrate, in rather thin mats, yellowish green above, brownish be-

neath, sparingly radiculose, irregularly branched; branches short, horizontal.

Leaves erect-spreading and somewhat homomallous when dry, widely spread-

ing when moist, oblong-ovate, rather long-acuminate, concave, 0.6 to 0.7

mm. long, the margin entire or very faintly sinuate toward the apex, plane;

costa short and double or none; leaf cells smooth, linear, prosenchymatous, 6

or 8 at the basal angles, subquadrate; perichaetial leaves erect, the outer

about 1 mm. long, ovate-lanceolate, slenderly acuminate, loosely areolate

in the lower half; seta slender, reddish below, paler above, about 8 mm.

long, twisted to the right when dry; capsule about 1 mm. long, horizontal,

contracted under the mouth and lightly striate when dry, short-ovoid when

moist; exothecal cells short-rectangular, with rather thick, yellowish, pellu-

cid walls; peristome teeth pale yellow, projecting about 0.25 mm. above the

rim, closely cross-striate below, pale and coarsely papillose at the apex, cilia

two; lid and calyptra unknown.

Type: In dense nut palm woods, Tiixpan, State of Jalisco, Mexico, alti-

tude about 20 meters, November 3, 1926, Mrs. Ynes Mexia, no. 1028a.

The plane-margined leaves distinguish this plant from both J. miradori-

cum and I. cordovense. It is nearer I. tenerum (Sw.) Mitt., but is smaller,

with broader leaves less slenderly pointed and with a larger area of quadrate

alar cells. Exactly the same plant occurs in a collection of Mexican mosses

received from Mr. C. R. Orcutt, collected in the vicinity of Alzada, State of

Colima, November 4, 1910, no. 4645.

POGONATUM BREVICAULE Brid.

Rocky stream bank, in damp clay soil, San Sebastian, Arroyo Seco, Jalisco,

1,500 meters, Jan. 15, 1927, no. 1494. Near stream at bottom of canyon,

growing on rocks, trail from San Sebastian to Arroyo Seco, Jalisco, 1,500

meters, Jan. 8, 1927, no. 1436.

The occurrence of this species in Mexico is rather surprising, but I can find

no excuse for separating these collections from the familiar type of the eastern

United States. This is apparently the first time it has been recorded from

Mexico.

POGONATUM CAMPYLOCARPUM (C. M.) Mitt.

Shady, north bank of stream, Real Alto, Poso Hedionda, Jalisco, 2,500

meters, Feb. 20, 1927, no. 1723a.

582 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 21

PoconaTtuM LIEBMANNIANUM Schimp.

Steep damp stream bank, San Sebastian, east of Arroyo Santa Gertrudis,

Jalisco, 1,500 meters, Jan. 18, 1927, no. 1511. Near stream, on bare gullied

hillside, growing in damp red clay, San Sebastian, Hacienda del Cura, Jalisco,

1,425 meters, Jan. 2, 1927, no. 1352 (?).

BOTANY.—The identification of Polypodium triangulum L.!. Wit-

L1AM R. Maxon, National Museum.

Among the ferns, one of the most distinctive groups is the widespread

genus Polystichum. The species are commonly regarded as highly

polymorphic, yet really are less notably so than has been thought, in

many cases occupying (when critically segregated) comparatively

narrow but natural, well defined areas of distribution; this has been

shown to be true for Jamaica and the West Indies generally.2

The present notes relate to the historic misidentification of the

Linnaean Polypodium triangulum, described originally from Hispaniola.

Recent ample collections from that island show it to be a very distinct

but rare endemic species, related closely not to the abundant Greater

Antilles plant commonly called Polystichum triangulum (which must

be known in future as Polystichum echinatum), but to P. mucronatum

(Swartz) Presl, a Jamaican species of similar habit and essentially

non-spinulose character. Historical and descriptive notes upon the

three species, with principal synonymy, are given herewith.

Polystichum triangulum (L.) Fée, Gen. Fil. 279. (1852. Fic. 1. Polypodium

triangulum L. Sp. Pl. 2: 1088. 1753.

The original description of Polypodium triangulum L., 1753, reads as fol-

lows: ‘“‘Polypodium frondibus pinnatis: pinnis triangularibus, dentatis,”

and is based upon the ‘‘Trichomanes folio triangulo dentato” of Petiver,

illustrated at plate 1, figure 10. This illustration is obviously redrawn from

Plumier’s plate 72, depicting a plant from Hispaniola. There is no specimen

of Polypodium triangulum in the Linnaean Herbarium. Plumier’s plate 72

thus stands as virtual type.

So long as true material of this species was lacking from Hispaniola it was

-not unnatural to associate under this name other plants from the Greater

Antilles which agreed only indifferently with the Plumier plate. Thus the

name became fixed eventually upon a highly variable species of Jamaica,

eastern Cuba, and Haiti (rare in Porto Rico and Guadeloupe), in which the

pinnae are for the most part not merely “‘dentate’’ but serrate-spinescent.

This latter species, taken up by Hooker, Jenman, and others as Aspidiwm

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived October 31, 1928.

2 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 13: 25-39. pl. 2-9. 1909; 16: 49-51. pl. 27. 1912; 24: 53, 54.

pl. 19, 20. 1922.

= a, a

DEC. 19, 1928 MAXON: POLYPODIUM TRIANGULUM 083

Fig. 1. Polystichum triangulum (L.) Fée

584 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 21

triangulum Swartz, and by recent authors as Polystichum triangulum, must

properly bear the name Polystichum echinatum (Gmel.) C. Chr.; it is discussed

below. .

The Hispaniola material at hand which now proves truly referable to

Polystichum triangulum is as follows:

Haitt: Fonds Verettes, Mission; alt. 1000 meters or more; occasional in

damp thickets; Leonard 3997. Furey: alt. 1300-1500 meters; damp thickets

and steep mossy ravine banks; occasional or locally common, Leonard 4278,

4281, 4284a, 4631, 4635; Picarda 256. Morne Brouet, Massif de la Selle; alt.

1600 meters, in shady places; Ekman 1103. Morne Formond, Torbec,

Massif de la Hotte: alt. 1550 meters; on stony ridge, Ekman 7454.

As previously stated, the affinity of this species is with P. mucronatum

(Swartz) Presl, of Jamaica, a species well known from Hooker’s description

and figure,® from Jenman’s description,’ and from notes and illustrations pub-

lished by the writer.6 As in P. mucronatum, the rachis bears a thick persist-

ent covering of rigidly ascending or appressed-imbricate, hairlike, reddish

scales, and the very numerous close-set pinnae are similarly clothed beneath:

Plumier’s descriptive notes, freely translated, are in part that the stipes or

rachises are ‘‘all covered with reddish hairs;’”’ that the pinnae are ‘‘so close

to one another that the lower one always overlaps the other;” that the pinnae

are always rather short, but broad atthe base, not more than an inch long,

“wholly of a brownish green, wrinkled on the upper surface, the lower surface

being clothed with reddish hairs.”’

These characters apply to the plants in hand, rather than to the P. trian-

gulum of authors. We may believe, too, that the spinulose margins and

glabrate surfaces of the P. trzangulum of authors would have been emphasized,

if that plant had been intended. On the contrary, Plumier refers to the

‘‘nointed teeth” of the pinnae, a character which is not very obvious in all

the specimens, though well shown in some.

Making every allowance for exaggeration of detail in Pluwies s plate 72,

it seems fairly certain, then, that the plant there figured is identical with the

one here illustrated. Certainly the plants at hand are distinct specifically

from all other West Indian species known, and they agree far better with the

plate and description of Plumier than do any of the Hispaniola specimens

here placed under P. echinatum, the P. triangulum of authors.

Polystichum echinatum (Gmel.) C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 88. 1905; 581. 1906.

Polypodium echinatum Gmel. Syst. Nat. 27: 1309. 1791.

Polystichum falcatum Fée, Gen. Fil. 279. 1852; not Diels, 1899.

This is the common Greater Antilles species misidentified in the past as

Polystichum triangulum.

3 Sp. Fil. 4: 9. pl. 216. 1862, as Aspidium mucronatum; not A. mucronatum Swartz,

which is Polystichum muricatum (L.) Fée.

4 Bull. Bot. Dept. Jamaica II. 2: 266. 1895.

5 Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 13: 37. pl. 8, A, B. 1909; as Polystichum struthionis Maxon.

ee ee ee

2 ee

DEC. 19, 1928 MAXON: POLYPODIUM TRIANGULUM 585

The original description of Polypodiwm echinatum reads as follows, “‘Pinnis

falcato-lanceolatis subserratis sursum auritis base & anterius spinosis; stipite

squamoso,” with citation of Sloane’s plate 36, figures 4 and 5, representing

Jamaican plants. Gmelin’s specimens (if any) have not been seen. The

two Sloane specimens illustrated in figures 4 and 5 were examined recently

at the British Museum, however; and although one of them is only scantily

spinescent, both belong to the species ordinarily called (in error) P. triangu-

lum. The specific name employed by Gmelin is in itself peculiarly indicative

of this species, as opposed to P. triangulum (verum) and the Jamaican P.

mucronatum.

Variation within P. echinatum is exceptionally wide. A narrow form is

shown by Hooker in plate 33 of his Filices Exoticae (1858); but blades 4 to 6

em. broad are not uncommon even in Jamaica, and in Hispaniola they reach

a width of 8 to 10 cm., showing also marked variation in degree of serration.

The Cuban plants are, in the main, intermediate, and it is possible to arrange

the whole extensive series of Greater Antilles material in an almost unbroken

line, showing every integradation not only in size but in less obvious charac-

ters. The margins are almost invariably serrate-spinescent, often very

deeply and strongly so, and the blades always non-proliferous. As illustra-

tive, the following specimens may be cited:

JaMAIcA: Clute 170; Hitchcock 9506; Palate bod 1167, 1822, 2838, 2839,

3295; Mazon 1201, 1337, 1489, 1873, 1883, 1884, 1887, 2207, 2555, 2591,

2788, 2827, 2968, 8752, 8754, 10087, 10150, 10400, 10462, 10482: Mazon &

Killip 358, 998, 1034, 1413, 1453a, 1699.

CusBa: Shafer 8731; Pollard & Palmer 143; Leon 11179; Maxon 4243, 4260,

4267, 4459, 4461.

HispaNIoua: Haiti, Leonard 3648, 3772, 3786, 4697, 4905, 4926, 7822,

8398, 8638, 9087; Nash & Taylor 1341, 1352; Muller 235; Ekman 1177, 3800, |

7333. Dominican Republic, Abbott 1848, 1852, 1969; Tiirckheim 2933;

Fuertes 1562.

Porto Rico: Near Florida, on limestone, H. G. Britton 8535; Britton,

Britton & Boynton 8189.

Polystichum mucronatum (Swartz) Presl, Tent. Pter. 83. 1836.

Polypodium muricatum Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Oce. 131. 1788; not L.,

1753.

Aspidium mucronatum Swartz, Journ. Bot. Schrad. 1800?: 30. 1801.

Polystichum echinatum C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 83. 1905; not Polypodium echina-

tum Gmel. 1791.

Polystichum struthionis Maxon, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 13: 37. pl. 8, A, B.

1909.

A well known, endemic Jamaican species, here regarded in the sense of

Swartz, Hooker, and Jenman.

Relying too much upon Sloane’s plate 36, figures 4 and 5, cited by Swartz

as illustrating his Polypodium muricatum and again mentioned by him in

proposing the substitute name mucronatum, the writer long ago misidentified

this species and needlessly proposed for it the new name P. struthionis; the

error might have been avoided by a critical reading of Swartz’s later detailed

description. Recently, an examination of the Swartzian type at Stockholm

showed it to be identical with Hooker’s plate of Aspidium mucronatum’ and

6 Fl. Ind. Occ. 3: 1649. 1806.

7Sp. Fil. 4: 9. pl. 216. 1862.

586 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 21

the writer’s illustration of P. struthionis, above cited. As previously stated,

Sloane’s figures 4 and 5 pertain to P. echinatum, and not to P. mucronatum.

The following specimens, showing relatively slight variation, are at hand:

Jamaica: Hart 29, 209; Clute 68; Eggers 3763; Underwood 458; Mazon

1316, 1470, 1610, 1614, 2660, 8748, 10077, 10154, 10557; Mazon & Killip 608,

906, 1009.

PALEOBOTANY.—An Alethopteris from the Carboniferous of Peru.!

Epwarp W. Brrry, Johns Hopkins University.

In 1922 the writer described a few Carboniferous plants from the

Paracas Peninsula in Peru, one of which he collected also on the

Copacabanya peninsula at the Bolivian end of Lake Titicaca.2 These

were Palmatopteris furcata Brongn., EHremopteris whiter Berry, E.

peruianus Berry, Calamites suckowit Brongn., Calamostachys sp., Lepi-

dodendron rimosum Sternb., L. obovatum Sternb., Lepidophyllum sp.,

Lepidostrobus sp., Stigmaria sp., and Knorria sp.

- Despite the absence of neuropterids, pecopterids, alethopterids and

lonchopterids, this flora was considered to indicate a Westphalian age

and not to represent the Dinantian as had been asserted by Stein-

mann.’ This conclusion was based upon paleogeographic considera-.

tions, the nature of the plants found and their manner of accumula-

tion, and their apparent close relations with marine sediments

carrying a Uralian fauna (Stephanian stage in terms of the Euro-

pean continental section).

The Paracas plants have also been the subject of a short paper by

Seward‘ who reported on a collection made by Douglas. I have heard

of specimens of ferns from the Carboniferous. of Titicaca Island—

they are mentioned by Bandelier—but I have seen no actual speci-

mens. The marine Carboniferous is widespread in South America,

and carries an excellent fauna. A soft bottom facies of this was en-

countered in the Amotape Mountains in 1927, which is the most north-

westerly known occurrence of rocks of this age in South America.

A small collection recently received from my friend, Professor Lis-

son of Lima, enables me to report the occurrence in Peru of a plant

highly characteristic of the Westphalian stage in Europe, and inferen-

tially supports my determination of the age of the Paracas plants.

1 Received October 19, 1928.

2H. W. Berry. Johns Hopkins University Studies in Geology 4: 9-44. pls. 1-8.

1922.

3G. STEINMANN. Geol. Rundschau1: 50. 1912.

4A.C.Smewarp. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond. 78: 278-2838. tf.1; pl. 13. 1922.

DEC. 19, 1928 BERRY: ALETHOPTERIS 587

The present material comes from Chuquibambilla in the province of

Cotabamba, Department of Apurimac. Marine Carboniferous was

reported from Apurimac, at Antabamba above Chuquibambilla, by

Bowman,’ who also collected fossils at Chuquibambilla, said by Schu-

chert® to represent Pecten near quadricostatus, a clypeasterid, etc.,

which are Cretaceous forms. I know nothing of the relations of the

ee rocks in the vicinity of Chuquibambilla,

P ar’ a but there can be no question of the

ANZ IE, +entity of the present fossil plant or of

“tn, Mh HUNG ‘ag OI” its Wes tphalian age.

Ki; WP,

LANY

=) ZZ : :

oS AANOANANY The material submitted by Professor

BB, eS Tre Lisson comprises two specimens the size

Cam Mis, ES aT

did > Na a of the one figured and several smaller

PMY € LESS fragments, all of a single species, pre-

Mire 7s A é

Z ZILL es

pro | en served in a dark, considerably metamor

ii Meda yy, TR phosed shale. ‘These are identical with

QS - : owe

AN Sa - & what is called Alethopteris serliz (Brong-

Cin Vie : : =

weil aon niart) Goeppert in the Northern Hemi-

! \ °

aati LR sphere. The question of the actual

Rs ; ° : ‘

rt 5 cosmopolitanism of a single botanical

mM species is not so certain, although there

WG 2) Pebty : :

wR are no known criteria for making a dif-

wy HMDS See .

“wines ferentiation. Some of the alethopterids

MEAN have been shown to be referable to the

i LMT Wh, Pr

ITT

Ter YET SS

seed ferns (Pteridospermophyta) and

the suspicion that all of them belong

ms)

tones, in that category appears to be war-

WON yy

TTS SS ranted. What is now called Alethopteris

LOLA

.. serli was figured by Parkinson in 1804,

Figure 1.—Alethopteris — serlii ; ‘

tien.) ‘omdnert, war.) nom named by Brongniart in 1828, and de-

Westphalian of Chuquibambilla, scribed afew years later. The Peruvian

Apurimac, Peru. material, one of the larger specimens of

which is shown in Figure 1, may be briefly characterized as follows:

ALETHOPTERIS SERLII (Brongniart) Goeppert

Figure 1

Coriaceous. Pinnules not contracted toward the base. Midveins coarse,

straight and prominent. Laterals at almost right angles, stout and very

closedly spaced, usually acutely forked near the base, but sometimes simple

§I. Bowman. The Andes of Southern Peru, pp. 243-244. 1916.

6C. ScoucuertT. Idem., p. 323.

588 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 21

and always simple toward the tips of the pinnules. The pinnules are linear,

at right angles to the axis, long slender and bluntly pointed, very slightly

ascending toward their tips; they are alternate, well spaced, decurring to join

the one next below by an only slightly inequilateral sinus. In one specimen

the pinnules are closely spaced and these taper slightly proximad.

This so-called species exhibits a great deal of variation, judging by the

numerous figures of specimens which various authors have identified with it.

And even on a single frond—which is large and quadripinnate—there is a great

deal of variation in different regions of the’frond. The Peruvian form is

more like the variety described by White’ from Missouri as var. missouriensis

than it is like any of the figures of European specimens with which I have

compared it.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

720TH MEETING

The 720th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 7, 1928, with

President GOLDMAN in the chair and 57 persons present. New members

elected: RicHarp JoNES, Henry 8. Kuausner, W. E. McInpoo, C. N.

SMITH.

A. WETMORE stated that the insect collection of the late C. F. Bakrr had

been donated to the National Museum. He explained that this was one

of the finest collections of Phillippine insects and had just arrived at New

York. The collection is housed in 1,400 Schmidt boxes.

H. H. T. Jackson announced that the annual meeting of the American

Society of Mammalogists would be held at the National Museum April 12-14,

and that the art exhibit in the National Museum in this connection numbered

about 150 colored drawings and about 50 technical drawings.

R. M. Lipsey called attention to the arrival of purple martins on March 29.

A. WETMORE announced the receipt by the National Museum of a rare

thrush donated by Mr. Lown. He discussed briefly the structure and re-

lationships of this rare bird.

W.P. Taytor: The biology of forest range.—The cutting or burning of vast

tracts of timber means more than timber loss. The whole realm of nature is

affected. Game birds, mammals, fur-bearing animals, and fishes are often

reduced in numbers or even exterminated. The trend here, as in England,

is definitely toward a reduction of the nation’s basic resources and a lowering

of living standards. No argument is needed to show the need for more facts.

Forest and range are not gifts, they should be regarded as crops. While

agricultural production generally has increased, forest and forage production

has. decreased. The only way to change this is through careful studies of all

the important animals and plants in the woods and on grazing ranges and

their climatic and other surroundings, and the rigorous application of the

results of these studies in the management of forest and range lands and the

improvement of forest and forage crops.

7D. Wuitt. U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 37: 118. pl. 37, fig. 2; pl. 42,5. 1899.

DEc. 19, 1928 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 589

W. H. Ricu, of the U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, discussed the method of age

determination of salmon, by means of the scales. This discussion of recent

progress in determining structural and growth characteristics in the scales

which madé it possible to determine the age of specimens of certain species

of salmon was illustrated by lantern slides.

W.B. BEtu, Secretary pro tem.

721sT MEETING

The 72ist meeting of the Biological Society was held at the Cosmos Club,

April 21, 1928, with President GoLpMAN in the chair and 38 persons present.

New member elected: Pau 8S. GoOLTROFF.

Ray GREENFIELD announced the capture of a specimen of a rare shrew,

Sorex fontinalis, near Riggs Mill, Prince Georges County, Maryland, on

April 6, 1928. This is said to be the seventeenth specimen taken in the

District of Columbia and vicinity.

WALTER Batu reported his capture of a sick or injured live specimen of

red-throated loon on the Tidal Basin, Washington, D. C., on April 17, 1928.

The specimen, which is a very rare bird in the vicinity of the District of

Columbia, has been presented to the National Zoological Park.

R. L. PreMEIsEL: Types of vegetation of East Africa (illustrated).—Three

types of vegetation cover the major part of this area. The Acacia and

desert grass type consisting of Acacza trees, tufts of bunch grasses and spaces

of bare soil covers semi-arid lands adapted only for grazing. The drought

period is long and the grasses are green for only a short time after the rains.

The scrub tree and tall grass type, with Acacza or similar trees and a uniform

growth of somewhat coarse grasses, covers the lower plains near Lake Victoria

and the coast. These grasses are green for most of the year. The bulk of

the sisal and cotton is grown here. ‘The tall grass type, mostly pure grass-

lands, covers the higher plains. The length of the drought period is inter-

mediate between those of the two preceding types but the temperatures here

are lower than those of either of the other two. It represents the great graz-

ing areas and the part near the border of the temperate rain forest produces

most of the wheat of Kenya. Moreover, land of this and the preceding type

together produces most of the maize of East Africa.

Interesting types covering but a small percentage of the total area are

found on the mountain slopes and high plateaus; the temperate rain forest

type of olives, cedar, Podocarpus and bamboo, the lower parts of which furnish

the best coffee lands and meadows which are green practically the year

around; the alpine shrub type of heaths and composites; and the alpine grass- .

land, mostly sedges and coarse grasses. (Author’s abstract.)

L. W. Kepuart: Geography of East Africa (illustrated)—(No abstract

received.)

W. B. BeEtu, Recording Secretary pro tem.

722D MEETING

49TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 722d regular and 49th annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club,

May 5, 1928, with President GoLpMAN in the chair and 21 persons present.

Under suspension of the rules, the following new members were elected:

Matcoitm Davis, C. C. SANBorN, G. 8. WALLEY.

A resolution on the recent death of Dr. J. N. Ros, a former President of

the Society, prepared by Drs. HircHcock and Maxon, was read by the

590 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, NO. 21

Secretary. On motion of Dr. OBERHOLSER, it was voted that it be spread

on the minutes and a copy sent to the bereaved family.

The minutes of the previous annual meeting were read and approved.

The reports of the Recording Secretary, Treasurer, and Publication Committee

were read and ordered placed on file. Mr. C. E. CHamBtiss, for the Auditing

Committee, reported that the treasurer’s accounts had been found correct.

Dr. W. B. BELL gave an informal report for the Committee on Communica-

tions. The report of the Board of Trustees was read and accepted. The

President then appointed Messrs. JACKSON and CHAMBLIss tellers and the

election of officers took place, resulting as follows:

President, E. A. GoLDMAN; Vice-presidents, A. WETMORE, C. E. CHAMBLISS,

H. H. T. Jackson, C. W. Strives; Recording Secretary, S. F. BuaxeE; Corre-

sponding Secretary, W. H. Wuite; Treasurer, F. C. Lincoun; Members of

Council, H. C. Futter, W. R. Maxon, A. A. DoouitTties, I. Horrman, T. E.

SNYDER.

S. F. Buaxn, Recording Secretary.

Obituary

Davip SYLVANUS CARLL, a member of the AcapEmy, died at his home in

Washington, November 5, 1928. He was born at Huntington, New York,

March 21, 1855. He was a past president of the Washington Society of

Engineers and of the Washington Chapter, American Society of Civil En-

gineers. Mr. Carll was chiefly interested in traction engineering, having

had charge of construction and operation of street railways in Washington,

D. C., since 1890.

INDEX TO VOLUME: 18

A + denotes the abstract of a paper before the Academy or an affiliated society. A § indicates an item

published under the head Scientific Notes and News.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Anthropological Society of Washington.

Biological Society of Washington.

Entomological Society of Washington.

Geological Society of Washington.

Philosophical Society of Washington.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

Proceedings: 228.

Proceedings: 79, 105, 142, 517, 588.

Proceedings: 381, 433.

Proceedings: 231, 260, 346, 521.

Proceedings: 75, 102, 227, 291, 457, 503.

Proceedings: 256, 283, 318, 343, 481.

. AUTHOR INDEX

AtpEN, W. C. fSperry Glacier. 524.

AupricH, J. M. jfFlies, collecting, in the

West. 79.-

ALLEN, E. T. fHot areas in Yellowstone

Park and the causes of their develop-

ment. dll.

Auuison, R. V. Blue-green algal marl in

southern Florida in relation to coastal

subsidence. 476.

AsHBROOK,F.G. {fMuskratfarming. 520.

Avutt, J. P. Ocean surveys, problems and

developments in. 109.

Back, E. A. {Moth-proofing solutions. 387.

BaILEY, VERNON. {fBeaver, live, from

Michigan. 517.

Baker, A. C. +Mexican fruitworm (An-

astrepha ludens), eradication of. 434.

BarBER, H. 8. Cave-beetles, two new.

194.

— fLamppyridae, the. 382.

BarRTRAM, EpwiIn B. Mosses of western

Mexico, collected by Mrs. Ynes Mexia.

577.

BarTscH, PAUL.

from Ecuador. 66.

Bass, N. W. +tAsymmetrical stream val-

leys of Kansas, origin of. 266.

BENEpDICcKS, Cart. fTheory of high speed

steel. 256.

Bennett, A. H. fAberrations of teles-

cope objectives, methods for measure-

ment of. 291.

Berry, Epwarp W. Carboniferous of

Peru, Alethopteris from. 584.

591

Mollusks, new marine,

Berry, Epwarp W. Lower Cretaceous

of Texas, Weichselia from. 1.

— Miocene of Washington, caddis case

of leaf piecesfrom. 60.

— Miocene of western Panama, palm

fruit from. 455.

—— Miocene of Nevada, petrified walnut

from. 158.

BuakE, 8. F. Asteraceae, new American.

25.

—— Werneria, new South American

species of. 485.

BoccarDI, JEAN. Time, exact, in as-

tronomy. 565.

Bowiz, Wiii1am. {International codp-

eration in geodesy. 102.

BromBacHER, W.G. {Aircraft flights for

international records, instrument

technique in. 291.

BronstEep, J. N. tMetal amines and

their significance for the physical

chemistry of solutions. 290.

Brooks, CuarLes F. Sea-surface tem-

peratures, reliability of different

methods of taking. 525.

Bucuer, W.H. tCryptovolcanic regions.

521.

Burrs, CHarues. Appalachian stratig-

raphy, variations in. 357.

CampBELL, F. L. tToxicology of arsenic

as an insecticide. 385.

Casze, E. C. Upper Triassic of western

Texas, Cotylosaur from. 177.

592 AUTHOR INDEX

CHAMBERLAIN, THomas K. tMussels,

fresh-water, of Mississippi River.

517.

CLAUSEN, Curtis P. tEntomology in

Japan. 436.

Cops, N. A. Ascarophis, screw-nemas,

parasites of fish. 96.

Litobionts. 49.

Nemas, fossorium of. 249.

Nemic spermatogenesis. 37.

Syringolaimus, nemic genus. 249.

Ungella secta, nemic. parasite of

earthworm. 197.

Couuins, Henry B., Jr. Check-stamped

pottery from Alaska. 254.

Cooxsr, C. WytHE. {Eocene age of sup-

posed late Upper Cretaceous green-

sand marls of New Jersey. 262.

—— Stratigraphy and age of the Pleisto-

cene deposits in Florida from whch

human bones have been reported.

414,

Coorrr, Joun M. tAlgonkian, northern,

magic and divination. 230.

CRaAIGHEAD, F.C. {Forest insects. . 435.

CumMINnes, Byron. {Metal objects found

near Tucson, Arizona. 285.

Curtis, H. L. {fElectrical units, resist-

ance, electromotive force, current,

inductance, capacitance. 504.

DacHNowskKI-Stokses, A. P. Blue-green

algal marl in southern Florida in

relation to coastal subsidence. 476.

Davisson, C.J. tReflection and diffrac-

tion of electrons by a crystal of nickel.

458.

Day, ArtHuR L. {fVolcanological pub-

lications, the year’s. 510.

DeEFanporF, F. M. fCorona voltmeter.

294.

DENSMORE, FRANCES. American Indian

music. 395.

— Indian songs, melodic formation of.

16.

ark ld

Detscu, CECcIL, +Growth of crystals.

320.

Dorsry, N. Ernest. Equation for deter-

mination of surface tension from form

of sessile drop or bubble. 505.

Drypen, H. L. {Wind pressures on

cylinders. 293.

Fracker, 8. B. fControl activities of

pink bollworm in the Southwest. 433.

FRANCIS, Epwarp. {fTularaemia in rab-

bits and other animals as related to

human health. 108.

FRIEDMANN, HERBERT. Francolin from

Abyssinia, new. 408.

GARDNER, JULIA. Gastropod from Mio-

cene of Virginia, new. 561.

Gipson, Rauru E. tHigh-low inversion

of quartz, influence of pressure on.

294.

GipLeEy, JAMES W. Pleistocene of Florida,

new species of bear from. 480.

GILLULY, JAMES. ftIsostasy as a factor

in Basin Range faulting in Oquirrh

Range, Utah. 263.

Girty, Georce H. Lingulidiscina,

brachiopod genus. 241.

— Orbiculoidea, generic name, and its

application. 128.

GREELEY, W. B. {Forest science in the

United States. 257.

Haas, ArtHuR. tAtom as a source of

energy. 319.

HauuetTtT, Grorce H., Jr. fElection

methods, appraisal of. 481.

Harper, D. Roserts, 3p. Fourier, the

unit of thermal resistance. 469.

Hay, OLiver P. . Early Pleistocene, char-

acteristic mammals of. 421.

— Pleistocene man at Vero, Florida.

233.

Hecx, N. H. {International Geodetic

and Geophysical Union, meeting of,

at Prague, report on. 103.

— tOceanography, report on section

of. 103.

— {jSeismology, report of section on.

104.

— jTerrestrial magnetism and elec-

tricity, report on. 104.

Henry, ALFRED J. Ocean-currents, effect

of, on climates of continents. 556.

—— {Summers in the United States,

abnormal. 76.

Hess, F. L. {Pollucite near Hebron,

Maine. 262. ;

Heyt, Paut R. {Scientific man, visions

and dreams of. 289.

— Wave mechanics. 75.

Hitt, G. C. tWind pressures on cyl-

inders. 293.

Hosss, Witut1aM H. {Poles of the atmos-

pheric circulation. 283.

AUTHOR INDEX

Hopes, Freperick W. {Zuni Indians of

New Mexico. 323.

Houzworts, JoHN M. j{Big game of

Alaska and Idaho. 148.

Hoots, H. W. Structural history and

unusual rock types of Santa Monica

Mountains, Cal. 352.

Howarp, L. O. tEntomological work in

Europe, report on. 387.

—— {International Congress of Zoology

at Budapest, report on. 106.

Howe, MarsHatt A. Marine algae from

Brazil and the Barbados. 186.

Husurt, E.O. flonization of the upper

atmosphere. 227.

Hystop, J. A. {fInsects, most important

in the United States. 436.

JAGGER, T. A. {Volcano research of the

U. S. Geologieal Survey. 512.

JouNSON, J. Haruan. Fox Hills fossils,

new locality for, in Colorado. 305.

Jupson, L. V. fLength, units and stand-

ards of. 503.

Kipper, Autrrep VY. {Cliff-dwellers of

Arizona and their predecessors. 229,

319. .

Kiuurp, ExtswortsH P. Loasaceae, new

South American. 89.

— Valeriana, new species of, from

Colombia and Peru. 498.

KimBati, H. H. tMeterology, report of

discussions on, at Prague meeting.

105.

Kinesspury, 8. S. Aldehyde condensa-

tions with diphenylisothiohydantoin.

558.

LAMBERT, W.D. Geodetic constants. 571.

LanGER, R. M. 7Dispersion and quan-

tum theory. 458.

LarRRIMER, W.H. tEuropean corn-borer,

results of campaign against. 385.

Lewton, Freperick L. _ Shanizia,

African shrubs. 10.

LitTLEHALES, G. W. Effect of surface

winds upon ocean drift. 548.

McCuintock, N. B. {fBeaver, ways of.

521.

McEwen, G. F. Time required for tem-

perature-departures to cross from

western to eastern side of Pacific,

and changes during crossing. 546.

—— Water-temperature measurements

not made at surface, significance of.

545.

593

Maris, H. B. {Theory of upper atmos-

phere and meteors. 76.

MARKLEY, KuareS. Aldehyde condensa-

tions with diphenylisothiohydantoin.

558.

Matrues, F. E. j,Yosemite region, evi-

dence of three glaciations in. 260.

Maxon, Witur1am R. Polypodium tri-

angulum, identification of. 582.

Tree fern from Haiti, new. 316.

Meacers, WILLIAM F. Multiplets in the

Co II spectrum. 325.

MEIDELL, BirGeR. Damping effects and

approach to equilibrium in certain

general phenomena. 487.

Miser, H. D. {Ouachita Mountains of

Oklahoma and Arkansas, structure of.

266.

Mouser, F. tL. fRecombination of

atomic ions and electrons. 457.

Munns, E. N. {Timber growing and

protection from fire. 259.

NANSEN, Friptsor. fArctic exploration,

problems of. 484.

NutTTaLt, Zewia. tCalendars,

American. 228.

Nuttine, P. G. Granular solids, de-

formation of. 123.

— Petroleum and the filtering earths.

409.

— Serpentine,

with. 81.

OBERHOLSER, H. C. tWaterfowl. 79.

OpetLt, N. E. jScientific aspects of

Mount Everest Expeditions. 343.

O’Matuey, Henry. {Fur seal and salmon

of Pacific coast, lifeand habits of. 518.

Pavutov, Ivan P. tMechanics of the

brain. 483.

PIEMEISEL, R. L. {East Africa, types

of vegetation of. 589.

Prenkowsky, A. T. {tMass, units and

standards of. 503.

Piacot, CHARLES SNOWDEN. Aliphatic

acids, diameter of CH: chainin. 330.

— Leadisotopes and geologic time. 269.

— Radium content of Stone Mountain

granite. 313.

PITTIER, H.

zuelan.—l.

Amphilophium.

daea. 333.

— Botany, taxonomic, some errors in.

206.

ancient

association of water

Bignoniaceae, Vene-

Ceratophytum. 61; II.

170; Ill. Arrabi-

594

Poutock, JAMES B. Geologically nega-

tive shift of strand line on Oahu. 53.

POULSEN, CHRISTIAN. {Danian forma-

tion, the. 350.

Press, A. Thermodynamic characteris-

tic for all bodies, the. 297.

RapcuiFFE, Lewis. tInternational Hali-

but Commission. 517.

RAPPLEYE, Howarp 8S. {Observer’s pat-

terns. 78.

REDFIELD, RoBERT. Mexican folk her-

bal: remedial plants of Tepoztlan.

216.

REDINGTON, Paut G. {Biological prob-

lems. 148.

REESIDE, JOHN B., JR. Cretaceous mol-

lusks from Colorado and Utah, new.

306.

Roperts, Frank H. H., Jr. tBasket-

maker, late, village in Chaco Canyon.

230.

Roongy, W. J. {Earth resistivity meas-

urements and their bearing on location

of concealed geological discontinui-

ties. 227.

RosHEviTz, R. Timouria, new species of,

from Mongolia. 502.

Ross, CriypE P. j{Geology of south

central Idaho. 267.

Ross, C. 8S. fClays, studies of.

— St. Francis dam,

foundation rocks of. 346.

Rusey, Witu1aM W. {j{Marine Cretaceous

shale in Wyoming, possible varves in.

260.

SHANNON, R. C. tArgentine, experiences

in. 435. ,

Simmons, G. F. {Cruise of the ‘“‘Blos-

som’’ in south Atlantic. 142.

Stosson, Epwin E. jfChemical interpre-

tation of history. 288.

SmitH, Loren B. {Japanese beetle, in-

jury by. 486.

SnypER, T. E. +tCoptotermes. 381.

— jfInsect damage to timbers in roof

of White House. 381.

— Reticulitermes, new, from Baltic Sea

amber. 515.

SOLLENBERGER, Pavt.

standards of. 503.

265.

California,

Time, units and

SouTHWORTH, GEORGE C. {Radio trans-

mission. 287.

AUTHOR INDEX

Spunar, V. M. Fermat’s Last theorem.

389.

STANDLEY, Paut C. Plants, new, from

Central America.—XII. 178; XIII.

Dion

— Rubiaceae, Central American. 5.

STEPHENSON, L..W. {Eocene age of sup-—

posed late Upper Cretaceous green-

sand marls of New Jersey. 262.

Stevens, F.W. {Gaseous explosive reac-

tion at constant pressure. 293.

Stites,C.W. +Zoological Nomenclature,

amendments to International Rules

of, adopted at Budapest. 106.

— {Zoological Nomenclature, Commis-

sion on, request for American opinion

on Dr. Poche’s objections to. 384.

STIRLING, MatTtHEwW W. {Exploration in

Dutch New Guinea. 229.

SWALLEN, JASON R. Schizachne, grass

genus. 203.

Taytor, W. P. {Forest range, biology

of. 588.

TUCKERMAN, L. B. {Theoretical prin-

ciples underlying balloting. 481.

ULKE, Titus. {Flora of Yoho Park. 142.

Van Rossem, A. J. f{Faunal associations

of Salvador. 107.

WaLKER, Ernest P. {Alaska bird col-

onies. 520.

WasHBURNE, C. W. {Origin of normal

faults. 346.

WasuHineton, H. S. tRocks of Pacific

islands, review of Lacroix’s paper on.

265.

— {Volcanic activity over the earth,

present. 509.

WEIGHTMAN, R. Hanson. Monsoon-pre-

dictions, work of the Indian Metero-

logical Service in. 551.

WeE.Lits, Rocer, C. Evaporation from

large bodies of water and figures for

— Selenium, examination of sulfuric

acid for. 127.

WennER, F. {Distribution of electric

current in systems of linear conduc-

tors. 78.

—— {Seismometer employing electro-

magnetic and optical magnification,

and electromagnetic damping. 292.

WETMORE, ALEXANDER. Prehistoric

ornithology in North America. 145.

SUBJECT INDEX

Wuerry, EpcarT. Crystallography and

optical properties of 8-lactose. 302.

— Franklin tree, Franklinia alatamaha

history of. 172.

— Soil reaction, northward extensions

of southern orchidsinrelationto. 212.

Wuitr, Davin. Time, geological, spiral

graph of. 201.

595

Wuith, G. F. fEphestia Kuehniella,

Mediterranean flour moth, bacterial

384.

YounG, STANLEY P. {Predatory animals

and methods for control. 519.

Zins, E. G. tAcid gases contributed to

the sea during volcanic activity. 511.

disease of.

SUBJECT INDEX

Aeronautics. {Instrument technique in

aircraft flights for international

records. W. G. BromMBacHER. 291.

Archeology. tMetal objects found near

Tucson, Arizona. B.CuMMINGS. 285.

Pottery, check-stamped, from Alaska.

H. B. Couuins, Jr. 254.

Astronomy. Exact time in astronomy.

JEAN Boccarpi. 565.

Biology. tAlaska bird colonies. EH. P.

WaLKER. 520.

yArgentine, experiences in. R. C.

SHANNON. 4835.

jBeaver, ways of. N. B. McCuintocx.

521.

{Biological problems. P. G. ReEpinc-

TON. 143.

t‘‘Blossom,”’ cruise in south Atlantic of.

G. F. Simmons. 142.

{Forest range, biology of. W. P. Tay-

LOR. 588.

7Fur seal of Pacific coast, life and

habits of. H. O’Matiey. 518.

tMuskrat farming: F. G. AsHBROOK.

520

TMussels, freshwater, of Mississippi

River, life history and conservation

of. T. K. CHAMBERLAIN. 517.

§Photographic negatives of Erwin F.

Smith given to Science Service. 105.

{Predatory animals and methods for

control. S. P. Youne. 519.

tSalmon of Pacific coast, life and habits

of. -H. O’MAtiey. 518.

Salvador, faunal associations of. A.

J. vAN RossEem. 107.

tScientific aspects of Mt. Everest ex-

peditions. N. E. Opeguu, 343.

fTularaemia in rabbits and _ other

animals as related to human health.

E. Francis. 108.

Botany. Algae, marine, from Brazil and

Barbados. M. A. Howe. 186.

Amphilophium, species of. H. Pitter.

170.

Arrabidaea, new species of. H. PITTIER.

333.

Asteraceae, new American. S._ F.

BLAKE. 25.

Bignoniaceae, Venezuelan. H. Pit-

Tink, , eek hy vs EEE Sas.

Central America, new plants from.

P) Co STANDLEY. OXCUIS” 17857 XT

273.

Ceratophytum. H. PiTTier. 61.

jEast Africa, types of vegetation of.

R. L. PIEMEISEL. 589.

{Forest science in the United States.

W.B. GREELEY. 257.

Franklinia alatamaha, Franklin tree,

history of. E. T. Wuerry. 172.

Loasaceae, new South American. E. P.

Kituip. 89.

Mosses of western Mexico collected by

Mrs. Ynes Mexia. E. B. Bartram.

577.

§Mycological collection of C. G. Lloyd

transferred to Office of Mycology and

Disease Survey, Washington. 356.

Orchids, northward extension of

southern, in relation to soil reaction.

E. T. WHERRY. 212.

§Photographic negatives of Erwin F.

Smith given to Science Service. 105.

Polypodium triangulum, identification

of. W. R. Maxon. 582.

Rubiaceae, Central American. P. C.

STANDLEY. 5.

Schizachne, grass genus. J. R. Swat-

LEN. 203.

Shantzia, ' African

LewTon. 10.

shrubs. F.° LL.

596 SUBJECT

Botany (Continued)

Taxonomic botany, some errors in.

H. Pirtizr. 206.

{Timber growing and protection from

fre. E.N.Munns. 259.

Timouria, new species of, from Mon-

golia. R. Rosumvitz. 502.

Tree fern from Haiti, new. W. R.

Maxon. 316.

Valeriana, new species of, from Colom-

bia and Peru. E. P. Kiuirp. 498.

Werneria, new South American species

of. S. F. BuaKke. 485.

TYoho Park, flora of. Titus ULKE.

142.

Chemistry. Aldehyde condensations with

diphenylisothiohydantoin. 8S. _ S.

Kinespury and K. S. Mark ey.

558.

{History, chemical interpretation of.

E. E. Suosson. 288.

{Metal amines and their significance for

the physical chemistry of solutions.

J. N. BrOnstep. 290.

Selenium, examination of sulfuric acid

for, RoC. Weis, ,127.

_ fSteel, theory of high speed. C. BEenz-

DICKS. 206.

Crystallography. (-lactose, crystallog-

raphy and optical properties of.

HK. T. WHERRy. 302.

{Growth of crystals. Crcin Dertscu.

320.

Entomology. tArgentine, experiences in.

R. C. SHANNON. 485. -

tArsenic as an insecticide, toxicology of.

F. L. CAMPBELL. 385.

Cave-beetles, two new. H.S. BarpEr.

194. |

{Coptotermes. T. E. Snyper. 381.

{Damage, insect, to timbers in roof of

the White House. T. E. Snypmr.

381.

jE phestia Kuehniella, Mediterranean

flour moth, bacterial disease of. G.

F. WuHitTe, 384.

jEurope, report of entomological work

in. L.O. Howarp. 387. |

tEuropean corn-borer, results of cam-

paign against. W. H. Larrimer.

385.

tFlies, collecting in the West. J. M.

ALDRICH. 79.

INDEX

{Forest insects. F.C. CrargHEap. 435.

tInsects, most important, in the United

States. J. A. Hysnop. 4836.

jJapan, entomology in. C. P. Crav-

SEN. 486.

{Japanese beetle, injury by. L. B.

SmMitTH. 436.

tLampyridae, the. H.S. BarsBEer. 382.

{Mexican fruitworm (Anastrepha

ludens), eradication of. A.C. BAKER.

434. ne

tMoth-proofing solutions. E. A. Back.

387.

{Pink bollworm, control activities of,

in the Southwest. S. B. Fracker.

433.

Reticulitermes from Baltic Sea amber,

new. T. EH. Snyper. 515.

Ethnobotany. Mexican folk herbal: reme-

dial plants of Tepoztlan. R. ReEp-

FIELD. 216.

Ethnology. tAlgonkian, northern, magic

and divination. J.M.Cooprrr. 230.

American Indian music, results of

study of. F. DENsMoRE. 395.

American Indian songs, melodic forma-

tion of. F. DrENsmorE. 16.

{Basket-maker, late, village in Chaco

Canyon. F. H. H. Roperts, Jr.

230.

tCalendars, ancient American. Z.

NuttTauu. 228.

{Cliff Dwellers of Arizona and their

predecessors. A. V. KippEr. 229,

319. ;

{Dutch New Guinea, explorations in.

M. W. Stiruine. 229.

{Zuni Indians of New Mexico. F. W.

Hopes. 323. |

Forestry. {Forest science in the United

States. W.B. GREELEY. 257.

{Timber growing and protection from

fire. E. N. Munns. 259.

General Science. §Coast and Geodetic

Survey, bill introduced in Congress

to transfer work of, to Department

of Interior. 52.

{Mt. Everest expeditions, scientific

aspects of. N. E. Opry. 343.

{Visions and dreams of a scientific man.

P. R. Heyl. 289.

Geodesy. tInternational codperation in

geodesy. W. Bowie. 102.

SUBJECT INDEX

Geodesy (Continued)

jInternational Geodetic and Geophys-

ical Union, reports from Prague

meeting. W. Bowrs, N. H. Heck,

H. H. Kimpatu. 102.

TObserver’s patterns. H.S. Rappieye.

78.