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JOURNAL

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VOLUME 25, 1935

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Page 84, line 6: after “longa’’ add a comma.

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JOURNAL

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VoL. 25 JANUARY 15, 1935 No. 1

PSYCHOLOGY.—The frontier of the mind! Wiuu1aAmM A. WHITE,

St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Washington, D. C.

I have been asked to present to the Academy a communication

upon the general subject of the ability of man, from the point of view

of his mental make-up, to go on adjusting himself to the ever and

rapidly increasing complexities of the world he lives in. I take it that

the present state of confusion throughout the world has raised the

issue in the minds of many that perhaps man is so constituted that

there are limits to his capacity for accomplishment along those lines

and that perhaps there are indications that those limits have been

reached. I shall be very glad to deal with this subject, but in order

to do so I feel that it will be essential to attempt to orient you some-

what to the new ways of thinking which have affected interpretations

of psychological events in recent years, so that you will know the

basic features of this new psychology with which you will be enabled

to reach some conclusion with reference to the issues stated.

In the first place, I must tell you to begin with that the psychology

that many of us were taught in our college days has in large part,

and almost entirely in certain very fundamental ways, been super-

seded. The psychology of the nineteenth century has rapidly become

of interest only from an historical standpoint, and the developments

as they are taking place now require an entirely different point of view

regarding all things psychological.

In the last century the study of the mind was still more or less

entangled with its associations with ethics, on the one side, and

philosophy on the other; and it is only in the present century that it

can be said to have become a really scientific discipline and a branch,

in my estimation, of biology which deals with certain aspects of living

beings. In changing, however, in this radical way and becoming

scientific it has naturally had to break with many traditions, and

these traditions still tend to find expression in the language we use

and to contaminate our thinking.

! This paper is the manuscript of a lecture delivered at a meeting of the AcApEMY,

November 21, 1934. Received November 28, 1934,

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

For example, one of the problems that confronted the psychologists

of yesterday was the so-called body-mind problem. What was the re-

lation between body and mind? The mere asking of the question in-

volved the assumption that they were separate one from the other,

and, further, that the mind in some way was added to the body in

the process of evolution at some particular time—it took up its habi-

tation in some special group of living beings and maintained there an

existence which was separate from that of the body and yet in a

mysterious way intimately related to it. Modern psychology is no

longer vexed with this problem, because the way in which we think

of man now is such that a query of this sort has ceased to have mean-

ing and therefore the question is no longer asked.

You will gather, therefore, from what I have said that what has

happened in the realm of psychology is that different ways of think-

ing have come to pass, which automatically have disposed of many

of the problems of the last century but which quite characteristically

have raised many new ones in their stead.

I think, therefore, that I perhaps can serve you best if I give in

brief outline some of the ways in which we now look at matters psy-

chological, and you will note how they differ from the psychology

of the nineteenth century, which not only considered the mind as a

separate entity but dealt with its several faculties—intellect, emotion,

and will—as if each of them had an existence of its own and controlled

a certain group of phenomena, somewhat after alleged bureaucratic

methods.

Present-day psychology differs in its way of thinking about the

human organism, very much as other disciplines have come to differ

in the past few years. It looks upon the organism as a whole, and that

aspect of it to which we give the name “mind” we think of as only

one point of view, or one facet of a many-faceted surface to which

we direct our attention. We do not conceive that mental phenomena

were added somewhere in the story of evolution, but because what

we call mental are only a part of or only constitute one aspect of

the phenomena of living beings, this aspect was present from the

first but naturally in a manifestation as simplistic as the correspond-

ing bodily structure, so that what we now call mind and body instead

of being separate and distinct are merely different aspects of the living

organism which have developed together throughout the story of

organic evolution. For purposes of convenience, however, we may

speak of the mind as such in the sense of the organisms’ reactions at

the psychological level and describe its evolution both in the individ-

JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 3

ual and in the race, and, also, it can be studied from its earliest mani-

festations in the lower animals. We deal with it in this way precisely

as we deal with a living organism: a dynamic, expanding group of

processes, becoming more complicated along the way as the problems

it has to meet require changes in this direction.

Now this study leads us to the conclusion that what we ordinarily

think of as mind, namely, what I prefer to call conscious awareness,

or perhaps, better, self-conscious awareness, is the last thing to occur

in a long series of developments, and so it is not difficult to understand

that if all the time we have been mistaking this for mind in its totality

we have necessarily reached many false conclusions regarding its

ways of functioning, if for no other reason than because we have been

dealing with only a small portion of the total phenomena. I perhaps

can illustrate this by a figure of speech. We are all familiar with the

modern searchlight. I have watched it many times from the deck of

a river steamer at night as it played along the banks and illuminated

first one and then another bit of scenery. Now the area of conscious

awareness is like this small area illuminated by the searchlight. The

content of the area stands out with clear definiteness. It is perceived

in the form of concrete objects, and the functions in this area are

equally clear-cut and definite. They constitute reasoning, judgment,

discrimination, perception. But you will note that this bright spot

is only a minute part of the total situation and that outside it there

is a region of twilight or darkness in which we see nothing clearly—

perhaps vague outlines, little more. This is the region where all clear-

cut distinctions and definitions of outline are lost. This region instead

of being the region where reason functions and where clear-cut defi-

nitions and differentiations prevail, is the region of the emotions,

or, speaking more generally, the feelings. It is in this zone that our

instincts manifest themselves, our intuitions have play, and instead

of being governed by intellectual processes it is the region in which

instinctive forces, natural desires, the avoidance of pain, the seeking

of pleasure, prevail; in short, the region where the wish holds sway,

unimpeded by the necessity for conforming to the limitations imposed

by a world of harsh realities and natural laws. Reasoning gives way

to phantasies, and things happen because we want them to. The

omnipotence of thought, as we call it, rules here supreme. Things are

true because they are thought to be true, and for no other reason. It

is the land of dreams and their realization. It is the region above all

in which we live as the other region is that in which we think.

Now this dark surrounding territory of indefinite extent is just as

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1

much a part and parcel of the mind as the small, bright, illuminated

spot. In fact it is more necessary because more fundamental; and

what we are particularly interested in now is, How valid may be the

reasoning from things as they are seen in the illuminated area of the

searchlight, with all these forces in the background left out of con-

sideration? I seem to have answered my question in the asking. Ob-

viously if we wish to arrive at true interpretations, the background

against which the brightly illuminated objects are seen can not be

neglected.

Now for a moment to indicate how in the course of evolution this

central nucleus of brilliant illumination has gradually become differ-

entiated from this background of instincts and feeling. There is in

all living creatures some impulse—define it as we will, we do not

understand it—which ensures what we are pleased to call progress,

development, evolution. In the course of that evolution a number of

things have happened. Those that interest us at the moment are

these: In the lower forms of life reproduction took place at a tremen-

dous rate and these organisms could afford, so to speak, to make

great numbers of mistakes in dealing with the forces of the environ-

ment because myriads of them could be destroyed and the species

still persist. But as life attained to a more and more complicated

structure in response to its adjustment to the various forces which it

had to meet, these adjustments became increasingly accurate and at

the same time reproduction fell off accordingly, so that finally our

capacity for adjustment has reached such a point that reproduction

has only to develop single individuals where before it developed mil-

lions. This increased accuracy of adjustment is in itself almost the

same thing as conscious awareness, because it involves not only clearer

and more clean-cut perceptions of the situation to which it is neces-

sary to adjust but it also involves the necessity of delaying immediate

response, bringing into the picture the results of past experience and

so further illuminating the possibilities of choice and then finally

reaching a conclusion which can be carried out in action sometimes

extending over many years of time. All this requires an intensity of

fixation upon the specific problem of adjustment which is in itself

an outstanding characteristic of that very clarity of vision which is

part and parcel of conscious awareness.

Now I think if I have succeeded in making myself clear, but I fear

that perhaps I have not—that we have a picture of what we call mind

as a developing organism which tends to focus in a point of clear con-

sciousness but which has back of that clear consciousness all the

JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 5

organized tendencies of the past millions of years, plus those of the

individual himself, as motivating factors that modify and control

what takes place at that particular locus—a situation already, you

see, that involves a complexity which if we try to visualize it is to all

intents and purposes infinite.

Such a concept naturally leads to still further and very interesting

conclusions. I think it was Bergson who said that he did not know

how “‘life insinuated itself into dead matter.” Perhaps we need not

undertake to answer that question here, but it would seem obvious

that the laws of the cosmos in the course of the origin and evolution

of living forms have impressed themselves upon life in such wise

that these living forms have incorporated within themselves these

very laws, only they are expressed under material conditions modified

by the existence of what we call life. In other words, tiny man who

creeps about on this planet is not the lord of creation, in spite of the

fact that he still thinks he is and acts as if he were. The world within

is the impress of the cosmos upon him, and if, as some of the psychol-

ogists have expressed it, man projects laws, order, meanings upon the

world, these projections are in turn but reflections of the world’s

impress upon him. You will see, therefore, that I have drawn here

the picture of man and the rest of the universe as acting and reacting

upon each other in a process of adjustment which continues to proceed

along the lines which we are accustomed to in our understanding of

development and evolution.

One of the outstanding facts in the course of the recent history of

man was the realization by the astronomers of individual differences

as between different observers of celestial events, with the result

that the so-called personal equation was evolved as a corrective to

these differences and as an assistance to more accurate readings. It

began to be appreciated then that man’s observation of the world

was by no means infallible. Not only were his sense organs defective,

but the time of transition along his nervous pathways was not always

the same, in other words, he was a very defective instrument with

which to observe and record the outside world. It was not a very

great step from this realization to the further one already implied

in my account, that the world only exists for him as this imperfect

instrument perceives it and that therefore in a very real sense every

individual lives in a world of his own, and that that world is a little

bit different from anyone else’s.

It has been indicated that the chance of a particular germ plasm

combination taking place is one in five million billions. In other words,

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1

each of us represented that one chance when we became ourselves.

This, from a purely physical point of view, gives us some idea, therefore

of what the possibilities of variation are, expressed in terms of chromo-

somes and genes. Now, having developed this unique personality

different from any other that ever existed or ever will exist, we are

confronted by a world which is in constant change and which bom-

bards us with a series of sensory impressions, probably by the millions,

each hour of our lives, and these impressions are received in a machine

which has been built up through millions of years of evolution, as it

were, for the purpose of handling this material.

The human organism is a receiver, transformer and transmitter of

energy, energy that comes from all these myriad sources and is re-

ceived into an organism quite as complicated as the world from which

it comes. A single portion of the brain, the cerebral cortex, a thin

layer of 2 to 4 mm. in thickness covering the cerebral hemispheres,

contains cells (incidentally the most complicated cell structures in

the body) somewhere in the neighborhood of nine to ten billions in

number. And so if you will think of all these things you will have

some idea of what the possibilities are, expressible in matter and en-

ergy, with which the organism has to contend. Now these figures are

so stupendous and at the same time so vague that they can not have

a very great deal of meaning, except that obviously there must be

in this organism a plastic capacity which has enabled it to proceed

thus far on its path; and I may add that as we go from points of

definite structure in the organism and proceed in the direction of the

last additions which have been made in the evolutionary process,

namely, to the possibilities of psychological function, we are moving

in the direction from the least modifiable toward the more modifiable,

and that therefore we may expect to find, as we in fact do, that man

through the years has changed more in his thinking functions than

he has either in the functions of his organs or in their structures. To

all intents and purposes so far as we are concerned man’s anatomy

and physiology remain fixed and unchanging facts, whereas experience

teaches us, to the contrary, that psychologically he continues modi-

fiable more or less throughout his life, but of course his modifiability

is greatest in the early years. From such facts of observation as are

vailable to us when dealing with human beings, we know that the

possibilities of modification in many instances are very considerable;

and I may say merely as a result of the precipitates of experience

which control my thinking, without perhaps the ability to bring con-

crete evidence to bear upon the subject, that there is no indication

JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND a

so far as I know of any limitation to this modifiable and adjustable

capacity of the human being. There is, on the contrary, all along the

way historical evidence that he has always been apprehensive that

his adjustment would break down, that he has always seen society as

an overwhelmingly complicated affair and felt that the time was

coming when he could no longer keep up with the procession. This

is his natural response to the pressure which is put upon him to go

forward on the path of progress. As he gets older this pressure is felt

more and more and develops contemporaneously with lessening pow-

ers of adjustment; and then Nature comes forward with her cure for

this situation, and her cure is death, and the new generation takes

up the problems where the old generation left them. For example,

we have today all these new and marvelous results in the realm of

physics and mechanics and astronomy which have largely come about

as a result of Professor Hinstein’s contributions. There are very few

people in the world who are capable of understanding these results,

only a handful of people in fact; but if they are true—and I take it

they are—I suspect that future generations will understand them as

easily as we do that the earth is round. And yet there must have

been a time when the fact of the roundness of the earth was quite as

difficult of comprehension to the masses of the people as the Theory

of Relativity is today; but young, plastic, adjustable minds, un-

hampered by the prejudices of yesterday, will grasp these new com-

cepts quickly, as they have in the past.

There has never been any question about man’s adjustment to

life under the seas or in the clouds, or to temperatures at the poles

or the tropics. But his most difficult task is to adjust to his fellow

men; and in the present century the emphasis that psychology, and

particularly psychiatry, has received is an earnest desire for the

probable development of his understanding of himself, which will in

time be comparable to his understanding of the rest of the world. At

the present time, of course, this is not so. It is generally conceded that

his knowledge of himself is far below his knowledge of the world about

him. When these two fields can be comprehended with something

like equal understanding there will be a new capacity for man’s ad-

justment to his fellows far in excess of anything that we have ever

imagined.

So much for fundamental principles. It may interest you at this

point to consider with me for a few minutes what light, mental disease

in its various forms sheds upon the problem under discussion. In the

first place, let us look at the development of our thinking from the

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

standpoint of the way in which medicine has responded. Nineteenth

century medicine was outstandingly characterized by the develop-

ment of the various medical specialties. The accumulation of knowl-

edge about the human organism, the way it functioned and its various

diseases, progresses so rapidly that it became a rather hopeless task

for individual physicians to attempt to master the whole field, and

so they solved their difficulty in this respect by confining their atten-

tion to disorders of certain organs or groups of organs. You are famil-

iar with this state of affairs. But unfortunately this development con-

tained an inherent defect. Organs could not be adequately considered

apart from the rest of the organism and when the concept organism-

as-a-whole began to develop this fact became outstandingly clear.

Perhaps psychiatry has done more to develop this aspect of the situa-

tion than any other department of medicine because psychiatry looks

upon the organism as a group of organs associated together in a com-

mon purpose, and that purpose is none other than to effect a more

adequate adaptation to the environment and to so modify that en-

vironment by acting upon it as to bend it to the purposes of the

organism. In other words, the purpose of the organism-as-a-whole

can only be expressed in psychological terms. The functions of all

the organs focus in this psychological objective, and therefore psy-

chiatry at once became interested in the whole individual.

This point of view receives a rather startling confirmation in the

statistics of mental disease as we see them represented in our public

institutions. To begin with, for the most part our mentally ill patients

are not physically sick in the ordinary sense of that term. If they

have deviations from the normal in their several functions these

deviations are so comparatively small that as yet we either are not

able to define them or to interpret them. On the other hand, if we

take the great mass of mentally ill we do find the startling fact that

despite all our efforts to the contrary they die at a rate something

like six times greater than the general population. You see this fact

confirms what I have said, and in addition it also confirms what I

have implied of the organism; namely, that it is an energy system,

and when the flow of energy is impeded and the necessary adjust-

ments both within and without the organism are therefore impossible

of effecting, the organism-as-a-whole functions at a lowered efficiency

and the span of life is correspondingly shortened. Now let us see how

this works in a particular situation.

Let us revert to the figure of speech I used earlier of the searchlight

which brightly illumines only a small spot in an otherwise uniformly

JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 9

dark medium. You recall that I spoke in general of the distinction

between these two areas, and that intelligence dominated the former

and wishes the latter; and you will recall, also, that the wishes that

are formulated in this dark territory express the fundamental instincts

of life, and the mental processes that occur in the illuminated space

represent those more accurate adjustments to the material facts and

the natural laws of the environment, physical and personal, in which

the individual lives. It is easy to see from this statement how tenden-

cies in these two areas not only may be but must necessarily be fre-

quently opposed one to the other. Let me imagine an example. An

individual is so situated that his only source of water is a stream

polluted with the germs of a deadly disease. If he drinks of the stream

he will surely die of the disease. He can only preserve his life by not

drinking, but, paradoxically, if he does not drink he will die of thirst.

The agony of thirst increases as the hours pass. Temptation to drink

from the stream becomes intolerable. He resists it as long as possible

because he knows that drinking means death. The desire to slake

his thirst, to supply his organism with the necessary fluid, originates

in the dark region where the instincts and the wishes govern. The

fear of drinking, the apprehension of the result if he does—all these

things come from the clearly visioned situation as he actually sees

it in the world in which he has to live and to which he has to attempt

to adapt himself. The desire that emanates from this larger region,

which, in harmony with present usage we will call the unconscious,

is in conflict with the knowledge that the individual has and the fear

resulting from that knowledge of death if he yields. This, of course,

is an extreme example, but it shows how a life and death struggle may

take place between the opposing demands of these two regions of the

mind. In all our nervous and mental diseases we have, among other

things, a similar situation with which to deal. We have this so-called

conflict between these two great regions at the basis of these disturb-

ances, and one of the outstanding results of this conflict, which I am

sure you can comprehend easily from the example which I have just

given, is that the energies of the individual are used up in a futile

battle and are not, therefore, available for those possible adjustments

which would make for greater efficiency of living. And the problem

of therapeutics at this psychological level with which we as psychia-

trists are most concerned is the very problem of helping the patient

to effect some kind of permanent solution, or, if not a solution at

least a compromise, with these contending forces so that the energy

engaged in the conflict may be released for more effective use.

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1

Just a few words at this point by way of hints, so that you will

have some idea how this works out actually. The cruder ways in which

this conflict not infrequently manifests itself is in alternating swings

between the attempts to satisfy each of the two contenders in this

intrapsychic conflict. And so we see that the individual lives for a

certain time in accordance with his ideals and gets along very well,

but during this period the tendencies from the other side are constant-

ly nagging him. They are increasing in strength just exactly in the

same way that in the example I have given you the man’s thirst in-

creased, until they finally reach a point where they have accumulated

so much force by this slow process of impounding that they can no

longer be restrained and they break forth, sometimes expressing

themselves as the epileptic convulsion, and in this breaking forth

they not infrequently express themselves in aggressive and destruc-

tive conduct. Quite characteristically this destructive conduct is ad-

dressed against the world at large, and in the epileptic furor the

patient spreads ruin and destruction all about him, and woe to anyone

who attempts to interfere with him. It is as though he were wreaking

his vengeance upon a world which had created within him by various

stimuli certain desires which he was incapable of fulfilling. Then,

equally unfortunately, these same aggressive and destructive instincts

are turned upon himself and he would destroy those very parts of

his body through which these stimuli to which he can not respond

transmitted themselves. And so we find patients mutilating themselves

in the most hideous manner, digging out their eyes, biting off their

tongues, castrating themselves, and, finally, sometimes by the most

painful methods, committing that final act, complete and irrevocable,

of self-destruction. These are just some of the more terrible things

that we see when serious disharmony affects the organism in the ways

which I have described and which result in destroying its efficiency

and even in destroying its life.

Perhaps with the background thus far developed I can indicate

another point of view very briefly, which you may find interesting

but which I must warn you, to begin with, is largely speculative.

You will see as I have developed my thesis that I have pictured an

organism all the several parts of which are constructed for a common

purpose, and that purpose only finds its full expression as it heads up

in the tendencies which come to expression, in the functions of the

mind. In addition to that, the implication seems fairly evident that

if I have correctly indicated the forces that are involved in the func-

tioning and the purposes of the organism, that this organism is grow-

JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 11

ing, expanding, developing, evolving at this head end, not unlike, by

analogy, but of course in a very much simpler state of affairs, the

way that the root of a plant develops through the intermediation of

the root tip. The further implication of this point of view is that the

experience to which the living being is subjected by this constant

necessity for adjusting to the environment, and which experience has

been in process of evolution through living organisms now for millions

of years, is gradually, just as we see it in the growth of the individual

organism, laid down in what amounts to permanent structural de-

tails. In other words, when a given necessity becomes of survival

value, the function that satisfies that necessity is precipitated, as it

were, in the form of organic structure; and thus we have at the heart

of each organism certain definite, well-defined structures that vary

only within narrow limits as between individuals and which repre-

sent the answers, so to speak, which the organism has developed in

its response to the queries presented to it by the environment through

the ages.

In order that this process of adaptation may continue, not only

from generation to generation but from youth to old age, there has

to be a certain retained plasticity on the part of the organism, a

certain possibility of change; and this possibility, as I have indicated,

is greatest when we come to the more recently acquired adaptations,

as they are expressed in the functions of the mind. Without laboring

this point further, let me draw the conclusion, which might be sup-

ported by a great deal of concrete evidence, that this modifiable as-

pect of the organism represents a strategic point of attack which offers

possibility of modification; and, therefore, when the organism is func-

tioning inadequately, it is not beyond the possibilities from our pres-

ent knowledge to look forward to a time when the field of psycho-

therapy will be much larger than it is now, when illnesses will be

attacked from this angle much more frequently than they are at

the present time, and that much of the therapy which is now ad-

dressed directly to the soma, the more definitely fixed portions of the

organism, will go out of use, and, correspondingly, therapy addressed

to the psyche, the more modifiable forms, will come into practice.

I have given you in this brief paper: first, a discussion of the funda-

mentals from which we must proceed if we are to answer the question

as to how far we may expect man to go in the future; secondly, some

illustrations of how the forces at his disposal may be distorted and

impaired in their utilization; and, thirdly, a suggested view of the

future. From all of these three points of view I gather a definite feel-

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

ing, and that is that the greatest asset of man today is his mind, that

the greatest unexplored and largely unknown territory in all the

world so far as we know is this same region, so that I feel today that

we are entering upon a new chapter in the history of human develop-

ment, that we are pressing forward into the unknown along a new

frontier of great and apparently inexhaustible riches, and that frontier

is the frontier of the mind.

Now just a few words with regard to this frontier territory that we

are only beginning to enter upon. What is it like, and what may we

expect to find in it? I may reply very generally by saying that it is

very much like all frontiers. The explorer who has pushed his way

into a new country must always be prepared to meet with hardships

and dangers, and the reward of the frontiersman is in proportion to

his ability to overcome these obstacles. Extremes of temperature,

floods and drouths, great forests and wild animals, to say nothing of

tribes of savage men who look upon him as an enemy, represent the

types of difficulties he has to meet; but if he succeeds he is rewarded

by the fertility of an untilled land and the richness of unexploited

deposits of precious metals and the like. It is similar, so far as we

know, to this unexplored region of the mind. As soon as we begin to

search earnestly, systematically, and assiduously in this territory we

find all the terrors and all the obstacles that belong to unsettled and

uncivilized regions; and here, as elsewhere, it takes courage to press

forward, for, quite contrary to the assumptions which are tacitly

made regarding the nature of man, the things that are found are

often too terrible to be acknowledged, much less studied and under-

stood. Man is neither wholly angel nor wholly devil, but both aspects

are intertwined in his character; and just as his capacity for good is

very great, so is his capacity for evil. Man prefers to think of himself

without these handicapping qualities of which he is not at all proud,

and so he lives in a hypocritical atmosphere of self-adulation much

of the time. A little thought of the story of man as he has come to be

what he is, would make it perfectly understandable why these char-

acteristics still cling to him. It is only a very little while ago, compara-

tively, in the story of his life on earth, that he himself was a savage,

and this savage state existed for hundreds of thousands of years, and

before that he was an animal, and that stage lasted much longer.

The characteristics of these stages were essentially animalistic, and

if he has arrived at what we are pleased to call civilization it is only

because he has been able to survive, and if he has been able to survive

it is only because through these ages he has been willing to kill. He

JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 13

has reached his present estate literally by leaving a trail of blood be-

hind him, and naturally we must expect to find at least the remnants

of those destructive and aggressive qualities which I have already

intimated exist and which I now say characterize him in large part.

The frontiersman, if he wishes to conquer Nature, must have the

courage of his convictions. He must be willing to face the dangers that

are in his path. It is precisely the same way with ourselves. We can

not alter ourselves, or reach higher stages of civilization by ignoring

our own characteristics. We must appreciate and understand them if

we are to deal with them intelligently, overcome them, capture the

energies which now are dissipated in their destructive activities and

conserve them for socially useful and acceptable ends. And this

method of procedure requires work, hard work, continuous work, in

order that it may yield valuable results. The frontiersman lived a hard

life, but if he succeeded he reaped untold material riches as well as

health and happiness; for it is written: “In the sweat of thy face shalt

thou eat bread.” The difference here from the popular conception is

that the real dangers that confront him come from within. The thing

in all the world that man is most afraid of is himself, the forces that

are in him and which if let loose would express themselves in destruc-

tion, ultimately destruction of himself. This you will be able to realize

when I suggest that the three great crimes which man has been guilty

of through the ages, the crimes which are not made by statute but

which are, as the lawyers say, “‘evil in themselves’”—murder, incest

and cannibalism, are still with us. I do not need to convince you that

murder is by no means a lost art. We only have to think of the last

war and read the newspapers. Incest, of course, few of you, I am sure,

have had any contact with; but those of us who deal with the illnesses

of people, and their defects, know that it is far from rare, while canni-

balism still exists in remote places and occasionally crops out at our

own level of culture under peculiar conditions of stress. It would

perhaps be strange if this were not so, for, after all, the patterns in

which man has expressed his fear, his hate and his aggressive and

destructive tendencies are probably pretty well a part of our funda-

mental make-up which we have carried through the centuries and

which is still with us even though buried deep in our natures. There-

fore I am sure, you can understand with what good cause man should

be afraid of himself, afraid lest these instinctive tendencies should

be let loose and fall into their accustomed patterns of expression.

When we come to the content of our psychic life we find that for

the most part we are quite oblivious of anything that is not within

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

the circle of clear conscious awareness, but those of us who are suffi-

ciently honest and sufficiently brave, who really and truly examine

our own thinking and feeling processes, are aware that on the fringe

of this brightly illuminated area quite a good many things are happen-

ing which we ordinarily do not take account of. Perhaps one of the

most significant symptoms and one of the most widely dispersed is

anxiety, and this symptom of anxiety comes into the picture when-

ever our safety and security is in any sense jeopardized. It is the red

light that warns us of danger, danger from within and danger of the

particular character that I have mentioned, namely, that the instinc-

tive forces will break through the barriers that civilization has erected

and carry destruction with them. In fact, it would seem that the

growth of civilization and the various institutions which have been

erected as means by which mankind comes to a more effective han-

dling of his environment are all of them, in a sense at least, the result

of reactions calculated to protect the individual from anxiety, and

that we progress along the path of evolution and development rather

timorously, one might say, afraid all the time, threatened from forces

both within and without, constantly strengthening our position and

seeking always for safety, permanency and equilibrium, goals which

can never be attained but which as a result of our continuous seeking

bring to pass constantly improved methods of adjustment. Every

success, every overcoming of an obstacle, every solution of a problem,

makes possible new successes, new obstacles to be overcome and new

problems which must be met. So that we have a never-ending process

of which we are a part. We must always go forward. We are on the

treadmill of life and we must advance or die. Anxiety is one of the

symptoms which indicate this mechanism, so that we are beginning

to see, at least vaguely, what it is that makes the machine work; of

course, not really and fundamentally, perhaps, but at least we get

the hint.

All these things that I have said to you have grown out of the sug-

gestions which the newer developments in our field have thrown

up with regard to some of the age-old questions which have con-

fronted us. As I have already indicated, my feeling is that we are on

the verge of an entirely new era in the development of our under-

standing of ourselves, and that the outstanding characteristic of this

new era will be our ability to ask of the organism a certain type of

questions which we are only beginning to be able to formulate. In

other words, we have studied the details of the functioning of the

organism now these many years. We are beginning to see back of

JAN. 15, 19835 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 15

these details something which we appreciate is the totality of the

organism itself, and we have accumulated enough knowledge of this

totality by the investigation of these details so that we are beginning

to be able to take the next step, which is to ask intelligent questions

of this organism which will give some information about it.

I hope, if I have done nothing else, that I have convinced you that

at least I think that this region of the frontier of the mind is a long,

long way from having its possibilities exhausted, in fact that we are

just entering upon a vast territory which will be many, many years

in the frontier stage of development, and that the winning of this

territory holds out the prospect that for the first time man will really

have come to some understanding of himself based upon accepted

principles of science.

PHYSICS.—An apparatus for measuring the magnetic susceptibility

of liquids and solids at high temperatures.1 R. B. SosmMan and

J. B. Austin, Research Laboratory, United States Steel Cor-

poration, Kearny, N. J.

The apparatus described in the present paper was developed by the

senior author several years ago at the Geophysical Laboratory,

Carnegie Institution of Washington, and results obtained with it have

been published, but no description has yet been put into print. It

has been found useful in determining the susceptibility of solids and

liquids, both paramagnetic and diamagnetic, through a temperature

range from room temperature to 1000°C, and it has the advantage of

being quickly adaptable to substances having a wide range of proper-

ties. It is now in current use at the Research Laboratory, U. 8. Steel

Corporation, at Kearny, N. J.

METHOD

The method depends upon the familiar principle of weighing the

force acting upon a known mass of the substance in the non-uniform

magnetic field of a solenoid.? Any paramagnetic or diamagnetic sub-

stance is acted upon in a magnetic field by a force proportional to its

magnetic susceptibility, to the field intensity, and to the field gradi-

ent. If the magnetic field possesses cylindrical symmetry, the resultant

1 Received Oct. 16, 1934.

2 The method was first used for quantitative measurements of susceptibility by

BouTzMANN (Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-Nat. Cl. 80, Il: 687-714. 1879)

and von ErtinesHavsEN (Ann. Phys. u. Chem. 17: 272-305. 1882) and has not been

used since that time, possibly because of the complicated calculations necessary to

obtain absolute values.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO.

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JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY i,

force is along the axis of a cylinder. Hence if the cylinder is set with its

axis vertical, the force can be opposed to the force of gravity and

weighed with the equal-arm balance, which is one of the most sensi-

tive and precise of physical instruments.

With a good analytical balance, and with proper attention to out-

side disturbances, the force can be weighed to +0.005 milligram. The

sample may be from 2 to 50 grams. With the field constants used in

our apparatus, the corresponding variation in the mass-susceptibility

is 0.1xX10-* to 0.004 x10-*. On paramagnetic (high-temperature)

iron and on iron compounds such as ferrous sulfate this is equivalent

to a precision of about 0.3 to 0.01 per cent. The corresponding abso-

lute accuracy, which involves a knowledge of the field constants as

well as the force, is estimated at 1.0 to 0.2 per cent. Many paramag-

netic and diamagnetic substances, however, have such a small sus-

ceptibility (equal in some cases to zero) that a statement of per-

centage accuracy is misleading; the more informative statement is

that the susceptibility is measurable within about 1.0 x10~* divided

by the weight of the sample. The larger-sized samples can be used

only for measurements near room temperature, since the diameter of

the furnace tube is necessarily small and the object or container used

for high-temperature measurements cannot be more than 14 mm in

diameter.

With a ferromagnetic substance the force depends not only on the

factors mentioned above but also on the size of the individual par-

ticles, the shape of the particles, their distance apart, the shape of the

charge as a whole, and the previous magnetic history of the sample.

Therefore, only somewhat crude comparative results are obtainable

by this method with a ferromagnetic powder. The same is true toa

greater or less degree of all the other methods applicable to such ma-

terial.

APPARATUS

The apparatus used in making measurements at room tempera-

ture, as shown in Fig. 1, consists of an analytical balance from one

pan of which is suspended a container located in the axis of the sole-

noids which produce the non-uniform field. For convenience in de-

scription the apparatus is divided into four sections: (1) Weighing

system, (2) Suspension and container, (3) Solenoids and electric cir-

cuits, (4) Furnace and apparatus for control of temperature.

(1) Weighing System. The force acting on the specimen is weighed

directly by an Ainsworth analytical balance (A) sensitive to 0.005

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1

mg. This sensitivity is ample for all except the most feebly para-

magnetic or diamagnetic substances, for which a microbalance would

be preferable.

The pointer of the balance is made of a non-ferrous alloy and the

knife edges are of agate, thus removing the necessity of correcting

for the effect of induction in those parts of the balance that are some-

times made of steel. This construction is desirable since experience

has shown that the effect of steel parts, even at a considerable dis-

tance, is not negligible. While the error caused by a steel knife edge

is small and is easily corrected for, the error arising from a steel

pointer may be fairly large. To prevent certain irregularities which

were found to be due to the accumulation of an electric charge on the

balance in cold dry weather, a small amount of carnotite ore is kept

in a glass dish in the balance case.

The balance itself rests on an Alberene stone slab which is sup-

ported on a pipe frame, making part of a heavy table. The frame as

well as all other parts of the apparatus is of brass.

(2) Suspension and container. The suspension consists of a glass

fiber in the portion that is at room temperature, and several links of

gold wire in the part subjected to high temperature. The glass fiber

hooks into a loop under one stirrup of the balance, the pan-arrest

being split to make room for the loop. Below the stone slab the whole

suspension is enclosed in two telescoping glass tubes to prevent dis-

turbance by air currents. The lower and larger tube carries at its

upper end a threaded brass head which may be screwed over the brass

head of the upper tube. With this arrangement the lower tube can be

raised and held out of the way during any adjustment of the apparatus.

The container (B) varies in size, shape, and composition with the

substance to be examined, the choice of material being influenced by

the temperatures to be used. At room temperature the most satis-

factory material for general use is celluloid. A bucket made by cement-

ing sheet celluloid combines the advantages of light weight and nearly

negligible magnetic susceptibility. Glass may also be used although

there is always the danger of breakage to be taken into account.

Glass buckets have, however, been employed with success as high as

300°C. Of the metals, iron-free brass has been found satisfactory for

measurements at room temperature while gold is the best material

available for high temperatures. Gold has a small susceptibility, is

stable at high temperatures, and can be easily fashioned into various

sizes and shapes. Platinum has too high a susceptibility, while silver

changes weight through absorption or release of oxygen.

JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 19

The smallest size of charge which gives the desired accuracy is the

best. Containers for use at room temperature may be as large as 40

mm diameter; the height should not be greater than approximately

30 mm in order to minimize the error in estimating the magnetic field

in which the specimen is suspended.

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BAY %

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Poa Rood Xx 2,0;

Neca Nesseeee p eee

box) Cd b Rod

ex [Sesesed esd

Rs nageces| p eet

bes) lovecee b besos)

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[xs] Netacees| bo bases

“ates eseees Peeseseg PSesel

Kx iezeten| Roeeoeg ogese

ogese

x] Se] Sed ex

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neegal Reseed] eee R525

Kee] acetate eetetee! Rod

, oH oS

RCS ageces eeeeee| See

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Mates See cote ese

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Res} neovecee| Reese} Pec

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be) Keo) ozagee| bees] <—

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POO R505] P5524 See)

bese] RSeSo52] eesen Kx

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4 4

best RoeSeS2] Leoesesd Rees

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bes) Roose Kesesesd bees

Rod iacates roceseee ogee

eet oteres Netecere logon

bx) REX evens Sones

bese) <2 Keser eo

KX CS Meseatet besos)

bes] cots iotes

ee Pees mm os

see d Paecoses foene

bx) etetee Roose PSeoe)

Bl SS Rk

Re Sod Reco hx]

"aces KS bese

Kes] recarens ovaces a

Rea BY Ro RS

beg Kexoesed beocsed eee

bs reece Pace

Fig. 2.—Arrangement of solenoids for qualitative study of the form of the

magnetization curve of a ferromagnetic powder.

In measurements at elevated temperatures the diameter of the

bucket is limited to approximately 14 mm by the size of the furnace

tube. In this case, particularly, the height should not exceed 30 mm

since there is a temperature gradient as well as a field gradient along

the furnace.

It is useful to provide the container with a plunger, which serves to

level the surface of a powdered charge and to define exactly its di-

mensions.

(3) Solenoids and electric circuits. For measurements of suscepti-

bility at a single field intensity the magnetic field is produced by two

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1

coaxial solenoids (iS) whose constants are given in Table I. The outer

solenoid (O in Fig. 2) is wound with size No. 16 (1.291 mm) and the

inner solenoid (JZ in Fig. 2) with size No. 14 (1.628 mm) double

cotton-covered copper wire.

TABLE I—DImEnsIonsS OF SOLENOIDS

Solenoid O Solenoid IL Solenoid IU

Total number of turns . 2794 3221 3253

Number of layers of wire 14 20 20

Length, mm 320 318 319

Inside diameter, mm 226 88.5 88.5

Outside diameter, mm 265 156 156

It is frequently convenient to examine a substance in a magnetic

field of variable intensity but constant gradient. This is accomplished

with the aid of another inner solenoid (JU) similar to the inner sole-

noid already described (JL) and resting on top of it. A section is

shown in Fig. 2. Since the solenoids have no cores the fields are addi-

tive. This arrangement makes it possible to examine the form of the

hysteresis loop of a substance, since the field at any point can be

varied from zero to maximum while the gradient (produced wholly by

the outer solenoid) remains constant.’ It is plain, however, that with

a ferromagnetic powder only the qualitative form of the loop can be

indicated in this way, the true magnetization curve of the material

itself being unobtainable either by this or any other method.

It should be remarked here that the particular dimensions given

above for solenoids and wire are not the most efficient. The solenoids

were built under circumstances where their design was controlled by

the available sizes of large brass tubing and also the available sizes

of copper wire in pieces of sufficient length. With free choice of ma-

terials the solenoids could be redesigned either for a more intense

magnetic field or for a more uniform field of force. Account must

also be taken of the permissible rate of change of the field with time,

because the solenoid is heated by the current and the current there-

fore diminishes steadily unless readjusted by manipulating the ex-

ternal resistances.

The inner solenoids rest on a cross-bar bolted to the under side of

the bottom flange of the outer solenoid. The entire assembly of coils,

whose relative positions are thus fixed, is carried by leveling screws

set in the flange of the outer solenoid and resting on a brass table (D

in Fig. 1). The height of the table is adjustable by means of a hand

’ This arrangement was suggested by the late Dr. C. W. Burrows of the National

Bureau of Standards.

JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 21

wheel, gear system, and screw (@). It has a vertical travel of 30 mm

and is adjustable to 0.1 mm with the aid of an indicator on the flange

and a scale on the table frame.

Fig. 3.—Electrical circuits for control of the magnetic field.

The container can be adjusted axially by shifting the balance on

its stone slab. Approximate vertical adjustment is made by changing

the gold links and accurate adjustment by moving the solenoid table

D vertically. The reference level for the container is the horizontal

plane surface of the upper flange of solenoid O, transferred across to

the axis by means of a levelling bar made of square brass tubing with

surface plates at ends and middle. Since this adjustment cannot be

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1

Alundum Water

furnace tube~—.. — fackeT,~ dj

Fig. 4——Water-jacketed furnace for the study of magnetic susceptibility to

1000°C. This furnace is inserted in place of the water-jacket shown in Fig. 1.

JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 23

made when the water-jacket or the furnace is in place, it is repro-

duced outside the apparatus by means of a micrometer caliper set

vertically in a metal block.

The handling of the heavy upper solenoid is facilitated by the use

of the air lift (L) shown in Fig. 1, which consists essentially of a large

brass tube fitted at its lower end with a piston. The lift can be raised

or lowered by admitting air under a few pounds pressure at one valve

or releasing it through the other. Attached to the tube are two arms

upon which rests the carriage holding the solenoid (Cin Fig. 2).

The two brass plates supporting the solenoids are perforated by

a ring of holes which permit the electrical and water connections for

the furnace to pass through.

The electrical circuits, including that for the upper inner solenoid,

are shown in Fig. 3. When the reversing switch a is closed the outer

solenoid (OQ) is connected to the power line through the resistance A

and the ammeter Am. Switches b and ¢ are reversing switches for the

upper and lower inner solenoids respectively (JU and IL). Switches

d are so arranged that the two inner solenoids can be connected singly

or combined in series or parallel. At e there is a double-pole double-

throw switch flanked by two single-pole single-throw switches, with

which a second ammeter (Amz) can be inserted into the circuit of

either of the two inner solenoids or can be cut out entirely.

(4) Furnace and control of temperature. Since the susceptibility of

most paramagnetic substances changes with temperature, some

means of controlling the temperature of the container is desirable.

In the neighborhood of, or but slightly above, room temperature the

water-cooled jacket (J) shown in Fig. 1 is sufficient. This is nothing

more than a double-walled brass cylinder through which water flows.

For most purposes where close control is not necessary a small stream

of water will suffice to hold the temperature within +0.5°C. For

closer control water from a thermostat may be circulated.

For elevated temperatures, say from 50° to 1000°C, the water

jacket J of Fig. 1 is replaced by the furnace shown in Fig. 4.

The core of this furnace is an Alundum tube (17 mm i.d.) upon

which is wound a helical coil of 0.8 mm platinum wire (resistance

= 1.092 ohm, length approximately 3.3 meter). This coil is embedded

in a thin layer of Alundum cement. The winding is bifilar and the

heating current is alternating, so that the furnace is without appreci-

able effect on the magnetic field.

The furnace tube is held in place by two Alundum plates (R; and

R2) which grip it at the ends. Insulation is provided by packing

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

powdered magnesia around the core. Heat leakage to the solenoids is

prevented by the water jacket (J1) which takes in water at the bot-

tom (J) and discharges it through the tubes (H) which reach almost

to the top. For most purposes a flow of 400 cc per minute is ample.

With the furnace operating at 900°C the cooling water when flowing

Top

Distance from bottom, cm

Bottom

O 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 300

Temp erature, °C

Fig. 5—Temperature gradients inside of the furnace of Fig. 4.

at this rate was raised from 23° to 30°C. The top of the furnace is

covered by a divided disk of sheet zine with a small hole at the center

through which the suspension passes.

The thermocouple T is of platinum against the alloy 90 platinum,

10 rhodium, and has its junction located just below and to one side

of the bottom of the container.

The upper temperature limit of the furnace is probably well above

1000°C but above this point the zone of reasonably uniform tempera-

ture becomes quite short.

The power consumed by the furnace is approximately 0.5 kilo-

JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 25

watt for a temperature of 300° and slightly over 0.8 kilowatt for

800°C.

The temperature gradient in the furnace under various conditions

was investigated with a small exploring platinrhodium-platinum

thermocouple used in conjunction with an ice bath and a potenti-

ometer. The results for four different conditions are shown in Fig. 5.

It is apparent from these curves that while a fairly large gradient

does exist near the ends of the furnace, particularly at the higher

temperatures, there is always a zone approximately 30 mm long

through which the temperature is reasonably constant. This zone is

usually close to the center of the furnace. If care is taken to keep the

container within this zone, satisfactory results can be obtained and

reproduced.

The curves in Fig. 5 are all taken on an empty furnace. If the fur-

nace contains a metal bucket it seems likely that the gradients will

be somewhat reduced and that the central zone will be more uniform.

CALIBRATION OF THE SOLENOIDS

The constants of the solenoids can be obtained in two ways: (1)

in absolute measure, by calculation from their dimensions; (2) em-

pirically, by weighing the force acting on a charge of a substance of

known susceptibility.

ABSOLUTE MEASURE OF SUSCEPTIBILITY

The ponderomotive force, F,, acting in the direction X upon a small

particle of a paramagnetic or diamagnetic substance in a magnetic

field in vacuum, is given by the formula‘

SE yee (1)

Poe.

in which x is the magnetic susceptibility of the substance, V the vol-

ume of the particle, H the magnetic field intensity, and 0H /dz the field

gradient in the direction X.

A more convenient constant is the specific susceptibility or mass-sus-

ceptibility, x. If dis the density of the substance, x =x/d. Then f., the

force per gram of substance, is given by

‘ First specific statement of the principle is by W. THomson (Lord Kertyin) in

Phil. Mag. (3) 37: 241-253. 1850; reprinted in Papers on electrostatics and magnetism

(1872, London) pp. 500-513.

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

fe =xH_. (2)

If the direction X be taken as the vertical, the force can be meas-

ured by means of a balance. Then f, = pg and the expression for mass-

susceptibility becomes

oH H (3)

in which p is the vertical pull in the magnetic field, in grams of weight

per gram of substance, and g is the force of gravity at the site of the

measurement, in dynes.

GEOMETRICAL DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTANTS

The field intensity and field gradient at a given point depend only

on the dimensions of the solenoids and the magnitude of the current.

The field and the gradient at any point are most conveniently ex-

pressed as constants multiplied by the current: ;

én

i= ele k’’T, hence Hair (4)

in which the constants k’, k’’ and k depend only on the geometry of

the solenoid, k being equal to k’k’’. The formula actually used in

measurements with a single solenoid then becomes

The field-constant k’ for any point M or M’ on the axis of a single-

layer circular solenoid (see Fig. 6) will be called k,’. If the current

is measured in amperes, and the wire is so small and so closely

wound that the corrections due to its shape and helical inclination®

are negligible, then

k,’ = —0.2mn f sin @-d@ =0.27n(cos 42 —cos 41) (6)

in which n = number of turns per cm length,

5 Snow, C., U. S. Bur. Stds. Sci. Papers 21: 431-519 (Sci. Pap. No. 537). 1926.

JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 27

6=angle subtended at M by the radius a of the solenoid.®

6; and @2 are the terminal values of 6 for the nearer and farther ends of

the solenoid, respectively, with reference to the positive direction of

the axis (see Fig. 6).

Fig. 6.—Geometrical quantities involved in the magnetic field of a solenoid.

For additional layers of wire a formula can be similarly developed

which gives the total intensity-constant at M in terms of the inner

and outer limiting radii.’ On account of irregularities due to the

necessity of providing for the anchoring and the exit of the first

turns, it was found better in the present case to calculate k’ for each

layer and to add the values to obtain.k’ for the entire solenoid. The

required dimensions have been given in Table I. The number of turns

and the length were separately recorded for every layer during the

process of winding, and the calculation of the field constant k,’ for a

series of points along the axis was based on these detailed data rather

than on the summarized figures given in the Table, but the details

of the calculation need not be given here.

Given the curve of x,’ for each solenoid against axial distance z from

6 This formula, originating with Ampére and with Bior & Savart before 1825,

seems to have been first written in the convenient trigonometric form by AUERBACH,

in Graetz’s Handbuch d. Elektrizitat u. Magnetismus (1920) Vol. 4: 960-967. One would

expect to find that this improvement had been made at a much earlier date, but we have

not discovered an earlier reference.

7 AUERBACH, p. 964 of work cited in note °.

n Ho

10 100-—

8 80

7 70

6 60

-3 -2 -1 fo) +1

Axial distance in cm

Fig. 7—Constants of the magnetic field intensities and magnetic field gradients

along the axes of the solenoids shown in Figs. 1 and 2.

Field intensity H=k’I (IJ =current in amperes)

Field gradient = IL

JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 29

the zero level a curve for the gradient-constant k,’’ is readily obtained

graphically or with the aid of interpolation-formulas. Combination

of the two then gives the axial force-constant k,. Fig. 7 shows these

curves for our apparatus.

The combined force exerted by two or more solenoids carrying

different currents is proportional to the product of the total field and

the total gradient. When the outer and the lower inner coils are used

in combination, as in most of our measurements of susceptibility in

which no information on hysteresis is desired, the total force is there-

fore nearly twice as great as the sum of the forces exerted by each

alone. We have usually employed currents of 3.40 ampere in the outer

and 4.50 ampere in the lower inner solenoid; the field intensity at —3

mm is then 436 gauss.

For a charge of finite size the force varies both axially and radially.

If the depth (along the axis) is not more than 15 mm, and if the

susceptibility «x is independent of H, as is true for most of the sub-

stances studied with this apparatus, the value of k, for the middle

point represents the average within the error expected.

For a point near the axis the departure of k’ from the axial value

k,’ is given by the formula®

, , z ot

k =i), 105 a ae (7)

in which a = radius of solenoid (single layer)

r = distance of the point from the axis

z=axial distance of the point from one end of the solenoid

1 =length of solenoid.

At a point distant 0.1 a from the axis, which would be about 12-14

mm for the outer solenoid and 4-8 mm for the inner, the value of k’

in our apparatus differs from k,’ on the axis by only about 0.01 per

cent in the worst case. The axial variation is therefore negligible, even

for charges of large diameter.

For depths and diameters so large that the value of k at the middle

point of the charge cannot be assumed to be the representative aver-

age, the formula of Boltzmann® gives an exact result, but the cal-

culation is long and complicated and the empirical calibration in

terms of a standard substance is usually preferable.

8 We owe the derivation of this formula to Dr. Cuzester Snow of the National

Bureau of Standards. So far as we are aware it has not hitherto been published.

* BottzMann & von ETTINGSHAUSEN, article cited in note 2.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

EMPIRICAL CALIBRATION

For the empirical method crystalline ferrous ammonium sulfate,

FeSO,-(NH,).SO,-6H;O, is the best standard. A known weight of

the powdered salt is placed in a small brass bucket and pressed down

to a definite depth by means of a plunger. By suspending the bucket

at various positions along the axis, with definite currents in the

solenoids, the force exerted at each point can be measured, and

values of K in the simple formula

x =Kp (8)

can be calculated. As before p is the vertical pull in grams of weight

per gram of substance.

Using values of x for FeSO,-(NH,).SO.-6H2O of 32.3 x10-* and

31.8 X10-* at 20° and 25°C, respectively, we have found that values

of K for the combined inner lower and outer solenoids (JZ and QO),

within the range —30 to +10 mm from the zero level (end of sole-

noids), agree within 1 per cent with the values of K obtained by cal-

culation from the dimensions, as described in the preceding section.

This agreement, together with the demonstrated small axial varia-

tion in the force, justifies the empirical calibration of the apparatus

for larger charges, such as can be used near room temperature in the

water-jacket shown in Fig. 1. The calibration is made with a charge

of powdered ferrous ammonium sulfate, corresponding in shape and

volume with the unknown material, thus giving fairly high precision

and accuracy to the measurements on large charges. Strictly speaking,

the comparison should be made using the unknown in powdered form

with the same air-filled pore space as the sulfate charge, but in these

fairly homogeneous solenoid fields the error due to comparing a dense

with a porous material will in most cases be negligible.

PROCEDURE IN MEASURING SUSCEPTIBILITY

AT HIGH TEMPERATURES

The following notes concerning the method of taking readings may

be of use to those employing similar apparatus.

The solenoids and furnace are adjusted in position so that the

middle point of the charge is at the desired level, usually at —3 mm

since the gradient of k at this level is small and does not change direc-

tion.

The furnace is brought to a constant temperature, usually by set-

ting the furnace current at a predetermined value and allowing suffi-

JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY dl

cient time for equilibrium to be established. While with some ex-

perience and a little care a close approximation to any desired temper-

ature can be obtained, nevertheless if it is necessary to obtain readings

very close to a given temperature, it is well to attach an automatic

potentiometric regulator to the furnace circuit and the thermocouple.

The routine in taking observations may be varied with the opera-

tor. One scheme which the authors have followed with success is to

take readings in groups of three; first, a weighing of the sample with

no magnetic field; second, after a known interval of time, a reading of

the weight of the sample with known storage-battery currents through

the solenoids, the currents being kept constant by adjustment of the

rheostats; third, after an interval of time equal to that between the

first and second readings, a reweighing without the field. The dif-

ference between the second reading and the average of the first and

third gives the force exerted by the magnetic field. This procedure has

been found satisfactory and appears to minimize the effects of minor

or temporary fluctuations in temperature.

In some eases, the force to be measured is less than 0.1 mg or one

division of the beam, using a 5 mg rider. A supplementary rider

weighing only 1 mg is then used, and the readings are made by the

method of swings. It is then often advantageous to leave the balance

swinging throughout the set of readings.

Blank determinations should always be made on the container

through the range of temperatures at which it is to be used. Celluloid

(for room temperature) and gold (for higher temperatures) give the

smallest blanks. One gold container, for example, weighing 5.1 gram,

gave an average blank reading of +0.011 mg in the combined field

at the top of the two lower solenoids.

SUMMARY

An apparatus is described which has been found useful for measur-

ing the magnetic susceptibility of materials having a wide range of

susceptibilities, at temperatures from 20° to 1000°C. A sensitive

analytical balance is used to measure the force exerted upon the sam-

ple by the non-uniform magnetic field of a set of solenoids. By com-

bining a uniform field with a non-uniform field it is possible to esti-

mate the shape of the hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic powder. A

water-cooled furnace inserted into the solenoids serves for the higher

temperatures. Calculation of the absolute intensity and gradient of

the magnetic field from the dimensions of the solenoids yields con-

stants for the apparatus which agree well with those determined

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

empirically by the use of ferrous ammonium sulfate as a standard

substance.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY .—The crystal structure of calaverite’ G.

TuNELL and C. J. Ksanpa, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie

Institution of Washington.

The morphology of calaverite has been thoroughly investigated by

a number of crystallographers.? Goldschmidt, Palache, and Peacock®

concluded that calaverite crystallizes in the monoclinic system al-

though they pointed out that an orthorhombic interpretation was not

excluded with certainty by the evidence then available. They deter-

mined accurately the following values of the crystallographic ele-

ments of calaverite:* a:b:c =1.6298:1:1.1492, 8 =90°08’. Concerning

the value of 8 they® wrote: “‘Aus diesen Messungen erhalten wir

89°52’ als besten Mittelwert des Winkels zwischen den zwei Achsen

in der Projectionsebene. Dieser Winkel ist so nahe an 90°, dass die

Frage, ob der Neigungswinkel von 90° verschieden ist, nicht aus den

Messungen entschieden werden kann.” In their comprehensive joint

study of the form system of calaverite they report that it has a two-

fold axis of symmetry.® From the statements of Penfield and Ford,’

together with his own observations, Peacock® concludes that it has

also a plane of symmetry. From its crystal habit, then, calaverite

appears to belong to the holohedral symmetry class, 2/m (C',), of the

monoclinic system.

Crystals of calaverite from Cripple Creek, Colorado, have been

studied by the present authors by means of the Weissenberg X-ray

goniometer and the two-circle reflection goniometer. The reciprocal

lattice of calaverite was established by means of Weissenberg photo-

graphs taken with Cr-, Cu-, and Mo-radiation, although the crystals

of calaverite were not single individuals. The structural lattice has

elements strictly analogous to the fundamental morphological ele-

ments of Goldschmidt, Palache, and Peacock (their S-elements).

1 Received December 8, 1934. :

? See V. Gotpscumipt, C. Patacuer, and M. Peacock, Neues Jahrbuch fiir Min-

eralogie, Geologie und Paldontologie, Beilage-Band 63: Abt. A, S. 50-52. 1931, and

M. A. Peacock, American Mineralogist 17: 318. 1932, for references to previous work.

* Op. cit., pp. 6, 7, see also M. A. Peacock, op. cit., pp. 324, 325.

* M. A. Peacock, op. cit., p. 325.

* V. Gotpscumipt, C. Patacue, and M. Pzacocx, Op: Cit., p: 5:

* V. Gotpscumipt, C. Pauacue, and M. Pracock, op. cit., pp. 6 and 21.

‘Am. Jour. Sci. (4) 12: 236. 1901.

* Personal communication to G. Tune, dated April 25, 1934.

JAN. 15, 1985 TUNELL AND KSANDA: STRUCTURE OF CALAVERITE 33

The dimensions of the unit cell, determined by purely réntgenographic

measurements, are: 2) =7.18 A, bo=4.40 A, co =5.07 A, all +0.03 4,

8 =90° +30’. Our Weissenberg films also yield decisive evidence on the

question of the crystal system of calaverite. On the Weissenberg films

the planes, hkl and hkl,in general yield diffraction spotsof very different

intensity. This would not be possible if calaverite belonged to the or-

thorhombic system, irrespective of the space group inthe orthorhombic

system with which it might be isomorphous. It is therefore certain

that calaverite does not belong to the orthorhombic system. The

systematic extinctions of the X-ray diffraction effects on our films

limit the monoclinic space groups possible for calaverite to three:

C2/m (C2,°), C2 (C2*), or Cm (C,’), the extinctions of these three space

groups being identical. The density of calaverite calculated from the

X-ray data is 9.31. This agrees well with the measured® densities and

fixes the number of molecules of AuTe. in the unit cell as 2. The two

gold atoms can only occupy the positions, 0, 0, 0, and 3, 4, 0, no

matter which of the three monoclinic space groups listed above is that

of calaverite. By means of the intensities alone all arrangements of

the tellurium atoms possible in the space group, Cm, have been ex-

cluded. From the intensities it is also certain that the tellurium atoms

do not occupy fixed positions or positions with one variable param-

eter in the space group, C2/m. Hence the tellurium atoms must

occupy the positions, m, 0, p; m, 0, p; m+3, 4, p; 3—™M, 5, p, in the

space group, C2/m, or the positions, m, n, p; m, n, p; m+4, n+, p;

3—m, n+3, p, in the space group, C2. From the intensities of the

successive orders of reflection of (100) and (001) the m- and p-param-

eters of the tellurium atoms have been determined to be m=0.69

(217m = 247°) and p=0.29 (2717p =105°) no matter which of the two

remaining space groups, C2/m and C2, is that of calaverite. From the

intensities of the other reflections the parameter along the b-axis must

be close to 0. Thus the tellurium atoms occupy the positions, m, n, p;

m,n, p; m+3, n+3, p3 4—m, n+3, p, where m =0.69, n =0.00, and

p =0.29, all +0.05.1° The results of the intensity calculations will be

given in greater detail in a subsequent communication.

® Cf. S. L. Penrretp and W. E. Forp, Am. Jour. Sci. (4) 12: 246. 1901, Zeit. f.

Kryst. und Min. 35: 450. 1901; G. F. H. Smirn, Min. Mag. 13: 149. 1902, Zeit. f.

Kryst. und Min. 37: 234. 1902; HE. S. Simpson, Geological Survey of Western Australia,

Bulletin 42: 107. 1912.

10 The correspondence between the positive and negative senses of our axes and

those of Goldschmidt, Palache, and Peacock has not been established as yet but only

the correspondence between the directions of our axes and those of Goldschmidt,

Palache, and Peacock.

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1

PALEONTOLOGY.—Argyrotheca gardnerae, new name.' C. WYTHE

Cooxkk, U.S. Geological Survey.

As the name I applied to a new brachiopod in 1919 proves to be

preoccupied, I here propose the new name Argyrotheca gardnerae. The

specific name is in recognition of the paleontologic researches of Miss

Julia Gardner.

Argyrotheca gardnerae Cooke, new name

Argyrotheca dalli Cooke, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 291: 152, pl. 16,

figs. 5a-c. 1919.

not Argyrotheca dalli Aldrich Bull. Am. Pal. 5: 13, pl. 4, figs. 9-10. 1911.

Occurrence: St. Bartholomew, B. W. I.

Geologic horizon: Upper Eocene.

Type: U. S. National Museum, No. 167201.

PALEONTOLOGY.—Nanicella, a new genus of Devonian Foramini-

fera®. Luoyp G. Hensest, U. 8. Geological Survey. (Com-

municated by JoHN B. REESIDE, JR.)

Through the kindness of Prof. A. K. Miller, University of Iowa,

an opportunity was offered in 1932 for studying the type specimens

of Endothyra gallowayi Thomas (Journal of Paleontology 5: 40. 1931).

A close study of the specimens confirmed a notion that I had held for

some time that EF. gallowayi belongs to a new genus, but inasmuch

as the preservation of the type specimens is hardly adequate for de-

termining the shell features with any degree of confidence, it seemed

best to wait for better material. Recently, Mrs. F. B. Plummer, Uni-

versity of Texas, very generously shared her rich collection of topo-

typical material with me, and it now seems appropriate to introduce

the generic name Nanicella for the form represented by EF. gallowayz

Thomas, which species accordingly becomes the genotype.

The name Nanicella refers to the reduced shape and size of the

chambers in their subordination to the general architecture of the

shell (Latin nanus, dwarf, +cella, chamber). In this respect, Nanicella

resembles Orobias, Nummulostegina, and Staffella somewhat more

than Endothyra. In external form it resembles Orobias most closely,

but differs significantly from that genus by being more discoid and

less involute and having a chamber morphology that is less com-

pletely subordinated to the general plan of the shell. In comparison

+ Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received

November 15, 1934.

? Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received

December 4, 1934.

JAN. 15, 1985 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 35

with Hndothyra, Nanicella is considerably more advanced in regard

to the degree of chamber subordination, although our present records

indicate an earlier existence for Nanicella. Endothyra as represented

particularly by EH. bowmani, the genotype, exhibits several so-called

primitive traits not possessed by Nanicella in that it is irregularly

coiled, its chambers have a somewhat spherical form, and a distinct

boundary between the spiral and septal walls is absent.

Work is under way to make a detailed study of the shell structure.

BOTANY.—Sabal louisiana, the correct name for the polymorphic

palmetto of Louisiana.1 Mrrtam L. Bomuarp, U. 8S. Forest

Service. (Communicated by E. P. Kriurp.)

Palmettos have always been and are today a conspicuous and

familiar part of the Louisiana landscape, especially in the Mississippi

Valley. Accounts of early travels through Louisiana show that most

of the travelers were profoundly impressed by the vegetation, and

mention is frequently made of the palmettos as well as of the large

cypress trees, the magnolias, the great vines, and the native cane.

As early as two and a half centuries ago, Le Clercq, in his account

of La Salle’s discovery and exploration of the Mississippi River, says,

“The whole country is covered with palms... .’”

The works of Robin, Darby, and Flint, in the first quarter of the

past century, give perhaps the most interesting and fullest discussions

of the distribution and growth of these palmettos. In 1807, Robin

published an account of his travels in the New World together with

a flora of Louisiana. William Darby, a surveyor, after a residence of

sixteen years in the State, published in 1816 the first detailed map of

Louisiana, accompanied by A geographical description of Lowisiana,

which is replete with careful and accurate observations based upon an

intimate knowledge of the region. Flint, who resided for a time in

the State, was also an accurate observer, though he acknowledges his

indebtedness to Darby and others whose published works preceded

his own.

It is interesting to note that the French appellation, latanier or

latania, which is commonly used today in Louisiana to designate the

native palmettos, appears in the works of most of the early writers.

1 Received November 28, 1934.

2 Le CLERCQ, CHRESTIEN. Premier établissement de la foy dans la Nouvelle France,

etc. 2: 229.1691. Paris. Thisisa very rare work. It contains an account of La Salle’s

discoveries by two missionaries who accompanied him. The palms were first encoun-

tered on the boat trip down the Mississippi in the territory of the Taensa Indians, near

the present town of St. Joseph in Tensa Parish.

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

Latanier is the French form of the native name of a group of tall,

fan-leaved palms* indigenous to certain islands belonging to France,

off the southeast coast of Africa. These palms have long been culti-

vated in Europe and elsewhere. The French settlers of the New

World undoubtedly carried this name over to the fan-leaved palmet-

tos in the new country, Louisiana. Flint even uses‘ the combination

Chemaerops latanier as a scientific name for the Louisiana palmetto.

Robin gives a description of the palmettos, using vernacular names,

but he offers no Latin specific names. He writes,°

“Louisiana produces, I believe, only two species of this family [Palmae],

common in the woods; the first is the camérope or palmier nain (Chamaerops),

commonly called latanier, differing from that of southern Europe in that the

margins of the leaves are neither toothed nor spiny. The trunk, from which

the leaves arise folded in a fan, scarcely emerges from the ground....

[There follows a further description of this species. ]

“The second species, less common and less beautiful, divides its leaves

into two portions, of which each is folded at the ends, somewhat like an old-

fashioned cravat or collar.’’®

Although he offers a fairly complete botanical description of his

first species, he does not describe the second beyond pointing out a

peculiarity of the leaf.

Rafinesque, who translated and revised Robin’s Flora and assigned

binomial names to many of the species mentioned in it, remarks that

Robin “does not appear to have been a professed botanist’’ and, in

cataloguing the two palm species, Rafinesque simply places’ the de-

scription of Robin’s first species under Sabal adansoni (wrongly as-

cribing the binomial to Persoon instead of to Guersent) and applies

a name of his own, “‘Sabal ? adiantinum Raf.,” to Robin’s second

species, evolving a Latin description partly from Robin’s remarks

and, apparently, partly from conjecture, thus:

“29. Sabal adansont. Pers.—Palmier nain ou Latanier. Rob. p. 337.

Spadix ensiform elastic, rising seven feet, stem-like, branched, flowers trifid

__ * These palms, which have been given the generic name Latania, are native to the

islands of Bourbon, Mauritius, and possibly, also Madagascar.

4 “Palmetto, Chemaerops latanier. This is a perennial plant, strongly marking cli-

mate. It commences in the same regions with long moss,—that is to say, about 33°.”

Fuint, Timotuy. A condensed geography and history of the Western States, or the

Mississippi Valley 1: 85. 1828. Cincinnati.

5 Rosin, C. C. Voyages dans Vintérieur de la Louisiane... Suivis de la Flore

Louisianaise 3: 337-338. 1807. Paris.

6 This is an interesting observation in view of the fact that, under certain trying

growth conditions (open situations exposed to intense insolation and where the ground

becomes hard and dry in the summer), the leaves of palmettos in Louisiana are often

divided midway into two halves, which curve downward and away from each other.

‘ RaFINesQueE, C. S._ Florula Ludoviciana; or, A flora of the state of Louisiana.

Translated, revised, and improved from the French of C. C. Robin. pp. 16-17. 1817.

New York.

JAN. 15, 1935 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 37

white sessile odorate, blossoming in June: berries like a pea, black and

sweet. The fibrous netting of the short caudex are used as canvas to clear

and scour: the leaves are used to make hats and thatch houses, ete.

“30. Sabal ? adiantinum. Raf. Acaule, foliis inermis bipartitis, flabel-

latis, plicatis. Raf.—2. Latanier. Rob. p. 338.”

In the same work, Rafinesque includes® an Appendix to the trees

and shrubs of Louisiana in which he lists and comments upon the

plants appearing in Darby’s work. He seems to have been acquainted

only with the second edition, which, although somewhat amplified,

includes much the same material as the first edition, but has a dif-

ferent order of treatment.

Darby’s accounts of the topography and general vegetation of

Louisiana are not only interesting but particularly clear, and, for the

most part, amazingly accurate. Of eight specific references to pal-

mettos, the following is® of especial interest and is the one to which

Rafinesque alludes:

“The Arundo gigantea grows in immense brakes in all parts of the parish

of Ascension, not liable to annual submersion. Much of that majestic grass

has been destroyed by the clearing of the lands; but a vast quantity still re-

mains. Along both banks of New river, in the rear of the plantations on the

Mississippi, and on the banks of the Atchafalaya, are the places where most

of the Arundo yet exists. Here, as well as in every other part of Louisiana,

where the land sinks too low for the Arundo, is found the Chamaerops louisi-

ana.* The latter vegetable cannot itself exist, where the inundation exceeds

in depth 15 or 20 inches. The land is commonly of the best quality. Much of

the surface of the country low upon the Mississippi, now cultivated in cot-

ton, maize, rice, and sugar, was originally covered with the palmetto. From

the greater depression of the surface, the palmetto land is more difficult to

reclaim, than that naturally covered with Arundo gigantea; though equal

in fertility when reduced to a state of cultivation.

“The timber trees most usually associated with the palmetto, are, the

Quercus phellos, Quercus rubra, Acer rubrum, Acer negundo, Liquidambar

styraciflua, Ulmus aquatica, Cornus alba, and Celtis crassifolia. The Quercus

tinctoria, and Quercus virens, are often found growing upon palmetto land,

but not so frequent as the preceding. The Nyssa aquatica, and Cupressus

disticha, would appear from their general history, to be congenial to the

palmetto land; the latter tree is sometimes found intermingled, and the

8 “While the Supplement of this work was under the press, the Geographical De-

scription of Louisiana, by William Darby, fell into my hands. Having perceived in it,

several elaborate Catalogues of the trees and shrubs, growing in the different parts of

the State, some of which had not been observed by Robin, Bartram, etc. and some

additional geographical and economical remarks on others, I have been induced to

enumerate those additions, for which we are indebted to Mr. Darby; correcting, at the

same time, several errors of nomenclature, into which he appears to have fallen... . ”’

Rafinesque. op. cit. 157.

® Darsy, WiuLIAM. A geographical description of the state of Louisiana: . . . being

an accompaniment to the map of Louisiana. ed. 1. 193-195. 1816; ed. 2. 81-82. 1817.

Philadelphia. The eight references appear on the following pages in the 1816 edition:

68, 77, 88, 193-195, 205, 206, 216, 230.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

former growing on inundated land adjacent to; but neither are so com-

monly met with on palmetto land, as might be expected.

“The palmetto may be correctly considered the vegetable that marks the

limit of annual inundation. In all places where we have had good reason to

consider the overflow annual, the palmetto ceased. Though able to resist

partial and occasional immersion of its roots in water, we are led to believe

this shrub would perish if the ground upon which it grew was subject to

annual overflow. This does not agree with the writer’s observation.

‘“*/Footnote appears on p. 194 of the original text.] We have given to this

vegetable the name of Chamaerops lowisiana in the text; and are of the

opinion that there is a specific difference between the Chamaerops palmetto

hitherto known to botanists, and that of Louisiana. The Chamaerops ser-

rulata of Muhlenberg is certainly not the same with the palmetto of Louisi-

ana; the latter bears a much greater resemblance to the cabbage tree, though

much more humble in elevation, than to the saw-leaved palmetto of

Georgia.”

Rafinesque takes sufficient note of Darby’s new specific name to

reprint it, but he dismisses!® both it and Darby’s interesting notes in

the following manner:

“Chamaerops Louisiana! Palmetto or Latania! D. This Palm which Mr.

Darby in a note, p. 81, thinks a new species, and to which he gives two er-

roneous Latin and French names, is merely the Sabal adansoni sp. 29. It

marks the limit of annual inundation, as it grows above the reach of it.”

Rafinesque, in spite of his never having seen Louisiana or its palms,

did not hesitate to pass judgment upon Darby’s new species. This

is especially remarkable in view of Rafinesque’s lack of justification

for establishing Sabal ? adiantinum as a species. There seems to be no

valid reason for his considering Darby’s binomial name, Chamaerops

louisiana, erroneous in any respect. This name appears" five times in

the text of both the 1816 and 1817 editions and in his vocabulary of

terms (immediately following the last page of the text) he lists ““Cham-

aerops louisiana, . . . Palmetto, or latania.” It is worthy of note that

Flint later reprints” Darby’s list of plants, as it appears in the vocabu-

lary of terms, but without citing the source.

In another work of broader scope, Darby gives a general list of

trees most likely to be found in Louisiana and adds" “On the banks

of the streams immense brakes of Arundo gigantea (great cane), and

on the outer margin of the cane, the palmetto or latania (Chamaerops

Louisiana), fill the slope between the cane and the dead overflow. . . .

The palmetto can support inundation a longer time and deeper than

10 RAFINESQUE. op. cit. 159-160.

4 DaRBy. op. cit. ed. 1. 194 (twice), 205, 206, 216.

2 FLINT. op. cit. 2: 486-488. Appendix, Table II.

18 DarsBy, WILLIAM. The emigrant’s guide to the western and southwestern states and

territories, etc. 81. 1818. New York. : ; a

JAN. 15, 19385 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 39

the cane. .. .”’ This reference to the occurrence of palmettos in a zone

or belt is an accurate picture of their present distribution in certain

situations.

In discussing Prairie Mamou (mostly included in the present

Acadia Parish), Darby says," ‘‘In the low grounds near the river, the

palmetto, called by the French latania, abounds, but not of the gi-

gantic size of its kindred species on the more eastern waters.” This

statement is doubtless to be interpreted as a comparison with the size

of the Sabal palmetto of the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida, which

Darby recognizes as a species related to the Louisiana palmetto.

A perusal of Darby’s various works should convince anyone who

knows Louisiana that he was thoroughly familiar with the material

of which he writes. His use of scientific plant names, his references,

especially in footnotes, to Miller’s Gardeners Dictionary, to Michaux,

Bartram, Muhlenberg, and other botanists show that he was ac-

quainted with the botanical literature of that time, and it seems un-

likely that he would have suggested a name for the Louisiana pal-

metto without due consideration. His descriptions and names of

plants are, however, incidental to his discussions of Louisiana, which

probably accounts for his giving only informal notes concerning

Chamaerops lowisiana.

It is unfortunate that Darby gave no formal botanical description

of this palm. The following diagnosis, however, may be gleaned from

his remarks concerning the Louisiana palmetto: (1) It is fan-leaved—

Darby refers to it as the Fan Palmetto” or Latania and also com-

pares it with Chamaerops palmetto (Sabal palmetto) and with C. ser-

rulata (Serenoa repens); (2) It is unarmed, since Darby expressly

states that it is “not the same” as C. serrulata [in, not of, Muhlen-

berg]; (8) It develops a trunk, otherwise there is no reason for saying

that it is “not of the gigantic size” of the cabbage-tree, but ‘‘much

more humble in elevation’’; (4) It is indigenous to Louisiana and a

very characteristic part of the vegetation; (5) Definite localities are

given for its distribution; (6) The list of associated species, including

remarks concerning its association with the live oak, Quercus virens (Q.

virginiana), its proximity to tupelo gum, Nyssa aquatica, and bald-

cypress, Cupressus disticha (Taxodium distichum), and its occurrence

bordering the giant-cane, Arundo gigantea (Arundinaria gigantea),

is adequate to cover situations in which the Louisiana palmetto grows

today; (7) The definite claim is made that it is a new species allied to,

1 DarBy. <A geographical description, etc., ed. 1. 88.

15 Tbid., 68.

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

but different from, the cabbage palmetto, Sabal palmetto, that grows

farther east. A proper binomial was used by Darby several times and

in several publications.

Chamaerops louisiana Darby is the oldest name which the writer

has been able to discover which is based upon palmettos growing in

Louisiana. The second oldest name, similarly applied, is Sabal adian-

tinum Raf. Rafinesque is responsible for repudiating Darby’s name

and causing it to have been disregarded by botanists for so many

years. The record in the Kew Index, oddly enough, reads “‘Cham-

aerops louisiana Rafin. Fl. Ludov. 159=Rhapidophyllum Hystrix?”

The needle palm does not occur in Louisiana.

Rafinesque, by consigning both Robin’s first species and Darby’s

new species to Sabal adansoni, is the first botanist to apply that name

to palmettos growing in Louisiana. To be sure, Robin’s diagnosis

coincides fairly well with descriptions of the acaulescent Carolina

palmetto but Darby’s statement that Chamaerops louisiana is not as

tall as the cabbage-tree should, of itself, have caused Rafinesque some

concern. The next year, 1818, Nuttall applied'® Guersent’s name for

the Carolina plant to palmettos in Louisiana, thus: ‘‘Species 1. S.

Adansoni. In troublesome abundance around New Orleans; but less

frequent than other species in Georgia and Carolina.”

Earlier botanists, including Bartram, Jacquin, Walter, Michaux,

Persoon, and Pursh, ascribed the native locality of the Carolina pal-

metto (also called dwarf palmetto and blue palmetto) to Carolina,

Georgia, Florida, or the “sea islands.”” The nomenclatorial history of

this palmetto has been somewhat complicated, the plant having re-

ceived various names both in this country and in Europe even be-

fore 1818. Seeds found their way into the Old World at an early date

and it was already in cultivation abroad in the latter part of the

eighteenth century. It is not the purpose of this paper to attempt to

discuss the applicability of these various names to the dwarf palmetto

other than to note that Sabal adansoni Guers. (1804) is one of the

specific names which was in good standing for many years, although

S. minor (Jacq.) Pers. is an earlier name.

Martius indicates!’ the range of S. adansoni as including New

Orleans and the Mississippi Valley as well as Georgia and Carolina.

In fact, the extension of the range of the Carolina palm to include

16 NUTTALL, Tuomas. The genera of North American plants, etc. 230. 1818.

17 “Crescit gregaria in depressis arenosis udis maritimis Georgiae et Carolinae,

frequens in uliginosis in vicinia fluvii Mississippi e. g. propre Aureliam novam, nec non

one in regionibus sinus floridani.”” Martius, Historia naturalis palmarum 3: 246.

JAN. 15, 1935 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 4]

Louisiana and the identification of the palmettos native to Louisiana

with this species and this one alone has been a common practice in

floras and manuals and in various works on palms for more than a

century. The area covered by Chapman’s flora!® does not embrace

Louisiana, the western range limit being Mississippi and Tennessee,

but it should be noted that he does not even include Mississippi in

the distribution of the dwarf palmetto.

However, in 1926, Dr. J. K. Small described’ a new species, Sabal

deeringiana, from Louisiana. This is the ‘‘palmetto-with-a-stem,”’ the

new species being based upon certain trunked palmettos in the gen-

eral vicinity of New Orleans. In a later paper, Dr. Small gives?® a

more detailed discussion of these trunked palms, including illustra-

tions of specimens of a very fine stand growing at Frenier Beach, on

Lake Pontchartrain, about 40 miles west of New Orleans. Dr. Small

points out that Schott must have had trunked palms in mind when he

referred”! to a gorgeous growth in the Mississippi Valley and he quotes

Schott in both his papers.

Other botanists have been aware of trunked palmettos in Louisiana

and have even mistaken them (as also probably did Schott) for the

cabbage-tree, Sabal palmetto, the range of which is not believed to

extend westward beyond St. Andrew’s Bay in western Florida.”

Featherman writes” concerning Grand Isle: ““The principal growth

is live oak and yaupon in the form of low thickets. A few tree pal-

mettos are seen here and there near the beach. The live oak is low and

stunted and grows on a few ridges;...’’ and, in his catalogue of

plants in the same publication, we find:

“Sabal adansonii Guerns., Dwarf Palmetto, New Orleans, Orleans [Parish];

“Sabal palmetio, R. & S. [sic], Tree Palmetto, Grand Isle Jefferson [Parish].”’

Palmettos of various ages and sizes, including hundreds of trunked

specimens, may be seen today stretching uninterruptedly for almost

18 CHapMAN, A. W. Flora of the Southern United States. ed. 1. 438. 1860.

19 SMALL, JOHN K. A new palm from the Mississippi Delta. Torreya 26: 33-35.

1926.

20 SMALL, JOHN K. Palmetto-with-a-stem—Sabal deeringiana. Journ. N. Y. Bot.

Gard. 30: 278-284, 2 figs. 1929.

"1 ScHotr, ARTHUR. Substance of the sketch of the geology of the lower Rio Bravo del

Norte, Part I1in Emory, William H. Report on the United States and Mexican boundary

survey 1: 44. 1857.

22 SMALL, JoHN K. The cabbage tree—Sabal palmetto. Journ. N. Y. Bot. Gard.

24: 157. 1923. St. Andrew’s Bay is nearly 100 miles east of Pensacola.

23 WEATHERMAN, A. Report of botanical survey of southern and central Louisiana

made during the year 1870. 25. 1871. New Orleans.

24 Grand Isle is a well-known resort on the Gulf of Mexico, about 60 miles south of

New Orleans; it is east of the mouth of Bayou Lafourche. Access has been by boat by

way of Barataria Bay until 1933, when a road was finally completed to it, connecting

with the road which parallels Bayou Lafourche along part of its course.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY. OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

30 miles from Golden Meadows nearly to Grand Isle. They occupy

the slightly elevated ridge land and slope flanking Bayou Lafourche

and the road, and may be numbered by the thousands.

Langlois apparently also mistakes” the trunked palmettos for the

cabbage-tree. Because of his error, some of the earliest records of

fungi parasitic on Louisiana palms have been wrongly recorded as

occurring on Sabal palmetto.”

After several years of field observation of palmettos in Louisiana,

especially in the vicinity of New Orleans, the writer undertook, in

1933, a detailed survey of the State with the especial aim of discover-

ing, if possible, the distribution and relationship of the trunked and

stemless palmettos. The survey was begun in May and continued into

November so that flowers and fruits might be studied as well as ex-

ternal vegetative characters. The survey entailed a statistical study

of trunked palmettos in more than 40 separate localities in Louisiana

and eastward in a few stations along the Gulf Coast as far as western

Florida.

Although palmettos are widely distributed over much of eastern

and southern Louisiana, they attain their most luxuriant develop-

ment in the southeastern portion of the State, where the trunked

forms occur. Trunked palmettos are much more widespread in

Louisiana at the present time than has been supposed, having been

found by the writer westward nearly to Opelousas and south almost

to the Gulf of Mexico. They are by no means unknown to persons

intimately acquainted with the vegetation of the Lower Mississippi

Valley, but are ordinarily not seen by the casual observer, since the

acaulescent plants are often easily visible from the roadside whereas

the trunked palmettos usually occupy the more inaccessible, wetter

places beyond. Certain excellent stands of palmettos with nearly erect

trunk above ground are readily accessible; e.g., at Frenier Beach,

along Bayou Lafourche, and along Paris Road only 4 miles east of the

city limits of New Orleans. These, however, are notable exceptions.

Moreover, the palmettos in southeastern Louisiana, at least, give

every evidence of constituting a polymorphic species, which shows a

remarkable response to a varying combination of habitat factors, of

which water and light seem to be of the greatest significance. The

writer discovered that the trunked palmettos, wherever they occur,

are related to the acaulescent plants by countless transitional forms of

** Lanctots, A. B. Catalogue provisoire de plantes phanérogames et cryptogames de

a Basse-Louisiane, Etats-Unis d’ Amérique. p.17, 1887. Saint-Etienne.

*° Unpublished data of the writer.

JAN. 15, 1935 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 43

clearly intermediate character. There are situations in which a line

transect, run from slightly elevated ridge land to standing water,

passes through stemless, intermediate, and trunked palmettos, which

show a faithful series of gradations in the size of the leaves, the num-

ber of segments, the development of filaments in the sinuses of the

blade, the extent of the prolongation of the petiole into the blade, and

in the height and branching of the flower stalks.

Variations in the thickness, height, and degree of branching of the

flower stalks appear to be most closely correlated with leaf size and

general vigor of the plant and secondarily with the presence or ab-

sence of a trunk. Variations in the size and texture of the flowers and

in the size and proportions of the fruits and seeds are, as far as the

writer has been able to determine, slight, and similarly traceable to

growth conditions.

The tallest trunk seen by the writer was slightly over 2.5 meters in

height; it was one of the palmettos in the senescent stage with re-

duced leaf crown and telescoped flower stalks. The average actual

trunk height of these palmettos in their prime (climax form) is from

1 to 2 meters and the diameter, when devoid of leaf bases, scarcely

exceeds 30 cm; with the leaf bases, the diameter may be nearly twice

as great. The leaf blades may attain 2 meters in breadth and over 1

meter in length with petioles as much as 1.5 meters long. The erect

flower stalks, averaging 5 cm in thickness at the base, become from

3.0 to 4.5 meters tall in the more vigorous specimens, thus making

the total height of the climax form, at most, less than 7 meters.

An account of the distribution and growth of the palmettos in

Louisiana together with detailed descriptions of the various forms as

well as ecological data will be given in another paper.

Until the palmettos of the Southern States have been more fully

studied in the field, with especial attention given to their morpho-

logical characters at different stages of growth and to the environ-

mental factors, in addition to the study of their flowers and fruits, it

cannot be definitely decided what the relationship of the dwarf pal-

metto is to the Louisiana palmetto, especially in the acaulescent

forms. Available data, however, indicate that they are specifically

distinct. The dwarf palmetto, S. minor (Jacq.) Pers. (S. adansoni

Guers.), is not known to produce a subarboreal climax form (it has

always, in fact, been described as acaulescent or with the caudex

slightly elongated); the leaves are sparingly filamentose or without

filaments, whereas the Louisiana palmetto has persistent filaments,

sometimes occurring in abundance; the petiole is prolonged for only

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

a few centimeters into the blade, whereas in the Louisiana palmetto

the prolongation may extend for as much as 40 cm. Important dif-

ferences also appear in the number and width of the segments and in

the size of the fruits and seeds (the Louisiana palmetto usually has a

smaller fruit with a proportionately larger seed). When the erect habit

is assumed, the underground portion of the Louisiana palmetto slants

from the horizontal and gradually turns upward.

The palm referred to by Darby is unquestionably a species of Sabal,

and, since Sabal deeringiana Small, applied definitely to Louisiana

trunked palmettos, is antedated by Darby’s name, the plant should

be known as Sabal louisiana (Darby) Bomhard, comb. nov., the syn-

onomy being as follows:

Chamaerops louisiana Darby, Geog. Descrip. Louisiana ed. 1. 194,

also 205, 206, 216. 1816.

Sabal adansoni Raf. Fl. Ludov. 16. 1817, not Guersent, 1804.

Sabal ? adiantinum Raf. Fl. Ludov. 17. 1817.

Chemaerops [sic] latanier Flint, Condensed Geog. & Hist. West.

States 1: 85. 1828.

Sabal deeringiana Small, Torreya 26: 34. 1926.

ORNITHOLOGY.—Avian bones from prehistoric ruins on Kodiak

Island, Alaska.1. HeRBERT FRIEDMANN, U. S. National Mu-

seum.

During the summer of 1934 Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, curator of physical

anthropology, United States National Museum, continued his work

on Kodiak Island, and amassed, among other materials, a large col-

lection of bird bone. A smaller lot, collected two years before, yielded

so much of value that the study of the present much more extensive

material was looked forward to with interest. That it has not been

disappointing may be seen from the following account.

The age of the sites from which the bones were exhumed is not

known with any accuracy, but they are definitely prehistoric, that is,

pre-Russian (late 18th Century). This, of course, involves a span of

years too short to be of significance as far as the birds are concerned,

however much it may mean anthropologically. The specimens herein

reported on were marked in the field according to the relative depth

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived November 23, 1934.

JAN. 15, 1935 FRIEDMANN: AVIAN BONES 45

at which they were found—deep, intermediate, or superficial. The

deeper the deposit, the older are the bones, but here again the time

seale for the deposition rate is only inferential. Dr. Hrdlicka esti-

mates the difference in age between the deepest and the superficial

layers at about 1500 years.

In order to appreciate the full ornithological significance of the

collection, it was first necessary to ascertain just what kinds of birds

were known to occur on Kodiak Island. A search of the literature re-

vealed how little work has been done there, especially considering its

size and proximity to the mainland of Alaska. No paper dealing ex-

haustively with the avifauna of Kodiak appears to have been pub-

lished; this I hope to do in the near future for the benefit of other stu-

dents of Alaskan ornithology as all the data are now assembled before

me.

The present collection contains bones of 40 species of which 7 have

not been recorded in literature before from Kodiak Island. These are

as follows:

Black-footed Albatross

Trumpeter Swan

Ross’s Goose

Lesser Scaup

Golden-Eye

Gray Sea Eagle

Long-tailed Jaeger

Diomedea nigripes

Cygnus buccinator

Chen rossi

Nyroca affinis

Glaucionetta clangula

Haliaeetus albicilla

Stercorarius longicaudus

In Dr. Hrdlicka’s 1932 collection, reported on in an earlier paper,’

were bones of 8 other species that were unrecorded in literature from

Kodiak Island. Of these, 5 are also represented in the present collec-

tion. These 8 are

Common Loon

Chinese Cormorant

Old Squaw

Spectacled Eider

White-winged Scoter

Gavia immer

Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis

Clangula hyemalis

Arctonetta fischeri

Melanitta deglandi

Melanitta perspicillata

Bubo virginianus algistus

Surnia ulula caparoch

Surf Scoter

Saint Michael Horned Owl

American Hawk Owl

Thus, in two summers’ excavating, in a field to one side of the major

work of the expeditions, no fewer than 15 species have been added

to the recorded avifauna of Kodiak Island. Inasmuch as the total

bird population, as far as recorded, comprises about 125 forms, we

must credit nearly one-eighth of them to osteological records.

2 FriepMAN, H. This JourNAL 24: 233-236. 1934.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

The following annotated list deals only with the 1934 collection.

GAVIA IMMER (Briinnich). Common Loon.

Two metacarpals were found in the superficial layer. On the basis

of geography, these records should refer to the lesser loon, Gavia immer

elasson, but the races are not to be told with certainty from the bones.

GAVIA ADAMSI (Gray). Yellow-billed Loon.

This large loon was represented in all three depths, the super-

ficial stratum yielding a synsacrum, a tibiotarsus, and a tarsometa-

tarsus; the intermediate depth revealed a metacarpal; a metacarpal

and a tarsometatarsus come from the deepest layer.

GAVIA ARCTICA PACIFICA (Lawrence). Pacific Loon.

Represented by a single metacarpal from the deepest layer.

GAVIA STELLATA (Pontoppidan). Red-throated Loon.

A tarsometatarsus from the superficial stratum and a metacarpal

from the deepest layer represent this species.

CoLYMBUS AURITUS Linnaeus. Horned Grebe.

A tarsometatarsus from the intermediate depth and a humerus

from the superficial stratum are the only bones of this grebe found.

DIOMEDEA NIGRIPES Aububon. Black-footed Albatross.

This species, represented by a femur from the deepest layer, 3

femora from the intermediate area, and by 5 femora, 1 synsacrum, and

1 tarsometatarsus from the superficial layer, has not been previously

reported from the island.

PHALACROCORAX PELAGICUS Pallas. Pelagic Cormorant.

The bones of this species show great variation in size; if only the

two extremes were present, one might think them different species.

This cormorant is one of the common birds on Kodiak Island and it is

represented by numbers of bones as follows: deepest layer, 5 tarso-

metatarsi, 4 tibiotarsi, 3 coracoids, 6 femora, 4 humeri, 7 ulnae; inter-

mediate layer, 13 tarsometatarsi, 11 tibiotarsi, 8 coracoids, 21 femora,

18 humeri, 21 ulnae; superficial layer, 2 tarsometatarsi, 10 tibiotarsi,

4 coracoids, 16 femora, 8 humeri, and 11 ulnae.

On the basis of geography these specimens should be of the typical

race, Ph. p. pelagicus.

JAN. 15, 1935 FRIEDMANN: AVIAN BONES 47

CYGNUS COLUMBIANUS (Ord.) Whistling Swan.

The whistling swan is represented by a “‘thumb”’ phalanx found in

the superficial layer.

CYGNus BUCCINATOR Richardson. Trumpeter Swan.

The intermediate depth revealed 2 right coracoids and the head of

a humerus of this bird. The humerus was notably large, somewhat

greater in size than any specimen available for comparison. It had the

shaft cut off and had been worked by the early Eskimos as a beveled

edge had been made around the cut surface. The superficial layer

yielded a fragmentary humerus.

PHILACTE CANAGICA (Sevastinaoff). Emperor Goose.

The emperor goose is represented by a coracoid from the deepest

stratum.

ANSER ALBIFRONS (Scopoli). White-fronted Goose.

A metacarpal, found in the intermediate layer, is of this species.

CHEN ROSSI (Cassin). Ross’s Goose.

A single ulna from the superficial layer represents this species which

is new to the Kodiak fauna. The previous record’ is erroneous; the

bone, a skull, is found, on further study to be that of a black brant,

Branta nigricans.

ANAS PLATYRHYNCHOS Linnaeus. Mallard.

The mallard is known to breed in the Aleutian Islands and the

whole Alaskan peninsula, so its occurrence on Kodiak is wholly to be

expected, and the scarcity of previous records must be looked upon

as solely due to lack of observation and work in that place. It is repre-

sented in the present collection by 54 humeri; of these 3 come from

his deepest layer, 16 from the intermediate depth, and 35 from the

superficial stratum.

DaFiua AcuTA (Linnaeus). Pintail.

The pintail is represented by 25 humeri, 3 from the deepest, 5 from

the intermediate, and 17 from the superficial layers. These bones

probably refer to the American subspecies tzztzihoa.

NyYROCA AFFINIS (Eyton). Lesser Scaup Duck.

Four humeri, 1 from the intermediate, and 3 from the super-

3 This JoURNAL 24: 234. 1934.

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1

ficial layers, are the only evidence of this duck’s occurrence on Kodiak

Island.

GLAUCIONETTA CLANGULA (Linnaeus). Golden-eye.

Of this duck the intermediate layer yielded a coracoid; the super-

ficial stratum a syrinx, a skull, and 2 humeri. By virtue of geography

the bones should be referred to the American subspecies, G. c. ameri-

cana. The species is new to the Kodiak avifauna, as far as published

records go.

CLANGULA HYEMALIS (Linnaeus). Old Squaw.

This duck is represented in all three depths, as follows: deepest

layer, 1 humerus, 2 coracoids, intermediate area, 8 humeri, 2 cora-

coids, superficial layer, 12 humeri, 3 coracoids.

HISTRIONICUS HISTRIONICUS (Linnaeus). Harlequin Duck.

A single coracoid of this duck was found in the superficial layer.

It is undoubtedly of the western race pacificus.

POLYSTICTA STELLERI (Pallas). Steller’s Eider.

Bones of Steller’s eider were found in all three depths. The deepest

layer revealed 2 humeri; the intermediate layer yielded 9 humeri; the

superficial stratum produced 14 humeri, 1 coracoid, and 1 tarsometa-

tarsus. :

SOMATERIA V-NIGRA Gray. Pacific Eider.

The Pacific eider is represented by a sternum and a metacarpal

from the deepest layer, 3 metacarpals from the intermediate layer,

and 2 skulls, 3 tarsometatarsi, and 2 metacarpals from the super-

ficial deposits.

SOMATERIA SPECTABILIS (Linnaeus). King Eider.

This is one of the most abundant waterfowl on Kodiak Island, if

we may judge from the number of its bones found. The deepest layer

yielded 13 humeri, 1 metacarpal, 4 ulnae, and 3 tarsometatarsi; the

intermediate depth produced 17 humeri, 5 metacarpals, 3 ulnae, and

7 tarsometatarsi; from the superficial layer were taken 46 humeri, 2

sterna, 1 skull, 11 ulnae, 2 femora, and 7 tarsometatarsi.

MELANITTA DEGLANDI (Bonaparte). White-winged Scoter.

The collection contains 56 bones of this duck, distributed as fol-

lows: deepest layer, 2 coracoids, 3 metacarpals, 6 femurs; intermedi-

ate layer, 1 humerus, 1 coracoid, 2 metacarpals, 19 femora; super-

ficial layer, 1 skull, 3 metacarpals, 18 femora.

JAN. 15, 1935 FRIEDMANN: AVIAN BONES 49

MELANITTA PERSPICILLATA (Linnaeus). Surf Scoter.

The surf scoter is represented by a femur from the deepest layer,

7 femora and a tibiotarsus from the intermediate stratum, and 6

femura, 3 tibiotarsi, 2 skulls, and 2 sterna from the superficial de-

posits.

OIDEMIA AMERICANA Swainson. American Scoter.

A coracoid and 2 humeri from the intermediate layer, and a cora-

coid and 6 humeri from the superficial stratum are of this species.

HALIAEETUS ALBICILLA (Linnaeus). Gray Sea Eagle.

This eagle is represented by 2 tarsometatarsi and 1 metacarpal from

the surface deposits. It is not only a new bird for Kodiak Island, but

is the fourth known record for North America, the others being from

Unalaska, Cumberland Sound, and off the coast of Massachusetts.

HALIAEETUS LEUCOCEPHALUS (Linnaeus). Bald Eagle.

The bald eagle is abundant on Kodiak Island and is well repre-

sented in the present collection. From the deepest layer come 2

humeri, 2 coracoids, 1 clavicle, 1 scapula, 2 tarsometatarsi and 3

metacarpals; from the intermediate stratum are 1 synsacrum, 2

humeri, 3 femora, 4 coracoids, 4 tibiotarsi, 1 scapula, 4 tarsometa-

tarsi, and 11 metacarpals; from the superficial layer are 2 sterna, 4

fragments of synsacra, 12 skulls or fragments of skulls, 10 humeri, 15

femora, 6 coracoids, 10 tibiotarsi, 2 ulnae, 1 scapula, 10 tarsometa-

tarsi, and 12 metacarpals.

THALASSOAETUS PELAGICUS (Pallas). Steller’s Sea Eagle.

This fine eagle was previously known from Kodiak Island on the

basis of one record, a bird shot there on August 10, 1921 by C. H.

Gilbert.‘ It is of interest to find that bones referable to it are included

in the present collection, as follows: from the deepest layer 2 humeri,

from the intermediate layer, 1 synsacrum (fragment), 2 humeri, 1

metacarpal, 2 tarsometatarsi, 1 caracoid, 2 tibiotarsi, and 1 claw;

from the superficial layer, 1 sternum, 1 synsacrum (fragment), 1 pair

of mandibles, 2 metacarpals, 2 ulnae, 1 tarsometatarsus, 4 femora, and

3 tibiotarsi.

GRUS CANADENSIS (Linnaeus). Little Brown Crane.

This bird has been recorded but once previously from Kodiak

Island. It is represented in the present collection by a radius from the

4 Condor 24: 66. 1922.

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1

intermediate area, a coracoid, a tarsometatarsus, and an ulna from

the surface deposits.

STERCORARIUS LONGICAUDUS Vieillot. Long-tailed Jaeger.

Three humeri from the intermediate and superficial layers represent

this species. It is new to Kodiak Island.

LARUS GLAUCESCENS Naumann. Glaucous-winged Gull.

A good number of bones of this gull were found, as follows: in the

deepest layer, 1 humerus, 2 ulnae, 3 femora, 2 tarsometatarsi and 4

metacarpals; from the intermediate layer, 6 humeri, 2 tibiotarsi, 1

coracoid, 2 femora, and 9 metacarpals; from the superficial layer, 4

humeri, 1 coracoid, 1 femur, 2 tarsometatarsi, and 11 metacarpals.

LARUS ARGENTATUS Brunnich. Herring Gull.

From the deepest layer 1 metacarpal was collected; from the inter-

mediate depth came 4 humeri, 1 coracoid, 1 tarsometatarsus, and 9

metacarpals; from the superficial layers 2 humeri, 1 coracoid, 2

tarsometatarsi, and 2 metacarpals were collected. The bones may refer

to the race smithsonianus, or to thayeri, or even to vegae!

LARUS CANUS BRACHYRHYNCHUS Richardson. Short-billed Gull.

This gull is represented by 3 tarsometatarsi from the superficial

layer.

URIA AALGE CALIFORNICA (Bryant). California Murre.

URIA LOMVIA ARRA (Pallas). Pallas’s Murre.

Bones of these two murres are practically indistinguishable and

accordingly I have had to treat them together. Both species are very

common on Kodiak Island and both are undoubtedly present in the

following series of bones. From the deepest layer, 57 humeri, 1 skull,

1 tarsometatarsus, 1 tibiotarsus, 26 ulnae, 2 metacarpals, 10 femora;

intermediate layer, 53 humeri, 3 skulls, 1 synsacrum, 1 tarsometa-

tarsus, 2 tibiotarsi, 18 ulnae, 3 metacarpals, 6 femora; from the super-

ficial layer, 43 humeri, 1 sternum, 7 skulls, 1 clavicle, 15 ulnae, 5

coracoids, 6 metacarpals, 12 femora.

CEPPHUS COLUMBA Pallas. Pigeon Guillemot.

This bird is represented by 2 ulnae from the deepest deposits and

2 ulnae and 2 humeri from the surface layers.

CYCLORRHYNCHUS PSITTACULA (Pallas). Paroquet Auklet.

Of this auklet there are 14 humeri, 7 from the deepest, 3 from the

intermediate, and 4 from the superficial layers.

JAN. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS ol

LUNDA CIRRHATA (Pallas). Tufted Puffin.

The tufted puffin is represented by bones from all three depths, as

follows: deepest layer, 3 humeri and 3 ulnae; intermediate layer, 2

humeri, 1 femur, 1 metacarpal, and 6 ulnae; superficial layer, 1 ster-

num, 1 humerus, 1 femur, 2 ulnae, and 1| tibiotarsus.

Pica PICA HUDSONIA (Sabine). American Magpie.

One femur from the deepest layer; 1 humerus from the intermediate

stratum; and 2 skulls, 1 tarsometatarsus, and 1 femur from the super-

ficial layer refer to this species.

CoRVUS CORAX PRINCIPALIS Ridgway. Northern Raven.

The raven is common on Kodiak Island and is well represented in

the present collection as the following list shows. From the deepest

layer, 1 skull, 1 humerus, 3 ulnae, 1 tibiotarsus, 3 metacarpals, 1

coracoid, and 4 tarsometatarsi; from the intermediate layer, 6 humeri,

6 ulnae, 1 radius, 6 tibiotarsi, 5 metacarpals, and 1 tarsometatarsus;

from the superficial layer, 3 skulls, 8 humeri, 7 ulnae, 5 tibiotarsi, 11

metacarpals, and 4 femora.

CoRVUS BRACHYRHYNCHOS CAURINUS Baird. Northwestern Crow.

The small, northwestern crow is a common inhabitant of Kodiak

Island. Its bones were found in all the layers of the excavations, as

follows: from the deepest stratum, 2 femora, 1 tibiotarsus, and 3

ulnae; from the intermediate depth, 6 femora, 4 tibiotarsi, and 2

ulnae; from the superficial layers, 1 skull, 5 humeri, 3 femora, 5

tibiotarsi, and 17 ulnae.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

NOTES

Science Advisory Board.—Through the Science Advisory Board, created

by presidential executive order last year, scientists not on the Government

payroll have been active in the reorganization of the work of not less than

six bureaus in various departments of the Federal Government, under the

program authorized by act of Congress early in 1933. They have also ad-

vised on the scientific problems confronting a number of independent

Government agencies not connected with any special department.

Major revisions and extensions of program were contemplated by the

Government in the Weather Bureau and the Bureau of Chemistry and

Soils of the Department of Agriculture, in the National Bureau of Standards

of the Department of Commerce, and in the Bureau of Mines, the Geologi-

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1

cal Survey, and the Soil Erosion Service of the Department of the Interior.

In all these studies the Science Advisory Board participated by invitation

of the Government; and it was also invited to take part in such diverse non-

departmental matters as the modernization of railroads, the study of

peoples’ fitness for new jobs, and the unearthing of valuable archaeological

data from mounds and other Indian sites in the Tennessee valley before

they were drowned forever under the backwaters of the new dams.

Many of the tasks of the Board are already finished. The first one, which

was indirectly responsible for the creation of the Board, was the reorganiza-

tion of the U. 8. Weather Bureau. This has been completed, and we are on

the way toward a better knowledge of the weather and its practical fore-

casting. The saving of the old Indian records, which necessarily had to be

done rapidly, is also a closed job.

Some of the Board’s tasks are still in progress. Notable among these is

the work of the committee on land use, and also the development of better

coordination between the numerous separate mapping agencies of the

government.

Some of the Board’s activities are of necessity continuing projects, since

they concern problems that either have no end, or at least will require

decades of work to close them up. Such are the decentralization of industry

and the application of scientific knowledge to the technical and medical

problems of the Army and Navy.

The first report of the Science Advisory Board tells of progress during

its first year of existence. Government officials are in general agreement with

prominent scientists, that the Board has proved an effective mechanism for

making available to the country its own resources in scientific knowledge.

More Research Called For.—Vigorous support for a program of funda-

mental scientific research featured Secretary WALLACE’s annual report to

President Roosevett. In normal times it enables farmers, stockmen and

foresters to get the best returns from the land with the least outlay in money

and labor. And in the present period of emergency a number of hitherto un-

dermanned research projects have been enabled to go ahead by turning the

efforts of unemployed men and women against some of the very ills that

made them jobless.

“Research is the Department’s biggest job; indeed, research is the founda-

tion of everything it does,’’ Secretary WALLACE declares. “‘It could not help

farmers to plan their production, to reduce their costs, to fight the diseases

and pests that attack animals and plants, to produce better crops and live-

stock, and to market their products efficiently, without first studying how

these things may be done.”

The frequently-offered criticism, that research increases crops just when

the Department is trying to reduce surpluses, the Secretary combats as a

fallacy. By discarding the benefits of science, crops could be reduced, he ad-

mits, but it would be at the cost of wasted labor and exhausted land re-

sources. The right method of control, he insists, is first to reduce unit costs

of production, and then adjust the number of units produced to the ca-

pacity of the market to absorb them.

Smithsonian Institution.—A camp site abounding in Folsom-type culture

remains was discovered in an arroyo in Colorado by Dr. Franx H. H.

RoBerts, JR., of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The finds consisted

not only of Felsom points but of the cores from which they were struck, as

well as bones split for marrow and charcoal hearths, indicating permanent

JAN. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 53

occupation. This represents the first known Folsom settlement. The site has

not yet been explored, but only prospected.

An expedition into the jungles of Panama, led by Dr. Witiiam D.

Strong, has produced culture remains believed to be of great importance in

tracing the history of the development and migrations of indigenous Ameri-

can cultures. The finds, consisting of star-headed stone warclubs, pottery,

and human figurines, all show South American affinities.

A fossil vertebra of a veritable sea serpent, picked up at Belvedere Beach,

Va., by Dr. W. GARDNER Lynn of the Johns Hopkins University, has been

turned over to the U. S. National Museum. It represents a new species of

Paleophis, a swimming python-like snake perhaps 25 feet long. It has been

described under the name of P. virginianus by C. W. GiLMorE.

The present revival of gold mining in Mexico has been of indirect benefit

to the U. 8. National Museum; a large quantity of specimens of rare miner-

als, including livingstonite and vesuvianite, has been obtained from mines

in the southern part of that country by Dr. W. F. Fosnaa, curator of

minerals.

Pan-American Union.—Surgeon General H. 8. Cummine and Dr. B. J.

Luoyp, Director and Assistant Director, respectively, of the Pan American

Sanitary Bureau, were two of three delegates of the United States at the

Ninth Pan American Sanitary Conference, held in Buenos Aires, November

12-22, 1934. Dr. Joan D. Lone, Traveling Representative of the Bureau,

also attended.

Dr. A. A. Mott, scientific Editor of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau,

gave a lecture before the Johns Hopkins Medical History Club on Phy-

sictans in public life, especially in Latin America.

Surg. Gen. H. S. Cumming has been re-elected Director of the Pan Ameri-

can Sanitary Bureau of the Ninth Pan American Conference.

The Cuban Government has just granted the Finlay decoration to Dr.

L. O. Howarp, former Chief of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology; Brig. Gen.

J. R. Kuan, and Dr. A. A. Mout. The latter is the author of a biographical

essay on Finlay.

New officers of the Washington, D. C. Chapter of the Pan American

Medical Association are Dr. Henri Dr Baye, Charge d’Affaires of Nica-

ragua, President, Surg. Gen. Ropert U. Patrerson, Vice President, and

Dr. A. A. Mott, Secretary.

National Bureau of Standards.—The many friends of Dr. Paut R. Hnyi

will be glad to learn that he has returned to his work at the Bureau after a

remarkably rapid recovery from his serious accident last October.

Dr. H. C. Dicktnson addressed the student section of the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers at George Washington University on the

evening of December 5. His subject was An invitation to clear thinking about

the organism which controls the distribution of work and wealth in civilized

society.

Dr. H. C. Dickinson presided at the traffic session of the engineering and

industrial research division, Highway Research Board on December 6. This

session formed part of the fourteenth annual meeting of the Board which

was held at the National Academy of Sciences, Washington.

Terrestrial Magnetism Observations.—The United States Coast and Geo-

detic Survey and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie

Institution of Washington are making a joint attack on the problems of more

rapid and convenient absolute magnetic observations and of more con-

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

sistent performances of variometers for vertical intensity at observatories.

The program includes exhaustive tests of existing instruments and de-

velopment of new ones particularly electrical methods of recording, with the

special aim of a combination of accuracy, rapidity, and convenience which

has not as yet been attained by other methods.

Sruart L. Seaton, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, sailed

from New York November 15, 1934, for Watheroo, Western Australia,

where he will join the staff of the Magnetic Observatory operated by the

Department at that place. He will pay especial attention to ionospheric

research. En route he will call on various officials in Australia who are inter-

ested in the work in which he will be engaged.

Cause of Stratosphere Balloon Failure.—Because the giant stratosphere

balloon, Explorer, on its ill-fated flight in July had the lower part of its

rubber-sticky fabric tucked up inside the balloon, great tears occurred which

brought a precipitate ending to the flight. This was the finding of a scientific

inquiry as to the cause of the accident made by a board of review consisting

of Dr. L. J. Briges, Chairman, National Bureau of Standards, Dr. Joun

O. La Gorce, National Geographic Society, Brig. Gen. O. Westover, U.S.

Army Air Service, Dr. W. F. G. Swann, Bartol Research Foundation, and

Dr. L. B. TuckERMAN, National Bureau of Standards, as reported by Dr.

Briaes and Dr. TucKERMAN.

To avoid difficulty in inflation and launching, great folds of fabric that

would not be expanded by gas until the balloon had risen about 60,000 feet

in its 75,000 foot projected climb were accordion folded inside with the idea

that as the bag increased in size in the rarefied atmosphere it would come

loose neatly. But the designers did not realize that the new way of folding

would not allow the adherent rubber-coated fabric to peel loose, as happens

with the usual method of folding. The inside layers became taut first, setting

up shearing stresses that broke the fabric. So at 60,000 feet, the tears began

and forced a descent. An explosion of the lifting hydrogen gas mixed with

air oxygen admitted by the torn balloon was the final act in the disaster an

caused the disintegration of the balloon. .

The Fight for the Elms.—With the $527,000 of PWA funds, Department of

Agriculture forces fighting the elm disease have moved into the area around

New York City, to start a campaign of extermination against all trees found

to be harboring the disease or the beetles that carry its causal fungus. In the

wooded country, men of the CCC will cut down and destroy the sick and dead

elms. In the cities, workmen under the direction of experts will take out the

doomed trees, sawing them limb by limb as they stand rather than felling

them, to avoid damage to telephone and electric wires as well as to buildings.

This greatly increases the cost of removal, but the expense cannot be avoided.

An area with a radius of some 45 miles around New York City is known to

harbor the diseased trees. Elimination must be made complete in this region,

or the disease will start over again. In addition, a ten-mile “safety zone” out-

side the known infested area is also marked for cleaning up. In all, 5,000

square miles, containing 3,000,000 trees, must be policed.

Self-Reporting Earthquakes.—Earth’s rigid rocks, and its iron core,

proved faster messengers of the Chilean and Honduran earthquakes than

did the wires man strings along the surface. The Honduran earthquake oc-

curred on the night of Sunday, December 2. Early on Monday morning

telegrams began to arrive in Washington, informing the U. S. Coast and

JAN. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 55

Geodetic Survey and Science Service of the records traced on seismographs

of observatories all the way from Tucson, Ariz., to San Juan, P. R., and

making possible the location of an epicenter in Honduras. Only on Tuesday,

December 4, did meager reports trickle through a patched-up communica-

tion system to tell the world of wreckage in the interior of the Central

American country.

Similarly, instrumental reports of the Chilean earthquake were in the

hands of seismologists some hours before telegraphic reports of damage

in the northern mountain provinces came through.

The instrumental reporting of earthquakes is maintained through a co-

operative arrangement of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Science

Service, the Jesuit Seismological Association and numerous universities in

the United States and abroad.

NEWS BRIEFS

Approximately 1800 lots of seed, mostly of grasses and other plants of

sand and soil-binding value, have been brought back from Russian Turkes-

tan and Asiatic Turkey by H. L. Westover and C. R. ENtow of the U. S.

Department of Agriculture. They represent the fruits of a seven months’

expedition.

The Bureau of Entomology, U. 8. Department of Agridulture, expects a

severe outbreak of chinch bugs in the central grain areas in 1935, but antici-

pates less trouble from grasshoppers than there has been during the past few

years.

PERSONAL ITEMS

A bronze plaque, the annual award for meritorious service in the fields of

medicine and science given by the New Jersey Health and Sanitary Associa-

tion, was presented in absentia on November 16 to Dr. THEOBALD SMITH,

formerly of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

One of the outstanding honors that can be won by students of the life

sciences, the Joseph Leidy medal, has been given to Grrrit SmitH MILER,

Jr., of the U. S. National Museum, by the Academy of Natural Sciences

of Philadelphia. The Leidy medal is awarded for distinguished work in the

natural sciences. In announcing the selection of Mr. MiLueEr as its fourth

recipient, the committee cited “his extensive and fundamental studies on the

structure, classification, distribution and evolution of the mammals.”’

Dr. H. E. Ewrne, entomologist in the Bureau of Entomology and Plant

Quarantine, has accepted an invitation to deliver ten lectures to the class

in medical entomology at the Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene

and Public Health.

Dr. CHARLES ARMSTRONG, attached to the National Institute of Health,

U.S. Public Health Service, has recovered from a three weeks’ attack of an

unknown illness, which may have been an attack of encephalitis. He has

been conducting research on that disease continuously since the epidemic in

St. Louis in 1933.

Prof. H. M. Jounson of American University lectured at Yale University

on Friday evening, November 23, and at the University of Virginia on Fri-

day evening, December 8.

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1

Dr. 8. F. Hitpesranp, senior ichthyologist of the U. 8S. Bureau of Fish-

eries, has been elected to honorary membership in the Panama Canal Natu-

ral History Society in recognition of his contributions to the knowledge

of neo-tropical ichthyology.

Assistant Director Conrap L. Wirt, in charge of the branch of planning

and the State Park Division, U. 8. National Park Service, has been named

chairman of the Committee on National, State and Provincial Parks of

the American Institute of Park Executives.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS —

Psychology. —The frontier of the mind. WituiaM A. Wurre.........

Physics. —An apparatus for measuring the magnetic susceptibility of

liquids and pollde at high temperatures. R. B. Sosman and J. B.

NUS TIN oo ia ea ie PE Rie cae aa Oa

Crystallography.— The ory ar structure of calaverite. G. TUNELL

and C. J. Ksanpa Re ce rn as eat RAS GS SS: ee ee he

Paleontology. —Argyrotheca gardnerae, new name. | C. WyTHE COOKE.

Paleontology. —Nanicella, a new genus of Dartaeten Foraminifera,

Luoyp G. HENBEST............} Ones ay det erase PUNY Ba tating bee eo M

Botany.—Sabal louisiana, the correct name for the polymorphic pal-

metto of Louisiana._— Miriam L. BOMHARD............ Fike anne

Ornithology.—Avian bones from prehistoric ruins on Kodiak Island,

Alaska.— HERBERT FRIEDMANN....... Halewes Cum tisten rash: Sean

ScientTiFIo NoTESAND NEWS.............--- ae ea hee Ret cg .

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Page

VoL, 25 FrpBruary 15, 1935 No, 2

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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 25 Frpruary 15, 1935 No. 2

PHARMACOLOGY .—The relationship between time of administra-

tion and effectiveness of remedies for cyanide poisoning.1 JAMES

F. Coucu, H. Bunyga, and A. B. Ciawson, Bureau of Ani-

mal Industry.

In the studies previously reported? it appeared that promptness in

administration of the remedy in cyanide poisoning was an important

factor in protecting the animal against a fatal outcome. Data as to

just how soon the remedy must be given were lacking, however, and

it was with the idea of supplying some definite information on this

point that the experiments reported in this paper were conducted.

We had previously shown that the combination of sodium nitrite and

sodium thiosulphate is the most effective remedy for cyanide poison-

ing in both cattle and sheep, and that it is possible to protect against

TABLE 1.—Errect or VARYING INTERVAL BETWEEN DRENCHING WITH

5 M.L.D. OF CYANIDE AND GIVING THE REMEDY

> seit Time from end of drench

; EEE Se ee aa ee

1934 Nae ee to first to to giving Remedy Effect

symptoms} collapse | remedy

Aug. min. min. min.

29 1493 | 43.6 1 1.5 | 11.5 | lg nitrite & 2g thiosulphate| Died

29 1537 | 45.9 15 e703) 78 do Died

29 1487 | 39 0.5 2 1 do Survived

29 1485 | 39 1 Mod |) W225) do Died

29 1480 | 34.45) 1 2 3 do Survived

29 105A | 39.5 1 15 9.5 do Died

29 1509 | 43.1 pee Wah) Shore do Died

29 1488 | 45.45) 1.5 3 8 do Died

30 1467 | 40.8 1 15} || B65 do Survived

30 1479 | 41.2 2 4 18.5 do Survived

30 1482 | 31.7 5 Dye 4 do Survived

30 1526) | 37.5 1 3 5 do Died

30 100A | 35.8 15 2 6 do Died

30 101A | 34.9 1 2 7 do Died

30 USI) | Bats 1 3 5 do Died

30 1484 | 36.2 1 2 5 0.5g methylene blue | Died

30 103A | 34.9 15 2 7 do Died

30 1500 | 39.9 1 2 Uf do Died

30 1466 | 48.07} 1 2 4 do Died

1 Received January 3, 1935.

2 This JouRNAL 24: 369- 385, 528-532. 1934.

FEB 254

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

2 m.l.d. of potassium cyanide in cattle and 2.75 m.l.d. in sheep. It

remained to determine how soon after the cyanide was given the rem-

edy must be injected in order that the animal might survive. This

paper records only the results obtained with sheep.

The results are summarized in table 1. Nineteen experiments were

performed with sheep of which 15 were given 1g of sodium nitrite and

2¢ of sodium thiosulphate in water solution, and four were given 50

c.c. each of 1 per cent methylene blue solution for comparison. As

previously described the potassium cyanide was given by mouth. The

dose of cyanide given was calculated to equal 1.5 m.l.d. or just high

enough to ensure death in all cases and yet much smaller than the

upper limit of possible protection (2.75 m.l.d.). The remedy was ad-

ministered intraperitoneally at varying times following the comple-

tion of the drenching. The animals exhibited the first symptoms,

accelerated respiration, in from 4 to 2 minutes after the drench,

averaging 72 seconds, and collapsed in 1.5 to 4 minutes after the

drench averaging 132 seconds. Dyspnea was present in all cases at

the time the remedies were injected and was very marked in the de-

layed cases.

Three cases were encountered in which the course of the poisoning

was atypical. Sheep No. 1487 after showing symptoms in 4 minute

and collapsing in 2 minutes after the drench, showed improvement,

recovered consciousness, rolled upon the sternum and remained there.

Six minutes later the sheep began to show dyspnea and one minute

after was breathing with considerable difficulty. She was then given

the combination remedy 12 minutes after the drench. Forty-eight

minutes after the injection of the remedy she rose to her feet and

shortly appeared fully recovered.

Sheep No. 1467 behaved similarly. After collapsing the sheep re-

mained down for 1.5 minutes and then got to her feet and remained

standing for 20 minutes before lying down. The animal developed

symptoms of dyspnea and 32.5 minutes after the drench was very

sick. She was then given the remedy and improved, got on her feet

in 51 minutes and recovered. Sheep No. 1479 likewise got to her feet

after collapsing and remained standing for 6 minutes when she went

down and became dyspneic. In 18.5 minutes after the drench the

sheep was very sick. She was given the remedy, got back on her feet

in 21 minutes and recovered.

In the other cases more regularity was observed. There was a pro-

gressive development of symptoms without periods of improvement be-

fore the remedy was injected. When 3 and 4 minutes only had elapsed

FEB. 15, 19385 SKINKER: A NEW OOCHORISTICA 59

between the completion of the drench and the administration of

the nitrite-thiosulphate combination the sheep recovered. A longer

interval was followed by death. As methylene blue has been recom-

mended as a remedy, for purposes of comparison 4 sheep were treated

with 50 c.c. of 1 per cent solution intraperitoneally at 4, 5, 7, and 7

minutes after the completion of the drench and all died.

SUMMARY

The combination of 1 gram sodium nitrite and 2 grams of sodium

thiosulphate used as a remedy in cyanide poisoning is effective when

administered promptly. The combination protected when injected

intraperitoneally within 4 minutes after drenching an average sized

sheep with 1.5 m.1l.d. of potassium cyanide, but did not protect after

a longer interval except in the cases of unusually resistant sheep. One

half of a gram of methylene blue in solution similarly administered

did not protect in 4 minutes. Three sheep out of 19 showed atypical

behavior when poisoned with the cyanide.

ZOOLOGY.—A new species of Oochoristica from a skunk. Mary

Scott SKINKER, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated

by E. W. Price.)

Members of the genus Oochoristica are found in a wide range of

vertebrate hosts, but they occur most frequently in reptiles. Meggitt

(1934) gave a comparative table of most of the species of the genus;

he did not include 5 species described by Harwood (1932) or O. parva

(Sandground, 1926) Meggitt, 1934. He explained that the omission

of O. parva was due to the fact that no description was available, and

it is probable that none was available for the species described by

Harwood. The description of O. thapari Johri, 1934 from Calotes sp.

has been published since Meggitt’s paper appeared. Of the species

included in Meggitt’s table, 5 (including O. parva) are from carnivore

hosts. These 5 species and the one described in this paper represent

the known species from carnivores; a comparative table of these is

included.

Family ANOPLOCEPHALIDAE Cholodkowski, 1902

Subfamily LINSTOWINAE Fuhrmann, 1907

Genus Oocuoristica Luehe, 1898

Generic diagnosis.—Genital pores usually unilateral, only infrequently

irregularly alternating. Genital ducts passing between or dorsal to longitu-

dinal excretory vessels. Longitudinal excretory vessels variable in number,

1 Received November 6, 1934.

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

frequently with secondary ramifications. Testes numerous, i.e., usually more

than 10. Female reproductive organs median; uterus a transverse tube

breaking up into egg capsules, each containing a single egg. Adults in pri-

mates, carnivores, insectivores, edentates, marsupials, and reptiles; larval

stages unknown.

Oochoristica mephitis, n. sp.

Scoler.—Maximum diameter 429 to 689u; suckers usually somewhat

longer than wide; only rarely circular in outline, 159 to 220u long by 130

to 183 wide.

General anatomy of strobila.—Length of gravid strobila 11 to 25 mm.;

width usually variable, up to 1.3 mm. Neck (unsegmented region) present

or absent according to state of contraction, if present usually only slightly

Figs. 1-2.—Oochoristica mephitis. Fig. 1—mature segment. Fig. 2.—Region of

genital atrium. Drawn from cross section. C., cirrus; C. P., cirrus pouch; G. A., genital

atrium; L. Exe. V., longitudinal excretory vessel.

narrower than greatest diameter of scolex. Segments about 40 to 70 in num-

ber in strobilae with fully developed oncospheres; immature segments 20

to 40 in number, the posterior 5 to 10 segments showing only testes (ie.,

ovary not yet developed); fully mature segments 2 to 10 in number, usually

about 3, these usually widest of strobila; gravid segments 7 to 23 in number,

usually narrower than mature segments and usually longer than wide, some-

times approximately square; in a specimen 11 mm. long, gravid segments

715 square. Genital papillae about one-third segment length from anterior

margin in mature segments, usually in middle of segment margin in gravid

segments. Genital atrium (Fig. 2) conspicuous, variable in shape, usually

about 35 to 40u in greater diameter. Longitudinal excretory canals incon-

spicuous and difficult to demonstrate in whole mounts, variable in number

and arrangement, usually 4 to 6 (Fig. 1) on each side, most laterally situated

canals usually about 110u from segment margin; transverse canals irregular

in arrangement (Fig. 1) but tending to form a somewhat definite posterior

canal in each segment. Longitudinal muscular layer poorly developed; trans-

verse muscles scattered, few in number. Calecareous corpuscles few in the

material available.

Male reproductive system.—Testes 44 to 77 in number, sometimes slightly

oblong, size varying with stage of development, actively functioning testes

up to about 40u in greater diameter, distributed posterior and lateral to

FEB. 15, 1935 SKINKER: A NEW OOCHORISTICA 61

ovary with tendency toward distribution in two groups in mature segments,

poral group smaller, testes not extending laterad beyond most lateral ex-

cretory canal. Cirrus pouch usually extending nearly to most lateral longi-

tudinal excretory canal, usually approximately spherical, 55 to 65y in di-

ameter, sometimes slightly greater in the diameter which lies along trans-

verse axis of strobila. Vas deferens without coils in early development, in

wide coils in mature segments, sometimes disappearing abruptly in early

gravid segments, usually still visible in terminal segments, passing along

the middle of ventral surface of ovary.

Female reproductive system.—Ovary at first distinctly bilobed, later va-

-riable in shape, but with tendency toward crescentic outline. Oviduct (Fig.

3) passing from middle of posterior margin of ovary to vagina, surrounded

Lie Vas DEFERENS.

—Tlomm. ee UTERINE STEM.

serie Lan SEMINAL RECEPTACLE.

ar oo4 r ”

Uf} ----~--=-==---- 28 = === =~ =~ SHELL GLAND

i ee jooseceeeessesssccces VITELLINE Duct,

teeseeese ss oscseen set Set ease V1ITELLARIUM.

Sterans OSoncnoaecatoo acest scoressssss VAS EFFERENS

Boe Seb ea uses s Soe ce dL se See eee TESTIS.

Fig. 3—Oochoristica mephitis. Details of median reproductive organs.

Ovary not fully developed.

by large nucleated cells. Vitellarium at first erescentic in outline, later usu-

ally irregular in outline, composed of numerous lobules made up of cells

slightly smaller than those of ovary; vitelline duct surrounded by large nu-

cleated cells. ‘Shell gland” (Fig. 3) approximately globular in shape, com-

posed of (or surrounded by?) large cells. In a gravid specimen 11 mm. long

with about 40 segments, other measurements as follows: Typical mature

segment 1.23 mm. wide by 0.65 mm. long; ovary about 192 long and 192u

wide; shell gland about 40u in diameter; vitellarium about 92u in diameter.

Ovary not developing until after testes are well developed; ovary then de-

veloping rapidly and disappearing abruptly at appearance of first eggs in

uterus. Uterine stem passing from ‘“‘shell gland” along longitudinal axis of

segment to a point approximately parallel to anterior edge of ovary, sur-

rounded by relatively large nucleated cells; with further development, uter-

ine stem (Fig. 3) bifureating anteriorly and forming a transverse tube, the

tube eventually breaking down and egg capsules filling entire segment. Va-

gina without coils, opening posterior to opening of cirrus sac. Seminal re-

ceptacle conspicuous, about 145y to 185u long by 43yu to 50u in maximum

width, dorsal to poral lobe of ovary, frequently visible along with vas def-

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FEB. 15, 1935 SKINKER: A NEW OOCHORISTICA 63

erens in terminal gravid segments. Eggs, when containing fully developed

oncospheres, about 30u in diameter.

Hosts.—Definitive: Mephitis elongata; intermediate: Unknown.

Location.—Smaill intestine of definitive host.

Disiribution.—United States (Georgia).

Type specimen.—United States National Museum No. 32859, collected

by Dr. Eloise Cram of the Zoological Division.

Specific differentiation.—The present writer considers the number and ar-

rangement of testes, the size of the cirrus pouch and its position with reference

to the other genital organs and especially to the excretory canals and nerve,

the presence or absence of a seminal receptacle, the type of genital atrium,

i.e., whether massive or with relatively little musculature, the relative po-

sition of the genital ducts and excretory canals, and the size of the egg the

best characters for specific differentiation. Oochoristica mephitis may be sep-

arated from the other members of the genus by comparison of the species

with regard to these characters as shown in Meggitt’s table. In some cases

such as O. cryptobothria (Linstow, 1906) La Rue, 1911 the description is so

inadequate as to prevent comparison, but where relatively complete de-

scriptions are given, one or more of the characters listed above will serve

to separate all species from O. mephitis. The accompanying table gives only

the species found in carnivores, and in it O. mephitis may be distinguished

from O. amphisbeteta and from O. ichneumontis on the basis of the presence

of a seminal receptacle in O. mephitis; in O. amphisbeteta the testes are dis-

tributed lateral to the most lateral excretory canal, whereas in O. mephitis

no testes lie outside the most lateral excretory canal. O. herpestis is a much

larger worm than O. mephitis and the eggs also are larger. The conspicuous

seminal receptacle in O. mephitis separates it from O. incisa which, accord-

ing to Baer (1927), has only a very small one, and in O. incisa the genital

ducts pass between the excretory vessels, while in O. mephitis they pass

dorsal to the excretory vessels. O. parva may be distinguished from O. me-

phitis by the testes in the former having a distribution (see table 1) quite

unlike that in the latter, and by the cirrus pouch in the former extending

well past the excretory vessels; the musculature of the genital atrium of the

former also serves to differentiate it from other species. Meggitt (1934)

pointed out that the number of testes and the size of the cirrus sac vary,

and should, therefore, be regarded as not infallible specific characters. The

present writer finds that an accurate count of testes can be made only in

young segments before the testes have developed to a size which results in

crowding. In O. mephitis the writer does not find the variation in the size

of the cirrus pouch greater than the normal limits of variation for sucha

character. It is, therefore, considered a relatively constant character. Meg-

gitt cautioned against accepting unquestioningly the measurements of eggs

and oncospheres since they vary according to the medium in which the eggs

are measured. The measurements here given are for eggs mounted in bal-

sam.

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

The characteristic appearance of these specimens is that of thin, nearly

translucent worms, with the width usually greatest in the region of the ma-

ture segments, and the transition from mature segments to gravid segments

so rapid as to seem abrupt.

Discussion of table 1.—Meggitt (1934) considered O. amphisbeteta Meg-

gitt, 1924 a synonym of O. erinacei Meggitt, 1920, but in the opinion of the

present writer both these specific names are probably synonyms of O. incisa

Railliet, 1899. Joyeux (1927) considered O. incisa very similar to O. erinacet

and described the egg capsules of O. erinacei var. rodentium as 45y in di-

ameter with the oncosphere 23u by 17y. Marotel (1899) described the egg

capsules of O. incisa as 45y in diameter and the egg itself as 35y by 22y with

the hooks of the embryo as 17y long. Meggitt (1934) did not give the egg

size of either O. erinacei or O. amphisbeteta. Baer (1927) gave the diameter

of the eggs of O. erinacei as 15y, and that of the eggs of O. amphisbeteta as

30u. With such conflicting data it is difficult to come to any conclusion other

than that the measurement “‘15y”’ given by Baer is probably a typograph-

ical error. The number of testes recorded by Meggitt (1924) for O. amphis-

beteta is 22 to 24 and for O. erinacez is 30 to 50, but it is probable that these

were counted in mature segments only, and judging from the variation

found by the present writer in young segments of O. mephitis in which the

testes could be accurately counted, variations from 22 to 50 is not beyond

specific limits. It is on the authority of Baer (1927) that O. amphisbeteta is

described as being without a seminal receptacle and O. incisa as having a

small one. It seems quite possible, since Meggitt fails to state definitely

that the seminal receptacle is absent in O. amphisbeteta, that a small one

may be present but demonstrable only in sections or in well extended seg-

ments. However, Meggitt described O. erinacei as being without a seminal

receptacle, and since he later came to regard O. amphisbeteta as a synonym

of O. erinacei for the present both species must be considered as lacking

this structure.

The specimens of O. incisa which were but 10 mm. long were regarded

by Baer as a forma minor.

The massive musculature of the genital atrium of O. parva (Sandground,

1926), Meggitt, 1934, appears to be a specific character which would serve

to separate this species from other members of the genus. The specific name

parva was proposed by Baylis (1929) for a member of the genus Oochoristica,

but when Atriotaenia parva Sandground, 1926 was identified as belonging

to the genus Oochoristica, it created the necessity of renaming Oochoristica

parva Baylis, 1929. Dr. Baylis has suggested, in correspondence which the

present writer had with him, that if necessary Oochoristica parva Baylis,

1929 be renamed Oochoristica lygosomatis, and he indicated his willingness

to have the new name published by anyone in a position to express a defi-

nite opinion that Sandground’s species is a member of the genus Oochoris-

tica. Since Oochoristica parva (Sandground, 1926), Meggitt, 1934 possesses no

FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 65

characters which serve to separate it from the genus Oochoristica, the pres-

ent writer proposes the new name O. lygosomatis for O. parva Baylis, 1929.

LITERATURE CITED

Bazr, J. G. Contributions to the helminth fauna of South Africa. Thése (Neuchatel),

79 pp., 1 map, figs. 1-48. Pretoria. 1925.

Monographie des cestodes de la famille des Anoplocephalidae. 241 pp., figs.

1-43, 1 fold. diagr., pls. 1—4, figs. 1-24. Paris. (Supplements au Bulletin Biologique

de France et de Belgique, Suppl. 10.) 1927.

Jouri, L. N. Report on a collection of cestodes from Lucknow (U. P. India). Ree.

Indian Mus., Calcutta, 36: 153-177, figs. 1-138. 1934.

JoYEUX, CHaRLES Epovuarp. Recherches sur las faune helminthologique algérienne

(cestodes et trématodes). Arch. de I’Inst. Pasteur d’Algerie, Alger., 5: 509-529,

lfig. 1927.

Marotet, M. G. Sur un Téniadé du Blaireau. Compt. rend. Soc. de biol., Par.,

51: 21-23. 1899.

Meseairt, F. J. On some tapeworms from the bullsnake (Pityopis sayi), with remarks

on the species of the genus Oochoristica (Cestoda). Jour. Parasitol., 20: 181-189,

fig. 1. 1934.

ZOOLOGY.—A new species of amphipod of the genus Grandidierella

and a new record for Melita nitida from Sinaloa, Mexico.1 CLaR-

ENCE R. SHOEMAKER, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated

by Mary J. RaTHBuN.)

In 1923 Mr. W. E. Chapman, American Consul, at Mazatlan,

Sinaloa, Mexico, sent some amphipods to the U. 8. National Mu-

seum which were taken by Mr. Harry Notton in connection with the

shrimp investigations which he was carrying on at Mazatlan. The

material contained two species, Melita nitida Smith, which is re-

ported for the first time from the west coast of America, and a spe-

cies that I believe to be new to science and which I designate as

Grandidierella nottont.

GRANDIDIERELLA Coutiére, 1904

The first species of this genus, when described by Giles in 1888,

was placed in the genus Microdeutopus with which it, however, did

not agree by the possession of a uniramous third uropod. Coutiére

in 1904, when he described his new species, mahafalensis, created the

genus Grandidierella to receive it, and considered its affinities closer

to the Corophiidae, in which family he placed it. Coutiére, and later

Stebbing in 1908, called attention to the close alliance of Grandidierella

with both Unciola and Chevreuxius, and Stebbing placed his new spe-

cies, G. bonnieri, in the Corophiidae. Chilton (1921, p. 549) said, ‘The

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived December 8, 1934.

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

general resemblance of the animals to Microdeutopus and to Aora is

so great that in my opinion the genus should be placed under the

Aoridae. The third uropods certainly are one-branched, but I do not

consider this sufficient to outweigh the resemblance in all other char-

acters which, as will be seen from the following description, is very

close.’’ He lays particular stress upon the resemblance of the first

gnathopods of the male, the uropods, and the telson to those of

Microdeutopus. Schellenberg (1925, p. 164) calls attention to the very

indefinite limits of the family Corophiidae as established by Stebbing

in Das Tierreich, and suggests the alteration of the family Aoridae to

include genera with either biramous or uniramous third uropods in

order to include the genus Grandidierella.

In comparing Grandidierella with the genera now placed under the

Corophiidae, there appear to be so many characters in common that it

seems more natural to include it in this family rather than to alter the

Aoridae for its reception. Grandidierella is depressed, possesses a very

strongly developed second antenna in the male, has very small side-

plates which are not in continuity, and has the third uropods uni-

ramous. These characters are very strongly emphasized in Grandid-

zerella elongata Chevreux (1925, p. 393, fig. 32) and in the present

species, and are also possessed by the genera Corophium, Unciola, and

Stphonoecetes. Chevreuxius, Ericthonius, Neohela, and Unciolella are

depressed with small disconnected side-plates, and have uniramous

third uropods, but without the strongly developed second antenna.

Camacho is depressed and has the small disconnected side-plates, but

has a minute second ramus to third uropods. Cerapus is depressed,

has the separated side-plates, and uniramous third uropods, but has

the first antennae strongly developed. In the genera Cerapus, Coro-

phium, Ericthonius, and Siphonoecetes, the second gnathopods are

larger than the first, but in Neohela, Unciola, Chevreuxius, and Un-

ciolella the first gnathopods are larger than the second. In the genera

Chevreuxius, Unciolella, and Grandidierella the first gnathopod of the

male is strongly developed and very similar in structure, the fifth

joint being enlarged with a short, transverse palm defined by a strong

tooth at the lower distal extremity. The second gnathopods in these

three genera are very similar in structure, being weak, slender, and

subchelate. In the species of Grandidierella here described, besides

other points of resemblance, the fifth or last peraeopod and the sec-

ond antenna of the male bear a very close resemblance to Corophium;

the fourth and fifth joints of this antenna bearing the characteristic

distal tooth of that genus.

FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 67

Chevreux (1925, p. 392), when describing his species, G. elongata,

placed it in the family Corophiidae.

In view of the foregoing considerations, it would seem more natural

to place Grandidierella with other closely related genera in the family

Corophudae rather than alter the characters of the family Aoridae to

accommodate it.

Grandidierella nottoni, n. sp.

Male.—Head with lateral lobes well developed and bearing the ill de-

fined, black eye. Antenna 1 with first joint stouter, but a little shorter than

second, third joint about one-third the length of second, flagellum nearly

Fig. 1.—Grandidierella nottoni, new species, male. a, anterior portion of animal.

b, end of gnathopod 2, greatly enlarged. c, peraeopod 5, same scale asa. d, uropod

3, greatly enlarged.

as long as peduncle and composed of fifteen joints, accessory flagellum mi-

nute, about half the length of the first joint of primary flagellum. Antenna

2 robust, but slightly shorter than antenna 1, first and third joints very

prominent and strongly developed, fourth joint very strongly developed and

nearly twice as long as fifth, flagellum shorter than fifth joint and composed

of two long joints and four shorter joints. The fourth and fifth joints of the

second antenna of the male bear a distal tooth, thus completing the very

close resemblance of this antenna to that of the male Corophium. The mouth-

parts bear a very close resemblance to those figured by Coutiére (1904, p. 5,

figs. 6-9) for G. mahafalensis. Gnathopod 1 is very robust and strong, the

fifth joint being produced backward into a very prominent rounding lobe

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

Fig. 2—Melita nitida Smith, male from Mazatlan. a, anterior portion of ani-

mal. 6, posterior portion of animal. c, accessory flagellum, greatly enlarged. d,

maxilla 1. e, maxilliped. f, gnathopod 1. g, gnathopod 2. h, inside of gnathopod

2 showing shallow groove bounded by spines into which the dactyl fits. 7, peraeopod

3, same scale as a and b. j, peraeopod 5, same scale as a and b. k, peraeopod 4 of

female. Jl, uropod 3. ™m, telson.

—

FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 69

much as figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, figs. 10,n and 10,0) for G. megnae

but there is not the slightest suggestion of a forward-pointing tooth in the

center of the palm either in young or old individuals, nor is the small tooth

figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,e) on the posterior margin of the

fifth joint present in any of these specimens from Mazatlan; the prominent

tooth on the sixth joint of Chilton’s figures (1921, p. 550, figs. 10,n and

10,0) is not present in any of my specimens. Gnathopod 2 bears a close re-

semblance to Chilton’s figure (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,2), except that in the pres-

ent specimens the second joint is comparatively longer and slenderer and

the palm is more nearly transverse. Peraeopods 1 and 2 bear a close resem-

blance to those of the genera Microdeutopus and Corophium, but the seventh

joint is as long as the sixth, as in Corophiwm. Peraeopods 8 to 5 increasing

consecutively in length, peraeopod 5 closely resembling that of Corophium,

the second joint bearing posterior plumose marginal setae. Side-plates all

very shallow, narrower than their respective segments and not in conti-

nuity. Pleon segments 1 to 3 with postero-lateral corners broadly rounding.

Uropod 1 extending back slightly farther than 2, and the peduncle without

a stout spine at distal extremity, as figured by Coutiére (1904, fig. 17) for

G. mahafalensis. Uropod 2 extending back very slightly farther than 3. Tel-

son wider than long, distally truncate, and having a small seta at either

lateral corner.

Length.—Male about 7 mm.

The female in general like the male. Antenna 2 not so strongly developed,

but the lower lateral margin of the head deeply incised to receive the en-

larged first peduncular joint as in the male. The fourth joint of antenna 2

bears on the lower inner margin a distal forward-pointing spine and another

similar spine nearer the proximal end. In younger females the distal spine

only appears to be present. Gnathopod 1 not much larger than 2 and simply

subchelate, the oblique evenly convex distal margin of the sixth joint form-

ing the palm against which the seventh joint exactly fits. Gnathopod 2 like

that of the male, though somewhat proportionately shorter. Peraeopods and

uropods as in the male. Female about as long as male.

Type.—Male, taken at Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico, February, 1923, by

Harry Notton; water brackish, salinity, 13.5 per mill. U.'S.N.M. Cat. No.

69742.

Chilton demonstrated that Grandidierella megnae (Giles) was subject to

great variation in some of its characters, and concluded that G. mahafalen-

sis Coutiére and G. bonnieri Stebbing were synonyms of Giles’s earlier spe-

cies. Later authors have adopted Chilton’s view. Recently Dr. Stephensen

(1933, pp. 484 and 446) has reported G. megnae as being extremely common

in shallow salt-water pools, and in cisterns, on the islands of Bonaire and

Curagao off the coast of Venezuela.

As neither young nor old males of the present Mexican specimens show

any vestige of a central palmar tooth, nor a tooth on the under side of the

sixth joint of gnathopod 1, and as Chilton’s figure (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,c)

of the second antenna of a mature male does not show the Corophium-like

development of the present specimens, I have concluded that they represent

a new species.

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

The collection of the U. 8S. National Museum contains specimens of what

I believe to be G. megnae (Giles) from two new localities from the West

Indian region.

The first lot, consisting of males and females, was taken in February,

1933, by Mr. R. M. Bond from Etang Saumatre, a brackish lake of Haiti.

The largest male, measuring about 5 mm. in length, has in gnathopod 1

only the rudiment of the central palmar tooth, no lower marginal tooth on

fifth joint, and no tooth on the under margin of the sixth joint. The largest

female with eggs bears on the lower inner margin of the fourth joint of

antenna 2 four evenly placed forward-pointing spines. These spines are

quite conspicuous, but apparently have not been mentioned in any of the

descriptions heretofore.

The second lot consists of three male specimens taken from the stomach

of a flounder at Tortugas, Florida during the summer of 1933 by Dr. Harold

W. Manter. The largest of the specimens has the first gnathopod nearly

as figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,f). It bears the small central

palmar tooth and the small marginal tooth on the lower margin of the fifth

joint, but lacks the tooth on the under margin of the sixth joint as does

Chilton’s. The two smaller specimens bear the central palmar tooth, but

not the small tooth on the lower margin. The largest specimen only retains

one of the second antennae which appears to be much slenderer than that

figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,a). The first antenna of this male

is considerably longer than the second and proportionately much slenderer

than that figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,a). The largest of the

specimens measures about 3.5 mm.

As far as we can learn from the published records of the genus Grandid-

verella, it appears to inhabit mainly brackish waters. Tattersall records it

from fresh water in China, Stephensen from slightly saline cistern water in

Bonaire Island. The specimens from Tortugas, however, were found in the

ordinary water of the Gulf of Mexico in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream.

The species here described, G. nottoni, was taken in brackish water, salinity

13.5 per mill.

MELITA NITIDA Smith

This species was described by Prof. S. I. Smith in 1873 from the coast

of New England. Since then it has been reported from widely separated

localities along the east coast of the United States as far south as Louisiana,

by Paulmier (1905, p. 162), Holmes (1905, p. 505), Pearse (1912, p. 371),

Fowler (1912, p. 187), and Kunkel (1918, p. 99).

The present specimens taken in February, 1923, by Mr. Harry Notton are

the first to be recorded from the west coast of America. In 1933 Dr. Waldo

L. Schmitt, while a member of the Hancock Galapagos Expedition, collected

specimens at La Plata Island, Ecuador; Cocos Island, southwest of Costa

Rica; and Bahia Honda, Panama.

FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 71

In west coast specimens the flagellum of antenna 1 is a little shorter than

the peduncle and not longer, as Smith (1873, p. 560) records of the New

England specimens. The fourth joint of antenna 2 is slightly longer than

the second joint of antenna 1 and not scarcely shorter, as stated by Smith.

The seventh joint of gnathopod 1 of the male projects inward nearly at a

right angle to the sixth joint, as recorded by Smith, but this joint is per-

fectly developed to fit the palm, so it is probable that the animal has the

ability to close it against the palm if necessary. In gnathopod 2 of the male,

the dactyl closes against a row of short spines on the inside surface of the

sixth joint. As in Smith’s specimens, the fifth pleon segment bears posteri-

orly a row of three or four short spines on either side of the median dorsal

line:

In the female the sixth side-plate has the lower front corner produced

into a peculiar and characteristic lobe much as that of Melita palmata

(Montagu).

The largest specimens that I have seen from the west coast of America

measure about 6 mm., while Smith gives 7-9 mm. for the New England spec-

imens.

LITERATURE CITED

CuHEVREUX, E. Voyage de la Goélette Melita aux Canaries et au Sénégal 1889-1890.

Amphipodes. I.—Gammariens (Suite). Bull. Soc. Zool. France. 50: No. 10: 365-

398, figs. 13-35. 1925.

Cuitton, C. Fauna of the Chilka Lake. Mem. Ind. Mus. Calcutta 5: 521-558, figs.

1-12. 1921.

Coutirers, H. Sur un type nouveau d’amphipode Grandidierella mahafalensis prove-

nant de Madagascar. Bull. Soc. philomath. ser. 9, 6: 1-11, figs. 1-2. 1904.

Fowurr, H. W. Crustacea of New Jersey. Ann. Rep. New Jersey State Mus. for

1911: 35-461, pls. 1-150. 1912.

Gites, G. M. VII.—WNatural history notes from H. M.’s Indian marine survey steamer

“Tnvestigator.”” Commander Alfred Carpenter, R.N., D.S.O., commanding. No. 9.

Further notes on the amphipoda of Indian waters. Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal. 57:

Pt. II, No. III: 220-254, pls. 6-12. 1888.

Houmss, 8S. J. The amphipods of Southern New England. Bull. U. 8. Bur. Fish. for

1904. 24: 457-529, text-figs. and pls. 1-18. 1905.

Kunxet, B. W. The arthrostraca of Connecticut. State of Conn. State Geol. and Nat.

Hist. Survey Bull. 26: 1-261, figs. 1-84. 1918.

Pautminr, F. C. The higher crustacea of New York City. N. Y. State Mus. Bull.

91: Zool. 12: 117-189, figs. 1-59. 1905.

Prarss, A. S. Notes on certain amphipods from the Gulf of Mexico, with descriptions

of new genera and new species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 43: 369-379, figs. 1-8. 1912.

ScHELLENBERG, A. Crustacea VIII: Amphipoda. Beitraége zur Kenntnis der Meeres-

fauna Westafrikas. 3: 113-204, figs. 1-27. 1925.

Smita, S. I. in Verrini, A. E. Report upon the invertebrate animals of Vineyard Sound

and adjacent waters, with an account of the physical characters of the region. Rep.

Commis. Fisheries for 1871 and 1872, Art. 18: 295-747, pls. 1-37. 1873.

StperHEeNsEN, K. Fresh- and brackish-water amphipoda from Bonaire, Curagao, and

Aruba. Zool. Jahrb., Jena, Abt. f. Syst. 64: 415-436, figs. 1-8. 1933.

SterHensen, K. Amphipoda from the marine salines of Bonaire and Curagao. Zool.

Jahrb., Jena, Abt. f. Syst. 64: 437-446, figs. 1-4. 1933.

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new species of blister beetle from Arizona.'

yuIpO G. MaypELL.2, (Communicated by Harotp Morrison.)

Epicauta crassitarsis, n. sp.

Reddish pitchy brown, clothed with luteous or cinereoluteous pubescence;

on each elytron a whitish longitudinal line. Head black, shining, coarsely

but sparsely punctate and clothed with a sparse pubescence; median line

distinct; eyes large, feebly emarginate anteriorly, coarsely granulated;

antennae dark brown, the first joint enlarged apically, reddish except the

apex and provided with rather long cinereous hairs, the second joint with

the basal half reddish, the third joint elongated not quite as long as the first

two combined, the following decreasing in length and somewhat flattened

apically. Prothorax subquadrate, a little longer than wide, parallelsided in

three-fourths of the length; median line distinct, punctation and pubescence

the same as on the head. Elytra parallelsided, finely punctate-granulate;

on each elytron a narrow median line of lighter pubescence not quite reach-

ing the apex; the sutural, apical and lateral margins also whitish. Abdomen

and sterna black, the legs reddish, both sparsely clothed with cinereous

pubescence. The hind tibial spurs stout, acuminate to the tip. Length

10-11 mm.

Male.—Anterior tibiae with a single short and curved terminal spur. The

tarsi of the intermediate legs with the three basal joints bulb-like, enlarged;

the first joint the largest and curved in its basal half.

Female——The anterior tibiae bicalearate; the tarsi of the intermediate

legs normal.

Type.—Male, Tempe, Ariz., Sept. 7, 1933, K. B. McKinney (4-145); 3

paratypes, 1 male, 2 females, labelled in the same way, all in the collection

of the U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.

[Just before his death a supplementary series of this species, 20 speci-

mens, was received from the same source, but collected by Mr. McKinney on

alfalfa Sept. 20, 1934, about a year after the type series above described.

Mr. Maydell unfortunately had no opportunity to reconsider his first draft

based on only the four above listed types. H.S.B

ZOOLOGY.—New nematodes of the genus Longistriata in rodents.’

G. Dixmans, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated by

Maurice C. Hatt.)

Longistriata musculi, n. sp. Figs. 1-7.

Specific diagnosis—Longistriata: Worms small, with anterior end of body

usually coiled in a loose spiral. Cephalic cuticle slightly inflated and marked

with annular striations, inflation extending for a distance of 65 to 75y;

beyond this point a cuticular expansion marked by longitudinal striae in-

1 Received December 3, 1934.

* During the few days before his sudden death on September 28, 1934, Mr. Maydell

had been adding to his manuscript revision of the Meloid genus Epicauta from the

data assembled in the U. S. National Museum. The abrupt termination of his labor

leaves this revision uncompleted. Among his last written additions the following de-

scription of a peculiar southwestern species about which he had spoken with much

interest is complete and ready for publication. H. S. Barber.

3 Received December 11, 1934.

FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA 73

creasing in number from anterior to posterior end. Immediately posterior

to cervical inflation longitudinal striae numbering about 6 to 8; in posterior

portion striae numbering about 18 to 20, all striae being marked by fine

cross striations. Head rounded; mouth and circumoral papillae inconspicu-

ous. Esophagus 320 to 450u long by 30 to 40u wide in its terminal portion.

Nerve ring near middle of esophagus. Excretory pore near beginning of

posterior fourth of esophagus.

Male 3.25 to 4.5 mm. long by 95 to 100u in maximum diameter immedi-

ately anterior to bursa. Bursa relatively large and symmetrical. Ventro-

ventral ray shortest and slenderest, and externo-dorsal longest and thickest,

of paired rays; remaining paired rays about equal in size; tips of rays ap-

proximately equidistant at margin of bursa except for postero-lateral and

externodorsal, these rays approximated to each other. Dorsal ray divided

into 2 branches in its distal third, each branch again dividing near tip, ex-

ternal branch of second bifurcation longer than inner branch. Spicules 390 to

420u long, straight and filiform, with triangular enlargement at distal ends.

Gubernaculum absent.

Female 4.25 to 6.75 mm. long and about 100 to 160 wide in region of

proximal portion of ovejector. Ovejector single, stout, muscular, about 100y

long. Vulva to anus, 90u; anus to tip of tail, 30u. Eggs 55 to 60u long by 30

to 32u wide.

Host.—Mus musculus.

Location.—Smaill intestine.

Locality.—Jeanerette, Louisiana, U.S. A.

Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection

No. 30456.

Figs. 1-7.—Longistriata musculi. Fig. 1. Lateral view of bursa. Fig. 2. Dorsal

rays of bursa. Fig. 3. Terminal portion of spicules. Fig. 4. Anterior portion of head.

Fig. 5. Anterior portion of body. Fig. 6. Posterior portion of body of female, showing

pyslector: Fig. 7. Posterior portion of body of female, showing longitudinal striations

of cuticle.

Figs. 8-12.—Longistriata norvegica. Fig. 8. Posterior portion of body of female,

showing ovejector. Fig. 9. Anterior portion of body, showing cuticular inflation.

Fig. 10. Terminal portion of spicule. Figs. 11 and 12. Bursa.

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

Longistriata norvegica, n. sp. Figs. 8-12.

Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, usually coiled in a loose

spiral. Cervical inflation characteristic of this group of nematodes, about 75

to 80u long by 25 to 30 wide, the anterior widest portion marked by an-

nular striations. Width of head, exclusive of inflation, about 1l6u. Cuticle

of body inflated and marked by longitudinal striae, each striation showing

cross striations. Esophagus 275 to 300u long and 20 to 25y wide in its distal

portion. Nerve ring about 150 to 175y, and excretory pore about 20 to 27p,

anterior to termination of esophagus.

Male about 4 to 4.5 mm. long by 45 to 50u wide just anterior to bursa.

Cuticular inflation extending on ventral side of body to within 30 to 35yu

anterior to commencement of bursa. Bursa symmetrical, with 2 lateral lobes

and 1 dorsal lobe. Spicules 350 to 375y long, filiform, distal ends divided

into 2 branches enclosed in a sheath. Gubernaculum absent. Ventro-ventral

ray shortest and slenderest of the paired rays, directed forward and widely

separated from latero-ventral ray. Latero-ventral, externo-lateral and me-

dio-lateral rays of about equal thickness and length, the first 2 being par-

allel and diverging only slightly in their distal portions; externo-lateral the

thickest ray; medio-lateral ray the longest ray and directed straight towards

margin of bursa. Postero-lateral ray originating from a common stem with

medio-lateral and directed dorsally; these two rays widely separated at

their tips. Externo-dorsal rays and dorsal ray originating from a common

stem, the former being very slender and curving outward from dorsal; stem

of dorsal very wide and bifurcating at middle; each branch divided at tip,

outer branch longer than inner. None of rays reaching margin of bursa.

Females 5 to 5.5 mm. long and about 90y wide in region of vulva. Single

ovejector, including sphincter, about 100u long by 40u wide. Vulva about

100. from anus; anus about 30, from tip of tail; tip of tail narrowing ab-

ruptly about 5u from end and terminating in a conical, blunt point. Eggs

60 to 65u long by 30 to 35y wide.

Host.—Rattus sp.

Location.—Small intestine.

Locality.— Jeanerette, Louisiana, U.S. A.

ee specimens.—U. 8S. National Museum Helminthological Collection

0. 30457

The nematode here described under the name of Longistriata norvegica

is very similar to the nematode described by Chandler (2) as Longistriata

adunca from the cotton rat, Sigmidon hispidus. Chandler, however, de-

scribed an accessory piece or gubernaculum as being present in the nema-

tode described by him. No such structure has been observed in the nematode

described here as Longistriata norvegica. The writer, therefore, must accept

Chandler’s description as correct, pending some reexamination of his mate-

rial or a comparative study of these two nematodes.

Longstriata carolinensis, n. sp. Figs. 13-17.

Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, usually rolled in a loose

spiral. Cervical inflation about 50u long by 30u wide. Cuticle of body inflated

and marked with distinct longitudinal striations or bands, these in turn dis-

tinctly marked with cross-striations. Head rounded, mouth opening and

circumoral papillae inconspicuous. Esophagus 280 to 310u long by 35 to

FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA 75

40u wide in its terminal portion. Excretory pore about 120 anterior to ter-

mination of esophagus. Nerve ring slightly anterior to excretory pore.

Male 2.7 to 3 mm. long and 70 to 80u in maximum diameter immediately

anterior to bursa. Bursa symmetrical, 125 to 130u long and 225 to 250u

wide when fully expanded. Ventro-ventral rays short and slender, directed

forward; latero-ventral ray widely separated from and somewhat larger than

ventro-ventral ray and also directed forward; externo-lateral, thickest of

the paired rays, widely separated from latero-ventral, but parallel to medio-

o1nmmM

Figs. 13-17.—Longistriata carolinensis. Fig. 13. Posterior portion of male, showing

spicules and gubernaculum. Fig. 14. Posterior portion of female, showing ovejector.

Fig. 15. Bursa. Fig. 16. Posterior portion of female, showing relative positions of

vulva andanus. Fig. 17. Posterior portion of female.

Figs. 18-20.—Longistriata dalrymplet. Fig. 18. Posterior portion of female, show-

ing ovejector. Fig. 19. Posterior portion of male, showing bursa and spicules. Fig.

20. Anterior portion showing cuticular inflation.

lateral except at tip, here the latter two rays diverging slightly, externo-

lateral bending ventrad and medio-lateral running straight toward margin

of bursa; postero-lateral ray originating from medio-lateral ray and di-

rected posteriorly to margin of bursa, the tips of these rays widely sepa-

rated, all these rays reaching margin of bursa. Externo-dorsal rays originat-

ing separately from dorsal ray; dorsal ray divided into rather long branches,

each of these bifurcated at tip; branches of bifurcation equal in size. Spicules

400 to 450u long, filiform, with expanded proximal ends. Gubernaculum

about 25uilong by 15u wide.

Female about 3.5 mm. long. Ovejector single, about 80u long. Vulva 60

to 65u from anus; tip of tail 40 to 50u from anus. Tail narrowing abruptly

shortly before its termination and ending in a blunt point. Eggs 58y long

by 30 to 35u wide.

Hosts.—Peromyscus maniculatus (Deer mouse), and Microtus ochrogaster

(Prairie meadow mouse).

Location.—Small intestine.

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

Localities —Great Smoky Mountains, North Carolina, and Vincennes,

Indiana, U.S. A.

Type specimen.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection

No. 30458.

Longistriata dalrymplei, n. sp. Figs. 18-20.

Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, delicate, usually rolled

in a loose spiral. Cervical inflation 45 to 60u long by 27 to 43u wide. Cutic-

ular inflation with prominent longitudinal lines marked with cross-stria-

tions. Esophagus about 250 to 300u long and 20 to 25y wide in its terminal

portion. Position of nerve ring and excretory pore not determined owing to

condition of specimens.

Male 3.7 to 4 mm. long and 40 to 50u wide in maximum diameter. Bursa

symmetrical, about 1254 long and 300u wide when fully expanded. Ventro-

ventral ray directed forward and widely separated from latero-ventral ray

at the tip; latero-ventral ray slender and pointed, directed ventrad and ex-

tending to margin of bursa; externo-lateral thickest of bursal rays, directed

toward lateral margin of bursa, but bending slightly forward before reach-

ing margin. Medio-lateral ray straight and directed toward margin of bursa;

postero-lateral ray originating from medio-lateral ray and directed dorsad,

tips of two latter rays far apart. Externo-dorsal ray slender, originating

from dorsal ray 30u from its base; dorsal ray about 75y long, dividing into

2 branches about 20u from distal end, each branch bifurcating at the tip;

outer secondary branch longer than inner branch. Spicules straight, fili-

form, 340 to 360u long. Gubernaculum small, almost colorless, about 25

to 30u long by 154 wide. Genital cone well developed and prominent.

Female 4 to 4.7 mm. long, and 70 to 80u in maximum diameter in region

of ovejector. Ovejector single, well developed, about 100u long. Vulva to

anus, 50 to 60u; anus to tip of tail, 40 to 60u. Tail ending in a sharp point.

Eggs 55 to 65y long and 35 to 40y wide.

This nematode closely resembles Longistriata vexillata (Syn. Heligmoso-

mum vexillatum Hall, 1916). It differs from the latter in the possession of a ~

gubernaculum, in the absence of spurs on the dorsal ray between the origin

of the externo-dorsal rays and the bifurcation, and in the absence of maculae

on the bursal membrane.

Hosts—Ondatra zibethica (Muskrat) and Mrucrotus pennsylvanicus

(Meadow mouse).

Location.—Small intestine.

Localities —New Jersey, Indiana, and Minnesota, U.S. A.

Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection

No. 30459.

Longistriata noviberiae, n. sp. Figs. 21-27.

Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, delicate, spirally coiled,

bright red in color when freshly collected. Cephalic cuticle slightly in-

flated, showing distinct transverse striations; inflation 45 to 60u long by

25 to 30u wide. Cuticle of body inflated, showing longitudinal striae marked

with cross-striations. Esophagus 270 to 300u long by 25 to 32u wide near

its termination. Nerve ring 165 to 175u from anterior end. Excretory pore

situated from 15y anterior to 25u posterior to termination of esophagus.

FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA a

Male 4 to 5 mm. long by 55 to 654 in maximum diameter. Bursa sym-

metrical, about 130 to 150u long and 240 to 2604 wide when expanded.

Ventral rays of approximately the same size, divergent at tips and directed

forward, reaching margin of bursa; latero-ventral ray terminating in a

slight projection on bursal margin; externo-lateral and medio-lateral rays

close together and parallel for greater part of their length, diverging near

Figs. 21-27.—Longistriata noviberiae. Fig. 21. Female. Fig. 22. Bursa. Fig. 23.

Terminal portion of female. Figs. 24 and 26. Anterior portion of body, showing cerv-

icalinflation. Fig. 25. Posterior portion of female, showing ovejector. Fig. 27. Male.

their termination; externo-lateral ray bending sharply ventrad, and medio-

lateral ray continuing straight to bursal margin; postero-lateral ray origi-

nating from medio-lateral ray, diverging sharply from latter, and directed

dorsad, reaching posterior margin of bursa, tips of these two rays widely

separated; externo-dorsals originating from a common stem with the dorsal

ray and approaching posterior margin of bursa in close proximity to termina-

tion of postero-lateral rays; dorsal ray bifurcated, forming 2 fairly widely

divergent branches, the latter also bifurcating to form 2 terminal branches.

Bursal margin slightly indented in region of dorsal ray. Spicules slender,

filiform and equal, 420 to 430u long. Gubernaculum present, about 35u long

by 15y wide.

Female 5.5 to 6.5 mm. long by 75 to 80u wide in region of vulva. Tail

pointed and bent sharply ventrad in all specimens examined. Vulva with 2

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

prominent lips, about 100 to 120y from tip of tail; anus 45 to 55 from tip

of tail. Ovejector single, about 165y long. Eggs 70 to 75y long by 35 to 40

wide.

Host.—Rabbits (probably Sylvilagus floridanus alacer and Sylvilagus

palustris littoralis).

Location.—Small intestine.

Locality. Jeanerette, Louisiana, U.S. A.

Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection

No. 30460.

THE GENUS LONGISTRIATA

In their key to the genera of the family Heligmosomidae, Yorke and

Maplestone (1926), regard the spiral rolling of the body as a generic char-

acter, and on the basis of that character they separate the genera Helig-

mosomum and Viannaia. The acceptance of this feature as a character of

generic value has led to confusion and has resulted in the inclusion in the

genus Viannaia of nematodes which obviously do not belong to it. Schulz (4)

proposed, therefore, the subgenus Longistriata in the genus Viannaia to

include those nematodes in which the body is spirally rolled as in Viannaza,

and in which there are comparatively long spicules and a cuticle distinctly

marked with longitudinal striations as in Heligmosomum. Travassos and

Darriba (6), after noting that the spiral rolling of the body cannot be con-

sidered as a distinguishing character, raised Schulz’s subgenus Longistriata

to the status of a genus, with Longistriata depressa (= Strongylus depressus

Dujardin, 1845) as type, transferred several nematodes placed by Travassos

(1921) in the genus Heligmosomum to the genus Longistriata, and made the

genus Heligmonella Monnig, 1927, a synonym of the genus Viannella Tra-

vassos, 1918.

The genus Heligmonella was created by Monnig (3) with the following

diagnosis: ‘‘Heligmosominae: body red, spirally coiled, cuticle with marked

longitudinal striations; cephalic cuticle inflated and transversely striated.

Male: bursa with ventral rays separate and diverging, postero-lateral di-

verging from externo- and medio-lateral, externo-dorsal arises from a com-

mon dorsal trunk, dorsal bifurcated near its extremity, the branches also

bifurcated; spicules slender, gubernaculum distinct. Female: vulva near

anus, a single uterus. Parasites in stomach and intestine of rodents.”

The genus Heligmonella differs, therefore, markedly from the genus Vian-

nava in the character of the spicules and in the course and direction of the

bursal rays, and its proposed inclusion in the genus Viannaia appears to

be unwarranted. The genera Longistriata and Heligmonella resemble each

other in the possession of (1) transversely striated cephalic inflation, (2)

an expanded and longitudinally striated cuticle, (3) comparatively long and

slender spicules, and (4) comparably directed bursal rays, and on the basis

of these resemblances the genus Heligmonella is here made a synonym of the

genus Longistriata.

FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA 79

Baylis (1) described a number of new species in the genus Heligmonella.

These species also are here transferred to the genus Longistriata.

It is recognized that the nematodes described in this paper as Longistriata

muscult, L. norvegica and L. carolinensis, while resembling other members

of the genus Longistriata in the possession of an inflated and transversely

striated cephalic cuticle, an expanded and longitudinally striated body

cuticle, and long and slender spicules, differ from each other and from other

members of this genus in the character and direction of the bursal rays, and

that their inclusion in this genus may seem to be unwarranted. However,

since only a limited amount of material was available for study it was not

considered desirable to create new genera for them at the present time.

Heligmostrongylus hassalli Price, 1928, also is here placed in the genus

Longistriata because in all other species of the genus Heligmostrongylus the

dorsal ray is completely doubled and in Heligmostrongylus hassalli this

feature is absent.

The generic diagnosis is amended as follows:

LONGISTRIATA

Generic diagnosis.—Heligmosomidae: Body more or less strongly rolled

in a spiral. Cephalic cuticle inflated, marked with annular striations. Cuticle

of body expanded and distinctly marked with transversely striated lon-

gitudinal lines, continuous or interrupted at intervals. Bursa symmetrical or

asymmetrical, with well developed single bifurcated dorsal ray. Spicules

comparatively long and slender. Gubernaculum present or absent. Female

with well developed single ovejector close to posterior end of body. Vagina

short. Vulva close to anus.

Type species.—Longistriata depressa (Duj., 1845).

KEY TO SPECIES OF LONGISTRIATA

1. Gubernaculum present and well developed......................--- 2

Gubemacuilumpabsentienmudimentanya sme teres ae ae 16

2. Longitudinal striae interrupted at regular intervals....... L. hassalli

Honertudimalistriae continous.) ce oe oe sit eo oteted eee 3

So Gubermeacnlum asyammetrical. “2... 3.2. oa. nae L. seurate

GuberiacwlumrsyANINSLMCA ys 00s. ae ch du sa eee oR Re oot 4

APE SPICULES Melas TIN w LOM Ggair, soucyle Be Las atys oe. . ceo etary L. monnigt

Spicules varying in length from 230 to 450yu.....................--- 5

5. Dorsal margin of bursa deeply indented.................. L. cristata

Dorsal margin of bursa only slightly indented or without indentation. .6

6. Externo-dorsal rays originating separately from dorsal ray...........

5S Atcuies PRONG Tie TURNER OREN Ss ce: SS eee 7 SO ey ae L. carolinensis

Cio, LBAUIGSED, Bash ans eA Scie) Ee Nee eh ee eg a 8

JBXUIERS EER GrnNga CS H tells ape pene A eae ce eee, ee 9

14.

15.

16.

Wi:

18.

fo?

20.

21.

22.

23.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

Bursa large, 500 to 600u wide; branches of dorsal ray close together

and each provided with 2 terminations............. L. streptocerca

Bursa about 2504 wide; branches of dorsal ray fairly wide apart and

each provided with 3 terminations................. L. trifurcata

Branches of dorsal ray as long as or longer than main stem.L. intermedia

Branches of dorsal ray shorter than main stem................... 10

. Externo-dorsal rays very slender..................... L. dalyrmplet

Externo-dorsal rays comparatively stout... ./....... 2.5 a) =e 11

. Terminal branches of dorsal ray equal................: L. wolgaense

Terminal branches of dorsal ray unequal... -> 2°22... .--> eee 12

. Males 2.6 to 3.25 mm. long; females 3.4 to 3.9mm. long............. 13

Males 3.8 to 5.5 mm. long; females 5.5 to 9.2 mm. long............. 14

. Spicules 400u long by 4 to 5yu wide; vulva 120 from tail end. L. affinis

Spicules 230 to 280u long by 2.5 wide; vulva 150yu from tail end.....

er em OME eres teh hdog 9 PASS Se oes L. gracilis

Spicules 270 to 360u long; vulva 150y from tail end....... L. impudica

Spicules 410 to 430u long; vulva either 120u or 165y from tail end... .15

Spicules 410y long; vulva 165y from tail end; ovejector 310y long.....

s Be ' W e Sig ok Soe eae L. spira

Spicules 420 to 430u long; vulva 120u from tail end; ovejector 165y

LOWE Sie oo soe care Rete: heeled ona os Ste ee eae ee L. noviberiae

Dorsal ray with accessory branch.....>. +522 see eee ee L. vexillata

Dorsal ray without accessory branchy. 1+... .-.. > 4-2 eee 7,

Stem of dorsal ray 20, wide... ./2-2.0 ee eee L. norvegica

Stem of dorsal ray 5 to 15 wide. ....... °.2 22 ae 18

Externo-dorsal rays largest of bursal rays; distal ends of spicules en-

Jargedis. oui: vc cp5toa/ane ee ketenes ce eee L. muscula

Externo-dorsal rays larger than some and smaller than other bursal

rays; distal ends of spicule not enlarged...................-- 19

Spicules 600 to S00p lone... -. 26a. 2 ese eee 20

spicules 340 to 5602 longs. 42. . 7. ee eee eee 22

Dorsal ray doubled for more than half its length... . .L. nematodiriforme

Dorsal ray divided into 2 branches, each less than half the length of

dorsal, Taye. 25 oie ec dot Ce ee eer eee Pei

Externo-dorsal ray very slender; inner branch of terminal bifurcation

of dorsal ray with slight projection................. L. didelphe

Externo-dorsal ray stout; inner branch of terminal bifurcation of dorsal

ray without projection:.../.0.c).- 2 eee eee ee eee L. alpha

Terminal branches of dorsal ray not divided.............. L. gamma

Terminal branches of dorsal ray divided................--++----+- 23

Terminal branches of dorsal ray equal................---. L. delta

Terminal branches of dorsal ray unequal, outer branch longer. L. beta

Longistriata adunca Chandler, 1932, is similar to L. norvegica, differing

only in the presence of a gubernaculum described for L. adwnca.

FEB. 15, 1935 BARTLETT: THE GENUS DESMONCUS 81

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Bayuts, H. A. On a collection of nematodes from Nigerian mammals (chiefly

rodents). Parasitology 20: 280. 1928.

(2) CHanpuER, A.C. A new species of Longistriata (Nematoda) from the cotton rat,

Sigmidon hispidus, with notes on the division of the Heligmosominae into genera.

Jour. Parasitol. 19: 25. 1932.

(8) Monnic, H. O. Ona new Physaloptera from an eagle and a trichostrongyle from

the cane rat, with notes on Polydelphis quadricornis and the genus Spirostrongylus.

Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa 16: 262. 1927.

(4) Scuunz, R. Ep. Zur Kentniss der Helimninthenfauna der Nagetiere der U.S.S.R.

Proc. Gov. Exper. Vet. Inst. 4: 5. (In Russian with German Summary) 1926.

(5) Travassos, Lauro. Contribuigoes para o conhecimento da fauna helmintolojica

brasileira. Ensaio monografico da familia Trichostrongylidae Leiper, 1909. Mem.

Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 13: 5-125. 1921.

(6) Travassos, L., » Darripa, A. R. Notas sobre Heligmosominae. Sciencia Med-

ica 7: 432. 1929.

BOTAN Y.—Certain Desmonci (Palmae) of Central America and Mex-

ico,| H.H. Barruert, University of Michigan.’

The genus Desmoncus provides one of the characteristic features of

tropical American vegetation. It is often remarked that in the west-

ern hemisphere the Desmonci take the place of the far more viciously

armed climbing palms of the Oriental tropics, such as Calamus and

Daemonorops, which are systematically not closely related, but in their

climbing habit, armature, and ecological relations offer some points

of resemblance.

To secure specimens of the climbing palms takes much of a col-

lector’s time and effort, since they are often not found in fertile con-

dition or easily secured even if found, because of their spininess and

difficulty of disengaging them from the limbs of the trees through

which they clamber. Good specimens are therefore disproportionate-

ly rare in our herbaria, in consideration of their importance in the

composition of the tropical forest. Many of the described species are

inadequately known, and it has become customary to use a few names

as catch-alls for very distinct plants.

It appears that the species of Desmoncus are in reality rather local

in distribution, and that much careful work on the part of collectors

and herbarium botanists will be required to ascertain their ranges

and characteristics.

In British Honduras and Guatemala the writer came in contact

with a group of Desmonci related to D. chinantlensis Liebm., which

1 Received November 20, 1934.

2 Papers from the Department of Botany and the Herbarium of the University

of Michigan, no. 508.

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

was described from Mexico and remains very inadequately known.

These related plants of northern Central America are called “‘basket

tie-tie’’ or “basket whist’? by the inhabitants of British Honduras

and ‘‘bayal”’ by the Spanish-speaking people and the Maya. In Brit-

ish Honduras any vine is a “‘tie-tie,’”? and the Desmonci are the par-

ticular ‘‘tie-ties’’ of which baskets are made—whence the name.

Either there are many local species with rather slight distinc-

tions, as the writer believes, or else there is a very wide-spread

species, Desmoncus chinantlensis Liebm., made up of a group of va-

rieties, or (as some botanists might even conclude) of taxonomically

negligible variations. Several of these minor species are here describ-

ed. There are indications in the herbaria that other species of the

same order of distinctness remain to be described, but unfortunately

entirely satisfactory material is lacking.

In addition to the species related to D. chinantlensis there are others

farther south in Central America which have quite different relation-

ships. It is evident that the alliance of D. chinantlensis does not hold

the field alone much south of Guatemala, although Bailey’ found a

species in Panama which he has tentatively referred to it.

There is some question as to the interpretation of Liebmann’s D.

chinantlensis which might best be cleared up by renewed collecting

and study at the type locality. Bailey refers to a sheet at Copenhagen

as the type specimen (Liebmann no. 6595), and remarks that it does

not agree with two specimens in the United States National Her-

barium (Liebmann nos. 6594 and 6596). Since the original description

(Martius, Historia Palmarum 3: 321. 1850) cites no specimen what-

ever, it seems best to typify the species by a specimen or specimens

conforming as closely as possible with the original description, and

from this standpoint the specimens in the United States National

Herbarium may be fairly viewed as cotypes. I have considered them

as such in my interpretation of the species. The justification for so

doing lies in the fact that the Desmoncus from Barro Colorado Island,

Panama, which Bailey figures and which agrees with the particular

Liebmann specimen (no. 6595) that he regards as the type of D. chin-

antlensis, does not conform to the original description. It appears to

lack the beard of spines on the upper side of the base of the leaflet,

which is characteristic of the entire alliance of D. chinantlensis, and

which Liebmann refers to in the description (“‘pinnis . . . antice juzta

nervum aculeatis’’). Bailey’s Barro Colorado plant also agrees with

Liebmann’s no. 6595 in having “‘thin, not stiffly veined glabrous pin-

° Barney, L. H. Certain palms of Panama. Gentes Herbarum 3: 31-116. 1933.

FEB. 15, 1935 BARTLETT: THE GENUS DESMONCUS 83

nae 8 inches or less long.’’ On the contrary, the two Liebmann spec-

imens in the National Herbarium have, as Bailey says, “different

looking, very costate pinnae and much smaller spines.” Referring

again to Liebmann’s original description, we find that the lower leaf-

lets should be 9 inches long, not 8 or less, and that the pinnae should

be strongly plicate (‘“‘pinnis ... valde plicatis’’) rather than ‘‘thin,

not stiffly veined.” Furthermore, Liebmann describes a type with

dimorphic spines on the petioles and lower rhachis, and with the leaf-

lets irregularly aggregated, whereas Bailey’s species, which agrees

with Liebmann 6595, has (according to the figure) spines of a single

type and pinnae ‘‘mostly opposite or subopposite.”’ In view of the

discrepancies between Bailey’s plant and the Liebmann description

of D. chinantlensis, I have preferred to interpret the latter as being

really represented by Liebmann’s nos. 6594 and 6596 in the United

States National Herbarium.

The entire alliance of Desmoncus chinantlensis lacks hooked prick-

les, has a beard of aciculae on the upper surface of the leaflet near

the base, and is presumably characterized by nine rather than six

stamens, although not all of the species are known from flowering

specimens. Leaving out a couple of species which are doubtless dis-

tinct, but of which the material is inadequate for description, the

group may be arranged as follows:

Corolla of female flower containing at one side of the ovary a fimbriate,

oblong, basally attached scale as long as the corolla lobes; leaflets only

OO Ute ae CHAR O TOA: A avelse swat oo 4scre maha eee: Eien as D. anomalus

Corolla of female flower containing no such scale; leaflets over 2.5 cm.

broad.

Axis and branches of inflorescence thick and somewhat fleshy..........

Siocc B.S Bae Ger Poe Aer ae Damen Ct cee ene Sher ir ee PRR D. chinantlensis

Axis and branches of inflorescence thin, not fleshy.

Rhachis even if short-aciculate also armed below the middle with a

few distant retrorse or subretrorse spines which are the longest

ones on the plant.

Inferior spathe aciculate: female flowers with annuliform-cupulate

calyx, very obtusely 3-apiculate and corolla broader than high,

nearly evenly truncate, but sharply though minutely 3-apic-

WHEN og Pi Lies tee On en ....D. Lundell

Inferior spathe entirely or nearly unarmed: female flowers with

acutely triangular-cupulate calyx and corolla higher than broad

with margin 3-apiculate from deep rounded sinuses.........

by eta: enone ober obese hh, Ne rab fy Sow, | Se aba cols D. quasillarius

Rhachis sparsely to densely aciculate with spines no longer than those

on other parts of the plant, and not clearly dimorphic.

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

Inferior spathe almost unarmed............... D. uaxactunensis

Inferior spathe aciculate: corolla of female flower broader than high,

obtusely 3-apiculate with shallow obtuse sinuses.....D. ferox

Desmoncus anomalus sp. nov.

Seandens pergracilis. Vaginae pars superior (ochrea) 12 mm. diam., 22

em. longa albida, cinnamomeo-furfuracea, subappresse aciculata, aciculis

majoribus 8 mm. longis, juventate ferrugineo-pubescentibus. Petiolus 1.5

em. longus, debiliter et breviter aciculosus. Rhachis petiolo similis 165 em.

longa subtus subinermis, furfuracea, supra sparsim armata, aciculis majori-

bus 12 mm. longis. Foliola utrinque ca. 19, basi debiliter aciculata inferiora

ca. 22 em. longa, 7 mm. lata in filum attenuata; mediocria ca. 21 em.

longa, 10-12 mm. lata; superiora 24 cm. longa, 8 mm. lata, caudato-

acuminata. Foliolorum paria intermedia in uncos transeuntia reflexa, ca.

14 em. longa, 2 mm. lata. Uncorum paria 10 debilia, inferiora ca. 12 cm.

inter se distantia, 6 cm. longa, superiora 1.5 em. distantia, 2.5 em. longa.

Cirrhus omnino inermis. Spatha inferior 28 em. longa, 14 mm. lata, sparsis-

sime breviterque appresso-aciculata. Rami fertilis pars inter spathas 29 em.

longa, 10 mm. lata, compressa, sparsim appresso-aciculata. Spatha superior

deest. Pedunculus 6 cm. longus, aciculas 4-10 mm. longas ferens. Rhachis

ramifer 20 em. longa, albida, sparse ferrugineo-furfuracea; ramis floriferis

ca. 35 valde flexuosis, inferioribus 12 em. longis. Flores inferiores terni,

bracteolis 1 vel 3 firmis brevissimis anguste lunulatis vel canaliculiformibus

apiculatis subtenti. Flores feminei centrales; gamopetali et gamosephaili.

Calyx subannuliformis vel circumscriptione rotundato-triangulus, angulis

obtusissimis rotundatis. Corolla (solum vetusta fructibus delapsis visa)

obtusissime apiculata, unilateraliter includens squamam lobis corollae 2.2

mm. longis propriis aequilongam et 2 mm. latam apice fimbriatam. Stami-

nodia vestigialia basi corollae connata. Pistillum et fructus desunt. Flores

masculi omnes delapsi sed eorum cicatrices in ternis inferioribus laterales et

in ramorum apicibus singuli.

Specimen typicum in U. 8. Nat. Herb. in Guatemala legerunt O. F. Cook

et C. B. Doyle, no. 97, ad Secanquim, in Alta Vera Paz.

Desmoncus Lundellii sp. nov.

Scandens caule sursum vaginis tecto 2.5 em. diam. nudato ca. 1.7 em.

Folia caulem imbricate vaginantia. Vaginae supra petioli insertionem

in ochream apice in fibros dissolutam 18 em. longam productae, pallide

griseo-cinnamomeae, aciculis ex papillis anguste conicis vel subcylindricis

orientibus, subascendentibus atris juventate sordide furfuraceo-pubescenti-

bus, longioribus 16 mm. longis dense armatae. Petioli pars libera 2 em.

longa 12 mm. lata et rhachis pars basalis subtus sparsim supra densius

aciculatis cum duarum aciculis specierum aut pergracilibus ca. 6 mm. longis

aut validis 3.5-5 em. longis. Rhachis ca. 1.75 m. longa foliolis utrinsecus ca.

20, lanceolatis, acutis, gregatim alternis, infimis ca. 17 em. longis 2.5 em.

latis; mediis ca. 32 longis 3.4 em. latis; supremis 26 em. longis, 3.0 cm. latis;

transitionalibus retroflexis 1-jugis 14 em. longis 4.5 mm. latis; amnibus

longitudinaliter subplicatis ca. 20-venosis utrinque obscure transverse

venulosis, supra prope basin horride aciculatis, aciculis ca. 20-30, longiori-

bus 3.0-4.0 em. longis, subascendentibus, etiamque in venae mediae tertia

parte basali aciculas 24 ferentibus. Cirrhus sparsim longiaciculatus uncos

jugatim ferens, basi valde incrassatos, lateraliter compressos, rigidos,

FEB. 15, 1935 BARTLETT: THE GENUS DESMONCUS 85

majores 3.5 em. longos, secus rhachin 11 cm. separatos; intermedios 2.5 em.

longos, 7 cm. separatos; ultimos non visos. Spatha inferior fere glabra apice

sparse et appresse breviaciculata. Spatha superior fusiformis 22-30 cm.

longa, 3-4 cm. diametiens, dense armata, aciculis atris rectis diverse

directis majoribus ca. 12 mm. longis. Pedunculus 4-10 em. longus aciculis

subascendentibus vestitus. Inforescentiae pars ramosa 18-20 em. longa,

solum ad basin aciculata ramis simplicibus ca. 30, longioribus 10 cm.

longis, hand carnosis valde acutangulatim contortis vel flexuosis. Flores

superiores solitarii staminei sessiles bracteolis rigidiusculis subretroflexis

.9-1.0 mm. longis subtenti, ex calyce membranaceo gamosepalo, corolla

longe pyramidato tripetala et staminibus (9?) constituti, calyce excentrico,

horizontaliter 3.3 mm. lato (si applanato), longitudinaliter 2.3 mm. di-

ametiente; petalis carnosis, deltoideis 9 mm. longis, longe acutis. Flores

inferiores terni unus femineus medius alii 2 staminei (delapsi) lateraliter et

superiuscule positi et bracteolis minutis triangulis subtenti. Floris feminei

calyx symmetricus membranaceis 3 mm. diam. annuliformis apices sub-

obsoletos sepalorum unitorum obtusissimos obscure exhibitantes. Corolla

carnosa sympetala cyathiformis 2.8 mm. diam. 2.5 mm. alta, margine

minutissime triapiculata. Stamina vel staminodia nulla. Ovarium unilocu-

larium ellipsoideum apice acuto breviter 3-stigmatosum. Fructus ovoideus

13 mm. longus, 11 mm. diametiens, pericarpio tenui carnoso, endocarpio

osseo paululum supra aequatorem foraminibus 3, placentis parietalibus op-

positis, perforatis.

Specimen typicum in Herb. Mich. legit C. L. Lundell prope El Paso de

Petén, Petén, Guatemala, 26 Apr. 1932.

Desmoncus quasillarius sp. nov.

Scandens, caule vaginato ca. 3 cm. crasso. Vaginae pars supra petioli

insertionem (ochrea) ca. 15 em. longa, apice in fibros dissoluta, griseo-cin-

namomea, aciculis atratis plerumque quam 1 em. brevioribus modice tecta.

Petiolus 22 mm. longus minus aciculatus quam ochrea. Rhachis ca. 1.9-

2.0 m. longa, tenuiter ferrugineo-furfuracea, supra aciculas specierum

duarum ferens, paucas compressas fere 14 mm. longas et alias breviores,

omnes patentes vel subascendentes; subtus solum infra medium spinas

longiores pauciores retroflexas 2 cm. longas validas ferens, sursum in cirrhum

omnino inermem transeuns. Foliola subplicata, glabra, utrinsecus ca. 22,

inferiora irregulariter aggregata, superiora pariter subalterna vel subop-

posita; infima 23 em. longa, 14 mm. lata, supra ad basin barbatim aciculata,

aciculis ca. 6-10 longioribus 15 mm. longis, apice longe attenuata, et subtus,

caudam apicalem versus, acicula solitaria 13 mm. longa instructa; media ca.

30 em. longa, 3 em. lata acuminata ad basin minus barbata, solum 4-6

aciculas, longiores ca. 20 mm. longas, ferentia; suprema 24 cm. longa, 32

mm. lata, basi et apice longe angustata, leviter barbata, aciculas solum 1—3

breves ferentia. Foliola 2 transeuntia in uncos recurvata base incrassata

non barbata 18.5 em. longa 18 mm. lata. Uncorum paria 9 infima 7 em.

longa, inter se 10 em. distantia, sequentia gradatim breviora et propin-

quantia. Spatha inferior inermis vel sparsissime et breviter aciculata, ca.

14-18 mm. lata; pars aperta ca. 7 em. longa. Ramus fertilis infra spatham

superiorem sparse et breviter aciculatus. Spatha superior fusiformis ca.

27 cm. longa, 22 mm. crassa, deorsum angusta ferrugineo-furfuracea,

breviter (2-4 mm.) aciculata, sursum horride aciculata, aciculis diverse

directis plerumque porrectis. Pedunculus 5 em. longus, patenter et breviter

aciculatus, aciculis longioribus ca. 4 mm. longis, haud retrosis. Inflor-

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 25, NO. 2

escentiae axis simpliciter ramifer inermis, tenuiter ferruginosus, ramis

valde angulatim flexuosis ca. 35, deorsum flores ternatim sursum singulatim

ferentibus, gracilibus, haud carnosis. Flos centralis femineus, laterales

staminei, omnes bracteola subeartilaginea communi probabiliter composita,

anguste lunata, obscure 3-apiculata vel integra, subtenti. Flores feminei

conici vel subeylindrici, gamosepali, gamopetali; calyce cupuliformi 2.5 mm.

diam. (si non applanato) 1 mm. alto, margine minute et distanter triapic-

ulato; corolla 3.5 mm. alta, 2.3 mm. lata, apice profunde (tertia parte)

tricuspidata, apicibus triangulo-subulatis, sinubus rotundatis; staminodiis

vestigialibus minutissimis; ovario corollam excedente, anguste ablongo,

breviter tristigmatoso. Flores masculi in parte rami floriferi terminali

singuli, bracteolis singulis vel binis brevibus acutis divergentibus subtenti.

Flores staminei 10-12 mm. longi, calyce membranaceo gamosepalo cupuli-

formi acute triapiculato, si applanato asymmetrice triangulo, angulis acutis.

Petala 3 distincta cartilaginea basi subovata apice sublutao longe producta.

Stamina 9. Pistillodium nullum.

Specimen typicum fructiferum in Herb. Mich. legit Percy Gentle, no. 348,

in Dist. Corozal, British Honduras, et specimina alia florentia prope San

Andres, Corozal, British Honduras, no. 4750, et fructifera, no 528.

D. quasillarius is the “basket tie-tie’ or ‘‘basket whist” of northern

British Honduras.

Desmoncus uaxactunensis sp. nov.

Seandens maturitate 5-15 m. altus, caule vaginis tecto ca. 4-5 cm. ecrasso,

nudato 2-3 em. crasso. Folia caulem imbricate vaginantia. Vaginae sursum

in ochream ca. 30 em. longam, griseo-cinnamomeam furfuraceo-pubescentem,

apice demum in fibros disolutam dense aciculis tenuibus atratis sub-

ascendentibus 4-18 mm. longis praeditam productae. Aciculae juventate

fur-furaceae demum nitidae rectae ex papillis bulbiformibus orientes.

Petioli para libera ca. 9-12 mm. lata 2 em. longa et rhachis pars inferior

colore vaginae similes furfuraceo-pubescentes aciculis quam eis vaginae

brevioribus postice subsparsis antice densius positis obtectae Rhachis ca.

2.25 m. longa, foliolis utrinsecus ca. 25, infimis 25 em. longis 2 em. latis;

mediis ca. 30 cm. longis 4 cm. latis; supremis ca. 35 cm. longis 4 em. latis,

omnibus utrinque concoloribus vel subtus pallidiusculis, proper margines

vel glabratis vel evanescenter furfuraceo-pubescentibus, obscure subplicatis,

basi angustatis replicatis apice acuminatis, ven media sola prominenti venis

aliis longitudinalibusa equaliter evidentis supra cum venulis obliquis trans-

versis subtus absque venulis transversis, supra prope basin aciculos ca. 10

graciles atratos 2 em. longos vel breviores barbatim ferentibus etiamque

2 vel 3 alios in nervo medio infra mediam folii partem. Foliola irregulariter

alternantia abrupte per solum 2 intermedia 18 em. longa 18 mm. lata

exacte foliacea sed retrorsa transeuntia in uncos 9-jugos subrigidos lateraliter

compressos et applanatos non foliaceos, infimos 6 em. longos, 15 cm. secus

rhachin separatos, supremos 1-2 em. longos, 1 em. separatos. Cirrhus in

extremitate solum modo uncis armatus, deorsum sparsissime spinis gracilibus

2 cm. longis armatus vel subinermis. Ramus fertilis infra spathas semicylin-

dricus 10-13 mm. latus 35-40 cm. longus brunneo-lepidotus omnino in vagina

occultus. Spatha inferior etiam semicylindrica, ca. 20 mm. lata, 40 em. longa,

facie plana interiore glabra, pallida, dense longitudinaliter venosa, facie con-

cava tenuiter brunneo-lepidota, apice aperto angustata exfimbriata. Spatha

superior fusiformis 28 mm. longa 4 em. crassa furfuraceo-pubescens et dense

FEB. 15, 1935 BARTLETT: THE GENUS DESMONCUS 87

spinis atratis varie aggregatis in tuberculos sedentibus valde flexuosis vel

rectis armata. Inflorescentia spatham superiorem non excedens. Pedun-

culi pars libera 5 cm. longa, 5 mm. crassa, lepidoto-furfuracea spinis 3-5

mm. longis tenuissimis ascendentibus tecta. Axis in parte inflorescentiae

ramosa inermis, furfuraceus, 20 em. longus, ramulos 40-50 floriferos sim-

plices 4-12 cm. longos valde acute angulatim flexuosos ferens. Flores ad

ramuli basin ternatim aggregati, ferior et centralis fertilis, staminei bini

laterales. Fructus maturus ovoideus 15 mm. longus 12.5 mm. diametiens,

minute apiculatus.

Specimen typicum in Herb. Univ. Mich. conservatum legit H. H. Bart-

lett in vicinitate oppidi Uaxactun Mayarum antiquorum, Petén, Guatemala,

18 Apr. 1931, no. 12576.

Desmoncus unaxactunensis differs from the closely related D. chinantlensis

Liebm. most obviously in the much more slender and more sharply zig-

zagged branches of the fruiting inflorescence. Under a lens the prophyllum

subtending the flower groups is seen to have a sharply triangular retrorse

tip which is lacking in D. chinantlensis. The beard of slender spines on the

base of the top of the lamina consists of a larger group of more closely placed

spines. Doubtless other distinctions of flowers and fruit would be obvious

if more complete material of D. chinantlensis were available for comparison.

Desmoncus ferox sp. nov.

Seandens gracilis, 2 cm. crassus, caule vaginis obtecto. Pars vaginae su-

perior (ochrea) 25 em. longa, apice demum in fibris dissoluta, sordide albida

ferrugineo-furfuracea et dense armata, spiculis ca. 12-22 mm. longis, atris,

gracilibus, Juventate derosum pubescentibus, basi ex tuberculis cylindricis

orientibus. Petioli pars libera 2-3 cm. longa Rhachis tenuiter ferrugineo-

pubescens supra aciculis interdum 20-28 mm. longis armata subtus

subinermis vel spiculis multum brevioribus praedita, ca. 2.5 m. longa,

utrinque usque ad cirrhum (ca. 1 m. longum) foliolos ca. 24 ferens. Foliola

inferiora ca. 30 em. longa, 1.5 cm. lata longe attenuata in caudam fili-

formem 8 em. longa; intermedia ca. 29 cm. longa 4 em. lata, apice solum

acuminata non filiformi-caudata; superiora ca. 36 cm. longa, 46 mm. lata

acuminata sed sub lente bifida vel praemorsa; omnia longitudinaliter sub-

plicata et venosa, utrinque sub lente tenuissime minutissimeque atro-

pubescentia et transverse venulosa, subtus inermia, supra prope basin

ferociter multiaciculata, aciculis longitudine eis vaginae rhachisque simili-

bus interdum 30 mm. longis, utrinque acicula sola brevi (ca. 8 mm. longa)

in vena media infra folioli medium instructa. Foliola in uncos transeuntia

solum 2 subopposita, foliacea, 27 em. longa, 12 mm. lata, basi uncis similiter

tumida et reflexa. Uncorum paria 10, rigida, lateraliter compressa, inferiora

9 cm. longa 26 cm. inter se distantia, intermedia 4.5 cm. longa, 7 cm.

distantia. Spatha inferior 22 mm. lata, pars clausa plus quam 21 cm. longa,

pars aperta 13 cm. longa, sursum ferrugineo-furfuracea et mediocriter

aciculata, aciculis de causa compressionis in vagina plerisque appressis sed

prope orificium patentibus 7 mm. longis. Ramus fertilis infra spatham

superiorem 11 mm. crassus, appresse et breviter aciculatus, ferrugineus.

Spatha superior fusiformis, ca. 40 cm. longa, 3 em. diametiens, cinnamomeo-

albida et ferrugineo-furfuracea, apice breviter filiformi-caudata, deorsum ap-

presse et breviter aciculata sursum valde horride patenter aciculata, aciculis

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

atratis, diverse directis, longioribus 18 mm. longis. Pedunculus ca. 7 em.

longus deorsum inermis sursum aciculatus, aciculis majoribus 13 mm. longis.

Axis inflorescentiae pars ramosa ca. 24 em. longa, inermis, albida et tenuiter

ferrugineo-pubescens, ramos ca. 40 inferiores 15 em. superiores 6 cm. longos

simplices floriferos ferens, ramis (siccis) angulatis, valde angulatim flexuosis,

deorsum flores sessiles ternatim sursum singulatim ferentibus. Flores

feminei centrales inter 2 masculos siti depresso-globosi 3 mm. lati 2.5 mm.

alti gamosepali gamopetali. Calyx subrotundus annulatus breviter margine

3-apiculatus symmetricus 3.3 mm. diam. Corolla cyathiformis margine con-

stricta ovarium includens sessile breviter 3-stigmatosum. Staminodia nulla.

Flores staminei calyce gamosepalo membranaceo symmetrico 3.5 mm.

diametiente fere perfecte triangulo, angulis productis acuminatis, petalis 3

distinctis carnosis deltoideis, 8-10 mm. longis, acuminatis, basi 1.5-3.0 mm.

latis, latioribus subcordatis. Stamina 9, sagittata, filamentis 1 mm. longis

tenuissimis antheris profunde sagittatis gravidis 2 mm. longis, i.e. corolla

occultis. Pistillodium nullum.

Specimen typicum ad oppidum Mayarum antiquorum Tikal lectum,

Petén, Guatemala, H. H. Bartlett 12584, 12-15 Apr. 1931, in Herb. Mich.:

La Libertad, Petén, Guatemala, C. L. Lundell 2646 (6 Apr. 1933; florens)

et 3421 (27 Maiae 1933, cum fructibus).

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

518TH MEETING

The 518th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 31, 1934, Vice-

President GOLDMAN presiding.

Informal communications: L. G. HENBEsT showed lantern slides of pseudo-

morphs of halite from the De Queen limestone member of the Trinity forma-

tion, De Queen, Arkansas.

Program: W.T. ScHaLuer: Kramer borate deposits, California. Discussed

by Messrs. GotpMAN, JoHNSTON, HEeNprRicks, R. C. WeELLs, GILLULY,

Hewett, and BaILey.

R. C. Wetts: The abundance of certain elements, especially radioactive

elements, and related geologic problems. The first attempt to compute the

average chemical composition of known terrestrial matter was made by

F. W. Clarke in 1889. Chemists have been adding to the compilation

ever since. A recent publication by the Russian chemist A. E. Fersman

lists the average abundance or scarcity, as the case may be, of 88 elements,

and if account is taken of isotopes, there are now 262 species of matter to

be considered. More elements occur in ten-thousandths of a percent than in

any other rank of abundance. The radioactive elements have been of great

aid in determining the abundance of several elements. These elements have

pedigrees. Also, as they evolve heat continuously, there must be a definite

limit to their quantity in the earth. They appear to be concentrated near

the surface and hence it may be inferred that there is a similar limit to the

abundance of elements generally associated with the radioactive elements

in the earth’s crust. Recent work in the Geological Survey has involved

FEB. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 89

more particularly the elements uranium, thorium, lead, tin, barium,

columbium, tantalum, cesium, and rubidium. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed

by Messrs Mertin and WASHBURNE.

519TH MEETING

The 519th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 14, 1934,

Vice-President GOLDMAN presiding.

Informal communications: GEORGE TUNELL told of his visit, during the

summer, to laboratories engaged in crystallographic work in Oslo, Stock-

holm, Helsingfors, Leningrad, and Moscow.

D. F. Hewerr described a manganese depositing hot spring at Hot

Springs, Arkansas.

Program: W. P. Wooprine: Geomorphology of the Palos Verdes Hills,

California. Discussed by Messrs. BRapLEY, Huss, ALDEN, and Cooke.

H. T. Stearns: The geologic history of Oahu (Hawaiian Islands).

Oahu consists of two dissected voleanoes known as the Koolau and

Waianae Ranges. The sequence of events in the geologic history of Oahu is

summarized as follows:

TERTIARY TIME

1. Building of a dome-shaped island about 3,000 feet high by the extru-

sion of the lower basalt member of the Waianae volcanic series from south-

east and northwest rifts with the center of activity at their intersection

near the present site of Kolekole Pass. Extrusion of basalt of the Kailua

voleanic series from a rift passing through the site of the present Mokulua

Islands forming another island at about the same time. 2. Collapse of the

Waianae dome and extrusion of the middle basalt member from the Waianae

rifts. The cliffs formed by the collapse ponded the middle basalt and forced

most of it to flow north and east. Beginning of erosion to the west of these

cliffs, starting the valleys of Nanakuli, Lualualei, Waianae, Makaha,

Keaau, and Makua. Shift of voleanic activity a mile south of the Kailua

rift with the extrusion of the older layers in the Koolau volcanic series

probably about this time. 3. Extrusion of the upper lavas of the Waianae

voleanic series and continued erosion of the valleys named above. The main

bulk of the Koolau series was probably extruded at this time. 4. Extinction

of the Waianae Volcano and the beginning of erosion all over it. Continued

extravasation of lava from the Koolau Volcano. 5. Overlapping of the

Waianae dome by lavas from the Koolau Volcano resulting in the partial

filling of its windward valleys and the joining of the two volcanoes to form

a single island. Continued erosion of the leeward side of the Waianae dome.

EARLY (?) PLEISTOCENE TIME

6. Cessation of activity of the Koolau Voleano. Continued erosion of the

Waianae dome. 7. Long cycle of erosion resulting in the sweeping away by

streams of most of the windward side of the Koolau and part of the leeward

side of the Waianae domes. High cliffs formed on the end of interstream

divides by marine abrasion. Coral reefs started growing about this time if

not before. 8. Gradual submergence of Oahu by more than 1,200 feet result-

ing in the drowning and sedimentation of the valleys and the formation of

the Koolau Pali by the partial burial of interstream divides ef large amphi-

theatre-headed valleys. Continued marine abrasion on exposed headlands

and growth of coral reefs.

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

MIDDLE (?) AND LATE PLEISTOCENE TIME

9. A halt of the sea at 55 feet above present sea level known as the

Kahuku stand. 10. Recession of the sea probably about 300 feet below pres-

ent sea level, known as the Kahipa stand. Erosion of the coastal plain de-

posits. 11. Rise of the sea to 95 feet above present level known as the Kaena

stand, extrusion of some of the Honolulu voleanies, vigorous growth of coral

reef off shore, and grading of valley floors to this level. 12. Recession of the

sea to 70 feet above present level, known as the Laie stand, more eruptions

of the Honolulu voleanies, growth of coral reef off shore, and erosion con-

tinued. 13. Halt of the sea at the 40-foot (?) level known as the Waialae

stand. 14. Recession of the sea to about 60 feet below the present level

known as the Waipio stand, additional eruptions of the Honolulu voleanies,

dissection of coastal deposits, vigorous wave attack on headlands, and prob-

ably inhibition of coral growth. 15. Rise of the sea to about 25 feet above

the present level known as the Waimanalo stand, further eruptions of the

Honolulu voleanics, drowning of the mouths of valleys, continued erosion of

coastal deposits above the 25-foot level, and growth of coral off shore.

LATEST PLEISTOCENE OR RECENT TIME

16. Recession of the sea to the present level. Koko Fissure and Tantalus-

Sugar Loaf eruptions, continued erosion, and probably slowing down in

rate of growth of coral off shore. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs.

STEPHENSON and ALDEN.

520TH MEETING

The 520th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 28, 1934,

Vice-President SCHALLER presiding.

Informal communications: Miss M. D. Fostrr displayed a map showing

the distribution in the United States of the disease known as ‘‘mottled

teeth.”” The endemic areas do not coincide with areas of known fluorspar

deposits. In Arizona, ground water containing 1 to 2 parts per million of

fluoride causes mild cases, and over 2 parts per million severe cases.

Program: Miss A. I. Jonas: Pre-Devonian structural zones in Scotland and

eastern North America. Discussed by Mr. G1ILLuty.

G. W. Stosu: Comparison of Cambrian section in Northwest Scotland with

that of the Northern Appalachians. Discussed by Miss Jonas and Messrs.

MertTIE and RuBEY.

T. L. Kester: Granitic injection processes in the Columbia quadrangle,

South Carolina.

Older rocks of the eastern ‘“‘slate belt’? have been intruded by a biotite

granite. Northward these older rocks were traced almost continuously

into North Carolina where detailed study in several localities has proved

them to consist mainly of rhyolitic and andesitic tuffs and breccias with

interlayered flows and sills. Southwestward from the quadrangle, the belt

was traced farther into Saluda County where its original character is well

preserved. The “slate belt” has been altered throughout most of the quad-

rangle, though original bedding may be frequently recognized. Normal strike

averages about N. 55 E. except where deflected by granite masses and dips

are steeply N. W. except for local reversals considered to be of little struc-

tural significance.

The granite has caused recrystallization parallel to bedding in wide

areas of the older rocks where bedding may still be recognized. This is

FEB. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 91

believed to be due to the ascension of magmatic emanations along the con-

venient steep dip. It was suggested that the general schistose condition of the

older rocks may be thus explained with the development of sericite, biotite,

chlorite, and hornblende oriented with their long axes parallel to bedding.

Recrystallization is wide-spread, and is believed to indicate a general sub-

jacent source of which the isolated granite masses are satellites. In com-

parative proximity to these masses, the schists have been subjected to lit-

par-lit injection and replacement by granitic material. Still nearer the

granite, an advanced stage of injection is expressed by granitic rocking

which the structure of the older rock is preserved through inheritance of

parallel platy ribbons of biotite or the linear arrangement of hornblende.

Where the process has been carried to an extreme, replacement and re-

crystallization have obliterated most of the inherited structure, but the re-

sulting granitic rock contains traces of the older rocks. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Miss Jonas and Messrs. JOHNSTON, CARL Brown, GILLULY,

LOUGHLIN, STOSE, and CURRIER.

521sT MEETING

The 521st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 12, 1934,

Vice-President GoupMAN presiding. N. H. Darton presented a deferred

presidential address: Hrosion plans and overlaps in the eastern Maryland

region.

42D ANNUAL MEETING

The 42nd annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club ofter the adjourn-

ment of the 521st regular meeting, Vice-President GoLpMAN presiding. The

annual report of the Secretaries was read. The Treasurer presented his an-

nual report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1443.38 on De-

cember 8, 1934. The auditing committee commended the Treasurer on the

condition of his books.

The results of balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as follows:

President: W. T. ScHaLuER; Vice-Presidents: M. I. GotpMaN and H. D.

Miser; Treasurer: C. WytHE Cooks; Secretaries: W. D. Jounston, Jr.,

and GrorcEe TuNELL; Members at large of the Council: A. A. Baxmr, C. L.

Gazin, R. M. Leceerrte, 8. W. Lonman, and J. 8. Winttiams; Nominee as

Vice-President of the Washington Academy of Sciences representing the

Geological Society: H. G. FERGuson.

T. B. Nouan and W. D. Jounston, Jr., Secretaries.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

254TH MEETING

The 254th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, January 2, 1934, President Smirx presiding; attendance 103. DorotHy

BLAISDELL, MARIE CLARK, BowEN CRANDALL, and ARTHUR C. FosTER

were elected to membership.

Notes and reviews: Davin GrirFiTtHs reviewed The fantastic clan by

Thornber and Bouker, a naturalist’s treatment of the cactus family. H. B.

Humpueey called attention to a new book, William Bartram, the interpreter

of the American landscape, by N. Bryllion Fagin.

Program: ANNIE M. Hurp Karrer: Selenium injury to wheat and its

inhibition by sulphur.—A so-called alkali disease of livestock in certain re-

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

stricted areas of the Northern Great Plains area has been traced to the pres-

ence of selenium in the vegetation. The grain and straw of wheat plants

grown in soil at Arlington Farm to which only 1 part per million selenium

was added as sodium selenate gave no external evidence of having been

affected by the selenium, but were extremely toxic to experimental animals.

In order to produce visible symptoms of injury to the plants the selenium

concentration in the soil had to be increased to between 10 and 20 parts

per million.

The characteristic symptom of injury is a snow-white chlorosis of the

young leaves. With extreme injury the entire leaf may be white, maintain-

ing its normal turgidity for some time before withering. More often the tip

of the leaf remains green, as does the midvein. A striking symptom occur-

ring sporadically in the selenized seedlings of both wheat and corn wasa

pink coloration on the chlorotic parts of the leaves. When the selenate was

added to pots containing older plants the white chlorosis appeared only on

leaves emerging subsequent to the addition of selenium, those already

formed merely turning yellow if the selenium concentration was high

enough to affect them at all.

The toxicity of sodium selenate for wheat grown in sand and water

cultures varied inversely with the amount of sulphur, as magnesium and

ammonium sulphate, in the nutrient solution. In water cultures selenium

concentrations of 1 p.p.m. are fatal after a few weeks in nutrient solutions

made up without sulphate whereas 96 p.p.m. were required for this degree of

injury in solutions containing 192 p.p.m. sulphur. There was no visible

selenium injury in any solution where the proportion of selenium to sulphur

was 1:12 or less, whereas chlorosis was marked in all where the ratio was

1:8 or greater. The point of minimum detectable injury was between 1:9 and

1:11 in all the experiments. In soils, selenium injury was always inhibited

by the addition of excess sulphur either as calcium, magnesium, potassium,

or ammonium sulphate, or as elemental sulphur. The amount required for a

given addition of selenate varied with the latter’s toxicity in the particular

soil. (Author’s abstract.)

CHARLES THom: An endomycete parasitic to man.—Histoplasmosis was

described by Darling as due to an intracellular parasite, Histoplasma capsu-

latum, apparently unicellular and protozoan in character. The organism

isolated by DeMonbreun from a case of histoplasmosis grew in ordinary

cultures as a mold, which was found to belong in or near the Endomy-

cetaceae. Ascospores were not found, but chlamydospores characteristic in

shape and markings were interpreted as morphologically analogous to asci.

The parasite thus falls in a broad group which includes such species as

Coccidioides immitis. The organism as described presents a unique type of

chlamydospore, which will insure its recognition when isolated from future

cases. (Author’s abstract.)

Vera K. Cuarues: Microsporum of the cat causing ringworm in man.—

Published in full in this Journa 24: 222-227. 1934.

255TH MEETING

The 255th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, February 6, 1934, President Smiru presiding; attendance 65.

Program: A. 8. Hircucock: Taxonomy as a fundamental factor in botanical

research.—All comparative scientific research should be based upon defi-

nitely known material, and this principle applies emphatically to botanical

research. Taxonomy is fundamentally related to botany in the same sense

FEB. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 93

that arithemetic is fundamental to other branches of mathematics. Much

confusion has resulted, often involving much expense and waste effort, be-

cause of failure to secure accurate identifications of sources of drugs, fibers,

and other economic plants. Discussed by Messrs. SwINGLE and WaItTE

AGNES CHASE: Some seeds caught in the upper air.—Seeds taken in insect

traps released at different altitudes from an airplane were sent to the De-

partment of Agriculture for study. More than half were those of grasses, for

the most part Paspalum urvillet and P. dilatatum. Of 30 collections, made at

from 200 to 5,000 ft., all included spikelets of the first species and about half

included the latter species as well. One collection each of P. pubiflorum and

Hordeum pusillum were obtained. Discussed by Messrs. Norton, THONE

and D1I5Hu.

E. B. Lampert: Climatic phases in the ecology of the compost heap.—Gas

samples taken from all parts of mushroom compost heaps indicate an in-

crease of carbon dioxide and decrease of oxygen toward the lower central

part of the heap. In flat heaps three feet deep anaerobic conditions are usu-

ally found in areas deeper than one foot and more than three feet from the

side of the heap. The highest temperatures (160° to 180° F.) are usually

confined to a region two to four feet from the sides of the heap and one foot

to three feet from the top. The outer layers are cooler because of the lack

of insulation from the outside and the lower central region is cooler because

the lack of oxygen retards the microbial activity. At ground level, tempera-

tures (100° to 120° F.) are usually lower than in the higher strata,

presumably also because of lack of oxygen. A more uniform distribution of

oxygen and wider distribution of the high temperature region is induced

by placing ventilating tiles at ground level. In all probability conditions

such as these influence the suitability of the finished compost for mush-

room culture by establishing the trend of the microbial and insect popula-

tion of the conpost heap. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Mr. Warre.

256TH MEETING

The 256th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, March 6, 1934, President Smirx presiding; attendance 85. RALPH

C. STAEBNER was elected to membership.

Notes and reviews: M. B. Waiter discussed low temperature injury to

peach buds and exhibited a branch of Ligustrum lucidum, showing character-

istic recovery from freezing injury. W. T. SwInGuz discussed an introduction

of date palms from Persia into the United States in 1818, some of which still

survive in the sea islands of Georgia.

Program: M. L. Bomuarp: Recent palm discoveries in Louisiana.—More

than 25 species of palms are cultivated successfully in Louisiana, the most

extensive plantings being in the southern part of the State, particularly

around New Orleans. The hardy species most frequently cultivated include

Washingtonia robusta, W. filifera, Phoenix canariensis, P. dactylifera,

Livistona chinensis, Butia capitata and its relatives (known ‘‘to the trade”

as types of Cocos australis) including some that have edible fruits, Trachy-

carpus excelsa, Chamaerops humulis, and Sabal palmetto. Other species which

are well adapted to the lower part of the State, but which are not yet so

widely planted as those just listed include Sabal exul, S. blackburniana,

S. causiarum, S. texana, Rhapis excelsa, Rhapidophyllum hystrix, Phoenix

reclinata, P. sylvestris, Acrocomia totai, and Erythea armata. All of these, with

the exception of Hrythea armata which flowers only in occasional years,

regularly flower and fruit annually, at least in the New Orleans vicinity. A

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

35-year old specimen of Phoenix rwpicola may be seen outdoors in New

Orleans, but it is given protection during cold weather. The coconut palm,

Cocos nucifera, and the Royal palm, Roystonea regia, have not been grown

successfully for periods of more than a few years. Cocos plumosa (Arecas-

trum romanzoffianum) is no longer cultivated outdoors in New Orleans, but it

may be seen in the orange-country fifty miles to the south.

The town of Monroe in Northeastern Louisiana, where the winters are

sometimes severe, achieves a striking tropical effect through extensive plant-

ings of one of the hardiest of palms, Trachycarpus excelsa. There are a great

many more specimens of the true date palm, Phoenix dactylifera, growing

in the southern part of the state than most persons realize. These trees

flower annually and edible fruits are produced, including some excellent

seedless forms. (Author’s abstract.)

Loren G. PotHamus: Goldenrod and rubber.—Following Edison’s dis-

covery that goldenrod contains rubber the cultivation and propagation of

species of goldenrod have been studied. Variations in growth habit have

been found and the possibility of selection on vegetative characters has been

demonstrated, but no correlation has been found between growth character

and rubber content. Studies have shown that variations in soil and climate

affect the rubber content. Outstanding species from the standpoint of

rubber content are Solidago leavenworthii, S. edisoniana, S. altissima, S.

serotina, S. fistulosa, S. nashii and S. sempervirens. It has been found pos-

sible to propagate goldenrod readily by means of the underground stolons,

as many as 500 new plants having been obtained from a single plant of S.

leavenworthi in one year. Stem cuttings have failed to root but it has been

ud ee to propagate several species freely by layering. (Author’s

abstract.

J. I. Laurirzen and R. T. Baucu: Influence of environmental factors on

inversion of sucrose in harvested cane——The results from experiments con-

ducted during the grinding season: 1930-31, 1931-32, and 1932-33 in

Louisiana showed very little inversion of sucrose in sugarcane kept wet by

sprinkling irrespective of the variety used. There was less loss of sucrose

through inversion during rainy than during dry weather. There was an in-

timate relation between the loss of moisture and inversion of sucrose; the

greater the rate of loss of moisture the greater the proportionate rate of in-

version. By adding moisture to cane in which inversion was proceeding

rapidly as a result of drying during various periods of time, inversion of

sucrose was checked. In cane kept wet during storage at temperatures of

45°, 55°, 65°, and 75° F., very little inversion of sucrose occurred and the

amount was similar at each of the temperatures. Among the commercial

varieties of sugarcane grown in Louisiana Co. 281 showed the greatest re-

sistance to inversion of sucrose; P.O.J. 36M, and C.P. 807 the least, with

P.O.J. 213, P.O.J. 234, Co. 290 ranging between these extremes. No chem-

ical or physiological changes took place during storage that were inimical

to sugar manufacture. (Authors’ abstract.)

257TH MEETING

The 257th regular meeting and annual dinner was held in the ballroom

of poe cmiedy: Warren April 3, 1934, President SmirH presiding; attend-

ance

Program: ORAN RaBER: Teaching botany and botanizing around the world

on a floating university.

FEB. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 95

258TH MEETING

The 258th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, May 1, 1934, President Smrru presiding; attendance 90. H. P. Barss,

F. A. McCuurs, Jonn Monteirau, Jr., and Loren G. PotHamus were

elected to membership.

Notes and reviews: M. B. WatreE discussed the life history of the large

red oak trees formerly lining 12th St., S.W., noting particularly evidence

of injury from the extraordinary cold weather of 1899, and the slow growth

since the advent of paved streets. H. B. Humpurny presented a summary of

the precipitation in Washington for the period January 1930 to April 1934,

emphasizing the deficiency of 17 inches for the period. J. B. S. Norton

discussed the effect of altitude on opening English elm buds. F. Wetss ex-

hibited greenhouse grown Ixias and called attention to the suitability of this

plant for outdoor culture.

Program: A. K. Loneuny: The chromosomes of maize.

F. V. Covitue: The Death Valley of California after forty years.

259TH MEETING

The 259th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, October 2, 1934, President Smiru presiding; attendance 73.

Notes and reviews: A. S. HircHcock reviewed Agnes Arber’s new book

The Gramineae. M. B. Watte discussed the effects of prolonged and exces-

sive rainfall with high humidity during the record-breaking September with

especial reference to the curing of tobacco in Maryland. W. T. SwinecLEe

reviewed. the classical work on horticulture and botany of Brazil, edited by

M. Pio Correa, Diccionaire das Plantas Uteis do Brasil et das exoticas

Cultivados.

A. A. Birancourt, subdirector, Instituto Biologico, Sao Paulo, Brazil,

made a brief address in response to the welcome extended to him by the

President on behalf of the Botanical Society. J. A. Stmvenson exhibited

some of Mr. Bitancourt’s publications on Citrus diseases.

Program: L. H. Fuint: Sensitivity of dormant lettuce seed to light and

temperature—In typical cases of seed dormancy internal processes are

effective after a longer or shorter period in overcoming the seemingly in-

animate state without special agencies. In the case of lettuce seed which

appears subject to classification as dormant, however, it has been found

that light is a factor promoting germination. The sensitivity of such lettuce

seed to light a few hours after soaking in water is so great that a few seconds’

exposure to sunlight is sufficient to insure germination in subsequent dark-

ness at 20° C. This sensitivity is thus comparable with that of photographic

film.

It has been found that the longer wave-lengths of visible light, ranging

in length from about 5200 to about 7000 A and characterizing yellow,

orange and red light, are effective in promoting germination. The shorter

wave-lengths of visible light, ranging from about 5200 to about 4000 A

and characterizing green, blue and violet light, have been found to be effec-

tive in inhibiting germination. Seeds exposed to red light for a time suffi-

cient to insure subsequent germination in darkness would not germinate in

blue light.

The role of temperature in relation to light-sensitivity in dormant lettuce

seed was studied by soaking seeds in water at various periods and then ex-

posing each lot to a uniform illumination. All seeds were put in a moist

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

chamber at 20° C. following this illumination. The results obtained indicated

that whereas at 5° C. the sensitivity of the seed to light was maintained

for several weeks, at 25° C. the sensitivity was so altered after 24 hours

that the standard illumination was without appreciable effect. This relation-

ship may account for some of the beneficial effects ascribed to soaking seed

at low temperatures.

The establishment of a definite inhibitory effect of certain wave-lengths

of light on germination appears of added significance because of the fact

that these same inhibiting rays have been found to be the ones effecting the

phototropic response of green plants. The results thus emphasize the view-

point that green plants turn toward light of specified wave-lengths not be-

cause they could thereby utilize more illumination, but rather because the

light inhibited growth on the side of the stem directly exposed to the light.

(Author’s abstract.)

E. H. Waker: Some problems and methods in the taxonomy of Chinese

plants.

260TH MEETING

The 260th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, November 6, 1934, President Smirx presiding; attendance 72.

Notes and reviews: F. THONE exhibited Wild flowers by Homer D. House

a work similar to The Wild Flowers of New York issued some years ago by

the New York State Museum.

L. H. BartLey was present as a guest and, after being welcomed by the

President, addressed the Society informally. He gave a synopsis of recent

botanical history contemporaneous with his own career, expressing judg-

ment on present botanical work and forecasting the future. He referred to

his college days under the tutelage of Asa Gray, his service as professor of

horticulture ‘‘in spite of which he remained a botanist,’”’ his term as Dean

of the New York State College of Agriculture. He spoke of the enthusiasm

of the older botanists and naturalists for their work. He urged the impor-

tance of knowing the habits and range of variation of plants in the field.

In discussing evolution, he said that we must get back to nature; as yet

we can not apply the discoveries of the laboratory to influencing the course

of evolution. In commendation of present-day taxonomy, Dr. Bailey spoke

of the attention now given to the proper collection of specimens, and in de-

termining the variation and the range of species; he especially recommended

the care and completeness shown in modern taxonomic descriptions.

Program: Earu 8. JoHNsTON: Wave-length effects of light on phototro-

pism.—Experiments on the evaluation of the wave-length of light in its

effect on phototropism were carried out, using an improved plant photom-

eter. Oat seedlings were grown between two lights, one standard, the other

of a restricted wave-length range. The intensity of the standard was ad-

justed until seedlings showed no phototropic bending. At such balance

points the intensity ratios of one light to the other were determined. The

phototropic sensitivity curve rose from 4100 A to a maximum at 4400 A.

It then dropped off to a minimum at about 4575 A and again rose to a sec-

ondary maximum in the region 4700 to 4800 A. The fall was quite rapid

from this point to 5000 A, from where it tapered off very gradually to the

threshold on the long wave-length side at about 5461 A.

C. F. AnpRws: Cell and nuclear behavior in Ceratostomella and certain other

fungi.—A discussion of cell multiplication and nuclear behavior in the ascus

of the species of Ceratostomella and Endoconidiophora, with some review of

FEB. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 97

chromosome number and reduction in other Ascomycetes. Various types of

direct and indirect cell cleavage that occur previous to ascus formation in

C. moniliformis were described. The crosier type of cell division is modified

to conform to the detached and unwalled condition of the dividing proto-

plast. Changes in cell shape accompanying cell division were emphasized.

A description of nuclear divisions in the ascus included remarks on chromo-

some structure and number. The vesiculate nature of the spore-producing

region of the ascus and the manner of ascospore formation in C moniliformis

and C. fimbriata seem to distinguish the group from more familiar genera of

the Ascomycetae. (Author’s abstract).

261ST MEETING

The 26lst meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

December 4, 1934, President SmrrH presiding; attendance 50.

Program: N. R. Smitu: Present trends in soil bacteriological research. (Ad-

dress of retiring President).

34TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 34th Annual Meeting was held immediately following the adjourn-

ment of the 261st meeting. The recording secretary reported that the So-

ciety closed the year with an active membership of 206 and an honorary

membership of 4. The names of 8 members had been placed on the absentee

list because of temporary absence from the city. The Society lost two mem-

bers by death, H. C. SkrrLs and Kart KELLERMAN. Twelve new members

were elected; three members retired from professional work and were elected

to honorary membership under the terms of the By-laws: Miss Mary K.

Bryan, Dr. Wm. Taytor and Mr. C. O. TowNsEnp.

The following officers were elected to serve for the ensuing year: Presi-

dent, W. W. Drext; Vice-President, FREEMAN Weiss; Recording secre-

tary, Cuas. T. SwineLe; Corresponding secretary, Netitizr A. Brown;

Treasurer, Nettie W. Nance; N. R. SmitH was nominated as vice-presi-

dent for the Botanical Society to the Washington Academy of Sciences.

Freeman Weiss, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Novres

The Midwinter Meetings—Washington science was well represented at

the various midwinter meetings, especially those of the American Associa-

tion for the Advancement of Science and affiliated societies at Pittsburgh.

The principal address, at the first formal meeting on Thursday evening,

December 27, was delivered by Dr. Winu1am A. Wait», superintendent of

St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, on the subject, Man, the great integrator. On Friday

afternoon, December 29, an illustrated lecture was presented by W. R. Cuap-

LINE, chief, range research, U.S. Forest Service, on Forestry fosters new ap-

proach to watershed conservation. Many scientists from Government depart-

ments, research institutions and the several universities in the District of

Columbia presented papers before the various section and society meetings.

In the exhibit hall, six Washington institutions had displays illustrating

some of their many activities. The American Association for the Advance-

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACALEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

ment of Science itself had an exhibit showing various phases of its work in

encouraging the development of science, and also giving information on

plans for future meetings. Exhibits sponsored by members of the Smith-

sonian Institution included a model of a solar heating apparatus, a demon-

stration of the work of the Laboratory of Radiation and Organisms, and a

display of lepidoptera. The exhibit of the Carnegie Institution of Washing-

ton was devoted to the recent rapid developments in the fields of genetics

and embryology, particularly in the field of chromosome topography and

gene mapping. The National Bureau of Standards demonstrated work done

on deuterium or heavy hydrogen, and also displayed a set of new resistance

standards. The U. S. Bureau of Mines set forth work done along five sepa-

rate lines of research on coal and other minerals. The National Geographic

Society’s exhibit consisted of models and the stratosphere balloon and ap-

paratus used in their joint exploration flight with the U. 8. Army Air Corps

last summer.

Of special interest at the Annual Science Exhibition of the American As-

sociation for the Advancement of Science was an exhibit of research on

deuterium and its compounds by laboratories which have been principal

contributors in this field of investigation. In this exhibit covering the fields

of physics, chemistry, and biology, 13 laboratories were represented, 6 of

these having major sized exhibits.

Other midwinter meetings in which Washington scientists participated

included those of the Geological Society of America (New York), the So-

ciety of American Bacteriologists (Chicago), the Archaeological Institute

(Toronto), the American Astronomical Society (Philadelphia), the Chemi-

cal Engineering Symposium on Distillation (Cambridge), and the American

Historical Association.

Science Advisory Board.—Broad scientific foundations are being sought

by the Government, for its future policies of land use. In this search scien-

tists on the Land Use Committee of the Science Advisory Board are taking

an active part.

The Land Use Committee acted as a sort of informal liaison organization,

enabling fifteen separate government agencies concerned with different as-

pects of land use to pool their knowledge and obtain an approach to the

problem as a whole.

The Committee employed Dr. Cart O. Saver of the University of Cali-

fornia, to make a comprehensive study of the subject as it is known in this

country at present. With Dr. Saver was associated W. L. G. Jorre of the

American Geographical Society.

Outstanding on the agenda of problems recommended for first-order in-

vestigation is a refinement of studies of climatological records already in

existence, to give more reliable bases for decisions as to the habitability of

marginal and submarginal lands. If such lands, still in the public domain or

now in process of re-purchase, can be withheld from re-settlement when

they do not give reasonable promise of yielding a living, repetition of the

tragedies of recent drought, and the older ones of the grasshopper years of

the last century, can be spared the nation.

Important also is the project for a study of permanent natural means of

checking soil erosion. At present, major effort is being bent to the construc-

tion of gulley dams, partly because the situation in many localities is des-

perate enough to require engineering works to help it, partly in order to

supply jobs for unemployed men. But in the long run, erosion must be held

FEB. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 99

in check by the roots of grasses, bushes and trees; and it is one of the ob-

jectives of contemplated study to find the right species and develop the

right planting methods.

National Resources Board.—The National Resources Board has issued a

series of reports, on the relation of public works to land and water resources,

on land planning, on water planning, on mineral policy, and on a national

mapping plan. Reversal of the traditional method of land development is

advocated in the land planning report; it calls for the reabsorption into

public domain of much land now badly settled and socially expensive,

greater care in the release of lands for future settlement, and social control

over private transactions in real estate. The necessity for erosion control is

also emphasized. In the mineral resources report, stress is lid on the de-

sirability of holding back in the use of such minerals as exist in this country

in insufficient quantities for normal needs, and at the same time controlling

the exploitation of deposits where present surpluses exist. Studies of tariff

readjustments and foreign trade agreements as they affect mineral resources

are also recommended. The mapping report calls for a ten-year plan to com-

plete the topographic survey of the United States. Only 26 per cent of the

total area of the United States exclusive of Alaska and island possessions

has been adequately mapped; the rest is mapped either inadequately or not

at all. The working program proposes zones of first, second and third pri-

ority, based on the urgency of the need for completion. The National Re-

sources Board functions under the chairmanship of Secretary Ickzs; its

personnel includes Secretaries DERN, WALLACE, Roper and PERKINs, Re-

lief Administrator Hopkins, FrEpERIc A. DELANO, CHARLES EH. MERRIAM

and WeEsLEY C. MITCHELL.

National Bureau of Standards—A new method for investigating the

effects of radium rays and X-rays in deep tissues has been developed at

the National Bureau of Standards by L. 8. Taytor. It stimulates conditions

in the human body with wax blocks, which have been named “phantom

bodies,” and a mixture of carbon bisulphide, tetrahydronaphthalene and

ligroin to serve as the radiation-absorbing fluid. An ionization screen, im-

mersed in the fluid, obtains a measure of the degree of ionization caused by

the radiations. With further development the instrument may prove of

great value in determining the nature and dosage of radiations to be used

in treating deep-seated tumors.

Smithsonian Institution.—Thirty ancient Indian village sites and numer-

ous island graveyards along the lower Columbia river have been explored

by Hrerpert W. Kriecer, who returned to Washington in January, after

six months in the field. The expedition was undertaken in order to salvage

archaeological data and material in the area which will be flooded upon the

completion of the Bonneville Dam. The region proves to have been thickly

settled. In one area, now arid and unpopulated, Dr. Krrmcrr counted the

remains of more than five hundred houses. One island cemetery, he learned,

had been burned by early white settlers; here he found evidences of fire in-

tense enough to fuse glass beads.

U. S. National Park Service-—Reports of measurements made of glaciers

in national parks this past fall by Park Naturalists indicate continued re-

cession. In each instance glaciers were found to have moved and melted

back from ten to fifty feet or more.

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2

Geological Survey.—A contract was awarded the Fairchild Aérial Sur-

veys, Incorporated, for furnishing aérial photographs, to be taken with a

single-lens camera, of about 5,800 square miles in South Carolina. The

photographs will be used to supplement ground surveys for topographic

mapping provided for in the Public Works program of topographic surveys.

The possibilities of langbeinite, a potassium-magnesium sulphate identi-

fied in certain drill cores from Federal land and private land in New Mex-

ico, as an important fertilizer material, are receiving considerable indus-

trial attention at this time. As this mineral is slowly soluble, it is believed

suitable for direct application with the seed, in lieu of the customary ap-

plication of potash fertilizer at the side of the seed row, and offers advantages

in the reduced amount of fertilizer required and in the longer period that

the potash remains available to the plant during the growing season.

News Briers

The Bureau of Mines has awarded contracts for the drilling of a new gas

well on the helium-bearing Cliffside structure, in Potter County, Texas,

which is expected to bring in a material increase in the Government’s avail-

able helium supply.

The U. 8. Army Air Corps and the National Geographic Society wile

undertake another stratosphere balloon flight this spring, it is announced’

A precision cosmic-ray meter, has been installed at the Cheltenham Mag-

netic Observatory by Dr. RicHarp L. Doan, Dr. A. H. Compton’s assist-

tant at the University of Chicago, 8. E. Forspusx of the Department of

Terrestrial Magnetism, and Grorce Hartneut of the U. 8. Coast and

Geodetic Survey, during the first week in January and is now in operation.

PERSONAL ITEMS

By action of the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington at

their annual meeting in December, Dr. Joun A. FLEMING was made Di-

rector of its Department of Terrestrial Magnetism beginning January 1. .

Dr. Hucu L. DrypeEn has been promoted to the position of chief of the

division of mechanics and sound of the National Bureau of Standards.

\ CONTENTS 7 kare t*

OrtamnaL Papers

Pharmacology.—The relationship between time of administration and effec

ness of remedies for cyanide poisoning. James F. Covcn, H. Bunrma,

A. B. CLAWSON.. Boe Oe 6's 60) OPS. 6 0) 618 nie Sonat a Re eee Cer ee ce ee

Zoology.—A new species of Oochoristica from a skunk. Mary Scorr Sxm cE Pia

Zoology.—A new species of amphipod of the genus eit pelea and anew rt

for Melita nitida from Sinaloa, Mexico. CuARENcE R. SHOBMAKER.....

Entomology.—A new species of blister beetle from Arizona. Guo G. os D!

Zoology.—New nematodes of the genus Longistriata in rodents. G. D

Botany.—Certain Desmonci Pal of Central America and Mexico.

BARTONTT. bb shh o orem + + S02) paling ngs CH, eee aaah a

PROCEEDINGS * #, ieee

Geological Society.......... AeA 2 oSe/ sie eng Rimes ota tN. ie Tiga Rete eee

Botanical Society.......... ee Ta

Scientiric Notes aNp Nuws..........- 1 £2 0Gi Hegackt oe Wea e oeet

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No. 3

IN ACADEMY |

iors

BOARD OF EDITORS —

ida @ he BRICK WEDDE Routanp W. Brown

- BURBAU or STANDARDS U. 8. GHOLOGICAL SURVEY

--ASSOCI ATE EDITORS

Haroutp Morrison

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

W. W. Rosny

pe "GEOLOGICAL SOCINTY

J. R. Swanton

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY

R. E. GIBson

CHDMICAL SOCIETY

PUBLISHED MONTHLY

Sao : BY THE

bcs one ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

450 Annar Sr.

at Menasna, ‘Wisconsin

‘hth Sonn 21, 1933.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

This JourNnAt, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes:

(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; e

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 25 Marca 15, 1935 No.3

PHYSICS.—Frontiers of aerodynamics. Hueu L. Drypen, Na-

tional Bureau of Standards.

Tonight we hold the 1077th meeting of the Philosophical Society,

beginning the 65th year of activity. By long-standing custom, a

special meeting is set apart for the president’s annual address, orig-

inally the meeting just preceding the annual meeting, but for many

years now it has been deferred until the president is relieved of the

cares of office. With few exceptions the presidential address has been

devoted to a survey of some specialized branch of science, thus fulfill-

ing the prophecy of Professor Henry in his first presidential address

that the society should become ‘“‘a means of instruction to all its

members, the knowledge of each becoming, as it were, the knowledge

of the whole.”

I wish to continue this tradition by outlining to you the present

situation on three frontiers of the science of aerodynamics. The

territory of aerodynamics is bordered on the north by the great un-

known land of unsolved problems of the science itself, on the east by

the occupied territory of other specialized sciences such as meteor-

ology, oceanography, hydrodynamics, heat transfer, etc., and on the

west by the domain of the practical arts, the home of the engineering

fraternity.

I shall perhaps devote what seems to be an undue amount of

space to the northern frontier. In these days as never before, many

people find it difficult to understand why any attention should be

paid to a territory so cold, so barren, so uninviting, so unpromising,

so useless, as that of the unknown fields of pure science. Effort ex-

pended in that direction bears no promise of immediate large divi-

dends. Many expeditions return fruitless with their original resources

expended, apparently a total loss. Others return with a collection of

curiosities of no present market value. A recent critic voices his

1 Address of the retiring president, delivered before the Philosophical Society of

Washington, January 5, 1935. Publication Approved by the Director of the National

meet of Standards of the U. S. Department of Commerce. Received January 17,

101

102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

estimate of the returns of some of these expeditions into the unknown

as follows:

“Of that which is comprehensible, a high percentage is useless because it

deals with pure research work which leads nowhere, or with research into

problems which were settled years ago by successful designers.

“The matter of the report is scientific hokum, the manner is literary

hooey.”

The same critic is very enthusiastic in his support of activities on

the western frontier, in what he terms ad hoc research as contrasted

with basic research. In his own words:

“Ad hoc research may be defined as hunting for a needle in a haystack,

when you do know that a needle is there, whereas basic research is just

turning over haystacks on the off chance that there may be a needle or a

pin or something worth picking up.”

Unfortunately, when one finds the needle which is known to be

present in the haystack, he painfully discovers, by the same process

by which he discovered the presence of the needle, that there is a

pin in the haystack and the haystack must be overturned again, and

when the pin is found, behold, there must be a spike present, and so on

ad infinitum. Basic research is rather the turning over of haystacks in

a particular manner, painstakingly sifting the hay and listing the nee-

dles, pins, spikes, and other objects found in the haystack, so that in

time it will not be necessary to turn over all of the haystack because

the characteristic locations of needles, pins, spikes, etc. will be known.

One can not by ridicule or lack of appreciation detract from the

value of a permanent contribution to the knowledge of humanity,

or minimize the importance of the many unsuccessful attempts which

are an essential part of the attainment of the goal. It is hoped that

this brief review of the frontiers of aerodynamics will illustrate by

precept and example how the activities on the northern frontier are

essential to the welfare of the neighboring territories.

The Philosophical Society had the privilege of hearing the first

reports of one of the early expeditions into the north, in a region whose

resources we are beginning to appreciate.

A little more than thirty years ago, at the 581st meeting of the Phil-

osophical Society on February 27, 1904, A. F. Zahm reported more

fully than he had done at the 554th meeting about two years earlier

the results of his three years’ experiments on Atmospheric friction,

with special reference to aeronautics. At the same meeting C. M. Man-

ley spoke on the History and present status of aeronautics, and included

a discussion of Langley’s aerodrome and the accidents in launching

Huau L. DrypEN

President Philosophical Society of Washington

1934

MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 103

it the preceding fall. Professor Marvin, then president of the society,

was in the chair. Langley and Alexander Graham Bell were present

and discussed the papers. I often wish I could have been present at

that historic and memorable meeting.

In his paper Zahm stated:

“To complete the theory of the skin-friction board, two steps further

remain to be taken. First, the equations of motion for a viscous fluid must

be integrated to find the velocity at all points in the disturbed region about

a thin material plane. Then the speed of flow must be measured at all points

next the plane and at some distance away. The writer expects soon to map

the stream-lines and measure the velocity. If, then, the equations can be

integrated so as to give the speed as a function of the space coordinates,

the computed and observed values can be directly compared. It is hoped

that some one may obtain sufficiently general solutions of the equations to

be of practical value, particularly for the simpler case in which the plane is

indefinitely wide, in which the edge conditions are negligible.”’

I have never asked Dr. Zahm whether he made the attempt ‘‘to

map the streamlines and measure the velocity.’’ Probably difficulties

were encountered, for only within the last few years have adequate

methods of measurement been developed. From the data which will

be given presently (Fig. 1) we may estimate that the thickness of

the disturbed region could not have exceeded 3 inches and was prob-

ably much less at the downstream end of the longest board, which

was 16 feet long. Certainly the speed was not less than 80 per cent

of the speed of the free stream at points more than 0.1 inch from the

surface. The completion of this part of the important program out-

lined by Dr. Zahm had to await the development of a technique of

measuring speed very close to a surface.

The pioneer measurements were made by J. M. Burgers and B. G.

van der Hegge Zijnen at Delft in 1924 with the aid of a hot wire

anemometer. Measurements of the local speed were made at several

hundred points for five speeds of the free air stream. Fortunately, it

is possible to utilize the methods of dimensional analysis to devise

a method of plotting which gives one a general view of the results.

The speed V at any point, whose coordinates are x and y with respect

to rectangular axes whose origin is at the front edge of the plate, is a

function of the speed V, of the air stream, of the density p and vis-

cosity pw of the air, and of x and y. By dimensional reasoning we find

that

V fe ie)

—=¢| —_—. ——

Vo be Le

104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

Therefore with Vorp/u and Voyp/u as abscissa and ordinate, re-

spectively, we may plot contours along which V/V, is constant and

equal to assigned values. The resulting diagram is shown in Fig. 1,

the ordinates being magnified 200 times with respect to the abscissae.

In more familiar terms, if the speed Vy is 20 feet per second, the

numbers along the abscissae are in tens of inches; each square along

the ordinates is one-hundredth of an inch; and the contour lines con-

1/000 a ee

10000 — ——;

9000 -

3000 pees Feil

7000 .

b Eddying layer

622) a are aoe pew er

=~ Laminar Transition ;

-5 Vox

Fig. 1.—Speed distribution near skin-friction plate, van der Hegge Zijnen’s meas-

urements. See text for explanation of symbols, except v which is the kinematic viscosity.

v=pu/p.

nect points whose speeds are 18, 16, 14, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, and 2 feet

per second.

The contour for V/V,=1 is not shown, since V approaches V,

asymptotically. The limited region with an ill-defined outer boundary

within which the influence of the plate is felt is the so-called boundary

layer. It becomes a more real thing when measurements have been

made within it and its inner structure has been examined.

Near the upstream edge the contours are approximately parabolic

in shape and correspond fairly well to a solution of the Prandtl bound-

ary-layer equations given by Blasius in 1908. The flow in this region

is designated laminar flow.

From a Voxp/p of about 300,000 to about 500,000, a new phenom-

105

DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS

MARCH 15, 1935

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106 [s0URNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 3

enon arises, the air close to the surface being accelerated instead of

retarded. This region is termed the transition region.

There follows a different type of speed distribution. In the region

marked eddying layer, there is a logarithmic relation between V and

y at a given value of x. Near the wall the relations are different, the

distribution resembling that in the laminar region. This laminar sub-

layer accounts for two-thirds of the fall in speed but for only a small

part of the thickness of the layer.

6000

Fig. 3.—Distribution of speed near skin-friction plate, turbulence 0.5 percent.

Measurements at National Bureau of Standards.

Apparatus has been developed for measuring the fluctuation of the

speed at a given point with time as well as for measuring the mean

speed. With this apparatus we may obtain some information as to

the nature of the flow of the type indicated in Fig. 2. It may be noted

first that small fluctuations are present in the air stream approaching

the plate. To this initial turbulence we shall return later. In the

laminar region we find fluctuations of amplitude several times that

in the approaching stream but much slower. In the eddying region

the fluctuations are very rapid. The transition, which appears to be

gradual in the measurements of mean speed, is actually a very sudden

one. There is an intermittent change from laminar to eddying flow,

MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 107

occurring at infrequent intervals near the beginning of the transition

region and at more and more frequent intervals as the end of the

transition region is approached. The phenomenon is identical with

that long known to occur in the flow of water in pipes, and frequently

exhibited by the aid of streams of dye. The wavering of the color

7000

x V, =32.6 Ft. per sec.

Vo =65.5 Ft. per sec.

6000

5000

4000

J 000

2000

/ OOO

Fig. 4.—Distribution of speed near skin-friction plate, turbulence 3.0 percent.

Measurements at National Bureau of Standards.

bands in the laminar flow, the sudden diffusion through the pipe

when the flow becomes eddying, the wandering of the point of transi-

tion, all are now familiar but not understood.

The true distinction between laminar and eddying flow is not based

on the presence or absence of fluctuations. In eddying flow, the fluctu-

ations are of such a nature that there is a net transfer of momentum

by the motion of small masses of fluid in addition to the molecular

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

transfer. In laminar flow, this additional net transfer of momentum

does not occur.

It has been found experimentally that the transition from laminar

to eddying flow is profoundly affected by the magnitude of the initial

turbulence, the name given to the small fluctuations of frequencies

of the order of 20 to 1000 per second superposed on the desired steady

flow. The amplitude of these fluctuations does not ordinarily exceed

a few per cent of the average speed, yet a change in this amplitude

produces effects of astonishing magnitude in many aerodynamic

measurements. For example, Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show diagrams similar

to Fig. 1 plotted from measurements made under the direction of the

author in air streams for which the root-mean-square amplitude of

the fluctuations was, respectively, 0.5 and 3.0 per cent of the mean

speed. The corresponding values of Voxp/u at which transition occurs

are 1,100,000 and 100,000, respectively. In other words, at a given

speed with a given skin-friction plate the transition occurs at a dis-

tance from the leading edge 11 times greater in the first case than in

the second. The skin friction and the flow are quite different in the

two cases.

There is no suggestion that the laminar flow is stable for small dis-

turbances up to a certain magnitude and that it suddenly becomes

eddying everywhere when the disturbance exceeds a certain magni-

tude. While for a fixed turbulence the transition itself is quite sudden,

as we have seen in Fig. 2, there is a progressive and regular functional

relationship between the value of Voxp/y at transition and the turbu-

lence of the airstream.

The turbulence of the airstream has been found to be an independ-

ent variable of considerable importance in many aerodynamic

measurements, chief interest among engineers at the present time

being its effect on the maximum lift of airplane wings. Much atten-

tion has been given, therefore, to methods of assigning numerical

values to the turbulence and to the correlation between the aero-

dynamic measurements and the numerically assigned values.

It is possible to measure directly the root-mean-square fluctuation

of the speed at any point with time by means of a special form of hot-

wire anemometer, with a wire of small diameter (0.017 mm), an

amplifier, an electrical network to compensate for the lag of the wire,

and an alternating current milliammeter. The speed fluctuation is

converted into an alternating current whose intensity is measured.

The ratio of the root-mean-square fluctuation to the mean speed is

defined as the numerical value of the turbulence. The ratio is usually

stated as a percentage.

MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 109

The equipment required for the hot wire measurement is rather

cumbersome and requires considerable care and skill on the part of

the operator. A more convenient method is to utilize some aerody-

namic measurement which is sensitive to turbulence. The measure-

ment most generally used is that of the resistance of a sphere. If one

measures the resistance RF of a sphere of diameter D in an airstream

of speed Vo, the air being of density p and viscosity yp, the results

may be conveniently expressed as a plot of the resistance coefficient

Cp against the Reynolds Number V,>Dp/yu. At very low

zpV 22D?

Reynolds Numbers Cp is approximately constant and equal to about

0.5. At Reynolds Numbers within a range of values dependent on

the turbulence the coefficient decreases rapidly to values in the neigh-

borhood of 0.1. To obtain a definite numerical value it has been pro-

posed to define the Reynolds Number for which Cp is equal to the

average of these two values, namely 0.3, as the critical Reynolds

Number and to use it as a measure of the turbulence.

The measurement of the resistance of a sphere in wind tunnels of

varying size is somewhat inconvenient and in any case there is some

complication because of the forces on the supports. Therefore there

has recently been introduced a pressure-sphere, in which a simpler

measurement of differential pressure is utilized. The difference in

pressure Ap between an impact hole at the front of the sphere and a

hole (or preferably a number of holes) on the downstream side at an

azimuth angle of about 1574 degrees from the impact hole is divided

by the velocity pressure g=pV.? to give a pressure coefficient. The

critical Reynolds Number is defined as that for which Ap/q =1.22.

The values obtained are approximately the same as those for which

Cp =0.8.

The first comparisons between these methods of measuring turbu-

lence showed extremely good correlation, but as more information be-

came available it became apparent that the critical Reynolds Number

of a sphere as defined above depends on the size of the sphere and

on other properties of the fluctuations as well as on the root-mean-

square amplitude. In some recent work on this problem at the Na-

tional Bureau of Standards, artificial turbulence was introduced in an

airstream by a series of geometrically similar wire screens. For each

screen, identified by the mesh distance, different values of the root-

mean-square amplitude of the fluctuations were obtained by working

at different distances. To avoid variations of mean speed and of tur-

bulence across the stream, the distance had to be greater than 70

times the diameter of the screen wire. The relation between the criti-

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

cal Reynolds Number of a 5-inch sphere and the hot-wire value of

the turbulence for the several screens is shown in Fig. 5. Measure-

ments on a larger sphere show that the correlation is a function of

the ratio between the mesh distance and the sphere diameter. It thus

NEM COIYN I (RON st L [aN GP

jO JZ. (4, WE 9S" Con ee. Jae

mol

10 ~ Rerit:

Fig. 5.—Critical Reynolds Number for pressure sphere as a function of root-mean-

square fluctuation of speed. Measurements behind geometrically similar wire screens of

varying mesh distance M. Square-mesh screens were used;

appears that the wire screens introduce some characteristic pattern

(not that of the screen wires which disappears at a distance of 70

wire-diameters) or average size of eddy in the turbulence which af-

fects the flow around a sphere.

Recently Dr. Schubauer at the National Bureau of Standards has

introduced a third method of measuring turbulence which promises

MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 111

to be quite useful. He found that the temperature distribution at

some distance downstream from a hot wire of small diameter was a

function of the turbulence. The dynamic wake of the small wire dis-

appears at short distances, the wire acting substantially as a line

source of heat in a uniform stream. The thermal wake widens at a rate

dependent on the turbulence, and the width of the thermal wake be-

tween points where the temperature rise is one-half the maximum

temperature rise furnishes a suitable measure of the turbulence. The

correlation with hot wire measurements is very good and the equip-

ment required is relatively simple, a thermocouple and sensitive gal-

vanometer being the essential elements.

It is perhaps obvious that a completely satisfactory method of

measuring turbulence can not be developed until we understand more

completely the mechanism of the transition from laminar to eddying

flow and the influence of this transition on the flow, pressure distribu-

tion, and force acting on bodies immersed in a fluid stream.

We have already noted the effect of the transition on the skin fric-

tion. Another basic effect is that on the process of separation. When,

for example, air flows around a cylinder, there is a thin well-defined

boundary layer only over the forward part. The flow separates from

the surface somewhat forward of the median plane, the air near the

surface in the region just downstream from the separation zone mov-

ing forward in a direction opposite to that of the main stream. Separa-

tion occurs when the pressure increases in the downstream direction

and the essential features can be derived from the boundary layer

equations of Prandtl. The retarding effect of the adverse pressure

gradient finally predominates over the frictional transfer of momen-

tum from the faster moving particles. The reversal of flow, on ac-

count of the consequent accumulation of fluid, separates the flow from

the surface.

If transition to eddying flow in the boundary layer occurs before

the separation zone for laminar flow is reached, the process of separa-

tion is delayed to a greater azimuthal angle. The eddying flow pro-

motes a more thorough mixing and transfers momentum more readily

to the fluid layers near the surface of the cylinder. The behavior of

the resistance coefficient or pressure coefficient of a sphere is to be

attributed to the effect of the transition on the process of separation

and the influence of turbulence on the coefficients is to be attributed

to the influence of turbulence on the transition.

The boundary layer at the front of a cylinder differs from that on

the skin-friction plate because of the presence of a pressure gradient

112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 3

in the direction of flow which arises as a result of the increasing speed.

This pressure gradient acts to accelerate the flow within the boundary

layer and to retard the increase in thickness of the layer. The presence

of a small pressure gradient in the wind tunnel airstream is responsi-

ble for the supposed discrepancies between experiment and theory in

some experiments on skin-friction plates. The theoretical equations

show that small pressure gradients have effects much larger than one

might suppose.

The existence of an accelerating pressure gradient also affects the

transition, delaying it to higher values of Voxp/y. The few experi-

ments available indicate that the transition is controlled by the value

of Vodp/u where 6 is a suitably defined thickness of the boundary

layer, for example {,°(1—V/V.)dy. Much more work remains to be

done to verify this hypothesis and to study the influence of other fac-

tors, such as the curvature of the flow, temperature gradients, etc.,

on the transition.

The equations of Prandtl describing the flow in a boundary layer

are adequate to account for the experimental results so long as the

flow is laminar. The unsolved problems of the laminar boundary layer

are principally mathematical in character. In the case of eddying

flow, even the basic equations are unknown, at least in usable form.

Some suppose that the eddying flow represents an unsteady motion

which satisfies the fundamental equations of Stokes-Navier for a

viscous fluid. Others consider it necessary to introduce additional hy-

potheses. Notable advances have been made by combining theoretical

considerations with empirical results obtained by experiment.

All of these methods begin from the hypothesis of Osborne Rey-

nolds that the flow could be regarded as consisting of a mean flow and

a superposed fluctuating motion which could be clearly distinguished.

The equations of the mean motion are identical with the equations

of Stokes except for certain terms depending on the so-called eddy

stresses. The eddy shearing stresses for example are pu’v’, pu’w’, and

pv'w’ where the bar denotes mean value, p is the density, w’, v’, w’ are

the components of the fluctuations at a point. Obviously these stresses

are zero unless there is a correlation between the several components.

The eddy shearing stress is analogous to the viscous shearing stress,

the eddy fluctuations being analogous to molecular fluctuations. The

effect of molecular motions appears in the smoothed equations of mo-

tion as the viscosity coefficient. While the viscosity depends only

- on the temperature, the eddy stresses vary from point to point,

being unknown functions of the mean flow. Reynolds general theory

MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 113

gives no information about the fluctuations themselves, showing only

the effect of known fluctuations on the mean motion.

One hypothesis as to the relation between the fluctuations and the

mean motion which has been often used is implied in the introduction

of the eddy viscosity, a quantity which relates the eddy shearing

stresses to the mean motion in the same way that the viscosity relates

the viscous shearing stresses to the mean motion. This procedure im-

plies certain relations between the components of the fluctuations at a

point, but the eddy viscosity may still vary from point to point. Al-

though a formal simplification results, some assumption must still be

made as to the variation of the eddy viscosity throughout the flow.

The analogy between the molecular motions and the eddy motions

was pushed somewhat further by Prandtl in the introduction of the

mixing length, which plays the same part in the eddy motions as the

mean free path in the molecular motions. The isolation of small fluid

masses and the mixing length itself actually exist only in a statistical

sense. Prandtl’s reasoning led to the result that the eddy viscosity

was equal to pl? times a function of the mean motion which for a

parallel flow reduces to the transverse velocity gradient. The varia-

tion of the eddy viscosity from place to place is replaced by a varia-

tion of the mixing length / from place to place, which at first sight

offers no advantage. But experiment shows that at large Reynolds

Numbers the mixing length is practically independent of the speed

and simple assumptions as to the spatial distribution give reasonably

accurate results.

A further step was taken by von Karman, who assumed that in the

eddying motion the fluctuations at all points were similar, differing

only in the linear scale and in the intensity of the fluctuations. This

assumption led to an expression for the mixing length in terms of the

mean flow and a universal constant. The consequences of the assump-

tion have been worked out rigidly only for the case of parallel flow.

The formulae for the skin-friction and for the velocity distribution ob-

tained from Karman’s theory are in remarkably good agreement with

experiment.

Until comparatively recently the only experimental information

available on the characteristics of eddying flow consisted of measure-

ments of mean values of speeds, pressures, or forces. A beginning has

now been made on the experimental study of the fluctuations them-

selves by several independent methods. The use of the hot-wire

anemometer has been studied at Delft, G6ttingen, Teddington, Cali-

fornia Institute of Technology, and at the National Bureau of Stand-

114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

ards. Fage has applied the ultramicroscope with rotating objective.

Townend has developed a technique using small sparks which give

hot-spots that are rendered visible by the Schlieren method. Lindvall

utilized the effect of the wind on a glow discharge between two elec-

trodes. It seems certain that within a few years a considerable amount

of information will be available to serve as a guide to the further de-

velopment of the theory of eddying flow.

The expedition into the unknown begun by Dr. Zahm thirty years

ago has thus been followed by others into the same regions, and we

feel that we know something more about the territory. New inter-

relations have been discovered, and we feel that we have the key to

the general geographical structure of the country beyond. It is as-

tounding that the study of such a simple problem as the flow of air

past a skin-friction plate should lead so far. But as the germ cell con-

tains within itself the possibility of development into a rather intri-

cate structure, so a single problem in aerodynamics contains within

itself the possibility of answering many aerodynamic problems.

The account which has been given of studies in this particular sec-

tion of the northern frontier could be repeated for other sections. One

might, for example, describe the further development of another field

of investigation to which Dr. Zahm contributed, the behavior of air

at speeds near and above the speed of sound. Or one might describe

the explorations, which are practically just beginning, on accelerated

and unsteady motion, such as is associated, for example, with the

pitching of an airplane wing. But we must now turn to the frontier

on the east, bordering on the neighboring sciences.

Aerodynamics and hydrodynamics occupy much territory in com-

mon and are often regarded as essentially the same. It is true that

the language and habits of thought are in large measure identical, but

in the details of experimental technique there is sufficient difference

that the experimenter in one field is not at home in the other without

a season of apprenticeship. The theoretical workers intermingle more

freely. Then too there are certain more or less isolated regions in both

sciences, for example, the field of compressibility effects in aerody-

namics and the fields of free-surface phenomena and of cavitation in

hydrodynamics which are distinctive in character.

The indebtedness of the younger science, aerodynamics, to the

older is very great. In water, events occur in slower tempo, a given

flow-pattern occurring at about one-thirteenth the speed which would

be necessary in air. The internal motions of water are readily made

visible by small amounts of dye and the eye can in many cases readily

MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 115

follow the motion. In air, on the other hand, it is necessary to use

large volumes of smoke, to take photographs with a high speed motion-

picture camera, and to view the pictures at a much reduced speed, if

one wishes to observe the motion at reasonably large values of the

Reynolds Number. Thus aerodynamics owes not only the underlying

theoretical background, but also many of its mental pictures and ex-

perimental methods to hydrodynamics.

The benefits have not been altogether one-sided. The circulation

theory of lift developed from the stimulus of an aerodynamic problem

has found repeated application in hydrodynamic problems relating to

hydrofoils, pump and turbine blades, etc. The boundary-layer theory

is finding fruitful application in hydrodynamics as well as in aerody-

namics. All that has been said about the transition from laminar to

eddying flow and the effect of turbulence can be carried over word

for word to the flow of water. Even the experimental techniques de-

veloped for studying fluctuations in eddying motion in air are begin-

ning to be adapted to similar studies in water.

The sciences of meteorology and oceanography are coming under

the influence of aerodynamic ways of thinking. I shall give only one

or two illustrations. Atmospheric winds near the Rock of Gibraltar

have been found hazardous to aircraft, especially when the wind blows

from certain quarters. It occurred to someone to make a model of the

rock, put it in a wind tunnel, and explore the flow in detail for several

wind directions. The general features were checked by observations in

natural winds at the full-scale rock.

About two years ago C. G. Rossby, Professor of Meteorology at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published a paper entitled

A generalization of the theory of the mixing length with applications to

atmospheric and oceanic turbulence. The title is self-explanatory. In

this paper we find reference to boundary-layers from a 1000 feet to

several miles in thickness. In a paper soon to be published by A. M.

Kuethe of the Daniel Guggenheim Airship Institute at Akron, we

may read of measurements of speed fluctuations within such a bound-

ary-layer.

At the Fourth International Congress of Applied Mechanics, L.

Prandtl presented a paper on the application of the laws of turbulent

friction to atmospheric phenomena. He treated a number of special

problems as well as the problem of the general atmospheric circulation

on a rotating earth. Schlichting gave a theory of the stability of the

laminar flow in a heated boundary layer and compared the results

with measurements by Reichardt at Gottingen. These measurements

116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

were made with a view to their application in meteorological prob-

lems.

The theory of heat transfer in forced convection has undergone a

veritable revolution by the introduction of the boundary layer as a

substitute for the hypothetical film. With the introduction of the con-

cepts of laminar and eddying flow, and of transition as dependent on

initial turbulence, many apparent contradictions have been explained.

As indicated by Pohlhausen and Latzko, we can now proceed several

steps beyond the convenient assumption of uniform mass flow of the

fluid in studying the theory of forced convection. Thermal boundary

layers are recognized as well as dynamic boundary layers. There is a

mixing length involved in the transfer of heat as well as in the transfer

of momentum and the two may or may not be the same. We intro-

duce an eddy conductivity as well as an eddy viscosity and inquire as

to their relationship.

The analogy between heat-transfer and skin-friction has been

found very useful. Closer examination is revealing that the analogy

has been perhaps pushed too far, ignoring the fact that pressure

gradients affect the dynamic but not the thermal boundary layer and

that momentum is a vector quantity whereas heat energy is a scalar.

This interchange of information is proving beneficial to both sciences,

the heat-transfer measurements throwing considerable light on the

characteristics of eddying motion.

The study of evaporation and of diffusion has been facilitated by

the introduction of the concepts of the laminar sub-layer and of mix-

ing length. The experimental study of the relation between the mixing

lengths involved in the transport of momentum, heat, water-vapor,

solid particles, etc., promises to throw light on the mechanism of all.

Such are some of the contacts on the eastern frontier. While I do

not claim that aerodynamics has always been benefactor and never

beneficiary, I do think it is clear that the extension of the knowledge

of how air moves near solid bodies immediately makes possible cor-

responding advances in the neighboring sciences.

We turn now to the western frontier, a region more familiar perhaps

than those which we have been considering. Aerodynamics, of course,

became of practical importance in the world with the development of

aviation, and by far the larger share of aerodynamic research looks

to aeronautics for its support. Until very recently, this territory was

the only one with which there was efficient inter-communication.

However, an adequate discussion of the interchange between aero-

nautics and aerodynamics, which after all are different fields of en-

MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 117

deavor, would require much more space than can be given here and

is perhaps superfluous for the purposes of this paper. The borderland

here has long since ceased to be a frontier.

We shall accordingly turn to those regions which are still frontier

in character, the first being the borderland between aerodynamics and

the practical art of ventilation. The principal aerodynamic problems

of ventilation may be briefly stated as (1) the design of fans, (2) the

reduction of friction losses in ducts, and (8) the distribution of air

from a small number of inlets throughout a large space. The design

of fans involves the same fundamental principles as the design of air-

plane propellers, but a good airplane propeller is not a good fan.

Nevertheless, in certain applications, such as in cooling towers used

for cooling the water from condensers of steam-turbines, where large

quantities of air are required to be delivered against comparatively

small pressures, the simplicity and low initial cost of an inexpensive

propeller mounted directly on the shaft of an electric motor led to

several installations about five years ago. Soon after, aerodynamical

principles were applied by one of the manufacturers, leading to a fan

with comparatively large hub (one-third to one-half the diameter of

of the fan) and with blades whose pitch increases toward the hub,

with a very considerable improvement in efficiency. Very recently,

Professor Marks and his colleagues at the Harvard Engineering

School, have shown that an axial flow fan, with a diffusor and guide

vanes, can be constructed to have an efficiency of 80 per cent.

There has also been much interest in the use of fans of this type for

forced-draft installations, and for mine ventilation. Multi-stage fan

wheels, with alternate rotating and stationary blades, have been pro-

posed. There are, of course, disadvantages as well as advantages. The

noise is much greater than for slower speed, multi-blade fans and the

power-characteristic curve has some undesirable features. However,

the application of aerodynamical knowledge to fan design is only in

its infancy.

Information on air friction is immediately applicable in the design

of ventilating ducts. However, the exigencies encountered in actual

installations lead to many installations where the principal losses are

due to obstructions or bends rather than to friction. When air flows

around the usual pipe-bend, secondary motions are produced by the

action of centrifugal force which destroy the approximately uniform

flow. Large-scale turbulence is produced, with large energy losses asso-

ciated with the dissipation of energy of this turbulence into heat. It

has been found that these secondary motions may be largely elimi-

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 3

nated by using guide vanes arranged as a series of curved parallel

blades which divide the airstream into a number of smaller streams

which are separately guided around the bend. I believe these guide

vanes were first developed at Gottingen in connection with the return-

circuit wind tunnel, a set being installed at each bend. They have

since found application not only in wind tunnel design, but in the de-

sign of ventilating ducts for large electrical generators. The theory of

the action of these vanes is well worked out. The possibilities of their

application have not been exhausted.

As an illustration of the reduction of losses due to obstructions, the

ventilating ducts of the Holland vehicular tunnel may be mentioned.

The exhaust duct is formed by the use of a false ceiling suspended

from the top of the tunnel. In the original design the ceiling was to be

suspended by cylindrical rods. A simple calculation showed that the

resulting losses could be greatly minimized by a partial streamlining

of the obstructions, accomplished by substituting flat strips edge on

to the airstream for the cylinders.

The study of the distribution of air from fresh-air inlets is a virgin

field. The investigation of turbulent mixing of jets by Tollmien and

others should find immediate application.

Another frontier field is the application of aerodynamics to the de-

sign of windmills. Betz in Germany has taken the lead in the study of

windmill wheels of few blades suitable for driving electric generators

with only moderate gear ratios between the generator and windmill-

wheel. His studies have illustrated the possibilities of theoretical com-

putation of the performance and the value of wind-tunnel tests on

models as a guide to further development. Two unconventional types,

the Savonius rotor and the Flettner rotor, have received some study.

In this field, aerodynamics has served to restrain somewhat the ex-

pectations of those enthusiasts who feel that because the wind is free,

power from the wind should likewise be free. Simple principles show

that the structure required to secure reasonable amounts of power

from the wind is comparatively large. Initial cost, depreciation, and

insurance against damage in high winds must receive careful consid-

eration.

A field to which we have devoted some attention at the National

Bureau of Standards is that of determining the wind pressure exerted

on structures in wind storms. In the design of tall buildings, radio

masts, water towers, chimneys, and similar structures, the allowance

to be made for wind pressure is a matter of serious concern, first, in

relation to the safety of the structure, and second, in relation to its

MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 119

cost. To obtain information on wind pressure from observations on a

building in a natural wind would require years of measurement and a

statistical study of the results. The data so obtained would be limited

to buildings of similar shape with a similar exposure. The only prac-

ticable procedure is to utilize the long series of observations of the

Weather Bureau to forecast the probability of the occurrence of winds

6.—Models of Empire State7Building and surrounding structures for

wind-tunnel measurements.

of specified speed. To obtain the pressure on the building, the relation

between the pressure and the speed must be known. This relation may

be determined by experiments on models in wind tunnels or by ob-

servations in natural winds. Each method has advantages and disad-

vantages. The principles of aerodynamics are invaluable in the inter-

pretation of experiments by either method to avoid erroneous con-

clusions.

The use of both methods is illustrated in the publications of the

120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

Bureau.” The wind-tunnel measurements on the model of the Empire

State Building were undertaken with the expectation that measure-

ments in natural winds would ultimately be made on the actual build-

ing for purposes of comparison. Completion of the project has been

delayed by matters beyond our control. To illustrate the extent to

which model experiments may be carried, there is shown in Fig. 6 a

photograph of the model in the 10-foot wind tunnel with a crude but

reasonably accurate representation of the territory for several blocks

around. The scale is 1 to 250, the model being 5 feet high.

The results of these experiments and similar experiments abroad

are slowly finding their way into building codes and in handbooks on

design. The results are even having an influence in the design of

houses, barns, and other farm structures as agricultural engineers rec-

ommend and insurance companies insist that houses be anchored to

foundations, and that roofs be securely fastened to side walls to avoid

failure as a result of suction and uplift produced by the wind. Per-

haps more surprising is that at least one structure, the airship hangar

at Akron, Ohio, has been especially designed to reduce the wind load,

streamlined if you wish, on the basis of wind-tunnel tests.

As the final frontier region to be discussed, we come to the applica-

tion of aerodynamical principles to the streamlining of automobiles

and trains. When an automobile is driven along a level road, the

power developed by the burning of the fuel is used in part to over-

come the friction of the gears and bearings and of the tires on the

road. The remainder of the power is used to overcome the resistance

of the air. At speeds of 35 or 40 miles per hour the rolling resistance

and air resistance are approximately equal and at higher speeds the

air resistance becomes of the greatest importance.

If the air resistance of an automobile were due solely to air friction,

the air resistance would be less than one-tenth that actually present

in a typical modern automobile. It is not feasible to reduce the resist-

ance of an actual automobile to this amount for practical reasons, but

considerable improvement can be made. Halving the resistance is

easily possible.

The possibility of improved fuel economy or higher speed through

streamlining has been known for 10 years or more, and several experi-

mental cars have been constructed. None of these cars has been com-

mercially successful, and the so-called streamlining of present-day

cars is essentially only a talking point. The accomplishments are

trivial in comparison with the reduction that is easily possible. The

2 Scientific Paper 523, Research Papers 221, 301, 545 and 637.

MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 121

reason for the delay in introducing truly streamlined cars lies in the

repugnance of the public to radical changes in appearance. Attempts

are being made by manufacturers to make a gradual transition.

I do not wish to give the impression that there are no engineering

problems involved in the change. There are many, but their discussion

is out of place here. Their solution is in sight, if not already accom-

plished by some of the manufacturers.

The railroad groups are also much interested in streamlining. The

new streamlined trains, which really owe much of their advantage to

the reduction in weight made possible by the use of new materials and

new methods of construction, have caught the public fancy. An ex-

periment, which will be of more significance from the standpoint of

streamlining alone, is the construction of a streamlined steam locomo-

tive by one of the large manufacturers on the basis of wind-tunnel

experiments.

In 1933, the National Bureau of Standards constructed for the Cen-

tury of Progress Exposition in Chicago a small exhibition wind tun-

nel, in which were placed two models, one conventional and one

streamlined, designed and constructed by W. H. Boyd of the aerody-

namics section. Visitors were able to operate the wind tunnel and ob-

serve the very great difference in the air resistance of the two models.

This exhibit aroused considerable interest and my colleague, R. H.

Heald, has investigated not only the head-on air-resistance, but also

other aerodynamic characteristics in side-winds. Mr. Heald has also

made some studies of methods of representing the ground effect.

These studies? illustrate the application of the experimental methods

of aerodynamics to the streamlining problem.

In the application of aerodynamic methods to aeronautics, ventila-

tion, windmill design, wind-pressure measurements, and streamlin-

ing, the contribution of the results obtained from basic research in

aerodynamics may not be apparent to the casual observer. A little

reflection, however, will show that the discovery, for example, of the

very considerable effect of initial turbulence on many aerodynamic

measurements must modify both the experimental procedure and the

interpretation of the results. Similarly, with other advances in our

knowledge of how air flows. Of course, engineers do not stop building

airplanes, buildings, or automobiles until the new procedures are

developed. The next generation of engineers will take the information

which now seems new and use it, forgetting its origin. The present

3 Research Papers 591, 748, and 749.

122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

generation may continue to feel that basic research is useless, since

it does not quickly answer their immediate problems.

And so we end the 1077th meeting. Thirty years from now, at the

1573rd meeting, perhaps someone will again review these frontiers.

BOTANY.—New species and varieties of Sedum from China and

Tibet. N. FrROpERSTROM, Stockholm. (Communicated by E.

P. Ki.u1P.)

The United States National Museum recently submitted to me a

number of specimens of Sedum from China and Tibet, several of

which prove to represent undescribed species and varieties. Most of

these novelties were collected by Dr. Joseph F. Rock on his expedi-

tions to the interior of China for the National Geographic Society and

the Department of Agriculture.

Sedum aizoon L. var. obovatifolium Fréd., var. nov.

Kiangsi Province, Lu Shan; A. N. Steward 2602, July 20, 1922. (U. S.

Nat. Herb. 1,345,868, type).

Planta robusta, 15-20 cm longa. Folia caulina confertim alterna, obovata,

crebre dentata, obtusa, 25-35 mm longa. Inflorescentia densa, multiflora,

lata, circ. 1.53.5 cm.

Probably but a stout local form of var. latifolium Maz., with exceedingly

broad leaves. It seems to be nearest to a specimen from the Province of

Kwei-chau, near Tschingdshen, about 1200 meters attitude (Handel-M zazetti

10498 June 1917, Herb. Vienna and Fréderstrém), but the leaves of that

specimen are more spathulate-ovate.

Sedum concarpum Frdd., sp. nov.

Yunnan, Likiang, China, alpine meadows, Rock 5434, 1922. (type in my

herbarium; duplicate in U. S. Nat. Herb., no. 1,512,062).

Planta perennis, glabra, inferne decumbens et radicans, aphylla, in parte

media rosulam foliorum et caulem floriferum, erectum, 8-9 cm longum,

edens. Specimen nondum florens suberectum, multicaule, apice confertim

foliosum. Folia caulium sterilium longe petiolata, fere orbicularia, apice

obtusa et mamillata, basi breviter calcarata, 5-25 mm longa. Folia caulis

floriferi subpetiolata, obovata, 5-10 mm longa. Inflorescentia (unius speci-

minis) dense corymbosa, involucrata. Flores anisopentameri, breviter (3-4

mm) pedicellati; bracteae foliis supremis similes. Sepala basi non producta,

oblanceolata, prope basin leviter dilatata, apice obtusa vel subacuta, mamil-

lata, aequalia, circ. 5 mm longa. Petala late lanceolata, sutura basali con-

creta, apice recurva (mitellata), 7-8 mm longa, lutea; stamina interpetala

5.5-6 mm longa, stamina epipetala circ. 2 mm supra basin inserta; antherae

subovato-reniformes, circ. 1 mm longae. Squamae nect. late lineari-spathu-

latae, apice obtusae, circ. 1.10.4 mm crassae, in sicco rubrae. Carpella fere

erecta, e basi circ. 3 mm connata, non gibbosa, satis longistyla, 5-6 mm longa;

1 Received January 17, 1934.

MARCH 15, 1935 FRODERSTROM: NEW SPECIES OF SEDUM 123

folliculi 4—6—seminati, placentis rite ligamentosis. Semina subovoidea, brevi-

ter funiculata, glabra, cire. 1X0.4 mm.

Species distincta, ad S. chawveaudi Hamet et quodammodo ad S. leuco-

carpum Franch. spectans, folia autem petiolata laminis suborbicularibus,

sepala aequalia et carpella ad medium connata.

Sedum jupaernse Frdd., sp. nov.

Eastern Tibet, Jupar Range: among rocks on Totuch nira, north of Ba

Valley, 13900 ft. Rock 14365, July 1926 (U.S. Nat. Herb. 1,509,461, type).

Planta perennis, glabra, monoica?: flores masculos et femineos separatim

ferens (an specimen gemellum e duabus plantis dioicis compositum?). Rad-

ices plures, percrassae, perpendiculares, usque ad 25 em longae. Caudex

epigaeus pluries divisus, caespitem densum, fere orbicularem formans, basi

squamis desiccatis late triangularibus obtusisque cinctus. Caules desiccati

valde numerosi, graciles, caules novos fere aequantes. Caules steriles vel

nondum florentes erecti vel dispersi, apice confertim foliosi, 1.5—3 cm longi.

Caules floriferi numerosi, flabelliformiter dispersi, 2-4 cm longi. Folia omnia

lineari-lanceolata, basi non producta, integerrima, apiculata et acuta, 3-5

mm longa. Inflorescentia conferta, pauciflora; bracteae lineares, acutae,

2-2.5 mm longae. Flores omnes pentameri, breviter pedicellati. Flores mas-

culi: Sepala semioblonga, subobtusa, 1.5-2 mm longa. Petala subobovata,

basi leviter contracta, apice obtusa et submucronata, circ. 2.5 mm longa, in

sicco lutea; stamina omnia petalis fere dimidio breviora, 1.5-1.8 mm longa,

epipetala 0.5 mm supra basin inserta; antherae late reniformes. Squamae

nect. quadratae, apice profunde emarginatae, circ. 0.91 mm in sicco luteae.

Carpella minuta, late ovata, brevistyla, sterilia, vix 1 mm longa. Flores

feminei: Sepala ut supra. Petala late ovata, infra medium parum contracta,

apice obtusa, 2.5-3 mm longa, in sicco pallide lutea; staminodia interpetala

circ. 1 mm longa, apice obtusa, epipetala 0.5 mm supra basin inserta, deinde

0.5 mm longa, apice obtusa. Squamae nect. quadratae, apice leviter emargi-

natae, circ. 0.75 0.80 mm, in sicco luteae. Carpella suberecta, longitudine

parum inaequalia, subovoidea, brevistyla, 2.5-38 mm longa; folliculi 1—3—

seminati, placentis rite ligamentosis. Semina solitaria subovoidea, utrinque

alata, glabra, 20.7 mm; semina alia ovoidea, 10.35 mm.

Species vero peculiaris, habitu ad formas chinenses Sedi quadrifidi Pall.

maxime spectans. Ab omnibus autem differt: flores monoici?, petala lata,

stamina floris masculi petalis breviora, flores feminei staminodia ferentes

et eorum carpella pauciseminata.

Sedum likiangense Fréd., sp. nov.

Yunnan, Likiang, Rock 4991, 1922 (U. S. Nat. Herb. 1,512,574, type).

Planta perennis, glabra, dioica. Radix simplex, gracilis, circ. 10 cm longa.

Caudex epigaeus multoties divisus, densissime caespitosus, caespitem fere

orbicularem, circ. 10 cm diametro, formans. Squamae basales? Caules desic-

cati numerosi, graciles, breves. Caules steriles vel nondum florentes stellatim

* dispersi, apice dense foliosi, 2-3 em longi. Caules floriferi suberecti vel

dispersi, numerosi, 2-3.5 em longi. Folia omnia lineari-lanceolata, basi

breviter calcarata, apiculata et acutissima, 4-7 mm longa. Inflorescentia

uniflora vel conferte pauciflora; bracteae lineares, acutae, 3-3.5 mm longae.

Flores omnes feminei, tetrameri, breviter pedicellati. Calycis fundus cire.

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

1 mm altus, sepala semioblongo-triangularia, acuta, 3 mm longa. Petala

late oblonga, basi breviter obtuseque producta, apice obtusa, 3-4 mm longa,

in sicco rubra; staminum nullum vestigium. Squamae nect. trapezoideae,

latiores quam longae, apice planae et emarginatae, 0.6 0.8-1 mm, in sicco

rubrae. Carpella suberecta, subovoidea, brevistyla, stylis recurvis, basi

circ. 0.56 mm connata, 4-4.5 mm longa; folliculi multiseminati, centis rite

ligamentosis. Semina ovoidea, utrinque alata, glabra, cire. 20.75 mm.

Habitu valde ad Sedum juparense Fréd. spectans, itaque e vicinitate

Sedi quadrifidi Pall., a quo tamen differt habitu caespitosissimo, foliis

acutissimis et inflorescentia vulgo uniflora.

Sedum megalanthum Frdd., sp. nov.

Type sheets: & 8. W. Szechuan, Mt. Konka, Risonquemba, Konkaling,

3960-5335 m; cushion plant, flowers red; Rock 16415, June 1928. 2 Yunnan,

eastern slopes of Likiang Snow Range, Yangtze watershed, 14500-15000

ft; Rock 9848, 1923-24 (types in my herbarium; duplicates in U. S. Nat.

Herb., nos. 1,333,815 and 1,512,070).

Co-sheets: o Yunnan, Yangtze watershed, western slopes of Likiang Snow

Range, 12000-13000 ft; flowers carmine red; Rock 4346, May—June 1922.

co’ Yunnan, between Likiang, Tungshan, Tuinaoko, and Tsilikiang, dry

Yangtze drainage basin, 14500 ft; flowers red; Rock 9780, May 1923. &

Muli, 8. W. Szechuan, Mt. Mitzuga, west of Muli Gomba, 3050-4875 m;

rock plant, flowers purplish red; Rock 16596, June 1928. o& Muli, 8. W.

Szechuan, Mt. Siga, northeast of Kulu, 4770-4900 m; flowers red; Rock

17923, June 1929.

Planta dioica, perennis, 15-20 em longa. Caudex robustus, erectus, supra

terram brevis et latus, paulum divisus, apice squamis siccis, late triangulari-

bus acutisque cinctus. Caules desiccati plures, nigricantes, robusti, 10-15

em longi. Caules steriles vel nondum florentes erecti, robusti, 15-17 em

longi, apice convertim foliosi, eorum folia media spathulato-ovata, sub-

acuta, 25-30 mm longa. Caules floriferi numerosi vel pauci, erecti vel flabel-

latim dispersi, satis robusti, 10-20 em longi. Folia media et superna sub-

petiolata, laminis ovatis vel suborbicularibus, margine integris vel undulatis

vel crenatis, apice apiculato-obtusis, 6-25 mm longa. Inflorescentia dense

corymbosa, lata, 10—15—flora, foliis supremis involucrata; bracteae?; pedi-

celli sparse papillosi, calyce aequales vel longiores. Flores pentameri, magni.

Flores masculi: Sepala late linearia vel lanceolata, apice obtusa, 2-2.56 mm

longa. Petala pseudounguiculata, usque ad basin libera, oblanceolata vel

parum latiora, integra, apice obtusa, 7—-7.5 mm longa, in sicco lucide rosea.

Stamina omnia fere aequilonga, petala parum superantia, epipetala cire. 2.5

mm supra basin inserta; antherae ovatoreniformes, circ. 1 mm longae.

Squamae nect. rectangulares, basi parum dilatatae, apice divisae vel pro-

funde emarginatae, cire. 1.50.45 mm. Carpella sterilia, brevistyla, lanceo-

lata, 3-3.5 mm longa. Flores feminei: Sepala e basi dilatata lineari-lanceo-

lata, spice subobtusa, cire. 3 mm longa. Petala basi parum dilatata, ob-

lanceolata, apice obtusa, 5-5.5 mm longa, in sicco lutescentia; stamina nulla.

Squamae nect. quadratae, crassae, apice planae et leviter emarginatae,

circ. 1X1 mm. Carpella erecta, brevistyla, late lanceolata, basin versus

parum attentuata, 9-10 mm longa, in sicco rubra; folliculi multiseminati,

placentis rite ligamentosis. Semina subovoidea, glabra, utrinque alata, apice

elongata, 1.5-2 mm longa.

MARCH 15, 1935 FRODERSTROM: NEW SPECIES OF SEDUM 125

Species habitu Sedo rotundato Hemsl. valde similis, differt autem floribus

majoribus, petalis pseudounguiculatis, et staminibus alte insertis.

Sedum yunnanense var. muliense Fréd., var. nov.

Muli, Mt. Siga, northeast of Kulu, 4300 m; flowers purplish: Rock 17915,

June 1929 (type in my herbarium; duplicate in U. 8. Nat. Herb., no.

1,510,322).

Caules floriferi suberecti, 50-60 em longi; folia quaternata vel superne

ternata, integra vel undulata, obovata vel lanceolata, obtusa, 12-30 mm

longa; inflorescentia laxe thyrsoidea, e cymulis paucifloris composita; flores

masculi, 5-6—meri, petala subovata, 3 mm longa.

Ad var. forresti Hamet spectans, sed habitu, foliorum forma et inflores-

centia satis distincta.

Sedum yunnanense Franch. var. papillocarpum Fréd. var. nov.

Yunnan, prope Chungtien, circ. 3600 m. C. Schneider 3025, Sept. 1914,

(U.S. Nat. Herb., no. 776,718, type).

Planta “20-35 cm” longa, quinquecaulis; folia ternata, oblonga, dentata

vel sublobata, acuta, 10-30 mm longa. Flores feminei pro specie magni,

pentameri; carpella turgida, papillis altis dense instructa, stylis longis re-

curvisque, 5 mm longa; semina lanceolata, glabra, 1.9X0.45 mm.

Var. forresti Hamet proxima, folia autem ternata, carpella magna, dense

papillosa, et semina lanceolata.

2 Sedum yunnanense var. rotundifolium Fréd., var. nov.

Yunnan, Tungshan, Yangtze drainage basin, east of Likiang; flowers

yellowish; Rock 10517, 1923 (type in my herbarium; duplicate in U. 5.

Nat. Herb., no. 1,512,078).

Caulis solitarius erectus, 45 em longus; folia verisimiliter opposita, denti-

culata, orbicularia, obtusissima, 20-40 mm longa et lata; inflorescentia

paniculata, 13 cm. longa, e cymulis longe pedunculatis, paucifloris composita;

flores feminei, 4-5—meri, carpella 3 mm longa stylis recurvis.

Between var. henryi Hamet and Sedum sinicum Diels (which is probably

but a variety of Sedum yunnanense), but the leaves are decidedly orbicular

and very blunt, and the inflorescence elongate, almost thyrsoid, as in the

head species.

Q Sedum yunnanense var. strictum Frod., var. nov.

Muli, Mountains of Kulu, 4150 m; flowers red; Rock 18214, Sept. 1929

(type in my herbarium; duplicate in U. 8. Nat. Herb. no. 1,510,623).

Caules stricte erecti, usque ad 30 em longi; folia ovata vel lanceolata,

sublobata, apice obtusa, inferiora circ. 10 mm longa, media 15-20 mm.

superiora ignota; inflorescentia thyrsoidea, angusta, interrupta, 12 cm

longa, e cymulis parvis, confertis composita, flores feminei, 5-6—meri,

sepalis petalisque fere aequilongis, 1.2-1.4 mm; squamae nect. longiores

quam latae; cire. 0.80.6 mm, apice obtusae, in sicco rubrae; carpella basi

lata, turgida, stylis longis recurvisque, 3-3.5 mm longa; semina lanceolata,

glabra, utrinque breviter alata, circ. 1.20.4 mm.

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

Planta unica defecta, itaque non satis dignoscenda. Ad var. forresti

Hamet spectans, sed fortasse species distincta ob habitum et structuram

floralem.

PALEOBOTANY.—Fossil plants from the Malacatos Valley in South-

ern Ecuador... Epwarp W. Berry, The Johns Hopkins Uni-

versity.

In my discussion of the Flora of the Loja Basin in Southern

Ecuador? I mentioned the possible presence of late Tertiary conti-

nental deposits around the source of the Rio Catamayo in southern

Ecuador near Malacatos (Valladolid) and Vileabamba south of the

Sierra Cajanuma, which separates the headwaters of the Rio Zamora,

an Amazon tributary, from those of the Rio Catamayo, a Pacific

stream. This suggestion was based on Wolf’s early work.* Recently

through the kindness of Professor Clodoveo Carrién of Loja I have

received material from two localities in the Valley of Rio Malacatos

as the Catamayo is here called, one 2 km. north and the other 1 km.

south of the town of Malacatos.

The material from the former, the exact locality being along the

motor road under construction between Loja and Malacatos, con-

sists of but 4 specimens containing well preserved foliage in a fine

grained silt or tuff, whitish in color with some yellowish iron stains,

and of a sort which is identical with some of the lithologic facies of

the plant-bearing material around Loja. Four clearly recognized spe-

cies are represented. These are the terminal part of a pinnule of the

fern Goniopteris cochabambensis Berry, a leaf of the polygonaceous

genus FRuprechtia identical with Ruprechtia braunii described by

Engelhardt from the Pliocene tuff at Potosi, Bolivia , a leaflet of Cas-

sia linearifolia described originally from Loja by Engelhardt, and a

leaflet representing a new species of Pithecolobium which may be de-

scribed as follows:

Pithecolobium ecuadorensis n. sp.

Leaflets small, sessile, inequilateral, elongate elliptical in outline, some-

what coriaceous in texture, with entire margins. Length about 2.6 centi-

meters. Maximum width 10 to 11 millimeters. The tip is somewhat narrowly

rounded and except for its asymmetric attitude is practically equilateral.

The base is very inequilateral, being ascending on one side and truncately

rounded on the other. Midvein stout and curved. Secondaries well marked;

there are 6 or 7 on the concave side of the midvein and 7 or 8 on the convex

t | .Received December _10, 1934.

: poe Howany W. Johns Hopkins University Studies in Geology 10: 79-134,

pl. 1-6. f

3’ Wor, T. & Ratu, G. von. Zeit. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. 28: 392. 1876.

MARCH 15, 1935 BERRY: FOSSIL PLANTS SA)

side; except at the base they are regularly spaced, diverging from the mid-

vein at angles in excess of 45 degrees and camptodrome; toward the base

they are more crowded, those on the concave side being straighter and di-

verging at a more acute angle, those on the convex side are curved and

diverge at a wider angle. The tertiaries are thin but distinct and comprise

1 or more from the midvein between adjacent secondaries connected with

the latter by more or less percurrent nervilles.

This is a very characteristic form. Among previously described fossil

species it is very close to P. oxfordensis Berry of the lower Eocene Wilcox

group of southeastern North America. Among existing forms it is identical

with P. gracilliflorum Blake of Central America, although I have not com-

pared the fossil with all of the existing species and it may well be that there

are upper Amazon species equally similar to the present fossil form, in fact

there is a great similarity among the leaflets of all of the existing species.

The genus Pithecolobium, or Pithecellobtum as Martius spelt it, contains

over 100 existing tropical species, three-fourths of which are American

where they range from the Florida Keys to northern Argentina. In recent

years 14 fossil species, all American, have been described. The oldest com-

prise 4 forms from the lower Eocene of southeastern North America. There

is an Oligocene species in the same region; Miocene species in Porto Rico,

the Dominican Republic, Trinidad and Colombia; Pliocene species in

Bolivia and eastern Peru; and a Pleistocene form in Trinidad.

The second locality is 1 km. south of Malacatos on the west side

of an irrigation ditch known as “‘La toma de agua del Dr. Aguierre.”’

The matrix is a rather dense, bluish, secondarily iron-stained clay,

considerably deformed and consequently hackly, but whether due

to tectonic forces or slumping can not be stated. This clay has failed

to yield any traces of dicotyledonous leaves, but is packed with the

pinnules of the fern Elaphoglossum carrioni Berry already known in

abundance from several localities around Loja, and from its method

of occurrence obviously a compound and not a simple fronded type. In

addition there are several specimens of Goniopteris cochabambensis

Berry and Poacites magnus Englehardt, the last a large Chusquea-

like grass.

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 3

The present collection also contains several specimens of the fish

Carrionellus diu-mortuus Ivor White from the nudo of Cajanuma at

the southern end of the Loja Basin.

All of these forms, with the exception of the new species of Pithe-

colobium and the Ruprechtia, are common elements in the flora of the

Loja Basin, and the deposits of these inter-montane basins in the

Ecuadorian Andes are evidently all of approximately the same age.

Recently I described several occurrences of fresh water mollusks

and land plants from the Cuenca Basin in Ecuador.’ These came from

near the town of Biblian in the Azogues valley, so that there is now

definite evidence of the presence of similar late Tertiary continental

deposits of probably fluviatile palustrine and lacustrine character,

and possibly eolian as well, largely made up of volcanic ash, over a

north and south distance of upwards of 150 miles. It seems very prob-

able that similar fossiliferous deposits of approximately the same age

may be expected in the other inter-Andean basins north of the Cuenca

Basin.

Malacatos has a present altitude of 5187 feet which is from 1800 to

2100 ft. lower than the plant bearing outcrops in the Loja Basin and

about 2800 ft. lower than the similar outcrops in the Cuenca Basin.

At the present time the climate at Loja and Cuenca is arid temperate,

while that at Malacatos is subtropical. In all cases the fossil plants

are mesophytic tropical types and the evidence is clear that there has

been a considerable amount of vertical uplift since these deposits were

laid down. Whether or not their present altitude is to be ascribed to

differential uplift or to deposition at originally different levels can not

be stated, although it seems clear that all occurred at the same physi-

ographic stage in the geological history of the region.

‘ Berry, Epwarp W. This Journau 24: 184-186. 1934.

ZOOLOGY.—Life history of Longistriata musculi, a nematode para-

sitic in mice.| BENJAMIN ScHWARTZ and JosEPH E. ALICATA,

Bureau of Animal Industry.

This paper contains a brief account and discussion of the life his-

tory of a trichostrongyle, Longistriata musculi, parasitic in the intes-

tine of the mouse, Mus musculus, and readily reared to fertile matu-

rity in white mice. In addition to the conventional account of the life

history, the writers have included in this paper information on the

course of infection, including a consideration of such problems as the

1 Received December 10, 1934.

MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 129

egg production, susceptibility of the host to reinfection following the

apparent termination of egg production, and a discussion of the re-

sults obtained.

METHODS USED

Live infested mice were shipped to Washington, D. C., from Jeaner-

ette, Louisiana. The feces of these animals were mixed with moist

animal charcoal, and the mixture was placed on moist filter paper in

covered petri dishes. The infective larvae migrated to the edges of the

filter paper which were turned up at right angles to the bottom of the

glass dishes. The larvae were readily detected along the edges of the

filter paper, usually in clusters, adhering to the paper by their tails

and waving the anterior portions of their body. By cutting off por-

tions of the filter paper on which larvae had accumulated and placing

the bits of paper in a glass dish containing a small quantity of water,

the larvae could be counted readily when comparatively few were

present. When large numbers of larvae were obtained in this manner

they were counted by the dilution method.

In studying the development of the free-living stages, the writers

isolated single eggs with the aid of a capillary pipette, and placed each

egg in a drop of very dilute fecal emulsion in a small stender dish hav-

ing an inside diameter of 20 mm. The dishes were kept in a moist

glass chamber containing several layers of wet filter paper. The in-

dividual dishes were taken out of the moist chamber as often as neces-

sary and examined microscopically to ascertain the progress in de-

velopment.

The individual mice were kept and fed in large battery jars, a

folded paper hand towel being used as bedding. The animals were

fed on oats, and this was supplemented by cabbage twice a week. The

feces, bedding and remnants of food particles were removed daily,

and the jars were scalded with hot water and then dried. This pro-

cedure precluded the possibility of extraneous infection.

In experimental percutaneous infections, the infective larvae in a

small quantity of water were placed on various portions of the skin

of white mice anesthetized with ether, the mice being kept under

anesthesia until the water containing the larvae had evaporated. The

larvae were placed on portions of the skin from which the hair had

been clipped or shaved. Larvae were introduced into the mouth in a

small quantity of water with the aid of a pipette. The lungs, liver,

portions of the wall of the alimentary canal and other organs were

examined post mortem for larvae with the aid of the Baermann ap-

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

paratus and in press preparations. The heart’s blood and other fluids

of the body were removed to glass slides with the aid of capillary

pipettes, after being diluted with physiologic saline and examined for

larvae. Mature worms were obtained from the lumen of the intestine

by slitting the wall of this organ in a glass dish containing physiologic

saline and removing the worms from the solution as well as from the

lining of the intestine.

The Stoll dilution technique was used in making egg counts. The

total fecal output for 24 hours of the mice involved in this investiga-

tion in no case exceeded 0.22 gms., and usually weighed about 0.2

gms.; in a few cases the weight was as low as 0.05 gms. In making

fecal dilutions for the counts, practically the entire fecal sample was

used in nearly all cases. For the purpose of ascertaining the presence

of eggs, the salt flotation technique was used.

PREPARASITIC DEVELOPMENT

The segmented eggs eliminated with the feces of infested mice

hatched in about 24 hours in laboratory cultures maintained at a

temperature of 24°C. The newly hatched larva feeds almost continu-

ously and grows considerably during the feeding period which lasts

about 4 days during the summer months. The molting larva is en-

cased in a sheath, the cuticle of the first-stage larva, which apparently

is not discarded in water. On solid culture media, consisting of moist

animal charcoal to which mouse feces have been added, the sheath is

discarded. The exsheathed larva is infective to mice, and is morpho-

logically and physiologically identical with the third-stage larva of

other strongyles; as will be shown in connection with its morphology

and in the discussion, it should be regarded as corresponding to a

third-stage rather than a second-stage larva, on the assumption that

the first molt has been suppressed.

EXPERIMENTAL INFECTIONS THROUGH THE MOUTH

Experiment 1. Each of two mice (nos. 1 and 2) was fed 500 infective

larvae. Five days after the experimental feeding, the feces of these

mice were still free of eggs; 7 days after the experimental feeding a

few eggs of L. musculi were found in the feces of mouse no. 1 and

numerous eggs were found in the feces of mouse no. 2.

Experiment 2. Mouse no. 3 was given 6 feedings of 100 larvae each

as follows: May 23, 1 P.M.; May 24, 9 A.M.; May 25,9 A.M.,4 P.M.

and 9 P.M.; May 26, 9 A.M. The mouse was killed on May 26,

MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 131

11:30 A.M., 703 hours after the initial feeding and 23 hours after

the last feeding. Post-mortem examination for worms yielded the fol-

lowing results:

Thirty-five larvae showing no increase in size and no progress in

development beyond those of the infective larvae, were found in the

stomach; in the small intestine there were present 143 larvae, some

showing no evidence of growth beyond that of the infective larva,

others showing an increase in size, and some showing early signs of

the first parasitic molt, in addition to 140 preadult worms correspond-

ing morphologically to fourth-stage larvae of other strongyles; of

these worms 63 were males and 77 were females. The large intestine

contained 9 living infective larvae. The liver, lungs and heart’s blood

were examined for larvae with negative results.

Experiment 3. Mouse no. 4 was given 2 feedings of 100 larvae each

on May 29, 2:30 P.M., and May 31, 2:30 P.M. This mouse died some

time between 4:30 P.M., May 31, and 9 A.M., June 1. Post-mortem

examination revealed 30 larvae in the stomach showing no evidence

of growth beyond that attained by the infective larvae, 80 worms in

the small intestine, of which 49 (18 males and 31 females) were in

the preadult stage and 31 were in the infective stage. No larvae were

found in the liver and lungs.

Experiment 4. Mouse no. 5 was given 200 infective larvae on June 2.

On June 7, 5 days after experimental feeding, this mouse was killed

and examined for evidence of infestation with the following results:

The small intestine contained 32 worms of which 22 (15 males and

7 females) were in the preadult stage, but were already in the third

or final ecdysis, while the remaining 10 worms (6 males and 4 females)

were in the final, or adult, stage, having discarded the sheath of the

last molt before the host animal was killed. The females did not as

yet contain eggs in the uteri. No worms were found elsewhere in the

alimentary canal. The lungs were free of worms.

It is evident from these data that the entry of Longistriata musculi

larvae through the oral route not only leads to the development of

these worms to fertile maturity, as evidenced by the appearance of

eggs in the feces of the experimental host animal on the seventh day

following the administration of the larvae (experiment 1), but that the

entire development takes place in the small intestine, as shown in ex-

periments 2, 3 and 4. All the developmental stages, beginning with

those indistinguishable from the infective stage, through the various

growth changes in that stage, the first parasitic ecdysis, the preadult

132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

stage, which follows the casting off of the sheath, growth changes dur-

ing the preadult stage, the second parasitic ecdysis, and adult or final

stage which follows the final exsheathing, were found in the small in-

testine. No evidence was found of a migration of the larvae from the

alimentary canal to the liver or lungs. Longistriata musculi is, there-

fore, capable of achieving its full development in the intestine follow-

ing the ingestion of the infective larvae. The latter reach the stomach

first, and in this organ some of them, and perhaps all of them, linger

for a while and then pass into the small intestine where sexual ma-

turity is attained following growth and development accompanied by

2 molts. Preadult worms were already present in experimentally in-

fected mice about 48 hours after experimental feeding, and adult

worms, not yet fully grown, were found 5 days after experimental

feeding. The entire parasitic development, commencing with the in-

gestion of infective larvae and ending in egg-laying maturity, was

completed in 7 days.

EXPERIMENTAL INFECTIONS THROUGH THE SKIN

Mice were exposed to experimental infections through the skin with

a view to (1) determining whether the skin is a suitable portal of

entry of Longistriata musculi larvae into the body of the rodent host;

(2) tracing the course of migration of the parasites from the skin to

the small intestine; and (3) ascertaining the precise locations in the

body where the development of the larvae is resumed after being sus-

pended following the preparasitic molt. The results of experimental

percutaneous infections involving 17 mice, examined at various inter-

vals following the exposure of the skin to infective larvae, the inter-

vals ranging from 3 hour to 7 days after infection and corresponding

to the periods during which migration, growth and development take

place, are summarized in table 1.

An examination of the data presented in table 1 shows among other

things (1) that the larvae which were placed on the intact skin ac-

tually penetrated this tissue and that some of them were still present

in the skin layers 4 hours after having been placed on the surface;

(2) that at least one larva was found in the stomach as early as one

hour after the exposure of the skin to larvae and that fairly large

numbers of larvae were found in the stomach 3, 43 and 6 hours, re-

spectively, following the placing of the larvae on the skin; (3) that

the larvae were found in the stomach before they were seen in the

small intestine or that many more were present in the stomach than

in the small intestine up to 6 hours following skin infection; (4) that

MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 133

some larvae reached the small intestine as early as 3 hours after they

had been placed on the skin and that 10 hours after skin exposure

the number of larvae which were present in the intestine was in ex-

cess of those present in the stomach; (5) that 24 hours following ex-

posure of the skin to larvae, the latter were localized exclusively in

the small intestine, in which organ they continued their development;

(6) that preadult worms were present in the intestine about 48 hours

TABLE 1.—ReEsuU.ts oF PERCUTANEOUS INFECTIONS OF 17 MicE

Mouse Number ales denvee, Boos Lot Post-mortem results’

6 150 - 1 hour 20 larvae in skin and 1 in stomach; all in in-

fective stage

a 500 2 hours 24 larvae in skin

8 800° 1-3 hours 26 larvae in stomach and 5 in intestine; all in

infective stage

9 600° 144-316 hours | 22 larvae in skin; all in infective stage

10 800¢ 14-4 hours 1 larva in lungs, 2 in esophagus, 15 in stom-

ach, 7 in intestine; all in infective stage

11 1,000 4 hours 4 larvae in skin; all in infective stage

12 1,000 4 hours Negative

13 1,000 41% hours 6 larvae in stomach; all in infective stage

14 1,000 6 hours 76 larvae in stomach; all in infective stage

15 "150 10 hours 11 larvae in stomach, 27 in intestine; all in

infective stage

16 1,000 10 hours 34 larvae in stomach, 94 larvae in intestine;

all in infective stage

ile 1,000 24 hours 228 infective larvae

18 1,000 24 hours 109 larvae in intestine; stage not noted

19 1,000 48 hours 103 preadult worms in intestine

20 1,000 72 hours 72 preadult worms in intestine

21 200 120 hours 38 worms in intestine; 11 males and 11 fe-

males in final stage, and 9 males and 7

females in preadult stage

22 500 7 days 86 fully developed worms (41 males and 45

females in intestine)

§ Larvae placed on skin as follows: 400 at 11 A.M.; 200 at noon; 200 at 1 P.M. Mouse killed at 2 P.M.

Four consecutive infections of 150 larvae each at intervals of one hour. Mouse killed 30 minutes after

final exposure to infections.

° Four consecutive infections of 200 larvae each at one-hour intervals. Mouse killed 30 minutes after final

exposure to infection.

after skin exposure; (7) and that 5 days after experimental infection

the majority of the worms were already in the final (adult) stage, and

that 7 days after infection all the worms present in the intestine had

attained the adult stage.

Although the data on mouse no. 10 appear to indicate that the path

followed by the larvae from the skin to the intestine was the route

usually followed by skin-penetrating nematodes, namely from skin to

the lungs by way of the circulation and from the lungs to the intestine

by upward migration in the bronchioles, bronchi and trachea, and

thence back to the alimentary canal, the post-mortem data on the re-

134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

Fig. 1-14.—Stages"in the development of]Longistriata*musculi. Fig. 1.—Egg from

fresh feces. Fig. 2—Newly hatched larva. Fig. 3.—Anterior end of preinfective

larva. Fig. 4.—Preinfective molting larva. Fig. 5.—Infective larva. Fig. 6.—Tail

of infective larva (lateral view). Fig. 7.—Tail of infective larva (ventral view).

Fig. 8.— Male larva showing the beginning of the first parasitic molt. Fig. 9—Female

larva showing the beginning of the first parasitic molt. Fig. 10.—Posterior portion

of preadult male, 3 days after experimental infection. Fig. 11.—Posterior portion of

preadult male in the final molt, 5 days after experimental infection. Fig. 12.—Pos-

terior portion of preadult female. Fig. 13.—Anterior portion of preadult male. Fig.

14.—Bursa of young adult male, 5 days after experimental infection.

MARCH 15,1935 |= SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 135

maining mice given in table 1 do not support this assumption, despite

the evidence that the larvae reached the stomach before they ap-

peared in the intestine in some of the experimental infections. Careful

examination of the hearts’ blood, the fluid of the peritoneal and tho-

racic cavities, the lymph glands, lungs, liver, spleen, pancreas, kid-

neys, and other organs and tissues in which larvae might be present

if they were carried in the circulation, yielded consistently negative

results in all cases in which such examinations were made, and prac-

tically all the mice involved in this investigation were examined with

a view to determining the probable path of migration. Aside from this

negative helminthological evidence, no lesions suggestive of lung in-

vasion by nematode larvae were noted in any of the mice involved in

this investigation. There was a complete absence of petechial and ec-

chymotic spots in the lungs, lesions usually associated with the inva-

sion of the lungs by nematode larvae.

While the possibility of a direct migration to the alimentary canal

through the tissues and cavities of the body must be considered as an

alternative to migration through the lungs, the available evidence,

especially the failure to find larvae in press preparations of the wall

of the stomach and small intestine, lends no support to this possible

migratory route. The question of the path followed by the larvae of

Longistriata from the skin to the alimentary canal must be left open

for the time being.

MORPHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

The outstanding morphological features in the development of L.

musculi are shown in the illustrations (figs. 1-14). The brief descrip-

tions which follow help to clarify the illustrations.

Egg.—The egg (fig. 1) has a morphology characteristic of other tri-

chostrongyle eggs; it is 61 to 68u long by about 38y wide, elliptical

in shape, thin shelled, and segmented when found in fairly fresh feces.

Preinfective larva.—This larva (fig. 2) resembles those of other

members of the family Trichostrongylidae. It is slender, cylindrical,

tapering slightly anteriorly and more so posteriorly, and is provided

with a long filamentous tail. The newly hatched larva is from about

296 to 311y long by 17y wide. The mouth opening leads into a cylin-

drical buccal cavity or pharynx (fig. 3) about 15y long; the esophagus

is characteristically rhabditiform, 91 to 95yu long, its bulb being pro-

vided with the usual Y-shaped valve; the intestine, about 120u long

is followed by a short rectum. The nerve ring is about 65 to 79u, and

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

the genital primordium 152 to 167y, respectively, from the anterior

extremity. The tail is 60 to 68u long.

The first preinfective larva grows considerably, attaining a length

of 750u, including the long filamentous tail. At this stage the larva is

already ensheathed (fig. 4), the sheath inclosing a short-tailed infec-

tive larva.

Infective larva.—Though the infective larva undergoes only one

molt, it must be considered as the homologue of the third-stage infec-

tive larva of other Trichostrongylidae since it presents morphological

features typical of third-stage larvae. In the life cycle of L. muscula

the molt corresponding to the first molt of other strongyles is evi-

dently suppressed, the molt which takes place being the homologue

of the usual second molt since it gives rise to an infective larva.

The infective larva (fig. 5) has the general features of the first-

stage larva, differing from the latter principally in the structure of the

esophagus and the shape of the tail. It is 610 to 677y long and 26y

wide. The mouth is closed and leads into a buccal cavity or pharynx

about 8u long, which in turn communicates with a club-shaped esoph-

agus about 163 to 171 long; the intestine, about 425y long, is fol-

lowed by a rectum about 38yu long. The nerve ring, excretory pore and

genital primordium are 110y, 121 to 129, and 350 to 587y, respec-

tively, from the anterior extremity. The tail (figs. 6 and 7) is rela-

tively short and blunt, from 47 to 57y long, and is provided with two

subventral processes located about 10u from its tip.

Growth of infective larva in host.—In the intestine of the host the

third-stage larva increases gradually in length and in width, attaining

a size of 750u by 34u about 24 hours after experimental infection. Evi-

dence of the first parasitic molt was found in two larvae 725y long by

26u wide and 750yu long by 34u wide, respectively, the smaller worm

(fig. 8) being recognizable as a male and the larger worm (fig. 9) as

a female, by the respective positions of the genital primordia, that of

the female having migrated posteriorly. In the preadult stage the

vulva and vagina are seen in the relative position taken up by this

genital primordium.

Preadult stage-——The larvae grow considerably during this stage,

and show unmistakable sex differentiation. The anterior portion of

the larva (fig. 13) shows a small provisional buccal capsule and a

cuticular inflation around the head extending to a distance of about

25u posteriorly. The posterior portion of the male (fig. 10) is dis-

tended; the swollen portion forms the bursa and the indistinct folds

are the precursors of the bursal rays. In the female (fig. 12) the vulva

MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 137

and other accessory parts of the reproductive system, as well as the

ovary, are well developed about 3 days after experimental infection.

At this time the males are 1.38 to slightly over 2 mm. long by 40 to

77 wide in the swollen posterior portion, and the females are 1.8 to

2.35 mm. long by 50 to 75u wide. Five days after experimental infec-

tion, the preadult worms, already showing evidence of the last ecdysis,

are about 3.2 to 3.4 mm. long by 78 to 83y wide. The rays of the male

bursa are fully developed in the worms undergoing the final molt (fig.

11). In a small series of measurements involving only 2 worms of each

sex, the males were 3.11 to 3.4 mm. long by 78 to 93u wide and the

females were 3.2 mm. long by 76 to 83y wide.

Young adult stage—In young fifth-stage worms, 5 days after ex-

perimental infection, the largest females measured 5.1 mm., whereas

the largest males were only 4.1 mm. long. In the male at this stage

(fig. 14) the bursa and spicules have the characteristic morphology of

those of the fully developed adult worm.

DISCUSSION OF LIFE HISTORY

The life history of Longistriata musculi presents several interesting

features in its development, namely, (1) a deviation from the usual

four molts which characterize the development of nematodes gen-

erally; (2) the adaptation of the infective larvae to entrance into the

host through the mouth and through the skin, either avenue of infec-

tion leading to development of the worms to fertile maturity; (3) the

migratory course of the larvae following skin penetration, in which

the usual route through the lungs is apparently followed only excep-

tionally; (4) the speed with which the infective larvae reach the

stomach and intestine following percutaneous infection; and (5) the

failure of the larvae to undergo any evident extraintestinal develop-

ment following percutaneous infection.

With regard to the number of molts involved in the life history of

L. musculi, this case is paralleled by the development of Nippo-

strongylus muris as determined by Yokogawa (7). The latter species

molts only once during its free-living existence, and the larva is in-

fective to rats after discarding its sheath. Yokogawa regarded the in-

fective larva of N. muris as a second-stage larva and considered the

development of the worm in the lungs as involving 2 stages, though

only one molt was present. Following the first parasitic molt in the

lungs, Yokogawa regarded the exsheathed larvae as fourth-stage

larvae, a view which fits their morphological status. As already indi-

cated, the writers disagree with Yokogawa’s interpretation of the

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

morphological status of the infective larvae and with his assumption

that the growth in the lungs which culminates in a molt involves two

stages, one molt being suppressed and, instead, regard the infective

larva of N. muris as well as that of L. musculi as morphologically and

physiologically identical with other third-stage strongyle larvae. The

morphological identity is evident from the structure of the esophagus

which is club-shaped and lacks a masticatory apparatus, in contrast

to the rhabditiform esophagus containing a masticatory apparatus

which is characteristic of second-stage as well as first-stage strongyle

larvae. Moreover, the mouth of third-stage strongyle larvae is closed,

whereas in the first and second stages the mouth is open. In this re-

spect, too, the two species under consideration agree with third-stage

rather than with second-stage larvae. In addition to the facts already

cited, the time which elapses between the hatching of the larvae and

the attainment of the infective stage, 4 days in the case of L. musculi

and 4 to 5 days in the case of N. muris, lends additional support to

the view that one molt has been suppressed. Under favorable condi-

tions, strongyle larvae molt about 2 days after hatching and molt

again two or three days later, the entire preparasitic development be-

ing completed in about 4 to 5 days.

From the viewpoint of their behavior, the exsheathed free-living

larvae of N. muris and of L. musculi show the characteristic habits

of third-stage larvae. The exsheathed larvae of both forms migrate

upwards in culture dishes and bottles and are capable of infecting

susceptible hosts, behavior features not exhibited by any known sec-

ond-stage strongyle larvae. In the opinion of the writers, the prepara-

sitic development of N. muris and L. musculi, which culminates in a

molt, corresponds to the preparasitic development of other strongyles,

the first molt being suppressed; the single ecdysis which takes place

corresponds to the second molt of other strongyles. It is perhaps sig-

nificant that the only two species of strongyles of which the free-living

development involves only one molt, so far as known at present, are

rather closely related and belong to the family Heligmosomidae. It is

possible that the suppression of the first molt may be found to be a

common feature in the life history of the members of this family.

Since the various stages in the development of nematodes after

hatching are separated by molts, the infective larvae of Longistriata

and Nippostrongylus are actually second-stage larvae having a mor-

phology characteristic of third-stage strongyle larvae. However, in

order to avoid the designation “third-stage larva” for a worm which

has molted only once, the writers propose the following terms for the

MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 139

stages in the development of strongyles after hatching: First prein-

fective larva; second preinfective larva; infective larva; preadult;

adult. In the two species under discussion, the first two stages are

not separated by a molt and only four stages appear after hatching,

namely, (1) preinfective larva, (2) infective larva, (3) preadult, and

(4) adult. The proposed designations, which have been used in this

paper, have the additional advantage of eliminating the term “fourth-

stage larva” for a stage in development which can no longer be re-

garded as larval, since sex differentiation is not only well established

but is readily apparent even on superficial examination.

It is quite evident, in view of the rather ample data available on

the post-mortem findings in mice at various intervals following per-

cutaneous infection, that the larvae of L. muscult become arrested

in the lungs only exceptionally even if they do migrate through the

respiratory tract. This, as well as the probability of a more direct

course of migration to the alimentary canal, accounts for the excep-

tionally rapid appearance of the larvae in the stomach and intestine

following skin penetration. As is well known, the migratory course of

various species of hookworms following percutaneous infection is from

the skin to the lungs and results in a considerable delay of the larvae

in these organs. The boring of the larvae through the pulmonary

capillaries, their migration into and from the alveoli, along the

ramifying bronchioles, up the bronchi and the trachea and thence

into the esophagus, is evidently time consuming and accounts for the

relatively long interval elapsing between the penetration of the larvae

into the skin and their arrival in the intestine.

The essential facts in the development of L. musculi following the

entry of the larvae through the skin are in striking contrast to those

observed by Yokogawa and others with reference to the development

of N. muris. The infective larvae of the latter species develop in the

lungs, molt there, and enter the intestine as preadults. In fact the

writers (4) have shown that infective larvae of N. muris are incapable

of surviving in the digestive tract of rats, and if they fail to reach the

lungs after being swallowed, they pass into the large intestine where

they die and are expelled with the feces. L. musculz, on the other hand,

undergoes its entire parasitic development in the small intestine re-

gardless of the portal of entry into the body of its host. The ability

of the infective larvae of this species to penetrate the skin is not cor-

related with an extraintestinal developmental phase as it is in the case

of N. muris. The infective larvae of the latter, as a matter of fact,

are not well adapted to utilizing the mouth as a portal of entry into

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

rats, as shown by Yokogawa (7), Africa (1) and by the writers (5).

Nippostrongylus is a striking example among strongyles of an almost

obligatory skin penetrator, since this avenue of entrance into its hosts

leads to the lungs whereas an entry through the mouth results as a

rule in only a slight infestation or in a failure of the worms to become

established in the host.

COURSE OF INFECTION WITH L. MUSCULI

The course of infection with L. muscult, in so far as this can be de-

termined by quantitative studies in the form of counts, made at more

or less regular intervals, of the number of worm eggs in definite

amounts of the feces of the experimentally infected white mice, was

studied in 5 host animals of which 3 were infected percutaneously and

2 through the oral route. Each mouse received an initial dose of 500

larvae, and the 3 mice which were superinfected received a similar sec-

ond dose. The feces of these mice were examined on the sixth day fol-

lowing experimental infection, with negative results in all cases. Eggs

were found by the salt flotation technic on the 7th day and the

counts were begun either on that day or the next day.

Figure 15 is a graphic representation of the rise and fall in the egg

output of the worms in mice nos. 23, 24 and 25 which were infected

through the skin. The graphs show that the peak of egg production

in the case of mice nos. 23 and 24 was reached on the 9th day after

experimental infection; or 2 days after eggs were first noted in the

feces, and that eggs were no longer demonstrable in the feces on the

14th day in case of mouse no. 24 and on the 16th day in the case of

mouse no. 23. The two mice were superinfected through the skin 18

days after the first infection.

Mouse no. 23 was kept under observation until it died, 69 days

after superinfection. During this period only one egg was discovered

in the feces on the 9th day and three eggs on the 15th day after super-

infection; these eggs were demonstrated by the salt flotation tech-

nique. At necropsy no worms were found in the intestine of this

mouse.

Mouse no. 24 began to discharge eggs 7 days after superinfection

and was still discharging eggs 41 days after superinfection; two days

later this mouse died and post-mortem examination showed 18

gravid females and 13 males in the small intestine.

Mouse no. 25 reached a peak of egg elimination 8 days after ex-

perimental infection and showed no eggs in the feces 5 days later.

Two days after the mouse became negative it was superinfected

MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 141

percutaneously. An inspection of the graph shows that the slight egg

output from the worms of this mouse, beginning 9 days after super-

infection, disappeared after a few days, and that following this no

eggs were demonstrable in the feces for 30 days, except once as noted

on the graph. This was followed by the reappearance of small num-

bers of eggs in the feces during a period of 15 days at the end of

which, 65 days after superinfection, the mouse died. Post-mortem

“->~ om

ra) ~- vv

i=) SES

Zz Li

=a zs

$3 ‘&8

of se Mouse 25

SS a aA

« |

ow |

a o

ot = : ott — ee —

jh 5 30 35 40 50 55 60 65 70 75

u SO

DAYS AFTER INFECTION

Mouse 94

(500 larvae)

<— Superinfection

<——.—._,

—— +s _o ———s _

EGGS PER Yo GRAM

OF FECES (THOUSANDS)

ge oS 6 2b ao S ee

DAYS AFTER INFECTION

(500 Jarvae)

Mouse 95

+— superinfection

Te ee ee Ses en hae Can epee

DAYS AFTER INFECTION

EGGS PER Yo GRAM

OF FECES (THOUSANDS)

Fig. 15.—Graph of eggs per one-tenth gram of feces of mice nos. 23, 24 and 25, each

infected percutaneously with 500 larvae, and superinfected percutaneously with 500

larvae as indicated. x indicates 1 to 3 eggs in total fecal output.

examination showed 22 worms in the intestine, 9 males and 13 gravid

females.

From these data it is evident that following percutaneous infection

of mice with LZ. musculi, the egg output quickly reached a peak and

that this was followed by an equally rapid decline. A superinfection,

in so far as available data show, either failed to reestablish egg pro-

duction, or reestablished egg production at a level lower than that

attained during the initial infection. However, the egg output follow-

ing the second infection, was more stable and persisted for a rela-

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

tively long time. The egg output of the worms in mouse no. 25, fol-

lowing superinfection, involved a prolonged negative phase between

2 positive phases, due perhaps in part to a delayed development of

30 °

\ I

1\ !

28 ’ |

{

Mouse 97 a

EGGS PER Yo GRAM OF FECES CTHOUSANDS )

55 60 6s 70

DAYS AFTER INFECTION

Fig. 16.—Graph of eggs per one-tenth gram of feces of mice nos. 26 and 27, each

infected through the mouth with 500 larvae.

some of the worms, similar to the delayed development of Nzppo-

strongylus muris following superinfection, as determined by Schwartz,

Alicata, and Lucker (5), in 1931, and subsequently confirmed by

Chandler (2), Spindler (6), and Graham (8).

MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 143

The graphs shown in fig. 16 are of the egg output of mice nos. 26

and 27 infected through the mouth. An inspection of these graphs

shows not only a tremendously large output of the eggs as compared

to that of the mice infected percutaneously, but shows also a prolonged

persistence in egg production at high levels. Eggs appeared in the

feces of mouse no. 26 seven days after experimental infection and

were still being discharged in large numbers 25 days later when the

last egg count was made. Two days subsequent to the last egg count

this mouse died. Post-mortem examination showed 53 worms in the

small intestine, 18 males and 35 gravid females.

In mouse no. 27, infected on the same date as mouse no. 26, eggs

appeared 7 days following percutaneous infection. The increase in

egg output was more gradual than that in mouse no. 26. Egg produc-

tion was still on the increase 63 days after experimental infection, the

date on which the last count was made. Three days later the mouse

died; post-mortem examination showed 103 worms in the intestine,

41 males and 62 gravid females.

It is evident from an inspection of the graphs (figs. 15 and 16)

and from the data given in the text, that while eggs were first demon-

strable in the feces of the mice 7 days after experimental infection,

regardless of the portal of entry of the larvae, the number of eggs

discharged by the worms and the duration of egg production are cor-

related with the portal of entry of the larvae. The percutaneous route

resulted in a relatively slight egg output which lasted but a few days,

whereas the entry of the larvae through the mouth resulted in a rela-

tively tremendous output of eggs which persisted at high levels as

long as the mice survived. The rapid disappearance of eggs from the

feces of percutaneously infected mice can not be accounted for on the

assumption of slighter infections resulting from the entry of the larvae

through the skin, as compared to those resulting from the ingestion

of larvae. In a series of experiments involving 5 mice (nos. 28 to 32)

infected percutaneously with 300 to 500 larvae, post-mortem worm

counts made from 7 to 16 days following infection, yielded 102, 158

and 86 worms, respectively, in the mice given 500 larvae each, and

47 and 55 worms, respectively, in the 2 mice given 300 larvae each,

with males and females present in fairly equal numbers in all cases.

These figures compare favorably with the number of worms re-

covered from mice nos. 26 and 27 following infection through the

mouth. Assuming, therefore, that the wide discrepancy in the number

of eggs produced by the worms following the two avenues of en-

trance into the host are not due to differences in the percentage of

144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

larvae which actually reached the intestine and developed there to

maturity, it is probable that the migration of the larvae from the skin

to the intestine, involving a passage through various tissues and

cavities, stimulated the defense mechanism of the body. The response

to this stimulation is apparently of a sort which interferes with egg

production even before the worms die and are eliminated from the

intestine. The amazingly low egg output from the worms in mice nos.

24 and 25, despite the presence of 18 and 13 female worms, respec-

tively, in these two animals, as compared to the egg output of the

worms in mouse no. 26 which had approximately only twice as many

females, or even as compared with the egg output of the worms in

mouse no. 27 which harbored 62 females, is certainly suggestive of a

host resistance involving among other things inhibition of egg pro-

duction.

In the case of N. muris, the inhibition of development and of egg

production has been confirmed by several workers, as already stated,

since Schwartz, Alicata and Lucker (5) called attention to this fact.

Experimental percutaneous infection of rats with Nippostrongylus,

as determined by these workers, resulted in most cases in the rapid

attainment of a peak in egg production followed, as a rule, by an

equally rapid decline. In superinfections, produced following this de-

cline, but few or no eggs were demonstrable in the feces of a large

proportion of rats, despite the presence in the intestine of relatively

large numbers of worms, including gravid females. The course of in-

fection with Nippostrongylus in rats following the invasion by larvae

through the skin is similar, as a rule, to the course of infection with

Longistriata in mice following the same portal of entry. This general

similarity in egg production coupled with the same avenue of entrance

into the body, suggests that the passage of the larvae of the two

species under discussion through the tissues of their respective hosts

brings about a defense reaction to the invasion of the parasites which

terminates the egg production and, therefore, the multiplicative

capacity of the worms, in a few days.

SUMMARY

Under favorable conditions, the eggs of Longistriata musculi

hatched in about 24 hours after they were eliminated from the host,

Mus musculus, and the larvae attained their full development in 4

days. Following one preparasitic molt, the larvae were infective to

mice.

Although the infective larva has molted only once, its morphology

MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 145

and behavior are similar to known third-stage trichostrongyle larvae.

The view is advanced that the first molt has been suppressed, and the

molt which takes place corresponds to the second preparasitic molt of

related nematodes. As established by visible molts, it is a second-

stage larva, but, as established by morphology and behavior, it is the

equivalent of the infective third-stage larva of trichostrongyles in

general.

The following designations are proposed in this paper for the stages

in the development of strongyles: (1) First preinfective larva; (2)

second preinfective larva; (3) infective larva; (4) preadult; and (5)

adult. The suppression of one molt during the free-living period re-

duces the life cycle to 4 stages.

White mice were infected with Longistriata through the mouth and

through the skin, either portal of entry leading the worms to the

small intestine, where they undergo their entire development, ac-

companied by two molts.

A few hours after percutaneous infection, larvae were found in the

stomach and intestine and they became localized in the intestine ex-

clusively 24 hours after having been placed on the skin.

The precise route taken by the larvae from the skin to the intestine

has not been determined; evidently, the migratory course usually

followed by skin-penetrating nematodes, involving a passage through

the lungs, was followed only exceptionally by L. musculz, so far as

available data show.

Preadult worms, showing unmistakable sex differentiation, were

found in the intestine of white mice about 48 hours after experi-

mental infection through the mouth or skin, and final stage worms

(adults), not fully grown, were found in these host animals 5 days

after entry by either portal.

Regardless of the portal of entry of the larvae, eggs were first noted

in the feces of experimentally infected mice 7 days after the adminis-

tration of larvae.

The period of egg production in 3 white mice infected percutane-

ously with 500 larvae was limited to approximately two weeks. Super-

infection with 500 larvae following the apparent cessation of egg pro-

duction, yielded practically negative results in one case coupled with

absence of worms in the intestine, and resulted in only a small out-

put of eggs in the two remaining mice which harbored worms of both

sexes, the egg output being far below the expected output, consider-

ing the number of females present.

Following infection with 500 larvae through the mouth, the egg

146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

output from 2 mice reached a far higher level than that attained fol-

lowing percutaneous infection. Moreover, the high level of egg pro-

duction persisted until the mice died, 32 and 63 days, respectively,

following the ingestion of larvae.

It is suggested that the glaring differences in egg production by the

worms, the differences correlated with the portal of entry of the larvae

into white mice, is probably due to a marked stimulation of the de-

fense mechanism of the host coincident with the migration of the

larvae through various tissues following percutaneous infections. This

stimulation is either lacking or is not marked following ingestion of

larvae.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Arrica, Canptipo M. Studies on the activity of the infective larvae of the rat

strongylid, Nippostrongylus muris. Jour. Parasitol. 17: 196. 1931.

(2) CHanpunrR, Asa C. LHxperiments on resistance of rats to superinfection with the

nematode, Nippostrongylus muris. Am. Jour. Hyg. 16: 750. 1932.

(3) Granam, G. L. Resistance studies with the nematode, Nippostrongylus muris, in

laboratory rats. Am. Jour. Hyg. 20: 352. 1934.

(4) ScHwartz, BENJAMIN, and AuicaTA, JosppH E. The development of the tricho-

strongyle, Nippostrongylus muris, in rats following ingestion of larvae. Jour. Wash.

Acad. Se. 24: 334. 1934.

(5) Scuwarrz, Bensamin, AticaTa, JosepH E., and Lucker, JoHn T. Resistance

of rats to superinfections with a nematode, Nippostrongylus muris, and an appar-

ently similar resistance of horses to superinfection with nematodes. Jour. Wash.

Acad. Se. 21: 259. 1981.

(6) Sprnpuer, L. A. Relation of vitamin A to the development of a resistance in rats to

superinfections with an intestinal nematode, Nippostrongylus muris. Jour. Para-

sitol. 20: 72. 1933.

(7) Yoxoaawa, Sapamu. The development of Heligmosomum muris Yokogawa, a

nematode from the intestine of the wild rat. Parasitol. 14: 127. 1922.

MARCH 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 147

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

259TH MEETING

The 259th meeting of the AcADEMy was a joint meeting with the Medical

Society of the District of Columbia, held in the Auditorium of the New

National Museum on Wednesday, November 21, 1934. About two hundred

and fifty persons were present. President TuckERMAN introduced Dr.

Wituiam A. Waite, Superintendent of St. Elizabeths Hospital, who de-

livered an address on The frontier of the mind, which has been published in

full in this JouRNAL 25: 1-15, 1935.

260TH MEETING

The 260th meeting of the AcapEMy was held in the Assembly Hall of

the Cosmos Club, on Thursday, December 20, 1934. About 60 persons

were present. President TucKERMAN called the meeting to order and an-

nounced the nature of a series of programs planned for the future before

presenting THomas R. Henry of The Evening Star, who spoke upon, Intro-

ducing science to the public, and Austin H. Cuarxk of The Smithsonian

Institution, who discussed, Science and the public.

261ST MEETING

The 261st meeting of the Acaprmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club on Thursday, January 17, 1935. About sixty-five persons were

present.

Doctor ArtHuur L. Day, director of the Geophysical Laboratory of the

Carnegie Institution, delivered an illustrated address on Public safety in

earthquake regions.

At the close of the address the President declared a recess, and asked

the members to remain for the 37th annual meeting of the AcaDEmy.

37TH ANNUAL MEETING

The thirty-seventh annual meeting of the Acaprmy was called to order

by President TucKERMAN at 9:15 p.m., January 17, 1935. Thirty-five mem-

bers were present. The minutes of the 36th annual meeting were read by

the recording secretary and approved by vote of the Academy.

The corresponding secretary reported on the membership and activities

of the year 1934 as follows: Twenty-eight persons were elected and qualified

as regular members. Twenty-two resignations were accepted; twelve of

these were resident and ten non-resident members.

The Acapemy stood in respect as the Secretary read the list of six mem-

bers lost by death:

J. M. AupRicH ARTHUR SCHUSTER

K. F. Ke_uuERMAN Homer C. SKEELS

E. W. NELSon H. D. Giszs

On January 1, 1935, the membership consisted of 15 honorary members,

3 patrons, and 536 members, one of whom was a life member. The total

membership was 554 members, of whom 398 reside in or near the District

of Columbia, 133 in other parts of the continental United States, and 23 in

foreign countries. The net loss of membership was 1.

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

The recording secretary’s report summarized five public meetings, two

of which were joint meetings, one with the Philosophical Society, the other

with the Medical Society.

The treasurer’s report detailed the financial operations of the AcADEMy

with an itemized list of the assets. A summary of the report showed:

Cash balance, January 1) (O54: eee aee $1,365.35

Cash receipts to December 31, 1934................ 5, loge

Hotalicash tobe accounted tot. emer eee 6,497.52

Total disbursenients.< 42-2 bee ee ee ae 3,970.98

Cash balance, December 31, 1934.................. 2,526.54

Investments, cost at time of purchase, total......... 21,096.37

F. B. Scurrrz, chairman, read the report of the auditors verifying the

operations of the treasurer’s office and the assets of the Acapemy. On

motion of C. J. HumpHreys, both reports were accepted and ordered filed.

Joun A. STEVENSON, senior editor, read the report of the Journal which

covered the publication of Volume 24, for the year 1934. Volume 24 con-

sisted of 576 pages, including an eight page index. This compares with 588

pages in 1933, 572 in 1932, 552 in 1931; and 520 in 1930. It contained 78

original papers, as contrasted with 77 in 1933, 79 in 1932 and 80 in 1931.

Forty-five papers were by members of the Academy, and 33 were communi-

cated, of which latter number it should be noted six were by authors who

became members of the AcapEmy following the time of publication of their

papers. The original papers were illustrated by 42 line cuts and 27 half

tones. Space in the volume was distributed among the different sciences as

follows:

Pages

2 papers.on Mathematicsh: 4 sac a. see oe ese ee 25.3

I paper on Physical ceorraphvercias-... see ee ao eee 6.5

5 papersvon (Physicstand seoplysieses . 22e-ea 5-1 oe soe 44.3

9 papers on Chemistry, including pharmacology........ 37.6

3 papers on Geology, including hydrology and petrology 43.5

Ll paper on Biglosycc. ree or ee es oe een he ele 1a

15 papers on Paleontology and paleobotany............. 67.2

14 papers‘on Botany. 2 fe ogak ee oe Seer ee eee 109.6

20: papers on Zoologycos Ae ee ao ee ee 90.2

5 papers on Ornithology, malacology, entomology...... 42.9

3 papers on Ethnology and archeology................ 12.1

Proceedings of the Academy and affiliated societies occupied 53.4 pages,

as follows:

The Academy... See ee eee eee 4.6

Anthropolopical Society....45.0 505 eee ee eer ih.33

Botanical Societys [<..... ci nc see eee eee 3.9

Geological Societys:< 2... :. ccc. oust dn eee 18.6

Philosophieal-Society? = 2... 55202 ss0 65 soe ee ee 15.0

Scientific notes and news, and obituaries occupied the remaining 44.1

pages.

The recording secretary read the report of the tellers showing the election

of the following officers for 1935: President, G. W. McCoy; non-resident

vice-presidents, W. M. Crarx, E. D. Merritz; corresponding secretary,

Paut E. Hows; recording secretary, CHARLES THom; treasurer, H. G

MaRcH 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 149

AvERS; managers for the term of three years ending January, 1938, R. S.

BassueER, C. A. BROWNE.

The corresponding secretary read the nominations for resident vice-

presidents representing the affiliated societies, as follows:

Philosophical Society of Washington, O. H. Gisu

Anthropological Society of Washington, MatrHmw W. STIRLING

Biological Society of Washington, Cuas. E. CHAMBLISS

Chemical Society of Washington, J. F. Coucu

Entomological Society of Washington, HArRoLD Morrison

National Geographic Society, F. V. CoviLiE

Geological Society of Washington, H. G. Frrcuson

Medical Society of the District of Columbia, Henry C. MacatTEer

Columbia Historical Society, ALLEN C. CLARK

Botanical Society of Washington, NatHan R. SmitH

Archaeological Society of Washington, WaLtrErR HoucH

Society of American Foresters (Washington Section), S. B. DmTwILER

Washington Society of Engineers, Paut C. WHITNEY

American Institute of Electrical Engineers (Washington Section),

Herspert G. Dorsry

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Washington Section),

Hersert N. HAton

Helminthological Society of Washington, G. STEINER

Society of American Bacteriologists (Washington Section), H. W.

SCHOENING

Society of American Military Engineers (Washington Post), C. H.

BIRDSEYE

Institute of Radio Engineers (Washington Section), J. H. DELLINGER

On motion, the recording secretary was instructed to cast the vote of

the Academy for the nominees, and they were declared elected.

President TucKERMAN appointed past presidents WeTMorRE and ADAMS

to escort Dr. McCoy to the Chair. President McCoy made a brief address

and declared the meeting adjourned.

CHARLES THOM, Recording Secretary

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held

on January 15, 1935, elected the following officers for the ensuing year:

President, MattHEw W. StTiruinG; Vice-president, FRANK H. H. Roperts,

JR.; Secretary, Frank M. Srrzuer; Treasurer, HENRY B. Couuins, JR.;

Vice-President of the Washington Academy of Sciences, MattHEew W. STIR-

LING; Members of the Board of Managers, C. W. Bisnop, G. 8. Duncan,

H. W. Kriszcer, T. D. Stewart, W. D. Strona.

A report of the membership and activities of the Society since the annual

meeting held on January 16, 1934 follows:

Membership:

ATE EEME MID ENS nee ear Tee ove VON mails base pucloleas fue lewerexancro bre 3

INCULVERIECTUD CTS 5 PoE ON eR Tere orn ote etelie ree SP aaotete euch oisheeis 45

AISSOCIALERIIEIIUD CLS eee weet MRM eee te ae ercehnce chet ae ic ten shies Chal sseh gs 8

laloynopehAe TNs io cols aoc > 6a mee Goo 6 Plena oe ome nme Aoi 18

(Correspondincamemberseee eect beter ietetneicr riers 18

150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

Deceased:

ACELVG: MMCINDEOLS iz ios 5 aid coo 5 levies pono cae s VOICI EEN AMO Le ne pee 1

New Members:

Active members: + ...:.<acvs.c ce Oe an Ie en ene ee 1

Associate members « so). ie cee, hoes oO ee ee ee i ee 1

The Society lost through death one of the oldest and most devoted active members,

Mr. Fevrx Neumann, February 7, 1934.

Members elected during the year were: Dr. W. M. Cops and Mr. W. J. WINTER.

The financial statement (Treasurer’s report) is as follows:

Funds invested in Perpetual Building Ass’n............ $1170.43

21 shares Washington Sanitary Improvement Co., par

value. $10! per share... asa ..12 sniacisieiel parker aero a eke 210.00

2 shares Washington Sanitary Housing Co., par value $100

Per shares ess Mc ea ek oO ee 200 .00

@ashvin: bank: .4)5.0.6).cnelend eee oe ee 228 .37

TOtal Sof gateeerbas atcae Sat Re ee ere ee $1808.80

Bills outstanding:

To American Anthropological Ass’n................. $50 .00

To Printers 2. gos eee ore ore ee edo ee eres 3.75

Rotal sc. eee eee ee Ree ee 53.75 53.75

Net: Balance. 2 }.ctcc ear: = tyeceere ween teers eee Oa eg ere Oe $1755.05

Papers presented before the regular meetings of the Society were as

follows:

January 16, 1934, 649th regular meeting, Indian food plants and their

historical significance, by W. T. Swincie, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.

Department of Agriculture.

February 20, 1934, 650th regular meeting, The historical implications of

Some Algonquian Studies, by T. Michelson, ethnologist, Bureau of American

Ethnology.

March 20, 1934, 651st regular meeting, Future problems in anthropology,

by A. Hrpuicka, curator of physical anthropology, U.S. National Museum.

April 17, 1934, 652nd regular meeting, Some laws of the early Iroquois

league, by President J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist, Bureau of American

Ethnology, who gave his retiring address.

October 16, 1934, 653rd regular meeting, Louisiana relatives of the Ohio

mound builders, by F. M. Srerzuer, assistant curator, Division of Arche-

ology, U. S. National Museum.

November 20, 1934, 654th regular meeting, Archeological explorations in

northeastern Honduras, by W. D. Strona, archeologist, Bureau of American

Ethnology.

December 18, 1934, 655th regular meeting, How the northern Indian hunts,

by J. M. Coopmr, Catholic University of America.

All regular meetings, except the 651st, were held in Room 43 of the U. S.

National Museum.

Frank M. Serzumr, Secretary.

MARCH 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 151

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Notes

The Great Drought of 1934.—Just how bad the Great Drought of 1934

was, has been made the subject of a special study by meteorologists of the

U. S. Weather Bureau. All sections of the country, except along the At-

lantic coast, the east Gulf area, and the Pacific Northwest, had below normal

rainfall and much of the country had either the lowest of record or the total

for the year approximated the previous low, Mr. Krincrr states. Colorado,

Indiana, North Dakota, Ohio, and South Dakota had the least annual rain-

fall of record, while Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, Utah, and

Wyoming had only about one inch more than their previous low record.

Thus approximately one-fourth of the States had in 1934 either the least

precipitation of record or the annual totals approximated the previous low.

Only one-third of the States had as much as normal. Almost as important

as the rainfall in producing unfavorable weather effects were the high tem-

peratures, especially during the growing season, which made less effective

the rain that did occur. It was an abnormally warm year everywhere, except

locally in the Northeast. A large northwestern area had the warmest year

of record with some localities showing an accumulated excess of temperature

as great as 2,000 degrees, or an average daily excess of nearly 6 degrees.

U.S. Public Health Service.—A sharp outbreak of cerebrospinal menin-

gitis, fortunately not long-lived, occurred in the F.E.R.A. transient camps

in Washington and Fort Eustis, Va., early in February. Hygienic and quar-

antine measures recommended by officers of the U. 8. Public Health Service

were put into effect and brought the epidemic under control.

Experiments by Dr. CHartes ArmstrRona of the National Institute of

Health have shown that mice can be made resistant to encephalitis of the

St. Louis 1933 type by dropping into their noses, at seven-day intervals, a

three per cent solution of sodium alum. This experimental work, he states,

“suggests lines of study which may possibly lead to the development of

procedures of practical value in preventing infections contracted by way

of the nasal mucous membranes.”’

Legislation for the promotion of national economic security, now pending

before Congress, provides for $10,000,000 to be expended in public health

work, of which $2,000,000 is earmarked for basic research.

Geological Survey.—Continuing the series of brief reports being sent to

State Geologists, there has been transmitted an article on the copper and

iron deposits of Virginia, describing recent work under a Public Works allot-

ment. These deposits have been mined intermittently for at least 150 years.

First the rich oxidized iron ores were smelted in crude furnaces. Later,

methods of iron production improved until a generation or two ago Virginia

was one of the leading producers of iron. Concomitantly with the increased

iron output, the rich copper ores at water-level were exploited. Now prac-

tically all that remains are the original masses of iron sulphide, carrying

inconsequential amounts of gold and copper, but these form a large potential

reserve of raw material suitable for the manufacture of sulphuric acid.

National Bureau of Standards.—Dr. L. B. TuckERMAN of the mechanics

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

and sound division has been asked to deliver the Edgar Marburg Lecture

for 1935 at the annual meeting of the American Society for Testing Materials

in Detroit next June.

Dr. W. W. Cosientz embarked on January 31 for a month’s stay in

Porto Rico where he is to advise at their school of tropical medicine on

methods and equipment for measuring the solar ultra violet radiation useful

in therapeutics. He will also carry on personal research on the measurement

of the solar ultra violet radiation at this tropical station.

Children’s Bureau U. S. Department of Labor.—The rickets studies carried

on by the United States Children’s Bureau in collaboration with the Pedi-

atric and Surgical Departments of the Yale School of Medicine, have in-

cluded a clinical investigation of the relation of rickets to defective forma-

tion of teeth and to the occurrence of dental caries, the results of which

have been described by Martua M. Exrot, M.D. and Susan P. SouTHER,

M.D., of the Children’s Bureau, and Bert G. ANpERsoN, D.D.S. and Sum-

TER S. ArRNIM, D.D.S., of New Haven. The data assembled in this study

indicate that enamel hypoplasia of the permanent teeth, especially the

type characterized by a symmetrical distribution of defects in those teeth

which are forming during infancy and early childhood, is frequently associ-

ated with rickets; that the more severe the rachitic process the more fre-

quently do hypoplastic defects develop; and that, conversely, when severe

hypoplasia was found, a definite history of moderate or severe rickets was

established in nearly all cases by roentgenologic evidence. Dental caries

too was found more often in children with a known history of rickets. How-

tory, since caries appeared more often in teeth with hypoplastic defects

than in those with none, it is possible that the latter relationship may ac-

count for the former. The data showed that children who have had several

of the severe infectious diseases of childhood (including pneumonia and

bronchitis) tend to have defects in the enamel more often than children who

have had fewer of these diseases.

U.S. National Park Service.—There appears to be a definite move on the

part of interested organizations and individuals to change the status of the

Olympic National Monument to that of a national park, and with this

possibility in view the National Park Service is carrying on some careful

surveys in the area in order to have a full knowledge of the Olympic elk and

its migrations before attempting to define boundary lines.

Smithsonian Institution—The National Zoological Park will receive

substantial additions and improvements to its housing accommodations

through an allotment of $680,000 of PWA funds announced January 16 by

Secretary of the Interior Ickes. Contemplated changes thus far announced

by Director Wm. M. Mann include an addition to the bird house, a new

elephant house, and a house for the small mammals, with special accommo-

dations for the apes. The elephant house and pens will be turned over to

the hippopotamus and the rhinoceros, at present in rather limited quarters.

a0 ee an urgent need of the Zoological Park, a machine shop will also

e built.

Evidence that the practice of sacrificing a woman before going on the

warpath was a widespread practice among North American tribes has been

uncovered by Dr. TRuman MicuHetson of the Bureau of American Ethnol-

ogy. He has found traces of this custom in the literature relating to the

MARCH 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 153

Ojibwas and Hurons. Hitherto it was supposed to have been confined to

the Pawnee.

New specimens of piranha, the Brazilian man-eating fish of the natural

history books, have been added to the National Museum collections by

B. A. KRvuxKorr.

Carnegie Institution of Washington.—The moon’s mountainous surface

will be used as an astronomical yardstick by Dr. Epison Prertit and members

of the astronomical staff of the Mount Wilson Observatory, in an endeavor

to obtain information about the surface of the planet Mercury. The per-

centage of radiant heat in total reflected radiation from the moon’s surface

varies with the lunar phases, it has been found. Radiological observations

will be made on Mercury as it passes through its phases, and this recently

acquired knowledge about the moon will be applied to the data thus ob-

tained.

Important scientific messages from the Watheroo Magnetic Observatory

in Western Australia to the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism are trans-

mitted through radio station VK5HG in Southern Australia to amateur

stations in the eastern United States whence they are received by the De-

partment.

Dr. G. R. Warr, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, by invita-

tion attended the 41st annual meeting of the American Society of Heating

and Ventilating Engineers at Buffalo, New York, January 27-30, 1935,

where he presented a paper on Large-ion and small-ion content of air in

occupied rooms by himself and O. W. TorrzEson.

Voleanoes in Central America are the objective of a two-man expedition

from the Geophysical Laboratory, now in the field. The two volcanologists,

Dr. J. W. Greig and Dr. E. G. Zins, expect to spend about three months

in Salvador and Guatemala.

Dr. ALBERT F. BLAKESLEE, Acting Director of the Department of Genet-

ics of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, located at Cold Spring Har-

bor, Long Island, was elected on January 28 a corresponding member of

the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of France.

Helminthological Society of Washington—The Proceedings of the Hel-

minthological Society of Washington are now being published as a separate

journal. It is devoted to the publication of notes and papers in helminthology

and related fields and includes parasites of both plant and animal hosts.

Those interested either as contributors or subscribers should communicate

with the editor, Jessr R. Curistre, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. 8. Dept.

of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

Pan-American Union.—The meeting held February 10 by the Wash-

ington Chapter of the Pan-American Medical Association at the Legation

of Panama was devoted to intestinal surgery. A meeting is being planned

for March in Georgetown University in honor of Col. B. K. AsHrorp, who

discovered that the so-called tropical anemia in Puerto Rico was really

caused by hookworms, thus laying down the basis for a worldwide campaign

against the disease. The officers of the Chapter are Dr. Henrr DEBAYLE,

Charge d’Affaires of Nicaragua, president, Surg. Gen. Ropert U. Patrrer-

SON, vice-president, and Dr. A. A. Mott, scientific editor of the Pan-Ameri-

can Sanitary Bureau, secretary.

154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3

Society of American Foresters.—The Society of American Foresters held

its thirty-fourth annual meeting in Washington, January 28, 29, and 30.

The afternoon session of Wednesday, January 30, was devoted to a sym-

posium on forest fire control in the coastal plains section of the South.

Participating were: A. B. Hastines, E. L. Demmon, W. G. WAHLENBERG,

S. W. Greens, I. F. Etprepex, H. L. Sropparp and Cuaucry Kuan. It

was developed that scientific observations, mostly under control conditions

where comparison with like unburned areas is possible, have shown that

within reason fire is a good thing for longleaf pine. This species is fire-re-

sistant in all except its first few months of life, because of its thick bark and

its trick of protecting its all-important leader bud with a dense bundle of

leaves. Fire kills less valued competing pines and hardwood species, and lets

the young longleaf trees grow.

Fire, it has also been found, helps the longleaf seedlings against one of the

most serious of pine diseases, the brown spot of their leaves. In one experi-

mental area, young pines kept wholly protected from fire showed twice as

much of this infection as did trees of similar age that stood on ground regu-

larly burned over. B

Fire appears also to be beneficial to the soil itself, and to the grass that

grows among the trees, and thus to the cattle that eat the grass. Unburned

areas, to be sure, did have soil somewhat more porous that that in burned

areas; but this advantage was offset by the better chemical condition of the

burned-over soil. Burned-over soil produced twice as much green weight

of vegetation, which was also of better nutritive quality than the plants

from unburned areas. And cattle grazed in burned-over woods gained more

weight and were sleeker-looking than comparison herds kept in fire-free

woods.

The common practice of burning the woods every spring is too much.

Much less frequent use of fire is calculated to bring better results, in all

probability. Tests of just how often the red demon can be invoked with

benefit rather than harm are now in prospect.

News BRI£Fs

Wild ducks are scarce in Mexico, no less than in this country. Investi-

gators of the U.S. Biological Survey, who are studying certain duck species

that nest in the United States and Canada and winter in Mexico, have

learned from Mexican sportsmen, as well as from their own observations,

that the serious duck shortage felt for some years in this country has its

close reflection in our next-door neighbor on the south.

Four thousand acres of forest still in completely primeval condition, in

the northwest part of Pennsylvania, have been acquired by the U. 8. Forest

Service and will be kept as a primitive area. The forest, known as the Tion-

esta tract, consists of a mixed stand of hardwoods and hemlocks. The tract

is of historic as well as scientific interest, for it is the last uncut, unburned

remnant of the wilderness that gave the colony founded by William Penn

the name Penn’s Woods—Pennsylvania.

MARCH 15, 1935 OBITUARY 155

@bituary

Harry Drake Grsss, consulting chemist, died December 28, 1934, after

a brief illness, at Hyattsville, Maryland. He was born March 10, 1872, at

Cincinnati, Ohio, and received his technical education at Rose Polytechnic

Institute and Cornell University, obtaining the degree B.S. from the latter

institution. Stanford University granted him the Ph.D. degree in 1913. He

was assistant professor of chemistry, Oregon Agricultural College, 1901-3;

research assistant, Stanford University 1904-5; chief chemist of the San

Francisco Board of Health, 1905-7. The years 1907-14 were spent in the

Philippine Islands where he held a series of important positions including

chief, Food and Drug Inspection Laboratory; chief, Department of Chem-

istry, University of the Philippines; assistant to the director, Bureau of

Science; and finally head of the Food and Drug Board of the Islands. Com-

ing to Washington in 1914 as assistant chief, Hastern Food and Drug In-

spection District, he became in 1915 chemist in charge of the Color Labo-

ratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. During the war he served as head of the

Division of Chemical Technology and Industrial Relations of the National

Research Council. At this time he was also head of the Chemical Section

of the Department of Science and Research, Bureau of Aircraft Production.

Following the war he was research chemist, EK. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.,

1919-22; senior chemist, National Institute of Health, 1922-29; and finally

consulting chemist, 1929-34. In addition to the Washington Academy of

Sciences, Doctor Gibbs was a member of the Philippine Islands Medical

Association, American Chemical Society, Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft,

A.A.A.S., Delta Tau Delta and Sigma Xi. He was the author of numerous

publications in his chosen field and the holder of a number of patents on

chemical processes.

CuarLeEs Davin Wuitte, of the U. S. Geological Survey, died at his home,

2812 Adams Mill Road, Washington, D. C., February 7, 1935. He was

born at Palmyra, N. Y., July 1, 1862, and received the B.S. degree from

Cornell University in 1886, that same year joining the U. 8. Geological

Survey as assistant paleontologist. From that grade he advanced steadily

to chief geologist in 1912, a position he filled until 1922. His latest title was

that of principal geologist. Doctor White’s early work was concerned with

the fossil plants from the Cretaceous sediments occurring on the coastal

plain from Virginia to Marthas Vineyard Island, but most of his life’s work

was concentrated on the paleobotanic, stratigraphic, and genetic problems

connected with the origin and occurrence of coal and petroleum. Numerous

papers on these subjects bear witness to his industry and productivity. At

the time of his death he was engaged in an extensive study of the coal floras

of Illinois and Oklahoma. Doctor White was honorary curator of fossil

plants at the U. S. National Museum; research associate of the Carnegie

Institution; and a member of many scientific societies, including the Nation-

al Academy, American Philosophical Society, Geological Society of America,

the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the Washing-

ton Academy of Sciences. He was honored with the Sc.D. degree from the

University of Rochester in 1923 and from Williams College in 1925. One of

his recent awards was the Walcott medal in April, 1934, for his investiga-

tions of primitive life in early geologic strata.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL ParEeRs on

Physics.—Frontiers of aerodynamics. - Hucu L. Drypmn.................- 3

Botany.—New species and varieties of Sedum from China and Tibet,

FRODERSTROM.«. 6+. 6000s e esse eset e eee ere ener e eee ee esses

Paleobotany.—Fossil plants from the Malacatos Valley in Southern Ecu:

Epwarp W. Berry. beeen eee ee eee n eee ee tet e ee eee nee en eee

Zoology.—Life history of Longistriata musculi, a nematode parasitic in

Bensamin Scuwarrz and Josppa H. ALICATA......... 6... 060s e sees ee

PROCEEDINGS"

TH: ACADEMY. « .\< 5/55 sis cuss ine oie eV as anne aera lar erin ee

The Anthropological peeks ke ee GARE

Aprit 15, 1935 No, 4

JOURNAL

™

) eae OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

___ OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

JOHN A. STEVENSON F. G. Brick wEDDE Rouanp W. Brown

; BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BURBAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

: H. T. WmEnseu Haroitp Morrison

SS Lae PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCINTY

hs om E. A. GoupMaNn W. W. Russy

. r BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GBOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Aanges CHASE J. R. Swanton

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCINTY

R. E. Greson

CHEMICAL SOCIBTY

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Authorized January 21, 1933.

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This JourNnAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes:

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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: G. W. McCoy, National Institute of Health.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 25 Apri 15, 1935 No. 4

GENERAL SCIENCE.—Some interesting applications of deutervum.'

F. G. BrickwEeppE, National Bureau of Standards.

With practically all the elements having isotopes, many in much

higher concentrations than deuterium, deuterium owes its importance

first of all to the large percentage difference in mass of the two hydro-

gen isotopes—a difference of 100 percent. As a result all differences

in properties depending on mass are much greater in the case of

these isotopes than in case of the isotopes of any other element. In

the second place deuterium owes its importance to the electrolytic

method of separation by means of which it can be obtained in a pure

state conveniently and rapidly.

The electrolytic fractionation of deuterium is itself a very inter-

esting problem. The question as to why a separation does occur has

not yet been settled, but from experimental and theoretical investi-

gations of this process, we have a much better understanding than

formerly both of the evolution of hydrogen at an electrode and of its

overvoltage with respect to various metals. It can be definitely stated

that this separation does not result from a difference in electrode

potentials of hydrogen and deuterium, the difference here being much

too small. Differences in mobilities of the ions or in their rates of

diffusion will not account for it. It has been deduced that the evolu-

tion of hydrogen at an electrode takes place in two steps. The first

consists of the discharge of a positive H+ ion in solution and the ad-

sorption on the metal electrode of the neutral H atom formed. From

the energy changes involved, it has been shown that these two actions

take place in one step. The second step is the formation of molecules

1 Published with the approval of the Director of the National Bureau of Standards

of the U. S. Department of Commerce. The contents of this paper were presented on

February 16, before the 1080th meeting of the Philosophical Society as part of a paper

entitled, The uses of deuterium and the measurement of its vapor pressures. The vapor

pressure measurements are contained in Vapor pressures and derived thermal properties

of hydrogen and deuterium by R. B. Scort, F. G. Brickweppkg, H. C. Urry and W. H.

Waut, Jour. Chem. Physics, 2: 454. (1934), ind in The ortho- para-vapor pressure

difference in deuterium by F. G. Brickweppe, R. B. Scort, and H. 8. Taytor, to be

published. Received Feb. 16, 1935.

157

158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

from the adsorbed atoms and the desorption of the molecules from

the electrode. Fractionation results from differences in the rates for

hydrogen and deuterium of one or both of these two processes.

The use of deuterium enables us to do two very desirable things

in chemistry. In the first place we can investigate the effect of mass

¥ 30

Fig. 1.—The equilibrium constant of the reaction, H2+D.—2HD, as a

function of the temperature in degrees Absolute.

independent of chemical nature upon equilibrium concentrations and

rates of reaction. In the second place, hydrogen atoms taking part

in chemical reactions can be tagged and distinguished from one an-

other.

A reaction that has been extensively investigated is the reversible

reaction of hydrogen with deuterium to form hydrogen-deuteride

H.+D.2=2HD.

The equilibrium constant of this reaction, K, a function of tempera-

ture, is

[HD }?

ed elo.

where [HD], [H.], and [D.] denote the concentrations of HD, H:, and

APRIL 15, 1935 BRICKWEDDE: DEUTERIUM 159

D., respectively. In Fig. 1 are represented? the experimentally and

theoretically determined equilibrium constants of this reaction. The

curve representing the theoretical results was determined by the

method for the calculation of thermodynamic quantities from spectro-

scopic data. Were it just as probable when H, and D, molecules

collide for them to exchange atoms with each other to form HD mole-

cules as it is for HD molecules to exchange atoms on collision to

form H, and D, molecules, the equilibrium constant would be 4. It

is seen, however, that the probability of exchange is greater for HD

than for H, and D, and the concentration of HD is less than would

be expected from the statistics of collisions. The underlying physical

reason for the difference in the probabilities of the exchanges is the

difference between the zero point energies of these three molecules,

1.e., the difference between their energies at the absolute zero of

temperature. When H and D atoms combine with each other, they

form H:, D. and HD in concentrations given by this equilibrium con-

stant, K(7T). We see then that on collision H and D atoms prefer to

unite with their own kind rather than to mix.

Other reactions have been investigated and the theory for the

calculation of thermodynamic quantities is substantiated. To know

this is important, because the experimental measurement of equilib-

rium concentrations is very difficult and can not be carried out with

the precision or accuracy with which the constants can be determined

theoretically.

The rates at which hydrogen and deuterium react with other sub-

stances are being studied. In the calculation of the rates at which

substances react, factors enter that are not well understood, and

satisfactory computations of reaction rates are not possible. Through

investigations of the comparative rates of hydrogen and deuterium

with other substances, an effort is being made to determine the effect

of mass on reaction kinetics. In most cases, the rates with hydrogen

are greater than with deuterium. The rates for three interesting re-

actions are:

rate of H.+Br.—-2HBr

rate of D2+Br;>2DBr >

rate of H.+Cl.—-2HCl

rate of D2+Cl.>2DCl

5.0 at 308°C.

13.4 aun 07:

2 This Figure and Tables I, I], and III were taken from Hydrogen isotope of atomic

weight two by H. C. Urry and G. K. Tra, Rev. of Modern Physics, 7: 34. (1935).

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

rate of H:+Cl.—-2HCl

rate of D.+Cl.>2DCl

rate of 2H.+O.—-2H.O

rate of 2D.2.+0.—-2D.0 .

To demonstrate the usefulness of deuterium in tagging or distin-

guishing hydrogen atoms let us consider the simple reaction that takes

place when ammonia is dissolved in water:

NH;+H.O=NH,.OH.

Ammonium hydroxide is formed and since the reaction is reversible

this decomposes into NH3, dissolved, and H.O. Now it is of interest

to ask whether or not the same three H atoms are attached to the

N atom of an ammonia molecule after the decomposition of NH,OH

as were originally attached to it. Or it may be asked if the four H

atoms attached to the N of an NH,OH molecule are equivalent. Let

us consider what should happen if we dissolve ammonia in D.O. If

the four H atoms attached to the N of NH.OH are not equivalent and

the same three original H atoms are attached to the N atom after

the decomposition of ammonium hydroxide, the following reaction

will take place:

9.8 Fy ems ac! Ole

25 at 560°C:

NH;+D;0—NH;DOD~>NH;+D.0.

There will be no exchange of the hydrogen of the ammonia with the

deuterium of the water. If, however, the four H atoms attached to

the N are equivalent then the following reactions will occur:

NH; +D,0— NH;,DOD— NH; +D.0

NH:DOD—NH.D+HDO0O,

and as a result the D and H atoms of the water and ammonia will

mix. Experiment shows that they do mix and that when equilibrium

is reached, the relative concentrations of hydrogen and deuterium

atoms in the water and ammonia are the same. This shows that all

three hydrogen atoms of ammonia are in exchange with hydrogen

atoms of the water.

In Tables I and II are tabulated a number of exchange reactions.

In the field of physiological chemistry, this ability to tag hydrogen

atoms should prove useful. For example we can determine how rapidly

a drug taken into the system is absorbed by the blood stream and

then eliminated. This can be done by replacing some of the H atoms

of the drug with deuterium and then analyzing for the drug by de-

APRIL 15, 1935 BRICKWEDDE: DEUTERIUM 161

TABLE I.—ExcuancEe REACTIONS BETWEEN WATER AND ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Compound Observation

CH;COONa No exchange

CH;COOH “ “

CH;CHO 1 hydrogen atom exchanges slowly

CH.O 2 hydrogen atoms exchange slowly

CH;COCH; Very slow exchange in neutral solution

Faster exchange in acid solution

Very fast exchange in alkaline solution

CH;COCH.COCH; All hydrogens exchange

2H, Exchange in alkaline solution

Glucose and Cane Sugar Hydroxyl hydrogens exchange immediately

(CH20H),. One-third of hydrogens exchange immediately

Egg albumen All hydrogens attached to N atoms exchange

Cellulose All hydroxyl hydrogens exchange

TABLE II.—InoreGanic ExcHance REACTIONS

Reaction Observation

H2(g)—H.0(l) and (g) Exchange in presence of platinum

Exchange observed in 6 weeks without addition of catalyst

No exchange observed in 19 days without catalyst

Exchange in 1-9.5 hours under 340-370 atmospheres

pressure

Exchange observed without catalyst in Pyrex and quartz

vessels at 800° Abs.

H.(g)—HI(g) Exchange observed at 400°C and above

H2(g)—HCl (g) Exchange in presence of palladium at 180°C

H,0(I)=N Hs? (sol.) All hydrogen atoms exchange

H.0 (l)J=NH;(1) All hydrogen atoms exchange

H2(g) + D2(g)=2HD (g) Exchange at high temperatures and on catalytic surfaces.

Ni, chromium oxide, Pd, Hg, Pyrex and soft glass, and

charcoal at liquid air temperatures do not promote ex-

change

KH,PO.—H,0 No exchange

[Co(NHs3)6](NO3z)3—H2O All hydrogens exchange

termining the D content of the blood. Of course the exchange reac-,

tions of the drug must have been previously investigated.

The usefulness of deuterium in biological chemistry can be illus-

trated by another example. Sodium formate is decomposed by enzyme

hydrogenlyase of Bacterium coli with the formation of hydrogen and

carbon dioxide. The mechanism of decomposition previously accepted

for this was:

HCOONa+H,0— HCOOH +Na0OH

HCOOH—> H, +CO..

If this is correct then replacing H.O with D.O the following reaction

would result:

162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

HCOONa+D.0— HCOOD+Na0D

HCOOD—> HD +C0O:.

No Hz or D2, but only HD would be formed.

Experiment shows that H:, D. and HD are evolved in the equilib-

rium concentrations presented in Fig. 1. Moreover it has been found

that in a gaseous mixture of H, and D.» over water the Bacterium

coli acts like Pt-black as a catalyst in establishing an equilibrium be-

tween H;, D. and HD. It must be concluded that the previously sup-

posed mechanism of the decomposition is not correct and that the

Bacterium coli can react with hydrogen in the atomic form. It there-

fore seems probable that the decomposition of the formate by Bac-

tervum coli occurs through atomic reactions with the formation of H

and D atoms.

Because of the extreme sensitiveness of certain biological reactions

to changes in environment, it was early realized that isotopic water

might produce marked changes in many cases. At first biological

effects of high concentrations of D,O were observed by some chem-

ists. The striking observations of drunk mice, the failure of tobacco

seeds to sprout, and the death of guppy fish and tadpoles in D.O, were

reported. Fermentation by yeast cells was found to be so much slower

that bread made with heavy water would take about one week to

rise.

Later, biologists realizing that experiments carried out with low

concentrations of deuterium should be more significant biologically

in determining the effect of deuterium under approximately normal

conditions, subjected various organisms to water containing 0.5 per-

cent and less of D,O. All experimenters have not found the same

effects. It has been reported that Spirogyra, or pond scum, lives

* twice as long in 0.06 percent D.O, and that some flatworms, Phagocata

gracilis, placed in ordinary water without food shrank to 1/5 their

size in five months, whereas in 0.06 percent heavy water there was

only a slight diminution in size. It has also been reported that the

growth of Aspergillus niger; the germination of conidia of the pow-

dery mildew of wheat, Erysiphe graminis tritici; the root growth of

wheat and the O, consumption by wheat seedlings showed no sig-

nificant difference between the influence of ordinary water and that

of water containing 0.05 and 0.5 percent D.O. Other experiments,

however, indicated that in the case of some bacteria low concentra-

tions of D.O—of the order of 0.5 percent—have a stimulating

effect on the rate of oxygen absorption, whereas in high concentra-

APRIL 15, 1935 BRICKWEDDE: DEUTERIUM 163

tions—approaching 100 percent—the reverse is true, the rate of

oxygen absorption being decreased.

In the field of nuclear physics deuterium has found one of its most

important applications. It has added to the material particles used

in the investigation of the structure of the nucleus, namely, the

proton, neutron and a-particle, another, the deuteron (deuterium

nucleus) which can be given great speeds in high voltage tubes and

then used to bombard and transmute nuclei of other elements. In

some respects the deuteron has proved to be more interesting than

the proton. The highest energy material particles ever produced in

a laboratory under controlled conditions are the helium nuclei resulting

from the bombardment of Li® with deuterons. (The superscript desig-

nates the atomic weight of the isotope.) The two helium nuclei formed

by this nuclear reaction

D? + Lié = 2He*

have ranges in air of 13.2 cm. This is greater than the range of the

longest a-particles from any of the radioactive elements. It would

require 23,000,000 volts to give them their observed speeds. The

transmutations resulting from the bombardment of deuterium with

deuterons is unique in that it is the only known case in which a trans-

mutation results from the bombardment of a particle with an identical

particle. Two nuclear transformations can take place

D? +]? =T3 +H?!

D?+ D? = He? + neutron.

The symbol T denotes tritium, the hydrogen isotype of atomic weight

3. The first of these is the most abundant of all known nuclear re-

actions, 1.e., a far greater number of transformations result per million

bombarding particles than in the case of any other known reaction.

The first reaction is the only one known in which another isotope of

the same element is formed, instead of another element. In the strict

sense of the word this is not a transmutation.

In the production of artificial radio-activity, deuterium surpasses

a-particles and protons in effectiveness. It is reported that high speed

deuterons render 14 of the lighter elements (Li, Be, B, N, C, O, F,

Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, Cl and Ca) radioactive emitting positive electrons

in their disintegration. Of these elements only B and C become radio-

active under proton bombardment.

Just as deuterium made possible the investigation of the effect of

mass apart from chemical nature upon chemical properties, it makes

164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

possible the investigation of mass upon physical properties. Pre-

viously this was not possible. The change in physical properties due

to difference in mass in going from one element to another is far

overshadowed by the change due to the difference in chemical nature.

A pure effect of mass on physical properties is illustrated in Table

TABLE III.—Prorerties or H,O anp D.O

Property 0 D.0

Density2575 1.0000 1.1079

T of maximum density 4.0°C 11.6°C

Molar volume at temperature of maximum

density 18.015 em? 18.140 cm?*

Lattice constants of ice a 4.525A 4.505A

b 7.39A 7.36A

Volume of the ice cell 131.0A4 129.3A4

Mole volumes of the ices 0°C 19.65 cm? 19.32 cm?

Dielectric constant 81.5 80.7

Surface tension 72.75 dynes/em 67.8 dynes/em

Viscosity in millipoises 10°C 13.10 16.85

20°C 10.09 12.60

30°C 8.00 9.72

Molar magnetic susceptibility liquid at M.P. 12.93 12.66

solid at M.P. 12.65 12.54

at 20° 12.97 12.75

Refractive index 20°C NaD line 1.33300 1.32828

Molar refraction 20°C NaD line 3.7121 3.665

Verdet constant \=5893A 0.013067 0.012556

Min./gauss: cm \=5460.7A 0.015395 0.014793

et 0.0 3.802

BSE 100.0 101.42

Heat of fusion 1436 cal. 1510 cal.

Heat of vaporization 25°C 10484 cal. 10748 cal.

Equivalent conductance at 18°C H+ in H20 315.2 | Dtin D,O 213.7

Kt 64.2 54.5

Cl- 65.2 ope

Solubilities, molalities

NaCl 25°C 6.145 6.145 X0.92

BaCl, 20°C 1.72 1.72 X0.88

III in which the properties of H,O and D.O are compared. The differ-

ence between the values of these properties for H,O and D,O are

larger than was expected and as yet are not quantitatively explained.

The effect of mass is even more striking in the case of molecular

hydrogen and deuterium at low temperatures. The boiling and freez-

ing point temperatures, in degrees absolute, of hydrogen and deute-

rium and their corresponding vapor pressures are given in Table IV.

Table V contains the latent heats of transition and the densities of

the solids.

At the freezing point of hydrogen, 13.92° Abs., the vapor pressure

of solid deuterium is only 5 mm of Hg or 1/11 of that of solid

hydrogen. Before the vapor pressure of deuterium was measured it

APRIL 15, 1935 BRICKWEDDE: DEUTERIUM 165

TABLE IV.—Boriine AND FREEZING PoIntTs

T Vapor Pressure

in Degrees mm of Hg

Absolute i D;

Boiling point of deuterium 23 .59° Abs. W753 760.0

Boiling point of hydrogen 20.38 760.0 256.2

Freezing point of deuterium 18.71 447.5 128.7

Freezing point of hydrogen 13.92 54 5.2

TABLE V.—Mo.ecuntarR VouUMES AND LATENT HEATS OF TRANSITION

H, D,

Volume of 1 gram molecule weight of solid 26.15 cm$ 23.15 cm$

Heat of fusion 28 cal/mol 47 cal/mol

Heat of vaporization of liquid at 20.38° Abs. 216 cal/mol 307 cal/mol

was calculated from theory. The theory predicted that at this

temperature the vapor pressure of deuterium would be 16 mm

or only a little less than 1/3 of that of solid hydrogen. The ob-

served values were introduced in the theoretical equations, and

quantities were derived which could be compared with the results

of other experiments. Assuming the validity of the vapor pressure

theory, it was shown that the coefficient of expansion of solid hydro-

gen must be abnormally large and that for solid deuterium small.

From the derived data, the specific heat at constant volume for solid

hydrogen, a quantity which is difficult to measure and previously

unknown, was calculated. In Table VI are listed values of the specific

heats at constant pressure, C,, and at constant volume, C,. For solid

hydrogen at 14° Abs. C,—C, is 2 times C,, and at 10° Abs., 2.7 times

C,, whereas for most solids the difference between C’, and C, is negli-

gibly small in comparison with C,. This anomaly in solid hydrogen is

a consequence of its large coefficient of expansion.

TABLE VI.—Sprciric Heats or Sotip HypROGEN at CONSTANT PRESSURE AND

Constant VOLUME

T Cp Cy

Degrees Absolute Observed Calculated

10° Abs. 0.59 cal/mol 0.16 cal/mol

13.92 1.32 cal/mol 0.42 cal/mol

The differences between the physical properties of hydrogen and

deuterium and their compounds are in general larger than was ex-

pected. In cases where the differences have been accounted for, new

or further knowledge concerning hydrogen itself has been acquired.

166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

As an example: It has been learned from a comparison of the vapor

pressures of hydrogen and deuterium that solid hydrogen has an

unusually large coefficient of expansion, and that for solid hydrogen

C,—C, is much larger than C, itself, whereas in the case of most

solids, the difference is negligibly small.

This new line of isotopic research in physics will not stop with

deuterium but will be extended to the isotopes of other elements.

Experiments are already under way to separate the isotopes of Ne,

C, N and O in quantities large enough to determine their physical

and chemical properties.

The observed differences between the biological, chemical and

physical properties of hydrogen and deuterium and their compounds

appear all the more striking when we recall the time when it was

thought that all properties, reduced to the gram molecular basis,

with the exception of those properties which depend upon the velocity

of motion of the molecules, as the viscosity of a gas, were the same

for all isotopes of the same element. Indeed Soddy, the discoverer

of isotopes, does not call deuterium an isotope of hydrogen, because

he looks upon the indistinguishability of properties, reduced to the

gram molecular basis, as an essential characteristic of isotopes. It

must be conceded to Soddy that hydrogen and deuterium behave

like different substances but we have today a more fundamental

definition of isotopes and a better understanding of the effect of mass

on physical and chemical properties. As Lord Rutherford has put

it, ““much water has flowed under the bridge’”’ since Soddy’s discovery

of isotopes in 1913.

GEOLOGY.—Pre-Devonian structural zones in Scotland and eastern

North America.t ANNA I. Jonas, U. S. Geological Survey.

(Communicated by W. W. RuBEy.)

Scotland, although covering a small area, about 40 miles wide and

250 miles from north to south, is of great interest geologically because

it contains parts of several pre-Devonian belts of sedimentation with

a complicated tectonic history. The structures which trend both

northwestward and northeastward are cut off abruptly at the coast

in both directions and their continuations have been sought in ad-

joining lands, Fennoscandia, Spitzbergen, and Greenland.

This brief discussion is based largely on the work of others and is

given as the result of my participation in the second excursion of the

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received

January 5, 1935.

APRIL 15, 1935 JONAS: PRE-DEVONIAN ZONES 167

Pre-Cambrian Association held in Scotland August 18, 1934, under

the leadership of Professors Bailey, McCallien, Read and Tilley.

“The International Association for the study of the pre-Cambrian

and Old Mountain Chains,” as it is called, was organized by Seder-

holm in 1930 and holds its excursions the year following the meetings

of the International Geological Congress. The next field meeting will

be in Czechoslovakia under the leadership of Radium Kettner of

Prague. An account of the present position of the organization of the

Pre-Cambrian Association and of the second excursion was published

in December, 1934 (1).?

Pre-Devonian rocks of Scotland.—Scotland is made up from south

to north of the Southern Upland, the Midland Valley, and the High-

lands. The last major folding was pre-Devonian, Caledonian, in age,

and all younger rocks show relatively unimportant disturbances. The

Midland Valley, occupied by down-faulted Devonian and Carbonif-

erous rocks and their intrusives and extrusives, separates the folded

belts of the Southern Upland and the Highlands. The Southern

Upland contains Ordovician and Silurian rocks. The Highlands are

divided into 3 parts; the Southern and Central Highlands contain

the Moine and Dalradian Series, both metamorphosed and folded,

as were the rocks of the Southern Upland, during Caledonian orogeny.

The Southern Highlands are separated from the Midland Valley

south of them by a normal fault, the Highland border fault. The

Central Highlands is cut in two by the Great Glen which extends

along another normal fault, the Glen fault of Jurassic or younger age.

The Caledonian canal follows the Glen and connects Loch Linnhe

on the southwest with Loch Ness on the northwest.

In the Northwestern Highlands the Moine series has been thrust

northwestward over the rocks of another orogenic belt. These rocks

include the Lewisian basement of early pre-Cambrian age, composed

of an igneous complex intruded into metamorphosed schists and

marbles, and is overlain unconformably by late pre-Cambrian Tor-

ridonian sandstone. Both series of pre-Cambrian rocks are overlain

unconformably by Lower Cambrian quartzites and the Durness

limestones whose resemblance to rocks of the same age in the Appa-

lachian Valley will be discussed later.

Moine thrust—The Moine thrust (2) and its branches forming lower

planes of disruption, the Glencoul and Ben More thrusts, produce a

belt of imbricate structure 6 to 8 miles broad lying east of an undis-

turbed tract of Torridon sandstone and Lewisian rocks. The Moine

2? Numbers refer to the Bibliography given at the end of this paper.

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

gneiss and the Lewisian igneous complex on the soles of the over-

thrusts have been ground out into mylonite gneisses and mylonites

which were recognized and defined by Lapworth in this area in 1885.

These mylonites on the Moine and Glencoul thrusts are well exposed

near Knockan and on the shores of Loch Glencoul. The unravelling

of the stratigraphy and tectonics of this complicated region is a

monument to two great Scottish geologists, Peach and Horne (3).

Undisturbed rocks northwest of Moine thrust—The Lewisian igneous

rocks are well exposed on the shore of Loch Assynt to the Coast at

Lochinver and are in large part a light and dark-banded gabbro with

pink granite layers. It is a primary gneiss and according to Eskola,

a product of the first crystallization of a basic magma followed by

differentiation and later intrusion of the types of medium and acid

composition. The gneiss is cut by ultrabasic dikes, and contains shear

zones which strike northwest across the flow banding of the gneiss

which is crushed to a mylonite or augen gneiss in the disturbed zones.

The Lewisian gneiss (4) is exposed along the northwest coast of Scot-

land and in the Isle of Lewis in the Hebrides and all the igneous

intrusion and folding in that area was early pre-Cambrian, pre-Tor-

ridonian, and the Torridon sandstone was deposited on the deeply

eroded surface of this old land area. This sandstone series, which re-

sembles the Triassic of the eastern United States and the Devonian of

Scotland, was called Devonian before it was found that Lower Cam-

brian rocks unconformably overlie it. It also resembles the Jotnian

sandstone of Finland and the Sparagmite formation of Norway, the

youngest pre-Cambrian rocks of Fennoscandia. The folded structures

of the Lewisian gneiss trend west and northwest while all younger

rocks of Scotland trend northeastward. Suess (5) and others have

suggested that the Lewisian basement belongs to Laurentia and in

pre-Cambrian times was connected with the Canadian Shield by way

of Greenland, and the whole was part of Eria, an inferred northern

continent.

The crystalline schists of Loch Maree into which the granite-gabbro

complex of the Lewisian was intruded, have been compared to those

of the Grenville. The Lewisian igneous complex where I saw it on

the shores of Loch Assynt bears a striking resemblance to the igneous

complex of the Reading-Boyertown Hills in eastern Pennsylvania,

which lie in the Highland belt of the Appalachian Mountains. The

excursion did not visit Loch Maree and therefore I can make no

comparison of the sedimentary Lewisian schists with the crystalline

schists into which the igneous rocks of the Reading-Boyertown region

APRIL 15, 1935 JONAS: PRE-DEVONIAN ZONES 169

are intruded. The Lower Cambrian rocks of northwestern Scotland

are lithologically like those in the main Appalachian Valley. The

fauna in the two areas also is the Olenellus fauna of Arctic type.

Relations of the pre-Devonian Highland rocks southeast of the Moine

thrust to those of other areas.—The rocks of the Moine and Dalradian

series have only thrust relations with the rocks of Northwestern Scot-

land, and since they contain no fossils, their age and relations are

not definitely known. The Moine series (6), composed of siliceous

gneisses and schists, is considered to be pre-Torridonian by Clough,

Horne, Gregory, Read, and Eskola, and to be Lewisian by Barrow

and Read, and metamorphosed Torridonian by Bailey. It was in-

truded by the Older granites of the Inchbae and Carn Chuinneag

complex (7), perhaps of pre-Cambrian age, before it was folded and

metamorphosed. The Moine series at the contact with these intru-

Sives is a hornfels with its current bedding preserved. Later deforma-

tion has affected both the intrusives and the Moine in zones striking

across their contacts. Read believes that the metamorphism of the

Moine series is not Caledonian because the Moine gneisses were

metamorphosed before the intrusion of the Ben Loyal alkaline rocks,

which are thought to be Ordovician and equivalent to the syenite

rocks of the Loch Borolan area where they intrude the Durness lime-

stones of Cambro-Ordovician age. The dislocation metamorphism

along the Moine thrust has affected both the syenite and Moine

gneisses. The Newer granites, of Silurian age, the Helmsdale granite,

Rogart diorite, and the Strath Halladale injection (8) complex also

were intruded into the Moine series after the metamorphism. At Cnok

na Bieste zenoliths of Moine mica schist are included in the Strath

Halladale granite and sillimanite is developed in the adjoining Moine

schist. The large granite intrusions near Aberdeen belong also to the

Newer granites.

The Dalradian series of quartzites, limestones, slates, and schists

overlies the Moine, in part of the Highlands south of the Great Glen

fault and extends to the Southern Highland border fault. Bailey be-

lieves that it is a pre-Cambrian series, younger than the Moine and

overlies it, and that it was metamorphosed and folded and thrust

during Caledonian orogeny into four great nappes (9). These struc-

tures the members of the excursion studied in the Appin Country

south of Loch Linnhe where the Dalradian is not much metamor-

phosed. The more metamorphosed Dalradian described by Tilley (10)

occurs in the Southern Highlands farther south and southwest of

Loch Linnhe.

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

Robert Campbell and other Scottish geologists recognize that the

Dalradian series may be Paleozoic and perhaps the metamorphosed

equivalent of the folded Ordovician and Silurian rocks of the Southern

Upland. This area contains no lower Cambrian rocks but was folded

during Caledonian orogeny. In Western Norway where Caledonian

folding has been recognized also, a metamorphosed clastic series of

Cambrian and Ordovician rocks, first described by Stormer at Ustao-

set in 1925, appears in the Bergen arches and has been compared by

Kolderup to the Dalradian series. It carries Cambrian fossils of the

Fjeld facies of the Baltic type which occurs also in the larger Cam-

brian belt on the border of Sweden and Norway. In Sweden, east of

the border area of Lower Cambrian, is the black carbonaceous shale

type of Cambrian of the normal facies of the Baltic type (Olenus

fauna) which appears in the Midlands of England, in Wales and in

Eastern North America in Eastern Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and

the Boston area. This type of Lower Cambrian in Sweden and Great

Britain lies south and east of the Caledonian orogeny and is not folded.

The age of the Upper Cambrian Kolm of the normal series has been

determined on the basis of its lead ratio as 425 million years (11).

Southern England was involved in a younger orogenesis than the

Caledonian, the Armorican (Hercynian) of Pennsylvanian age, which

extends into Western Europe south of the Baltic shield. It contains

Mediterranean facies of the Atlantic Province not found in Eastern

North America.

Caledonian folding has been recognized not only in Scotland and

western Norway and Sweden but its continuation has been found in

Spitzbergen and perhaps in northern Greenland. In each country

the folded belt is cut off by the sea but similar formations and se-

quence of diastrophism appear across the water. Holtedahl (12) and

other workers have established the Caledonides in Spitzbergen.

Koch (13) refers the folding in northern Greenland to the Caledonian

in the region between 80° and 83° North Latitude where it extends

north of Pearyland across Grantland and Elsemereland on the north

side of the pre-Cambrian basement that forms central Greenland.

The faunas in northern Greenland are Appalachian, Arctic in type,

hence belong to another trough from that of the Caledonian folded

belt of Scotland and Norway. Thorolf Vogt and Resser therefore

question the extension of the Caledonides to northern Greenland.

Orogenic interpretations of the structure of Scotland—In Norway

and Sweden, according to Vogt and others, the direction of movement

APRIL 15, 1935 JONAS: PRE-DEVONIAN ZONES 171

in the Caledonian folding is southeastward towards the Baltic Shield.

Franz E. Suess (14) regarded the major direction of the movement as

also southeastward. Bailey considers the Dalradian series as in part

overlying the Moine, but Suess, on structural and metamorphic

grounds, regards their contact as plane of dislocation. He suggests

also that the Moine was the creative block which overrode southeast-

ward over the Dalradian series which were back folded on the Moine

in the process. He regards the folded non-metamorphic Paleozoic

rocks of the Southern Uplands as part of the outer zone of the move-

ment where directed pressure and not load was operative. The Baltic

Shield was the foreland for the movement in Scandinavia, but in

Great Britain none of the foreland is exposed.

The Moine thrust in northwestern Scotland cuts obliquely across

Caledonian structure and Suess (14) believes the Moine thrust is

independent of it and younger. He suggests that the Moine thrust

has moved northwestward with a greater transport than is apparent

and carried the rocks of the main Caledonian trough over the north-

western belt in which there are rocks of another sedimentary trough.

In other words, the Caledonides are a one-sided orogen with Fenno-

scandia as their foreland and the northwestern movement of the

Moine thrust is an unrelated and later event.

Early Paleozoic troughs of Scotland and of the eastern United States.—

In the early Paleozoic, as has been said, there were two troughs of

deposition in Scotland,—the northwestern with an Arctic fauna, the

same as that of the main Appalachian belt, and a southern trough

with a Baltic facies of the Atlantic Province. It is probable that these

troughs were separated in Scotland by a low barrier in the region

of the central part of the Highlands.

In eastern North America similar conditions existed in the Cam-

brian. The main Appalachian belt was open at the north to receive

an Arctic sea and fauna like that now found in northwest Scotland

and in the Hecklahook formation in Spitzbergen, part of which Holte-

dahl (12) considers is equivalent to the Durness limestone (13). Koch

and Paulsen (15) have reported from Inglefield Land in northwestern

and northeastern Greenland such trilobite forms as Kootenia, (Dory-

pyge) and Wannerza, and the brachiopods, Paterina, (Qutorgina), etc.,

characteristic of the Lower Cambrian of the York and Lancaster

Valley, Pa. (16). In the Lower Paleozoic the main Appalachian trough

continued northeast across eastern New York, western New England,

the St. Lawrence Valley, and the Straits of Belle Isle. Schuchert (17)

172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

reports in the Lower Cambrian rocks of Labrador and western New-

foundland such forms as Micromitra, Kutorgina, and Nisusia, a fauna

that is typically developed in the Lower Cambrian of the York and

Lancaster Valley and also in the Shady limestone (18) of the Southern

Appalachians. Resser (18), in his paper on the generalized Cambrian

time scale, discussed these faunas and their routes of migration.

The St. Lawrence seaway, until it was blotted out in the Devonian,

lay west of the Green Mountain axis and its continuation in Canada,

the Sutton and Notre Dame Mountains. In the basin west of the

Green Mountain axis the Central Sequence of Keith (19) contains

a Lower Cambrian Olenellus fauna the same as that of the Appala-

chian Valley and western Scotland. The Taconic argillaceous sequence

of western New England with the Rysedorph Hill fauna of the Atlan-

tic province of Trenton age, according to Prindle and Knopf (20),

probably was deposited east of the Green Mountain axis, and owes

its present position on the west side of the Green Mountains to over-

thrust faulting. The Cambrian found in the Boston Basin, south-

eastern Nova Scotia and Newfoundland contains the normal fauna

of the Baltic facies of the Atlantic Province found in the area south

of the Caledonian belt in Great Britain and Sweden.

Fragmentation of Eria.—Such faunal similarities in areas now wide-

ly separated by deep ocean basins have led paleontologists to the view

that in Paleozoic time a land mass, Eria, extended across the northern

Atlantic Ocean and afforded a means of migration for shallow-water

faunas. It is known that Scotland in Tertiary time was subjected

to block faulting and warping which was accompanied by the great

lava flows of that period. At that time the Hebrides were cut off

from the mainland by rifting. It has been suggested that this period

of block faulting completed the breaking up of Eria (21). In the east-

ern United States similar block faulting began in early Mesozoic

time at the beginning of Triassic and when the movement was com-

pleted the coastal areas of New England, Nova Scotia and Newfound-

land became table lands cut off by the shore lines. The eastern part

of Appalachia which may have extended 100 miles east of the present

shore line, also is believed to have foundered into the depths of the

Atlantic Ocean during Middle Mesozoic time. The geologic similar-

ities on the two sides of the Atlantic have furnished the greatest sup-

port also for the Wegener hypothesis of continental drift. The Weg-

ener hypothesis presents difficulties of acceptance perhaps even

greater than that of continental fragmentation and does not come

under the scope of the present discussion.

APRIL 15, 1935 JONAS: PRE-DEVONIAN ZONES 173

LITERATURE CITED

Krancxk, HE. H., Barney, E.B., and McCauiien, W. J. Pre-Cambrian associa-

tion. Geol. Magazine 71: 548-557. 1934.

Guide to the geological model ofthe Assynt Mountains. Mem. Geol. Survey of

Great Britain. 1-32. 1914.

Pracu, B. N., and Horns, J. Chapters on the geology of Scotland. Oxford Uni-

versity Press. 1930.

Getkn, A. The geological structure of the North-west Highlands of Scotland.

Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain 155-171, 399-304, 508-525. 1917.

Suzss, E. Das Antlitz der Erde. 3: pt. 1, 454. 1885-1909.

Horne, J. The geological structure of the North-west Highlands of Scotland.

Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain. Chap. ii. 1907.

Reap, H. H. The geology of Strath Oykill and Lower Loch Shin. Mem. Geol.

Survey of Great Britain. 112-117. 1926.

Reap, H. H. Age-problems of Moine Series of Scotland. Geol. Mag. 71: 302-

317. 1934.

Op. cit. 304-5.

Geology of Central Sutherland. Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain. 154-156,

195, 217-218. 19381.

Batuny, E. B. Structure of the Southwest Highlands of Scotland. Quart. Jour.

Geol. Soc. of London 78: 82-1381. 1922.

Battey, E. B. New light on sedimentation and tectonics. Geol. Mag. 67: 77—

92. 1930.

Euues, G. L., and Tinuny, C. E. Metamorphism in relation to structure in the

Scottish Highlands. Trans. R. Soc. Edinburgh 56: 621-646. 1930-381.

Lang, A. C. Report of the Committee on the Measurement of Geologic Time.

National Research Council. 2: 1984.

HourepAuL, Ouar. Some points of structural resemblance between Spitzbergen

Great Britain and between Europe and North America. Mat. Nat. Klasse. No. 4,

5-7. 1925.

Kocu, Lauer. Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 5: 190. 1923; 12: 271-286. 1925.

Sugess, F. E. A suggested interpretation of Scottish Caledonide structure. Geol.

Mag. 66: 71-81. 1931.

Kocu, Lauer. The geology of Inglefield Land. Meddel. om. Grénland 73: 23-

29. 1933.

Srosrz, G. W., and Jonas, A. I. Geology and mineral resources of the Middletown

quadrangle, Pennsylvania. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 840: 21-26. 1933.

Scuucnert, C. and Dunpar, C. O. Stratigraphy of Western Newfoundland.

Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 1:19-82. 1934.

Resser, C. E. Preliminary generalized Cambrian time scale. Geol. Soc. Amer.

Bull. 44: 740-741, 747-748. 1933.

Keita, Artuur Stratigraphy and structure of northwestern Vermont. This

JOURNAL 22: 369-372. 1932.

Prinpuz, L. M. and Knopr, E. B. Geology of the Taconic quadrangle. Amer.

Jour. Sci. 24: 297. 1932.

BaRRELL, J. On continental fragmentation. Amer. Jour. Sci. 13: 299. 1927.

174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

GEOLOGY.—Comparison of Cambrian rocks of northwest Scotland

with equivalent formations of the Appalachians... G. W. Stross,

U.S. Geological Survey.

During the field excursion of the Pre-Cambrian Association across

the Highlands of Scotland in August 1934, the Cambrian section in

northwest Scotland was examined at several places, and the writer

noted the close resemblance to formations in the Appalachians with

which he is very familiar, having described and mapped them in

Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. The Dalradian series, gen-

erally regarded as pre-Cambrian, which lie east of the Moine over-

thrust, were also examined and the writer suggests their possible

equivalence to formations in the Appalachians.

GENERAL GEOLOGY

The Paleozoic rocks of northwest Scotland are exposed in a narrow

belt that extends from Durness on the north coast to the east side

of the Isle of Skye on the west coast, and lie in a zone between the

Torridonian mountains which rise above the Lewisian upland on the

west and the great Moine overthrust on the east. Members of the

Pre-Cambrian Association saw only the lower part of this section,

which comprises quartzites and limestones of Cambrian age, exposed

in the vicinity of Loch Assynt and Loch Glencoul. Here the basal

Cambrian quartzites rest unconformably on nearly horizontal Tor-

ridon sandstone, a late pre-Cambrian red grit and conglomerate

closely resembling the Triassic red beds of the Appalachians and little

more consolidated than those much younger rocks. These little dis-

turbed red beds lie unconformably on Lewisian gneiss, which is ex-

posed on the lower slopes of the mountains. The Cambrian quartzites

dip gently east and form the dip slopes of the east ends of high east-

west Torridonian ridges between which are deep narrow valleys, many

of them occupied by long picturesque bodies of water or lochs. In

the lowland east of these mountains are exposed the upper softer

calcareous sandstones and overlying limestones of the Cambrian.

In the vicinity of Loch Glencoul the Lewisian gneiss is thrust west-

ward over the Cambrian rocks on the flat Glencoul thrust, a split

of the great Moine thrust which lies at a higher level in the mountains

to the east. The Cambrian rocks dip gently eastward under the over-

thrust mass, but the formations are repeated several times in shingle-

like imbricate plates or schuppen structure, due to the drag of the

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received

Jan. 5, 1935.

APRIL 15, 1935 STOSE: CAMBRIAN ROCKS 175

overthrust mass. The formations examined on the excursion are

shown in the chart below. The faunas of the Paleozoic rocks of the

Scottish Highlands have been compared with those of the Appala-

chian section by Grabau, Ulrich, Resser, and others, who recognized

their close similarity, but comparison of the lithologic characters of

these rocks has not come to my attention.

THE ROCKS

The formations studied on the excursion and those in America

with which they are compared are listed in Table 1.

TABLE 1.—Comparison or SrrRatTa IN Scorrish HigHLaANDS AND NORTHERN

APPALACHIANS

Scottish Highlands Northern Appalachians

Durness limestone Middle Cambrian

Sailmhor group. Lower part 100’+ Elbrook limestone 500’

Lower Cambrian

Hilean Dubh group 200’ + Ledger dolomite 100’

Kinzers formation (largely shale) 150’

Grudie (Ghrudaidh) group 50’ + Vintage dolomite 500’

Serpulite grit 30’ Antietam quartzite and Harpers

Fucoid beds 50’ phyllite 1200’

Pipe rock

500’ Chickies quartzite 1500’

Lower quartzite

Torridon sandstone

Pre-Cambrian schist

Lewisian gneiss

The quartzites and overlying beds were examined chiefly on the

north side of the east end of Loch Assynt. The basal quartzites are

cross-bedded and granular. and contain coarse grains of glassy quartz

and pink feldspar. A few feet of coarser beds or conglomerate are

reported at the base, but were not seen by the party. The higher

quartzites are massive bedded and contain numerous Scolithus tubes

and are therefore known as Pipe Rock. Worm tubes of several sizes

are described, some large ones are said to be 3 to 4 inches in diameter.

The total thickness of the quartzites is about 500 feet. These beds

are comparable with the Scolithus-bearing Chickies quartzite in the

York-Lancaster region of east-central Pennsylvania, except that in

the American section the quartzite is much thicker and therefore

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

makes higher ridges and the basal beds are generally coarser, in

places a cobble bed.

The next overlying formation, Fucoid beds, are described as dolo- —

mites, shale, mudstone, and thin beds of dolomite, weathering rusty.

What was seen at outcrops is a gray to yellow fine-grained earthy

rock with fine black argillaceous streaks, closely resembling the lower

part of the Antietam quartzite and the sandy parts of the Harpers

phyllite of Pennsylvania and Maryland. Fucoid-like markings on the

bedding, whence the name, are now regarded as flattened worm casts.

Salterella and Hyolithes occur throughout this formation and Olenellus

is reported in the top layers.

The next succeeding formation, Serpulite grit, is an exact duplicate

in physical appearance of certain typical quartzite beds of the Antie-

tam of Pennsylvania and Maryland. These characteristic beds include

massive white quartzites with slender straight Scolithus tubes a yard

long; calcareous coarse grit made of round glassy quartz grains,

laminated by porous fossiliferous layers, rust-stained on bedding

surfaces. These beds contain many Salterella hence the name Serpulite,

and also numerous fragments of Olenellus. All these features are

duplicated in the Antietam quartzite, one of the key rocks in Lower

Cambrian Appalachian stratigraphy and structure. Five species and

varieties of Olenellus as well as other trilobites, and shells reported

from these beds closely resemble, if they are not identical with, forms

found in the Lower Cambrian of the Appalachian Valley. The Serpu-

lite grit was seen to grade upward into the overlying dolomite, be-

coming calcareous at the top and containing rusty fragments of

Olenellus, just as the Antietam passes into the Vintage or Toms-

town dolomite in Pennsylvania.

The next overlying formation, the basal part of the Durness lime-

stone, is called the Grudie (Ghrudaidh) group and is described as a

dark, lead-colored mottled dolomite containing numerous Salterella.

This dolomite seen at a number of places around Inchnadamph and

Lake Assynt is a calcareous mud-lump rock and in appearance dupli-

cates the knotty Vintage dolomite of central-eastern Pennsylvania,

or the lower part of the Tomstown dolomite of southern Pennsylvania,

Maryland, and Virginia. The Grudie is much thinner than the Vintage

in America.

The Eilean Dubh group, next in ascending order, is described as a

fine-grained white flaggy argillaceous dolomite and limestone. In the

area visited we found most of this formation to be a dense massive

APRIL 15, 1935 STOSE: CAMBRIAN ROCKS 177

light-gray to white pure granular dolomite, weathering creamy, close-

ly similar to the pure massive granular Ledger dolomite extensively

quarried in the York-Lancaster Valley of eastern Pennsylvania. The

highly fossiliferous Kinzers shale and limestone, which lies between

the Vintage and Ledger dolomites in the York-Lancaster Valley, is

not represented by similar rock in Scotland. All the rocks above de-

scribed are of Lower Cambrian age.

Above the pure dolomite beds of the Grudie are thin layers of

black oolitic chert, pitted on weathering by dissolved fragments of

limestone and possibly of fossils. This is followed by buff siliceous

finely wavy laminated calcareous shale or shaly limestone with inter-

bedded thin platy layers of light gray to white fine-grained marble,

which is the lower part of the Sailmhor group. This type of limestone

was seen by some of the party at only one place, southeast of Inch-

nadamph, where they pass under a detached remnant of the Glencoul

thrust block (klippe) of Torridon sandstone and Cambrian quartzite

forming a mountain peak (Beinn nan Cnaimhseag). In lithologic

character these beds closely resemble the Elbrook limestone, which

also has chert at its base, in southeastern Pennsylvania, and which

extends northeastward to the eastern part of the State and southward

into Maryland and Virginia. No fossils have been found in these beds

in Scotland, but the Elbrook limestone in Pennsylvania contains a

scant fauna of Middle Cambrian age.

The upper limestones of the Durness group are not exposed in the

area visited because, as previously said, they are cut off by the Glen-

coul overthrust. As the writer did not see these upper limestones he

cannot make a lithologic comparison with the probably equivalent

formations in the Appalachians, but fossils reported from them are

assigned by Ulrich and others to the ‘‘Canadian,” or Lower Ordo-

vician, of the Appalachian Valley.

It should be emphasized that the most striking feature about the

Cambrian rocks in northwest Scotland, seen by the writer, is their

close similarity in lithologic character, sequence, and faunal content

with formations of the same age in the Appalachian Valley of eastern

Pennsylvania. The only noticeable difference is that their thickness

is not so great. It seems reasonable to conclude that all these Cam-

brian rocks were deposited in a connected basin, probably in the

same geosyncline, under very similar climatic and shore conditions,

although they are now widely separated by the north Atlantic

Ocean.

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

DALRADIAN SERIES

The Dalradian series, lying east of the Moine thrust in the Southern

Highlands, is composed of thick quartzites and boulder beds, lime-

stone, slate, phyllite, and schist that are closely folded and have a

very complex structure. Apparently this series was first folded into

great recumbent folds or nappes, accompanied by shearing and

thrust faulting on their flanks and these flat lying overthrust beds

were later closely folded. The Dalradian series is regarded by Pro-’

fessor Bailey, the leader of the excursion, and by some others present

on the trip, as pre-Cambrian, which was the reason for their study

by the pre-Cambrian Association. We saw the Dalradian series near

Ballachulish, on the shores of Loch Leven and of Loch Linnhe, and

at Schichallion in the Grampian Mountains. The section as at present

established in the Ballachulish and Appin nappes is given below:

BALLACHULISH AND APPINN APPES SCHICHALLION SECTION

Cuil Bay slates Loch Tay limestone

Appin limestone Ben Lui schist

Appin quartzite Ben Lawers schist

Striped series Ben Eagach schist

Ballachulish slate Carn Mairg quartzite

Ballachulish limestone Killiecrankie schist

Leven schist (phyllite) Upper Schichallion quartzite

Glencoe quartzite Tremolite limestone bed

Binnein schist Lower Schichallion quartzite

Binnein quartzite Main boulder bed

Hilde schist Tempar limestone

Eilde flages (Moine) Banded series

Gray limestone

Gray schist

Tremolite limestone

Meall Dubh quartzite

Meall Dubh schist

Professor Bailey in his paper in the Quarterly Journal of the Geo-

logical Society of London, 1910, which is accompanied by a geologic

map and sections, states that it is not known which is the top or

bottom of the section, but he listed the formations in the reverse

order from that in the preceding table, Hilde flags at top and Cuil

Bay slates at the bottom. In his 1922 paper published in the same

journal he stated that he believed the order and sequence published

in the earlier report (1910) was correct because it harmonized with

his interpretation of the slides as thrusts and with his conclusion

that the nappes moved southeastward. In 1924 Vogt presented con-

vineing evidence in the form of current bedding, ripple marks, etc.,

APRIL 15, 1935 STOSE: CAMBRIAN ROCKS 179

in the quartzites that the section as published by Prof. Bailey was

upside down, and in 1930 Professor Bailey in a paper in the same

journal accepted this inversion of the section to the order given in

the chart above. It is surprising if such a complete change in order

of sequence does not make necessary extensive modification of the

interpretation of the structure as shown in the published sections and

of the conclusions as to the direction of movement. On the excursion,

Professor Bailey did not express an opinion as to the direction of

movement of the nappes and where the roots of the detached nappes

lay. The section in another nappe at Schichallion, now being studied

in detail by Professor McCallien of Glasgow University, is given in

a parallel column for comparison, but it is not yet correlated with the

Ballachulish section.

Only those who have tramped the moors of the Highlands under

the adverse conditions of mist and rain can appreciate the labor of

the men who have toiled to unravel this complicated geology and the

accurate detailed geologic maps they have produced.

A thick series of quartzites and schists at or near the base, 1000 or

more feet thick at Schichallion, some quartzites containing pink

feldspar grains and some beds at Schichallion containing scattered

granite boulders suggesting tillite, impressed the writer in the field

as having a Cambrian aspect and the finding of a possible Scolithus

tube at one place strengthened this impression. The Leven schist, well

up in the section near Ballachulish is only a phyllite, much less meta-

morphosed than the older Bennein and Eilde schists, which is added

evidence of the inversion of the column. The black Ballachulish slate,

quarried at Ballachulish for roofing purposes, is not so much meta-

morphosed as the Arvonia slate of Virginia, of Ordovician age. A

slaty blue limestone and interbedded carbonaceous slate, called the

Ballachulish limestone, impressed the writer as closely resembling

the Conestoga limestone of eastern Pennsylvania, also of Ordovician

age. Although no fossils have been found in these rocks, the writer

ventures to suggest that the Dalradian rocks may be lower Paleozoic

formations deposited in a trough southeast of the barrier represented

by the overthrust Moine series, and that they may correspond to the

Cambrian and Ordovician formations in the Piedmont of the Ap-

palachians, east of the Blue Ridge-Catoctin Mountain barrier.

In the Islands of Islay and Jura, on the southwest coast of Scotland,

the belt of Dalradian rocks includes thick quartzites with boulder

beds, limestones, slates, and phyllites, similar to the Dalradian at

Ballachulish and Schichallion, but the quartzites contain Scolithus

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

tubes, and are called Pipe rock, and other beds, containing worm

castings, are called Fucoid beds. They are thus closely similar to the

Cambrian rocks of northwest Scotland. Miss Elles, in a paper read

at the 1934 meeting of the British Association in Aberdeen, made the

statement that she believes these Dalradian rocks on Islay and Jura

are Cambrian, and that similar rocks at Schichallion are probably

also Cambrian. Peach and Horne, in their posthumous volume on

Scotland, 1930, also assign these rocks on Islay and Jura to the Cam-—

brian. At the British Association meeting Doctor Robert Campell

also stated that he is of the opinion that beds of the Dalradian series

which he has studied northeast of the area seen on the excursion are

Paleozoic and he believes that fossils will some day be found to prove

its

GEOLOGY.—A recent backshore and shoreface terrace along the Severn

River, Maryland.|| Vernon E. Scuerp, University of Idaho.

(Communicated by W. W. RuBEY.)

The ability of unusually large waves to cut a bench and build a

terrace in a short time at a higher level than normal was brought to

the writer’s attention during June, 1934 while at the north shore of

Round Bay, Severn River, Maryland. The bay, which is an enlarge-

ment of the Severn River seven and one-half miles from its mouth,

measures two and one-half miles from northwest to southeast and

one and one-half miles from northeast to southwest. The ordinary

width of the river is one-half to three-fourths of a mile. Mouthward

the river flows southeastwardly in an almost straight line to enter

the Chesapeake Bay at Annapolis. The alinement of Round Bay and

the lower portion of the Severn River creates a length of fetch of five

miles across which the waves may gain in height and energy. The

north coast of the bay is at the end of the five-mile fetch and extends

in a general east-west direction from Riggs Point to Cedar Point, a

distance of slightly less than one mile. Thus when the wind is from

the southeast this coast is subjected to the full force of the wave

attack.

This section of Maryland is part of Atlantic Coastal Plain and is

here underlain by unconsolidated Upper Cretaceous sands and clays

with an occasional lens of iron-cemented conglomerate. The shore of

the bay is typical of the embayed coastal plain of the Chesapeake

Bay region and is the result of shore processes upon a partially sub-

merged youthful topography. The coast line is slightly crescentic and

1 Received January 16, 1935.

APRIL 15, 1935 SCHEID: SEVERN RIVER TERRACE 181

there are hills at and occasionally between the points of the crescents.

These same hills have been cliffed by wave action so that the cliff-

line? presents an undulatory aspect when viewed from the water.

The center of the violent storm of August 21—23, 1933, which

damaged the whole eastern seaboard, passed northward over the

Chesapeake Bay region. It culminated on the 23rd with southeast

gales and exceptionally heavy rain. In twenty-four hours, 7.62 inches

of water fell at Baltimore and 5.00 inches at Annapolis.* The wind

was from the northeast on the 21st and 22nd, but early in the morning

of the 28rd it shifted to the southeast and attained a maximum veloc-

ity of 50 miles per hour.’

The unusually strong winds from the southeast backed up the

tidal waters into the many small rivers and inlets of the bay. This

action combined with the excessive rains produced very high tides

and caused extensive river and lowland floods. For example, in the

Baltimore harbor, 16 miles north-northwest of Round Bay, the high

tide, which was 7.3 feet! above mean high tide, flooded the whole

harbor section. Damage from the storm was very heavy. The State

Conservation Commissioner, Mr. Swepson Earle, has estimated that

about two square miles of coast land was lost in Maryland by wave

action. The shift of the wind to the southeast had the same effect

at Round Bay as at Baltimore. The southeast-northwest direction of

the five-mile fetch allowed the storm waves to reach unusual pro-

portions. Two young men who were at the north shore of Round Bay

during the storm informed the writer that there was no exceptional

wave activity while the wind was from the northeast, but when the

wind veered to the southeast the water level rose approximately six

feet and pounded the coast so hard as to destroy a pile-driven pier,

several small sheds, and to wrench a one-half horsepower electric

water pump from its fastenings and throw it fifteen feet inland and

six feet higher. They report that it was during this one day (23rd)

that the high-level bench and terrace described below were cut and

built.

The profile of the existing backshore (BCDE) and shoreface (EFK)

terraces fashioned by normal yearly wave action from the high-level

bench (BC) and terrace (CDNPE) produced by the storm of August

? Cliff-line: The line of the top of a cliff or series of cliffs, i.e., the line resulting

from the intersection of the face of a cliff, or series of cliffs, with the land surface above.

Other technical terms follow the usage in Johnson, D. W., Shore processes and shoreline

development, 1919.

3U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Weather Bur. Climatological Data—Maryland and Delaware

Section 38: 29-32. 1933.

4 Oral communication; Mr. Frank Kipp, Harbor Engineer, Baltimore, Md.

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

93 is shown in Figure 1. The profile has been made through one of the

cliffed hills and shows the present cliff (AB) the top of which is 25

feet above the normal high tide level (EH). It also indicates the

changes in the profile of the shore resulting from the wave activity

of the storm of August, 1933, and the subsequent normal storms of

the winter of 1933-34. BCDE represents the present backshore ter-

race which varies from zero to six feet wide. It is generally composed

25° 90' /5*

=a Scale in Feet ~~ Tare

3} 10 20

Yertica/ 0

Fig. 1.—Profile of the north shore, Round Bay, Severn River, Md., June 1934.

of two parts; BC, the high-level wave-cut bench now partially cov-

ered by cliff debris, and CDE, which is the wave-built portion de-

posited during the storm. At places either part may form the com-

plete backshore terrace. CE lies beneath CDE and is the basal por-

tion of the pre-storm cliff. The top of the erosion scarp (DE) of the

backshore terrace (BCDE) measures two and one-half feet above

the present beach created by normal wave activities of the winter

of 1933-34. The short-lived high-level terrace that was probably de-

posited during the storm is indicated as CDNPE. The pre-storm

shoreface terrace is shown as EGK while the present shoreface terrace

is shown as EFK. The material deposited by wave activity subsequent

to the storm is bounded by EFKG and was probably obtained from

DNPE, a part of the high-level terrace (CDNPE).

The backshore terrace (BCDE) extends the full distance from

Cedar Point to Riggs Point and when seen from a few hundred feet

APRIL 15, 1935 SCHEID: SEVERN RIVER TERRACE 183

from shore it has the even appearance of a board walk. The terrace

is evidently the result of both cutting and building by the storm

waves. The unusually high waves attacked the pre-storm cliffs at the

cliffed hills and cut the high-level bench (BC). The material resulting

from the cutting of the new bench was immediately deposited on the

pre-storm beach or carried along shore by the littoral currents and

deposited on the lowland shores. With the subsidence of the storm

waters a high-level bench (BC) and terrace (CDNPE) remained

on the coast side of the shore. The normal yearly high tides and

storm waves of the winter of 1933-34 have cut away much of the

high-level terrace (CDNPE) so as to leave the present backshore

terrace (BCDE). At some places where the sea cliff is unusually steep

and bold no trace of the backshore terrace (BCDE) is seen. This

absence may mean that the normal waves of the winter of 1933-34

were able to cut away from the exposed places not only the high-

level terrace (CDNPE), but also the bench (BC) that may have been

formed during the big storm.

Another effect of the storm observed by the writer was the unusual

shallowness of the present shoreface. Formerly, at a distance of 90

feet from the normal high tide shore line (E), the water was four feet

deep (G). At present the shoreface at the same spot is only two and

one-half feet (F) below normal high tide level (EH). The depth of

water at a point 105 feet from the high tide shoreline (E) was formerly

and is now 15 feet (K). The new shoreface terrace (EFK) has no

doubt been built by normal yearly wave activity. The high-level

bench (BC) and terrace (CDNPE) left by the storm of August 23rd

was cut into by the waves of the 1933-34 winter and furnished such

an excessive load of debris that the waves were not able to remove it

completely. This aggraded the former shoreface to form the present

shoreface which at point F is two and one-half feet higher than before

the storm of August 23rd, 1933.

The above described terrace is certainly not the result of an ordi-

nary large storm unaccompanied by change in the water level. Such

a storm would have attacked the pre-storm beach and would have

deepened the water. But the severe storm of August, 1933, acted at

a high level and probably had very little effect on the pre-storm shore-

face and foreshore beach. Instead the waves immediately attacked

the pre-storm cliff at a higher level than would ordinarily have been

the case. The waves were supplied with an abundance of debris from

the cliff so that they built out a small but high-level terrace (CDN PE)

upon the surface of the pre-storm beach. The upper surface (CDN)

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

of the newly built terrace was quickly established as the temporary

profile of equilibrium for the storm. With the recession of the storm

waters the normal waves began their attack upon the newly estab-

lished high-level terrace and carried much of the material seaward to

aggrade the shoreface as shown in the profile.

GEOLOGY.—Occurrence of Triassic sediments on the rim of Grand

Canyon... Epwin D. McKes, Park Naturalist, Grand Canyon

National Park. (Communicated by JoHn B. REEsSIDE, JR.)

In 1858, Dr. J.S. Newberry, geologist on Lieutenant Ives’ exploring

expedition, recognized in the valley of the Little Colorado River

where he crossed it about 40 miles below the present town of Winslow

a series of rocks which was definitely above and of later age than the

highest which he had seen exposed in the walls of Grand Canyon.

These rocks, 500 feet thick, were for the most part red sandstones

and shales and he referred to them as the “‘Saliferous series” or ‘“‘red

sandstone series.’

During the past sixty years many geologists working in the Grand

Canyon region have noted the presence of Newberry’s “‘Saliferous

series’ in various localities and have contributed to our knowledge

of the history and extent of these rocks. Among a large accumulation

of data, two things appear to have especial significance. First, since

the remnants of these strata are found north, south, east, and west

of Grand Canyon and since they are considered on the basis of fossils

to have been formed during the Lower Triassic period, it is clearly

evident that rocks of this age once covered the entire Grand Canyon

area. Second, these remnants furnish evidence that a long period of

erosion and wearing away of the region occurred just prior to the

beginning of actual Grand Canyon cutting.

South of Grand Canyon isolated remnants of the “‘Saliferous series”

of Newberry, now known as the Moenkopi formation, are found in

about nine scattered localities, the farthest southwest of which is in

Sycamore Canyon. Both there and in Anderson mesa farther east

the exposures are quite extensive laterally and in both cases are pro-

tected by lava caps. Since these and the other Moenkopi remnants

have considerable bearing on the history of the region, their extent

and nature is here summarized:

1 Published by permission of the Director, National Park Service. Received

January 16, 1935.

APRIL 15, 1935

TABLE 1.—PrincrpaL Ourcrors or Triassic Rocks SoutTH oF

MCKEE: TRIASSIC SEDIMENTS

185

GRAND Canyon

Locality Thickness Overlying Beds Recorder

Sycamore Canyon 300-400’ Moenkopi Basalt Robinson (1)

Cap of Shinarump

Anderson Mesa N. Side} 400’ Moenk. & Shin. Basalt Robinson (1)

Anderson Mesa 5S. Side | 550’ Moenk. & Shin. Basalt Robinson (1)

Flagstaff 25’-150’ Moenkopi Basalt Robinson (1)

San Francisco Peak ? 700’ Moenkopi Basalt Gilbert (2)

Shin. & Chinle

Cedar Ranch N.E. of 280’ Koenkopi Basalt Robinson (1)

Kendrick 365’ Shin. & Chinle

Plateau between Dia- | Outlier Moenkopi None Newberry (3)

mond and Cataract

Creeks

Red Butte 14 mi. §.8.E.| 600’ Moenkopi Basalt Ward (4)

Grand Canyon 210’ Shinarump

Grand Canyon Rowe’s | 50’ Moenkopi None McKee

Well

Grand Canyon west of | 32’ Moenkopi None McKee

Moran Point

Near Grand Canyon, outliers of rocks of Triassic age such as Red

Butte to the south and Cedar Mesa to the east have long been recog-

nized for what they are. Remnants of such rocks occurring actually

on the rim of Grand Canyon, however, have not heretofore been

recorded but since the writer has recently discovered their presence

there he takes this opportunity of making known the details. Just

west of the Hance trail and east of the steep hill formed by the Grand-

view monocline is one such exposure extending along the rim for

approximately half a mile (Fig. 1). It includes the basal conglomerate

member, 8 to 20 feet thick, and a maximum of 12 feet of red to yellow,

thin-bedded, argillaceous sandstones above. These red sandstones

are also to be seen along the Bright Angel fault not far back from the

canyon rim on the road to Havasu Canyon (about two miles S.W. of

Rowe’s Well) but there the underlying conglomerate and the Kaibab

formation are not exposed.

One important feature of the discovery of the Moenkopi formation

on the rim of Grand Canyon is that it clearly shows that only a very

small part of the Kaibab formation has been removed over much of

this area by recent erosion. Beneath the Moenkopi is found only a

thin exposure of the so-called A-member or Harrisburg gypsiferous

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

member of the Kaibab. It consists in this locality of two ledges of

limestone, each containing abundant casts of Permian pelecypods

and gastropods, separated from each other by a red sandstone. This

sandstone is seen at Yaki Point and on the Buggeln hill along the

Desert View road where it has been mistaken for Moenkopi sand-

stone because of its color. It is massive, crumbly, and irregularly-

bedded, however, so there is no need for confusion if one compares

Fig. 1—Moenkopi basal conglomerate and red sandstone resting on Kaibab forma-

tion, rim of Grand Canyon, west of Hance Trail.

lithologic characters. The underlying limestone is the rock that covers

a major portion of the plateau surface.

Along the rim of Grand Canyon west of Hance trail the contact

between the Moenkopi and Kaibab formations, representing a break

between two great eras of geological hitsory, is plainly visible. The

subangular pebbles at the base of the former, ranging in diameter up

to 23 inches but averaging about 4 inch, completely cover the flat

limestone surface of the latter and in places fill small depressions and

channels cut into it. These pebbles are all of the most durable types

of rock—yjasper, chert, quartz, etc.—varying greatly in color but

probably derived mostly from the Kaibab formation and transported

only a short distance. A similar bed of conglomerate has been noted

at the base of the Moenkopi where the writer has examined it north

of Cedar Mesa, along the Little Colorado Canyon, near Cedar Ridge

Trading Post, in Sycamore Canyon and in the valley of the Little

APRIL 15, 1935 CHASE: GRAMINEAE OF BRAZIL 187

Colorado. Robinson (1) records a similar bed, 5 feet thick, at Anderson

Mesa to the south while to the north and northwest it has been noted

in numerous localities by other geologists so it probably represents a

fairly constant unit at the base of the Moenkopi formation.

The discovery of rocks of the Moenkopi formation on the rim of

Grand Canyon adds one more geological period to the remarkably

great number already known to be represented in this classical cross-

section of the history of the earth. Even more than ever before can

the Grand Canyon of Arizona be looked upon as a most impressive

open book, recording the story of the ages.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Roxstnson, H. H. The San Franciscan Volcanic Field, Arizona. U.S. Geol.

Survey Prof. Paper 76:27. 1913.

2. GritBerRt, G. K. Report on the geology of portions of Nevada, Utah, California, and

Arizona, examined in the years 1871, 1872, and 1873. U.S. Geog. and Geol.

Surveys W. 100th Mer. 3: 17-187, 503-567. 1875.

3. Newserrry, J. 8. Report upon the Colorado River of the West, explored 1857-58

by Lt. J. C. Ives. Govt. Printing Office, pt. 3, Geological Report. 1861.

4. Warp, L. F. Geology of the Little Colorado Valley. Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser. 12:

401-413. 1901.

BOTAN Y.—Studies in the Gramineae of Brazil—I.!_ AGNES CHASE,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

The grass flora of Brazil is of especial importance to American

agrostology. Except for Muhlenberg’s Descriptio Graminum, pub-

lished in Philadelphia in 1817, the earliest work on American grasses

(which in those days included sedges) was Agrostografia Brasiliensis

by Giuseppe Raddi, published in 1823. More intensive botanical ex-

ploration was carried on in Brazil in the first three decades of the last

century than in any other part of America.? Many species first de-

scribed from Brazil are found in the North American tropics, for

which reason it is necessary for one studying the grasses of the latter

region to have a fairly detailed knowledge of the family as found in

Brazil.

Since the early Brazilian collections were but poorly represented in

American herbaria, three trips have been made to Brazil for the study

and collection of grasses, two by the writer, in 1924—25' and in 1929—

1 Received February 7, 1935.

2 See Cuasn, Identification of Raddi’s grasses —This JouRNAL 13: 167-169. 1923.

3 See Cuasn, Hastern Brazil through an agrostologist’s spectacles. Smithsonian Re-

port 1926: 383-403. 1927.

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 4

CES aie ee

aN Eat

“ses 2

Fig. 1.—Lithachne horizontalis from type. Plant 3; staminate spikelet, pistillate

spikelet with immature fruit, and two views of mature fruit, X10 dia.

APRIL 15, 1935 CHASE: GRAMINEAE OF BRAZIL 189

30, and one by Jason R. Swallen in 1933-34. As a result of this work

and of helpful cooperation from the Jardim Botanico, and the Museu

Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, from the Instituto Biologico, Sao Paulo,

and of Professor Bento Pickel, Tapera, Estado de Pernambuco, in

addition to numerous collections of Gardner, Glaziou, Salzmann, and

many others, the Grass Herbarium in Washington now has the largest

collection of Brazilian grasses in the world.

The study of this material has brought to light many species pre-

viously known from but a single, often fragmentary, specimen, and

also a number of undescribed species. The volume on Gramineae

for the Flora Brasilica, projected by Dr. Frederico C. Hoehne, chief

of the section Botanica e Agronomia of the Instituto Biologico, Sao

Paulo, is to be prepared by the writer. It is proposed to publish in

this JOURNAL from time to time the new species and notes.on some

of the little known ones.

Duplicate type material of new species will be deposited in the

herbarium of the Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro, and so far as

material allows in the herbaria of the Instituto Biologico and of the

Museu Nacional. Specimens of species from the state of Minas Geraes

will also be deposited in the Escola Superior de Agricultura y Veteri-

naria, Vicosa, and those from Northern Brazil in the Museu Goeldi,

Para.

Lithachne horizontalis Chase, sp. nov.

Perennis, glabra, caespitosa; culmi steriles 10-30 cm. alti; culmi florentes

longe repentes, 30-100 cm. longi, internodiis elongatis; vaginae breves; ligula

minuta, fimbriata; laminae planae, oblongo-lanceolatae, 2.5-6.5 em. longae,

8-13 mm. latae, basi inaequaliter in petiolum brevissimum subito contracta;

panicula mascula terminalis, 3-4 ecm. longa, 2 cm. lata, spiculis 4-6 mm.

longis purpureis; spiculae feminae in nodis culmorum repentium solitariae;

gluma secunda et lemma sterile 5-6 mm. longa; lemma fertile 3 mm. longum,

2mm. latum, 3 mm. crassum, album, maturitate fusco-variegatum, cucul-

latum, gibbum, apiculatum; palea angusta.

Glabrous perennial in tufts of several erect sterile culms, 10 to 30 cm.

tall and 1 to 4 vinelike flowering culms, these 30 to 100 em. long, running on

the ground and rooting at the nodes, simple or sparingly branching, the

internodes elongate; sheaths short, slightly auricled; ligule minute, fimbri-

ate; blades horizontally spreading, flat, 2.5 to 6.5 em. long, 8 to 13 mm.

wide, abruptly narrowed at the asymmetric base into a minute petiole

hispidulous on the upper surface, the blades scabrous on the margin, espe-

cially toward the acute to acuminate apex; staminate panicles 3 to 4 cm.

long, about 2 cm. wide, terminal on mostly relatively short culms, the spike-

lets short pediceled on the subcapillary branches, 4 to 6 mm. long, the

lemma and palea purple, acute, the 3 stamens with anthers almost as long as

the spikelets, the filaments very short; pistillate spikelets solitary on slender

peduncles, borne at the nodes of the long creeping culms, protruding from

the side of the sheath or from its summit, rarely one or two borne on the

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 4

culms producing the terminal staminate panicles, the glume and sterile

lemma equal, 5 to 6 mm. long, acuminate, the glume 5-nerved, the lemma

3-nerved, both with a few obscure cross veins; fruit 3 mm. long. about 2

mm. wide and 3 mm. thick, smooth, dull white, becoming strikingly mottled

with grayish brown, the lemma 5-nerved, cucullate, strongly gibbous,

abruptly apiculate; palea narrow; rachilla joint remaining attached at base,

as a white porcelain-like callus.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 1,255,920, collected on a moist

gentle slope above streamlet, near Bello Horizonte, Minas Geraes, Brazil,

March 25, 1925, by Agnes Chase (no. 9057). Known only from the type

collection.

Field notes state that the plants were firmly rooted, forming a colony

under coarse herbs and Paspalum paniculatum L., the long pistillate culms

tangled under vegetation, very slender but not readily breaking in un-

tangling; staminate panicles relatively few, the spikelets falling readily;

blades flat but curling almost instantly when plants were dug. The colony

was found about half a kilometer beyond the end of the Calafate bonde

[street car line]. The specific name refers to Bello Horizonte, the beautiful

capital of Minas Geraes, and also to the widely creeping pistillate culms.

This third species of Lithachne is strikingly different from the two previ-

ously known species, L. pauciflora (Swartz) Beauv., rather widely dis-

tributed in the American tropics, and L. pineti (Wright) Chase, known only

from Cuba. Lithachne pineti, to which it is the more nearly related, is a

much smaller, more delicate species, with smaller blades and spikelets, the

fruits smaller, the palea pubescent with thick hairs toward the base.

Otyra SAMPAIANA Hitche. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 17: 215, f. 1.—1927.

The type specimen, collected at Reeve, Estado do Espirito Santo, by

José Vidal, is almost without underground parts. Specimens collected in

1929 at Alegre, Espirito Santo, about 20 kilometers west of Reeve (Chase

10049), show that the roots bear fleshy potato-like bodies, 1 to 2 em. long

and 5 to 8 mm. thick.

BOTAN Y.—Centrochloa, a new genus of grasses from Brazil... JASON

R. SwWALLEN, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Material of a new genus of the tribe Paniceae was collected by the

author in the state of Maranh4o, Brazil, during a collecting trip in

the early part of 1934. It occurs rather commonly on sterile sandy

soil in the states of Maranh4o and Goyaz in the valley of the Tocan-

tins river, in the region of Carolina. The name of the genus is taken

from the Greek xevrpov spur, and xXoa, grass, referring to the pointed

callus which extends well below the articulation between the pedicel

and the spikelet.

1 Received for publication February 7, 1935.

APRIL 15, 1935 SWALLEN: CENTROCHLOA 191

Fig. A.—Centrochloa singularis, from type. 1. Panicle, X1. 2. Two views of

spikelet, a, from side of sterile lemma, showing the glabrous summit and the scar (at

summit of callus) of attachment to pedicel; 6, from side of second glume, X10. 3.

Three-quarter view of spikelet attached to the narrowly 3-winged rachis, showing the

base of callus free from the rachis; pedicel (to right) from which spikelet has fallen;

Cross section of rachis (above), X10. 4. Fruit, X10. 5. Two views of mature spike-

lets and fruit, X10, from Swallen 3704.

B.—Spheneria kegelii, from Spruce 884. 1. Panicle, X1. 2. Spikelet, from side of

sterile lemma, about to fall from the pedicel, showing the oblique articulation from the

relatively long pedicel, X10. 3. Spikelet from the side of second glume showing linear

sear of attachment to pedicel, X10. 4. Fruit, 10.

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

Centrochloa Swallen, gen. nov.

Spiculae solitariae, biseriales, breviter pedicellatae pedicellis infra spic-

ulam articulatis, lemmate fertile a rachi averso; callus infra articulum

elongatus, arcuatus, acuminatus; gluma prima nulla; gluma secunda sub-

hyalina, cucullata, inter nervos dense hispida; lemma sterile glumae

secundae simile, pilis brevioribus; lemma fertile oblongum, marginibus

planis.

Gramen annuum, laminis conduplicatis, racemis 2-7 subdigitatis di-

vergentibus.

Spikelets solitary, with the back of the fertile lemma turned away from

the rachis, short-pedicellate, readily disarticulating from the pedicel, in

two rows on one side of a narrowly winged rachis, the rows separated by a

wing on the midrib; callus elongated below the articulation, slender, acu-

minate, arcuate, pointed; first glume wanting; second glume and sterile lemma

equal, thin, prominently 3-nerved, hoodshaped, enclosing the fruit, ap-

pressed-hispid between the nerves; fruit indurate, oblong, brown at ma-

turity, minutely striate, the margins of the lemma tightly enclosing the

palea, not inrolled.

Annuals with conduplicate blades and two to several sub-digitate,

slender, ascending or spreading racemes.

Centrochloa singularis Swallen, sp. nov.

Annua; culmi erecti, 10-75 cm. alti, glabri, ramosi; vaginae compressae,

carinatae, glabrae vel margine papilloso-pilosae; ligula truncata, 0.5 mm.

longa; laminae conduplicatae, glabrae, 5-15 cm. longae, 3-8 mm. latae,

suprema valde reducta; racemi 2-7, 3-14 cm. longi, rachi 0.5 mm. lata,

marginibus scabris; spiculae 3.5-4 mm. longae; gluma secunda et lemma

sterile 3-nervia, inter nervos dense hispida, pilis glumae secundae quam

spiculis longioribus, pilis lmmatos sterilis quam spiculis brevioribus; lemma

fertile 2-2.3 mm. longum, viride vel fuseum, apice minute hispidum.

Annual; culms 10-75 cm. tall, mostly single, sometimes 2 or 3, erect,

glabrous, branching at all the nodes, the branches enclosed in the sheaths

until after maturity of the primary panicle; sheaths compressed-keeled,

glabrous or sparsely papillose-pilose on the margins, the lower ones short,

overlapping, the two upper elongate but shorter than the internodes; ligule

truncate, 0.5 mm. long; blades conduplicate, arcuate, ascending to spread-

ing, glabrous, 5-15 cm. long, 3-8 mm. wide, or smaller in depauperate speci-

mens, the uppermost blade much reduced; racemes 2-7, 3-14 cm. long, the

rachis narrowly winged, 0.5 mm. wide, glabrous, the margins scabrous;

spikelets obconic, 3.5-4 mm. long, the pedicel very short; second glume and

sterile lemma equal, covering the fruit, prominently 3-nerved, appressed-

hispid between the nerves, glabrous at the summit, the hairs golden or

purple, those on the second glume exceeding the spikelet, those on the

sterile lemma shorter than the spikelet, at maturity becoming purplish-

black, clustered into stiff points standing away from the spikelet, appearing

like a tiny crown; fruit 2-2.3 mm. long, oblong, striate, minutely hispid

at the tip, pale green, turning chestnut brown at maturity.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium no. 1,611,707, collected in open,

sandy places between Barra do Corda and Grajahi, Maranhao, Brazil,

March 4, 1934, by Jason R. Swallen (no. 3703).

Open sterile sandy land, northeastern Brazil.

MaranuAo: Between Barra do Corda and Grajaht, Swallen 3703, 3704;

between Carolina and Riachéo, Swallen 4006, 4008, 4021.

APRIL 15, 1935 DUCKE: GENUS DIMORPHANDRA 193

Goyaz: Philadelphia, Swallen 3921.

Centrochloa is closely related to the monotypic genus Spheneria.? These

two genera apparently present a case of parallel development, the first from

Axonopus since the spikelets are placed with the back of the fruit turned

away from the rachis, and the second from Paspalum since the back of the

fruit is turned toward the rachis. In both Spheneria and Centrochloa, the

spikelets readily disarticulate from the pedicel, the articulation in the first

being long and oblique and in the second small and round. Furthermore,

the spikelets of Spheneria are not spurred as are those of Centrochloa, and

the base of the fruit is long acuminate, while that of Centrochloa is blunt as

in Axonopus.

2 Spheneria Kuhlm. Comm. Linhas Telegraph. Estrat. Matto Grosso 67: 57. 1922.

Based on a single species S. setzfolia (Doell) Kuhlm.

Spheneria kegeli Pilger, Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 26: 228. 1929. Based on Paspalum

kegelit C. Muell.

Paspalum kegelit C. Muell. Bot. Zeit. 19: 324. 1861. “Surinam, in arenosis prope

Mariepaston Majo 1846: Kegel (Coll. no. 1316).”

Paspalum setifolium Doell in Mart. Fl. Bras. 2?: 61. 1877. “Habitat in regione

Amazonica prope Manaos (Spruce n. 884 et 13860).”

Spheneria setifolia Kuhlm. Comm. Linhas Telegraph. Estrat. Matto Grosso 67:

57. 1922. Based on Paspalum setifolium Doell.

BOTANY.—WNew species of the genus Dimorphandra Schott section

Pocillum Tul.1. ApotpHE Ducks, Jardim Botanico, Rio de

Janeiro. (Communicated by E. P. Kruurp.)

The genus Dimorphandra may be divided into two sections: Hudi-

morphandra and Pocillum, which are so natural that it would perhaps

be better to consider them as subgenera. They are chiefly distin-

guished by the fruits, and each has a different geographical distri-

bution. The species of Hudimorphandra occur throughout the Ama-

zonian hylaea inclusive of Guiana and in tropical Brazil as far south

as Rio de Janeiro and the State of 8. Paulo. Pocillum, however, is

strictly limited to the hylaea.

This latter section now contains 15 species, 10 of which are found

in the Brazilian states of Par&é and Amazonas, and 5 in British

Guiana. One of them, D. macrostachya of the slopes of Mount Roraima

must be included in the flora of both countries, as well as in that of

Amazonian Venezuela. Here occurs also the Brazilian D. pennigera.

The sole species found in French Guiana, D. polyandra, is, according

to Sandwith, probably an anomalous form of D. hohenkerkii of British

Guiana. D. pennigera, collected in the Brazilian and Venezuelan

Upper Rio Negro, must certainly exist in the neighbouring Colombian

territories, and D. gigantea grows at the frontier of Peru.

1 Received January 17, 1934.

194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

The habitat of the majority of the species is the upland forest

with moist sandy soil, having a surface layer of acid black humus.

Here the red-flowered species may be counted among the most

elegant and showy trees. Some species, however, are small trees of

dry savannas (in Brazil, campinas) of white sand. None of them was

found in the periodically overflooded Amazonian lowlands.

I have examined herbarium samples of 9 Brazilian and one British

Guiana species (D. congestiflora, cotype, received from Kew Gardens.)

For the four or five remaining species, I am content with the good

descriptions in Sandwith’s review? of the British Guiana Dimorph-

andra. The type specimens of the new species described below are

preserved in the Jardim Botanico of Rio de Janeiro; cotypes or

duplicates of all species I collected have been distributed to the

United States National Museum and to the principal botanical in-

stitutions of Europe. Cotypes of D. gigantea have been sent to Yale

University School of Forestry, accompanied by a wood sample.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF DIMORPHANDRA SECTION POCILLUM

A—Laminae of the staminodes coherent in the bud, forming a hood-like

piece, deciduous at the opening of the flower.

Staminodes anantherous. Flowers relatively large, distinctly pedicellate,

white, later becoming yellowish or dirty reddish.

Pinnae 13-21-jugate, leaflets 21-48-jugate. Racemes very long. Amazo-

nian estuary and environs; Rio Trombetas.

D. velutina Ducke.

Pinnae 6-10-jugate, leaflets 20-30-jugate. Racemes shorter. Rio Negro,

Cassiquiare and environs of Roraima.

D. pennigera Tul.

Pinnae 1-2-jugate, leaflets 4-8-jugate. Racemes shorter than those of

the first species. Man4os.

D. vernicosa Benth

Staminodes with a rudimentary anther. Flowers pedicellate. Pinnae 9-12-

jugate; leaflets 20-40-jugate. Not seen. British Guiana.

D. cuprea Sprague & Sandw.

B—Staminodes free.

Staminodes anantherous. Flowers pedicellate, white; petals sericeous-

pilose within. Pinnae 2-jugate; leaflets 3-5-jugate, large for this

genus. Not seen. British Guiana.

D. davisii Sprague & Sandw.

2 Kew Bull. Mise. Inf. 1932: 395. 1932.

APRIL 15, 1935 DUCKE: GENUS DIMORPHANDRA 195

Staminodes with a rudimentary anther. Petals glabrous within.

Pinnae 1-3-jugate; leaflets 4-7-jugate, fairly large. Flowers pedicellate

red. Manaos.

D. ignea sp. nov.

Pinnae 3-5-jugate; leaflets 7-12-jugate, smaller. Flowers pedicellate,

red. Plants not seen.

Fertile stamens 5. British Guiana.

D. hohenkerkii Sprague & Sandw.

Fertile stamens 8-10 (perhaps anomalous?). French Guiana.

D. polyandra R. Ben.

Pinnae 3-10-jugate; leaflets 10-33-jugate, small. Flowers sessile.

Leaflets nearly glabrous. Spikes very long and thin; flowers fire-red;

calyx distinctly pubescent. Eastern part of the State of Para.

D. glabrifolia sp. nov.

Lower surface of leaflets sericeous-pubescent. Spikes very long and

thin; flowers orange-red; calyx distinctly pubescent. British

Guiana.

D. congestiflora Sprague & Sandw

Lower surface of leaflets red brown, ciliolate. Spikes shorter but

thicker; flowers of a palish orange color; calyx nearly glabrous.

Northwestern part of the State of Para.

D. campinarum Ducke.

Pinnae 11-17-jugate; leaflets 22-33-jugate, small. Flowers subsessile

(pedicel about 0.5 mm. long), red. Man4os.

D. coccinea sp. nov.

Pinnae 13-22-jugate; leaflets 30-54-jugate, very small. Flowers arange-

ferruginous, subsessile (pedicel about 0.5 mm.). Indumentum of

young branchlets, petioles, peduncles, ete., relatively thin, tomen-

tous. Rio Curicuriary tributary of the Upper Rio Negro.

D. ferruginea sp. nov.

Pinnae 18-17-jugate; leaflets 32-54-jugate, very small. Indumentum of

young branchlets, petioles, peduncles, ete., velvet; leaflets nearly

glabrous. Tabatinga.

D. gigantea sp. nov.

C—Incompletely known species, of the affinity of pennigera according

to Bentham. Laminae of the staminodes deciduous, unknown. Pinnae

6-12-jugate; leaflets 17-25-jugate, small. Flowers pedicellate, red (ac-

cording to Schomburgk). Not seen. Environs of Roraima.

D. macrostachya Benth

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

Dimorphandra ignea Ducke, sp. nov.

Arbor 20-35-metralis ramulis foliisque novellis et inflorescentiis tenuiter

canoferrugineo-tomentellis. Folia petiolo modice longo, crasso; pinnae 1-3-

(saepius 2)-jugae; foliola 4-6-(rarius 7)-juga, brevissime (1-2 mm.) petio-

lulata, 40-90 mm. longa et 15-45 mm. lata, oblonga vel elliptico-oblonga,

basi acuta, apice minime acuminata vel acuta vel obtusa et saepe retusius-

cula, coriacea, supra nitida, subtus subopaca et pallidiora, tenuissime pen-

ninervia. Racemi 2-7, vulgo 200-300 mm. longi, anthesi plena ad 15 mm.

crassi, sat breviter pedunculati, rhachidibus crassis. Flores ignei, numero-

sissimi, pedicellis 1-1.1/2 mm. longis; calix 1.1/2-2 mm. longus et latus,

campanulatus, lobis brevissimis, extus canopuberulus; petala 3-4 mm. longa

extus sparsim griseopuberula caeterum glabra; stamina 5, vulgo 4-5.1/2

mm. longa, glabra, petalis longiora; staminodia 5, circa 6 mm. longa, libera,

glabra, clavato-spathulata, basi longe stipitata, apice anthera rudimentari

coronata; ovarium subsessile dense fulvovillosum. Legumen ut in D. verni-

cosa, sutura superiore fortius bialato-dilatata.

Habitat cirea Man4os (civ. Amazonas), sat frequens in silva non inunda-

bili leviter paludosa solo silico-humoso secus rivuli Mindti cursum superi-

orem et prope cataractam altam fluminis Tarum4 ubi 27-5-1932 florifera

(leg. A. Ducke, H. J. B. R. no. 23,265).

This new species agrees in the leaves with D. vernicosa, but belongs, on

account of its flowers, to a very different group of species.

Dimorphandra glabrifolia Ducke, sp. nov.

Dimorphandra macrostachya Ducke, Archiv. Jard. Bot. Rio de Janeiro

4: 39. 1925, non Benth. 1840.

Arbor magna usque 40 m. alta, rarius mediocris. Ramuli novelli, foliorum

petioli et rhaches inflorescentiaeque tenuiter cano-vel ferrugineo-tomentosi.

Folia vulgo breviter petiolata; pinnae 3-10-jugae; foliola 10—-26-juga, sessilia,

maiora usque ad 22 mm. longa et 6 mm. lata at saepius 16 mm. longitudine

et 4 mm. latitudine non excedentia, apicalia et praesertim basalia gradatim

minora, lineari-vel subobovato-lineari-oblonga, basi obliqua apice levissime

retusiuscula, margine revoluto, coriacea, supra rugulosa glabra nitida,

subtus pallidiora opaca subglabra (pilis minimis sparsis) costa prominente.

Spicae 1-6, usque ad 380 mm. longae anthesi plena 10-14 mm. crassae,

vulgo breviter pedunculatae, rhachidibus crassis. Flores inodori ignei

numerosissimi, sessiles vel subsessiles pedicello 1/2 mm. longo; calix 1-1.1/2

mm. longus, 2-21 /2 mm. latus, cupularis, breviter dentatus, tenuiter

pubescens; petala 3-3.1/2 mm. longa, glabra; stamina 5, glabra, 3.1/2-4.1/2

mm. longa: staminodia 5, libera, 4.1/2-5 mm. longa, glabra, longe stipitata

laminis clav ato- spathulatis apice anthera rudimentari coronatis; ovarium

subsessile dense et longe fulvidovillosum. Legumen forma ut in reliquis

hujus sectionis speciebus, usque ad 200 mm. longum et ad 90 mm. latum,

adultum glabrum, seminibus 14-18 mm. longis, 8-10 mm. latis crasse al-

buminosis.

Habitat sat frequens in silva non inundabili at plus minus paludosa solo

silico-humoso secus rivulos “nigros, ” in civitatis Para parte orientali: prope

flumen Arama in aestuario amazonico, H. J. B. R. no. 20,203 (speciei typus) ;

prope Belem do Parad, Herb. Amaz. Mus. Para no. 2, 149 et 16,846; in insula

Collares, H. A. M. P. no. 12,651; prope Sao Caetano de Odivellas ad ostium

fluvii Para, He J) BUR mot 817; sub radicibus montis Parauaquara inter

Prainha et Almeirim, H. J. B. R. no. 10,956. Specimina omnia legit A.

APRIL 15, 1935 DUCKE: GENUS DIMORPHANDRA 197

Ducke, exceptis no. 2,149 et 11,817 a M. Guedes et P. Le Cointe lectis.

Prope Santa Izabel viae ferreae inter Belem et Braganga, et circa Gurupaé

visa. In horto botanico Rio de Janeiro culta,

This species was erroneously identified as D. macrostachya Benth, by

Huber and by myself, according to the original diagnosis where the in- |

florescences are described as spikes and not as racemes; we have distributed

it under this name and I have mentioned it under the same name in various

papers. Recently, Sandwith’ in his most valuable revision of the Mora and

Dimorphandra of British Guiana re-established the true identity of D.

macrostachya and re-described the type~ According to the same author, the

Para species is a very different plant, closely allied to D. congestiflora

Sprague et Sandw.; this latter, however, has the under surface of the leaflets

densely yellowish-sericeous. The leaflets of the numerous specimens of the

Para plant vary considerably in their dimensions, but are constantly glabrous

or subglabrous; their lower surface is scarcely paler than the upper, and not

sericeous.

Dimorphandra coccinea Ducke, sp. nov.

Arbor mediocris vel magna, ramulis junioribus, foliorum petiolis et

rhachidibus inflorescentiisque canotomentellis. Folia petiolo sat longo et

robusto; pinnae 12-16 (rarissime 11-vel 17)-jugae; foliola 22-33-juga, sessilia,

7-11 mm. longa et 2-4 mm. lata (basalia et apicalia gradatim breviora),

lineari-oblonga, basi obliqua et auriculata, apice retusiuscula, coriacea,

supra nitida saepe rugulosa, subtus pallidiora costa prominente et margine

revoluto puberula, adulta caeterum subglabra. Spicae 2-7 rarissime 1, vulgo

280-380 mm. longae anthesi plena 12-16 mm. crassae, longiuscule peduncu-

latae rhachidibus crassis. Flores laete coccinei numerosissimi, subsessiles vel

vix ad 1/2 mm. pedicellati; calix circa 1 1/2-2 mm. longus et parum magis

latus, cupuliformis lobis brevissimis latis, minime puberulus; petala 3-4

mm. longa extus minime griseopuberula caeterum glabra; stamina 5, glabra,

4-5 mm. longa; staminodia 5, libera, glabra, ad 6 1/2 mm. longa laminis

clavato-spathulatis longe stipitatis apice anthera rudimentari coronatis;

ovarium subsessile dense et longe fulvidovillosum. Legumina vidi in arbore,

forma ut in reliquis hujus sectionis speciebus.

Habitat cirea urbem Mandéos (civ. Amazonas) sat rara in silva non inun-

dabili solo silico-humoso secus rivulos, locis Cachoeira Grande, Estrada do

Taruma et Colonia dos Francezes, loco ultimo florifera 20-8-1931, legit A.

Ducke, H. J. B. R. no. 23,968.

Allied to D. glabrifolia, but with very elegant multipinnate and multi-

jugate leaves. The flowering tree is of a remarkable beauty.

Dimorphandra ferruginea Ducke, sp. nov.

Arbor parva vel vix mediocris como ampla umbelliformi, ramulis novellis,

foliorum petiolis et rhachibus inflorescentiisque tenuiter et brevissime cano-

ferrugineo-tomentosis. Folia sat longe petiolata; pinnae 13—22-jugae; foliola

30—54-juga, sessilia, maiora usque ad 5 mm. longa et ad 1 mm. lata (basalia

et praesertim apicalia minora), lineari-oblonga parum falcata, basi parum

obliqua subauriculata, apice subtruncata minime retusiuscula margine revo-

8’ Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1932: 395-406. 1932.

198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

luto, coriacea, supra nitida saepe rugulosa glabra, subtus opaca sat dense

pilosa costa prominente dense ferrugineovillosa. Racemi 1—5, vulgo 300-

400 mm. longi, anthesi plena 12-14 mm. crassi, longiuscule pedunculati

rhachidibus crassis. Flores anthesi incipiente dilute aurantiaci demum fer-

ruginei, numerosissimi, pedicellis anthesi circa 1/2 mm. demum 1 mm,

longis; calix 1-1.1/2 mm. longus, 2—2.2/3 mm. latus cupuliformis breviter

dentatus, extus ferrugineo-puberulus; petala 3-3.1/2 mm. longa, glabra;

stamina 5 glabra, 4-5 mm. longa; staminodia 5 libera, ad 6 mm. longa,

glabra, laminis clavato-spathulatis longe stipitatis, apice anthera rudi-

mentari coronatis. Ovarium dense et longe fulvovillosum. Legumen ignotum.

Ad ripas saxosas et arenosas fluminis Curicuriary, Rio Negro superioris

affluentis (civ. Amazonas), 26-12-1931 flor., leg. A. Ducke, H. J. B. R.

no. 23,969.

Allied to D. campinarum in the structure and color of the flowers, but

differing in the much more numerous pinnae and leaflets.

Dimorphandra gigantea Ducke, sp. nov.

Arbor 50-metralis et forsan altior, trunco basi radicibus tabularibus alte

emersis. Ramuli novelli, petioli, pedunculi rhachidesque foliorum et inflo-

rescentiarum pilis densis rufis subvilloso-velutini. Foliorum petiolus sat

longus, validus; pinnae 18—27-jugae; foliola 32-50-juga, maiora 7 mm. longa

vix ultra 1 mm. lata (basalia et apicalia semper minora), sessilia, lineari-

oblonga leviter falcata, basi truncata parum obliqua subauriculata, apice

obtusa vel acutiuscula, margine non revoluto, subcoriacea, supra glabra

parum nitida, subtus pallida opaca subglabra costa minime pilosula. Racemi

7-14, in speciminibus nostris juveniles, usque ad 300 mm. longi, longe

longe (usque 130 mm.) pedunculati, tenues rachidibus crassis. Flores solum

in alabastris novissimis adsunt, subsessiles (anthesi forsan breviter pedicel-

lati), numerosissimi, canopilosuli, petalis nondum e calice exsertis, stam-

inibus fertilibus 5 glabris, staminodiis jam bene evolutis 5 liberis glabris

lamina anthera rudimentari coronata, ovario fulvidovilloso. Leguminis

valvas putredine plus minus destructas vidi sub arbore, iis speciei D.

velutina similes.

Habitat in silva non inundabili prope Tabatinga (ad civitatis Amazonas

fines occidentales), leg. A. Ducke 28-9-1931 cum ligno no. 22, H. J. B. R.

no. 23,789.

One of the tallest trees of the forest near Tabatinga. At first glance it

suggests, in its indument and leaves, D. velutina, a species with hood-like

anantherous coherent staminode-laminae. The proposed species is fairly

closely allied to D. ferruginea, but is at once distinguished from that species

by its size and by the velvety indument of the young branchlets, which form

a contrast with the nearly glabrous leaflets. The flowers I have collected,

but their color is not apparent.

APRIL 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 199

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

NoreEs

Last Winter’s Weather.—A survey of the winter of 1934-35 by the U. 8.

Weather Bureau shows that the season was warmer than usual over almost

the entire United States. Between 85 and 90 per cent of the country had

super-normal temperatures for the months of December, January and Feb-

ruary. Lower-than-average temperatures ruled in a limited area in the

Northeast, and along a narrow Atlantic coast strip the records show a just-

about-average winter. This warm-winter trend has now lasted for nearly

twenty years.

February in particular was warmer and drier than average. This was espe-

cially the case in the Northwest. For example, at Bismark, N.D., only one

February in the past sixty years has been warmer than the month just

closed. Eleven of the past twelve Februaries in that region have been warmer

than normal, and the average temperature for all twelve has been ten de-

gress above the normal for the month.

Weather observers in the mountain areas of the West, where summer ir-

rigation must depend on snows of the preceding winter, reported encourag-

ing conditions at the end of winter. In the mountains of the Pacific Coast

states especially the snow packs were deep and heavy, and on the whole

much greater than last year’s; at the same time the water already in the

soil was more abundant. Farther east, in the Great Basin and Rocky Moun-

tain regions, soil water was not so nearly up to standard, due to cumulative

drought of several years, but the snow supplies on the upper slopes were

encouragingly large.

National Bureau of Standards—New knowledge of propeller vibration

and the possible causes of why propellers break in midair is reported by Dr.

Wa.ttTEeR RampereG, Pavut 8. Baturr and Mack J. West. Such propeller

failures, while rare compared with the number of propellers in service,

usually have serious consequences. Often the flying broken parts rip through

the wings of a plane, cause a wreck and sometimes loss of life.

Because it was almost hopeless to try to measure the size of propeller

vibrations and the forces in blades while they were whirling rapidly, the

government scientists produced a comparable effect by working backward.

Instead of the propeller receiving its vibrations during actual flight the

experimental test was performed with a fixed propeller made to undergo the

vibrations by having its propeller shaft twisted back and forth mechanically.

Thus strains and stresses similar to those encountered during normal opera-

tion were set up and could be measured. It was found the vibrations were

those of resonance wherein tiny forces, timed at just the right period, built

up and amplified one another until the total effect was enough to snap

the blade. For the experimental propellers two vibration periods were

found; one at the frequency of 35 times a second and the other 130 times a

second. For the lower frequency of vibration it was found that the greatest

stresses occurred at the middle of the propeller blade.

Smithsonian Institution —Iroquois murderers were compelled by tribal

code to remain on the scene of the crime until discovered, J. N. B. Hewitt

of the Bureau of American Ethnology has learned in his studies of the cus-

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4

toms of the Iroquoian tribes. When found by the relatives of the deceased,

the criminal might either be killed on the spot, or he might be haled before

the tribal council and payment of blood-money be arranged by his relatives.

The latter procedure was the one more usually adopted.

Children’s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor.—The large number of

deaths of American mothers in childbirth as compared with mothers in

other countries cannot be explained away by laying the blame on methods

of reporting, it appears from a study conducted by Dr. Exizasernu C.

TANDY.

“The official figure of the United States, which in the last few years has

exceeded that of every country except Scotland, remains high no matter

what method of assignment is used,’’ Dr. Tandy states.

Differences in methods of assigning causes of deaths are not enough to

explain the high maternal mortality rate in the United States, as compared

with foreign countries. Even if the method of the country assigning the

smallest proportion of deaths to the puerperal state were in use in the

United States, the United States figure would still exceed that of all 16 coun-

tries included in the study, except Australia, Canada, Chile and Scotland.

Lack of exact knowledge of the antirachitic effect of foods fortified with

vitamin D, especially the so-called vitamin-D milk which is now being

prepared by three different methods and widely distributed, has made it

imperative to work out a method by which the relative merit for infant

feeding of these various milks could be determined and comparisons made

with standard substances such as cod-liver oil and viosterol containing

vitamin D. The children’s Bureau through its division of child and maternal

health, is now carrying on, in preparation for future studies of vitamin-D

milks, a series of clinical tests of the antirachitic value of cod-liver oil and

viosterol. These substances are provided for the purpose by the Food and

Drug Administration of the Department of Agriculture, which carries out

the biological assays for vitamin D. Assistance and advice are being given

by the Senior Chemist of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils of the Depart-

ment of Agriculture.

News Briers

The recently organized Washington Chapter of the Society for Experi-

mental Biology and Medicine held its first scientific meeting at the Cosmos

Club on February 25. The officers of the chapter are: president, Dr. VINCENT

pu VIGNEAUD; secretary, Miss SARAH BRANHAM.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Dr. Isatanh Bowman, director of the American Geographical Society,

chairman of the National Research Council, and director of the Science

Advisory Board, has been elected president of the Johns Hopkins Uni-

versity. :

Prof. Ropert F. Grices of George Washington University lectured on

Dionaea before the Royal Canadian Institute, Ottawa, on the evening

of March 16.

tie

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS

General Science—Some Rie spate of deuterium. F. Gs Barc

SW HDD; .)2 Ws we were wa. befalls fon Sieapich oig ee eRe 10a nee hay ea

ICK- >

Geology.—Pre-Devonian structural zones in Scotland seid: eastern North Am

oa. »ANNA To ONAGs 82:0 9 amines Cicteiw ae tetetohals a eaten et atenn ae ei

Geology.—Comparison of Cambrian rake of northwest Scotland with equi

formations of the Appalachians. G. W. Srosp..................

Geology.—A recent backshore and shoreface terrace along the Severn 1

Maryland. . Vornon 8. SCHEED: A) ..ce 6 uo tease alten oy oa ie eee ee

Geology.—Occurrence of Triassic sediments on the rim of Grand Canyon. _ Ep- P ;

wan D> Mekim. (20a, sce oe einen ere Rk rare 184

ee ge species of the genus Ditnorphaniira Schott section iPad Tal

ADOLPHE DUCKE............ et:

Scrpntiric Notms anp News......

= Vou. 25 May 15, 1935 No. 5

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JOURNAL

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Vow, 25 May 15, 1935 No. 5

PHYSICS.—What 1s electricity?!?, Pauut R. Hey, National Bureau

of Standards.

I trust that there is no one so optimistic as to suppose that because

I have asked this question I am going to answer it, nor so pessimistic

as to fear that because I have asked a question which I cannot answer

I can offer you nothing but platitudes. I believe it possible in this

case to avoid both Scylla and Charybdis.

This question, said the late Professor John Trowbridge’ of Harvard

University, is often asked as though it were capable of a short and

lucid answer which might be understood by any person of liberal

education. Many answers have been given, but it is interesting to note

that the more definite and confident the answer the older it is, and

that as we ascend the ladder of time toward the present day such

answers as we encounter are less definite and more cautious.

It will be interesting to review, perhaps rather briefly, the ideas

which have been held at various times as to the nature of electricity,

and then, looking over the wealth of physical discovery which has

been amassed in the past forty years, to endeavor to select from it

such facts as may be of importance in guiding and controlling future

speculation on this question; for though such speculation has been at

a minimum, if not a stand-still, during the twentieth century, it

will doubtless revive again. Speculation, or as it has been otherwise

termed: ‘‘apt conjecture, followed by careful verification,’ has been

behind much of the advance of science. Such was the method of

Faraday and of Darwin. The conjectures of the ancients, having little

in the way of observed fact to guide them, might range far and wide,

and had small heuristic value, but with the growth of experiment the

range of conjecture has continually narrowed and its value as an aid

to further progress has steadily increased.

1 Publication approved by the Director of the National Bureau of Standards of

the U.S. Department of Commerce. Received March 30, 1935.

2 This is the fifth of the Joseph Henry Lectures of the Philosophical Society pre-

sented March 30, 1935, in honor of the first president of the Philosophical Society.

A : Ut ene What is electricity? London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and

o. 1897.

201

202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

The beginning of our knowledge of electricity is lost in the mists of

antiquity. What we can recover of it is excellently told by Park

Benjamin in his history: The «intellectual rise in electricity.4 It is

customary to credit Thales (600 B.c.) with the first observation of the

attractive power of rubbed amber, but Benjamin shows that amber

was widely known among the ancients for centuries before Thales.

Beads of amber have been found in the ancient lake dwellings of

Europe, in the royal tombs at Mycenae (2000 B.c.) and throughout

northern Italy. The identity in chemical composition of these relics

with the amber of the Baltic sea coast is significant of the esteem in

which this substance was held and of the distance over which it was

thought worth while to bring it. The golden glow of the polished beads

suggested the beaming sun, called by Homer 7\éx7wp, which doubt-

less gave rise to the Greek name for amber, 7\exrpov.

It is incredible, as Benjamin points out, that this widespread ac-

quaintance of the ancients with amber should have existed so long

without its electrical property being often noticed. It is probable that

Thales but shared the knowledge of his time in this respect, for his

acquaintance with the things of Nature in general was such as to

enable him to make the first recorded prediction of an eclipse of the

sun. Thales left no writings of his own, and all we know of him we have

learned from those who lived several centuries later.

It appears from these authorities that the ancients regarded elec-

tricity as a soul or spirit resident in an otherwise lifeless substance.

This was in harmony with the prevailing thought of the times, which

regarded all motion as evidence of life. The air was inanimate, but the

wind was the breath of Aeolus; the waves of the sea were excited by

the wrathful strokes of Neptune’s trident; the lightning was the

thunderbolt of Zeus. This animistic explanation of the nature of elec-

tricity was simple and definite enough to be understood by any one,

and lasted for several millenniums, in fact until the revival of learn-

ing and the growth of experimental science supplied material upon

which to base a rival theory.

We are helped to realize this animistic point of view when we read

in a translator’s footnote to Gilbert’s book on The Magnet® that a

certain ancient physician recommended the administration of doses

of powdered lodestone in cases of estrangement between husbands

and wives. Given the premises of the time, such a conclusion was

perfectly logical. It was obvious that the patients exhibited a defi-

* London: Longmans, Green and Co. 1895.

5 Translation by P. Fleury Mottelay. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1893, p. 56.

MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 203

ciency of a certain spiritual element which was found in the lodestone,

and the administration of that medicine followed as naturally as a

modern prescription of cod liver oil because of its vitamin content.

It was the middle of the sixteenth century before the next answer

on record was given to the question: What is electricity? This answer

came from Cardan,°® whose name is familiar to mathematicians (per-

haps more so than it deserves to be). Cardan was the originator of

the fluid theory of electricity which held the stage in one form or

another for over three centuries, and survives to-day in popular par-

lance in the term the electric fluid or, still more colloquially, the juice.

Cardan passed from the spiritual to the material in his explanation,

which was that amber “‘has a fatty and glutinous humor which, being

emitted, the dry object desiring to absorb it is moved towards its

source, like fire to its pasture; and since the amber is strongly rubbed,

it draws the more because of its heat.’’”

In this last sentence we see the influence of Cardan’s profession.

He was, among other things, a physician, and was accustomed to

warm the cupping glass in drawing blood from his patients. The laws

of pneumatics were not yet understood at that time, and it was

generally supposed that the cupping glass acted because of its heat.

The fact that this fatty and glutinous humor was intangible and in-

visible seems to have caused Cardan no embarrassment. We may

perhaps view this the more charitably when we think of the contra-

dictory attributes that later scientists have found it convenient to

assign to the luminiferous ether.

The year 1551 in which Cardan published this theory may be taken

as marking the end of the first era, in which electricity was regarded

as a soul or spirit. Its beginning goes back beyond recorded history.

The concept of electricity as a material substance contained in

certain bodies known as electrics was strengthened by the experiments

of Gilbert (1600), who showed that many substances besides amber

were to be included in this class, but the full development of the fluid

theory of electricity did not come until the middle of the eighteenth

century. In the meantime, von Guericke (1672) had invented his

sulphur globe electrical machine, which made electrical experimen-

tation easy on a large scale. With the facilities thus placed at his dis-

posal he discovered electrical conduction and electrostatic repulsion,

the latter destined to be a phenomenon of prime importance in later

speculation on the nature of electricity.

6 Carpan. De subtilitate, lib. X XI, Paris. 1551.

7 ParRK BENJAMIN, op. cit. p. 248.

204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

In the eighteenth century development of the fluid theory two

names are prominent, those of Du Fay and Franklin, each typifying

a separate trend in theory.

Du Fay’s experiments (1733 and later) chronologically preceded

those of Franklin. His most important discovery was that glass when

rubbed behaved in one respect quite differently from amber; a bit of

gold leaf excited by contact with the glass tube is then repelled by

the glass but attracted by excited amber. ‘And this,’”’ said Du Fay,

“leads me to conclude that there are perhaps two different electrici-

ties.’’ These he distinguished accordingly as vitreous and resinous, and

laid down the law that like electricities repeal each other and unlike

attract.

To explain the same phenomenon Franklin (1747) postulated a

single electric fluid of which all bodies were normally full. If a body

acquired more than this normal amount he called it plus, or positively

electrified, and if its charge was less than normal, minus, or negatively

electrified.

Franklin’s hypothesis had simplicity in its favor; it required one

less assumption than that of Du Fay. In this respect it obeyed more

closely the rule laid down by Newton: “We are to admit no more

causes of natural things, than such as are both true and sufficient to

explain their appearances... for Nature is pleas’d with simplicity

and affects not the pomp of superfluous causes.’’®

This simplicity of Franklin’s hypothesis, added to the reputation

which he himself rapidly attained in scientific circles, gave the one-

fluid theory an advantage over its competitor for the time being, but

a serious theoretical objection was soon raised against it. Since on

this theory a negative charge meant a deficiency of electric fluid, there

must be a limiting value of negative charge, namely when the body

is completely emptied of the electric fluid; but two such bodies, both

being negatively charged, should repel each other—and why?

There was much hesitancy on the part of the one-fluid advocates

about pushing this argument to its logical conclusion. It remained for

a bold German named Aepinus (1759) to seize the bull by the horns

and assert that matter devoid of electricity is self-repellent.

This doctrine came as a shock to a generation many of whom

could remember Newton. It was useless to point out that Newton had

deduced the law of gravitation by observation of bodies that pos-

sessed their normal amount of electricity, and that the behavior of

matter with the maximum negative charge was something which no

® Newton. Principia, Book III: Rules of reasoning in philosophy.

MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 205

one had ever observed. The one-fluid theory had received a serious

jolt from which it never recovered; this argument was used against

it as late as the 1830’s. The attention of theoretical physicists of the

eighteenth century was turned toward the two-fluid theory, and during

the closing years of that century and the early part of the nineteenth

the work of Coulomb, Laplace, Biot and Poisson produced an elabo-

rate and elegant mathematical theory which so well described all the

electrostatic phenomena then known that by 1830 the two-fluid theory

was generally accepted.

But it often happens that as soon as one theory is comfortably set-

tled on the throne another rises up to challenge its supremacy. We

shall see the reign of each successive theory of electricity growing

shorter. The thousands of years of the first era were followed by three

centuries of the second. In the first half of the nineteenth century

great things were happening. In 1820 Oersted had discovered that

an electric current could produce a magnetic effect, thus tying to-

gether what had previously been regarded as separate phenomena.

In 1822 Seebeck showed that electricity could be generated by heat.

These discoveries impressed themselves on the mind of Faraday,

then at work in the Royal Institution. He was familiar with the

work of Davy in producing chemical decomposition by electricity,

and the converse phenomenon of Volta, the production of electricity

by chemical action. Faraday was also aware of the converse of See-

beck’s discovery, the production of heat (and light) in the electric are,

and his thoughts turned naturally toward the undiscovered converse

of the Oersted effect. He says himself at a later time® (1845):

“‘T have long held an opinion, almost amounting to conviction, in common

I believe with many other lovers of natural knowledge, that the various

forms under which the forces of matter are made manifest have one common

origin; or, in other words, are so directly related and mutually dependent, that

they are convertible, as it were, into one another, and possess equivalents

of power in their action. In modern times the proofs of their convertibility

have been accumulated to a very considerable extent, and a commencement

made of the determination of their equivalent forces.”’

Such were the considerations which led Faraday. to attempt the

generation of electricity by means of a magnet (1831). The story is

familiar to all of us; how he placed a magnet in a helix of wire and

found that no current was produced except momentarily while the

magnet was being placed in or taken out of the coil. This discovery

seems to have made quite an impression in other than scientific

circles, as is evidenced by some verse which has come down to us:

9 Farapay. Hxperimental researches in electricity, 3: 1. London, 1855.

206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

‘Around the magnet, Faraday

Is sure that Volta’s lightnings play.

To bring them out was his desire.

He took a lesson from the heart;

’Tis when we meet, ’tis when we part,

Breaks forth the hid electric fire.”

Encouraged by this success, Faraday later (1845) sought and

found a correlation between magnetism and light. Twenty years

later this in its turn furnished the inspiration for Maxwell’s electro-

magnetic theory, by means of which the domain of optics was an-

nexed to that of electricity.

The publication of Maxwell’s paper in 1865 may be considered as

closing the second era of electrical theory, that in which electricity

was regarded as a material fluid, and the opening of the third era in

which the concept of electricity assumed a less material and more

elusive form. i

By 1865 the two great doctrines of nineteenth century physics,

the conservation of energy and the correlation of physical forces (as

foreshadowed by Faraday) had been enunciated and were well on

the way to general acceptance. During the seventies and early eighties,

electricity, in common with heat and light, was sometimes called, in

the phrase of the day, a mode of motion, which meant a form of

energy.

The adoption of this view was, of course, a matter of slow growth.

Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory had a long struggle for acceptance,

so long, in fact, that Maxwell himself did not live to see its final

triumph. He died in 1879, and it was not until 1886, when Hertz

produced experimentally the electromagnetic waves which Max-

well’s theory demanded, that its acceptance may be said to have be-

come complete.

Against this concept of electricity as a mode of motion, that is to

say, a form of energy, Lodge?® in 1889 entered a protest. He pointed

out that water or air under pressure or in motion represents energy,

but that we do not therefore deny them to be forms of matter. He

emphasized an important distinction between two terms: electrifica-

tion, which is truly a form of energy, as it can be created and destroyed

by an act of work, and electricity, of which none is ever created or de-.

stroyed, it being simply moved and strained like matter. No one,

said Lodge, ever exhibited a trace of positive electricity without there

being somewhere in its immediate neighborhood an equal quantity

of the negative variety.

10 LopeE. Modern views of electricity, p. 7. London, Macmillan and Co., 1889.

MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 207

Lodge did much to crystallize the ideas of the time concerning the

nature of electricity. These ideas, since Maxwell’s merger of optics

with electricity, had been, as Lodge pointed out, not clearly defined,

but in general the idea was that electricity was in some way a phenom-

enon of the ether. Lodge enlarged upon this idea, explaining electro-

static phenomena as due to ether stress, electric currents as ether

flow and magnetism as ether vortices. Electricity, which had been

previously regarded as a material fluid, now became an immaterial

one, and in consequence this third period of electrical theory may be

called the ethereal era.

As we mount toward the present time we see the different eras of

electrical theory rapidly shortening in duration. While the spiritual

era lasted several milleniums and the fluid theory three centuries,

the ethereal era lasted only a few decades. The fourth era is that which

is still with us. It may be called the atomic or quantum period, in

which it is noteworthy that but little attention has been paid to the

ultimate nature of electricity and a great deal to its structure. It is

difficult to say when this period began, as, in fact, the ethereal era

began to die almost as soon as it began to live.

Wilhelm Weber," in 1871, in developing his theory of magnetism,

pictured to himself light positive charges rotating about heavy nega-

tive ones, much like a satellite about a planet; and in 1874 Johnstone

Stoney read before Section A of the British Association a paper en-

titled: The physical units of nature, which was not printed until seven

years later.’ In this paper he asserted the atomic nature of electricity

and made a rough calculation of the elementary charge on the basis

of Faraday’s law of electrolysis. Ten years later!’ he was the first to

use the term electron.

Helmholtz," in his Faraday lecture at the Royal Institution in 1881,

further developed this line of thought, saying (p. 290): ‘““Now the

most startling result of Faraday’s law is perhaps this. If we accept

the hypothesis that the elementary substances are composed of atoms,

we cannot avoid concluding that electricity also, positive as well as

negative, is divided into definite elementary portions, which behave

like atoms of electricity.”

Maxwell himself saw that his electromagnetic theory was essen-

tially continuous in its nature, and recognized the difficulty arising

from the implications of Faraday’s experiments. In his Treatise on

1 Mruyikan. The Electron (2ndedition) p.20. University of Chicago Press. 1924.

2 Srongey. Phil. Mag. 11: 381-390. 1881.

18 Sronny. Sci. Trans. Royal Dublin Society, 11th series, IV: 563. 1891.

4 HeL~MHOLtTz. Journ. Chem. Soc. (London) 39: 277-304. 1881.

208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

electricity and magnetism (1: 318. Chap. IV. 1873), in the chapter

on electrolysis he says: “It is extremely improbable that when we

come to understand the true nature of electrolysis we shall retain in

any form the theory of molecular charges.”’

For Helmholtz, however, the atomic nature of electricity was be-

yond question. Electricity, as he saw it, was a special chemical ele-

ment!’ whose atoms combine with those of other elements to form

ions. Moreover, it appeared to be.a monovalent element, for it seemed

that a monovalent element combined with one electron, a bivalent

one with two, and so on, exactly as a chlorine atom combines with

one atom of hydrogen and an oxygen atom with two atoms of hydro-

gen. Helium, with its zero valence and double electrical charge, was as

yet unknown.

The inevitable process of reconciliation of these contradictory

theories was early begun by Lorentz,'®° who suggested for this purpose

his electron theory of electricity. On this theory all the effects of

electricity inside bodies were explained on the assumption of elec-

trons, and all the effects of electricity at a distance, electrostatic,

electromagnetic and inductive, required the help of the ether. To

unite these two classes of phenomena he assumed that each electron

was closely bound up with the ether, and that any change in con-

figuration of the electrons produced a change in the ether which was

propagated with the velocity of light, and thus produced action at a

distance.

About this time an entirely new line of experimental research was

developing which was destined eventually to make the atomic con-

cept of electricity dominant for a time. This was the study of the

electric discharge in high vacua. Several workers had investigated

this field without attracting much notice, but it remained for Crookes

to direct widespread attention to this class of phenomena by an ex-

hibition of novel and beautiful effects in vacuum tubes which he gave

at the meeting of the British Association at Sheffield in 1879. Crookes

unquestioningly assumed these effects to be due to electrified mole-

cules of residual gas in the tube. It was shown later by others (J. J.

Thomson, Townsend, Wilson, Millikan) that the negatively charged

particles in a Crookes tube were not molecules or even atoms, but

bodies of a minuteness previously unknown, about the 1/1800th

part of a hydrogen atom in mass, and bearing a definite negative

1° GraETZ. Recent Developmentsin Atomic Theory. London, Methuenand Co. 1923.

1° Lorentz. Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Weten-

schappen, Amsterdam, 8: 323-327. 1891. Also Archives Neérlandaises, 25: p. 432,

Chap. IV. 1892.

MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 209

charge of electricity. For these tiny bodies the term electron, intro-

duced by Stoney, was revived. Still later work brought to light the

proton, with an equivalent positive charge but larger mass than the

electron and, in our own day, the positive electron.

As the result of this new line of investigation it became clear that

a great many electrical phenomena required the atomic theory of

electricity for their explanation. A great many, but not all; for a large

number refused to fall in line under a corpuscular explanation, but

could be simply and completely explained on Maxwell’s theory as

ether disturbances. The discovery by Hertz of the electromagnetic

waves predicted by Maxwell did much to swing the pendulum back

in this direction. The reconciliation of these contending views has

been carried on much along the line originally taken by Lorentz. It is

of interest to note that his idea of an electron inseparably bound up

with the ether is found today in all essentials in the theory of wave

mechanics.

We have now brought this somewhat hurried survey of electrical

history up to the present day. We have seen that past speculations as

to the nature of electricity fall into four classes, each corresponding

to an era of thought. In the first of these eras, beginning probably

with the earliest observations of electrical attraction, and terminating

in the middle of the sixteenth century, electricity was regarded as a

soul or spirit. The second era may be said to have been opened by

Cardan in 1551 and closed by Maxwell in 1865. During these three

centuries electricity was regarded as a material fluid of one or two

kinds. It is worthy of note that during this period the concept of

the electrical fluid showed a trend toward the immaterial, from

Cardan’s fatty and glutinous humor to the impalpable and imponder-

able fluid of the early nineteenth century. In the third era electricity

in its various manifestations was regarded as some kind of an ether

disturbance of a continuous nature. The fourth concept emphasized

the atomic or discontinuous structure of electricity without any sug-

gestion as to the ultimate nature of these atoms.

But though speculation as to the ultimate nature of electricity has

been in abeyance since the opening of the twentieth century it will

certainly arise again, and within limits it is well that it should. We

may therefore turn now to an examination of the wealth of material

which the last forty years have placed at our disposal and see what

it may contain that is likely to be of importance in guiding and sug-

gesting future speculation as to the nature of electricity.

The emphasis laid by the twentieth century on the structure rather

210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

than the nature of electricity is natural, for structure is much more

easily determined than nature, and moreover a knowledge of the first

is likely to give us some useful hints as to the second. It appears that

the discontinuous structure of electricity goes almost hand in hand

with that of matter. A tabular view of the known elementary particles

of matter with their associated charges of electricity will be useful.

CHARGE + _ 0

MASS: HBAVY PROTON wee NEUTRON

MASS: LIGHT ++ ELECTRON — ELECTRON (NEUTRINO)

The heavy particles now known, the proton and the neutron, have

a mass equal to that of a hydrogen atom; the light particles have

about 1/1800 of this mass. The light neutral particle has not yet

been discovered, but so urgent is the demand for it in current nuclear

theory that it has been named before its advent.

According to the idea that has prevailed for two centuries, positive

and negative electricity should be merely reflected images of each

other, their properties being equal and opposite. The behavior of the

negative electron and the proton shows nothing inconsistent with

this concept as far as electrical properties go. On the discovery of the

positive electron it was at first thought that it was shorter lived, or

as a chemist might say, more reactive than its negative counterpart,

but this has not been borne out by subsequent investigation.!’ The

mass associated with the positive charge in this case has been in-

vestigated by several persons. The latest work is that of E. Rupp"

who finds that the mass is within five per cent of that of the negative

electron. Rupp appears to have found one point of difference between

the two which, if confirmed, will be of importance.

It has been found that the passage of negative electrons through

thin films of metal is accompanied by a diffraction effect, photographs

of the electron beam after transmission showing a series of concentric

rings. Rupp passed negative and positive electrons through the same

films of gold and aluminum, and found that while the negative par-

ticles gave the usual rings the positive particles showed a continuous

scattering. We will return to the interpretation of this later.

As to the neutron, it is still uncertain whether it is a proton which

has acquired a negative electron or whether it is to be regarded as an

independent entity without electric charge. The latter, as we shall

17 Allowing for relative abundance.

18 Rupp. Physikal. Zeit. 35: 999. 1934. But in Zeit. f. Physik. 93: 278. 1935,

Rupp has withdrawn his earlier article for further verification.

MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 211

see later, would be in serious conflict with present accepted electrical

theory.

There was a time, not so very long ago, when the atom of matter

was considered to be its ultimate structural unit. The discovery of the

proton and the electron gave meaning to the term sub-atomic. With

this in mind, the question naturally arises as to a possible further sub-

division of the electron. Several observers have claimed to have found

evidence of smaller charges than that carried by the electron, but

Millikan,’® after an exhaustive discussion of the subject, came to the

conclusion that up to 1924 there had been adduced no satisfactory

evidence of this smaller charge.

In the early years of the present century there was some discus-

sion as to whether the electron was to be regarded in shape as a rigid

sphere (Abraham) or as contractile. The latter hypothesis was ad-

vanced by Lorentz to explain the negative result of the Michelson-

Morely experiment. Lorentz supposed the electron, by motion

through the ether, to flatten into an oblate spheroid. Experiments by

Bucherer?® in 1909 were interpreted as favoring the hypothesis of

Lorentz.

But in 1927 a new line of experimental evidence as to the structure

of the electron was opened up by Davisson and Germer,” soon fol-

lowed by G. P. Thomson.” These investigators found in brief, that

electrons (of the negative variety) might be scattered by reflection or

diffracted by passage through very thin films of metal in such a way

as to suggest that an electron is at least as much like a little bunch of

waves as it is like a particle, and that neither aspect can be ignored.

This is well brought out by G. P. Thomson’s diffraction rings. The

electron must have a wave aspect, or there would be no interference

pattern; it must have a charged particle aspect, or the whole ring

system would not be deflected by a magnet, as it is found to be. The

whole situation, in fact, had been foreshadowed theoretically by the

wave mechanics of de Broglie and Schrédinger.

A number of explanations have been offered for this dual behavior.

Perhaps the most completely worked out is that of J. J. Thomson,”

based upon the diffraction rings obtained by his son, which lend

themselves particularly well to theoretical treatment. On this view

the electron is associated with and accompanied by a group of waves

19 The electron, Chap. VIII.

20 BUCHERER. Annalen der Physik 28: 513; 29: 1063. 1909.

21 Davisson and GerMER. Phys. Rey. 30: 705. 1927.

22 G. P. THomson. Proc. Roy. Soc. 117: 600. 1928.

23 J. J. THomson. Beyond the electron. Cambridge University Press. 1928;

Phil. Mag. 6: 1254. 1928.

212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

which guide and direct its motion. Now it was found by a study of the

speed of the electrons and the associated wave lengths in the diffrac-

tion rings that a curious and complicated relation existed between

these quantities. If wu is the velocity of an electron and its associated

wave length, this relation is:

=o (1)

V1 =w/e

in which ¢ is the velocity of light and C is a constant.

But this, as J. J. Thomson shows, is exactly the relation that should

hold for the group speed of electromagnetic waves in a medium such

as the Kennelly-Heaviside layer, containing a multitude of electric

charges, positive and negative.

J. J. Thomson therefore suggests the following structure for the

negative electron:

I. A nucleus which, like the older concept of the electron, is a charge

of negative electricity concentrated in a small sphere.

II. This nucleus does not constitute the whole of the electron.

Surrounding it there is a structure of much larger dimensions which

may be called the sphere of the electron. This sphere contains an

equal number of positive and negative charges, forming a little Ken-

nelly-Heaviside layer around the nucleus. Measurements on the

diffraction rings indicate a diameter for this sphere at least 10,000

times that previously accepted as the diameter of the electron.

III. The nucleus is the center of a group of waves and moves with

the group speed in its atmosphere of electric charges.

At the time that J. J. Thomson proposed this hypothesis the posi-

tive electron was not known. Here comes in the importance of Rupp’s

work’ previously referred to. On their face, these experiments indi-

cate either that the train of waves that accompanies a negative elec-

tron is absent from the positive electron, or that all possible wave

lengths are present.

Just as the atom, once regarded as an ultimate structural unit, is

now recognized as a complex of electrons, protons, neutrons and pos-

sibly neutrinos, so the electron, it seems, must be regarded as a

similar complex. Much more, doubtless, is to be learned about its

structure before we can hope to answer the question: What is electricity?

Perhaps the most outstanding fact in modern physical theory is

the dominant position occupied by electricity. In the nineteenth

century one spoke of matter and electricity as two separate and in-

may 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 213

dependent entities; nowadays electricity has become the funda-

mental entity of which matter is merely an aspect. Matter, once

supreme, has lost its individuality and has become merely an electrical

phenomenon which electricity may exhibit more or less according to

circumstances.

It is obvious that our answer to the question: What 1s electricity?

will be fundamentally influenced according to whether we hold an

electrical theory of matter or a material theory of electricity. It will

therefore be worth our while to examine the foundation for the

present view that electricity, whatever it may be, is the sole world-

stuff. So radical has been this change in our thinking that it would

seem a foregone conclusion that it must be based upon the clearest

and most unequivocal of experimental evidence.

This change in our concepts did not come suddenly. Its beginning

dates back to 1893, when J. J. Thomson** showed on theoretical

grounds that a charged sphere in motion through the ether would en-

counter a resistance which to all intents and purposes would appear

as an increase in the sphere’s inertia, i.e., in its mass. Calculation in-

dicated that this effect would become appreciable only if the velocity

of the charged body was comparable to that of light.

In 1898 this suggestion was of academic interest only, no bodies

moving with sufficient speed being then available for experiment. A

few years later conditions had changed. The study of radioactive sub-

stances and of the discharge of electricity through gases had placed

at our disposal positively and negatively charged particles moving

with unprecedented speeds, which in the case of the negative par-

ticles were in some cases comparable with the speed of light. Here,

it would seem, was an opportunity to test Thomson’s theory of in-

creasing mass.

Unfortunately, the conditions of the problem were such that it was

not at first possible to obtain a measure of the mass of such a par-

ticle, but only a determination of the ratio of the electric charge to

the mass which carried it (e/m).

Kaufmann” found, however, that for the swifter particles this ratio

was less than for the slower ones. There were only two ways of ex-

plaining this fact, both equally radical: either the mass increased or

the charge diminished as the speed of the particle became greater.

In this dilemma opinion inclined generally to the first alternative,

24 J. J. THomson. Recent researches in electricity and magnetism, p. 21. Oxford,

Clarendon Press. 1893.

25 KAUFMANN. Gesell. Wiss. Géttingen, Nov. 8, 1901; July 26, 1902; March 7,

1903.

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

largely because there was in existence a theoretical reason to expect

it, while no one as yet had been ingenious enough to suggest any

reason why a moving charge should alter. It is of importance to note

that Kaufmann’s experimental result, because of its equivocal char-

acter, cannot be accepted as more than half proving J. J. Thomson’s

theory.

Kaufman calculated that such particles as he experimented with

might have, when moving slowly, an electrical mass equal to about one

fourth their total mass. In making this calculation he assumed that a

particle behaved as though it were a little metallic conductor, but he

was careful to point out that a different assumption might lead to an-

other result.

J. J. Thomson, on the assumption that a particle had no metallic

conductivity, but acted like a point charge, found that Kaufmann’s

results indicated that the whole of the mass of the particle might be

accounted for electrically.

This was the origin of the electrical theory of matter. Its pedigree

goes back to J. J. Thomson’s theory, which in turn was derived from

the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell. Kaufmann’s experiments only

half proved Thomson’s theory, which in addition was complicated by

a special assumption with regard to the distribution of the charge on

the particle. Without this assumption only a part of the mass could

be accounted for electrically.

But much water has run under the bridge since 1893. Forty years

is a long life for any physical theory in these days, and the recent dis-

covery of the neutron has brought with it a challenge to the electrical

theory of matter.

In J. J. Thomson’s original theory of the increase in mass of a moy-

ing charge it was an essential point that the lines of force should be

free to adjust themselves as the motion demanded. As a leaf or a

card tends to flutter down through the air broadside on, so the lines

of force, originally distributed radially and symmetrically about the

charge at rest, will tend to set themselves in a plane perpendicular

to the direction of motion of the charge. They will not all be able to

lie in this plane because of their mutual repulsion, but the density of

the lines will be a maximum in this plane and a minimum in the direc-

tion of motion, and a certain space distribution will result, of such

a nature that the apparent increase of mass can be completely ac-

counted for.

But it is essential for this result that the lines of force shall be per-

fectly free at their outer ends; in other words, only a single isolated

MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 215

charge is considered. Now in a structure like the hydrogen atom, com-

posed of a negative and a positive particle, there is bound to be some

interference with this freedom of adjustment. In a neutral, non-ion-

ized atom it would appear that all of the lines must begin and end

within the atomic structure.

J. J. Thomson must be given credit for foreseeing this difficulty,

though the Bohr atom was as yet years in the future. He had an

atomic concept of his own in mind at that early date, and pointed

out that the distance between the particles constituting an atom must

be thousands of times the diameter of a particle. In consequence, he

said, almost all of the mass will originate where the lines have their

greatest density, near each particle; and the particles are relatively

so far from each other that the parts of the lines of force in their im-

mediate neighborhood will have almost perfect freedom of orientation

with the motion of the atom.”

This is a quantitative question; but it is clear that only under the

most favorable conditions will we have a freedom of motion in the

atom which approximates that around an isolated charge, and in con-

sequence the electrical explanation of matter, on J. J. Thomson’s

theory, must be in the same degree approximate.

With the neutron, conditions are more rigid. Assuming the neutron

to consist of a proton and a negative electron, the union of these must

be almost as close as possible, as the neutron, on modern theory, may

form a constituent of an atomic nucleus. Here we are dealing not with

atomic magnitudes but with sub-atomic dimensions, which is quite

another thing. Freedom of motion of the lines of force in such a struc-

ture must be almost non-existent. And if we make the alternative as-

sumption that the neutron is an independent, non-electrical entity,

the electrical theory of matter must admit of an important exception.

But an electrical theory of matter to be acceptable must admit of

no exceptions. It must obey the all or none principle. If it is approxi-

mate in even the slightest degree, we are confronted with the existence

of two kinds of matter, ordinary and electrical, and we are violating

the rule of simplicity in reasoning laid down by Newton.

But has there not been later evidence supporting this theory?

It has sometimes been said that Millikan’s oil-drop experiments, by

which he measured the charge on a single electron, prove the con-

stancy of this charge, and hence the variability of the mass alone in

Kaufmann’s experiments. It is true that Millikan found that the

charge on an ion after it had been transferred to the oil-drop was the

26 J. J. THomson. Electricity and matter, p. 51. New York: Seribner’s. 1904.

216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

same whatever the source of the original charge. Ions of different

gases, unquestionably of different speeds, gave the same charge to

the drop. But it is to be remembered that the measurement of this

charge was made, not at the speed of the ion, but at that of the oil-

drop, which was of the order of a few hundredths of a centimeter per

second.

The special theory of relativity is sometimes quoted in support of

the constant charge and variable mass. It is true that Einstein?’ in

his original paper of 1905 gives a formula for the change of mass with

the speed of a moving electron, which, like J. J. Thomson’s formula,

becomes infinite at the speed of light, and that he gives no similar

formula for a change in the charge. It will be interesting for us to see

how he obtained this result.

In section 10 of his paper Einstein derives the following formula for

the x-component of the acceleration of a moving charged particle, to-

gether with formulas for the other components:

in which e is the charge on the particle, m its rest mass, X the com-

ponent of the electric vector and 6 the familiar 1+/1 —v?/c?.

It is evident that the quantity e/m is altered by the factor 1/6%,

but whether the charge or the mass or both are changed is not obvi-

ous. Einstein without comment assumes e to be constant and m to

bear the full effect of the modifying factor, and on this basis derives

his formula for the change of mass.

This assumption, of course, was orthodox in 1905, but it is of inter-

est to note that as a matter of logic the electrical theory of matter

can claim no supporting evidence from the special theory of relativity.

On the basis of this result of Einstein’s, Sommerfeld?® introduced

a modification into Bohr’s theory of the atom. On Bohr’s theory the

hydrogen atom was regarded as consisting of a negative electron re-

volving in a Keplerian ellipse around a positively charged nucleus,

the attraction between the two charges being balanced by the centrif-

ugal force of the revolving electron. Sommerfeld (page 45) makes the

orthodox assumption that the electrical charges remain constant, but

that the mass of the revolving electron varies with its speed according

to Einstein’s formula. In consequence the mass of the electron fluc-

tuates as it describes its orbit, being greatest at perihelion and least

27 Einstein. Ann. d. Physik 17: 891. 1905.

28 SOMMERFELD. Ann.d. Physik 51:1. 1916.

MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 217

at aphelion, and its centrifugal force will vary slightly from that in

a non-relativistic Keplerian ellipse. Because of this the orbit becomes

an ellipse with a moving perihelion, like that of the planet Mercury.

The effect of this will be to split up the spectral lines, producing what

Sommerfeld called the relativistic fine structure.

This predicted effect has actually been found in the spectra of hy-

drogen and helium, the number of the component lines and their rela-

tive separation being in accordance with theory.

As to the value of this result as a confirmation of the electrical

theory of matter, it is to be observed that Sommerfeld would have

obtained exactly the same modification of the Keplerian ellipse if he

had assumed the charge to decrease and the mass to remain constant,

thereby disturbing the balance by reducing the centripetal attraction

instead of increasing the centrifugal force.

The logic of the whole situation is that the electrical theory of mat-

ter can claim no independent support from Millikan, Einstein or Som-

merfeld. It rests for the present on J. J. Thomson’s theory, and even

this theory assumes tacitly that the charge is unaltered by the motion.

It is remarkable that every one we have mentioned, from J. J. Thom-

son onward, when confronted with the necessity of making a choice,

prefers to keep the charge constant and let the mass take the conse-

quences, and this without comment or apology.

Of course, there must be a reason for this; and although it is ex-

plicitly stated by no writer that I have seen, the reason is doubtless

to be found in a fundamental law of electricity, that of the conserva-

tion of electrical charge, with its corollary, the exact equivalence of

positive and negative electricity. This law states that no one has ever

produced the slightest trace of a positive charge without the simul-

taneous production of an equal and opposite negative charge some-

where in the neighborhood.

This law has been the subject of some very searching experiments.

We may operate within a large conducting cube, such as was built

by Faraday at the Royal Institution; perform within it all the usual

electrical experiments, excite a glass tube by rubbing it with fur,

draw sparks from an electrical machine, and yet a sensitive gold leaf

electroscope connected to the cube will remain undisturbed. It seems

impossible to create or destroy an electric charge without a com-

pensating creation or destruction of an equivalent charge of the op-

posite sign.

And yet the era of thought which has not hesitated to question the

conservation of energy can hardly be expected to respect this elec-

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

trical principle; and in fact this law has been brought under fire from

several quarters. If these points of order are sustained they will have

an important bearing on future answers to the question: What is elec-

tricity?

It is well to remember in this connection that all the experiments

upon which is based the law of conservation of electric charge have

started with neutral bodies. The glass tube and the fur were at first

neutral, but exhibited equal and opposite charges after being rubbed

together; the electrical machine was at first neutral, but on being

operated its two sides became equally and oppositely charged.

Suppose a chemist should announce that as a result of the analysis

of several thousand neutral salts he had come to the conclusion that

acid and basic radicals existed in equal amounts in nature; we would

likely think him ignorant of such syntheses as that of the acid radical

cyanogen (CN) from its elements in the electric arc. But is there any

known electrical analogue of such a synthesis or its reverse dissocia-

tion? No, nothing that we have so far been able to produce in the

laboratory; yet if we imagine some race of children of the gods who

could play with planets as we with pith balls, something of this kind

might come to their notice.

Among the phenomena of atmospheric electricity there is an un-

solved mystery. Many fruitless attempts have been made to explain

it consistently with the principle of conservation of electrical charge.

Continual failure has led more than one physicist to look for the ex-

planation in a slight departure from this principle, and it has been

shown that a departure so slight as to be beyond laboratory detection

would yet, on the large scale, solve this mystery. The difficulty in

_ question is to account for the negative charge of the earth.

Our earth is not a neutral body. Its entire surface is negatively

charged to such an amount that there exists near the surface a po-

tential gradient of 150 volts per meter. The conductivity of the at-

mosphere is small, but not zero; and because of this conductivity and

the potential gradient there is a continual conduction of negative elec-

tricity away from the earth amounting, over the whole surface of the

earth, to a current of about 1000 amperes. Small as this may appear,

it is sufficient to bring about a loss of 90 per cent of the earth’s charge

in ten minutes if there were no means of replenishing the loss. The

nature of this replenishment is the mystery referred to.

So great has been the difficulty of accounting for this replenish-

ment that in 1916 G. C. Simpson,?* now Director of the British

22 G. C. Smupson. Monthly Weather Review 44: 121. 1916.

MAY 15, 1985 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 219

Meteorological Office, raised the question of a possible spontaneous

production of a negative charge in the earth’s interior, but offered no

suggestion as to how this could be brought into line with existing

theory.

In 1926 Swann,*° who had worked unsuccessfully with the same

problem, followed Simpson’s lead, but chose the other alternative of

a slight annihilation, or as he called it, death of positive electricity.

He was able to bring this into connection with existing electrical

theory by generalizing Maxwell’s equations. His fundamental idea

was that there might be a very slight difference in the properties and

behavior of the two electricities. Here again we are reminded of the

difference apparently found by Rupp.

Such a suggestion was not without precedent. Lorentz*! in 1900 had

postulated a difference between the attraction of unlike charges and

the repulsion of like charges to account for another mystery—gravita-

tion. It must be admitted that the accepted idea of the absolute

equivalence and mirror-image character of the two electricities had

weakened somewhat when such men as the Director of the British

Meteorological Office, the Director of the Bartol Research Founda-

tion and a Nobel prizeman could join in expressing doubt of its ac-

curacy.”

Swann’s theory of the maintenance of the earth’s charge is, from

the theoretical point of view, the most successful that has yet been

advanced. He modifies the equations of Maxwell by introducing two

small terms, amounting respectively to one part in 10” and five parts

in 10'° of the main term of the classical theory. These additional terms

involve the acceleration and time rate of change of positive charge.

Swann assumed no similar terms for the negative charge, his idea

being that there is a slight differential effect in behavior. For simplic-

ity, therefore, he introduced a differential term applying only to posi-

tive electricity. This assumption enabled him to account for a slow

death of positive electricity due to the centripetal acceleration pro-

duced by the earth’s rotation.

To account for the known electrical facts, there is necessary an an-

nihilation of less than one proton per cc per day, equivalent to a loss

of 0.5 per cent of the earth’s mass in 10?° years. This would also ac-

count for as much of the earth’s magnetic field as is symmetrical

80 Swann. Jour. Frank. Inst. 201: 143. 1926. Phil. Mag. 3: 1088. 1927.

31 LorENTZ. Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Proceed-

ings of the Section of Sciences 2: 559. 1900.

% Additional references: Morr. Phil. Mag. 21, 196. 1911. Gunicu. Ann. d.

E bya’: 247. 1927. W. ANDERSON. Ibid. 85: 404. 1928. A. Press. Phil. Mag.

- . 1932.

a __ _— rrr rrr

220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

about the earth’s axis, and would give the correct ratio for the mag-

netic fields of the earth and the sun. Moreover no development of

charge or magnetic field could be detected with a sphere of laboratory

size rotating at the highest practicable speed. And finally, Swann’s

scheme is consistent with the special theory of relativity.

Whatever may be thought of Swann’s fundamental assumption, it

must be admitted that his theory is experiment-proof. Moreover, even

though it should be definitely disproved, it would have the lasting

merit of impressing upon us caution in extrapolating laboratory re-

sults to the cosmic scale.

The relations of newly discovered fact and existing theory are, as

we have seen in this somewhat brief survey, rich in suggestion. Specu-

lation is not dead, but sleeping. If the past is still an indication of the

future, it will awake again to renewed activity, and when this occurs

we will need a wide acquaintance with fact and a good sense of per-

spective to guide and direct future speculation on the question: What

as electricity?

CHEMISTRY.—3, 4-Dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamic acid and some of its

esters.1 RaymMonp M. Hann, Laboratory of J. P. Wetherill,

Washington, D. C. (Communicated by GrorcE 8. JAMIESON.)

The present communication reports the extension of the study of

derivatives of 5-chloroveratric aldehyde (3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloro-

benzaldehyde) to include the synthesis of 3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloro-

cinnamic acid. The new acid was prepared by condensation of the

aldehyde with malonic acid in the presence of pyridine and piperidine

according to the Knoevenagel reaction, the intermediate 3, 4-di-

methoxy-5-chlorobenzalmalonic acid losing carbon dioxide during the

reaction process to yield the desired substituted cinnamic acid. The

acid was characterized by preparation of several of its esters.

EXPERIMENTAL

3, 4-Dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamic acid.—A solution of 10 grams of

5-chloroveratric aldehyde and 13 g of malonic acid in 10 cc of pyridine

was treated with 5 drops of piperidine and heated for one and one-

half hours on the steam bath under a reflux, carbon dioxide being

copiously evolved. The reaction was completed by refluxing for 15

minutes, the reaction mixture cooled, and treated with 15 cc of con-

centrated hydrochloric acid in 85 cc of water. The precipitated yellow

1 Received February 18, 1935.

MAY 15, 1935 HANN: DIMETHOXY CHLOROCINNAMIC ACID 221

oil rapidly solidified, and after standing overnight in the ice box it

was filtered and dried. Yield 12.0 g, quantitative.

The acid may be recrystallized from water or 50% ethyl alcohol,

separating in ball-hke clusters of gelatinous needles, but it is prefera-

ble to dissolve it in 10 parts of ether, then concentrate to about half

volume, when upon standing it separates in colorless glistening prisms

melting at 126—7° C (corr.) to a clear oil.

Anal. Caled. for CuHnO.Cl: C, 54.4; H, 4.6. Neutralization

equivalent, 242. Found: C, 54.2; H, 4.7. Neutralization equivalent,

241.

Methyl 3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamate.—One g of 3, 4-dimethoxy-

5-chlorocinnamic acid, 10 ce of absolute methyl alcohol and 1 ce of

concentrated sulfuric acid were refluxed for four hours, the solution

cooled, and the ester precipitated as an oil by addition of 50 ce of

water. On standing it crystallized, and upon recrystallization from 10

parts of 80% methyl alcohol was obtained in colorless needles melting

at 63° C (corr.). Yield 2.0 g, 95% of theory.

Anal. Caled. for Ci2H30.Cl: Cl, 13.8. Saponification equivalent,

256. Found: Cl, 18.8. Saponification equivalent, 251.

Ethyl 3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamate.—The ethyl ester was ob-

tained by the general procedure used for the methyl homologue. It

crystallizes from 50% alcohol in colorless glistening prisms melting at

165° C (corr.) to a clear colorless oil.

Anal. Caled. for Ci3Hi;0.,Cl: Cl, 13.1. Saponification equivalent,

271. Found: Cl, 13.0. Saponification equivalent, 265.

Phenacyl 3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloroconnamate.—One gram of acid was

dissolved in 10 cc of 95% alcohol and titrated with N sodium hydrox-

ide to phenolphthalein alkalinity (4.3 cc), then 0.1 g of acid (to pre-

vent formation of phenacyl alcohol) and 1.0 g of w-bromo aceto-

phenone in 10 ce 95% alcohol were added and the reaction mixture

refluxed for one hour. On cooling the phenacyl ester separated and

was recrystallized from 40 ce of 95% alcohol, being obtained in glis-

tening, colorless needles melting at 132° C (corr.).

Anal. Caled. for Ci9Hi;O;Cl: Cl, 9.8. Found: Cl, 10.0.

p-Fluorophenacyl 3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamate.—A solution of

the sodium salt of the acid prepared as outlined for the phenacyl ester

and 0.7 gram of p-fluoro-w-chloro acetophenone? were refluxed for one

hour. The fluorinated phenacyl ester crystallized from alcohol in ball-

like clusters of long, colorless needles, and melted at 135° C.

Anal. Caled. for CysHis0;CIF: Cl, 9.4. Found: Cl, 9.2.

2 Hann and Wetherill, This JouRNAL, 24: 526. 1934.

nn CSCi.:titstCCtiCCCCCiasaéa#éé......w4weeeeeee

222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 25, NO. 5

p-Chlorophenacyl 3,4-dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamate.—This ester was

prepared by the same general method from p-chloro-w-bromoaceto-

phenone and crystallized from 40 parts of boiling 95% alcohol in fine,

glistening needles melting at 137° C (corr.) to a clear oil.

Anal. Caled. for C19His0;Cl.: Cl, 17.9. Found: Cl, 17.8.

p-Bromophenacyl 3,4-dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamate.—This ester crys-

tallizes in long, colorless acicular needles melting at 132° C (corr.) to a

clear oil.

Anal. Caled. for Ci.H,O;ClBr: Saponification equivalent, 439.

Found: 437.

SUMMARY

3,4-Dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamic acid and its methyl, ethyl, phe-

nacyl, p-fluorophenacyl, p-chlorophenacyl, and p-bromophenacyl

esters have been synthesized and described.

GEOLOGY .—Outliers of the Tuscaloosa formation on the western high-

land rim of Tennessee! KENDALL E. Born, Washington Uni-

versity, St. Louis, Mo. (Communicated by RoLtanp W. Brown.)

During the summer of 1933, while mapping the areal geology of

Dickson County in the western Highland Rim area of Tennessee, sev-

eral patches of unrecorded water-worn gravels were noted capping

some of the higher hills and interstream areas. These gravels un-

doubtedly represent remnants of the Tuscaloosa formation of Upper

Cretaceous age, which formerly overlay the Highland Rim plateau.

The present paper calls attention to these newly recognized occur-

rences since most of them are farther east than any areas of the for-

mation previously mapped.

The term Tuscaloosa was first applied by Smith and Johnson? to

the basal Upper Cretaceous deposits in the vicinity of Tuscaloosa,

Alabama. In western Alabama and Mississippi the Tuscaloosa, con-

sisting of irregularly bedded clays, sands, and gravels, has an esti-

mated thickness of approximately 1,000 feet. The formation becomes

more gravelly toward the north and was formerly considered to thin

out in the vicinity of the Alabama-Tennessee line. The presence of

this Upper Cretaceous formation on the western Highland Rim was

shown by the work of Miser* in 1913. Miser determined the age of the

1 Received January 28, 1935. Published by permission of the State Geologist of

Tennessee and the Board of Graduate Studies of W. ashington University.

2 Smiru, E. A. and Jonnson, L. C. Tertiary and Cretaceous strata of the Tusca-

loosa, Tombigbee, and Alabama rivers. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 43:95. 1887.

3’ Miser, H. D. in Drake, N. F. Economic geology of the Waynesboro quadrangle

(Tennessee). Tenn. Geol. Survey, Resources 4: 107. 1914

MAY 15, 1935 BORN: TUSCALOOSA FORMATION 223

gravels exposed in the Waynesboro quadrangle by tracing the overly-

ing red sands (Eutaw formation) into Hardin County where he found

a locality showing Cretaceous fossils.

STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONS

Deposits of Upper Cretaceous age in Tennessee outcrop in a

roughly wedge-shaped area which crosses the State in an approximate

north-south direction, the greatest areal distribution of the Upper

Cretaceous being west of the Tennessee River. This area is about 70

miles wide along the southern boundary of the State, but narrows un-

til at the Kentucky line it is only about 15 miles in width. In the

southern counties bordering the Tennessee River the following strati-

graphic and lithologic units of the Upper Cretaceous have been recog-

nized:

Owl Creek tongue

Ripley formation eae 2 McNairy sand member

Coon Creek tongue

Selma clay

Eutaw formation enn C Olcersandsme»n ber,

EA ae ere re Tombigbee sand member

Tuscaloosa formation

The Tuscaloosa formation on the western Highland Rim rests un-

conformably upon Mississippian limestones of Warsaw and St. Louis

ages. In the southern counties the Tuscaloosa is overlain by the red

micaceous Eutaw sand. In north-central Tennessee the Eutaw is defi-

nitely known only as small remnants in Stewart County along the

divide between the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers.

LITHOLOGY

The Tuscaloosa formation in Tennessee is represented by well-

rounded gravels, consisting essentially of chert with some limestone

pebbles. Quartzitic pebbles are not uncommon. In the southwestern

corner of the Waynesboro quadrangle Miser‘ noted that the top 30

feet of the Tuscaloosa consisted of “‘loose gravel, mostly sandstone,

quartzite, and quartz in red sand. Quartz pebbles are in greatest

abundance.” Jewell’ observed pebbles of quartzite and glassy vein

4 Miser, H. D. Communication. December, 1934.

5 JewELL, W. B. Geology and mineral resources of Hardin County, Tennessee.

Tenn. Div. of Geol. Bull. 37: 45. 1931.

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 25, NO. 5

ral

CALLOWAY

TE WA Rot

LEGEND

a4 TUSCALOOSA fee EUTAW

FORMATION ———! FORMATION

Scale

K E Born—1935 10 20mi.

Fig. 1.—Sketch map showing exposures of the Tuscaloosa formation on the western

Highland Rim of Tennessee. The numbers indicate new exposures and refer to de-

scriptions in the text. The size of some of the smaller outliers has been exaggerated.

MAY 15, 1935 BORN: TUSCALOOSA FORMATION 225

quartz in southeastern Hardin County. These pebbles have appar-

ently had a distinct origin, but their source is speculative. The writer

has noted quartzitic pebbles in exposures of the Tuscaloosa gravel on

the northern part of the Rim, but always in rather small amounts.

All of the pebbles show definite evidence of water-wear, some of

them closely approximating a sphere in shape. A few are polished.

The average diameter is between one and two inches, although di-

ameters of 6 to 12 inches have been observed. The color of the pebbles

ranges from almost white to a very dark gray, the majority of them

being light gray in color.

Locally, the gravels are intimately associated with sands and clays

which generally occur as small lenses and pockets. The amount of

sand and clay present decreases to the north. For the most part the

constituents are poorly sorted although Jewell® observed that the

lower portion of the Tuscaloosa in Hardin County was coarser than

the top.

The matrix of the gravels consists of finely divided calcareous and

siliceous material, much of which is clay. In certain localities, espe-

cially in the southern counties of the Rim, hydrous iron oxides have

cemented the pebbles into a highly indurated conglomerate.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE TUSCALOOSA FORMATION

Miser’ found that the Tuscaloosa gravels in the Waynesboro quad-

rangle were 150 feet thick and covered extensive tracts in the south-

western part of that area. In 1914 Wade® mapped the Tuscaloosa

formation in Tennessee as far north as Perry and northern Lewis

counties. Later he® traced remnants of the Tuscaloosa as far north as

Trigg County, Kentucky. In 1920 Wade? gave a summary of his Up-

per Cretaceous studies in Tennessee in which the distribution and

lithology of the Tuscaloosa formation were discussed. More recently

Roberts" has described the Tuscaloosa and Eutaw formations of

western Kentucky.

Formerly, the Tuscaloosa formation was considered to have a very

6§ JewELL, W. B. Op. cit., p. 45.

7 Miser, H. D. Mineral resources of the Waynesboro quadrangle. Tenn. Geol.

Survey Bull. 26: 25. 1921.

8 Wapk, Bruce. Geology of Perry County and vicinity. Tenn. Geol. Survey, Re-

sources 4:173. 1914.

9 Wave, Bruce. The occurrence of the Tuscaloosa formation as far north as Ken-

tucky. Johns Hopkins Univ. Cire. 3: 102-106. 1917.

10 WapE, Bruce. Recent studies of the Upper Cretaceous of Tennessee. Tenn.

Geol. Survey Bull. 23: 51-64. 1920.

4 Roserts, J. K. The Tuscaloosa formation in Kentucky. Amer. Jour. Sci. 14:

465-472. 1927; Cretaceous deposits of Trigg, Lyon, and Livingston counties, Kentucky.

Kentucky Geol. Survey 31: 281-326. 1929.

226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

limited areal distribution east of the Tennessee River. However, more

detailed studies have revealed isolated exposures of the Upper Creta-

ceous gravel some 30 to 40 miles east of the river. (See Fig. 1.)

An important link in this chain of outlying areas of gravels of Up-

per Cretaceous age is the gravels and sands in the vicinity of McEwen

and Tennessee City on the central part of the western Highland Rim.

Fig. 2.—Exposure of the Tuscaloosa gravels in a new road cut, about 13 miles

east of Tennessee City. Width of the exposure is about 36 inches.

In this region the Tuscaloosa gravels cover several square miles and

have a thickness of more than 25 feet. The gravels are well exposed

in most of the new highway cuts between Dickson and McEwen. (See

Fig. 2.) Just east of McEwen some 30 feet of the gravels are exposed

which are underlain by the highly weathered St. Louis limestone and

chert.

In 1930, while working on the brown iron ores of the western High-

;

MAY 15, 1935 BORN: TUSCALOOSA FORMATION 227

land Rim, the writer’ noted the Tuscaloosa gravels capping the

higher hills near Louise in southern Montgomery County (1).* This

occurrence of the Upper Cretaceous is some 10 miles farther east than

any previously recognized in Tennessee.

During the summer of 1933 several more unmapped outliers of the

Tuscaloosa gravels were found in Dickson County. In the extreme

northwestern corner of the county, about 43 miles northwest of Slay-

den, a small area of Cretaceous gravels occur at an altitude of 650-

700 feet. This outlier is more or less continuous into southern Mont-

gomery and eastern Houston counties (2).

About three-fourths of a mile south of Cumberland Furnace, in

northern Dickson County, some 25 feet of the Tuscaloosa have been

exposed by stream erosion near the crest of a ridge (3). In this expo-

sure the gravels are especially well-rounded, light in color, and have

been firmly embedded in sand and clay.

At various places along the north-south ridge bordering the road

between Pond and the small village of Hortense, Tuscaloosa gravels

were observed (4). Since no bed-rock is exposed in this immediate

locality, the thickness of the gravels could not be determined.

South and east of the rather extensive outlier of the Tuscaloosa in

western Dickson and eastern Humphreys counties, several small rem-

nants of the Upper Cretaceous gravels were noted forming a veneer

on some of the higher hills of the interstream area between Garner

Creek and Piney River (5). In these localities, the finer sand and clay

have been removed leaving the pebbles scattered as a mantle over the

upland and embedded in the residual clays.

During the field season of 1934 a small exposure of gravels, very

typical of the Tuscaloosa, was observed just north of the old Johnston

iron ore pits, about 4 miles south of Wrigley Furnace in Hickman

County (6). This is within 15 miles of the Central or Nashville Basin

and is the most easterly occurrence of the formation yet discovered.

ORIGIN OF THE TUSCALOOSA FORMATION

The gravels of the Tuscaloosa formation on the western Highland

Rim of Tennessee have been derived from Mississippian limestones

and cherts. Mississippian fossils are commonly found in the pebbles.

The coral, Lithostrotion canadense, indicative of the St. Louis lime-

stone, has been observed towards the center of several pebbles.

2 Born, K. E. The brown iron ores of the western Highland Rim of Tennessee.

Jour. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 7: 22. 1932.

* The numbers in parentheses refer to numbers of localities on the map, Fig. 1.

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

Berry,” basing his conclusions on certain resemblances to present

deltas, believes that the Tuscaloosa formation in Alabama represents

a series of Cretaceous deltas. This interpretation may be correct for

Alabama, where the amount of sand and clay is greater and where

paleobotanical evidence is present, but in Tennessee, and especially

the northern part of the Highland Rim region, the clays and sands

become much less abundant and the Tuscaloosa consists of gravel

with only subordinate amounts of sand and clay. Roberts noted this

same constitution of the Tuscaloosa in Kentucky and he suggested a

marine origin of the gravels. Field observations by the writer point

toward a similar origin for the Tuscaloosa formation on the western

Highland Rim of Tennessee. The Tuscaloosa gravels in this region are

believed to be shore gravels deposited through overlap by the advanc-

ing Upper Cretaceous sea.

During the late Carboniferous and early and middle Mesozoic time

the western Highland Rim is believed to have been a land mass. Dur-

ing this long geologic interval the land suffered erosion and Wade

suggested that the general area was a low-lying land. Wells'® believes

the region was reduced to a peneplain. In western Kentucky Sutton’’

has pictured the topography at the beginning of Tuscaloosa time as an

irregular land surface in a mature stage of development. In the south-

western part of the western Highland Rim, Miser! interpreted the

pre-Tuscaloosa topography as an uneven surface on which sink holes

and underground channels were common.

As the result of downwarping, the Upper Cretaceous was initiated

in the Embayment region by a transgressing sea which rounded the

Mississippian limestones and cherts. The eastern limit of the Tusca-

loosa sea in Tennessee is not definitely known, but the present recog-

nized distribution of these basal gravels indicates that the sea en-

croached far upon the western flank of the Nashville arch.

The size and degree of rounding displayed by many of the pebbles

appear to warrant a marine rather than a deltaic origin for the Tusca-

13 Berry, E. W. The delta character of the Tuscaloosa formation. Johns Hopkins

Univ. Cire. 3: 18-24. 1917; Upper Cretaceous floras of the eastern Gulf region in

Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 112:

26-30. 1919.

144 Roperts, J. K. The Tuscaloosa formation in Kentucky. Amer. Jour. Sci. 14:

470-472. 1927.

1s WapE, Bruce. Geology of Perry County and vicinity. Tenn. Geol. Survey,

Resources 4: 176. 1914.

16 WeLLs, F. G. Ground water resources of western Tennessee. U.S. Geol. Survey

Water-Supply Paper 656: 22-23. 1933.

17 Surton, A. H. A pre-Cretaceous soil horizon in western Kentucky. Amer. Jour.

Sei. 22: 450-451. 1931.

18 Miser, H. D. Mineral resources of the Waynesboro quadrangle. Tenn. Geol.

Survey Bull. 26: 58-59. 1921.

MAY 15, 1935 BORN: TUSCALOOSA FORMATION 229

loosa gravels on the western Highland Rim. Although our present

knowledge of the Upper Cretaceous geography of this area is meager,

it is believed, as suggested above, that the western Highland Rim was

then a region of little or moderate relief. Considerable relief must be

assumed to account for cobbles, many of which are 5 and 8 inches in

diameter, to be washed into deltas. At present we have no basis for

the assumption of any great amount of relief during the early Upper

Cretaceous in west-middle Tennessee. No large pebbles are known in

the present day stream gravels and it is probable that the present

relief of the Rim region is greater than that of Cretaceous time. It

appears, therefore, more likely that this rounding of Mississippian

limestones and cherts has resulted from wave and tidal action of a

sea transgressing a deeply weathered land area.

The width of the Tuscaloosa belt in Tennessee is also suggestive

of a marine origin for the gravels. Very extensive deltas would be

necessary to account for the rather wide distribution of the Tusca-

loosa as indicated by the chain of outliers already known, and further

detailed study of additional areas on the western Rim will probably

reveal other outliers of the Tuscaloosa formation.

In the southern counties of the Rim and in the area west of the

Tennessee River, the Tuscaloosa is overlain conformably by the

Eutaw sand whose origin is certainly marine. In Hardin County,

Jewell!® has noted sands, similar to those in the Tuscaloosa, inter-

calated with the gravels and finer sands of the Eutaw formation.

Continuous deposition is strongly suggested.

The presence of the Eutaw in Stewart County and in western Ken-

tucky strongly suggests that these sands were deposited by the Up-

per Cretaceous sea when depth became favorable for the deposition

of finer sediments. It is probable that the Selma and Ripley, and per-

haps even younger formations, were laid down over a portion of the

western Highland Rim.

Since the Tuscaloosa gravels form a basal conglomerate of a trans-

gressing sea, the formation becomes progressively younger from south

to north. The gravels in Dickson and Stewart counties are undoubt-

edly younger than any part of the gravels in northwestern Alabama

and northeastern Mississippi. The Eutaw outliers in Stewart County

and western Kentucky may be as young as basal Ripley.

The withdrawal of the Cretaceous sea from the Embayment area

again subjected the Highland Rim to erosion and during the pene-

planation of the late Cretaceous and early Tertiary most of the de-

19 JewnuL, W. B. Personal communication. August, 1934.

230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

posits of Upper Cretaceous age were removed. The existing patches of

the Tuscaloosa and Eutaw in this region represent remnants of these

formations which were probably continuous at one time over most or

all of the present western Highland Rim.

BOTANY.—A new species of Dracaena from the Department of Petén,

Guatemala! C. L. LunpDELL, University of Michigan. (Com-

municated by H. H. BARTLETT.)

While collecting in the savanna country of the Department of

Petén, Guatemala, in 1933, I discovered a grove of very interesting

monocotyledonous trees in Monte Hiltun, a strip of forest separating

Sabana Hiltun and Sabana Zotz. The trees were not in flower or fruit

so that only sterile material was obtained. The species is apparently

referable to the genus Dracaena.

Dracaena petenensis, sp. nov.

Arbor solida 6 usque ad 12 m. alta. Caulis 20-30 cm., basi expansa 70-90

em., diam. Cortex tenuis fissuris irregularibus aliquantulum angustatisque

et fastigiis paucis, inaequalibus, acutis, humilibus, griseus fusco-maculatus

sub folia circulis griseis, fuscis vel rubris irregulariter cireumdatus. Rami

pauci, crassi, 15 em. sub apice 10-15 mm. diam. Folia ramorum apice con-

gesta, pendula, minutissime, serrulata glabri, griseo-viridia, 115-140 cm.

longa, 18-20 mm. lata, basta dilata, amplexicaulia, integra scariosa, laminis

linearibus, supra basin angustatis apice in aciem late setiformem coarctatis.

Type in the herbarium of the University of Michigan, C. L. Lundell 3271,

collected in Monte Hiltun, Department of Petén, Guatemala, May 17, 1933.

Cotype deposited in the United States National Herbarium, Washington,

IDRC?

The characters which distinguish Dracaena petenensis are (1) the massive

trunk with expanded base, (2) the few, thick branches, and (3) the crowded,

pendent, minutely serrulate, linear leaves 115 to 140 cm. long and 18 to

20 mm. wide. The other New World representative of the genus, Dracaena

americana Donn. Smith, is occasionally encountered in the same region. It

is a smaller tree with entire leaves 20 to 30 cm. in length.

1 Received February 7, 1935. Papers from the Department of Botany and the

Herbarium of the University of Michigan, No. 527.

ZOOLOGY.—The histology of nemic esophagi. IV. The esophagus of

Metastrongylus elongatus.. B. G. Cuirwoop, Bureau of Ani-

mal Industry and M. B. Currwoop.

This is the fourth paper of a series? dealing with the structure of the

1 Received November 18, 1934.

2 Cuitwoop, B. G., and Cuirwoop, M. B. The histology of nemic esophagi. I.

MAY 15, 1935 CHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 231

esophagi in various groups of nematodes. In this paper, insofar as

possible, the same nomenclature for the various nuclei and cells will

be used as in the previous papers.

GROSS MORPHOLOGY

The esophagus of Metastrongylus elongatus is clavate and may show

erossly 3 indistinct regions, an anterior moderately narrow part or corpus,

a very slightly narrower part, or isthmus, and a posterior wide part or bulbar

region. The length of the esophagi in specimens studied varies from 262u

to 616; however, in the description a single specimen with an esophagus

450u long has been used, since relative positions and lengths are fairly

constant. In this specimen the corpus is approximately 162u long, the

isthmus 90u long, and the bulbar region 198y long. The dorsal esophageal

gland opens into the lumen at the anterior end of the esophagus, while the

subventral glands open into the lumen 126y from the anterior end or 36u

from the posterior end of the corpus. The lumen is triradiate throughout

the length of the esophagus; in the anterior part of the corpus the ends of

the radii are very slightly rounded (Fig. 1b) and the cuticle is thickened.

NUCLEAR DISTRIBUTION

The corpus may be subdivided into 2 regions, a precorpus and a post-

corpus, on the basis of nuclear distribution, these regions approximating

the parts of the corpus of Rhabditis.

Precorpus. In the anterior part of the corpus, 22 nuclei, comprising 6

radials (7:5) and 16 nerve cells (m1-16) have been constantly observed. In

addition to these there are 4 questionable bodies (s:_4), possibly nuclei of

nerve cells, and 1 nerve cell nucleus (”s,) which sometimes appears to be

distinct and sometimes identical with ns. The radial nuclei (7_.) are ar-

ranged in a single group of 6, 1 nucleus on each side of each sector 9 to 18u

from the anterior end of the precorpus.

The nerve cell nucleus m is situated slightly to the right of the medio-

dorsal position, 74 from the anterior end of the precorpus; n2_3 are situated

near the center of the subventral sectors at the same level as m1; m4-5 are

situated about 15u from the anterior end, near the center of each sector;

n; is about 9u from the anterior end of the precorpus and in the center of

the dorsal sector, while ng_y are near the same level as nz, 1 nucleus in the

center of each subventral sector; mio is immediately posterior to ms, while

Nsz 1S immediately posterior to ns or possibly identical with ms; mu—13 are

approximately 38u from the anterior end of the precorpus, 1 nucleus near

The esophagus of Rhabdias eustreptos (MacCallum, 1921). Zeit. f. Zellf. u. Micro.

Anat. 22: 29-37. 1934.

Ibid. II. The esophagus of Heterakis gallinae. Zeit. f. Zellf. u. Micro. Anat. 22:

38-46. 1934.

Ibid. III. The esophagus of Oesophogostomum dentatum. This JouRNAL 24:

557-562. 1934.

232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

the center of each sector; and, finally, ns_15 are about 45u from the anterior

end.

The bodies s,4 are near the external surface of the esophagus, s;» being

about 18 from the anterior end of the precorpus, 1 nucleus near the center

of each subventral sector, while s3;_4 are about 26y from the anterior end

of the precorpus and arranged similar to s\_».

Fig. 1.— Nuclei of esophagus, diagrammatic representation. 7, m, s, g, n, various

types of nuclei; a—c, nuclei of precorpus; d—h, nuclei of postcorpus; 7-j, nuclei of pre-

valvar region; k—m, nuclei of postvalvar region; 7, nuclei of esophago-intestinal valve.

Postcorpus. The postcorpus contains 22 nuclei comprising 6 radial nuclei

(7712), 3 marginal nuclei (m_3), 9 nerve cell nuclei (77-25), and 4 nuclei

(ss_s), possibly those of nerve cells. The marginal nuclei (m_3) are arranged

as a group of 3, 1 nucleus at the end of each esophageal radius, about 72 to

80u from the anterior end of the esophagus or about 18 to 26u from the an-

terior end of the postcorpus. The radial nuclei (r7_12) are arranged similar

to the radials (71s) of the precorpus and are about 6 to 12u posterior to the

marginal nuclei.

The nerve cell nuclei consist of 2 groups of 3 nuclei (717-19 and 20-22),

1 nucleus near the center of each sector, the first group situated approxi-

MAY 15, 1935 CHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 233

mately at the anterior end of the postcorpus, and the second group about 6

to 10u posterior to the first group; a pair of subventral nerve cell nuclei

(M2324) Situated about 18 to 25u from the anterior end of the postcorpus;

and a single dorsal nerve cell nucleus (72;) posterior to the orifices of the sub-

ventral glands, about 134u from the anterior end of the corpus or 284 from

the posterior end of the corpus.

In addition to the above, there are 4 nuclei (s;_s) which appear similar to

those of nerve cells, but no cell body was observed. The first pair (s5_¢) is

situated 6 to 10u posterior to the radials r7_12, 1 nucleus in each subventral

sector, while the second pair (r7_s) is near the posterior end of the postcorpus,

about 6 posterior to the last dorsal nerve cell (725).

Isthmus. As indicated by the distribution of nuclei, the isthmus is a

region 90u long between the corpus and the anterior part of the bulbar re-

gion, and contains no nuclei.

Prevalvar region. The anterior part of the bulbar region, the prevalvar

region, contains 10 nuclei comprising 6 radial nuclei (7131s), 3 marginal nu-

clei (ms_s), and 1 gland cell nucleus (g:). The radial nuclei are arranged in

2 groups of 3 nuclei each, 1 nucleus of each group near the center of each

sector; the first group (ri3_15) is about 6 to 12u from the anterior end of the

prevalvar region, while the second group (ri¢_1s) is situated 138 to 1504 from

the anterior end of the region. The marginal nuclei (m4_.) are arranged like

those of the first group (m_3), and are situated at about the same level as

the second group of radials (ris_1s) of this region.

The dorsal esophageal gland nucleus (g;) is about half way between the

2 radial groups (ri3-15 and is_1s) of this region. However, g: is quite variable

in position, and in other specimens it may be situated further posterior,

even at the level of the subventral gland nuclei.

Postvalvar region. The postvalvar region of the esophagus usually contains

16 nuclei as follows: 6 radials (719-24), 3 marginals (m7_9), 2 gland cell nuclei

(g2-3), and 5 nerve cell nuclei (76-30). In addition to these, 1 more nucleus

(sg), possibly that of a nerve cell, has sometimes been observed. The radial

nuclei are arranged in 2 groups of 3 nuclei each, 1 nucleus near the center

of each sector; the first group (ri9_21) is situated 18 to 24u from the anterior

end of the postvalvar region, while the second group (722-24) is situated at the

posterior end of the esophagus. The marginal nuclei (m7_9) are arranged

like the other margins (m,_3; and 4), and situated 6 to 10u from the posterior

end of the esophagus.

The subventral esophageal gland nuclei (g:_3) are in the center of their

respective sectors, at the anterior end of the postvalvar region in the particu-

lar specimen described here. Sometimes, however, these nuclei are situated

in the prevalvar region, 6 to 10u anterior to the last group of radials of that

region (7i¢_18).

The subventral nerve cell nuclei (m2s_27) are symmetrically placed, 1 nu-

cleus near the center of each subventral sector, situated at approximately

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

the anterior end of the postvalvar region; the dorsal nerve cell nuclei

(Neg_29) are situated just anterior to my», with 1 nucleus (%2s) anterior to the

other (29); the ventral nerve cell nucleus (zo) is a little to the left of the

ventral esophageal radius, 6 to 12u anterior to ms. In addition to these

nuclei, a right subdorsal nucleus (sy) was observed in 1 series of sections; it

appeared similar to the nucleus of a nerve cell but no cell body was observed.

Esophago-intestinal valve-—-The esophago-intestinal valve consists of 2

parts, an anterior part with a trilobed lumen the wall of which contains 3

nuclei, 1 nucleus near the center of each lobe, and a posterior part with a

rounded lumen the wall of which contains 4 nuclei, of which 1 nucleus is

dorsal, 2 left subventral, and 1 right subventral.

CHARACTER OF NUCLEI

The radial nuclei each contain a moderate sized nucleolus lying in a finely

granular, very delicately basophilic nucleoplasm. In cross section the radial

nuclei of the corpus (ri_12) are elongated, 7.94 long by 3.7 to 4u wide, their

long axes corresponding to the radius of the esophagus; those of the pre-

valvar region (rj3_1s) are subtriangular, 6.2 to 7u long by 5 to 5.8y wide,

while those of the postvalvar region (ri9_24) are ellipsoidal, 6.2 to 7u long by

2.9 to 3.3 wide.

The marginal nuclei are similar to the radial nuclei except that the nu-

cleolus is slightly larger in proportion to the nucleus, and sometimes a

second, smaller nucleolus is present. All of the marginal nuclei are ellipsoidal

to slightly subtriangular. The nuclei of the first group (m1_3) are about 3.4y

long by 3.34 wide, those of the second group (mz), 7.94 long by 5yu wide,

and those of the third group (m7_9), 4.54 long by 2.5u wide.

The gland cell nuclei are the largest nuclei of the esophagus, the dorsal

(g:) 6.2u long by 6.2u wide, and the subventrals (g2_3) 7u long by 8.7u wide.

Each of these nuclei contains a proportionally large nucleolus in avery

homogenous, basophilic nucleoplasm.

The nerve cells consist of several types, the nuclei varying greatly in

size and character. A brief description of these nuclei may be clarified

through reference to figure 4. The dorsal nerve cell nuclei of the corpus are

of 3 types, as follows: nz is of a type containing a nucleolus in a nucleoplasm

which shows no affinity for stain; 74,717, and »; are of a type containing a

bilobed, irregular nucleolus, or 2 nucleoli in a nucleoplasm basophilic at

the margin; mu 14, and 20 are of a type containing a deeply basophilic nucleo-

plasm without distinct nucleolus. Of these, m2; appears to be a cell of the com-

missure at the base of the postcorpus, the cell body being large and the cyto-

plasm homogenous and eosinophilic; ns and ; have similar cytoplasm or cell

bodies, but are apparently bipolar; the remaining cells have a very small cell

body and are spindle shaped and bipolar.

The subventral nerve cells of the corpus contain 2 types of nuclei, 2_3,5-6,

1s—16,23-21 having a nucleoplasm basophilic at the margin, while ms_9,10,12-13,

MAY 15, 1935 CHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 235

1s-19,21-22 Contain a few basophilic granules but the nucleoplasm is not

basophilic at the margin. All of the subventral nerve cell nuclei contain a

bilobed nucleus or 2 separate nucleoli; the cells appear to be bipolar and the

Fig. 3.—Nerve cells of esophagus. Labelled as in fig. 1.

cell bodies homogenous and basophilic, but the size and shape varies with

the individuals cell (Fig. 4).

The bodies of the corpus labelled s are not all of the same character. Those

labelled s\4, possibly nerve cells, are strongly basophilic and somewhat

similar to mu, but no cell bodies were observed (the writers are not entirely

236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

certain that they are nuclei); s;_. are obvious nuclei with lobed nucleoli and

clear nucleoplasm, 1 body lying near the inner ventral side of the anterior

part of each subventral gland and surrounded by deeply staining cytoplasm,

but no cell wall observed; s7_s are similar nuclei situated ventral and medial

to the subventral glands. Nuclei in similar positions and of similar character

are present in other nematodes, but a comparison of these nuclei will not

be taken up until later.

Lor

F S od i ;

fa? | (/ seat

ae | Sain ¢ 5

\ Sat I he Le

~ Se J

Fig. 4.—Esophageal gland mass as seen in cross section. a, dorsal gland near ori-

fice; b, dorsal gland immediately posterior to a; c, dorsal gland at level of m1; d, sub-

ventral gland anterior to orifice; e, subventral gland at level of orifice; f, subventral

gland in section immediately posterior to e; g, subventral gland in anterior part of bul-

bar region.

The nerve cell nuclei (mss_30) of the bulbar region are, in general, larger

nuclei than those of the corpus (Fig. 3); all contain a lobed nucleolus in a

clear nucleoplasm having a few basophilic granules. The cell bodies are large,

the cytoplasm lightly eosinophilic and sometimes vesicular (see so of Fig. 4).

All of these cells appear to be commissural cells; they have 2 chief processes

which come off at the same side of the cell body and then diverge. The single

s nucleus (ss) of the bulbar region appears to be similar to the nuclei of the

nerve cells of the same region but no cell body has been observed.

MAY 15, 1935 JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT 237

ESOPHAGEAL GLANDS

The dorsal esophageal gland has a very short narrow duct lined with

cuticle which is continuous with a protoplasmic central tubule having a

thick deeply basophilic wall. This tubule becomes wider and bifurcates

posterior to the orifice of the gland, each branch giving off numerous short

branches which are continuous with the coarsely reticulate, deeply basophilic

cytoplasm of the gland (Fig. 4a—b). In the anterior part of the precorpus

the dorsal gland is rather wide and circumscribed, and occupies a central

position in the dorsal sector. In the remainder of the corpus the dorsal gland

is narrow (Fig. 4c) and the gland mass finely reticular to alveolate; it be-

comes a narrow strand in the region of the isthmus, and again larger in the

anterior part of the bulbar region. Near the level of its nucleus, the dorsal

gland becomes multilobed and occupies a large part of the dorsal sector; in

this region the cytoplasm is dense and contains a few alveoli.

The subventral glands extend some distance anterior to their orifices; in

this region the cytoplasm is very finely reticulate (Fig. 4d). Near the level

of their orifices the subventral glands become multilobed but the finely

reticular structure remains. Each gland has an extremely short duct lined

with cuticle, and continuous with this duct is a thick-walled protoplasmic

tube which is immediately multibranched, the branches continuous with

the reticulum. Posterior to this region the gland mass, like the dorsal gland,

becomes smaller until it is finally reduced to a delicate strand of protoplasm

in the isthmian region. The subventral glands become enlarged in the

posterior part of the prevalvar region, become lobed in the region of their

nuclei, and then continue to be large and lobed nearly to the base of the

esophagus. The protoplasm is dense throughout this region except in the

part adjacent to the lumen. In general, the mass of the subventral glands is

less basophilic than that of the dorsal, and sometimes appears to be very

slightly eosinophilic.

ZOOLOGY.—Development and morphology of the cestode, Hymeno-

lepis cantaniana, 7n coleopteran and avian hosts... M. F. JoNES

and J. E. Anicara, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communi-

cated by Exoisg B. Cram).

Previous to the preliminary note by Alicata and Jones? in 1933, the

life history of the poultry cestode, Hymenolepis cantaniana, was un-

known. There was reported at that time the finding, in the dung beetle

Ataenius cognatus, of proliferating larvae which consisted of a my-

celium-like structure, numerous buds, and partially or completely de-

! Received March 12, 1935.

2 AuicaTA, J. E., and Jones, M. F. The dung beetle, Ataenius cognatus, as the

intermediate host of Hymenolepis cantaniana. Jour. Parasitol. 20: 244. 1933.

238. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

veloped cysticercoids (Fig. 1). The larvae developed to maturity in

chicks and were identified as H. cantaniana. The present paper gives

a more detailed account of the development and morphology of the

proliferating larva of this cestode in the intermediate host, Alaenius

cognatus. Since the previous report, 2 additional beetles, Ataenius

stercorator from Puerto Rico and Choeridium histeroides of local origin

have been found to harbor similar proliferating larvae, presumably

those of H. cantaniana. The larvae from Ataenius stercorator were col-

lected by Dr. H. L. Van Volkenberg and sent to the Zoological Di-

vision for identification, with the statement in a personal communica-

tion that this material was identical with that which he reported, but

Fig. 1—Larvae of Hymenolepis cantaniana from Ataenius cognatus. Natural in-

festation. a, b, c, developing cysticercoids; d, e. f, apparently mature cysticercoids

still attached to branching larval tissue. After Alicata and Jones, 1933.

did not describe in 1931.' In the present paper, geographical distribu-

tion and seasonal occurrence of the intermediate hosts are discussed

briefly. A short description of the adult worm, with data regarding its

development, subsequent to laboratory feedings, in the chicken, gui-

nea fowl, and bobwhite quail, also are included.

The authors wish to thank Dr. E. A. Chapin of the U. 8. National

Museum for identifying beetles and for supplying data regarding dis-

tribution of the 3 beetles reported as intermediate hosts.

SOURCE OF LARVAL MATERIAL

The greater part of the cestode larvae available for study occurred

as natural infestations in numerous specimens of Ataenius cognatus;

larvae were observed also in one specimen of Choeridium histeroides.

3 VAN VOLKENBERG, H. L. Report of parasitologist. Report Puerto Rico Agric.

Exp. Sta. 1930: 38-40. 1931.

MAY 15, 1935 JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT 239

These beetles were collected in or near poultry yards, in particular at

the Beltsville Research Center of the U.S. Department of Agriculture

near Beltsville, Maryland. Three specimens of Ataenius stercorator,

infested with proliferating larvae, were sent to the Zoological Division

from Puerto Rico; the total number of infested beetles of this species,

found in that locality by Van Volkenberg, is not known. No labora-

tory-reared beetles of any of these species were used. A few specimens

of A. cognatus, after being kept in the laboratory for 2 weeks or longer

after collection, were fed eggs of H. cantaniana and subsequently har-

bored young larvae in various stages of development. With one excep-

tion, the early stages of development described below were obtained

from these experimentally infected beetles. Following experimental

feeding, larvae were found in beetles after 24 hours (2 beetles), after

8 days (1 beetle), after 9 to 12 days (1 beetle, fed August 2, 4, and 5,

and examined August 14), and after 11 to 14 days (1 beetle, fed

August 2, 4, and 5, and examined August 16). A larva, less developed

than those observed in the beetles fed 8 days previously, was found

in a naturally infested beetle which also contained larvae of more ad-

vanced development, some of which exhibited completely formed cys-

ticercoids.

Larvae were examined as fresh material and also as both stained

and unstained permanent mounts. Two beetles were sectioned for ob-

servation of larvae in situ.

DEVELOPMENT OF LARVA IN INTERMEDIATE HOST

The youngest larvae of H. cantaniana observed were obtained from

a beetle 24 hours after experimental infection; the identification of

the larvae was based on the embryonal hooks which were 13 to 14u

long. One larva, observed soon after it was recovered from the body

of a beetle, was slightly elongate and became rounded during observa-

tion; as unfixed material it was undifferentiated in appearance and

disintegrated quickly. A similar elongate specimen measured 106y

long by 54u wide. A third larva (Fig. 2) was trilobed, being about 160u

along its greatest axis; another larva (Fig. 3), more definitely lobed,

measured about 200u along its greatest axis. At least 6 small lobes or

branches were exhibited by a smaller larva (Fig. 4) of unknown age

which measured about 140 along its greatest axis after having been

mounted and stained with methylene blue. It is considered typical of

early branching or proliferating larvae of this species; its nuclei are

comparatively large and are definitely more concentrated near the tip

of each branch. Apparently the first few branches elongate (Fig. 5)

B. ——_—_

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

Figs. 2-6.—Larvae of Hymenolepis cantaniana from Ataenius cognatus. Figs.

2-3.—Obtained 24 hours after experimental feeding. Fig. 4:-—Young larva, natural

infestation. Fig. 5.—Sketch of branching larva, 8 days after experimental feeding.

Fig. 6.—Completely formed cysticercoid. Sectioned material.

before many new buds arise. A larva recovered from a beetle fed 8

days previously had a maximum axis length of 605y and exhibited

considerable proliferation, there being 4 distinct elongate branches and

2 rounded buds. Larvae from a beetle fed 9 to 12 days previously con-

MAY 15, 1985 JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT 241

sisted of numerous branches and a few buds which represent partly

developed cysticercoids. Larvae recovered from a beetle of the same

lot fed 11 to 14 days previously consisted of numerous branches, buds,

partly formed and completely formed cysticercoids, the latter repre-

senting the infective larvae proper. :

To summarize briefly on the basis of observations on numerous

larvae, the hexacanth embryo develops into lobes, then a branching,

mycelium-like structure, the branches of which bear buds which may

develop into new elongate branches or directly into cysticercoids.

In general, on the branching larval stem, the development of a bud

into a cysticercoid resembles the more commonly observed develop-

ment of hexacanth embryo into cysticercoid of other species of tape-

worms, except that the embryonal hooks of H. cantaniana remain in

the basal stem, or are lost, and consequently are not involved in the

development of bud into cysticercoid (Figs. 1, 7,8). A larva early in

its development, still somewhat globular except for the area of at-

tachment to the stem, is about 35 to 50u in diameter; the cell nuclei

are closer together than are those of the proliferating stem itself.

These globular structures, while remaining attached to the stem,

elongate and become ovoid; with further elongation constrictions ap-

pear; the first constriction results in a larva made up of a smaller

proximal region, nearer the stem, and a larger distal region (Fig. Ic).

Such larvae, with one constriction, may be 70 to 85yu long by 35u in

diameter through the proximal region and about 40 to 45u in diameter

through the distal region. Cells of the distal region are the more con-

centrated; in the median and proximal regions the outer cells lie close

together, but the inner cells have elongate projections and form a

loose tissue which represents the “primitive cavity”’ of the developing

eysticercoid. While the first constriction, mentioned above, is becom-

ing more marked, there occurs cell differentiation in the distal region

in 4 areas which represent the future suckers. At the distal tip, a few

large cells are to be observed which later develop as a projection repre-

senting the future rostellum; at an early stage this projection is 10.5y

long by 7y in diameter.

A second constriction appears proximal to the suckers, and differ-

entiation progresses. The region of loose fibrous tissue becomes more

marked, suckers become more distinct, and a narrow cavity appears

in the projecting rostellum, the latter 22u long by 8u in diameter. An

individual specimen at this stage of development is 112y long, 102u

in diameter through the suckers, 42.5u through the median region,

and 52.5u through the posterior region.

242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

A cysticercoid apparently just beginning to invaginate is 120y long.

Suckers appear to be completely formed, or nearly so, but the rostel-

lum is not completely developed. H. cantaniana evidently belongs to

the group of cestodes in which scolex differentiation of the larva is

partially but not entirely completed before invagination. Invagina-

tion itself occurs rapidly, to judge from the comparatively few larvae

observed in the process.

The region of attachment to the main stem elongates as the bud de-

velops into a cysticercoid; it is fragile and breaks or disintegrates

easily during observation of fresh material.

Calcareous corpuscles are first observed in young rounded forms;

larvae with one constriction may contain 4 to 10 calcareous corpuscles

which, as a rule, are median or distal in position. In completely

formed cysticercoids as many as 40 have been counted; these are lo-

cated in the inner cyst wall and thus are in the neck region of evagi-

nated specimens.

Completely formed cysticercoids or infective larvae (Fig. 6) are

spherical or ellipsoidal in shape or, in heavy infestations, may be ir-

regularly compressed. They are comparatively small, 90u by 68y to

140u by 102u in diameter. The cyst wall consists of a thin cuticula,

an inconspicuous basal membrane and sub-cuticular layer, a fibrous

zone with irregular spaces representing the old ‘“‘primitive cavity,”

and the inner cuticula. The scolex, lying in a small invagination cay-

ity, is about 50 to 72u in diameter; suckers are 20 to 26u in diameter,

the rostellum is about 22 to 24u long, only the small rosteller cavity

being easily observed in most material. No hooks could be seen on the

scolex, although wrinkles of the cuticular lining of the rostellar cavity

suggested minute hooks in certain specimens.

Completely formed cysticercoids may remain attached to the pro-

liferating larval tissue by short stems or may lie free in the body

cavity of freshly dissected beetles. Although cysticercoids become de-

tached readily during the examination of the material, they do not

evaginate readily in tap water, even when stimulated by tapping or

heating the slide. Cysticercoids of H. cantaniana differ in this respect

from those of H. carioca or Raillietina cesticillus, which evaginate

much more readily.

On the basis of the limited material derived from experimental in-

fections of beetles, it is concluded that at room temperature during

mid-summer, in Washington, D. C., 11 to 14 days, as a minimum, are

required for the cysticercoid to become completely formed. The time

necessary for development at lower temperatures is not yet known.

MAY 15, 1935 JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT 243

Larval proliferation and development of cysticercoids appear to con-

tinue for at least 4 weeks, since in one lot of beetles, collected in mid-

October and held so that re-infection was not possible, both com-

pletely formed and developmental stages were observed until early in

December when the last beetle was killed. However, in some beetles,

Figs. 7-9.—Larvae of Hymenolepis cantaniana from Ataenius cognatus. Natural

infestations. Fig. 10.—Section through specimen of A. cognatus containing numerous

larvae of H. cantaniana. Natural infestation.

it has been noted that there were numerous completely formed cys-

ticercoids (Fig. 9) along the branching structures, but only very few

developing forms; this might be interpreted as indicating that there

is a limit to the period of proliferation of the larva. Surprisingly large

numbers of cysts may be found in a single beetle (Fig. 10). As re-

ported previously, the number of cysticercoids counted in one beetle

244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

was 1163, and in another individual, 2217; developing cysticercoids

were not included in either count.

SEASONAL OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF INTERMEDIATE HOSTS

The dung beetle, Ataenius cognatus Leconte, has been collected near

Beltsville, Maryland, from April to November, inclusive. According

to information supplied by Dr. E. A. Chapin, this species is very com-

mon and widely distributed in the United States and is known to oc-

cur as far south as Mexico. In the vicinity of Washington, D. C.,

it may be collected at any time during the year when weather condi-

tions are favorable.

Ataenius stercorator Fab. is believed to occur from Texas to Brazil

and more generally in the West Indies. It has also been reported from

Madeira.

Choeridium histeroides Weber has been collected in poultry yards

near Beltsville, Maryland, but less frequently than Ataenius cognatus

or Aphodius granarius. It is considered as being moderately common

in the vicinity of Washington, D. C., and it may be found at any time

during the year if the weather is favorable.

Numerous specimens of Aphodius granarius and Onthophagus spp.,

which also were collected from poultry yards near Beltsville, have

been found consistently negative for larvae of H. cantaniana. Of 10

specimens each of Aphodius granarius and of Ataenius cognatus which

were collected at the same time, from the same poultry yard, the

specimens of Aphodius granarius were negative while 8 of the speci-

mens of Ataenius cognatus contained larvae of H. cantaniana. Efforts

to infect specimens of Aphodius granarius with H. cantaniana in the

laboratory have been unsuccessful. On the basis of our present infor-

mation, Hymenolepis cantaniana appears to exhibit more specificity

as to its intermediate host than do other poultry tapeworms which

use beetles in that capacity.

DEVELOPMENT OF HYMENOLEPIS CANTANIANA IN DEFINITIVE HOSTS

Birds were fed larvae from the beetle, Ataenius cognatus, as listed

in table 1. No cestodes other than H. cantaniana were found in any

bird and control birds remained free of cestodes.

As noted in table 1, one chick (a), which was examined 11 days after

experimental feeding with H. cantaniana larvae, contained immature

specimens of H. cantaniana about 3.5 mm. long. Chick G7068 passed

eggs of H. cantaniana 14 days after experimental feeding; chick No. 91

passed eggs in droppings, and chick G7047 contained mature speci-

MAY 15, 1935

JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT

245

TABLE 1.—DrvELOPMENT Or HYMENOLEPIS CANTANIANA

DESIGNATION

OF HOST

DATE OF

FEEDING

DATE OF

AUTOPSY

POST-MORTEM FINDINGS

Chick 1 Oct. 26; 1932) Nov. 2; 1932 Negative

Jom Octa2o 932 Novel 932 About 10 almost mature

tapeworms

a Oct. 28,1932 Nov. 8, 1932 About 12 immature tape-

worms

b Nov. 10,1982 Dee. 2, 1932 Negative

91 Nov.15,1982 Dec. 7, 1932 Tapeworms present (eggs in

feces, Dec. 1)

G7047 = Nov. 16, 1932 Dee. 2, 1932 21 mature tapeworms

(ca. 500 cysts)

G7068 Nov. 16,1932 Dec. 20, 1932 44 mature tapeworms (eggs

(ca. 230 cysts) in feces, Nov. 30)

365 June19,1933 Died July 3, 1933 ? (Bird decomposed)

305 = July 8, 1933 Aug. 17, 1933 Few mature tapeworms

310 §©July 8, 1933 Aug. 17, 1933 Few mature tapeworms

316 §=July 8, 1933 Aug. 17, 1933 About 10 tapeworms

345 July 21,1933 Oct. 3, 1933 Tapeworms present

324 Aug. 21,1933 Sept. 21, 1933 Tapeworms present

406 Sept. 20,1933 Nov. 14, 1933 Numerous tapeworms

407 Sept. 20,1933 Jan. 4, 1934 Negative

445 Sept. 20,1933 Jan. 4, 1934 Negative

421 Sept. 20,1933 Mar. 10, 1934 Few tapeworms

Bobwhite

quail 219 Aug. 27,1934 Sept. 28, 1934 About 113 tapeworms

Guinea

fowl 294 Aug. 27,1934 Nov. 20, 1934 About 15 tapeworms

mens of H. cantaniana, 16 days after experimental feedings. Chick J3,

examined 19 days after experimental feeding, contained specimens

with egg-filled segments, but with the eggs apparently still unripe; no

eggs or gravid segments were found in the posterior regions of the in-

testine. It is concluded that the time necessary for development of

H. cantaniana in its definitive host probably varies from 2 to 3 weeks.

In all, 12 chickens, 1 guinea fowl and 1 bobwhite quail have be-

come infested with H. cantaniana after being fed beetles containing

proliferating cestode larvae. Four chicks remained negative after be-

ing fed and a fifth chick (365), which died, was so decomposed when

examined that although no worms were found the negative results are

somewhat inconclusive since, had specimens been present, they might

well have been disintegrated by the time the bird was examined. It is

interesting to note that one bird (421) remained infested from Sep-

tember 20, 1933, to March 10, 1934, a period of about 53 months.

Three birds were fed eggs of H. cantaniana in an attempt to demon-

strate a direct life cycle, but all three birds remained negative for

tapeworms.

246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

MORPHOLOGY OF ADULT

Hymenolepis cantaniana (Polonio, 1860) Ransom, 1909. Hymenolepis:

Worms up to 2.2 em. long by 400u wide. Scolex 120 to 160y in diameter;

suckers unarmed, 60 to 70u in diameter; rostellum unarmed, 80 to 85y long

by 35. wide, sac-like, the narrow cavity lined with cuticula sometimes

wrinkled and striated in appearance. Genital pores unilateral, anterior to

middle of segment margin. Testes 3, 1 aporal, 2 poral, usually arranged in a

transverse row, but 1 aporal testis may be anterior and median, or dorsal

and median, to other aporal testis; testes obscured rapidly by developing

ovary and uterus, and at no time conspicuous in strobila. External seminal

vesicle near median line; internal seminal vesicle nearly filling cirrus pouch.

Cirrus pouch thin-walled, elongate, 70 to 95y long, extending nearly to mid-

dle of mature, but not of gravid, segments. Vagina ventral to cirrus pouch,

expanding into comparatively large oval seminal receptacle, for a time the

most prominent structure in the segment. Ovary, when mature, sometimes

extending to lateral excretory vessels and to anterior border of segment.

Uterus sac-like, eventually filling nearly the whole segment and containing

about 10 to 20 eggs. Eggs spherical, 45 to 60u in diameter; oncosphere 22

to 25u in diameter; embryonal hooks 13 to 14y long.

Individual gravid segments or groups of 2 or 3 segments are found oc-

casionally in droppings; however, as a rule, segments disintegrate early and

individual eggs are found in the posterior portion of the intestine and in

droppings. Embryonal activity has been observed in eggs still present in

gravid segments of freshly collected strobilae, in eggs from fresh droppings,

and also in eggs kept as long as 6 days in a refrigerator (45° to 50°F.).

Embryos are not easily activated on a slide as are those in gravid segments

of Davainea proglottina and Raillietina cesticillus.

Hosts—Definitive: Galliformes (Gallus gallus, Meleagris gallopavo, Pavo

eristatus, Phasianus colchicus, Colinus virginianus and Numida meleagris).

Intermediate: Coleoptera (Ataenius cognatus, A. stercorator, and Choe-

ridium histeroides).

Location.—Small intestine, usually duodenum of definitive host; body

cavity, connective tissue and, less commonly, muscular tissue of inter-

mediate host.

Geographical distribution Europe (France, Spain, Italy, Jugo-Slavia and

U.S.S. R.), Asia (Japan and Indo-China), South America (Brazil), and

North America (United States, including Puerto Rico).

SUMMARY

Early developmental stages of proliferating larvae were obtained

from 5 specimens of the beetle, Ataeniws cognatus, which were dis-

sected at varying periods after having been fed eggs of Hymenolepis

cantaniana.

The hexacanth embryo was found to develop into a larva of several

lobes, the latter elongating to form a somewhat branched, mycelium-

like, structure; buds arose along the branches which developed into

new branches or directly into cysticercoids containing the unarmed

scolex characteristic of the species. Development of the bud into the

cysticercoid resembles in general the development of other Hymeno-

lepis larvae; the process consists of elongation, slight cavity forma-

tion, constriction, differentiation of scolex in most details and in-

MAY 15, 1935 JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT 247

vagination of cephalic region, resulting in a rounded cysticercoid.

Scolex differentiation of H. cantaniana is partially, but not entirely,

completed before invagination.

On the basis of the experimental findings, the minimum time re-

quired for development of an infective larva in the beetle host is from

11 to 14 days; proliferation of the larva and development of new cys-

ticercoids apparently may continue for at least 4 weeks.

Development of the adult worm in the chicken requires at least 14

days and the time probably varies from 2 to 3 weeks.

Twelve chickens, 1 quail and 1 guinea fowl became infested with

Hymenolepis cantaniana as a result of feeding branched cestode larvae

obtained from naturally infested specimens of the beetle, Ataenius

cognatus.

The beetles Choeridium histeroides and Ataenius stercorator are re-

ported as additional intermediate hosts, on the basis of their harbor-

ing larvae similar to those found in Ataenius cognatus and known to

be larvae of H. cantaniana.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETY

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

SPECIAL MEETING

A special meeting was held in the auditorium of the Interior Department

Building on December 11, President W. W. D1eutu presiding; attendance 80.

Ne F. A. McCuure: A garden of oriental bamboos (illustrated with

antern).

H. H. Bartuerr, University of Michigan. Professor Bartlett discussed

the activities and recommendations of the subcommittee on the reorganiza-

tion of the National Botanic Garden. He emphasized the fact that the pres-

ent appropriation for the botanic garden was sufficient to maintain a garden

of high professional standards, especially in view of the availability of co-

operating agencies in Washington. Under the proposed plan the garden

would be administered by a botanist of recognized standing, as Director,

under the auspices of the Joint Congressional Committee on the Library.

An advisory board of directors with representatives from the Smithsonian

Institution, the Department of Agriculture, and various scientific societies

would also be appointed.

Following Professor Bartlett’s remarks, discussion of the proposed plan

ensued, and the Society took formal action approving the reorganization of

the National Botanic Garden along the general lines outlined in Professor

Bartlett’s report. The secretary was directed to notify the Chairman of the

Joint Congressional Committee on the Library of the Society’s action.

262ND MEETING

The 262nd regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, January 8, 1935, President Dienu presiding; attendance 95. J. E.

McMorrrey was elected to membership.

248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

Notes and reviews: Brief reports on the Pittsburgh meeting of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science were presented as follows:

Mycology, J. A. Stevenson; Phytopathology, H. P. Barss; General

Botany, A. 8. Hircucock; Plant Physiology, C. F. Swineue; Horticulture,

G. M. Darrow; Publicity, Frank THone. A report of the Chicago meeting

of the American Society of Bacteriologists was presented by N. R. Smiru.

Program: J. R. Curistre: The development of nematode root galls (illus-

trated with lantern).—Abstract published in Phytopathology, December

1934. To be published in full in Phytopathology.

J. R. SwaLuen: The arid regions of northeastern Brazil (illustrated with

lantern).

263RD MEETING

The 253rd regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, February 5, 1935, President D1nHu presiding; attendance 80. Harry

A. AuuARD and Henry E. ALLANSON were elected to membership. Article

IX of the by-laws was amended authorizing the executive committee to

reinstate absentee, resigned, and expelled members.

Notes and reviews: C. L. SHEAR reviewed Monographia Discomycetum

Bohemiae, by Jos. VELENOVSKY. (Praha 1934, 2 parts, text and plates.) This

work includes 1471 species, of which 800 are new, with 40 new genera.

R. K. Breartie reviewed the forthcoming book on systematic botany

being published in English and Siamese, by H1npa 8S. CunnNIFF.

Program: F. C. Meter: Spore collections in the atmosphere over the North

Atlantic and Greenland made during the Lindbergh flight of 1932 (with lantern)

—Published in full in Scientific Monthly, January 1935.

C. E. Corram: Present status of the eelgrass disease along the Atlantic Coast

of North America.—Published in full as Wildlife Research & Management

Leaflet BS-3, February 1935.

C. O. Ertanson: An adaptation of the moss, Tetraplodon for the dispersal

of its spores by carrion flies.

264TH MEETING

The 264th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, March 5, 1935, President D1EHt presiding; attendance 100. The fol-

lowing were elected to membership: E. G. BrrnHart, H. W. Barre, C. O.

ERLANSON, RaupH M. LinpeGren, F. Sipney BEECHER, SABURO KATSURA,

W. C. Lowpermiix, F. L. Muurorp, Hitpa §. Cunnirr, MARGUERITE

Wiucox, Guy E. YERKES.

Notes and reviews: J. B.S. Norton reviewed the new edition of Webster’s

dictionary from the standpoint of its usefulness in strictly botanical work.

M. C. Merritt reviewed the latest number (Vol. 8) of the Transactions of

the Bose Research Institute, Calcutta.

Program: Ropert F. Griaes: Dionaea’s place in Nature (with lantern).

A. 8. Hitrcucock: The Grasses of the United States (with lantern).—There

are in the United States 159 genera and 1100 species of grasses. By means

of slides about 40 species of grasses were shown, chosen to illustrate the ad-

vance in structure from the simple to the complex. The Bambuseae are re-

garded as the most primitive and the Andropogoneae the most complex, with

Indian corn (Zea mays) the culmination of the series—Author’s abstract.

265TH MEETING

The 265th meeting consisted of the annual banquet and dance, held in

the ball room of the Kennedy-Warren, April 2, 1935; attendance 187.

Program: Wm. H. Weston Jr.: Sex in the lower fungi.

Cuarues F. SwInciE, Recording Secretary

MAY 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 249

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Norers

Geological Survey.—L. M. PRInDLE has been engaged on an examination

of the Enoree Purchase Unit for the Forest Service and is now undertaking

a study of the saprolites or deeply rotted crystalline rocks of the gold belt

in the Southern Appalachians, especially in Georgia. It is thought that a

study of the heavy minerals in the saprolite will help direct the search for

the most favorable gold-bearing localities. He has turned in for transmittal

to the Forest Service reports on the Uharie Unit, N. C., as well as on the

Enoree tract.

Soil Erosion.—All work aiming at the control of soil erosion has been con-

solidated in a new soil erosion unit established by order of Secretary of

Agriculture Henry A. Watuacr. Under-Secretary RExrorp G. TUGWELL

has undertaken the administrative task of organizing the new unit, which

is under the immediate direction of H. H. Bennett. The consolidation

affected the Soil Erosion Service, formerly under the Department of the

Interior, and various phases of soil erosion investigation hitherto carried on

by the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, the Bureau of Agricultural Engineer-

ing and the Bureau of Plant Industry. Research will be conducted at ten

field stations, and the large-scale demonstrations already in progress will be

continued and extended.

Aviation Weather—More detailed weather news for fliers, at slightly

longer intervals, began on May 1. Observations, maps, and forecasts pre-

pared by the U. 8. Weather Bureau now go out every six hours, instead of

every four hours as formerly, over the teletype circuit maintained by the

Bureau of Air Commerce along the airways of the United States.

Each main airport station receives, every six hours, enough information

for the preparation of a weather map of the whole United States, as well as

the details of conditions in a wide area around it.

All pilot balloon observations have been advanced one hour, so that the six

hour reports and the airplane observations may be received in time to be

checked and analyzed for use in making the maps. Lengthening the periods

of teletype transmission makes it possible to send over circuits west of Kan-

sas City and Chicago full weather reports from ships in the Pacific and also

permits some increase in reports from Canada and Mexico.

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.—tIn order to expedite the transmis-

sion of scientific data between the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of

the Carnegie Institution of Washington and its magnetic observatory at

Watheroo, Western Australia, the Australian Government has recently

authorized the installation at the observatory of an equipment of sufficient

power for direct communication with Washington, D.C. The installation

has been completed and communication established with radio stations at

Washington Grove, Maryland (just outside of Washington) and Fresno,

California. During periods when direct communications through Washing-

ton Grove is not possible, messages are relayed through the West-Coast

station. Thus it is possible for scientific information obtained at Watheroo

to be transmitted to Washington without delay and schedules are main-

tained for this purpose.

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

There have been received recently in Washington an extensive series of

magnetic records, control-observations, absolute determinations at field sta-

tions in Antarctica during sledge trips, etc., successfully carried out by the

Byrd Antarctic Expedition II, during the period February 1934 to February

1935.

New Non-Magnetic Ship.—A first instalment of 10,023 pounds, towards

the construction by the British Admiralty of a non-magnetic vessel has been

included in this year’s Naval Estimates presented to the House of Commons

on March 6. The purpose of this new vessel is to resume the ocean magnetic-

survey work which was carried on by the CARNEGIE, under the auspices of

the Carnegie Institution of Washington, before her destruction by explosion

and fire on November 29, 1929, in harbor at Apia, Western Samoa.

The magnetic charts published by the British and other governments

for use at sea have been based in recent years to an increasingly large extent

upon data provided by the Carnuaiz. There are, however, serious gaps in

the present data which would have been filled if the CarNreGIE had com-

pleted her last cruise. These gaps together with a recent rapid change in the

secular variation in the Indian Ocean, render the extrapolated values of

the magnetic elements in the southern Indian Ocean unreliable and indicate

the possibility of serious errors in future charts of this and other ocean areas.

Since the Carnegie Institution of Washington has decided not to replace

the CarNnzEGIE, the British Government, in view of her large maritime inter-

ests, has assumed the responsibility. The details of the design of the new

non-magnetic vessel, the primary purpose of which will be the determination

of magnetic data at sea, have not yet been made public, though it is prob-

able that the new vessel will be larger than the CARNEGIE.

National Park Service-—J. Thomas Schneider, at the special request of

the Secretary of the Interior is working on legislation calling for the preserva-

tion of historic sites and buildings. Mr. Schneider recently made a survey

of European historic sites.

Study of Maternal Care—The Children’s Bureau has completed what is

expected to be the first of a series of studies of community provisions for

maternal care. This first study, in Hartford, Conn., was undertaken at the

invitation of the Hartford Medical Society, which appointed an advisory

committee of five members for the study, representing also the local hospi-

tals.

Data was obtained as to all deliveries of women resident in the city of

Hartford that occurred during two periods of three months each—May,

June and July, 1933, and January, February, and March, 1934, a total of

about 1,200. The necessary information was obtained by means of inter-

views with the attending physician, by study of the hospital records, by

reports from the visiting-nurse association, and by interviews with the

mothers themselves three months or more after the delivery. These inter-

views were always obtained with the consent of the physicians attending

the women.

The purpose of this series of studies is to ascertain: the type of maternal

care received by an unselected series of mothers in different localities; and

the proportion of these mothers having abnormalities or morbidity.

The results of the present study are now being analyzed in preparation

for the writing of the report.

MAY 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 251

Paleontological Society—The Paleontological Society of Washington was

organized Wednesday evening, December 19, 1934, in the U. S. National

Museum. The purpose of the Society is to promote a closer understanding

between the fields of biology and paleontology; to offer opportunity for

open, informal discussion of biological and paleontological theory; and to

provide a suitable place for the presentation of original and technical papers

of general interest to research workers in both of the fields of science.

The following officers were elected: Honorary President, Davip WHITE

(since deceased); President, CHARLES W. GiLtmoreE; Vice-President, REM-

INGTON KeELLoaG; Secretary, Luoyp G. Henspest; Treasurer, G. ARTHUR

Cooper; Member of the Council, 8. F. Bhaxn. Meetings are held the third

Wednesday evening of each month. The programs at present are planned to

include brief communications, reviews, etc.; regular papers; and to provide

at least one-half of the time for informal discussion on a previously an-

nounced subject.

International Zoological Congress —The Twelfth International Zoological

Congress will be held in Lisbon, Portugal, under the patronage of the Presi-

dent of the Portuguese Republic from Sunday, September 15th to Satur-

day, September 21st, 1935. Sessions of the Congress will be held at the

University of Lisbon under the presidency of Dr. A. Ricarpo Jorex, Pro-

fessor of the Faculty of Sciences of the University and Director of the Zoo-

logical and Anthropological Department of the National Museum of Natural

History.

Field Conference of Pennsylvania Geologists —The fifth annual meeting

of the Field Conference of Pennsylvania Geologists will have its headquar-

ters at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia on Friday, May

3lst-Sunday, June 2nd. Registration and museum tours will take place

from 9 a.m. to 12 m. on Friday, May 31st, and at 2 p.m. the first of the

trips will leave Philadelphia to observe the physiography of the Piedmont

upland and the adjacent Coastal Plain terraces around Philadelphia. An

alternative trip to localities of mineralogic and petrologic interest to the

north of Philadelphia will also be conducted on that afternoon. On Satur-

day, June Ist, the Conference will leave the Academy at 8 A.M. on a general

trip through the crystalline and intrusive rocks of the Piedmont Belt in

the Philadelphia area. On Sunday, June 2nd, they will leave at the same

time to examine the lower Paleozoic formations and their relations to the

pre-Cambrian rocks in the area west of Philadelphia. This trip will go as

far west as Quarreyville which is the type area of the Martic overthrust.

On Monday, June 3rd, a post-Conference optional excursion to the Coastal

Plain of New Jersey will be conducted.

News BrizErFs

A Pan-American pact for the protection of art galleries and scientific

museums during war was signed at the White House on April 15 by repre-

sentatives of Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El

Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, the United

States and Uruguay. By the terms of the pact, certain cultural buildings,

sites and monuments, marked with a banner of peace, are to be considered

neutral zones in time of war, and as such shall be immune from airplane

bombing and other acts of hostility.

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5

The National Zoological Park has received an allotment of $680,000 from

PWA funds. It is planned to build an addition to the bird house, a new ele-

phant house and a house for small mammals, with special accomodations

for apes. It is also planned to provide a machine shop.

Two unusual meteorites, both seen to strike the earth in North Carolina,

have just been received by the Smithsonian Institution, which will cooper-

ate with the North Carolina State Museum in their analysis.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Dr. Nouan D. C. Lewis, director of laboratories at St. Elizabeth’s

Hospital, has been given leave of absence for the purpose of making a survey

of existing research projects and methods of treatment and control of

dementia praecox, as a preliminary step in a campaign against this disease

financed by the Scottish Rite Masons of the northern jurisdiction of the

United States.

The Remington Honor Medal, highest award in pharmacy, has been

given for 1935 to Samuret Louis Hixon, retail pharmacist of this city, in

recognition for his many years of service to his profession, and in particular

for his efforts in connection with the building of the American Institute of

Pharmacy, recently completed.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS

Physics.—What is electricity? Paun R. Hnyn........... 22 ee

Chemistry.—3, 4-Dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamic acid and some of its

esters. Raymonp M. Hann

Geology.—Outliers of the Tuscaloosa formation on the western high-

land rim of Tennessee. KenpatL E. Born

Botany.—A new species of Dracaena from the Department of Petén,

Guatemala. C. L. LunpELL

Zoology.—The histology of nemic esophagi. IV. The esophagus of

Metastrongylus elongatus. B. G. Currwoop and M. B, Cart-

Zoology.—Development and morphology of the cestode, Hymenolepis

cantaniana, in coleopteran and avian hosts. M. F. Jonus and»

J. E. Aticata , .

Botanical Society

Screntiric Norres AND NEws.......... Nia ns daee Son ae Rew ae Sine

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

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Vou. 25 JuNnE 15, 1935 No. 6

JOURNAL

OF THE (E

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

a OF SCIENCES

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Joun A. STEVENSON F. G. BRickwEDDE . Rouanp W. Brown

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 25 JUNE 15, 1935 No. 6

BIOLOGY.—Biology and human trends.1. RayMonpd PEARL, The

Johns Hopkins University.

To discuss adequately in a brief address the assigned subject

“biology and the social consequences of its advances”’ is plainly a

large order, and one beset with considerable difficulties. For on the

one hand biology as a science is still largely in the descriptive and

historical phase of its development, and sociology is even more so,

with the consequence that an account of the significant achievements

of these sciences cannot be expressed in the concise and rational short

hand that is so useful in physics; and, on the other hand, to appraise

the theoretical consequences of scientific discoveries implies a certain

skill in the dangerous art of prophecy. Not having any noteworthy

aptitude as a prophet I can only put before you, in all modesty, the

views of one biologist about some of the more evident relations be-

tween certain well-established biological facts and principles and some

of the more characteristic features of the collective behavior of man-

kind. While I cannot speak with officially sanctioned authority for

more than one particular biologist it does seem absolutely certain

that just in proportion as any of the sciences, including biology, suc-

ceed in their effort to establish sound general principles and laws, just

in that proportion will their advances be inevitably reflected in col-

lective human behavior. The thoughts and actions of all mankind

were permanently and irreversibly altered from what they were before,

after the Origin of Species had been published in 1859. A correspond-

ing alteration, more or less significant as the case may be, occurs

whenever a real discovery in science is made, or a sound generalization

established.

In the great Svmphony of Life there appear to be three, and only

three, main, basic biological themes, out of which come all the pleasant

or harsh, useful or harmful, simple or complex counter-melodies,

1 Received March 22, 1935.

253 YUN 47-1995

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

harmonies, and dissonances of the business of living. These main

basic themes are:

First: The urge to individual personal survival here and now. This

appears to be an attribute of all living matter.

Second: The urge to reproduction which again appears to be a prop-

erty of all that lives.

Third: Variability, once more common to all living matter, in both

its genetic and somatic aspects, the one leading to the observed differ-

ences or variations between individual organisms, the other embody-

ing the differences in the same individual at different times in its life.

Finally, it is to be remembered that it is impossible to discuss or

even to imagine life or living things without taking into account the

rest of the universe in which they exist. So then we must add to our

material for discussion one more item that corresponds roughly to

the fiddles, flutes, horns, printed music, desks, and other impedimenta

not musical per se but without which a symphony would never reach

the ears. This item is:

Fourth: The environment that conditions and in some degree deter-

mines all vital phenomena.

Let us now examine each of these four items in some detail.

The urge to survival? may fairly be regarded as the most funda-

mental attribute of living things and is therefore placed first in the

list. It may be well to point out at the start that in its essence this

urge to survival is rather completely and uncompromisingly selfish.

To the best of its ability the individual organism so conducts its

affairs as to continue living just as long as possible, regardless of what

other organisms may do or think about it. When extinction threatens,

every resource is brought to bear to fend it off. Basically this is what

underlies the struggle for existence. Out of it, associated with it, and

because of it come great ranges of biological phenomena that we have,

for combined reasons of convenience and pedantry, departmentalized:

such as food getting, metabolism and nutrition, cellular and humoral

defense mechanisms furnishing immunity and resistance to disease,

protective shelter seeking and building, natural selection, and in good

part evolution itself.

? There are curious aspects to this universal urge to individual survival. One of them

is the biological uselessness of much of it. It would be extremely difficult, if not im-

possible, to find any rational biological purpose served by the survival of the individual

after it has reproduced itself. Yet in not a few organisms, including man, there is

normally a considerable part of the life span lived after adequate reproduction has been

accomplished. Living grandparents, great grandparents and celibate clergymen are

among Nature’s gaudier examples of Thorstein Veblen’s ‘‘conspicuous waste”’ in the

realm of pure biology.

JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 255

As a matter of observed fact this survival urge is primal and deeply

rooted. Whenever and wherever we see its fundamental selfishness

apparently in abeyance or even much abated, and seemingly replaced

by altruism or “mutual aid” as it has been called, we may be sure, I

think, that one or the other of two things has happened. Either, as

among the invertebrates (especially the social insects) and the lower

vertebrates, the ‘‘mutual aid” is not individually motivated but is a

mechanistic group consequence of caste differentiation and integra- -

tion, with no more (and no less) of an altruistic element in it than

_ there is in the cellular differentiation and integration in the embryonic

development of the individual; or, as in man and to some extent

among his nearest relatives, complex psychological elements have

been added to the picture in the course of evolution, which may seem

at times to overwhelm and obliterate the more primitive and deeply

rooted biological urge. The most obvious of these added factors .

amounts really to a more enlightened self interest—that is to say a

belief that for the present and until times get much worse it will be

likely to conduce more effectively to individual survival to play along

with and help one’s neighbors in the crowd.

This statement is, from the necessity of brevity, much too bald and

apparently dogmatic in its form, and wants more explanatory elucida-

tion and development than we shall have time to give it. But I think

it essentially conforms to at least a part of the reality. It is reasonable

to suppose that the individual soldier ant is unaware of the fact that

its activities and efforts are of benefit to the social group (the colony)

to which it belongs. On the contrary it seems likely that when it fights

it does so because it is its inherent and entailed nature so to do. In

fighting it is expressing its own will-to-live or urge to survival, and

in the only way of which it is capable. On the human side, in thinking

of the personal motivation of altruistic behavior I am always re-

minded of a speech of Brotteaux in Les Dieux ont Soif, perhaps the

greatest novel Antole France ever wrote. It is (I quote from Allinson’s

translation) : ‘What I am doing now, the merit of which you exagger-

ate,—is not done for any love of you, for indeed, albeit you are a loy-

able man, ..., I know you too little to love you. Nor yet do I act so

for love of humanity; for I am not so simple as to think. . . that

humanity has rights. . . . I do it out of that selfishness which inspires

mankind to perform all their deeds of generosity and self-sacrifice, by

making them recognize themselves in all who are unfortunate, by dis-

posing them to commiserate their own calamities in the calamities of

others and by inciting them to offer help to a mortal resembling them-

256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

selves in nature and destiny, so that they think they are succouring

themselves in succouring him.”

Man’s behavior, and particularly his social behavior, is motivated

by so complex a set of physiological and psychological factors, ap-

petites, emotions, and reasons, as to be extremely difficult to disen-

tangle in a particular instance. But it may safely be said that when-

ever he curbs his primal urge to personal survival, he does it for

secondary reasons superimposed upon his natural, protoplasmic will-

to-live. Many of these reasons are, collectively, what we call social.

They represent purposeful adaptations in what Wheeler has convinc-

ingly argued is the next emergent level above the individual organ-

ismal. In most human beings these secondary social adaptations of

behavior are still somewhat incomplete and imperfect, as clearly

appears in times of great stress or danger. And the extent to which the

highest forms of human altruistic social adaptations have real and

enduring survival value, has yet to be measured. It can be argued with

some plausibility that why they give the appearance of having some

survival value, or at least of not being positively harmful, is because

they became even moderately widespread only during that recent

portion of human history in which living has been relatively easy for

all mankind. It has been relatively easy for two reasons: Low density

of population, in general; and rapidly increasing knowledge of applied

science with its accompanying industrial developments. In a world

where getting a living was easy, altruistic social relations were cor-

respondingly easy. Instances and localities of a real struggle for exis-

tence between individual men (other than during large caliber wars

or in the processes incident to the assumption of the ‘“‘white man’s

burden’’) have been rare in this world since the beginning of the nine-

teenth century. And few have ever seriously alleged that war is an

altruistic enterprise; nor is it at all uncertain that the pleasures of

“civilizing’”’ backward peoples are, like those of condescension, singu-

larly one-sided.

The urge to reproduce is second in power, if at all, only to that for

survival. This basic attribute of living material, like the other, in-

cludes in its scope great ranges of academically labeled and pigeon-

holed biological phenomena—of which among the more important

are perhaps population growth with its part in the struggle for exis-

tence and natural selection; and heredity with its concomitants of

development and growth. For heredity is most clearly to be appre-

hended as an aspect of reproduction. Living things do not merely

reproduce; they reproduce themselves. This fact makes it clear that,

JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 257

philosophically viewed, the urge to reproduction is really a part—an

extension if you like—of the primal urge to survival. If the individual

cannot ensure his own indefinite earthly immortality he can and does

try his very best to see that his stirp shall keep on living forever and

ever. Naturally this self-reproductive process tends towards social as

well as biological stability.

Genes are almost incredibly stable and resistant to alteration in the

natural and usual circumstances of life. For something over fifteen

years there has been going on in my laboratory a continuous experi-

ment designed to test this point in a simple and direct way. Tonight

I make the first public statement about it. This experiment has now

included over 300 successive generations—perhaps the longest bit of

controlled breeding ever carried out, with the results in each succes-

Sive generation carefully observed and precisely recorded. Allowing

30 years as a round figure for the average duration of a human genera-

tion the time equivalent in human reproduction of this experiment

would be of the order of 9000 years—considerably longer than the

total span of man’s even dimly recorded history. The objective of this

experiment with Drosophila has been to see whether a simple Men-

delian ratio involving but one character would or could be altered in

the passage of time by such natural forces as selection, different sys-

tems of breeding (such, for example, as that called “‘grading up” by

livestock breeders), and wide alterations of the environment nearly

up to the limits of the organism’s ability to go on living at all. The

plan of the experiment is a simple one. It started by crossing a normal

fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) possessing the normal wings char-

acteristic of the species, with the pure mutant form Vestzgzal, so-called

because the wings are reduced to non-functional vestiges. This wing

characteristic is associated with a single gene. In the next generation

all the flies produced by the pair with which we started had normal

standard wings, normal being dominant to vestigial. These flies of

the first cross-bred generation were then mated to pure vestigials

(back-crossed to the recessive parent, in technical genetic language)

to produce the second cross-bred generation. Of the offspring of these

matings approximately one-half had normal wings, because they

carried the original normal wing gene, and the other half had vestigial

wings, all this being in accord with regular Mendelian expectation.

The vestigial winged flies of this and all later generations were killed

and thrown away as soon as they had emerged and been counted.

The normal winged flies were again mated to pure vestigials to pro-

duce the next generation. And so on with undeviating regularity for

258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

more than 300 generations. What the plan means in briefest terms is

that since the rather stupendously long time (measured in genera-

tions) when the experiment began the only hereditary determiner

(gene) for normal wings that has ever been in the system is the one

that was contributed by the one single normal wild type fly with

which we started. All the normal winged flies now appearing in the

populations of the successive generations of the experiment have

normal wings only because their Urgrossvater had them 300 genera-

tions ago, and for no other reason.

The net result of the experiment has been to show that the gene

involved has preserved its initial characteristics unaltered. So also

has the cellular mechanism for the shuffling and sorting of the genes

in each generation. The approximately 50-50 ratio of normal winged

to vestigial winged flies appears generation after generation with

somewhat wearisome regularity. The demonstration of the inherent

stability of the genic mechanism of heredity that this experiment has

given is extremely impressive.

Analogous phenomena of organic stability are observed in nature.

There are considerable numbers of firmly established instances of

organisms living today that are specifically identical with their pro-

genitors in earlier geological eras. Among the Foraminifera one species

(Lagena sulcata) has persisted unchanged from Silurian times down

to the present; one species (Globigerina bulloides) from the Devonian

to the present; two species from the Carboniferous; two from the

Permian; four from the Triassic; seven from the Jurassic; and fifteen

from the Cretaceous. The significance of these cases cannot be over-

emphasized. When it is comprehended that organisms now living

have not changed by a perceptible amount from what they were

millions upon millions of years ago in paleozoic times in those m7-

nutiae of structure upon which systematists base their specific distinc-

tions and descriptions, the conservatism and stability of nature be-

gins to be realized.

In human biology the conservative and stable element of true

biological heredity is supplemented and reinforced by what has been

variously called ‘‘social heredity,’ or tradition, or the mores of the

group to which the individual and his stirp belong. This is, of course,

not inheritance at all in a proper biological sense. It is rather an en-

vironmental matter at bottom. A born Englishman transported to

America as a child may, and in fact usually does, come as a man to

think and act like an American. But to make him do this if he lives

his whole life in England among the people of his kind would be vir-

JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 259

tually impossible. And it is a matter of statistical fact that vastly

more human beings live out their lives not far from where they were

born and among their kind of people, than migrate or are transplanted

into realms of other traditions and mores. In consequence “‘social

inheritance” or tradition plays an enormous, but usually underesti-

mated part in determining the individual and collective behavior of

human beings. Its effects have not infrequently been confused with

those of true biological heredity. Masses of data have been collected

to show that near relatives, particularly fathers and sons, frequently

follow the same professions or callings. It is often quite erroneously

concluded that such facts prove a biological inheritance of talent or

ability, either in general, or for a particular calling, or both. Such data

are inherently incapable of proving any such a conclusion. The obser-

vations can be much more simply and satisfactorily accounted for in

the main by the operation of the purely environmental factors of

familiar contact from childhood, training, easy opportunity of en-

trance, and the social pressure of tradition; in short by “‘social” not

biological inheritance.

Our third unique and universal biological principle, variability,

has two aspects, as has already been pointed out. No two living organ-

isms are exactly like each other in all particulars, and no single or-

ganism is precisely the same at any two moments in its lifetime. The

first of these aspects is the only one that is conventionally called

variability. It is mainly caused by the combined interaction of genetic

shufflings and recombinations and the environment. The second as-

pect of organic variability is usually and conveniently called adapta-

bility. It is an odd and remarkable phenomenon. The unique thing

is not that organisms are more or less fitted or adapted to the circum-

stances in which they find themselves. Inanimate objects of various

sorts, and particularly that category of them that we call machines

are this. It is true that the adaptations of organisms and machines

are brought about in different ways. But the fact of adaptation is

present, and in principle identical, in both. We are, however, not

concerned here with adaptation, but with self-started and self-con-

trolled adaptability, which organisms have and machines do not.

Organisms incessantly change and alter themselves to meet the fleet-

ing changes in their circumstances. No living organism ever stays put.

When it does it is dead, and in dying has passed into a wholly different

category of matter.

The process goes even deeper than change and adaptability in ae

havior. The very material substance itself that makes up the living

260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

organism is constantly changing. What then does ‘personal identity”

connote? What we are pleased to call the same identical man at the

age of 70 years is composed of extremely little if any of the same ma-

terial substance that made him up when he was 20 years old. Probably

there is not a single molecule in him at 70 that was there at 20.

In the intervening years the only thing about him that has survived

is his pattern, a sort of transcendental or spiritual wraith through

which has flowed a steady stream of matter and energy. There is a

profound truth embodied in Cuvier’s old comparison of a living organ-

ism to a whirlpool. It is the pattern that is the essence of the business.

It alone endures. And it is constantly altering and adapting itself to

changing circumstances. Especially is this true and important of the

psychological panel of the total pattern of the human organism. It

is this aspect of adaptability, the capacity of organisms for change

ending only with death, that seems to be more important in its social

consequences than its teleological aspect, if indeed we are prepared to

admit the reality of the latter at all, as some are not.

We may conclude this hasty survey of basic principles with a word

or two about the environment. The effective environment of any

particular living organism is determined by the pattern of that or-

ganism, just as truly as the pattern of the organism is in part at least

determined by the environment. For a particular man, and for a group

of similar men, but not for any mouse, the relative honesty of his

banker and the urbanity of his dean are highly important elements in

the effective environment. And what makes them so is not the bank-

ishness of the banker nor the deanishness of the dean, but the pattern

of the particular man of whom we are speaking—a pattern not shared

by the mouse. In short the relation between organism and environ-

ment is everywhere and always mutually reciprocal and as man is

the most complicated and manifoldly diverse in his capabilities of all

organisms, so also is his effective environment the most complicated.

More extensively and more effectively than any other organism he

makes his own environment. He is constantly altering it in the hope of

making it better. But such is the interplay of the contradictory biolog-

ical elements in his nature that he dislikes and resists any alteration

of his environment by anyone else than himself or the group of people

similar to himself to which he belongs. The social and political con-

sequences of these opposing attitudes are far-reaching and encompass

within their range the greater part of our communal troubles in this

imperfect world.

The full implications of the reciprocally determinative influences of

JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 261

organism and environment seem to me to have been generally some-

what less than adequately valued in the last century’s development of

biological thought, and certainly an extremely inadequate amount of

first-rate research has been put upon the matter. This is partly an

obvious consequence of the trend given to biological philosophy by

Darwin, Galton, Weismann and Mendel, with their emphasis upon

the entailed or endowed element in the whole biological picture. In

human biology particularly the rdle played by heredity has come to

take on many of the aspects of religious dogma. Indeed it has been

urged that eugenics should be overtly espoused and developed as a

religion. And all this has been going on in a world where consciously

planned and directed alterations of environmental conditions have

had far-reaching and profound biological effects upon whole popula-

tions, not alone in the field of public health but in many others. Every

geneticist knows that the final expression in the individual of each

hereditary determiner is conditioned by the environmental circum-

stances under which its development is undergone. Yet very little

has been done in the way of attempting to analyze thoroughly and

penetratingly the biological effects of environmental conditions upon

human beings.

In truth science, perhaps in common with all other modes of human

thought, has a seemingly ineradicable tendency to crystallize its

temporarily successful philosophies into dogma, and having accom-

plished the crystallization proceeds to the scourging of whatever skep-

tics and heretics may appear. Public health workers sometimes

display a religious attitude toward their achievements as intense as

the crusading zeal of the eugenists for their dogmas. Only a few hardy

souls throughout history and at the present time seem able to realize

for longer than brief periods that new knowledge is more often than

in any other way engendered out of skepticism by hard work, and that

religious attitudes and modes of thought for however noble a purpose

enlisted not only have nothing whatsoever to do with science, but

are the most effective hindrances to getting new knowledge yet heard

of.

Let us now turn to the examination of some of the more conspicuous

and far-reaching social consequences of the basic biological principles

we have briefly reviewed. The three most obvious and important ones

are, I think, that:

1. Man is enjoying better health and individually surviving longer

262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

than ever before, likes it, and intends to go farther along the same

road.

2. He is vaguely conscious of being more crowded than ever before,

and finds the various consequences of this crowding increasingly

unpleasant, but chiefly because it threatens that enhanced survival

that is always his first and deepest biological concern.

3. Therefore he is groping about to find ways to alleviate the pro-

gressive overcrowding and preserve the health and survival gains he

has made; trying a great variety of experiments, some of which are

sensible, others highly dubious, and a few completely idiotic.

For the sake of clarity these three statements need a little expan-

sion. The urge to survival is the ultimate biological motivating factor

that has transferred the maintenance and improvement of health

from an individual to a social concern. The gains in this field have

been enormous. How enormous perhaps only a statistician can ap-

preciate. This is not the place, nor is there any need, to go into the

question of how they have been achieved. But the interesting thing

about the case, broadly viewed, is that without the abatement by a

single bit of that basic individual selfishness in which the biological

urge for survival is rooted, it has been perceived that this urge can

be most effectively served so far as health is concerned by making a

social matter of a great part of it. Assuring a pure water supply and

innocuously disposing of the waste matters of living are things that

the individual simply cannot do well. Society can. And the social

progression of the urge to survival in the field of health is by no means

at an end yet. In two directions we may confidently look forward

to great further changes and advances in the rather immediate future.

In the first place, whether we or the physicians like it or not, it seems

clear that the maintenance and improvement of individual health is

going to become more and more completely a social matter. The basic

reasons are two-fold, partly because of the continued normal evolu-

tionary further growth of the same ideas and considerations that have

brought us to where we are now regarding public health; partly be-

cause of economic and political considerations. The number of persons

who at the present time get inadequate medical care because they

cannot individually afford to pay for adequate (and lacking it en-

danger other peoples’ health) is so large that as a group they are al-

ready in a position politically to demand and get necessary medical

service, and may reasonably be counted upon shortly to do so. In the

second place it seems reasonable to suppose that advances in medical

science are going to continue. The last seventy-five years —an exces-

JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 263

sively small fraction of mankind’s earthly history—have witnessed

more progress in knowledge of disease and its effective treatment and

prevention, than was made in all the time that went before. And

objectively viewed the rate of advance in medical discovery seems

plainly to be accelerating rather than slowing.

Turning now to the consideration of the social consequences of the

urge to reproduce it is immediately to be noted that the growing

consciousness of overcrowding—too many people in the world for

comfort—is not the resultant of such simple matters as lack of space

in which to build dwellings or to move about, or of inability to pro-

duce food enough to satisfy the collective hunger. It is true that the

total number of living human beings on the globe at this moment is

probably something closely approaching two billion. But the gross

land area of the globe is about 35 billion acres, so that on an equal

parcelling each individual man, woman and child would have over

17 acres. If the total population of the earth were to be forcibly put

upon the smallest of the continents—Australia—there would still be,

on an equal division, well over an acre for each individual. Similarly

relative to food whatever trouble there is relates to distribution rather

than production. Such famines as occur now happen not because there

is not enough food produced to feed everyone, but because the complex

economic mechanism of getting it to the hungry works imperfectly.

The social consequences of population growth present a much more

subtle and complicated problem than mere space or food. The sugges-

tion just made that the total land area of the globe might be equally

divided per head of population is an obviously fantastic one, with only

a sterile arithmetic meaning. Not all the land is equally useful for

sustaining human life either directly or indirectly. Some of it is of no

use whatever. And this brings us to the crux of the population prob-

lem, which is that each unit of the population must somehow or other

get its living. All other forms of life except man get their living by one

or the other or a combination of two direct ways. These are (1) by

preying upon other living things, plant or animal; or (2) directly

converting inorganic materials into living substance. Man today gets

his living by indirect processes conveniently labelled economic. He

is in the main employed in doing things that he can trade with some-

body else for the biological requisites for living. The population of the

world has now become so large, and the discoveries and applications

of science have made the producing of the things that can be traded

so much easier than it used to be, that great numbers of people all

over the world find themselves unable to get a living by this process

264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

that was formerly so relatively simple. The rapid development of the

industrial type of civilization in the nineteenth century made the

gloomy prophecies of Malthus at its beginning look silly. The popula-

tion grew at a tremendous pace when he thought its growth would be

checked by want and misery. And people were having, by and large,

a grand time while their number was increasing; because they were

experiencing the enormous improvements in the physical comforts of

living that came with the advance and applications of science. But

these very factors, plus the enhanced survival rate coincident with

the development of public health, caused the ugly spectre of unem-

ployment to rear itself higher and higher until it has now become the

most serious problem that humanity faces.

It is to be noted at this point that in modern civilization, as a nor-

mal consequence of the relation of individual man’s biology to his

age, approximately 50 per cent of all human beings have to earn

the livings not only of themselves but also the major part of that of

the other 50 per cent. Man develops slowly. Children are incapable

of earning their own livings before they are about 15 years old, and

have passed approximately a sixth of their total life span, and between

a third and a fourth of their average life duration. At the other end of

life, for the great majority of human beings over 50 years of age their

living must come in whole or in considerable part either from the

efforts of the active workers between 15 and 50, or from what they

themselves were able to save while they were in their productively

efficient ages. In practically all countries the sum of the numbers of

persons under 15 and of those over 50, is almost exactly equal to the

number of those between 15 and 50 years of age. But over and above

this burden, that may fairly be called a normal biological one, the

world’s workers are now called upon to support the unemployed. A

considerable part of the unemployed are so because they are unem-

ployable—not sufficiently fit and able in a biological sense to make an

honest living in a world organized as this one is. These unfit organisms

are kept alive by the rest of society for no realistically demonstrable

reason other than that they were once born, and by being born some-

how placed upon the rest of mankind what has gradually come to be

regarded as a permanently binding obligation to see that they do not

die. The remainder of the unemployed are so because there are too

many fit, able and employable people in the world to do the necessary

world’s work, the aggregate amount of which has been, is being, and

will continue to be steadily reduced by discoveries and improvements

in the sciences and arts.

JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 265

Mankind is trying in several ways to meet this situation. The first

and in the long run perhaps the most important way is by reducing

its reproductive rate through the practice of contraception—birth

control. It has been seriously alleged and with at least some justifica-

tion, that even the admittedly imperfect techniques of contraception

as they are now known constitute the most important biological dis-

covery ever made. While historians of the subject attempt to show

that the practice of contraception is almost if not quite as ancient as

man’s recorded history, actually the birth rates of large population

ageregates did not begin to be sensibly affected by it until roughly the

last quarter of the nineteenth century; that is to say since the begin-

ning of the rapid development of the highly organized, integrated and

urbanized industrial type of civilization. At the present time the effects

of contraception oh the birth rate are plainly apparent over large and

leading parts of the world’s population, and are growing at a rather

rapid rate.

The practice of birth control is a thoroughly sound, sensible, and

in the long run effective method of meeting the problem consequent

upon the biological urge to reproduction operating in a universe of

definitely limited size. The only objection of importance that can be

urged against it is that it has led to an unfavorable differential fer-

tility. The socially and economically more fortunate classes of man-

kind have practised contraception more regularly, frequently, and

effectively than the less fortunate social and economic classes, with

consequently reduced reproductive rates. It is contended that this

has brought about a steady deterioration and degeneration of man as

a species, and will continue to do so until all progress is stopped.

After prolonged study of the matter it is my opinion that the alleged

detrimental consequences of this class differential fertility upon the

aggregate biological and social fitness and worth of mankind, while

doubtless present in some degree, have probably been greatly exag-

gerated in the reformer’s zeal to make his case. This is not the place,

nor is there time, to state and document all the reasons that have led

me to this view. But there are certain considerations that must be

mentioned because they have been so consistently overlooked or

suppressed. The first is the tacit assumption that lies at the very root

of the argument. This assumption is that generally speaking and with

negligible exceptions the more fortunate social and economic classes

are in that position because they are composed of not only mentally,

morally, and physically, but also genetically superior people. But it

may be alleged with at least equal truth that these very people who

266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

are regarded as mentally, morally, and physically superior are that

way in no small part only because they and their forebears have been

fortunate socially and economically. The analogy often drawn be-

tween human breeding and live stock breeding is in part specious and

misleading. In animal breeding it has been learned that the only re-

liable measure of genetic superiority is the progeny test—the test of

quality of the offspring actually produced. Breeding in the light of

this test may, and often does, lead to the rapid, sure, and permanent

improvement of a strain of livestock. But when the results of human

breeding are interpreted in the light of the clear principles of the prog-

eny test the eugenic case does not fare so well. In absolute numbers

the vast majority of the most superior people in the world’s history

have in fact been produced by mediocre or inferior forebears; and

furthermore the admittedly most superior folk have in the main been

singularly unfortunate in their progeny, again in absolute numbers.

No one would question the desirability of the free multiplication of

people who are really superior genetically. But in human society as it

exists under present conditions of civilization many a gaudy and im-

posing phenotype masks a very mediocre or worse genotype, and

vice-versa. And most eugenic selection of human beings is, and in the

nature of the case must be, based solely upon phenotypic manifesta-

tions.

Naturally it is to be understood that what has been said does not

refer to the problem of the really biologically defective and degenerate

members of society. There the eugenic position is sound and admi-

rable in principle. The breeding of such people must be stopped; and

by compulsory measures. Voluntary birth control will not help ap-

preciably to the solution of the problem, for the persons concerned

are not of a sort to make effective use of contraception. If all the con-

traceptive techniques in the world were made fully available to them

they would still go on breeding. There are but three ways, all some-

what imperfect, of dealing with them; they must be segregated, or

sterilized, or denied any aid in the struggle for existence and thus al-

lowed and encouraged to perish because too unfit biologically to make

livings for themselves with their own unaided resources.

One final point and I shall have done with this phase of our sub-

ject. It is a curious fact that at every stage of man’s history from at

least the time of Plato, and indeed of Theognis of Megara a century

before that, there have been those who have been just as certain as

some present day eugenists are, and just as deeply grieved, that man-

kind was going rapidly to the dogs because the right kind of people

JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 267

were not breeding enough and the wrong kind of people were breeding

too much. Perhaps men are nearer the dogs now than they were in the

Alexandrian age; but I venture to doubt it. The evidence seems to me

overwhelming that mankind is, on an average, mentally, morally, and

physically much superior today to what it was when Socrates was

abated as a public nuisance.

So much for birth control and the eugenic objections to its alleged

consequences. We turn now to the most ineffective, cruel, and alto-

gether foolish large scale method by which society tries periodically

to ameliorate the consequences of the biological urge to reproduction,

namely war. If this characterization is reasonably in accord with

reality why do we go on having wars? The reason has been stated with

precision by a clear thinking human biologist, C. C. Walker, in the

following words:

“The natural striving after security by one people, that is to say

its natural endeavors to exist, must affect the security of other peoples.

Because when a people endeavors to ensure its existence, by reason

of its automatic reactions to the problems connected with food-

supply, security, and social stability, its endeavors will conflict with

the strivings of other peoples who are also subject to the same en-

vironmental problems. Each people is only trying to exist. When a

people considers that its existence is threatened by a particular en-

vironment, ... to such an extent that no adaptation to the environ-

ment will suffice, it is forced to attempt to alter that environment.

But other people may consider that any alteration of that environ-

ment affects its own existence. The result is war.”

Is there any reason to suppose that this biologically natural process,

with its characteristic of almost rhythmic recurrence, will ever come

to an end? It seems to me there can be such a hope only in the long

—very, very long—run. And the only reason I can see for even this

deferred hope is the already great and rapidly increasing ease, speed,

and cheapness of transportation and communication between all parts

of the world. The slow but steady and sure biological effect of easy

getting about will inevitably be more and more interbreeding, with

a gradual lessening of the racial and national differences between

human beings. In the far-off end all mankind will presumably be a

rather uniform lot; all looking, thinking, and acting pretty much the

same way, like sheep. National or racial isolation has even now be-

come extremely difficult to maintain; indeed in a quite literal sense

the attempt to maintain such isolations already threatens group

survival in not a few instances. In the long run they cannot and will

268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

not be maintained. Just in proportion as they diminish so will the

frequency of wars diminish. But the diminution seems likely to be at

a fearfully slow rate; it will be a long time yet before the last war is

fought. And a low cynic might suggest that even war, horrid and

stupid as it is, would be preferable to that deadly uniformity among

men towards which we are slowly but surely breeding our way.

Society here and abroad is just now experimenting with a whole

series of internal readjustments that are being forcibly imposed upon

temporarily dazed but always adaptable populations, in the hope that

out of them will come a real and permanent solution of the problem

that man’s urge to reproduction has saddled upon us. All of these

experiments appear to fall into a few simple categories when realis-

tically examined. They all stem from and put into practice one or the

other of two ideas, neither of which finds unqualified support in the

science of biology. The first of these ideas is that it is best to let one

individual in a group run the group’s affairs; permanently, absolutely

and without interference, on the philosophy that averaged opinion

and averaged action are as stupid, inefficient and unreal as an aver-

aged egg is innutritious and unreal. The other and opposite idea is

that it is best to have the whole group run the business as a whole,

allowing no individual any powers except as a merely mechanical

executor of the group’s will, on the philosophy that no individual is

really superior to another and that therefore in averaged opinion and

action wisdom alone resides. In their practical implementation, per-

formance, and effects both ideas turn out to be singularly alike. Both

alike scorn the intermediate idea of true democracy. And finally both

attempt to solve the problem that is pestering the world by a simple

procedure universally regarded as criminal when practiced by an

individual. It is that the more abundant life is to be assured to a too

abundant people by stealing goods from the prudent and efficient,

and then giving them to the imprudent and inefficient. Since there

are always a great many more of the latter kind of people than of the

former this turns out temporarily to be the most effective political

device ever heard of. Whether it will prove to be so permanently is

less certain. It has been pointed out earlier in this paper that adapt-

able as man is there are nevertheless elements of conservative stability

in his biological make-up whose roots go back to the very beginning

of his evolution. And in that perfect state of society envisaged by our

major prophets, where “‘economy of plenty’’ will assure, as we are

told, that no one will have to work much for a living, and where the

higher philosophy that holds “human rights above property rights”

JUNE 15, 1935 - PEARL: BIOLOGY 269

(without perhaps clearly understanding what it means by either)

assures that in any event everybody shall be kept alive at public

expense whether he works or not, is there not the barest possibility

that there might appear a somewhat general inclination on the part

of the more intelligent members of the group to opt for the philosophy

rather than for the communal work (however slight in amount)? If

anything like this should happen might not the economy of plenty

some day find itself once again in a parlous state of unplenty? Not

being myself a dependable prophet I venture no answer. But in any

case, and regardless of details, it is difficult to convince a biologist that

a social philosophy will endure for any great length of time that de-

liberately and complacently loads upon the always weary backs of

the able and fit an evergrowing burden. If there is one thing certain

in the science of biology it is that no species or variety of plant or

animal has long survived that was intrinsically incapable of making

its own living. There is somewhere a biological limit to altruism, even

for man. A large part of the world today gives the impression that it

is determined to find the exact locus of that limit as speedily as possi-

ble.

Up to this point the discussion has been of the social consequences

of firmly established biological principles. In what regions of biology

may there be expected with some confidence developments new in

principle, and with important implications for human behavior,

thought, and social relations? Probably not, one is fairly safe in say-

ing, in such fields as morphology, embryology, or taxonomy. The ad-

vances in the field of genetics, which has to a considerable degree

dominated biological thought during nearly a half century and will

probably continue to for some time yet, will inevitably have an in-

creasing influence on human affairs as the meaning of its advances is

better understood. But this influence seems on the whole likely to be

more of a negative than positive character—a matter of avoidances,

taboos, and prohibitions rather than of positive contributions to hu-

man biological progress. Heredity represents the entailed side of biol-

ogy—things given—about which it is extremely difficult really to do

anything effective in the face of other compelling elements of human

life and living, especially those elements belonging in the psycho-

biological realm.

It seems probable that advances likely to be made in physiology

and psychobiology may profoundly alter human affairs and outlooks

270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

in the not very distant future, and particularly in the direction of the

greater release and more effective control of the energies and poten-

tialities of man (and of other living things at will). In recent years

the investigations and deductions of the psychiatrists, endocrinolo-

gists, and psychobiologists have thrown a beginning glimmer of real

light upon the underlying biological bases of the activities and con-

duct of living things, and especially of man. We are beginning to un-

derstand in some detail and particularity how, conduct, normal and

abnormal, moral and immoral, is the expression of “‘animal drives”

or urges—themselves resultants of subtle chemical and physiological

changes in the body—rather than of either free will or terrestrial and

heavenly precepts. It does not seem extravagant to expect that as

this understanding broadens and deepens ways may be found to bring

it about that men will act somewhat more intelligently and less harm-

fully in politics, business, society, religion, and elsewhere generally,

than they sometimes have in the past. The ever widening and deep-

ening flow of biological knowledge is plainly furnishing a solid, sci-

entific groundwork for a philosophy of life based on releases, in con-

tradistinction to the philosophy of life based upon inhibitions and

prohibitions that has so long held us enthralled. I am not unaware

that current political philosophies in various parts of the world look

backward in this regard, and insist on more prohibitions and regimen-

tations. But they are going against biology, and if I read the history

of evolution aright, biology will win. Nature is never in a hurry. And

that odd bird the Blue Eagle was much shorter lived than even the

poorest dinosaur.

This current trend of biology of which we have just been speaking

has many different aspects. There are some who will recall the wide-

spread interest and discussion stirred up many years ago by an essay

of the late William James entitled The energies of men. It dealt with

the release of normally untapped and unsuspected potentialities of

men under certain conditions, sometimes those of shock and stress,

sometimes under the impulsion of the will. Examples were given of

men who, though enfeebled by poor health, performed feats of

strength and endurance that would tax the finest athlete, when they

encountered conditions that imperatively demanded such a perform-

ance.

We are working in the laboratory on another angle of the same gen-

eral problem. We have experimented with seedlings, grown under very

exactly controlled conditions such that all the matter and energy for

growth and living (save for water and oxygen) come from the nutri-

JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 271

tive materials stored in the cotyledons of the seed planted, which

themselves are an integral part of the plant. Under these experi-

mental conditions the seedling goes through a complete life cycle of

germination, growth, adulthood, senescence, and eventual death. This

life cycle corresponds quantitatively very closely to the normal life

cycle of the plant in the field, except that it is greatly compressed and

fore-shortened in time. By appropriate aseptic surgical procedures we

have removed carefully measured parts of the food resources stored

in the cotyledons of the cantaloup seeds we have used, and then ob-

served the relative performance of such mutilated seedlings as com-

pared with the normal controls, in respect of growth and duration of

life. The net result is to demonstrate that the mutilated plants grow

much larger and live many times longer, as compared with the normal

controls, than they would be expected to in proportion to the amount

of matter and energy for living available to them after the operation.

The results indicated clearly that the operated seedlings utilized their

available food resources much more effectively than the normal plant

does. It is as though an inhibitor had been removed from the plant,

freeing its potentialities for more adequate expression.

The possibilities suggested by these experiments seem far-reaching,

though admittedly the exploration of the field has only just begun.

Work in this direction on plants and lower animals may result in such

an understanding of the physiology of releasing normally inhibited

biological potentialities as to enable man to unleash effectively and

usefully more of his own energies.

In the field of human biology the admitted and crying need is for

adequate synthesis of existing knowledge. It is an obvious truism that

we know more in detail about the biology of man than about that of

any other organism. Anatomists, physiologists, anthropologists, psy-

chologists, sociologists, and economists, have by analytical methods

piled up a body of detailed information about man that is literally

colossal. But what does it mean for humanity? Every thoughtful per-

son will admit that there is a kind of moral necessity to go forward

in the attempt to get a better and more comprehensive understand-

ing of the whole nature of man. The material, mechanized civilization

he has evolved may easily become a monster to destroy him unless

he learns better to comprehend, develop, and control his biological

nature. If inventions and discoveries cannot be intelligently managed

after they are made, they are likely to be a curse rather than a bless-

ing.

The bulk of scientific effort is, and always has been, directed to-

272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

wards analysis unaccompanied by synthesis. Scientific men have

mainly left it to philosophers and literary men to be the synthesizers

of their data, shirking the task themselves with a few notable excep-

tions, of whom perhaps the greatest was a biologist, Charles Darwin.

But analysis at best leads only to knowledge; while synthesis may

furnish wisdom. And mankind sorely needs more wisdom right here

and now!

PHARMACOLOGY .—The toxicity for sheep of water solutions of hy-

drocyanic acid and the effectiveness of the nitrite-thiosulphate com-

bination as a remedy.! JAMES F. Coucu, A. B. Clawson and

H. Bunyea, Bureau of Animal Industry.

The results of a considerable number of experiments in which solu-

tions of potassium cyanide were administered to sheep have previ-

ously been reported.” The potassium cyanide was administered as a

drench and the quantity given in each base recorded as milligrams per

kilogram of animal weight. In these experiments information was

obtained concerning the smallest quantity of potassium cyanide that

will produce symptoms in sheep, the smallest quantity that will kill

and also concerning the effectiveness of a combination of sodium ni-

trite and sodium thiosulphate as a remedy for animals poisoned by

potassium cyanide.

In the present paper data are presented concerning the toxicity for

sheep of hydrocyanic acid in water solution and the remedial effec-

tiveness of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination.

The solution of hydrocyanic acid used was prepared by mixing cold

solutions of the calculated quantities of potassium cyanide and of tar-

taric acid in water and filtering off the precipitated potassium acid

tartrate which was washed with a little cold water. The filtrate and

washings were combined and diluted to a definite volume. The cya-

nide content of the solution was then determined by titration with

N/10 silver nitrate solution and the strength was adjusted so that one

cubic centimeter of solution contained 15.5 mg. of hydrocyanic acid.

The solution contained less than 0.05 per cent of dissolved potassium

acid tartrate which, in the doses given, was negligible.

A fresh solution was made each morning before experimental work,

although analysis showed that there was no appreciable change in the

strength of the solution when preserved for 72 hours in a cold place.

1 Received February 28, 1935.

2 This JoURNAL 24: 369-395. 1934.

3 This JOURNAL 24: 528-532. 1934.

4 This JoURNAL 25: 57-59. 1935.

JUNE 15, 19835 COUCH, CLAWSON AND BUNYEA: HYDROCYANIC ACID 273

TOXIC AND LETHAL QUANTITIES

In all, 29 experiments were made on 20 sheep. In 17 of these no

remedies were administered, the experiments being made primarily

to determine the effects of various quantities of hydrocyanic acid as

compared with those produced by potassium cyanide. The general

results obtained in the 17 cases are shown in table 1.

TABLE 1.—QvantitTies or Hyprocyanic Actp GIVEN TO SHEEP AND THE

EFFECTS PRODUCED WHEN NO REMEDIES WERE USED

ae Sheep Quantities® given mg./kg. and effect

ate

SE No. perien Symptoms Sickness Death Remarks

Jan

14 1451 34.47 Byte)

14 1462 38.55 3.10

14 1460 41.72 PY 1)

14 1461 43 .54 2.74

14 1463 38.55 2E09)

14 1459 43.99 2.64

14 1465 3¥3). ILI 203

14 1452 49.89 7) (395)

14 1458 41.72 2.41

16 1456 330) oP 2.382

18 1474 37.64 2 Bil A very poor sheep

14 1464 48 .98 2229

14 1457 34.92 PA PY

14 1454 46.49 2.03

14 1453 36.73 i 7il

14 1455 30.84 1.36

14 1456 Sy) Br 1.05 Very slight effect

sare quantities are given as milligrams of hydrocyanic acid per kilogram of animal

weight.

The effects produced on sheep 1456 by 1.05 mg. per kg. of animal

weight were so mild that the quantity for this animal was apparently

very close to the minimum toxic dose. The fact that 2.29 mg. killed

while 2.27 mg. produced only symptoms indicates that 2.29 mg. is

the approximate minimum lethal dose for sheep. That 2.31 mg. did

not kill sheep 1474, a very poor, underweight animal, is not consid-

ered as valid evidence against this conclusion. Were the dosage for

this animal based on its normal weight when in good flesh, it would

be much lower than the figure considered as the minimum lethal

dose.

To compare, on a common basis, the toxicity of hydrocyanic acid

with that of potassium cyanide, the dosages of the two substances

may be reduced to the cyanide (CN) equivalents. On this basis the

toxic and lethal doses of cyanide in the two forms are essentially the

same.

274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

Following the administration of hydrocyanic acid in 29 cases,

symptoms appeared in from 20 seconds to 2 minutes, the average

time being 50 seconds. The time to prostration or collapse varied more

widely, it being 50 seconds in the shortest case and 514 minutes in

the longest. The longest period was with a sheep given slightly more

than 1 m.l.d. Twenty-three cases had an average time of 5 minutes

52 seconds. In the average the animals given the larger quantities

showed symptoms and collapsed in a shorter time than those given

the smaller doses.

The average time to symptoms in the sheep given 3 to 4 lethal

doses was 42 seconds; with those given 1 to 1.5 lethal quantities, it

was 55 seconds; and with sheep given toxic but sub-lethal doses, 56

seconds.

The average period to collapse in those sheep given from 3 to 4

lethal quantities was 1 minute 31 seconds, while with those given less

than 1.5 minimum lethal doses it was 9 minutes 13 seconds. The longer

average was due in part, but not entirely, to the inclusion of two re-

sistant and somewhat unusual cases.

Of the sheep which received no remedy, 11 died. The time between

the drenching with cyanide and death varied between 12.5 minutes

and 1 hour 22 minutes, and averaged 37 minutes 50 seconds.

RESULTS OF THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE REMEDY

To test the effectiveness of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination as

a remedy in cases of poisoning by hydrocyanic acid, 12 experiments

were made on 10 sheep. For experimental use a water solution con-

taining 1 gram of sodium nitrite and 2 grams of sodium thiosulphate

per 15 c.c. of solution was prepared. Based on 2.29 mg. per kg. as the

minimum lethal dose, these animals were given doses of hydrocyanic

acid ranging from 3 m.].d. to 4.0 m.].d. In periods varying from 0.8 to

4 minutes after being drenched with the cyanide they were then in-

jected intraperitoneally with 15 c.c. of a solution of the nitrite-thio-

sulphate combination as a remedy.

The results of the administration of the nitrite-thiosulphate com-

bination are shown in table 2.

In 10 cases the remedy was given after the animals had collapsed.

Of these, six (or 60 per cent) recovered. One sheep was given the

remedy as soon as symptoms were apparent and before collapse, and

one was treated at the time of collapse. Both died.

JUNE 15, 1935 cOUCH, CLAWSON AND BUNYEA: HYDROCYANIC ACID 275

TABLE 2—Suowine THE EFFECTS OF THE NITRITE-THIOSULPHATE COMBINATION

ADMINISTERED INTRAPERITONEALLY AS A REMEDY FOR SHEEP

PorisoNnEeD BY HyprocyaNnic AcID

Time from drench—

D Abe D To first AN To givi

0 ‘0 givin

i938 tt sated: DESH collapse nenete Effect

Weight

No. kg. Minutes

Jan

16 1457 34.92 Bic ORS eS) 1.8 Recovery

14 1469 43 .99 3. 1.0 56) i do

16 1470 43 .54 Be i (0) 1.8 PD ll Death

17 1466 35.83 B oll 5) od 105 do

17 1469 43 .99 3.25 .8 il oo 2) tD) Recovery

17 1473 40.82 3 oA) Ao Lo 7s Die Death

17 1457 34.92 Bo 24D) 05) PAP 4. Recovery

17 1453 36.73 3.50 ath I, I & do

17 1455 30.84 3.50 Bh I 705) 2 Death

17 1454 46.49 SO 3 08 2. 2. do

17 1474 37.64 4. aD) il, 1.5 Recovery

LZ 1475 40.82 4. 2(¢) SE 1.8 .8 Death

For the sake of comparison with the results obtained using the same

remedy for sheep poisoned by potassium cyanide as given in a former

paper,” table 3 is included. This is a summary of table 2. In it the

doses of hydrocyanic acid are arranged in classes, and the number of

survivals and deaths in each class shown.

TABLE 3.—EFFECTIVENESS OF THE REMEDY AGAINST VARYING

QUANTITIES OF HypRocyanic AcID

Dose of HCN Number of Number that Number that Per cent

m.l.d. animals survived died survived

3 4 2 2 50

335745) 3 2 1 67

3.5 2 1 1 50

3.75 1 1 0

4 2 1 1 50

Total 12 6 6 50

From table 3 it will be noted that the remedy was 50 per cent effec-

tive against as much as 4 minimum lethal doses of hydrocyanic acid.

When compared with the results obtained with sheep poisoned by

potassium cyanide, in which 2.75 m.].d. was the largest dose against

which protection was secured in 50 per cent or more of the cases,° it

would appear that the remedy is more effective against poisoning by

hydrocyanic acid itself than against poisoning by potassium cyanide.

5 This JoURNAL 24: 369-395. 1934.

6 This JOURNAL 24: 369-395. 1934.

276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

SUMMARY

When administered in sheep in a drench the minimum toxic dose

of pure hydrocyanic acid is shown to be approximately 1.05 mg. per

kg. of animal weight, and the minimum lethal dose is approximately

2.29 mg. per kg. When compared on a cyanide (CN) basis the differ-

ences in toxicity between hydrocyanic acid and potassium cyanide are

slight and well within the limits of experimental error.

Following the administration of pure hydrocyanic acid, symptoms

appear in an average of 50 seconds. The time to collapse is very vari-

able. In the cases here reported the average time was 5 minutes 52

seconds. When no remedy was given the average time to death was

nearly 38 minutes.

The nitrite-thiosulphate combination was 50 per cent effective as a

remedy against from 3 to 4 m.1.d., and when injected intraperitoneally

within 4 minutes after the hydrocyanic acid was administered.

GEOLOGY.—WNotes on the structure of the Erin shale of Alabama.*

C. F. Park, Jr., U. S. Geological Survey. (Communicated by

W. W. RuBEY.)

ABSTRACT

The Erin shale of east-central Alabama has previously been mapped as a strati-

graphic unit in the Talladega slate. Fossils found in the Erin shale have been the basis

for assigning a Carboniferous age to part or all of the Talladega slate and other erystal-

line rocks in the eastern part of the State. Evidence is presented to show that the con-

tact between the Erin shale and the Talladega formation is a thrust fault dipping at a

low angle eastward. The Erin shale is exposed by erosion through the overthrust block.

The type locality of the Erin shale of east-central Alabama is an

area about 6 miles long and less than 1 mile wide. The exposure is

in the valley of Talladega Creek along the east base of the Talladega

Mountains in Clay County, Ala., about 8 miles northwest of Ashland.

The Hillabee chlorite schist and the Ashland mica schist lie east of

the Talladega formation (fig. 1). The Wedowee formation is east of

the Ashland schist but is not shown on the map.

The Erin shale was described in 1903 by E. A. Smith, who consid-

ered it a lenticular mass in the Talladega slate, which he called

“Ocoee.” Fossil plants were collected by Dr. Smith from the Erin

shale and were determined by David White to be of Carboniferous

age. Practically all papers treating of the Talladega slate that have

appeared since 1903 have assigned a Carboniferous age to at least

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received

March 30, 1935.

2 Smitu, E. A. Science, new ser., 18: 244-246. 1903.

JUNE 15, 1935 PARK: ERIN SHALE 277

part of the formation, on the assumption that the Erin shale is strati-

graphically enclosed in the Talladega. As a result of study of the rela-

tions between the Talladega formation and the crystalline rocks to

the east (the Hillabee schist, the Ashland schist, and the Wedowee

formation) the several crystalline formations have been assigned to

periods ranging from pre-Cambrian to Carboniferous.?

Talladega

fates if

265

aes

Erin “Shale

fe Lise *\ Thickness compu-

. ted /046 feet.

Tn 327 hse r

WY gi

pin ee ve 428 /

A se Vi A

Ge se /Hillabee/ 2%

Talladega , l eS _/ chlorite eeu

formation 20 50 37 ko 7 schist,

b s - VY schist

ano ¢. RE, coe veg oe

AF KS Pes eZ

es Talladega wi 7

Zz CEMIRMIONT oS formation

55 Aw,

BE EXPLANATION

N °2 Dip and strike of schistosity

(ie 25% Dip and strike of bedding ?

Thickn gos ex

compute . 2

20 feet 474 illabee _-- OO Thrust fault

chlorite -~ T Overthrust side

A schist -“Ashland

y mica schist

exy feet

A Contact clean and tight e00cit ce.

no sign of faulting.

Fig. 1.—Sketch map of part of the Erin shale, showing relation to the

Talladega formation.

Slightly altered Erin shale is exposed in numerous cuts along the

Atlanta, Birmingham & Coast Railroad. This shale is a fine-grained

black material that in thin sections shows a few small grains and

bands of fine quartz in a carbonaceous matrix. Nothing is seen that

would indicate that the rock had been metamorphosed except the

3 Proury, W. F. Geology and mineral resources of Clay County, Ala. Alabama Geol.

Survey County Rept. 1: 38-41, 61-63. 1923; Age of Talladega slates of Alabama. Pan-

Am. Geologist. 37, n. 5: 363-366. 1922.

Apams, G. I. Geology of Alabama. Alabama Geol. Survey Special Rept. 14: 30, 33,

36-39. 1926.

Burts, CHARLES, idem, 59-61, 217-219.

Brown, J. A., Graphite deposits of Ashland, Ala. Econ. Geology. 20: 208-229. 1925.

278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 25, NO. 6

shale parting planes; no evidence of recrystallization is found. The

Talladega formation is, by contrast, a thinly laminated schist com-

posed almost entirely of sericite and quartz with a little chlorite; it is

much more intensely metamorphosed than the Erin shale and ap-

pears to be almost entirely recrystallized. Both the Erin shale and

the Talladega formation weather to a white or buff clay, but the out-

crops of weathered Talladega schist generally contain some partly al-

tered mica. The fact that the Erin shale weathers white or buff indi-

cates that the carbon present has not been fixed as graphite. Graphite

is a common constituent of the Ashland and Wedowee schists and is

known to occur in the Talladega formation. West of the Erin shale

the Talladega formation contains beds of quartzite and conglomerate

in addition to the schist.

There is a discordance in strike between the cleavage in the Erin

shale and the schistosity in the Talladega formation, locally amount-

ing to nearly 90°. The Talladega formation just east of the eastern

contact with the Erin shale is intensely silicified and rises in a cliff

that in places is about 30 feet high. The Talladega formation is wedge-

shaped in outcrop; near the northeastern border of the area mapped

its thickness is about 1,000 feet and near the southwestern border,

about 600 feet. This wedge-shaped block has been explained by

Adams as the result of a thrust fault between the Talladega forma-

tion and the Ashland mica schist to the east. The Hillabee schist is

considered to be a basic rock intruded along this thrust plane.* The

schistosity in the Talladega is approximately parallel with that in the

Hillabee and Ashland schists, but the strikes in the Talladega and the

Erin are divergent.

It has been stated by Charles Butts that C. W. Hayes considered

the Erin shale to be an infolded bed in the Talladega slate. Butts’

notes, however, indicate a fault along the southeast contact of the

Erin shale and the Talladega slate, but he states that Hayes’ inter-

pretation seems equally probable.’ C. W. Hayes and David White

concluded, after field study, that the Erin shales were unconformable

with the Talladega slates.° Miss Jonas has recently described and

mapped the Erin shale as a fenster in the Talladega slate but does

not discuss it in detail.’

4 Apams, G. I. op. cit., p. 38.

® Burrs, Cuarues. Personal communication, January, 1935.

qin H. D. Some gold deposits of Alabama. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 340:

a “ Jonas, A. I. Structure of the metamorphic belt of the Southern Appalachians. Am.

Jour. Sci. 24: 243. 1932. Geological map of the United States, southeastern quarter.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1934.

rfl

JUNE 15, 1935 MUESEBECK: NEW HYMENOPTERA 279

There is sufficient evidence to indicate a fault between the Talla-

dega formation and the Erin shale in this area. The evidence also

justifies the suggestion that the Talladega formation has been thrust

over the Erin shale along a fault plane that dips slightly eastward

(3°-5° as determined by differences in altitude along the contracts).

The Erin shale is thought to have been exposed by erosion of the thin

overthrust plate, thus forming a window. The faulting along the line

of outcrop of the Hillabee schist is considered a complementary thrust

fault in the overthrust block. The mineralization along the fault in the

Hillabee schist is therefore thought to be post-Erin shale. The assign-

ment of part of the Talladega slate and other crystalline rocks in east-

ern Alabama to an age as recent as the Carboniferous, on the supposi-

tion that the Erin shale is a lenticular mass originally deposited in the

Talladega, is believed to be unwarranted by the field relations here

described.

ENTOMOLOGY .—Three new reared parasitic Hymenoptera, with

some notes on synonymy.' C.F. W. Murseseck, Bureau of En-

tomology and Plant Quarantine. (Communicated by Haroup

Morrison.)

The new species described below have been reared in the course of

studies in economic entomology. In order to make the names avail-

able for use the descriptions are published at this time.

SERPHOIDEA

SCELIONIDAE

Telenomus catalpae, new species

In the female sex very similar to sphingis Ashmead, but distinguished by

having the occipital carina only very narrowly interrupted at the middle,

by the yellowish mouth region, and by the somewhat stouter thorax. In the

male sex at once distinguished from all related species by the entirely red-

dish-yellow head and thorax.

Female.—Length, 1 mm. Head transverse, more than twice as broad as

long; viewed from in front much broader than long; eyes finely hairy, rather

strongly divergent below; frons smooth, delicately reticulated laterally be-

low middle of eyes; malar space half as long as scape; vertex finely reticu-

late, punctate and subopaque; ocelli in a low triangle, the lateral ones touch-

ing the eyes; temples flat, polished except for a narrow reticulated border

along the eyes; antennae 11-segmented; scape not reaching summit of ver-

tex; pedicel at least one-third as long as scape; first segment of funicle dis-

tinctly a little shorter than pedicel; second and third segments of funicle

subequal, shorter than first and barely or not longer than broad; fourth

shorter than second or third and about as wide as these; fifth to ninth seg-

1 Received March 20, 1935.

280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

ments forming a distinct club, the fifth much the smallest, strongly trans-

verse and somewhat narrower than the following; sixth, seventh and eighth

subequal, distinctly somewhat broader than long, the apical segment conical.

Thorax narrower than head; mesoscutum evenly convex, minutely reticu-

late punctate, finely hairy and subopaque; scutellum smooth and polished;

metanotum finely sculptured and opaque at the middle; propodeum with a

prominent oblique carina on each side from near middle of base of pro-

podeum to a point beyond middle of lateral margin; stigmal vein more than

twice as long as marginal and about half as long as postmarginal; submar-

ginal vein with about 10 long setae.

Abdomen hardly shorter than thorax and nearly as broad, more or less

truncate at apex; first tergite four times as broad as long at the middle,

smooth and polished except for a row of elongate pits bordering the basal

margin; second tergite about one and one-half times as long as broad, smooth

and polished except for a row of foveae at the base and a few weak short

striulae medially at base; remaining tergites very short; ovipositor sheath

slightly exserted.

Black; mandibles, clypeus, and a spot between bases of antennae yellow-

ish; scape black, pale at apex; remainder of antenna dark brown; all coxae

and femora blackish; anterior tibiae pale, the middle and posterior pairs

more or less infuscated; tarsi brownish yellow, the apical segment black;

wings hyaline.

Male.—Essentially like the female except in the structure of the antennae

and in color. Antennae 12-segmented; pedicel and basal three flagellar seg-

ments subequal, slightly longer than broad, fourth to ninth flagellar seg-

ments shorter, moniliform; the apical segment conical. Reddish yellow; an-

tennae and legs a little paler; apical half of abdomen more or less blackish.

Type locality—Takoma Park, Md.

Type.—U. 8. National Museum No. 50795.

Host.—Eggs of Ceratomia catalpae Bdv.

Described from 32 females and 51 males (type, allotype, and paratypes)

reared by J. W. Bulger at the type locality September 27, 1932; and 2

females and 3 males, likewise reared from eggs of C. catalpae, by W. J.

Baerg, August 5, 1933, at Fayetteville, Ark.

ICHNEUMONOIDEA

BRACONIDAE

Apanteles epiblemae, new species

This species is exceedingly similar to epinotiae Viereck, with which it is

easily confused. It may be distinguished from that species, however, by its

complete and strong propodeal costulae, by its relatively longer intercubitus,

by its more definitely punctate face, mesoscutum, and mesopleurum, by the

prominence of the posterior lateral angles of the propodeum, and by its

longer ovipositor.

Female.—Length, 2.5 mm. Head strongly transverse, temples narrow; face

flat, definitely closely punctate and subopaque; malar space equal to basal

width of mandible; eyes long; vertex minutely punctate, opaque; ocellocular

line and postocellar line subequal, twice the diameter of an ocellus, antennae

slightly shorter than body.

Thorax, stout, broader than head; mesoscutum finely confluently punc-

tate, minutely longitudinally rugulose posteriorly; disk of scutellum longer

than broad at base, smooth and polished; polished areas on lateral face of

JUNE 15, 1935 MUESEBECK: NEW HYMENOPTERA 281

scutellum very large, triangular, extending nearly to the base; propodeum

finely rugulose, with a large, sharply margined median areola which is open

at the base and is traversed by several low transverse rugae, and with strong,

complete costulae; posterior lateral angles of propodeum very prominent;

mesopleurum anteriorly confluently punctate and opaque; first abscissa of

radius about one and one-half times as long as transverse cubitus; metacar-

pus distinctly longer than stigma; nervellus strongly curved; posterior coxae

smooth; inner calcarium of posterior tibia hardly half as long as basitarsus.

Abdomen a little narrower than thorax; first tergite considerably longer

than broad, nearly parallel sided, truncate at apex, closely rugulose; plate

of second tergite strongly transverse, longest at the middle, its median

length about one-fourth its apical width, very weakly, indefinitely sculp-

tured; third and following tergites polished, the third much longer than the

second; ovipositor sheath slender, fully as long as the abdomen and as long

as posterior tarsus.

Black; palpi pale; anterior legs beyond trochanters testaceous; middle

femora apically, middle tibiae and posterior tibiae, except at apex, and mid-

dle tarsi, except apical segment, reddish-yellow; tegulae yellowish-white;

wings whitish hyaline; stigma hyaline margined with brown; veins mostly

hyaline; costa whitish; metacarpus brown.

Male.—Like the female in all essential respects; however, the second ter-

gite is smoother, the legs, especially the middle and posterior tibiae, are

darker; and the antennae are longer than the body.

Type locality—Meade County, Kans.

Type.—U.S. National Museum No. 50796.

Host.—Epiplema strenuana Walker.

Described from 7 females and 6 males. The type, allotype, and one male

and one female paratype reared in February 1933 from the above-named

host at the type locality by Sam G. Kelly; three males and one female from

Clark County, Kans., likewise reared by Mr. Kelly in February 1933; one

male from Riley County, Kans., and one female from Manhattan, Kans.,

reared by Mr. Kelly in August 1933; one female from Bridgeville, Del.,

reared from EH. strenuana by A. O. Baker, August 10, 1933; one female

reared from the same host by William Rau Haden at Camden, Del., August

14, 1933; and one female reared from Grapholitha molesta Busck by O. I.

Snapp, of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, at Fort Valley,

Ga., June 16, 1925, under Quaintance No. 21938. In the female paratypes the

color of the legs ranges from almost entirely testaceous beyond trochanters

to mostly black.

Apanteles thujae, new species

In my key to the Nearctic species of A panteles? this species runs directly

to monticola Ashmead, which it very closely resembles. It may be distin-

guished from that species, however, by its somewhat depressed thorax,

shorter malar space, punctate scutellum, and the rugulose punctate, rather

than more or less striate, sculpture of the basal two abdominal tergites.

Female.—Length, 1.8 mm. Head slightly narrower than thorax; eyes a

little convergent below; malar space shorter than basal width of mandible;

face smooth and shining, with only indistinct setiferous punctures; temples

narrow but convex; ocell-ocular line twice diameter of an ocellus; antennae

about as long as body.

2 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 58: 487. 1920.

282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

Thorax stout, distinctly somewhat depressed; mesoscutum broader than

long, opaque, evenly, minutely, and shallowly punctate; suture at base of

scutellum very narrow, minutely foveolate; scutellum flat, subopaque, sculp-

tured like mesoscutum though more weakly; propodeum convex, more than

twice as broad as long, without a median areola, smooth and shining, with

only a little weak rugulosity along posterior margin; mesopleurum smooth

and polished except anteriorly, where there are some shallow punctures; in-

ner calearium of posterior tibia not longer than outer and not quite half as

long as metatarsus; stigma slightly shorter than metacarpus; radius issuing

from middle of stigma, perpendicular to anterior margin of wing and slightly

longer than intercubitus.

Abdomen narrower than thorax; chitinized plate of first tergite narrowing

a little toward apex, twice as long as broad at apex, gently excavated at base,

where it is smooth and polished, the apical two-thirds finely rugulose pune-

tate, and with a more or less distinct, though very narrow and shallow, me-

dian longitudinal groove on posterior half; lateral membranous margins of

first tergite very broad on apical half; plate of second tergite strongly trans-

verse, more than three times as broad on posterior margin as long, defined

laterally by indistinct oblique grooves, more weakly sculptured than first

tergite, its posterior margin straight; following tergites smooth and shining;

ovipositor sheath at least as long as posterior femur but hardly as long as

posterior tibia, rather strongly broadened toward apex; ovipositor a little

decurved at apex.

Black; antennae entirely black, also tegulae; apex of anterior femur, more

or less of anterior tibia, the anterior and middle tarsi, and posterior tibia at

extreme base, yellowish brown; calcaria of tibiae whitish; wings clear hya-

line, stigma and veins brown.

Male.—Essentially like female, but having antennae considerably longer

than body.

Type locality—Bar Harbor, Maine.

Type.—U.S. National Museum No. 50797.

Host.—Recurvaria thujaella Kearfott.

Described from seventeen females and one male (Type, allotype, and 16

paratypes) reared by A. E. Brower at type locality July 15-19, 1933, and

two females, likewise reared by Dr. Brower, July 8, 1933, at Mt. Desert

Island, Maine.

(Macrocentrus laspeyresiae Mues.) = Macrocentrus instabilis Mues.

Macrocentrus instabilis Muesebeck, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 80: 34. 1932.

Macrocentrus laspeyresiae Muesebeck, loc. cit., p. 37 (aew synonymy).

Since the publication of the paper in which znstabilis and laspeyresiae were

described I have seen a large number of additional specimens, reared from

Grapholitha molesta Busck and Carpocapsa pomonella L. This material ex-

hibits complete intergradations between typical instabilis and typical las-

peyresiae, and has convinced me that the two are merely variants of an ex-

tremely variable species.

(Aneurobracon Brues) = Mesocoelus Schulz

Coelothorax Ashmead (not Coelothorax Anceys). Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 4:

165. 1898.

JUNE 15, 1935 DRAKE AND POOR: RUBBER TINGITID 283

Mesocoelus Schulz, Zool. Ann. 4: 88. 1911.

Aneurobracon Brues, The African Republic of Liberia and the Belgian

Congo, based on the Harvard African Expedition, 2: 1002 (new syn-

onymy).

Mesocoelus Muesebeck, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 45: 227. 1932.

At the time of my brief discussion of this genus I had not seen the paper

by Brues in which Aneurobracon was described. His description and figures

leave no doubt that the genotypic species, Aneurobracon bequaerti, is con-

generic with the genotype of Mesocoelus. It appears to be very similar to

philippinensis Mues., but differs in the complete absence of a medius and

the slightly longer antennae.

ENTOLOMOGY.—An undescribed rubber tingitid from Brazil (He-

miptera).1 C.J. Drake and M. E. Poor, Iowa State College.

(Communicated by HaroLtp Morrison.)

Through the kindness of Mr. H. G. Barber of the U. 8. Bureau of

Entomology, the writers have received a series of 40 specimens of an

undescribed species of lace bug from Brazil. The insect was taken in

large numbers on the leaves of the rubber tree, Hevea braziliensis

Muell. Arg.

Leptopharsa heveae, sp. nov. Fieceele

Hlongate, moderately broad, whitish. Antennae very long, dark brown to

brownish black, clothed with numerous fine, short, pale hairs; segment I

long, moderately stout, almost straight, nearly six times as long as II, the

latter very short; III very long, slender, nearly straight, two and a half

times the length of one; IV very long, slender, scarcely stouter than three,

clothed with longer hairs, one and one-half times the length of one. Head

brown, largely covered with whitish exudation, armed with five long, pale

testaceous spines; frontal spines sub-porrect, blunt, the tips contiguous; me-

dian and lateral spines more or less resting on the surface of the head. Buc-

culae whitish, reticulate, closed in front. Rostral laminae widely separated

on meso- and metanotum; rostrum extending on the basal portion of meso-

sternum. Orifice distinct.

Body beneath ferrugineous, more or less covered with whitish exudation.

Legs long, slender, testaceous, the tarsi darker. Pronotum moderately tumid,

deeply and closely pitted, reticulate on triangular portion, tricarinate; me-

dian carina thicker and more strongly elevated, without distinct areolae;

lateral carinae distinct, sub-parallel, faintly converging posteriorly. Para-

nota moderately broad, biseriate, moderately reflexed, the lateral margin

rounded and finely serrate. Collum distinct, raised at the middle, reticulate.

Calli black, often covered with white exudation. Elytra widening posteriorly,

finely serrate along the costal margin, extending considerably beyond tip of

abdomen, the areolae not very large and clear; costal area broad, mostly

quadriseriate, with five rows at widest part, the areolae not arranged in very

regular rows; subcostal area narrow, biseriate; discoidal area moderately

1 Received March 22, 1935.

284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

large, faintly impressed, not quite reaching middle of elytra, narrowed at

apex, with five to six rows of areolae at widest part; sutural area rather

widely reticulated. Wings subequal to abdomen in length.

Length, 4.00—4.20 mm.; width, 1.35-1.50 mm.

Fig. 1—Leptopharsa heveae sp. nov., type, o.

Holotype, male, and allotype, female, Boa Vista Rio Tapajo, Brazil, on

leaves of rubber tree, collected by Dr. C. H. T. Townsend. Paratypes, taken

with type and from Para, Brazil, on rubber tree, taken by H. W. Moore.

Types in U.S. National Museum.

This is the first record of a tingitid pest of the rubber plant. It is a very

distinct species and probably most closely allied to L. abella Drake from

Brazil. From the latter or other closely allied forms, L. heveae may be dis-

tinguished by its larger size, white color and wider costal area. The genus

Leptopharsa Stal contains about 70 described species, largely from tropical

America.

BOTANY.—The genus Cremosperma.! C. V. Morton, National

Museum. (Communicated by Wiiu1am R. Maxon.)

Bentham’s genus Cremosperma has always been considered as

doubtfully valid. Thus, Hanstein in his monograph of the family

Gesneriaceae? listed it among the dubious genera; Bentham and

Hooker? reduced it to a section of Besleria; and Fritsch,’ although he

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 11, 1935.

2 Linnaea 34: 429. 1865.

JUNE 15, 1935 MORTON: GENUS CREMOSPERMA 285

had seen no specimens, listed it a doubtful genus related to Besleria.

Very recently Fritsch’ has described as new Besleria (Cremosperma)

cinnabarina, reducing the genus to Besleria outright.

For some time I have been engaged in a monographic study of

Besleria and have had an opportunity to examine most of the species.

During this investigation I came across numerous specimens of Cre-

mosperma, which had been variously identified as belonging to the

genera Besleria, H'piscia, Achimenes, Tydaea, and Koellikeria, all of

which (with the exception of Besleria) are quite remotely related.

These specimens, all from the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador, were

distinguished by a low herbaceous habit and a distinctive racemose-

capitate inflorescence, and were obviously congeneric with Bentham’s

Cremosperma hirsutissimum.

Further study has convinced me that Cremosperma represents a

perfectly valid generic type, perhaps of not even very close affinity ,

with Beslerza in spite of the similar disk and anthers of both. In addi-

tion to a very different habit and inflorescence, the species of Cremo-

sperma all have small, usually pale-colored corollas with widely flaring

limb and usually non-ventricose tube. The usually highly colored

corollas of Besleria have a small inconspicuous limb except in the two

species belonging to the subgenus Macrobesleria, in which the corolla

lobes are larger and patent; in these two species, however, the corolla

tube is markedly ventricose and the plants are otherwise very differ-

ent from Cremosperma. The calyx also differs from that of any species

of Besleria, being turbinate or cylindric-turbinate with short equal

lobes and ten conspicuous costae, these in a few species sometimes ob-

scured by the dense pubescence. The fruits of Cremosperma will ap-

parently afford technical characters of importance also. Those of

Besleria are fleshy berries with a thick skin. Bentham originally de-

scribed those of Cremosperma as capsules opening by two valves, but

an examination of the few mature fruits available indicates rather

that they are capsules with thin membranous walls, not really two-

valved but rupturing irregularly. I have not been able to study any

mature seeds.

The number of species must now be increased from two to ten and

there are indications that further exploration of Colombia will reveal

still others. The species are apparently very local in distribution and

many are known from a single collection only. :

3 Genera Plantarum 2: 1016. 1876.

4 Engl. & Prantl. Pflanzenfam. 48>: 159. 1895.

5 Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin 11: 976. 1934.

286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

Cremosperma Benth.°®

Herbae perennes vel fruticuli perpusilli, caulibus erectis vel adscenden-

tibus vel repentibus. Folia opposita vel quaternata, aequalia vel inaequalia,

saepe ovata vel elliptica, interdum orbicularia vel oblanceolata, plerumque

basi subcordata, saepe hirsuta, petiolata, paucinervata. Inflorescentia race-

moso-capitata (vel raro flores solitarii?). Pedunculus communis brevis vel

elongatus. Calyx tubulosus, turbinatus vel cylindrico-turbinatus, 10-costa-

tus, lobis parvis, erectis, integris, acutis. Corolla alba, flava vel raro rubes-

cens vel coccinea (?), parva, tubo cylindrico vel infundibuliformi, lobis mag-

nis, patentibus, rotundatis. Stamina 4, didynama, loculis confluentibus. An-

nulus hypogynus annularis vel semi-annularis, glandulis discretis nullis.

Ovarium glabrum. Capsula subglobosa, membranacea, irregulariter de-

hiscens.

TypPE SPECIES: Cremosperma hirsutissimum Benth.

KEY TO SPECIES

Flowers racemose-capitate on a common peduncle. Mostly lowland species.

Leaves mostly borne in whorls of 3 or 4, equal, acute at base and apex.

Corolla white, the tube ampliate upwardly; calyx lobes deltoid. .

LEAS ES Les eee eve te be Cree eae 1. C. pusillum.

Leaves opposite, never in whorls.

Leaves of a pair unequal, the smaller one much reduced, sometimes

auriculiform; corolla tube hardly at all ampliate.

Larger leaves oblanceolate, acute at base, glabrate above; calyx lobes

ovate-deltoid; disk reduced to a bilobed posterior gland....

Be ee EE eC stn Me oe Ra Bee 2. C. congruens.

Larger leaves obliquely oval, obliquely subcordate at base, densely

sericeous-pilose above; calyx lobes linear-lanceolate; disk an-

STUNDE aes cs A Seca hg: hh eS Re i te gee aie 3. C. cotejense.

Leaves of a pair equal, subcordate or rounded at base; corolla tube

ampliate (except in C. Castroanum).

Calyx glabrous, except for the ciliate lobes, glaucous; common pe-

duncle about 10 cm. long; corolla reddish, glabrous........

2 RECON oe oe is RE cles e Rees enc ee ee 4. C. jucundum.

Calyx hirsute or hirsutulous, not glaucous; common peduncle not

more than 5 em. long; corolla white or yellow, pilose.

Corolla 8-10 mm. long, yellow, the lobes 1.5-2 mm. long. Leaves

ovate or elliptic, not tuberculate above.

Leaves glabrous above; calyx lobes deltoid, much shorter than

Uneicalyx tribes o¢ ets. ae ..5. C. ignotum.

Leaves hirsute above; calyx lobes lanceolate, almost equaling the

Galyex Miley ct tegen ee yas, ha nee 6. C. Castroanum.

Corolla 12-15 mm. long, the lobes 3-6 mm. long.

Calyx about 8.5 mm. long.

Leaves elongate-tuberculate above, about 4.5 em. long; calyx

lobes linear-lanceolate.................. 7. C. nobile.

6 Plant. Hartw. 234. 1846.

JUNE 15, 1935 MORTON: GENUS CREMOSPERMA 287

Leaves not tuberculate above, 7.5-8.5 cm. long; calyx lobes

ODIGIG et Mae ae eee ee 8. C. hirsutissimum.

Calyx about 5.5 mm. long, the lobes ovate, broad. Leaves not

tuberculate above, suborbicular, up to 6.2 em. wide;

CoLnollagwdanite wer, cqeictrdks sori der ce Cua 9. C. album.

Flowers aggregate in the leaf axils, a common peduncle absent. Calyx deeply

parted, the lobes lanceolate; corolla deep red. High mountain species.

RT SN i a Na SA ae Pr ihe st 10. C. cinnabarinum.

1. Cremosperma pusillum Morton, sp. nov.

Frutex pusillus, usque ad 20 em. altus; caules crassi, teretes, hirsuti, inter-

nodiis brevissimis, nodis perspicuis; folia ternata vel quaternata, aequalia,

parva, lamina anguste elliptica, maxima ca. 20 mm. longa et 7 mm. lata,

evidenter crenata, basi apiceque acuta, supra sparse hirsuta, saepe bullata,

subtus reticulata, imprimis in nervis villosa (nervis secundariis 4 vel 5 jugis),

petiolata, petiolo usque ad 15 mm. longo, hirsuto, gracili; pedunculus com-

munis tenuis, usque ad 3 cm. longus, glaber vel sparse pilosus; flores race-

moso-capitati, pauci, pedicellis usque ad 4 mm. longis, parce pilosis; calyx

campanulatus, ca. 5 mm. longus, sparse pilosus, tubo 2.5-3 mm. longo, lobis

deltoideis, obtusis; corolla alba, erecta, tubo cylindrico, ca. 11 mm. longo,

ca. 2 mm. lato, sursum ampliato et ca. 4 mm. lato, extus glabro vel parce

piloso, lobis magnis, ca. 5 mm. longis et 4 mm. latis, patentibus, rotundatis,

utrinque glabris; ovarium glabrum; stylus glaber; discus tenuis, altus, uno

latere interruptus; fructus deest.

Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected at Tambo de Savanilla, probably

Province of Narifio, Colombia, Dec. 18, 1876, by E. André (no. 4572); dupli-

cate in the New York Botanical Garden. A second collection of this species

is Kalbreyer 1470, in the Kew Herbarium, collected in the Province of

Antioquia, Colombia. This agrees in all particulars with the André speci-

mens.

Easily distinguishable by its very small ternate or quaternate leaves, in

contrast to strictly opposite leaves of the other species.

A somewhat larger specimen collected in Ecuador by Jameson appears

varietally distinct:

var. ecuadorense Morton, var. nov.

Differt a var. typica foliis majoribus (usque ad 5.3 em. longis et 2.7 cm.

latis), magis hirsutis, calycibus longioribus (ca. 9 mm. longis) et disco an-

nulari nec interrupto.

Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected on Mt. Pichincha, Ecuador, ca.

1,800 meters altitude, Jan. 21, 1856, by W. Jameson.

2. Cremosperma congruens Morton, sp. nov.

Herba parva, usque ad 15 cm. alta; caules teretes, strigosi, internodiis

brevibus; folia opposita, cujusve paris saepe valde inaequalia, alterum

lamina oblanceolata, usque ad 3.5 em. longa et 1.4 em. lata, apicem versus

serrata, acuta, basi attenuata, supra primum parce pilosa, mox glabrata,

subtus imprimis in nervis strigosa (nervis secundariis ca. 6 jugis), petiolata

(petiolo brevi, usque ad 3 mm. longo, strigoso), alterum parvum vel auri-

288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

culiforme, lanceolatum, integrum, vix petiolatum; pedunculus communis

tenuis, usque ad 27 mm. longus, glaber vel parce pilosus; flores racemoso-

capitati, pedicellis brevibus vel usque ad 7 mm. longis, pilosis; calyx tur-

binatus, 4.5 mm. longus, sericeo-strigosus, tubo 3.5-4 mm. longo. intus

glabro, lobis ovato-deltoideis, obtusis; corollae tubus erectus, cylindricus,

ca. 7 mm. longus et 1.5 mm. latus sursum non ampliatus, extus pilosus, lobis

magnis, ca. 3 mm. longis et 2 mm. latis, patentibus, rotundatis; filamenta

libera, glabra; antherae parvae, connatae; ovarium globossum, glabrum;

stylus glaber; stigma capitatum; discus in glandulam posticam bilobam re-

ductus.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,185,005, collected at Paime,

Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, altitude about 1,000 meters, by

Brother Ariste Joseph (no. A923). There is in the Hooker Herbarium at

Kew another specimen of this species collected at the same locality by

Goudot.

3. Cremosperma cotejense Morton, sp. nov.

Herba parva, usque ad 30 cm. alta; caules crassi, teretes, sparse pilosi;

folia herbacea, cujusve paris valde inaequalia, alterum oblique ovale, usque

ad 6 cm. longum et 2.5 em. latum, serratum, apice acutum, basi oblique sub-

cordatum, supra dense pilosum, subtus imprimis in nervis pilosum (nervyis

secundariis ca. 4 jugis), petiolatum, petiolis gracilibus, usque 12 mm. longis,

alterum auriculiforme, ca. 8 mm. longum, parum serratum, vix acutum, basi

subcordatum, vix petiolatum; pedunculus communis usque ad 2.5 em. longus

gracilis, sparse pilosus; flores racemoso-capitati, pedicellis brevissimis, ca.

2 mm. longis, gracilibus, sparse pilosis; calycis tubus ca. 2 mm. longus, an-

gustus, extus hirsutus, intus glaber, lobis lineari-lanceolatis, ca. 2mm. longis,

hirsutis; corollae tubus ca. 4 mm. longus, ca. 1 mm. latus, anguste cylind-

ricus, sursum vix ampliatus, glaber, in calyce inclusus, lobis ca. 3 mm. longis,

patentibus, albis, extus pilosis; antherae in fauce dispositae, connatae, par-

vae; filamenta glabra; ovarium glabrum; stylus glaber; discus annularis, in-

teger, glaber; fructus deest.

Type in herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected in dense,

damp forests around Coteje on Rio Timbiqué, Province of Cauca, Colombia,

altitude 100-500 meters, by F. C. Lehmann (no. 8888).

Lehmann’s field note reads as follows: ‘‘Stems up to 30 em. in length,

poorly ramified, procumbent at base. Leaves soft herbaceous, black-green,

on the upper side with a greasy sheen. Flowers white.” :

4. Cremosperma jucundum Morton, sp. nov.

Herba vix 15 em. alta; caules crassi, teretes, lanati; folia opposita, fere

aequalia, lamina ovata, usque ad 10 cm. longa et 6 cm. lata, membranacea,

leviter crenata, apice rotundata, basi subcordata, supra hirsuta, paullulum

bullata vel tuberculata, subtus imprimis in nervis lanata, nervis secundariis

ca. 6 jugis; petiolus brevis, usque ad 7 mm. longus, crassus, dense hirsutus;

pedunculus communis elongatus, usque ad 10 em. longus, gracilis, hirsutus;

flores racemosi-capitati, numerosi, pedicellis ca. 6 mm. longis, fere glabris,

glaucescentibus, apice incrassatis; calyx campanulato-turbinatus, ca. 4.5

mm. longus, glaber, glaucus, lobis deltoideis, ciliatis; corolla rubescens,

glabra, ca. 11 mm. longa, tubo cylindrico, sursum gradatim ampliato, non

ventricoso, lobis magnis, patentibus, rotundatis; ovarium glabrum; discus

annularis, integer, glaber.

JUNE 15, 1935 MORTON: GENUS CREMOSPERMA 289

Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected in the Province of Antioquia,

Colombia, in 1879, by Kalbreyer (no. 1821). Kalbreyer’s field note reads:

“Herb in tufts; leaf blackish-green with velvety lustre; flowers in umbels,

reddish. Forest shade, 2,700—3,000 feet.”

5. Cremosperma ignotum Morton, sp. nov.

Herba parva, usque ad 9 em. alta, caules perbreves, lanati; folia opposita,

cujusve paris aequalia, elliptica, maxima 5.8 em. longa et 3.2 (raro 3.8) cm.

lata, membranacea, integra vel parum denticulata, apice acuta vel rotun-

data, basi subcordata, supra glabra, subtus imprimis in nervis appresso-

pubescentia (nervis secundariis ca. 4 jugis), breviter petiolata, petiolo crasso,

ca. 7mm. longo, lanato; pedunculus communis tenuis, usque ad 4 em. longus,

‘fere glaber vel parce pilosus; flores racemoso-capitati, pedicellis brevibus vel

usque ad 3.5 mm. longis, pilosis; calyx turbinatus, ca. 3.5 mm. longus, 10-

costatus, imprimis in costis strigosus, tubo ca. 2.5 mm. longo, lobis ca. 1 mm.

longis, deltoideis, acutis, paullulum inaequalibus; corolla flava, 8-10 mm.

longa, extus parce pilosa, tubo cylindrico, fauce ampliato, lobis ca. 2 mm.

longis, patentibus, rotundatis; antherae parvae, connatae; ovarium glabrum;

discus annularis, altus, integer; fructus deest.

Type in the herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,

no. 642,556, collected in forest along Rio Caballete, Santa Rosa, Dagua Val-

ley, Department of El Valle, Colombia, altitude 200-300 meters, Sept. 22,

1922, by E. P. Killip (mo. 11540). A duplicate is in the herbarium of the

New York Botanical Garden.

6. Cremosperma Castroanum Morton, sp. nov.

Herba erecta, usque ad 20 em. alta; caules crassi, teretes, dense hirsuti;

folia opposita, aequalia, lamina ovata vel elliptica, usque ad 9.5 em. longa

et 6 cm. lata, membranacea, dentata, apice late obtusa vel rotundata, basi

rotundata, supra hirsuta, plana, subtus pilosa, nervis secundariis ca. 5 jugis;

petiolus usque ad 3 em. longus, hirsutus; pedunculus communis usque ad 5

em. longus, tenuis, pilosus; flores racemoso-capitati, numerosi, pedicellis

brevissimis, 2—2.5 mm. longis, pilosis; calyx eylindrico-turbinatus, ca. 5 mm.

longus, hirsutus, intus glaber, lobis lanceolatis, tubum fere aequantibus;

corolla flava, parva (usque ad 8.5 mm. longa), sparse pilosa, tubo cylindrico,

ca. 2 mm. lato, sursum vix ampliato, lobis semioblongis, 1.5 mm. longis,

rotundatis, patentibus; filamenta tenuia, glabra; antherae parvae; ovarium

glabrum, stylus glaber; stigma capitatum; discus annularis, brevis, integer,

glaber.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,517,374, collected at Tutun-

endo, 20 kilometers north of Quibd6, Intendencia de Chocé, Colombia, alti-

tude 80 meters, May 19-20, 1931, by W. A. Archer (no. 2151). I have seen

the following additional collections, all from the Intendencia de Choco:

Triana 2546; R. B. Whites. n.; La Concepcion, 15 kilometers east of Quibddé,

Archer 1998, 1970.

Named in honor of Senor Rudolfo Castro, of Quibdé, who was of great

assistance to Dr. Archer during his stay in Colombia.

Similar in aspect to C. album Morton, with which it grows, but easily dis-

tinguishable by its very small yellow corollas. The corolla tube is cylindric

and hardly at all widened upwardly. The larger, white corollas of C. album

have a markedly ampliate corolla tube and very wide throat.

290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

7. Cremosperma nobile Morton, sp. nov.

Herba parva, vix 20 em. alta; caules crassi, teretes, dense lanati; lamina

foliorum ovata, maxima ca. 4.5 em. longa et 3 em. lata, plus minusve crassa,

apice acuta, basi rotundata, perspicue crenata, supra hirsuta, elongato-

tuberculata, subtus hirsuta, nervis secundariis 5-8 jugis; petiolus erassus,

usque ad 2 em. longus, dense lanatus; pedunculus communis crassus, brevis,

ca. 12 mm. longus, dense lanatus; flores racemoso-capitati, pedicellis brevis-

simis, paucis, hirsutis; calycis tubus ca. 3.5 mm. longus, extus hirsutus, intus

glaber, lobis lineari-lanceolatis, ca. 5 mm. longis, acuminatis, extus hirsutis;

corollae tubus gracilis, ca. 8 mm. longus, anguste cylindricus, ca. 1 mm.

latus, sursum gradatum ampliatus, ca. 1.5 mm. latus, glaber, lobis magnis,

ca. 6 mm. longis, patentibus, extus pilosis; ovarium cylindricum, glabrum;

discus annularis, integer, glaber; fructus deest.

Type in herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected at

Armada, Province of Narifio, Colombia, May 22, 1876, by E. André (no.

K43).

A peculiar species by reason of the elongate-tuberculate upper surfaces

of the leaves, in which respect it is analogous to Besleria princeps Hanst.

8. CREMOSPERMA HIRSUTISSIMUM Benth. Plant. Hartw. 234. 1846.

Founded on a Hartweg specimen collected in the Andes of Popaydan,

Colombia. This, the type species of the genus, has not since been recollected.

9. Cremosperma album Morton, sp. nov.

Herba repens, usque ad. 20 cm. alta; caules teretes, crassi, hirsuti; folia

opposita, aequalia, lamina suborbiculari, maxima ca. 9 em. longa et 6.2 em.

lata, membranacea, apice dentata vel subintegra, late rotundata, basi sub-

cordata, supra hirsuta, subtus imprimis in nervis hirsuta, nervis secundariis

ca. 5 jugis; petiolus crassus, hirsutus, usque ad 2.2 em. longus; pedunculus

communis usque ad 4 em. longus, dense hirsutus; flores racemoso-capitati,

numerosi, pedicellis brevibus, 1.5-3.5 mm. longis, hirsutis; calyx late tur-

binatus, ca. 5.5 mm. longus, hirsutus, lobis ovatis, latis; corolla alba, 12-15

mm. longa, pilosa, tubo basi cylindrico, ca. 2 mm. lato, sursum subito am-

pliato et 8 mm. lato, lobis magnis, ca. 3 mm. longis, patentibus, late rotunda-

tis, ovarium glabrum; discus annularis, altus, irregulariter erosus, glaber.

Type in the herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,

no. 642,503, collected at Cordoba, Dagua Valley, Department of El Valle,

Colombia, altitude 80-100 meters, May 8, 1922, by E. P. Killip (no. 5242).

Duplicates in the Gray Herbarium, the herbarium of the New York Bo-

tanical Garden, and the U. 8. National Herbarium. An additional specimen

was collected in the Intendencia de Chocé by Triana.

10. Cremosperma cinnabarinum (Fritsch) Morton, comb. nov.

Besleria (Cremosperma) cinnabarina Fritsch, Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin.

11. 976. 1934.

Type collected in glades of dense forests in the Montafa de Caramanta,

Dept. of El Valle, Colombia, August, 1891, altitude 2,300-2,600 meters, by

F. C. Lehmann (no. 7441).

JUNE 15, 1935 COVILLE AND MORTON: A NEW MAURANDIA 291

The present species, of which I have seen no material, may not be con-

generic with those above described, the axillary flowers, as well as the corolla

color, being anomalous. The habit also is apparently different, the stem be-

ing described as up to one meter long, whereas the stems of none of the other

species exceed 30 cm. in length. Lehmann’s note is as follows: ‘‘ Weed with

fleshy stems up to 1 m. in height. Leaves dull yellow green. Flowers light

vermilion.”’

BOTAN Y.—A new species of Maurandia from Death Valley.:. Frep-

ERICK V. CoviLLE and C. V. Morton, U. S. Nationat HEr-

BARIUM.

The genus Maurandia of the family Scrophulariaceae consists, ac-

cording to the monograph? by Prof. P. A. Munz of Pomona College,

of eight species, all natives of Mexico with the exception of M. antir-

rhiniflora H. & B., a peculiar species which has been shifted back and

forth between Maurandia and Antirrhinum for many years. At the

time of publication of this monograph M. antirrhiniflora was the only

species known from the United States, but shortly thereafter a second

species, M. acerifolia® Pennell, was described from Arizona. During

the course of field work in Death Valley under the auspices of the

National Geographic Society the senior author in company with Mr.

M. French Gilman found a plant of this alliance which at first was

considered to represent a new generic type, because of its one-celled

ovaries and capsules. Later collections by Mr. Gilman have shown,

however, that occasionally both cells of the ovary are fully developed

and fertile. It has seemed best, therefore, to consider this plant, de-

spite its peculiar characters, as a new species of Maurandia, although

future studies may show that it is as distinct generically as Hpiai-

phium and Rhodochiton, monotypic genera segregated from Mau-

randia.

That our knowledge of the flora of the arid Southwest is as yet far

from complete is well shown by the fact that the only yellow-flowered

species of Maurandia known, viz., M. flaviflora, M. acerifolia, and M.

petrophila, have all been discovered within the last few years. M.

petrophila does not resemble the other two very closely.

The original specimens were growing in a crevice of the north-fac-

ing, vertical rock wall of Titus Canyon, composed at that point of a

almost white limestone.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived April 30, 1935.

2 The Antirrhinoideae-Antirrhineae of the New World. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. IV.

15: 323-397. 1926.

3 This JOURNAL 19: 69. 1929.

292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

PLANTS OF DEATH VALLEY, CALIFORNIA

FREDERICK V. COVILLE * > aa?

Ne 5 gs od M. FRENCH GILMAN } Cottec tors Apcieed > 1932

Maurandia petrophila Coville & Morton, sp. nov.

(Type specimen; about two-thirds natural size)

Maurandia petrophila Coville & Morton, sp. nov.

Section Lophospermum. Herba perennans, erecta, usque ad 17 cm. alta,

basi ramosa; caules pallido-virides, ca. 2mm. diametro, villosuli, pilis hya-

linis articulatis eglandulosis, internodiis saepissime brevibus; folia alterna,

petiolata, petiolis usque ad 3 em. longis, villosulis, apice dilatatis; laminae

JUNE 15, 19385 COVILLE AND MORTON: A NEW MAURANDIA 293

ambitu suborbiculares, usque ad 3 cm. longae et latae, membranaceae, pal-

lido-virides, basi in petiolum attenuatae, apice rotundatae vel acutae, mar-

gine irregulariter et acriter spinuloso-dentatae, utrinque molliter villosulae;

flores in axillis foliorum solitarii, pedicellati, pedicellis brevissimis; calycis

segmenta fere libera, lineari-lanceolata, per anthesin usque ad 15 mm. longa

et 2.5 mm. lata, acuminata, margine valde spinulosa, pallido-viridia, utrin-

que villosula; corolla lutea, tubulosa, usque ad 3.5 cm. longa, basi non

saccata, tubo ca. 5 mm. lato, extus fere glabro vel apicem versus villosulo,

intus glabro vel pilis paucis hyalinis praedito, sursum gradatim ampliato,

fauce 7-9 mm. lato, plicis duobus aurantiacis vix puberulis instructo, lobis

patentibus, magnis, usque 9 mm. longis, imbricatis, basi paullulum angusta-

tis, apice late rotundatis, integris; stamina 4, didynama, inclusa, filamentis

sparse stipitato-glandulosis, apice recurvatis, antheris semicircularibus, locu-

lis explanatis, discretis, glabris; staminodium nullum; ovarium glabrum,

ovoideum; stylus tenuis, glaber; discus hypogynus brevis, annularis; cap-

sula sphaeroidea, ca. 9 mm. diametro, glabra, stylo peristente coronata, uni-

locularis (loculo altero abortivo, sterili) vel rarissime bilocularis, placenta

magna intrusa persistente, irregulariter apice dehiscens, textura mem-

branacea; semina numerosa, subpyramidalia, ca. 2.5 mm. longa, 2mm. apice

lata, pallido-flava vel cinerea, apice alulis brevissimis non nunquam trans-

versalibus praedita, dense tuberculata, tuberculis spongiosis, in lineis irregu-

laribus longitudinalibus dispositis.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,565,465, collected in Titus

Canyon, Grapevine Mountains, Death Valley, California, April 25, 1932,

at 2100 feet elevation, by Frederick V. Coville and M. French Gilman (no.

441). Mr. Gilman has since collected this species at the type locality, on

April 17 and April 29, 1984 (Gilman nos. 1108 and 1195 respectively).

The following key will serve to separate the present species from M.

acerifolia:

Leaves conspicuously spinulose, suborbicular; pedicels very short; corolla

up to 35 mm. long; calyx lobes linear-lanceolate, spinulose; seeds pale,

ASO UG RRO RIVMIN OIG ens rele oh statue Sei an See rcam set rete M. petrophila.

Leaves shallowly dentate or lobed, cordate or reniform; pedicels 10-20

mm. long; corolla up to 22 mm. long; calyx lobes triangular-ovate,

entire; seeds gray or blackish, 1-1.5 mm. long....... M. acerifolia.

294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Notes

U.S. Department of Agriculture.—A systematic search for the best existing

strains of cultivated plants and domestic animals has been undertaken by

the Department, in cooperation with the 48 state agricultural experiment

stations, genetics research institutions in foreign countries, and private plant

and animal breeders. The initial task undertaken is the compiling of a cata-

log of plant and animal superior germ plasms. A committee under the chair-

manship of O. E. Rreep, chief of the Bureau of Dairy Industry, and includ-

ing Dr. A. F. BLAKESLEE of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, is now

assembling and analyzing a mass of data from experiment stations and else-

where. The results of this analysis will appear in the 1936 Yearbook of the

Department of Agriculture. The next step will be to concentrate on those

plant and animal problems most capable of solution by genetic improve-

ment, and to work out effective research methods. The final step involves

distribution of breeding stocks to the best possible advantage.

U. S. National Park Service—Late in April Assistant Director HaroLp

C. Bryant made a tour of inspection of the Great Smoky Mountains

National Park with a view to laying the ground work for educational

activities to be carried on when that area receives full national park status.

It is the opinion that trips afield to study plant and animal life will become

very popular with visitors because of the wide variety and unique forms to

be found there.

Park naturalist ArTHuUR StupKa of Acadia National Park has been de-

tailed to the National Capital Parks Office for a period of six weeks to in-

stitute a series of educational programs similar to those given last Spring.

A complete series of field trips and campfire programs in Rock Creek Park

has been arranged.

National Bureau of Standards.—Dr. Lyman J. Brices, Director of the

National Bureau of Standards, is serving as chairman of the advisory com-

mittee of the 1935 stratosphere flight, under the auspices of the National

Geographic Society and the U. S. Army Air Corps. Dr. Brices left Wash-

ington on May 28, to deliver the baccalaureate address at the South Dakota

State School of Mines, Rapid City, S. D., on May 30, before proceeding to

the stratocamp in time to supervise the final arrangements for the flight

which will take place on the first favorable opportunity after June first.

Dr. F. L. Mouuer of the optics division of the National Bureau of Stand-

ards spent the week of May 5 in Rochester, N. Y., for the purpose of in-

specting the two spectrographs which will be used in the 1935 stratosphere

flight. The National Geographic Society has asked Dr. Mouuer to be pres-

ent at the stratocamp to make the final adjustments of these instruments.

Dr. W. G. BromBacuer is at the stratocamp at Rapid City, South Da-

kota, at the invitation of the National Geographic Society to assist in the

installation of the instruments for measuring air pressure and air tempera-

ture. The instruments to be installed on the stratosphere balloon include a

resistance thermometer, a U-tube type mercurial barometer about 6 inches

high and a precision aneroid barometer of unusual design constructed this

year. Dr. BROMBACHER will also serve as the directing official for the Na-

tional Aeronautic Association through which organization certification is

JUNE 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 295

made of the altitude attained in order to obtain international recognition.

Dr. H. C. Dicxrnson, chief of the heat and power division, has been ap-

pointed to represent the National Bureau of Standards in connection with

the organization of a sectional committee under A. S. A. procedure on stand-

ards for the inspection of motor vehicles, at the invitation of the American

Standards Association of New York City.

U.S. Geological Survey—The Interior Department through the Geological

Survey has released the regular report of monthly and annual production

of electricity for public use in the United States for 1934. This report shows

for each State the monthly production of electricity for public use by the

use of water power and the use of fuel and the amount of coal, oil, and gas

consumed in generating electricity. The total production in 1934 was

91,150,000,000 kilowatt-hours, an increase of 6.7 per cent over the output

for 1933 which in turn was 2.7 per cent above the total output for 1932. The

output for 1934 was 6.4 per cent less than the record output of 97,352,000,000

kilowatt-hours in 1929.

George Washington University and Carnegie Institulion of Washington.—

A conference on theoretical physics was held in Washington, D. C., on April

19, 20, and 21, under the joint auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-

ington and the George Washington University. This was the first of a series

which it is hoped may be held annually in Washington. The discussions at

this first conference were devoted to various topics in nuclear physics. Re-

searches in this field are being conducted at the Department of Terrestrial

Magnetism of the Institution and George Washington University.

In addition to interested men of science from Washington, the following

were present: G. Breit, University of Wisconsin; E. U. Conpon and R.

LApDENBURG, Princeton University; P. A. M. Dirac, Princeton and Cam-

bridge universities; S. Goupsmit and G. E. Ustenseck, University of

Michigan, A. Lanp&, Ohio State University; L. Norpurim, Purdue Uni-

versity; H. A. Breton, Cornell University; G. Brcx, University of Kansas,

I. I. Rasi, Columbia University; O. StprN and 8. A. Youne, Carnegie In-

stitute of Technology; J. H. Barruett, University of Illinois; D. R. IneuIs,

University of Pittsburgh; E. Frrnspure, Harvard University; W. K.

Houston, California Institute of Technology; E. O. Lawrencz, Univer-

sity of California; Lro Sziuarp, Oxford University; L. H. Gray, Cambridge

University.

News Briers

The quick healing of bad wounds brought about by fly larvae introduced

into them is at least partly due to the secretion of allantoin by the larvae,

Dr. Witu1aM Rosinson of the Bureau of Entomology, U. 8. Department of

Agriculture, has discovered. Allantoin has long been used in the treatment

of ulcers and infected wounds.

The School of Medicine of George Washington University announces the

acceptance of several grants for various research projects as follows: From

the Rockefeller Foundation the sum of $25,500 in support of studies in the

department of biochemistry; a renewal of the Kane-Kotz Fund of $1,700 for

studies on clinical endocrinology in the department of obstetrics and gyne-

cology; from the Eli Lilly Company the sum of $1,200 for a fellowship in

biochemistry, and a grant of $1,800 for the study of the post-pituitary

hormones from Parke, Davis and Company.

296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6

PERSONAL ITEMS

Dr. Frank Rarrray Litwin, of the University of Chicago and the Woods

Hole Marine Biological Laboratory and Oceanographic Institute, has been

elected President of the National Academy of Sciences and Chairman of the

National Research Council.

Dr. IsatAH Bowman, retiring Chairman of the National Research Coun-

cil, has been elected President of the Johns Hopkins University.

Dr. Vernon Kewuoae, Secretary Emeritus of the National Research

Council, was elected Honorary Vice President of Science Service upon his

retirement from the board of trustees of that Institution. New trustees

elected are: Dr. Hartow SuHap.ey, director of Harvard College Observa-

tory, representing the National Academy of Sciences; Dr. Hunry B. Warp,

permanent secretary of the American Association for the Advancement of

Science, representing that institution, and Dr. Lupvig Hexrosmn, director

of the John McCormick Institution for Infectious Diseases, representing the

National Research Council.

At the commencement exercises of Washington College, Chestertown,

Maryland, the degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred on Dr. Joun M. H.

RowLanpD, dean of the Medical School of the University of Maryland, and

on Dr. Ropert L. Swarn, Deputy Commissioner of Food and Drugs of

Maryland and past president of the American Pharmaceutical Society.

The Walter Rathbone Bacon traveling scholarship of the Smithsonian In-

stitution has been awarded to Dr. RicHarp E. BLAcKWELDER of the U. 8.

National Museum, for an intensive study of the staphylinid beetles of the

West Indies.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL Papprs

Biology.—Biology and human trends. RAYMOND PHARL.................++ ; 4 253 ;

Pharmacology.—The toxicity for sheep of water solutions of hydrocyanic acid —

and the effectiveness of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination as a remedy. ;

James F. Coucn, A. B. CLawson and H. Buny@a.. dis ate he kee

Geology.—Notes on the structure of the Erin shale of Alabama. C.F. pad

ane)

Entomology.—Three new reared parasitic Hymenoptera, with some notes on aia

synonymy. C.F. W. MuUnsmRECK, Jit: ach tht J ee ee :

Entomology.—An undescribed rubber tingitid from Brazil (Hemiptera). Cc J

Drake and M. E. POOR: = ties oes ots 5s agh 2a tien sae sie ate ‘

Botany.—The genus Cremosperma. C. V. MorRTON...........es0s0-- ey oh

Botany.—A new species of Maurandia from Death ‘Valley. _FREDERICE

Covina and. O.: V-GMORTON 2. divs <n « fepicune dole sishinel sapien ae

Scmimmnrte Noma Ann News. toot he a eee ee

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

asl

ee eae

ka ee

a bas

Pi ht Teal

ee ae Soe To

“yr

Von. 25 - Juny 15, 1935 No. 7

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vor. 25 JuLy 15, 1935 No. 7

PALEONTOLOGY .—Annotated list of Pleistocene Mammalia from

American Falls, Idaho C. Lewis Gazin, U. 8. National Mu-

seum. (Communicated by J. B. Rmrsipe, JR.)

Pleistocene vertebrate remains have been encountered at several

localities along the course of the Snake River in southern Idaho. In

the eastern part of the basin the fossils occur in loose sand and gravel

and have been uncovered as a result of placer mining or quarrying for

road material. At American Falls the fossils were discovered in a

gravel quarry a short distance from the eastern end of the American

Falls dam. The deposits in the pit consist of alternate layers or lenses

of gravel and sand capped by an argillaceous mud, the bones occur-

ring principally in the gravel and coarser sand.

While in Idaho during the summer seasons of 1929 and 1930, Dr. J.

W. Gidley, accompanied by C. P. Singleton, visited American Falls

and obtained for the National Museum a collection of vertebrate

fossils. In 1934 the locality was investigated by the writer’s party and

additional material uncovered. The greater part of the collection

consists of the remains of relatively large animals; apparently, small,

fragile specimens were not readily preserved, hence the list is very

incomplete.

The assemblage recognized is clearly Pleistocene and may repre-

sent a glacial stage as suggested by the presence of musk-ox remains.

As to the portion of the Pleistocene represented no certain evidence is

apparent in the known fauna. Dr. O. P. Hay? cited forms occurring

in these gravels at various localities together with the fauna then

recognized as from the Idaho formation in the western part of the

basin and the whole was allocated to the Nebraskan stage. This

procedure was unwarranted as the faunas may be quite distinct,

certainly when comparisons are made with the Hagerman assemblage.

pepo aned by permission of the Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Received February 12,

2 Hay, O. P. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 322B: 268-269. 1927.

297 JUL 5.

298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

EDENTATA

Megalonyx cf. jeffersonii (Desmarest)

Megalonychid remains from American Falls consist essentially of two

jaw portions and miscellaneous foot bones. Description of this and the my-

lodont material has been presented in an earlier paper.* No new information

is furnished by the additional material obtained in 1934.

Paramylodon harlani? (Owen)

Remains of mylodont sloth are scarcer in the gravel pit than those of Meg-

alonyx and, since the sloth material collected by Gidley was described, a

fourth metacarpal and an ungual claw have been added to the collection.

CARNIVORA

Cf. Aenocyon dirus (Leidy)

The distal portions of two humeri and an abraded phalange cannot be

distinguished from the corresponding parts of the large dog Aenocyon dirus

as represented at Rancho La Brea.

Canis sp.

An incomplete humerus, a tibia and a third metatarsal are recognized as

belonging to a dog somewhat smaller than Canis occidentalis but larger than

a coyote.

Urocyon? sp.

A small fox is indicated in the fauna by a fragmentary mandible portion.

The specimen is without teeth but exhibits the alveoli for the posterior root

of the carnassial, M, and the single rooted M3.

Ursid sp.

The proximal end of a large femur and a fragmentary distal end of a hu

merus included in the collection are recognized as bear. The specimens sug-

gest an individual about the size of the Alaskan brown bear, Ursus gyas,

although the form represented may well be one of the large arctotheres. The

fragment of a humerus is not sufficiently complete to show the presence or

absence of an entepicondylar foramen.

Felis near F. atrox Leidy

Representing the cat is a fourth metacarpal, no. 13723 U.S. N. M., and

a radius, no. 13747 U.S. N. M. The total length of the fourth metacarpal is

114 mm., this being smaller than the average in Felis atrox of Rancho La

Brea but somewhat greater than the minimum figure given by Merriam and

Stock. However, the fourth metacarpal appears relatively slenderer than

5 Gazin, C. L. Jour. Mammalogy, 16: 52-60. 1935.

4 Merriam, J. C., and Stock, CuesTer. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 422: 131-133, table 60,

fig. 96. 1932.

JULY 15, 1935 GAZIN: PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS 299

the Rancho La Brea specimen figured. The radius is 312 mm. long, which is

5 mm. under the least figure given by Merriam and Stock for this element.

The radius is comparable in size to radii in large individuals of Felzs leo. It is

possible that an unusually large individual of Felis daggett: is represented.

RODENTIA

Citellus sp.

In the seant collection of rodents from American Falls are five fragmentary

mandibles of ground squirrel. In only one of the jaws are any teeth preserved

and these are so badly worn that the cusp pattern is entirely obliterated. The

specimens represent a small species apparently close in size to Citellus rich-

ardsonii. A resemblance is also seen to Citellus elegans, although the fossil

jaws differ somewhat from both modern forms in having a relatively longer

cheek tooth row, as indicated by the alveoli.

Thomomys cf. townsendii (Bachman)

Pocket gophers are represented by eight mandible portions and a number

of limb elements. Four of the jaws retain P, and in one the second molar is

preserved. The species is distinctly large and compares favorably with

Thomomys townsendii, now living in the vicinity of American Falls. Com-

parison, however, with several specimens of 7’. townsendiz show the teeth in

the fossil jaws to be somewhat wider than the average in living specimens.

Castor sp.

The beaver material includes the greater part of a tibia, the distal end of a

femur and two metapodial fragments. These indicate a beaver somewhat

larger than Castor canadensis, approaching in size the later Pliocene beaver

found at Hagerman. Possibly the species Castor accessor Hay is represented

although no teeth were found on which to make a comparison.

Erethizon sp.

A single left ramus of a mandible without cheek teeth and retaining only

the base of an incisor is recognized as porcupine.

LAGOMORPHA

Lepus sp.

A relatively large hare is indicated by several fragments of tibiae and

femora, the distal end of a humerus, two caleanea, two metapodials and

phalanges. The form represented may be Lepus townsendii or Lepus cali-

fornicus. From the age of the deposits it is unlikely that Hypolagus is in-

cluded.

Sylvilagus? sp.

A fragment of a lower jaw without teeth, and a few fragments of limb

bones show the presence of a second and distinctly smaller leporid. The jaw

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

is about the size of that in the brush rabbit, Syloilagus bachmani. Although

the form represented may be a species of Brachylagus, the living Brachylagus

idahoensis possesses a somewhat smaller jaw.

PROBOSCIDEA

Mammut americanum (Kerr)

Included in the mastodon material is a right mandibular ramus, No. 13701

U. S. N. M., in which is preserved a moderately worn last molar. The

specimen corresponds closely to other specimens in the National Museum

identified as this species.

Elephas columbi? Falconer

Two maxillary portions in the collection, one of which No. 13703 U.

S. N. M., retains a partially worn last molar and the other, No. 13702 U.S.

N. M., a badly worn second molar in addition to the third, are apparently

to be referred to the columbian mammoth.

PERISSODACTYLA

Equus cf. occidentalis Leidy

Horse remains consist of an assortment of teeth and foot bones. The teeth

are appreciably smaller than in Equus pacificus as represented at Christmas

and Fossil Lakes in Oregon, and somewhat smaller than the type of Equus

idahoensis. The specimens do not differ greatly in size from Equus occiden-

talis material from Rancho La Brea but the enamel pattern is slightly

more complicated, comparable in this respect to the type of F#. occiden-

talis as illustrated by Leidy.® The pattern on the teeth varies considerably

between specimens but is distinctly simpler than in most teeth described

as Hquus complicatus.

ARTIODACTYLA

Camelops cf. hesternus (Leidy)

Perhaps the most abundant material obtained from the gravel deposit is

that of camel. This includes considerable limb and foot material and an

assortment of upper and lower teeth. There are also a maxillary portion of

the skull with three molars, No. 13718 U.S. N. M., a premaxillary-maxillary

fragment, No. 13719 U. 8. N. M., with the third incisor and alveolus for

the canine, and three incomplete mandibles. One of the lower jaws, No.13720

U.S. N. M., possesses a complete, though well worn, cheek dentition. The

form is apparently close to Camelops hesternus as identified at Rancho La

Brea, and probably identical to Camelops minidokae Hay‘ from a gravel bed

° Lewy, Josepu. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr. Rept., 1: pl. 33, figs. 1-2. 1873.

6 Hay, O.P. Op. cit., 90-93, pl. 8, figs. 2-3. 1927.

JuLY 15, 1935 GAZIN: PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS 301

near Minidoka, Idaho. The American Falls jaws do not show evidence of a

vestigal P; seen in the type of C. minzdokae but this character may not have

been persistent in the Minidoka camel as the teeth are otherwise similar to

those in the American Falls form. Comparisons between the premaxillary-

maxillary portion and the type of Camelops kansanus as illustrated by

Merriam’ show the alveoli for I? and C to be somewhat larger but less

widely separated in the American Falls specimen. However, no important

differences in teeth and foot material were observed when comparisons were

made with Camelops kansanus from Hay Springs, Nebraska.

Cf. Antilocapra americana (Ord)

Two humeri, a tibia, caleaneum and an incomplete anterior cannon bone

in the collection are nearly identical with those in the living prong-horn an-

telope. It is interesting to note that these elements with the possible excep-

tion of the cannon bone can be closely approximated in the mule deer,

Odocoileus hemionus and in the columbian black-tailed deer, Odocozleus

columbianus.

Bison alleni Marsh

Nearly all of the bison material in the collection, which is almost as abun-

dant as camel, is referred to Bison alleni. A cranial portion, No. 13692 U.S.

N. M., including the right horn-core and a somewhat larger isolated horn-

core, No. 138693 U.S. N. M., are so close to the type of B. alleni that the

identity is not questioned. In addition to the horn material are portions of

seven Jaws, a number of loose teeth and a variety of limb and foot bones. The

size of the limb and foot bones in addition to the heaviness of the horns in-

dicate an animal of considerable robustness.

Bison sp.

An isolated bovid cannon bone, No. 13713 U.S. N. M., in the collection is

considerably smaller than those referred to Bison alleni and compares favor-

ably with the corresponding element in a small individual of Bison occiden-

talis as recognized in a Pleistocene collection from Riverton, Minnesota.®

Symbos cavifrons (Leidy)

The collection includes two incomplete musk-ox skulls, a portion of a

palate with two molars on each side, a fragment of a lower jaw and a few

isolated teeth. The two skulls exhibit both horn-cores and the occipital re-

gion, but the rostral portion is missing in one and only partially preserved in

the other. The skulls are characterized by unusually robust horns, the

extremities of which extend well out from the skull. It may be noted that in

much of the described skull material referred to Symbos cavifrons the horns

are less robust and more rapidly tapering than in the type as illustrated by

7 Merriam, J. C. Univ. Calif. Pub. Bull. Dept. Geol. 7: 305-323, figs. 10a-10b. 1913.

8 Hay, O. P. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 63: art. 5: 1 -8, pls. 1-2. 1923.

302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

Osgood, whereas the American Falls specimens have even heavier and longer

horns which stand out from the side of the skull somewhat more than in the

type. It is estimated that the distance between the extremities of the

horn-cores on one of the specimens, though the tips are not complete, would

be about 680 mm. The anteroposterior diameter at the base of the horn is

about 115 mm. and the vertical diameter about 102 mm.

° Oscoop, W. H., Smithsonian Mise. Coll., Quart. Issue, 3: pt. 2, 173-185, pl. 40, fig. 1, pl.

41, fig. 1. 1905.

BIOLOGY.—Longevity and fertility in the pond snail, Lymnaea colu-

mella.' CHARLES P. WINSOR AND AGNES A. WINSOR. (Com-

municated by RayMonD PEARL.)

The essential preliminary to any reasoned, quantitative discussion

of population problems is accurate knowledge of birth and death rates.

Unfortunately, such knowledge is almost completely non-existent.

Aside from our knowledge about man, virtually everything that we

know of birth and death rates in other forms is due, directly or in-

directly, to Pearl. Under these circumstances it seems legitimate to

add a certain amount of data, even though it fails to conform in all

respects to the standards set by Pearl on Drosophila.

The data here presented deal with duration of life and fertility in

the pulmonate gastropod Lymnaea columella. Some account of the

biology and laboratory husbandry of this animal has already been

given by Baily (1) and by ourselves (7).

The conditions under which the observations were made may be

stated briefly. Eggs from wild snails isolated in the laboratory were

collected and separated before hatching; from each egg mass 10 eggs

were placed in one finger bowl and 2 eggs in each of five others. A total

of 180 snails was used in each series. Leaf lettuce was used as food,

except for a period of about four weeks during which iceberg lettuce

was used. The substitution was unavoidable, and unfortunate. Let-

tuce and water were changed three times a week; the conditions were

arranged so that light and temperature were reasonably uniform or

all animals.

The wild parents of the snails were collected in two ponds in the

vicinity of Baltimore, designated here as the Falls Road pond and the

Boyce Avenue pond. In addition to these wild ancestors of known

origin, two snails isolated from laboratory aquaria furnished eggs for

1 From The Department of Biology of The School of Hygiene and Public Health, The Johns

Hopkins University, and The Biological Laboratories, Harvard University. Received March 14,

1935.

JuLY 15, 1935 WINSOR AND WINSOR: POND SNAIL 303

this experiment; nothing is known concerning their origin. These

animals were isolated in the laboratory in finger bowls with about

150 ml. of spring water, fed with leaf lettuce, and their eggs collected

TABLE 1.—PeErRceEntT SNAILS SURVIVING AT GivEN AGES (RECKONED FROM

OviposITIoN)

5 Percent Survivin Tr ivin

AytORR IDENT Tienall Bae 2 nD 10

15 100.0 100.0

25 Qil 76.4

35 79.9 62.4

45 C7 oil 47.9

55 76.0 47.3

65 74.9 45.5

75 74.3 45.5

85 74.3 45.5

95 70.4 43.7

105 70.4 42.5

115 68.2 38.8

125 67.0 37.6

135 64.3 34.6

145 60.9 34.0

155 50.3 31.0

165 41.9 25.5

175 30.7 22.5

185 18.4 10.9

195 4.5 4.8

205 2 0.6

215 Iho 0.0

225 0.0

daily. The eggs so obtained were allowed to develop for about a week,

at which time healthy-appearing clutches were selected for the ex-

perimental population. These eggs were removed from the capsule and

placed in finger bowls with spring water.

TABLE 2.—BriomMetrRic CONSTANTS OF DURATION OF LIFE

Initial Density Initial Density

2 0

Mean 128.8+3.2 days 88.7+3.6 days

Standard Deviation 63.4+2.3 days 70.2+2.5 days

Coefficient of Variation AQ 22 1% 79.1+5.3%

Table 1 and Figure 1 show the survivors at given ages out of 100

snails hatching. Table 2 gives the mean, standard deviation, and

coefficient of variation of duration of life for each series.

It will be observed that these life tables differ from those hitherto

published for Drosophila and other forms, in that there is present a

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

high infant mortality. We do not feel entirely certain, however, that

this mortality is not at least partially attributable to experimental tech-

nique. Of the total deaths under forty days, just over half, in each series,

were due to snails crawling out of water and drying on the dish (45

PERCENT SURVIVING

16)

25 50 7S lOO p25 150 175 ZOO W225

AGE IN DAYS

Fig. 1.—Percent snails surviving to given ages. Open circles density 2; solid circles density 10.

out of 85 deaths in the 10 snail series, 22 out of 40 in the 2 snail series).

But we may observe that (a) this mortality is markedly higher in the

high density series, and (b) there remains a high infant mortality

even after deaths from desiccation have been excluded. Whether im-

proved technique would eliminate infant mortality is not certain,

though we are disposed to believe that it would.

We may further note that except for infant mortality there are no

significant differences in the life tables at the two densities.

In Table 3 are presented data relative to egg production. In this

table we have indicated the parentage of the snails considered, and

for each parent we-have grouped the data according to the density at

the date of deposition of the first eggs. We have calculated in each case

gJuLY 15, 1935 WINSOR AND WINSOR: POND SNAIL 305

the egg production per snail at each density, and also the egg produc-

tion per snail-day in excess of 70 days. (The figure of 70 days corre-

sponds approximately to the date of earliest egg production; no es-

TABLE 3.—EHae Propuction

Total 1

Parent Density Aes Te Bee nein ae

over 70 Snail-day

1 3 1 658 219 260 P5333

2 2 1,298 325 276 4.70

i 2 1,604 802 189 8.48

2 a 1 1,283 183 664 1.94

6 1 1,116 186 577 1.94

5 1 1,729 346 422 4.09

2 10 18 , 542 927 1,573 iL, 1)

1 4 3,907 977 308 12.66

4 5 2 1,316 732 813 9.00

3 1 594 198 147 4.04

2 9 22,489 1,249 1,748 12.86

1 4 7,360 1,840 430 W7/ WA

8 4 1 1,404 351 326 4.31

D 7 4,941 353 1,076 4.59

1 4 3,012 878 408 8.61

12 4 1 1,731 433 405 4.27

2 8 9,729 608 1,571 6.19

1 3 3,048 1,016 346 8.81

15 6 1 3,404 681 530 6.42

2 4 6,192 774 856 7.23

1 1 51 51 57 .90

16 8 1 2,427 303 588 4.13

4 1 2,724 681 481 5.66

2 8 11,090 693 I Ceoe/ 6.38

1 2 1,431 715 188 Uf MOil

N?/ 3 1 1,972 657 339 5.82

2 3 4,609 768 660 6.98

1 1 778 778 123 6.33

A-2 3 1 2,367 789 241 9.82

2 1 2,640 1,320 222 11.89

1 5 8,404 1,681 } 541 15.53

A-3 3 1 4,398 1 , 466 358 12.28

2 3 5,948 991 530 11.22

1 2 3,023 1,511 206 14.67

sential change is introduced if we use some other figure, as 60 days,

or even if we use total snail days.)

There are two features of this table which deserve comment. First,

considerable differences in fertility exist from one strain to another,

which suggest genetic differences. Second, and more important, there

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

is a clearly marked effect of density of population on fertility. With

very few exceptions, there is a regular increase in fertility per head,

however measured, as density decreases. (The exceptions may reason-

ably be attributed to sampling fluctuations.) We thus see that in these

animals the same effect of density on fertility exists which Pearl (5)

has found in Drosophila. Whether the mechanism of the effect is

similar cannot at present be stated.

A third point which seems to us of some interest relates to the re-

productive physiology of these animals. As we have already shown,

isolated animals lay more eggs than pairs. Further, observation in-

dicates that the proportion of viable eggs is as high in the eggs laid by

singles as in those laid by paired animals. On the other hand, Boycott

and Diver (2), who, in the course of their genetic work have raised

enormous numbers of Lymnaea, state that cross-fertilization is ap-

parently the rule; and that isolated animals will reproduce, but ap-

parently only as a last resort, their egg production beginning mark-

edly later than that of pairs.

TABLE 4.—AGcbz In Days at First Oviposition, PArrs AND SINGLES

Pairs Singles

= Mean Age Mean Age

Wild Numb 4 Numb +

Parent of Dishes Renee of Dishes ote

1 2 91.0 2 122.0

i 10 Call 4 75.0

+ 9 78.4 4 77.0

8 6 95.3 4 87.3

12 7 82.9 3 78.7

15 4 85.7 1 94.0

16 u 93.1 2 82.5

17 3 91.3 1 92.0

A-2 1 81.0 5 72.8

A-3 3 76.3 2 76.5

General Mean 86.2 82.3

We have examined our records and present in Table 4 data showing

the mean age at first oviposition of singles and pairs. We have grouped

the animals by parentage, because there seem to be considerable dif-

ferences among strains as to age of reaching maturity. The numbers

are not large, and the results not too consistent; but we think it is

clear that singles lay at least as early as pairs. Whether this difference

between our results and those of Boycott represents a difference in

the physiology of the species, or a difference in experimental condi-

tions, we cannot say.

The interest of the observation, we may remark, lies in the problem

guLy 15, 1935 MORTON: DEATH VALLEY PLANTS 307

it suggests. We know that the animals are hermaphroditic and capable

of self fertilization; but we also know, from Boycott’s work and from

that of Piaget (6), that cross-fertilization takes place if opportunity

is offered. The anatomy of the animals, as Crabb (3, 4) has shown,

would appear to make cross-fertilization extremely improbable, un-

less some physiological mechanism not apparent anatomically ac-

tively favors foreign sperm. What the nature of this mechanism may

be seems a problem worth the attention of some qualified worker.

SUMMARY

(1) Life tables for Lymnaea columella are presented for two differ-

ent initial densities, 2 and 10 snails per dish.

(2) Data on egg production show differences in fertility between

strains, and show marked reduction in fertility with increasing density

of population.

(3) No significant differences exist in the date of first oviposition as

between isolated and paired animals.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Batty, J. L. Jr. Some data on growth, longevity, and fecundity in Lymnaea columella Say.

Biologia Generalis 7: 407-427. 1931.

Boycort, A. E., et al. The inheritance of sinistrality in Limnaea peregra. Phil. Trans. R.

Soc. B, 219: 51-131. 19380.

Craps, E.D. Anatomy and function of the reproductive system in the snail, Lymnaea stagnalis

appressa Say. Biol. Bull. 53: 55-66. 1927.

Crass, E. D. The fertilization process in the snail, Lymnaea stagnalis appressa Say. Biol.

Bull. 53: 67-97. 1927.

Peary, R. The influence of density of population upon egg production in Drosophila melano-

gaster. Jour. Exp. Zool. 63: 57-84. 1932

Pracet, J. L’adaptation de la Limnaea stagnalis aux milieux lacustes de la suisse romande.

Rev. Suisse Zool. 36: 263-531. 1929.

Wunsor, C. P. and Winsor, A. A. Polyvitelline eggs and double monsters in the pond snaal,

Lymnaea columella Say. Biol. Bull. 63: 400-405. 1932.

Rl pee SOS SY)

BOTANY.—Three new plants from Death Valley, California! C. V.

Morton, National Museum. (Communicated by FREDERICK

V. CoviLie.)

The following three new species are from the collections made in

Death Valley in 1931 and 1932 by Dr. Frederick V. Coville and asso-

ciates, under the sponsorship of the National Geographic Society.

Ephedra funerea Coville & Morton, sp. nov.

Frutex pallidus, dioicus, erectus, usque ad 1.3 m. altus, ramosissimus;

ramuli teretes, ca. 3 mm. crassi, striati, asperi, glandulosi, apice pungentes;

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received March

25, 1935.

308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

folia terna, ad vaginas reducta, ca. 5 mm. longa; spiculae 2 uniflorae vel

interdum biflorae, sessiles, solitariae vel geminae, ambitu ellipticae, ca.

10 mm. longae; bracteae unguiculatae, margine leviter crenulatae, maturae

plus minus erectae, dorso vix inerassatae, pallido-virides, alis scariosis,

lutescentibus, basi cuneatis; fructus viridis, vix exsertus, elongato-pyrami-

datus, apice acuminatus, laevis, nee scaber nec papillosus; tubillus rectus

exsertus; semina matura desunt.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,565,472, collected at Furnace

Creek Canyon, on the Ryan-Shoshone road, Death Valley, Inyo County,

California, altitude about 1,000 meters, April 26, 1932, by Frederick V.

Coville and M, French Gilman (no. 447).

Additional specimens examined, all from Death Valley are as follows:

CALIFORNIA: Furnace Creek Canyon, near the old town of Ryan, April

25, 1932 (Coville & Gilman 444, 445, 446); Furnace Creek Canyon, Junction

of the Dantes View road with the Ryan-Shoshone road, April 26, 1932

(Coville & Gilman 448); Warm Springs Canyon, Panamint Mountains, about

a mile above Warm Springs, April 30, 1932 (Coville & Gilman 502, 502a);

Boundary Canyon, alt. about 1,050 meters, April 24, 1932 (Coville & Gilman

407, 408, 409, 410); Furnace Creek Canyon, alt. about 770 meters, April 16,

1931 (Coville & Gilman 19); Furnace Creek Canyon, alt. about 950 meters,

April 18, 1931 (Coville & Gilman 108, six specimens, all from different plants);

Dantes View, alt. about 1,800 meters, April 18, 1931 (Coville & Gilman 95);

pass above Ryan, on road between Furnace Creek Ranch and Shoshone,

June 11, 1930 (Thackery, Gilman, & Peebles 284c); slope of Salsberry Pass,

Funeral Mountains (Charles Brown); one mile south of Ryan, C. L. Hitch-

cock 12329 (Herbarium University of California); two miles east of Bradbury

Well, J. T. Howell 3643 (Herbarium California Academy of Sciences).

The present species is most nearly related to Ephedra californica 8. Wats.,

which has not been found in the Death Valley region. In EF. californica the

fruits are broadly elliptical with rounded apices, in contrast to the elongate,

acuminate fruits of H. funerea. The fruiting scales of FE. californica are

fleshier, more closely appressed, shorter-clawed, and usually borne in more

numerous series. H’phedra funerea differs somewhat in habit also, being very

spinose, intricately branched, and very pale green.

Ephedra torreyana 8S. Wats., not as yet found in California, may be easily

distinguished by its more spreading, scarious bracts and its minutely sca-

brous fruits.

Eriogonum panamintense Morton, sp. nov.

Subg. Oregonium, Sect. Racemosa; herba perennis, 20-30 cm. alta, erecta,

stricta; rami e basi numerosi, dichotome vel trichotome ramosi, ramulis

paucis, rigidis, ca. 1.5 mm. crassis, floecoso-tomentosis; folia radicalia longe

petiolata, petiolis usque ad 2 em. longis, supra paullulum canaliculatis,

dense albido-tomentosis, laminis ellipticis, ovatis vel obovatis, 16-25 mm.

longis, 10-16 mm. latis, apice rotundatis vel subacutis, basi cuneatis, utrinque

dense floccoso-tomentosis; folia caulina orbicularia, ad nodos verticillata,

JULY 15, 1935 MORTON: DEATH VALLEY PLANTS 309

petiolis brevibus; involuecra solitaria, sessilia, pauca, 3-5 mm. longa, extus

albido-tomentosa, intus glabra, obtuse angulata, apice 5-dentata, dentibus

ca. 1 mm. longis, acutis, margine incurvis; pedicelli numerosi, ca. 7 mm.

longi, glabri, basi bracteati, bracteis setaceis, ca. 4 mm. longis, barbulatis,

ex involucro haud exsertis; perianthium campanulatum, ca. 5 mm. longum,

segmentis omnibus oblanceolatis, usque ad 1.5 mm. latis, albis (nervo medio

purpureo excepto), glabris, integris, apice rotundatis, basi cuneatis; stam-

ina 9, filamentis basi barbatis, sursum scabridulis, haud exsertis, antheris

purpureis; ovarium scabridulum, album, trigonum; fructus deest.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, nos. 1,565,892-4, collected at Wild

Rose Summit in the watershed of Hanaupah Canyon, Panamint Mountains,

Inyo County, California, altitude about 2,600 meters, September 15, 1931,

by Frederick V. Coville and Arthur F. Gilman (no. 6).

The present species is most closely related to Hriogonum wrightit Torr.,

but differs from all forms of that species (some of them probably deserving

of subspecific rank at least) in numerous characters, as summarized in the

following key:

Plants not suffrutescent at base or densely caespitose; basal leaves few, com-

paratively large and long-petiolate, mostly rounded at apex, not at all

revolute, without fascicles of small leaves in the axils; stem leaves re-

stricted to nodes of the inflorescence, verticillate, rotund and short-

petiolate, obtuse; involucre 3-5 mm. long; perianth 5 mm. long, the

Semmentsmoblanceolatew nr seme ence ace E. panamintense.

Plants suffrutescent and much branched at base or densely caespitose;

leaves many, distributed along the stem, smaller and shorter-petio-

late, usually somewhat revolute, all acute, with numerous fascicles of

small leaves in the axils; involucre up to 3 mm. long, usually less; peri-

anth usually 3 mm. long or less, rarely up to 4 mm. long, the segments

CONCEP eee eee Sete as nie E. wrightii.

Cymopterus (Aulospermum) gilmani Morton, sp. nov.

Herba 12-23 em. alta, basi fibrosa; caulis foliosus brevis, 83-7 em. longus,

glaber, internodiis brevibus; lamina foliorum pinnata vel subdigitata, tri-

foliolata, ambitu orbicularis vel late elliptica, ca. 5 em. longa et lata, pallida

et glaucescens, glabra, nervis prominentibus, petiolis elongatis quam foliis

duplo vel triplo longioribus, glabris, perspicue striatis, basi dilatatis, pur-

purascentibus, marginibus scariosis caules amplectentibus; foliolae laterales

sessiles, ad medium vel fere ad basin bipartitae, ambitu late flabellatae,

maximae 4 cm. longae et 5 cm. latae, segmentis secundariis bipartitis, seg-

mentis tertiariis inaequaliter 2- ve] 3-dentatis, seementis ultimis deltoideis

vel triangularibus, acuminatis, integris, maxime 10 mm. longis et basi 7

mm. latis; foliola terminalis similis sed saepe petiolulata et basi decurrens;

folia caulina similia sed minora; pedunculus elongatus, fructu 8-18 cm.

longus, folia superans, glaber, sulcatus; umbellae compositae; involueri

bracteae nullae; radii ca. 8, floriferi usque ad 1 em. longi, valde inaequales,

fructu 1-1.5 em. longi; involucellorum bracteae ca. 8, lineari-subulatae,

ca. 3.5 mm. longae, basi ca. 0.8 mm. latae, apice incurvae, virides, haud

scariosae, haud connatae, fructu ampliatae, ca. 5 mm. longae et basi 1 mm.

310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

latae, nervis medialibus prominentibus; umbellulae ca. 15-florae, floribus

centralibus 4 vel 5, valde immaturis, fere sessilibus (sterilibus?); pedicelli

1.5—-2 mm. longi, ca. 0.5 mm. lati, glabri, striati, erecti, fructu non elongati;

sepala conspicua, deltoidea, acuta, viridia vel purpurascentia, ca. 0.3 mm.

longa; petala alba vel alabastro purpurascentia, oblanceolata, apice valde

et longe acuminata, incurva, ca. 2.3 mm. longa (apice ca. 0.8 mm. longo),

ca. 0.8 mm. lata, nervis medialibus prominentibus; filamenta longa, alba,

incurva, antheris purpureis; ovarium glabrum, ca. 1 mm. longum, disco

prominente, undulato; stylopodium nullum; fructus late ellipticus, ca. 7

mm. latus et 8 mm. longus, dorso valde compressus, apice emarginatus,

albus, glaber, alis lateralibus perspicuis, magnis, linearibus, basi leviter

angustatis vel dilatatis, ca. 2.5 mm. longis, 0.6 mm. latis, textura spongiosis-

simis, alis dorsalibus 1 vel 2, similibus, plus minusve reductis, alis vel jugis

intermediis nullis; vittae valleculares ca. 7 (in fructu 3-alato) vel 4 (in

fructu 4-alato), commissurales ca. 10, conspicuae, lineares, vittis basi

alarum nullis; semen facie planum, dorso leviter carinatum.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,565,689, collected on cliffs

along a north fork of Echo Canyon, Funeral Mountains, California, altitude

about 1,200 meters, April 19, 1931, by Frederick V. Coville and M. French

Gilman (no. 116).

A flowering specimen also has been collected, viz: Slope of Grapevine

Mountains, north of Leadfield, Titus Canyon, Death Valley, California,

altitude about 1,500 meters, April 25, 1932, by Coville and Gilman (no. 433).

An additional fruiting specimen was collected in Titus Canyon, Death Val-

ley, May 8, 1934, by M. French Gilman (no. 1197).

Miss Mildred Mathias on a visit to Washington some time ago kindly

looked at the present plant (already determined as an undescribed species

but of doubtful affinity), and suggested a relationship with Aulospermum

basalticum (Jones) Tidestrom (Cymopterus basalticus Jones). That species

is known only from the type collection, which has been made available for

study through the courtesy of Prof. P. A. Munz, of Pomona College. A

careful comparison of the two indicates that they are somewhat closely re-

lated, at least superficially. The tabulation which follows gives some of the

more important distinguishing characters.

In Miss Mathias’ recent monograph of the genus Cymopterus,? Aulosper-

mum and numerous other segregate genera are retained, following Coulter

and Rose’s ‘‘Monograph of North American Umbelliferae.’”? The genus

Aulospermum, in habit quite similar to Cymopterus, is distinguished tech-

nically by having the seed face concave and the wing bases broadened at the

base. In the present species the seed face is plane and the wing bases are

either narrowed or broadened at the base, characters which approach closely

to Cymopterus, although the more obvious relationship of the plant is with

Aulospermum basalticum and its relatives. It seems necessary, therefore, to

unite Aulospermum with Cymopterus, a conclusion with which Miss Mathias,

after having studied the specimens of C. gilmani, is now in agreement.

2 A monograph of Cymopterus, including a critical study of related genera. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard.

17: 213-476. 1930.

JULY 15, 1935 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE Sill

Terminal leaflet usually narrowed to a petiolule, the leaves therefore pinnate,

with the leaflets deeply divided; ultimate segments few, large, up to

10 mm. long and 7 mm. wide at base; bractlets of the involucel linear-

subulate, at flowering time about 3.5 mm. long and 0.8 mm. wide at

base, acuminate, distinct at base, not scarious-margined; fertile flowers

all pedicellate; anthers purple; fruit about 7 mm. wide, 8 mm. long, the

carpels 1- or 2-winged dorsally, the wings broad, white, very spongy

(cellular structure similar to that of elder pith), either narrowed or

broadened at base in cross section; oil tubes (in the 3-winged carpels)

about 7 in the intervals, or (in the 4-winged carpels) 4, none in wing

base, about 10 on the commissure. (Funeral Mountains, Califor-

TOE) 5 a Sens OG ty SOR eG re REET eran Cd Pa C. gilmani.

Terminal leaflet scarcely if at all petiolulate, the leaves therefore more

nearly digitate than pinnate, with the leaflets less deeply divided;

ultimate segments more numerous, very much smaller, the largest

about 3 mm. long and 3 mm. wide at base; bractlets of the involucel

ovate, acute, about 3 mm. long, 1.5 wide, connate at base, scarious-

margined, or sometimes subrectangular, irregularly connate, truncate,

erose and mucronate at summit; fertile flowers sessile; anthers yellow;

fruit (not quite mature) 5 mm. wide and long, the lateral wings rela-

tively narrow, obviously broadened at base, purplish, the dorsal wing

solitary, somewhat reduced; oil tubes 5 or 6 in the intervals, 1 in the

wing base, and about 8 on the commissure(Wa-Wa, Utah). C. basalticus.

BOTANY.—New Asteraceae from the United States, Mexico, and South

America! §. F. Buaxs, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The new Asteraceae described in this paper have been found in the

course of work on material in the United States National Herbarium

and on collections sent to that herbarium for identification.

Chaetospira Blake, nom. nov.

Spirochaeta Turez. Bull. Soc. Nat. Mose. 24 (1). 166. 1851. Not Spirochaeta

Ehrenb. Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1833: 313. 1834.?

Chaetospira funckii (Turez.) Blake.

Spirochaeta funckii Turez. Bull. Soc. Nat. Mose. 24 (1). 166. 1851.

The monotypic genus Spirochaeta Turez., united with Elephantopus by

1 Received May 29, 1935.

2 The volume of the Abhandlungen for 1833 in which Ehrenberg’s article appears (there en-

titled Dritter Beitrag zur Erkenntniss grosser Organisation in der Richtung des kleinsten Raumes)

is dated 1835 on the title page, but the article itself bears the prefatory note: “Gelesen in der

Roa der Wissenschaften am 2. Juli 1832, revidirt und mit einigen Zusiitzen gedruckt im

Nai 1834.”

312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

most authors but again separated by C. F. Baker’ in his revision of the group

in 1902, seems sufficiently distinct in pappus character to merit recognition.

The existence of the same name of an earlier date, in current use for an im-

portant genus of Bacteria, makes it necessary to rename Turezaninow’s

genus. In Bentham & Hooker’s Genera Plantarum it was wrongly considered

specifically identical with Pseudelephantopus spicatus (Juss.) Rohr (Hlephan-

topus spicatus Juss., Distreptus spicatus Cass.).

Chionolaena columbiana Blake, sp. nov.

Fruticulus paucicaulis ca. 22 em. altus dense foliosus undique compacte

et canescenter subsericeo-tomentosus aetate fuscescens, bracteis glomerulam

involucrantibus flavescenti-tomentosis; folia uniformia linearia acutiuscula,

lamina patente vel demum reflexa ca. 12 mm. longa 2 mm. lata, petiolo

cauli arcte appresso scarioso intus glabro laminam aequante; capitula parva

ca. 26-flora apice caulis dense glomerata, glomerulam ca. 12 mm. crassam

effingentia; fl. fem. ca. 12, hermaph. ca. 14; achenia glabra.

Stems about 3, ascending or erectish, simple or with a single branch above,

about 3 mm. thick below; internodes about 1-3 mm. long, the leaves alter-

nate, multifariously crowded; petioles entirely concealed beneath the wool

of the stem, linear-oblong, slightly widened above, 1-1.2 cm. long, 2 mm.

wide, 3—4-nerved inside, densely tomentose outside; blades linear or slightly

linear-spatulate, 1-1.2 em. long, 1.5-2.5 mm. wide, bluntly callous-pointed,

flattish, closely subsericeous-tomentose on both sides especially beneath,

l-nerved, the nerve somewhat impressed above, concealed by the wool be-

neath; leaves involucrating the glomerule yellowish-tomentose, about

equaling the glomerule, of the same shape as the stem leaves; heads cam-

panulate, 4.5 mm. high, 3 mm. thick (when moistened), densely whitish-

lanate at extreme base; involucre 4-4.5 mm. high, about 4-seriate, slightly

graduate, the phyllaries erect, linear or lance-linear, 0.5-1 mm. wide,

obtuse or acutish, entire or slightly erose at apex, pale straw-yellowish,

hyaline throughout, the outermost thinly pilose on back and with dull

greenish costa extending about half their length, the others glabrous and

veinless; pistillate corollas filiform, whitish, 2.5-2.8 mm. long, unequally

3—4-denticulate, ciliolate around apex; achenes (pistillate flowers) linear-

oblong, 0.8 mm. long, glabrous, the pappus bristles 18-19, 2.8 mm. long,

slender, minutely serrulate, united at extreme base, falling off in groups;

hermaphrodite flowers fertile? (the embryo apparently normally developed),

their corollas subcylindric, contracted toward middle, 3 mm. long, whitish,

brownish on teeth (tube 0.7 mm., throat 1.7 mm., teeth narrow-triangular,

0.6-0.7 mm. long); achenes linear-oblong, 0.5-0.7 mm. long, glabrous, the

pappus bristles 22-26, 2.8-3 mm. long, slender, slightly broadened and

bluntly serrulate toward apex, united at base and often irregularly united

in groups of 2 or 3 for half or nearly their full length, falling off in groups;

style branches very short (0.3-0.4 mm. long), oblong, erect, rounded, papil-

‘lose on back and margin, without obvious stigmatic lines.

Cotomsia: Paramos of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, about 30

miles inland from Dibulla, Dept. Magdalena, alt. about 4390 m., July 1932,

William Seifriz 494 (type no. 1,572,394, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

I have described this species under Chionolaena with some hesitation. All

3 Trans. Acad. St. Louis 12:53. 1902.

JuLY 15, 1935 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 313

true members of the genus hitherto known are Brazilian; the two Mexican

and Central American species referred to it by Hemsley, following Bentham

and Hooker, are now by general agreement placed in Gnaphalium. The char-

acters and relationships of several of the smaller genera of this alliance re-

quire fresh investigation based on a full representation of the described

species.

Ichthyothere grandifolia Blake, sp. nov.

Herba elata; caulis dense patenterque pilosus pilis brunneis; folia magna

ovata v. ovali-ovata petiolata penninervia acuminata base longe cuneata

membranacea minute calloso-denticulata utrinque pilosa; capitula numerosa

apice caulis cymoso-paniculata pedicellata; phyllaria exteriora minuta dense

ciliata, interiora glabra.

“Coarse herb,” 2 m. high; stem stout, 6 mm. thick and more, multistri-

atulate, its hairs many-celled, 2 mm. long; leaves opposite; naked portion

of petiole pubescent like the stem, 1.5-2 cm. long; blades of larger leaves

ovate or oval-ovate, 22—28 em. long, 9-12 em. wide, rather shortly acuminate

and somewhat faleate, minutely callous-denticulate (teeth about 0.5 mm.

high, 5-15 mm. apart), featherveined (larger veins 3—4-pairs, below middle

of leaf), above deep green, on surface evenly and rather densely pilose with

many-celled hairs (slightly thickened at base), more densely so on costa,

beneath not paler (when young very densely brown-pilose), similarly pilose

(the hairs not thickened at base); upper leaves smaller, ovate or lance-

ovate, 10-17 em. long, 4-6 em. wide; panicles terminal and from the upper-

most axils, on densely brown-pilose peduncles 4 cm. long or less, together

forming a flattish or convex crowded compound panicle 4-7 cm. wide, the

pedicels 7 mm. long or less; heads (as pressed) 4-5 mm. high, 6-8 mm.

thick; outer involucre of 5 triangular-ovate acute long-ciliate subherbaceous

phyllaries 2 mm. long or less, with very short, more definitely herbaceous,

glabrous, rather loose tips, the inner. phyllaries (subtending the pistillate

flowers) about 3, broadly ovate, boat-shaped, obtuse, thin-margined, multi-

vittate, minutely ciliolate, glabrous dorsally or with one or two short bristles

above, 5.5 mm. long; pales similar but thinner and flatter; pistillate flowers

about 3, their corollas white, tubular, clavate, truncate, 1.5-1.8 mm. long,

densely long-pilose except at base; disk flowers numerous, their corollas

white, sparsely stipitate-glandular especially at base of tube and on teeth,

4.8 mm. long (tube 1.8 mm., throat thick-cylindric, 2.5 mm., teeth ovate,

0.5 mm. long); achenes (scarcely mature) obovoid, compressed, glabrous,

epappose, 3 mm. long.

Cotomsra: In woods, vicinity of Las Vegas, Dept. Santander, alt.

2600-3000 m., 21-23 Dec. 1926, H. P. Killip & A. C. Smith 16124 (type no.

1,351,893, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Distinguished, among the species with pilose or villous stem, by its very

large leaves with long-tapering base.

Polymnia maculata var. glabricaulis Blake, var. nov.

Caulis et pedunculi glaberrimi; folia (magna, sub-5-lobata) supra sparse

tuberculato-hispidula subtus sparse hispidula et secus venas primarias

hirsuta, pilis ad basin paullum incrassatis.

Mexico: Cerro Carrizo, near San José, alt. 1465 m., Tamaulipas, 19

July 1930, H. H. Bartlett 10508 (type no. 1,491,521, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 7

From the three varieties into which I divided‘ this species some years ago,

distinguished by the character of their pubescence, the present form is at

once separated by its perfectly glabrous stem and peduncles. The plant is

also of interest as representing the northeasternmost extension of the range

of any form of the species, which has hitherto been known from Zacatecas,

San Luis Potosi, and Veracruz south to Costa Rica.

Steiractinia penninervis Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex ramis tuberculato-strigosis et -strigillosis; folia mediocria lanceo-

lato-ovata v. oblongo-ovata acuminata basi lata rotundata v. subtruncata

supra scabra subtus minute et dense hispidula ad venas strigosa penninervia

venis et venulis subtus prominulo-reticulatis; capitula majuscula subsolitaria

breviuscule pedunculata; involucri 1.3-1.5 em. alti phyllaria extima ovali-

ovata v. oblongo-ovata 7-10 mm. longa 3-6 mm. lata basi vix contracta.

Evidently shrubby, alternately branched above; branches rather densely

strigose and strigillose, in age glabrate, the hairs with small not conspicuous

tuberculate bases; leaves opposite; internodes 1.5-3 em. long; petioles

strigose and strigillose, hirsute-ciliate, channeled above, naked, 1—1.5 em.

long; blades (upper leaves) 6.5-8.5 em. long, 2.5-3.3 em. wide, inconspicu-

ously serrulate (teeth about 2-3 mm. apart), above rather harshly strigose

and strigillose with slightly tuberculate-based hairs, impressed-veined, be-

neath strigose or antrorse-hispid on the principal veins, and rather densely

hispidulous with antrorse or spreading, very acute, conical, tuberculate-

based hairs, featherveined, the principal lateral veins about 12-15 pairs,

strongly prominulous-reticulate; heads 1-4 at apex of branches, terminal

and solitary in the upper axils, 5-6 em. wide; peduncles strigose, strigillose,

and laxly hirsute, 2-4 em. long; disk in flower about 1.7 em. high, 2 em. thick,

in fruit (as pressed) about 1.3 em. high, 2 em. thick; involucre about 4-

seriate, graduate, the outermost phyllaries 4-5, oval-ovate or oblong-ovate,

strigose, hirsute-ciliate, and very minutely strigillose, subherbaceous with

short, indurated, 5—8-impressed-nerved base, the next series obovate-oblong

or obovate-oval, about 10-12 mm. long, 5-7 mm. wide, obtuse, thinly sub-

scarious-herbaceous, pilose-ciliate, on back sparsely strigose and hirsute or

subglabrous, the next series oblong, subscarious, 12-15 mm. long, 3-5 mm.

wide, ciliate above, glabrous on back, the inmost series similar but much

shorter and narrower, minutely erose-ciliolate, glabrous dorsally; pales

scarious, 8-10 mm. long, acutish, narrowed below the apex, minutely cilio-

late above on margin and on the thin keel; rays probably about 12-15,

neutral, golden-yellow, essentially glabrous, the tube 2.5 mm. long, the

lamina elliptic-oblong, 2-3-dentate or-denticulate, about 12-14-nerved (2

of the nerves much stronger), 2.5—2.8 em. long, 4-7 mm. wide; disk flowers

very numerous, their corollas yellow, glabrous, 7.5-8 mm. long (tube 3 mm.,

throat slender-funnelform, 4 mm., teeth ovate, 1 mm. long); achenes obo-

vate-oblong, 3-3.8 mm. long, compressed, blackish or olivaceous, glabrous

on the sides, above narrowly marginate or winged on one or both edges and

there ciliolate, the wings or margins adnate to the saucer-shaped pappus-

bearing apex of achene; pappus awns about 25, caducous, slender, hispidu-

lous, mostly subequal and about 2.2-3.3 mm. long, a few shorter and only

about 0.8 mm. long.

Cotomsra: Above San Miguel, at edge of paramo, Dept. Magdalena, alt.

* Contr. Gray Herb. 52: 33-34. 1917.

JuLY 15, 1935 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 315

about 3000 m., July 19382, William Seifriz 398 (type no. 1,572,392, U. 8.

Nat. Herb.)

Distinguished from all the species of Stecractinia previously known, except

S. ocanensis Blake, by its penninerved leaves. In S. ocanensis, of which I

have for comparison only a small photograph of a specimen of the type col-

lection (Linden (Schlim) 183) in the Kew Herbarium, the branches are con-

spicuously tuberculate by the persistent bases of the hairs, the leaves larger,

cuneate at base, apparently much more pubescent on both sides and much

less venose, and the outermost phyllaries considerably larger (12-21 mm.

long).

Flourensia dentata Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex resinosus glaber valde ramosus; folia lanceolata v. rhombico-

lanceolata utrinque acuta penninervia, majora 3.5 cm. lata 1.3 cm. longa

utroque latere 1—4-dentata, minora saepe integra; capitula mediocria dis-

coidea apice ramorum et ramulorum solitaria basi 1—3-foliaceo-bracteata;

involucri ca. 3-seriati paullum gradati 6-9 mm. alti phyllaria extima lineari-

oblonga v. -lanceolata, cetera obovata margine saepius laciniata; achenia

sericeo-pilosa.

Much branched probably erect or erectish shrub 28 em. high and more,

the branches mostly erectish, reddish-brown, the old bark gray; leaves

alternate, the internodes mostly 5-20 mm. long; petioles about 1-4 mm. long,

margined above; blades of the principal leaves 1.7—-3.7 cm. long, 5-15 mm.

wide, widest below the middle, cuneately narrowed into the petiole, light

or yellowish green, coriaceous, featherveined with about 3-5 pairs of usually

obscure veins, dentate or dentate-serrate above the cuneate entire base with

triangular, acute or obtuse, sometimes apiculate but not mucronate, irregu-

lar teeth 1-2 mm. high; branch leaves mostly entire, smaller, lanceolate or

elliptic; heads 9-11 mm. high, 4-8 mm. thick, turbinate-campanulate, 20—

26-flowered, erect, solitary at tips of usually few-bracted peduncles or branch-

lets mostly 1-3 em. long, subtended at base by 1-3 spatulate or oblanceolate

entire or toothed leaves 6-13 mm. long; involucre about 3-seriate, slightly

graduate, appressed, 6-9 mm. high, the phyllaries rather few, thick-char-

taceous, brownish, the outermost linear-oblong or linear-lanceolate, obtuse,

the others obovate or oblong-obovate, somewhat ciliolate at apex, with

thinner, narrow or broad, toothed to irregularly laciniate margin; corollas

yellow, glabrous, 4.4-4.8 mm. long (tube 0.8-1 mm., throat cylindric to

slender-campanulate, 3 mm., teeth ovate, 0.6-0.8 mm. long); pales about

8.5 mm. long, with broad scarious margin and rather abruptly set off, semi-

orbicular, erose and lacerate tip; achenes (not mature) cuneate, somewhat

thickened, densely silky-pilose, about 6 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide; pappus

of 2 unequal slender linear-lanceolate hispidulous awns 3—4.2 mm. long,

readily deciduous, or sometimes wanting; style branches with deltoid, acute,

dorsally finely hispidulous appendages.

Mexico: Sombreretillo, Durango, 9 Nov. 1925, S. Juzepczuk 550 (U.S.

Nat. Herb, Herb. Leningrad); ‘‘campos guayuleros, ad viam,’’ Terreros near

Pedricefio, Durango, 11 Nov. 1925, Juzepczuk 609 (type no. 1,492,915,

U.S. Nat. Herb.; dupl. Herb. Leningrad).

The only species of Flourensia with discoid heads and toothed leaves

previously known is I. ilicifolia Brandeg., of Coahuila. In that species the

316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 7

leaves are rhombic-ovate, relatively broader (the blades 1.6-2.4 em. long,

1-1.7 em. wide), and repand-dentate with 3-6 pairs of stiffly mucronate

teeth.

Verbesina lundellii Blake, sp. nov.

Perennis paucicaulis; caules glandulari-hispiduli et hispidi subsimplices

paucifolii; folia majora opposita ovata acuta sessilia basi rotundato-cordatula

firma triplinervia reticulata sinuato-denata utrinque viridia scabro-pubes-

centia; capitula 3 majuscula; involucri 2-seriati 7-8 mm. alti appressi

phyllaria lineari-lanceolata acuta hispida; radii ca. 11; achenia anguste alata,

pappo bidentato.

Few-stemmed herbaceous perennial, 50 em. high, simple or with a few

short branches above; stems erect, subterete, wingless, 2.5 mm. thick, stri-

atulate, greenish, densely spreading-hispidulous with mostly conical gland-

tipped hairs of varying lengths and more sparsely spreading-hispid; prin-

cipal internodes 3-5 cm. long, the upper up to 10 cm.; leaves mostly opposite

(4-5 pairs), with about 4 alternate ones above, sessile, not decurrent; blades

of the lower leaves oval or rhombic-ovate, 1.5-3.8 em. long, 8-23 mm. wide,

acute, at base rounded to broadly cuneate, subtruncate at extreme base;

blades of the middle leaves ovate, 6-7.5 em. long, 3.5—4.2 em. wide, acute

or acuminate, at base broadly rounded and minutely cordate, stiff-char-

taceous, rather yellowish green especially beneath, triplinerved a little above

the base and prominulous-reticulate especially beneath, sinuate-dentate

above the entire lower third or quarter with 10-12 pairs of unequal acutish

callous-tipped triangular teeth 0.5-1.5 mm. high, above evenly but not

densely hispid with antrorse-spreading tuberculate-based white hairs and

glandular-tuberculate between them, beneath spreading-hispid on the veins

and veinlets and also on them hispidulous with much shorter gland-tipped

hairs; upper leaves narrower, lance-ovate, 4.5 em. long, 1.7 em. wide; heads

3, about 3 cm. wide, the peduncles aggregated, 3.7-4 cm. long, densely

glandular-hispidulous and sparsely spreading-hispid, naked, subtended by

linear to subulate bracts 1.2-2 em. long, 1-2.5 mm. wide; disk (as pressed)

hemispheric, 1-1.2 em. high, 1.3-1.5 em. thick; involucre about 2-seriate,

subequal or slightly graduate, 7-8 mm. high, the phyllaries linear-lanceolate

(1.3-1.6 mm. wide), acute, callous-tipped, appressed, subherbaceous essen-

tially throughout, few-ribbed toward base, not densely hispid and ciliate

with tuberculate-based hairs and also tuberculate; rays about 11, golden-

yellow, pistillate, the tube hirsute, 2 mm. long, the lamina oval, 2-dentate,

about 10-nerved, 11-15 mm. long, 5-7 mm. wide; disk flowers numerous,

their corollas golden-yellow, 7 mm. long (tube pilose, 1.4 mm., throat sub-

cylindric, 4.8 mm., teeth ovate, 0.8 mm. long); pales yellow above, with

blackish keel and erect yellow tips, acute, stipitate-glandular on keel and_

toward apex, about 8.5 mm. long; disk achenes (immature) obovate-cuneate,

glabrous, 4.8 mm. long, narrowly winged above, the wings continuous with

the 2 short teeth (0.2-0.5 mm. long) of the pappus.

Mexico: Among low scrubby oaks in the “‘encinal’”’ association, on Aguila

Mountain, in Salteador range, about 10 km. from Charcas, San Luis Potosi,

July-Aug. 1934, C. L. Lundell 5392 (type no. 1,589,219, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

A member of the section Pterophyton, nearest V. rothrockit Robins. &

Greenm., in which the pubescence is different, the phyllaries oblong or

JuLy 15, 1935 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 317

elliptic and obtuse, and the principal leaves rather abruptly contracted into

a strongly auriculate-clasping base.

Thelesperma scabridulum Blake, sp. nov.

Perenne (?) humile ramosum ubique scabridulum pilis brevibus incras-

satis; folia lineari-filiformia apice subulato-acuta integra v. tripartita; capit-

ula parva discoidea apice ramorum solitaria v. terna, pedunculis mediocri-

bus; corollae lobi faucibus breviores; pappi aristae lineari-lanceolatae longe

hispido-ciliatae.

Root slender, vertical, apparently perennial; stems several, 5-10 cm. high,

erect or ascending, oppositely branched even from the base, densely sca-

bridulous with short, dull white, mostly conical hairs of unequal length,

leafy, the leaves mostly equaling or overtopping the heads; internodes mostly

5-10 mm. long; leaves opposite, linear-filiform, 1-3 em. long, 0.4-1 mm. wide,

thick, subulate-pointed, entire or above the middle bearing a pair of similar

lobes 3-10 mm. long, sparsely pubescent like the stem, especially toward

base, or nearly glabrous; peduncles solitary at apex of stem and branches

and in the uppermost axils, densely pubescent like the stem, erect, slender,

0.5-2.7 em. long; disk hemispheric, 5-8 mm. high (young fruit), 4-7 mm.

thick (as pressed); involucre double, pubescent like the stem except on the

scarious margins of the inner phyllaries, 4-5 mm. high, the outer phyllaries

3-4, lance-subulate, acuminate, 2-3 mm. long, 0.5-0.7 mm. wide, herba-

ceous, erect, very narrowly scarious-margined, the inner 7-8, ovate, acutish,

1.5-1.8 mm. wide, with herbaceous center and rather broad yellowish-white

searious margin (0.3-0.8 mm. wide), ciliolate toward apex, connate for

1-1.5 mm. at base; flowers 19-23, all hermaphrodite, their corollas golden-

yellow, brown-striped, glabrous except for a few short blunt hairs on the

back of the teeth, about 5 mm. long (tube 2 mm., throat eylindric-campanu-

late, 2 mm., teeth oblong-ovate, unequal, 4 of them 0.8-1.2 mm. long, 1

(the outermost) 1-1.4 mm. long); pales oblong, obtuse, about 4 mm. long,

scarious throughout, with the midrib marked by 2 orange vittae, irregularly

erose-dentate, ciliolate at apex, sometimes somewhat pubescent along mid-

line; achenes narrowly oblong or obovate-oblong, about 3 mm. long, 1 mm.

wide, somewhat thickened, straight or incurved, blackish, thickly and some-

times completely covered with irregular blunt yellowish tubercles, falling

united with the pales; pappus awns 2, when well developed lance-linear,

1-1.2 mm. long, long-hispid-ciliate throughout or only above, sometimes

reduced or obsolete; style branches with deltoid merely acute not cuspidate

tips.

Mexico: Open alkaline plain near railroad, between La Ventura and

Ranchito de San Antonio, south of Gomez Farias, Coahuila, July-August

1934, C. L. Lundell 5728 (type no. 1, 589, 220, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

‘ pase from any previously known species in its pubescence and dwarf

abit.

Calea acoma Blake, sp. nov.

Annua, caule tenui lignescente ramoso glandulari-piloso; folia lanceolata

v. lineari-lanceolata acuminata sessilia minute denticulata 3-nervia glandu-

lari-pilosa; capitula solitaria v. terna longe pedunculata radiata mediocria;

radii albi; achenia calva glabra.

Slender annual, about 40 em. high, with few opposite branches, the stem

terete, multistriate, up to 2 mm. thick, rather sparsely pilose with many-

318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 7

celled spreading gland-tipped hairs, glabrate below, the branches much

surpassing the main stem; internodes of main stem mostly 2-10 mm. long,

of branches 0.8—4 em.; leaves opposite, 3-6 cm. long, 2-7 mm. wide, slightly

narrowed at base, remotely callous-denticulate above middle (teeth 4-5

pairs, 0.5 mm. high or less), slightly revolute-margined, herbaceous, sparsely

glandular-pilose on both sides, 3-nerved, the lateral pair of nerves weaker

than the costa; heads solitary or ternate at apex of stem and branches, about

1.5-2 em. wide, the peduncles slender, 2.8-15 em. long, erectish-pilose es-

pecially just below the head and sparsely or densely spreading-pilose with

gland-tipped hairs; disk (as pressed) 6-9 mm. high, 7-12 mm. thick; in-

volucre 3-seriate, subequal or slightly graduate, 5-6 mm. high, hemispheric,

appressed, the outermost phyllaries lanceolate, acutish, about 1 mm. wide,

pale and subindurate below, subherbaceous in terminal half, sparsely ciliate

with partly gland-tipped hairs, otherwise essentially glabrous, the others

oblong or ovate-oblong, about 2 mm. wide, obtuse or subtruncate, often

somewhat erose at apex, with pale base and mostly shorter greenish sub-

membranous venose tip, similarly ciliate; rays about 8, white, the tube

spreading-pilose, 2-2.8 mm. long, the lamina cuneate, 7-8 mm. long, 3.5—

4.5mm. wide, unequally 3-toothed (teeth blunt, 1-2 mm. long), 6—-8-nerved;

disk flowers numerous, their corollas yellow, 3-4 mm. long (tube spreading-

pilose with several-celled hairs, 1.5—2 mm. long, throat campanulate, spread-

ing-pilose at base, 1-1.5 mm. long, teeth ovate, 0.5 mm. long); pales acute,

lacerate-ciliate, otherwise glabrous, several-vittate, about 4.5 mm. long;

achenes of disk narrowly obovoid-oblong, several-striate, black, glabrous,

2 mm. long, bearing at apex a minute whitish annulus (apparently left by

the base of the corolla); those of ray similar; style branches finely hispidu-

lous, with acuminate triangular appendages.

Cotomsra: In open place, western slope of Paramo de Hatico, en route

from Toledo to Pamplona, Dept. Norte de Santander, alt. 2800-2900 m.,

13 March 1927, EL. P. Kilip & A. C. Smith 20721 (type no. 1,355,717, U.S.

Nat. Herb.); open hillside, vicinity of Mutiscua, Dept. Norte de Santander,

alt. 3300 m., 20-22 Feb. 1927, Killip & Smith 19637; Paramo de las Puentes,

above La Baja, Dept. Santander, alt. 3500-3700 m., 25 Jan. 1927, Killip

& Smith 18230.

Closely allied to Calea longipes Blake, also’a Colombian plant, of which it

might almost be regarded as an epappose form. In that species, however, the

leaves are shorter and relatively broader, and the gland-tipped hairs of stem

and leaves of the new species are normally lacking; a few are present on the

peduncles, however, in one specimen ( Niemeyer 137).

Calea subcordata Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex, caule dense hirsuto-piloso; folia late ovata obtusa basi leviter

cordata brevipetiolata chartacea crenata supra scabra subtus griseo-pilosula

3—5-plinervia subtus lacunoso-reticulata; capitula solitaria majuscula radiata

aurea; involucri phyllaria extima ovata herbacea interiora subaequantia vel

duplo breviora; pappi paleae 20 lineari-lanceolata achenio minute hispidulo

duplo longiora.

Shrub 2.5 m. high or less, with opposite branches; stem stoutish, subterete,

striatulate, 2-3 mm. thick, brownish, densely spreading-hirsute-pilose, in

age glabrate and gray-barked; internodes 1-6 cm. long; leaves opposite;

petioles stout, naked, pubescent like the stem, 3-8 mm. long; blades 2.5-6

JuLy 15, 1935 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 319

em. long, 2—4 em. wide, obtuse, bluntly callous-apiculate, at base shallowly

cordate or sometimes subtruncate-rounded, above light green, densely

tuberculate-hispidulous with antrorse-curved hairs, when young gland-

dotted, in age subbullate, beneath densely griseous-pilosulous with spreading

hairs and dotted with sessile brown glands; heads solitary at apex of stem

and branches, 2.5-3.5 em. wide, the peduncle stoutish, pubescent like the

stem, 0.8-2.8 em. long; disk (as pressed) 8-12 mm. high, 1—1.7 em. thick;

involucre hemispheric, about 4-seriate, 10 mm. high, the outermost phyllaries

about 4, ovate, usually abruptly contracted above the base, obtuse, her-

baceous, veiny, densely hirsutulous, appressed, the others slightly graduate,

oval-oblong or oblong-obovate, broadly rounded, ciliolate at apex or glabrous,

with pale indurate body and shorter, brown, paler-margined, usually ampli-

ate, subscarious tip; rays about 18, yellow, the tube glabrous, 5 mm. long,

the lamina oblong, 4-denticulate, 5-nerved, gland-dotted on back, 9.5—11

mm. long; disk flowers numerous, their corollas yellow, glabrous, 6.4-7.3

mm. long (tube 2—2.3 mm., throat funnelform, 3.4-3.8 mm., teeth triangular,

with a subapical thickening on back, 1—-1.2 mm. long); pales narrow, glabrous,

serrulate above or with a lateral tooth on each side, 5-7 mm. long; disk

achenes sparsely hispidulous or in age glabrate, 2.8 mm. long; pappus of

20 long-acuminate persistent somewhat unequal awns, the longest 5-7 mm.

long.

Cotompsia: Open hillside, La Isla, Dept. Norte de Santander, alt. 2000-

2500 m., 27 Feb. 1927, HE. P. Killip & A. C. Smith 19808 (type no. 1,354,988,

U.S. Nat. Herb.); open hillside, vicinity of Charta, Dept. Santander, alt.

2000-2600 m., 1-11 Feb. 1927, Killip & Smith 18898; in thicket, same local-

ity, alt. 2000 m., 1-11 Feb. 1927, Killip & Smith 18866.

Related to Calea trianae Hieron., in which the relatively narrower leaves

are elliptic-ovate to lance-oblong, cuneate or sometimes rounded but not

cordate at base, and not closely lacunose-reticulate beneath in the manner

of C. subcordata.

Calea subcordata var. hirtella Blake, var. nov.

Rami dense hirtelli; pedunculi dense hirtelli sparsissime et breviter his-

pidique.

Cotompsia: In grassland, Mesa de los Santos, Dept. Santander, alt. 1500

m., 11-15 Dec. 1926, EH. P. Killip & A. C. Smith 15097 (type no. 1,351,036,

W=S: Nat. Herb.).

This plant, described as a semiprostrate to suberect shrub up to 0.75 m.

high, agrees with the typical form in all essential characters. The difference

in pubescence, which is not due to weathering since it is shown by the young

branches and peduncles, is sufficient to separate the plant varietally.

Bahia dissecta var. anisopappa Blake, var. nov.

Achenia sparse hispidula pappo irregulari 1-8-squamellato 0.4-2.8 mm.

longo praedita, squamellis linearibus vel lanceolatis saepius breviter aristatis;

capitula (an semper ?) subdisciformia, corollis marginalibus discum non

superantibus inaequaliter 4—5-dentatis vel subbilabiatis (83-++1) erectis, stami-

nibus abortivis.

Lower CaLiFrorNiA: Sandy soil along La Sanea Creek, below La Grulla,

320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 7

Sierra San Pedro Martir, alt. 2040 m., 17 Sept. 1930, J. L. Wiggins & D.

Demaree 4870 (type no. 1, 588, 187, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Bahia dissecta was described by Gray® as having the lobes of the disk

corollas ‘almost equalling the tube and throat together.”’ Rydberg® describes

the lobes as ‘‘much longer than the short funnelform throat,’’ and uses this

character, together with the absence of pappus, to distinguish the species

generically as his new genus Amauriopsis. In specimens dissected I find the

corolla lobes varying from slightly longer than the throat to distinctly

shorter, and never even approaching in length the combined tube and throat.

The discovery in Lower California of the pappose form above described,

otherwise indistinguishable from typical B. dissecta except by its imper-

fectly and perhaps abnormally disciform heads and more definitely hispidu-

lous achenes, shows conclusively that the genus Amauriopsis cannot be main-

tained as distinct from Bahia. The squamellae in var. anisopappa are mainly

scarious when small, but when better developed possess a callous midrib

continued into the short awn. The achenes in the typical form are described

by Rydberg as glandular-puberulent, but are normally so obscurely so as to

appear essentially glabrous. The presence of much better developed hairs on

the achenes of var. anisopappa is no doubt correlated here, as frequently

elsewhere in Asteraceae, with the development of a pappus.

Dyssodia tephroleuca Blake, sp. nov.

Suffrutescens ca. 20 cm. alta pluricaulis, ramis involucrisque dense albo-

tomentosis, foliis et caulibus griseo-tomentosis; folia omnia alterna lineari-

filiformia integra ca. 1 em. longa 0.3 mm. lata; capitula solitaria breviter

pedunculata radiata aurea; involucri 6.5-8 mm. alti phyllaria ca. 13 paene

ad apicem connata pauciglandulosa, basi bracteolis ca. 8 anguste linearibus

apice patentibus involucro demidio brevioribus; achenia parce hispidula;

pappi paleae 10 subaequales 3—5-aristatae.

Root about 1 em. thick, vertical; main stems apparently spreading, about

20 cm. long, woody toward base, griseous-tomentose, bearing numerous

mostly simple erectish leafy 1-headed branches about 10 em. long, these

slender, densely white-tomentose; leaves erectish, rather flaccid, mostly

8-13 mm. long, 0.3-0.7 mm. wide, obtuse, usually minutely apiculate,

sulcate above, rounded beneath, bearing about 10 scattered or usually

subopposite yellow glands; peduncles erect, naked or few-bracteate, mostly

7-15 mm. long, densely white-tomentose; heads about 12 mm. wide; in-

volucre campanulate, 4-5 mm. thick, the bracteoles obtusish, 1-3-glandular,

the proper phyllaries bearing a pair of yellow glands a little below the apex

of the connate portion, the free teeth narrowly triangular, acutish, 1.5-2 mm.

long, bearing a single gland usually near the base; rays about 12, golden-

yellow, the tube glabrous, about 2 mm. long, the lamina oblong-oval, about

5 mm. long, 2.5 mm. wide, 2—3-denticulate, 6—7-nerved; disk flowers nu-

merous, their corollas golden-yellow, 4.2-4.8 mm. long, minutely hispidulous

toward base of throat (tube 1 mm., throat slender-funnelform, 2.6-3 mm.,

teeth ovate, 0.5-0.8 mm. long, with a minute inflexed tooth at apex) ; achenes

5 Proc. Amer. Acad. 19: 28. 1883, as Bahia chrysanthemoides.

5 N. Amer. Fl. 34:32. 1914.

JULY 15, 1935 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 321

very slender, black, multistriate, sparsely hispidulous, 4 mm. long, 0.4 mm.

wide; pappus 4—4.5 mm. long, of 10 nearly equal essentially 1-seriate paleae,

their oblanceolate paleaceous base 0.5-1 mm. long, the central awn firm,

subterete, yellowish, hispidulous, 3-3.8 mm. long, the 2 lateral awns broader,

whiter, subscarious, hispidulous on margin, undivided or split for ? their

length or less into 2 unequal awns; style appendages deltoid, finely hispidu-

lous, short-cuspidate.

Texas: Eight miles north of Rio Grande City, Starr Co., 30 Aug. 1932,

Elzada U. Clover 1825 (type no. 1,623,834, U.S. Nat. Herb.; dupl. in herb.

Univ. Michigan).

Nearest Dyssodia setifolia (Lag.) Robinson, but well distinguished by its

undivided leaves, much larger involucre, and very different pappus.

Dyssodia bracteata (S. Wats.) Blake.

Pectis bracteata S. Wats. Proc. Amer. Acad. 25: 155. 1890.

Leucactinia bracteata Rydb. N. Amer. FI. 34: 180. 1915.

Specimens (nos. 5530, 5748, 5778) collected by C. L. Lundell at Chareas,

San Luis Potosi, Mexico, in July-August 1934 agree perfectly with the type

collection, Pringle 2403, from calcareous hills at Carneros Pass, Coahuila,

which is apparently the only collection of this species hitherto made. It is

difficult to understand how Dr. Rydberg was led to establish the new genus

Leucactinia’ for the reception of this species. Its long style branches, of

course, prevent its reference to Pectis, but the principal character on which

it was distinguished as a genus is mistaken. In his key (p. 148) Rydberg

placed it next to Chrysactinia in the group with ‘‘pappus of numerous dis-

tinct bristles only” (as opposed to the genera with “‘pappus at least partly

squamellate’”’), and in his generic character described it as with “‘pappus

simple, of 10-20 scabrous bristles.’’ In the specific description, however, he

called the pappus bristles ‘‘slightly dilated and linear-subulate below.”

Watson had previously described them as “‘narrowly paleaceous toward the

base.’”’ The members of the pappus can, in point of fact, be described about

equally well as paleaceous-based bristles or as aristate squamellae; they

cannot properly be called scabrous bristles. I find them to be about 12-18 in

number, indistinctly 2-seriate, the inner longer and with a linear to lanceo-

late paleaceous base 1—-1.5 mm. long, its thickened costa passing gradually

or abruptly into a hispidulous bristle about 3-3.5 mm. long, the outer shorter

(about 3 mm. long) and with narrower or obsolescent paleaceous border.

The species can be received without difficulty into the rather multiform

genus Dyssodia. The 1 or 2 pairs of short lobes with setaceous-subulate tips

found near the base or sometimes near the middle of some of the larger

leaves were overlooked by Rydberg, although mentioned in the original

description.

TN. Amer. Fl. 34: 180. 1915.

322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 7

Pectis propetes var. holochaeta Blake, var. nov.

Folia usque ad apicem setoso-ciliata (setis 14—24-jugis).

Mexico: On plain, Acatitlan, Dist. Temascaltepec, State of Mexico,

23 Sept. 1933, G. B. Hinton 4797 (type no. 1,589,300, U. S. Nat. Herb.);

on prairie, Limones, same District, alt. 910 m., Hinton 2509 p. p. (mixed

with P. saturejaoides (Mill.) Sch. Bip, the latter in two forms); on plain,

Cutzamala, Dist. Coyuca, Guerrero, 11 Aug. 1934, Hinton et al. 6422.

In typical Pectis propetes Greenm., still known only from the type col-

lection (Rose 2436, from near San Juan Capistrano, Zacatecas), the leaves

have only 5-9 pairs of setae, usually borne much below the middle of the leaf,

rarely extending a little above the middle. This sort of difference usually

indicates specific diversity in the genus, but in this case it is supported by no

other clear distinctions. In P. propetes the stems become somewhat diffusely

branched, and the first one appears to be erect; in var. holochaeta there

appears to be no erect first stem, and the usually several procumbent stems

are simple or subsimple. In P. propetes the achenes are rather uniformly and

not very densely short-pilose with hairs about 0.5 mm. long; in var. holo-

chaeta they are much more densely pilose with hairs about 1 mm. long,

usually borne in one or two broad lines with essentially glabrous interspaces.

Without knowledge of the amount of variation to which Pectis propetes may

be subject, it seems advisable to consider all these differences as of only

subordinate importance.

Pectis linifolia var. hirtella Blake, var. nov.

Involueri phyllaria dorso subdense hirtella; folia majora setis 2—3-jugis

4.5-6.5 mm. longis donata (jugis 1-2 basalibus, 1 infra medium folii).

Mexico: On hill, Tanganhuato, Dist. Coyuca, Guerrero, 18 Sept. 1934,

G. B. Hinton et al. 6606 (type no. 1,589,311, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

The type, a considerably branched plant about 7 dm. high, differs from

all the numerous specimens of Pectis linifolia L. examined from Arizona,

Mexico, West Indies, and South America in its hirtellous involucres and in

the very long and slender purple setae of the leaves. The involucre of P.

linifolia is described by Fernald and by Rydberg as glabrous or minutely

puberulent, but is glabrous in all the specimens I have examined; and the

setae are always basal, 1 or sometimes 2 pairs, rarely none, and only about

1-2 mm. long.

Liabum longifolium (Rusby). Blake.

Munnozia longifolia Rusby, Bull. Torrey Club 54: 313. 16 May 1927.

Liabum hexagonum Blake, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 17: 300. 4 June

1927. —

Both these specific names were based on the same collection, Buchtien

3079 from Unduavi, Bolivia.

Cirsium trachylomum Blake, sp. nov.

Glabrum subvalidum valde erecto-ramosum capitulis numerosis; folia

JuLy 15, 1935 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 323

principalia oblonga alte pinnatifida sessilia breviter decurrentia apice acum-

inata subcoriacea pallide viridia, lobis ca. 5-jugis lanceolatis v. oblongis

acuminatis subintegris v. parum repando-dentatis margine rigide spinosis

et spinulosis, spinis albidis ca. 5 mm. longis; capitula majuscula sice. cam-

panulata ca. 4.5 em. alta irregulariter racemosa (1-6 per ramum) in pedun-

culis nudis v. bracteatis saepius 4-15 em. longis; involucri basi vix umbilicati

paucibracteati (bracteis spinoso-dentatis involucrum vix aequantibus)ca.

7-8-seriati valde gradati ca. 3 cm. alti phyllaria omnia erecta v. subappressa

in margine plusminusve lutescenti-indurata et dense ciliolata, exteriora

triangulari-lanceolata ad apicem breviter subherbacea spina rigida erecta

ca. 2 mm. longa donata, media ovato-lanceolata v. lanceolata spina 2—4

mm. longa erecta donata, interiora (ca. 3—4-seriata) lanceolata-linearia

acuminata in margine latiore dense et minute hispidula et ciliolata infra

apicem breviter purpurascentia appendice subscariosa anguste triangulari

integra minute ciliolata flavescenti-albida ca. 2 mm. longa donata; corollae

purpureae, limbo tubo duplo longiore usque ad medium 5-fido, lobis obtusis

ad apicem incrassatis; achenium maturum brunneo-nigrescens 4 mm.

longum.

Plant essentially glabrous throughout, 1-1.2 m. high; stem pithy, striate,

up to 1 em. thick; leaves rather remote, the principal ones 13-21 cm. long,

about 6-10 em. wide, short-decurrent (wings 1-2 em. long, lobed and spiny-

toothed, 1-2.5 em. wide including spines), light green on both sides, very

slightly arachnoid toward base beneath, the lobes acuminate and spinose-

tipped, about 2-4 cm. long and 1-2 em. wide, entire or slightly sinuate-

dentate or the lower 1—2-lobed on one side at base, not densely margined

with slender prickles or small spines 1-3 mm. long and ending in firm slender

spines 5-7 mm. long; upper and branch leaves smaller, dentate or shallowly

lobed, not or scarcely decurrent; bracts of peduncles few, 2-6 em. long, their

basal teeth or spines enlarged; bracts subtending head narrowly lanceolate,

1.5-3 em. long; outermost proper phyllaries about 1 em. long, 2-3.5 mm.

wide below, with indurated whitish or greenish-white base and lucid yellow-

ish-white densely hispidulous-ciliolate margin about 0.3-0.5 mm. wide,

above 1-ribbed (the rib sometimes glandular), sometimes 1—2-spinulose on

each side below apex; middle phyllaries similar but broader (4.5 mm. wide),

with 2-3 pairs of weak greenish ribs or nerves below apex, and with broader

yellowish white margin (about 1 mm. wide); inner (38-4 series) with narrow

greenish center (1—3-vittate) and broader, lucid, apparently viscid, densely

and minutely hispidulous and ciliolate yellowish-white margin; whole

involucre glabrous (except for the minute hispidity and ciliolation) or with

the slightest trace of arachnoid tomentum on the margin of a few phyllaries;

corollas 2.7-3.1 em. long (tube 7-9 mm. long, throat moderately distinct,

9 mm. long, lobes linear, essentially equal, 11-13 mm. long, thickened at

apex and often obtusely apiculate); achene glabrous, 4-5 mm. long; pappus

whitish, 2 em. long, the awns all plumose, about 10 of the inner with ob-

securely thickened tips; anther tips broadly triangular, shortly acuminate;

style with obscure node.

Lower Cauirornia: Granitic soil among pines along small canyon above

a meadow, La Encantada, Sierra San Pedro Martir, alt. 2225 m. (7300 ft.),

18 Sept. 1930, 7. L. Wiggins & D. Demaree 4904 (type no. 1,588,186, U.S.

Nat. Herb.; duplicate in Dudley Herb. of Stanford University).

This species is not very closely allied to any hitherto reported from Mexico.

324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

Its closest relationships are evidently with C. andersonii (A. Gray) Petrak, of

California, and C. rothrockiit (A. Gray) Petrak, of Arizona, from both of

which it is entirely distinct.

Gochnatia cardenasii Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex parvus valde ramosus, ramulis compacte flavido-tomentellis

foliosis; folia elliptica brevipetiolata ca. 8 mm. longa obtusa integra supra

viridia subtus canescenti-tomentella anguste revoluto-marginata parum

venosa; capitula 7—8-flora terminalia sessilia saepius solitaria mediocria;

involucri 8-9 mm. alti phyllaria e triangulari-ovatis lineari-oblonga acum-

inata pubescentia.

Shrub ‘60 em. high,” the numerous straight rigid branches diverging

at an angle of about 30—45°, the stem and older branches densely gray-tomen-

tellous; leaves alternate, often with fascicles in their axils, the internodes

mostly 5-10 mm. long; petioles 1-2 mm. long, canescent-tomentellous,

slender, somewhat enlarged at base; blades elliptic or ovate-elliptic, 5-11

mm. long, 1.5-3.5 mm. wide, cuneate or rounded at base, coriaceous, above

glutinous and essentially glabrous, obscurely triplinerved, the veins evident

beneath under the tomentum; fruiting heads solitary or rarely paired at

tips of stem and branches, usually subtended by 2 or 3 reduced leaves, some-

times with 1-4 abortive heads in the axils below them, when moistened

cylindric and about 11-14 mm. high and 2.5 mm. thick; involucre strongly

graduate, about 5-seriate, the phyllaries brownish, firm, ribless, ciliolate with

partly glandular hairs, erectish-pilose, and somewhat sessile-glandular, gla-

brescent, the inmost almost cuspidate-acuminate; corollas apparently whit-

ish, tubular, subcylindric, glabrous, 8 mm. long (tube 3 mm., throat 0.7 mm.,

teeth narrowly elongate-triangular, 4.3 mm. long, erect, 3-nerved, thickened

inside at apex) ; achenes oblong, erectish-pilose, 3.5 mm. long; pappus yellow-

ish-tinged, 9-10 mm. long, of numerous stiffish hispidulous graduated

bristles; anthers 6.2 mm. long, including the hairy tails, these about 2.8 mm.

long; style branches linear-oblong, 1.2 mm. long, erectish, obtuse, glabrous.

Botrvia: Quechisla, Dept. Potosi, alt. 3420 m., Dec. 1932, M. Cardenas

326 (type no. 1,616,163, U.S. Nat. Herb.); Quechisla, Dec. 1931, Cardenas

15 (Gray Herb.).

Readily distinguished among South American species by its yellowish-

tomentellous branchlets and tiny bicolored leaves. The rather ample material

is in good fruit, but the corollas have practically all fallen; only two perfect

ones and an imperfect one could be found in the heads.

Chaptalia anisobasis Blake, sp. nov.

Basi rufo-tomentosa; folia oblongo-elliptica longe petiolata obtusa basi

valde inaequalia tenuiter coriacea repanda supra citissime glabrata viridia

subtus ochraceo-tomentosa; scapus ca. 25 em. altus infra glabratus nudus

ad spicem dense rufo-tomentosus et squamis paucis anguste triangularibus

praeditus; involucri ca. 1.3 em. alti phyllaria e oblongo-ovatis linearia ob-

tusa; fl. fem. exteriores ca. 20 valde bilabiati involucro breviores, interiores

minores etiam bilabiati; achenia immatura breviter rostrata puberula.

Root not seen; leaves 2 or 3 (or more?), apparently erect; petioles slender,

naked except toward apex, thinly arachnoid-tomentose, glabrescent, 8-12.5

em. long; blades oblong-elliptic or ovate-elliptic, or sometimes slightly wider

JuLy 15, 1935 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 325

above the middle, 3.5-6.3 em. long, 2—2.8 em. wide, usually strongly inequi-

lateral at base (usually subtruncate or slightly cordate on one side, sub-

truncate or obliquely curved on the other) and often very narrowly decurrent

on apex of petiole for 1.2 em. or less, shallowly repand chiefly below middle,

very narrowly revolute-margined, featherveined, the lateral veins 4-6 on

each side, scarcely prominulous above, evident through the wool beneath,

the secondaries obscure; scape erect, 20-26 cm. high, slender, thinly arach-

noid-tomentose and glabrate except toward apex, there very densely rufous-

tomentose and bearing 3 or 4 very narrowly triangular or subulate bracts

about 2.5 mm. long; head solitary, apparently nodding; involucre about

6-seriate, strongly graduate, the outer phyllaries oblong or ovate-oblong,

obtuse, 1-1.5 mm. wide, the middle ones linear-oblong, 1.3-1.5 mm. wide,

obtuse, the inner linear, about 1.5 mm. wide, obtuse or acutish, all with

greenish center and purple subscarious margin; outer pistillate flowers about

16-21, essentially 1-seriate, their corollas bilabiate, white, somewhat pur-

plish-veined, glabrous, shorter than the involucre (not fully developed?),

erect, the tube 5 mm. long, the outer lip elliptic-linear, 3-denticulate, 4-

nerved, 5.3 mm. long, about 1.5 mm. wide, the inner lip 2-parted to base,

the divisions linear, obtuse, erect, about 1.2 mm. long; corollas of inner

pistillate flowers bilabiate, glabrous, white, 6.4 mm. long, the tube 5 mm.

long, the lips erect, the outer 3-lobed to below the middle (lobes narrow-

triangular, with incurved blunt callous tips, the middle lobe 1.2 mm. long,

the outer lobes 0.8 mm.), the inner of 2 similar lobes 1 mm. long; corollas of

hermaphrodite flowers white, glabrous, bilabiate, 8 mm. long, the tube 3.5

mm. long, the throat 2 mm. long, the outer lip subequally 3-lobed to below

the middle, the lobes triangular, at apex thickened and papillose inside, 1.5

mm. long, the inner lip of 2 similar lobes 2.5 mm. long; achenes (decidedly

immature) subfusiform, short-beaked, somewhat puberulous, a few of the

hairs with subglandular tips; pappus bristles numerous, yellowish-white,

about 7.5 mm. long, finely hispidulous.

Cotompsra: Paramos of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Dept. Mag-

dalena, alt. about 3850 m., July 1932, William Sezfriz 484 (type no. 1,572,393,

USS: Nat. Herb.).

Close to Chaptalia meridensis Blake, of Venezuela, in which the essentially

symmetrical leaves are broadly oval, thicker, rather persistently arachnoid

above or tardily glabrate, and on petioles only as long as the blade or shorter.

Microseris tenella var. aphantocarpha (A. Gray) Blake.

Calais aphantocarpha A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 6: 552. 1865.

Microseris aphantocarpha Schultz Bip. Pollichia 22-24: 308. 1866.

Gray,*® when transferring his Calais tenella (of 1857) and C. aphantocarpha

(of 1865) to Microseris, regarded the former as merely a depauperate state

of the latter, and adopted the name aphantocarpha for the specific concept

on account of the inappropriateness of the name tenella. Schultz Bipontinus

had earlier transferred these and other species described or listed by Gray in

1857 to Microseris, but his paper was overlooked by Gray and by most later

authors. The earlier specific name, Microseris tenella (A. Gray) Schultz Bip.,

must of course be adopted for the species, and aphantocarpha treated as a

variety.

8 Proc. Amer. Acad. 9: 209. 1874.

326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

ENTOMOLOGY.—Some undescribed species of Eristalis from North

America in the United States National Museum Frank M.

Huu, University of Mississippi. (Communicated by Haroup

Morrison.)

Eristalis aztecus n. sp.

Female: Face considerably projecting. Upper half brownish yellow, lower

half and cheeks brownish black, shining; pile of face very long, yellow, of

lower occiput, white; cheeks bare. Front and vertex dark brownish, more or

less opaque, with dense, very long, reddish yellow pile. Eyes densely long

pilose. First and second antennal joints shining brownish orange. Third

joint more opaque, brownish orange below and black along a narrow dorsal

border. Arista extends to facial knob, light reddish with long plumose hairs

on basal half, very slightly and gradually thickened basally. Thorax dark

brownish, opaque. Pleurae, same color, shining; scutellum brownish red,

faintly shining. Pile.of pleurae, thorax, scutellum, light reddish, tending to

golden, very long and dense. Second abdominal segment black, faintly shin-

ing, an obscure, reddish shining spot, occupying either side. Third, fourth,

and fifth segments shining black. Third with a narrow obscure opaque black

band on anterior border and again just before posterior border. Pile of second

segment abundant, long, very short on third and fourth, practically absent

on fifth. Venter shining, the color is an indefinite mixture of light brown and

black. :

All femora shining, black, save at the tip, pale yellow. A single row of

unusually long yellow bristles at regular intervals on the ventral side of hind

femora. Pile long and black. Hind tibiae white on basal half. Middle tibiae

save at tip, and fore tibiae on basal half pale yellow, otherwise dark brown-

ish. Fore and middle tarsi light reddish; last two joints of fore and middle

and all of hind tarsi dark brown. Wings quite hyaline. Stigma brown. Hind

tibiae somewhat flattened; no ciliary brush. Length 14 mm.

The type is a female, no. 42076 U. S. N. M., Real del Monte, Mexico,

9,000 ft. (H. T. Vanostand).

This belongs to those neotropical species, strikingly similar to Hristalis

circe Will., in the pronounced light reddish brown coloration and thick

shaggy pile of similar color. The ground color of the face is light obscure

brown, not shining black and the lower face projects forward less. The

shaggy red pile of circe continues to the terminal abdominal segment, where

as it is limited to the first and second in aztecus and grown noticeably shorter

on the second.

It may be noted that this species resembles fulvipes Big. in the dilated pos-

terior tibiae and the color of thorax, scutellum, and the pile; it differs in its

very hairy eyes, plumose arista, ete. It must be close to Bigot’s H. inca, in

hairy eyes, plumose arista, and dark thorax covered with reddish pile. It

differs in front being brown, not black, with thick long yellow hair and

absence of long yellow hair on face. Eristalis aztecus traces to distinguendus

in Curran’s Key, differing markedly in color and pile.

1 Received April 16, 1935.

guLY 15, 1935 HULL: SPECIES OF ERISTALIS 327

Eristalis circe Will.

Male: Face considerably projecting downward; shining black, covered

with very long, pale brownish yellow hair; cheeks bare, shining black. Vertex

shining black, covered with similar hair to that on face, likewise covered with

microscopic pubescence. Facial prominence inconspicuous. First and second

joint of antennae black, shining. Third joint opaque light reddish brown.

Arista lost. Eyes heavily long pilose; pile of lower occiput very shaggy, nearly

white, upper occiput tending to reddish. Whole thorax opaque dark brown.

Thorax, scutellum and pleurae, densely covered with long shaggy reddish

yellow pile, tending to golden.

Abdomen light brownish red, second and third segments faintly shining,

fourth quite shining. Second segment with a narrow black transverse band

along anterior border, widening medially and becoming a median black

spot pointed apically; third segment likewise with a median black spot;

fourth with a still smaller black spot. Whole abdomen covered with exceed-

ingly long reddish yellow pile. Venter entirely shining black. Hypopygium

shining black. Fore and middle femora light yellow save tip, and hind femora

shining black. First two femoral pairs with long black hairs. Last femora

with long dense hairs arranged as a brush on outer and inner surfaces, the

outer reddish yellow except on extreme tip and the inner black; bristles in

bristle-row, yellow. Tibia black, basal half of first pair, basal two-thirds of

second, yellow, shining. Fore and middle tarsi yellowish brown. Hind tarsi

smoky brown to black. Wings hyaline, veins only with narrow reddish brown

clouds, which are probably characteristic. Hind tibiae compressed, without

ciliary band. Length 14 mm.

One male, Mexico City, Mexico (Juan Muller).

Eristalis fuliginosus n. sp.

Male: Face, cheeks, vertex, front, shining black; microscopic, silvery pile

present on all these parts, but most abundant on lower face and cheeks, and

here divided by a bare band of shining black; facial prominence large, though

not especially prominent, bare. Face and cheeks with sparse, quite long sil-

very hair. Long black sparse hair on vertex and antennal prominence. Ocelli

situated on a distinct prominence. Eyes heavily long pilose, especially an-

teriorly. Antennae dark reddish brown, microscopically pubescent; arista

slender, not thickened, non-pubescent, wiry, light reddish in color. Third

antennal joint about one and a half times as long as broad, somewhat pointed

apically. Pleurae for most part shining black with sparse long black pile.

Disc of thorax and scutellum opaque black, pile thick, but short, growing

quite long on scutellar margin, black, center of scutellum with oval, median,

opaque yellow spot barely touching posterior margin.

Abdomen black. Second segment opaque, save posterior margins and

lateral margins narrowly. Third segment opaque save broad transverse shin-

ing black band, narrowly interrupted medianly. Fourth entirely shining;

pile on margins of second segment and dise of second and third black, some

white pile on dise of second only and on margin of third and fourth and hy-

popygium. Venter entirely black. All the femora shining black, long black

pilose, hind femora heavily thickened; all tibiae shining reddish brown, all

tarsi reddish orange brown; pile of tibiae and tarsi light; hind tibiae promi-

nently flattened, a groove on inner surface of apical half. Wings smoky brown

on outer half, hind tibiae without ciliary brush. Length 12 mm.

Holotype male, no. 42078 U.S. N. M., Attenas, Costa Riea (Schild and

Burgdorf).

328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

This species is similar to nigripennis Macq. in the dark coloration, and the

smoky wings of the apical half. Distinctive in the yellow spot on scutellum,

which is opaque, and the heavily thickened, ‘pinched-in’ hind femora with

glossy brownish red tibiae. The above characteristics likewise distinguish it

from the neotropical Hristalis scutellaris Fabs. to which it is allied by the

slender, bare, quite long arista. The front in profile is peculiarly flattened.

This traces to my species Hristalis cyatheus in Curran’s key, but the thor-

acic pattern is not broken up into spots as in that species. From precipuus

Will., also with red femora and tibiae it is distinguished by the black color

of the abdomen. Hristalis melanaspis Wied. has a yellow abdomen and its

scutellum is similar to this species, but its femora are dark.

Eristalis bistellatus n. sp.

Female: Cheeks black, covered with faint white pruinescense and abun-

dant long yellow hair; a bare spot in middle of face just above mouth, oval in

shape and shining yellowish brown. A similar bare spot just above antennae.

First joint of antennae yellowish brown, shining, remainder wanting. Front

dark brown becoming nearly black at vertex; pile thick and lighter brown in

color. Eyes densely pilose save on a narrow posterior strip.

Thorax and scutellum opaque velvety black, pile very thick and black.

Scutellum equipped with an extra long tuft of pile on each side near the

base. Remainder of scutellar margin bare. First abdominal segment black,

opaque, with long whitish pile. A large, nearly square, opaque, pale yellow

spot on each side of second segment, narrowly separated by black in the

middle. Third segment opaque black, fourth segment similar, except for a

transverse band in middle of segment, shining black and narrowly inter-

rupted medianly. A similar uninterrupted band on fifth segment. Pile of

abdomen, save on fifth segment short, thick, close, black; on fifth segment

it takes the form of very long indefinite median, posterior, and lateral tufts.

Second segment of venter light yellow with dark brown median spot. Third

brownish black, yellowish in anterior lateral angles. Pleurae opaque black,

densely black pilose. All the femora, shining black, densely black pilose, the

basal half with some sparse, very long pale pile. Middle femora on

posterior ventral side with a long brush of exceedingly dense, long black pile.

Anterior tibiae shining reddish brown; hind tibiae shining black, quite flat-

tened and with black ciliary brush on dorsal and vertral surfaces. All the

tarsi reddish brown, pile golden; hind metatarsus enlarged. Wings hyaline,

faintly brownish. Length 16.5 mm.

Type, a female, no. 42079 U. 8. N. M., Piches and Perene, Peru, 2000—

3000 ft. altitude.

This species is related to Eristalis pygolampus Wd. in the large size, dark

color, and broad, flat, dark scutellum, but differing in the less metallic abdo-

Fig. 1—\Lateral view of head of Hristalis bistellatus n. sp. Fig. 2.—Lateral view of head of

Eristalis circe Will. Fig. 3—Scutellum of Fristalis diabilis n. sp. Fig. 4.—Scutellum of

Eristalis fuliginosus n. sp. Fig. 5.—Lateral view of head of Eristalis aztecus n. sp. Fig. 6.—

Figure of posterior tibiae from the side of Hristalis bistellatus n. sp. Fig. 7.—Figure of femora of

Eristalis aztecus n. sp. Fig. 8.—Lateral view of hind femora of Hristalis aztecusn.sp. Fig. 9.—

Lateral view of head of Eristalis fuliginosus n. sp. Fig. 10.—Lateral view of posterior femora

of Eristalis fuliginosus n. sp. Fig. 11.—Lateral view of hind femora of Hristalis diabilis n. sp.

Fig. 12.—Dorsal view of hind fenora of Hristalis fuliginosus n. sp.

JuLy 15, 1935 HULL: SPECIES OF ERISTALIS 329

For explanation of Figs. 1-12, see bottom of opposite page.

330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

men, the presence of the two large quadrate yellow spots, as well as other

differences as described. It is slightly similar to Hristalis swrinamensis, Macq.

Eristalis diabilis n. sp.

Male: Front shining and vertex opaque black. Pile of these areas very

sparse, about as long as third antennal joint is wide, of a vitreous black

color. Face descending, but not markedly and a median stripe shining vitre-

ous black. A broad band, from epistoma to margin of eyes and thence to just

above antennae, of silvery pubescence. The same band bears very scattered,

long silvery hair. First and second antennal joints shining black; third dark

brown, very short instead of evenly rounded, having an obliquely truncated

appearance. Eyes dichoptic, thinly brown pilose.

Dorsum of thorax shining black with a bluish tinge, the color obscured by

thinly dusted pollen (or pruinescence), apparently without markings of any

kind. Pile of dorsum rather abundant, about as long as half the length of

scutellum, pale brownish yellow. Scutellum opaque yellow, narrowly opaque

black on the sides, pile sparse, long, black. Pleural pile pale. Abdomen black,

faintly shining, the third and fourth segments with a central transverse band

more strongly shining. An opaque black band on anterior and posterior mar-

gins of third and fourth segments; a pale brownish yellow spot on either side

of the second segment, wider than scutellum is long, separated from the

lateral margins of the segment by a narrow black border which widens as it

proceeds posteriorly to about twice its width anteriorly. Segments two, three,

and four with narrow yellow posterior margins.

Legs shining black. All the femora normal at the tip, basal third of hind

tibiae and fore and middle tibiae more normally, brownish or brownish

yellow. Fore and hind tarsi black; middle tarsi brown. Hind femora slightly

thickened in the middle, producing a slight ‘pinched-in’ appearance at the

tip. Wings quite hyaline. Length, 8 mm.

Holotype male, no. 42077 U.S. N. M., and one paratype male, Tacubaya,

and Mexico City, Mexico, 4-18 (John Muller).

This peculiar little species greatly resembles the one I have discussed?

under the name of quadraticornis Macq. and which more recently Dr. Curran

identifies with meigenii Wd. From meigenii Wd. it differs in the unicolorous

thorax, the more widely yellow scutellum, and the absence of yellow spots

on the third segment. From teranus Hull it differs in the blackened base of

scutellum, and the absence of stripes. All three species are quite small and

at least meigenii Wd. agrees in the peculiarly shaped third antennal joint.

The present species is unique among North American £ristalis in the

dichoptic male, unless the male of teranus proves to be dichoptic which

seems likely. EH. meigenii might be considered to be very narrowly dichoptic.

The present species, diabolis, traces to meigeniz in Curran’s Key, but is more

dichoptic, and moreover, diabolis also has a small, shining, yellowish spot

above the antennae, and a transverse depression about the middle of the

front. Older authors have applied the name Fristalinus to similar dichoptic

species from Europe. The species further resembles mezgenii Wd. in the pe-

2 Ohio Jour. Sci. 25:29. 1925.

gJuLY 15, 1935 COOKE: PLEISTOCENE TERRACES ool

culiar type of third antennal joint, in size, bimaculate scutellum and general

pattern of abdominal markings. The thorax is unicolorous, however, and

the scutellum more widely yellow.

GEOLOGY .—Tentative ages of Pleistocene shore lines.1 C. WYTHE

Cookg, U.S. Geological Survey.

For countless ages the relative positions of land and sea have been

continually changing. Vast areas that are now dry land are floored by

rocks deposited in ancient seas. Many continents and islands are

fringed by marine terraces that have more recently emerged and

whose shore lines can still be traced by means of their abandoned

beaches and other features.

It has been the custom in the past to call such emerged beaches and

sea bottoms “‘raised”’ or “‘uplifted,”’ the implication being that they

attained their present position above sea level by rising or tilting of

the land while sea level, the datum plane to which they are referred,

remained constant. Although it is undoubtedly true that the emer-

gence of such features in many places is due primarily to movements

of the land, yet these very movements must have affected the level

of the sea. If upwarp of the crust of the earth at one place is compen-

sated by downwarp elsewhere, the net effect of crustal movements

on sea level is nil, provided that all parts affected are beneath the

sea or all are above sea level; but if the land rises and the sea bottom

sinks, sea level falls; and if the land sinks and the sea bottom rises,

sea level becomes higher. The crustal movements that raised the

Pacific coast of the Americas and formed the near-by deeps probably

resulted in a world-wide lowering of sea level. It seems likely that the

dominant direction of change of sea level due to crustal movements

during Quaternary time has been downward.

Another factor that influences the height of sea level is the variable

size of the polar and subpolar ice caps. This factor has been called

glacial control. When the ice caps are large there is less water in the

sea than when the ice caps are small. Glacial stages, therefore, are

times of low sea level; interglacial stages are times of high sea level.

As the earth is now in a state of partial glaciation, the height of sea

level due to glacial control is intermediate between the lows of the

glacial stages and the highs of the interglacial stages.

As water seeks its level, a variation in the capacity of the oceanic

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. Received

May 11, 1935.

332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

basins due to crustal movements or a variation in the amount of water

in the oceans due to glacial control produces a world-wide change in

the level of the sea. An abandoned shore line in China should stand at

approximately the same height as the contemporaneous shore line in

Virginia, provided that there have been no crustal movements at

either place and disregarding local variations in sea level. Exact cor-

respondence in the levels reported is not to be expected because the

measurements are usually made to the abandoned high-tide mark,

which varies considerably in height from place to place. With these

limitations, it is therefore possible to correlate marine terraces in

many parts of the world simply by ascertaining the altitudes of their

abandoned shore lines with respect to the present sea level.

It may also be possible to correlate the marine terraces with the

sequence of glacial and interglacial stages in North America on the

assumption that the oscillations of sea level are due primarily to

glacial control. On two previous occasions I have applied this principle

in the preparation of correlation tables.? The speculative nature of

these correlations was emphasized in both papers and it was frankly

stated that they could scarcely be expected to prove final. The first

attempt was defective because the sequence of shore lines then known

was not complete; the second was not acceptible to glacialists because

it assumed three interglacial substages within the Wisconsin. Both

were incorrect because they were based upon the erroneous assump-

tion that each shore line represents a different interglacial stage or

substage.

That this assumption is false appears to be proved by the observa-

tions of Stearns? on the island of Oahu. He finds that sea level dropped

from about 95 feet above its present level to 70 feet and then to 40 (?)

feet without the intermediate lower levels that would be expected if

each of these highs represented a different interglacial stage. From

40 feet the water sank to about 60 feet below the present sea level and

then rose to 25 feet above it. It seems reasonable to suppose that this

low level represents a glacial stage and that the 95-, 70-, and 40-foot

levels together represent one interglacial stage.

Corroboration of the existence of a low stand of sea level preceding

the 25-foot stand is found on the Neuse River 10 miles below New

Bern, N. C., where Mansfield’ reports large truncated cypress stumps

2 Cooks, C. W. Correlation of coastal terraces. Jour. Geology 38: 577-589. 1930;

Tentative correlation of American glacial chronology with the marine time scale. This

JOURNAL 22: 310-312. 1932.

3 Stearns, H. T. This JourNat 25: 90. 1935.

4 MansFIebp, W. C. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 150: 134. 1927.

JuLY 15, 1935 COOKE: PLEISTOCENE TERRACES 333

overlain to a height of 26 feet above sea level by sand and clay con-

taining brackish-water shells. An indication that there were probably

no intermediate low stands of the sea immediately preceding the 70-

foot and the 42-foot stands is suggested by the shape of the shore

lines at those levels in South Carolina.’ These shore lines seem to

indicate emergence rather than submergence. An indication that sea

level was low before the 100-foot stand is found at Washington, where

the Wicomico formation, there presumably of estuarine origin, rests

upon cypress stumps that grew about 60 feet below the Wicomico

shore line.®

The accompanying revised correlation table is still highly specula-

tive. It is still probably defective in many respects, but it is believed

to be somewhat closer to the truth than the two previous attempts.

The “‘Princess Anne” terrace, which was credited with a shore line 12

feet above sea level in the second correlation table, is omitted in the

new version because I have been unable to confirm the existence of

a shore line at that level in South Carolina, where the conditions for

its preservation are favorable and where large-scale topographic maps

should make its detection easy.

TABLE 1.—TeEntTative AGES OF PLEISTOCENE TERRACES

Approximate altitude of strand lines c . e : :

apa Ne Name of pee ome ter Glacial and interglacial stages

Aries one coool CURR AT ORs Nebraskan glacial stage

270 82 BYINGKAWAINE, oo pocccouee Aftonian interglacial stage

? Tins Tied oar ese Ua Meer sm LE Ae Kansan glacial stage

ae s cee Py Ao a ae Yarmouth interglacial stage

2 Pea Nf abst ree cies a acta meso cit ee: Illinoian glacial stage

100 30 Wicomico

70 21 Penholoway;...........} Sangamon interglacial stage

42 13 Talbot

? (pee | MeantaP esr eke 2, San ey ect ee Iowan glacial stage

25 8 namlicowmpises- co) aeetaror Peorian interglacial stage

et oO OO OS Oe Wisconsin glacial stage

®> Cooks, C. W. Geology of the Coastal Plain of South Carolina. U. S. Geol. Survey

Bull. (in course of publication).

5 Wentworth, C. K. The fossil swamp deposit at the Walker Hotel site, Connecticut

Ave. and DeSales St., Washington, D.C. This JourNat 14: 1-11. 1924.

334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

265TH MEETING

The 265th meeting was held at the Kennedy-Warren Apts., April 2, 1935.

Program: Wm. H. Wuston, JR.: Recent advances in our knowledge of the

sexuality of certain lower fungi. Since Blakeslee in his epoch-making paper of

1904 first recognized, demonstrated, and defined heterothallism in the

Mucorales, the experimental period in the study of sexuality in the fungi

which he ushered in has been notable chiefly for the discovery of this condi-

tion by other workers, not only in other groups of Phycomycetes but also in

the Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes. Recently, however, a much more

complex sexual condition of hermaphroditism involving self sterility with

cross fertility toward compatible opposites has been found to obtain in

certain Ascomycetes and has been worked out in detail in Sclerotinia, where

the ascospores are uninucleate and there is a consequent segregation of

compatibility or fertility therein; and in Pleurage, where the normal binu-

cleate ascospores involve the somewhat more complex situation of the

presence in the same binucleate spore of two hermaphroditic entities, each

self sterile but reciprocally cross fertile. This condition is much more com-

plex than either the homothallism or heterothallism recognized by Blakeslee,

as each individual is not one single separate sex, either male or female ex-

clusively, but is hermaphroditiec with highly specialized and differentiated

male and femal sex organs and a definite self sterility and cross fertility, the

situation on the whole resembling that in some of the flowering plants.

This illuminating condition found in the Ascomycetes is of course too com-

plex to cast any light on the more primitive condition from which these more

elaborate ones have evolved. As might be expected, we must turn for such

primitive phylogenetically significant situations to the aquatic Phycomy-

cetes. Here Kniep, in Allomyces javanicus, has found a condition more primi-

tive and hence probably of more phylogenetic significance, a condition of

hermaphroditism with self fertility between heterogamous planogametes

distinctively different in size, color and activity and borne in definitely ar-

ranged gametangia, notably dissimilar in size and shape. This interesting

condition has been corroborated by Hatch in A. arbuscula and by Emerson

and Weston in other tropical species of the genus. The situation presents a

close parallel to that revealed by recent studies in the green algae and is of

interest in bridging the gap between the isogamous planogametic fusions in

some of the Chytridiales and the hitherto anomalous situation of oogamy in

Monoblepharis involving large non-motile eggs and small motile sperms.

Of the several examples considered in this discussion these two, at least,

give the impression that far more significant and interesting sexual condi-

tions are to be found in the lower fungi than might have been expected from

consideration of the classic situations defined as heterothallism and homo-

thallism by Blakeslee thirty years ago.

SPECIAL MEETING

A special meeting was held April 24, 1935, in the Auditorium of the U.S.

Department of Agriculture, President Wm. W. Dreut presiding.

Program: L. O. Kunxeu.—Plant viruses (illustrated). Some recent ad-

JuLY 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 335

vances in studies on plant virus diseases have been made possible by the

discovery that primary lesions are produced by the virus of tobacco mosaic

and by many other viruses, that large numbers of closely related strains of

viruses are prevalent in nature, and that any one strain of a virus protects

against other strains of the same virus, but not against any other virus.

Necrotic primary lesions produced by the virus of tobacco mosaic on

leaves of Nicotiana glutinosa and Phaseolus vulgaris are conspicuous and easy

to count. The number of lesions that appear following inoculation with any

sample of virus furnishes a measure of the infectivity of the sample, and

therefore indicates the concentration of virus in the sample. This method of

measuring concentration facilitates quantitative studies on the tobacco-

mosaic virus. By choosing appropriate test plants, the method becomes

applicable for quantitative studies on a considerable number of other plant

viruses.

Many different plant virus diseases have been recognized and studied. The

several diseases have usually been distinguished by characteristic symptom

differences. The discovery that a large number of different strains of tobacco-

mosaic virus may be isolated from bright yellow spots that occur on the

leaves of plants having ordinary tobacco mosaic, and similarly that yellow

strains of cucumber mosaic may be isolated from plants having ordinary

cucumber mosaic, has focused attention on virus relationships. Recognition

of these relationships has simplified certain virus disease problems.

Tobacco plants infected with any one of a large number of different strains

of tobacco-mosaic virus become immune from other strains of this virus.

They are not immune from cucumber-mosaie virus, or from other viruses to

which tobacco plants are susceptible. Similarly, tobacco plants infected with

any one of several different strains of cucumber-mosaic virus become im-

mune to other strains of this virus, but are not immune from tobacco-

mosaic virus, or from other viruses to which tobacco is susceptible. The

immune reaction is specific and furnishes a dependable means for the identi-

fication and classification of plant viruses and the diseases they produce.

Little is known regarding the nature of immunity from virus diseases ac-

quired by plants, but the discovery that peach-yellows virus in diseased

peach trees can be destroyed by heat treatment that does not injure the trees

has furnished favorable material for further work on this phenomenon.

(Author’s abstract.)

Earu B. McKinury.—Animal viruses (illustrated).

266TH MEETING

The 266th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, May 7, 1935, President Dieu presiding; attendance 75. The following

were elected to membership: CoRABEL Biren, ARNOLD 8. Daunu, Juan B.

DEMAREE, Lorenzo D. Eacurs, CHARLES R. ENtow, Lewis A. FLETCHER,

D. Victor Lumsprn, Eucenr May, Max A. McCauu, Exvizaseru R.

PENDLETON, SHIO SAKANISHI, Dean R. WIckKEs.

Program: ANNIE M. Hurp-Karrer.—Plant physiology involved in the

problem of the selenium disease of livestock. Sulphur or sulphate applications

to soil containing selenium so reduced the amount of selenium entering wheat

plants as to render their grain non-toxic to rats, the selenized control plots

without sulphur yielding toxic grain which produced the typical selenium

disease on the rats of parallel feeding tests. Other factors influencing selen-

ium absorption by wheat were type of soil and form of selenium. The selen-

336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

ates are more toxic than the selenites, and of the former, the potassium salt

was invariably less toxic than those of sodium and calcium. The selenates

produce a white chlorosis and pink coloration of the leaves. The selenites

on the other hand do not ordinarily produce this chlorosis, but often cause

the roots to become reddened. The theory is advanced that the selenites are

the more easily reduced in the root, borne out by the fact that more selenium

gets into the tops in the case of the selenates. Plants with a high sulphur

requirement, notably the Cruciferae, take up the most selenium, and those

with the lowest sulphur requirement, certain of the Gramineae, absorb the

least. Other crops tested were intermediate, the rate of absorption of the two

elements varying together. A theory is proposed to explain the quantitative

aspects of the selenium-sulphur antagonism, which suggests the possibility

that the toxicity of a non-essential element may in general be conditioned by

the relative availability of an essential element sufficiently similar chemi-

cally to permit substitution in some synthesized compound and to preclude

discrimination by the root. (Author’s abstract.)

J. E. McMurrrey.—Distinctive effects of deficiency of certain essential

elements on the growth of tobacco plants. This is a report of the distinctive

deficiency effects of N, P, K, Mg, Ca, B, 8, Fe and Mn on the growth of

tobacco plants. A deficiency of nitrogen is shown by the whole plant assum-

ing a light green color, with more or less yellowing and drying up or “‘firing”’

of the lower leaves to a light brown color. A shortage of phosphorus on the

contrary, produces a plant that is abnormally dark green in color with in

some instances a yellowing or drying up of the lower leaves to a greenish

brown to black color. A shortage of potassium and magnesium in contrast

with nitrogen and phosphorus deficiency results in localized effects, with

chlorosis of the lower leaves as the dominant characteristic. Typical potas-

sium hunger is distinguished from magnesium hunger by the appearance of

small necrotic spots or specks at the tips and margins of the chlorotic leaves

in the case of the former. In contrast with the deficiency effects of the above

elements which are general or occur on the older or lower leaves, are those

typically occurring on the new growth or bud leaves and caused by deficiency

in Fe, Mn, §, B, or Ca. A deficiency of Fe, Mn or S produce characteristic

chlorosis on the younger leaves. The chlorosis resulting from shortages of

Fe or Mn resemble each other in that the veins tend to retain their green

color but in the case of the latter a necrotic spotting occurs scattered over

the leaf which is not true with Fe chlorosis. The chlorosis resulting from $

deficiency differs from those just mentioned in that the veins are lighter

green in color than the tissue between the veins. A shortage of Ca first be-

comes apparent as a peculiar hooking downward of the tips of the young

leaves composing the bud, followed by a breaking down of these leaves at

the tips and margins. If later growth takes place, the tips and margins show

a cut out appearance. In contrast with these effects, a deficiency of boron

produces a light green color at the base of the young leaves of the bud, fol-

lowed by a breakdown, which, if not too severe is followed by later growth,

thus causing the young leaves to become distorted or twisted at their bases.

The tip of the leaf usually remains alive for some time after the base has

broken down. The final result with extreme shortages of boron and calcium

is the death of the terminal bud. The foregoing contrasts have served as a

basis ae construction of a key to the deficiency effects studied. (Author’s

abstract.

M. A. Rarnes.—Some experiments with roots. The elongation of the young

JULY 15, 19385 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 337

radicles of many plants varies consistently, and under many environmental

conditions quite sensitively. The amount of elongation (conveniently ex-

pressed as a ratio comparative to the elongation in water-saturated air, as a

readily reproducible control condition) promises to have value in descrip-

tions of and specifications for environmental conditions and root-environ-

mental relationships. Radicles for test purposes are obtained by germinating

seeds on strips of blotting paper which are suspended in a moist chamber,

with the upper ends of the strips dipping into a water trough, so that they

are kept moist by capillarity downwards. The seeds are held in position on

the strips of blotting paper by means of pieces of wet absorbent tissue paper.

Representative data are given of the elongation ratios of the radicles of

lentil, tomato, squash, cress, green pea, and wheat under a variety of com-

mon experimental conditions. Test interval, 24 hours; volume of test solution

10 ml. per radicle. Disturbances were regularly caused in the elongation

of some radicles (notably lentil, tomato, squash, cress, by such substances

as “‘vaseline,” paraffine, and white mineral oil coming into contact with the

water in which the roots were growing. Other substances found to cause dis-

turbances in root elongation were lubricating oils, waxes, asphalt, resins,

metals, and plant products such as sawdust. In addition, the roots were

affected in their growth by the vapors given off at ordinary room tempera-

tures (25°C +5°) by paraffine, ‘‘vaseline,’”’ mineral oils, and various waxes

present in an enclosed space in which the roots were growing, but not in

contact with the water containing them. In experiments on the signifi-

cance of the difference in the elongation of the radicles in water and in the

moist chamber, it was found that the smaller the amount of water used per

radicle, the closer does the elongation of the root approach that in the moist

chamber. This is interpreted as indicating the exertion of a conditioning

influence by the growing root on the water around it; and that, in the case

of the radicle growing in the moist chamber, it is growing not in air but ina

thin film of water which is in equilibrium with the root in the matter of such

conditioning influences. (A uthor’s abstract.) ;

CuHarLES F. Swineaun, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

NovTeEs

Army Medical Research Board.—The transfer of the Army Medical Re-

search Board from Manila, P.I., to Ancon, C.Z. has recently been effected.

The Research Board was organized in Manila in 1900, with Lizur. RicHarp

P. Strona, Medical Corps, now head of the School of Tropical Medicine,

Harvard University, as its first president.

The activities of the board in Manila included research and investigations

largely in the field of tropical medicine, particular attention being paid to the

dysenteries, cholera, plague, yaws, dengue fever, malaria, filariasis, beriberi,

surra and rinderpest. The latter two are diseases of animals. The contribu-

tions of the board are too numerous to mention here, as the bibliography

uae over 150 titles of scientific articles published in various journals and

ooks.

It is believed that at this time the Canal Zone offers a more promising

opportunity for the board than the Philippine Islands. In the Canal Zone

338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 7

the board will initiate its work with investigations relative to the epidemi-

ology and control of malaria beyond the limits of the sanitated area—an

extremely important problem to the Army during tropical maneuvers and

campaigns.

It has been recognized for many years that several fevers of short duration,

but a fruitful source of incapacity, identical with or closely resembling

denque and papatacci or sanifly fever are prevalent at certain seasons in the

Canal Zone. The board will also make an effort to identify these fevers with

a view to their prevention or abatement in the future. Mycotic skin diseases

are extremely common in Panama and a study and investigation of these

ubiquitous dermatoses are under way.

Bureau of Fisheries—At the Chicago meeting of the National Planning

Council of Commercial and Game Fish Commissioners, Commissioner

FRANK T. Bett outlined plans which he has formulated for cooperation be-

tween the Commission, as representative of the Federal Government, and

the several States. At the same meeting, Tep Lirrie, of the Bureau, was

elected secretary of the Council. GLEN C. Leacu, ELMER YiccGins, TALBOTT

Denmeap and R. H. Frepuer took part in the proceedings of the meeting.

Commissioner BELL addressed the recent meeting of the Izaak Walton

League of America in Chicago, on problems of protecting the salmon fishery

of the Columbia river.

In response to a general demand on the part of the public, the Bureau of

Fisheries aquarium in the Department of Commerce Building is to be kept

open on Sundays during the summer and as long thereafter as attendance

warrants. The hours are from 10 in the morning until 4:30 in the afternoon.

RoseErt O. SmituH, of the Bureau’s oyster investigation staff, left Wash-

ington recently to assume his new duties at Appalachicola, Florida, where

he will have charge of oyster pest control investigations in the Gulf area.

National Bureau of Standards.—The honorary degree of Doctor of Engi-

neering was conferred upon Dr. Lyman J. Briaes, Director of the National

Bureau of Standards, by the South Dakota State School of Mines, Rapid

City, S.D., on May 30. Dr. Briaes delivered the baccalaureate address on

the relation of the Bureau to engineering, and later proceeded to the strato-

camp near Rapid City, where, as chairman of the advisory committee of the

National Geographic Society-Army Air Corps stratosphere expedition, he

supervised the final arrangements for the flight of the balloon, ‘‘Explorer II.”

The John Price Wetherill Medal of the Franklin Institute was awarded to

Dr. L. B. Tuckerman of the division of mechanics and sound on May 15.

The award was made in recognition of Dr. TuckERMAN’s fundamental im-

provements in the optical lever and his application of it to his optical strain

gage.

E. C. CritrENnpDEN, assistant director of the National Bureau of Standards,

delivered the opening address at the Twenty-Fifth National Conference on

Weights and Measures, on June fourth. The conference (the first since

1931) met at the Bureau on June 4-7, and was attended by 103 weights and

measures Officials representing 22 States and the District of Columbia, as

well as 55 manufacturers of weighing and measuring apparatus and 10 other

persons.

National Park Service—Pror. CAREY CRONEIS, Department of Geology,

University of Chicago, and Dr. Mretvin BroapsHaue and Dr. V. C. ARNs-

PIGER, Of the Erpi Corporation, were at Washington Headquarters, National

ume £55 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 339

Park Service, June 8 to 10, in connection with final checking on a series of

educational films prepared for Civilian Conservation Corps Camps through

a cooperative effort between the National Park Service, the University of

Chicago, and the Erpi Corporation.

Dr. Barnum Brown of the American Museum of Natural History spent

several days in Washington in early June, at which time he discussed with

Park Service officials plans for developing Dinosaur National Monument in

Utah.

Dr. G. R. WieLanp, Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington, recently conferred with National Park Service officials regard-

ing proposed developments at the Fossil Cycad National Monument, Wyom-

ing. It is planned to have a committee inspect this area and offer suggestions

on the best means of making the scientific features of this monument avail-

able to the public.

Carnegie Institution of Washington.—O. H. GisH and K. L. SHERMAN, of

the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington, left Washington the latter part of May for Rapid City, South

Dakota, where they have established a ground-station for obtaining contin-

uous registration of the potential gradient and conductivity of the atmos-

phere. These data are being obtained for use in connection with the discus-

sion of the air-conductivity records which, it is hoped, will be obtained on the

stratosphere flight under the auspices of the National Geographic Society

and the United States Army Air Corps which is scheduled to take place in

June.

Henry M. Stanton, observer in the Department of Terrestrial Magne-

tism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, sailed from New York on

June 14 for Peru where he will assist in a program of ionosphere-work at the

Huancayo Magnetic Observatory.

Insecticidal Society of Washington.—A promising new scientific society, the

Insecticidal Society of Washington, has now been in existence several

months. It was organized last autumn, with the following officers: chairman,

Dr. F. L. CaMpBertt; vice chairman, C. M. Smit; secretary, Dr. J. W.

BULGER.

Society of the Sigma Xi.—At the annual banquet and meeting of the

Society of the Sigma Xi, on the evening of May 14, membership was con-

ferred on Dr. Jonn R. Moutuer, chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry,

Dr. 8. F. Buaxs of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and Dr. O. 8. Apams of

the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Dr. Mounumr delivered an address on Hx-

plorations beyond the microscope, DR. BuaAK® spoke on the taxonomy of the

Compositae, and Dr. ApAMs on some mathematical aids in map projecting.

Seismological Society of America.—The tenth annual meeting of the

Eastern section of the Seismological Society of America, held at the Domin-

ion Observatory, Ottawa, was attended by a number of Washington seis-

mologists. Capt. N. H. Hecx, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, presented

a report on the seismological work of the Survey and also led a symposium on

a proposal for listing additional information from seismograms. Rey. F. W.

Sonon, 8. J., presented a report on Twenty-four weeks of microseisms. R. R.

Bove read a paper on Some factors in epicenter determination, and FRANK

NEUMANN one on Some new data on long-period waves in epicentral areas.

340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7

Five Years of Plant Patents —Patented flowers, fruits and other plants

have not accumulated very fast since the plant patent law went into effect

five years ago, on May 23, 1930. Files of the U. 8. Patent Office show only

124 plant patents of all kinds, contrasted with the thousands of patents on

mechanical devices and processes that pour from inventors’ brains every

year.

Four classes have thus far proved sufficient for the arrangement of plant

patent records: roses, other flowers, fruits and ‘“‘plants’”—the latter category

being a catch-all for everything that is not classifiable as either flower or

fruit.

Aside from roses, patented flowers have run rather strongly to carnations,

dahlias, chrysanthemums and freesias. Among patented fruits, apples,

plums, cherries, grapes and avocados are conspicuous. Patented vegetables

are conspicuous by their absence, but there is one patented mushroom.

The highest number of plant patents granted to a single applicant is nine,

to the estate of the late Luther Burbank. The Burbank patents include two

roses, five plums, one peach and one cherry. There are at present, however,

several commercial nursery companies that hold numerous plant patents,

sold or assigned to them by the inventors. A number of patents have been

granted to breeders in England, Holland, Czechoslovakia and other foreign

countries; most of these have been assigned to American firms.

News Briers

The annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association was held in

Washington during the week of May 13.

At the annual meeting of the Trustees of Science Service, new elections

to the Board were made, as follows: Dr. HARLOW SHAPLEY, director Harvard

College Observatory, representing the National Academy of Sciences; Dr.

Henry B. Warp, permanent secretary of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, representing that body, and Dr. Lupvig HEKToEN

director of the John McCormick Institute for Infectious Diseases, Chicago,

representing the National Research Council. Dr. VERNon KELLOGG, secre-

tary emeritus of the National Research Council, who retired as a trustee, was

elected honorary vice-president, in appreciation of his long service in the

office of vice-president.

The annual meeting of the American Association of Museums was held at

the U.S. National Museum during the week of May 20.

The first topographic map made by white men in China, just after the

Boxer uprising over a generation ago, has been turned over to the Library

of Congress by R. H. Sarcent of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Associated

with Mr. SarceEntT in the survey that produced the map were Drs. BarLEy

Wiuuis and ELtiot BLaAcKWELDER, now of Stanford University. The ex-

pedition had to work under the protection of a Chinese armed escort.

A white oriole, one of the rarest birds in the world, is included in collec-

tions turned over to the Smithsonian Institution by Dr. Hues M. Smita,

recently returned from Siam.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS

Page

Paleontology.—Annotated list of Pleistocene Mammalia from American

Falls, Idaho. - C.. LawissGazmy <2). des aee Geen eee 297

Biology.—Longevity and fertility in the pond snail, Lymnaea columella.

CHARLES P, WINSOR AND AGNES A, WINSOR.............2+-5--- 302

Botany.—Three new plants from Death Valley, California. C. V.

MORTON». .ai 6c Pays vee od eal bse ae ee nee 307

Botany.—New Asteraceae from the United States, Mexico, and South

America, °S. F. Brake? oi sion hives tat eee oe eee ee ee 311

Entomology.—Some undescribed species of Hristalis from North

America in the United States National Museum. Franx M.

OLS ia nas Fe SRR a an Se oe OR ee ee ee ee 326

Geology.—Tentative ages of Pleistocene shore lines. C. WytTHx

COOK ae 8 we ne plesca hs diay bre SL ene 331

PROCEEDINGS

Botanical Society . ... 2h 222 eee oe ee 334

Scrontiric Norms AND:NBSWS: Seas «sie wee tee heparin ve eae 337

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Aveust 15, 1935 No. 8

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 25 Avueust 15, 1935 No. 8

PHYSICS.—The beginnings of physics. II. The quest for creative

concepts.|_ RayMonp J. SEEGER, The George Washington Uni-

versity.

Can any good thing have come out of Greece—as far as science is

concerned? It seems to be fashionable among scientists to answer this

question with a knowing smile. And yet, how much is our reply based

upon deep understanding and how much upon superficial prejudice?

This so-called ignorance of the ancients, is it not often merely a con-

fession of our own ignorance of them? In this instance, indeed, it may

be that in refusing to look beyond their quest for general principles

we fail to catch a glimpse of their quest for creative concepts. For

although it is an anachronism to speak of Greek concepts in the New-

tonian sense, it is just as truly a libel to deny them in the Archimedean

sense. And to neglect them altogether is to affirm that science sprang

fully developed from the mind of the late renaissance hike Minerva

from the head of Jupiter, whereas even our most casual glance at

history tells us that there is more continuity? in the evolution of hu-

man thought than we may have power or time to investigate. Now

and then new types of reasoning do emerge, but these are invariably

found to be old methods redefined, reorganized or reemphasized.

There is never an immediate emancipation from the past. So, too,

in science changes in the nature of physical concepts have consisted

chiefly in sharper analyses of what have previously been taken for

granted as self-evident truths. For example, Galileo* emphasized that

the concepts of the Scholastics were meaningless without experimen-

tal tests. All the same, he retained space and time as part of his own

instinctive logic. Centuries later Einstein‘ pointed out that even such

ideas have to be associated with a set of metric operations, e.g., length

signifies only those operations by which it is measured. (The identity

1 The beginnings of physics. I. The quest for general principles. This JoURNAL 24:

501. 1934. Part II received March 16, 1935.

2 G. Sarton: The history of science and the new humanism. (1930) Chap. 1.

3 GaLILEO: Dialogue concerning two new sciences. (Translated by H. Crew and A. de

Sazvio, 1914) p. 84.

4 A. Einstein: The meaning of relativity. (1923). Aut

P. W. Briveman: The logic of modern physics. (1928).

341

342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 8

of these with the ones used in the determination of time between

widely separated points necessitates the single concept of space-time,

which custom expediently divides into space and time—happily justi-

fied by the smallness of ordinary velocities as compared with that of

light.) And now what Bohr’ is stressing in his reciprocity-content of

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is the necessity of including, not

only the methods, but also the very instruments in the scheme of

things so that physical laws must be regarded both ideally and prac-

tically as probable descriptions of events indeterminate in space-

time. One always used to assign all accidental errors of technique to

the fictitious personal equation—often a convenient safety-valve: But

the modern matrix formulation of quantum mechanics includes cer-

tain ones in real impersonal equations, which must be solved simul-

taneously with those giving the measured relationships. (Our every-

day faith in causality is warranted only because the magnitude of

the physical action usually involved is very much greater than that

of Planck’s quantum of action h.) Despite this changing significance,

however, what never has changed has been the need of using the same

kind of creative concept that Archimedes introduced in solving the

problem of the king’s crown.

As the story goes, King Hieron of Syracuse knew the royal gold-

smith so well that he asked Archimedes (c. 287—212 B.C.) to ascer-

tain the genuineness of a newly made gold crown without injuring

it. Of course, the crown looked like gold and it felt like gold, but was it

solid gold? Any direct test would be indecisive inasmuch as the crown

might contain an unknown metal inside. What was needed was a

property characteristic of materials and observable by indirect means.

This restrictive generality led to the beginning of theoretical physics.

For the fact that the head of the goldsmith was at stake meant that

flimsy philosophizing would never do. There would have to be pre-

dicted some unique relation that could be determined practically. Any

concept created from experiential appearances would have to be ex-

perimental in its outlook. And this is what we mean by a creative

concept, namely, one that is adequately descriptive in its definition

and experimentally significant in its relation to other concepts. One

can hardly suppose that Archimedes analyzed his problem in this way

—more likely he accepted all this intuitively. Yet it is really too bad

that our usual picture of him is that of a nudist running down the

street and panting “‘eijpyxa.’’ For his naive haste from the most famous

bath in history is apt to give us an impression of accidentality,

° N. Bour: Atomic theory and the description of nature. (1934).

Aucust 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 343

whereas it signified the enthusiastic climax of his quest for a creative

concept. One might more profitably view Archimedes actually tak-

ing his bath in his customary listless fashion. Certainly he was doing

more thinking than bathing as is evidenced by Plutarch’s® report that

occasionally he had to be carried by absolute violence to bathe. But

his phenomenal success is not to be attributed solely to his genius.

Scattered in the historical background were isolated cases of experi-

ments and a continuous growth of mathematics. What he did was to

unite these two methods by giving mathematical proofs for mechan-

ical practices, thereby producing that powerful, but strange, approach

to nature, mathematical physics (much to the disgust of Plato, who

looked upon matter as being in the form of imperfect images of per-

fect ideals). For this reason Archimedes has been rightly called the

Newton of antiquity. We shall now examine some of these antecedents

of his work. |

An experiment consists primarily of observation, measurement and

repetition; in so far as these are controllable, the experiment is said

to have good precision. It is possible to show that the development of

the individual sciences can be interpreted in terms of their ability to

obtain concepts that can be thus determined precisely. For this en-

ables the power of the mathematical reasoning inherent in economic

symbolism to be utilized in obtaining new relations among the con-

cepts, which, in turn, may serve as a system of checks and balances

or indicate new fields for planned research. Now the real failure of

Greek science lay in its lack of such precision. It was not that no fine

observations were made or that only crude measurements were at-

tempted, but that the experiments were seldom repeated. For it is

in the lack of controllability that the importance of neglected factors

is often revealed so that an accurate method may not produce good

results because of its wanting precision. By way of illustration, sup-

pose someone measured the pressure of various volumes of a given

mass of gas. He might find that it increased with decreasing volume.

On the other hand, another observer might note a decrease. And both

could be true, because the possibility of the influence of an additional

factor had not been considered, viz., the change in temperature. Of

course, if only one factor is variable, lack of discrimination is of no

great moment. The following is an example of such a fortunate occur-

rence in Greek investigation.

Just how Pythagoras of Samos (fl. 532 B.C.) discovered the relation

between the frequency of sound and the length of the string producing

5 Plutarch’s Lives : Life of Marcellus.

344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

it is largely a matter of conjecture. Perhaps, he received his informa-

tion from the priests’ of Egypt while he lived there. On the other

hand, the tradition of his conscious use of the experimental method

gains credence when we recall that he made a science out of arithmetic

by transferring it from the tradesmen’s abacus to the philosophers’

papyrus. (And what better example of how he molded the queen of the

sciences out of the mud along the Nile than the Pythagorean theorem

which generalized the 3-4-5 rule-of-thumb?) According to a popular

story, as he was passing a blacksmith shop one day, he was impressed

with the different musical notes that were emitted when the hammers

struck the anvils. Observing that the hammers differed only in size,

he surmised that the strings of the lyre might owe their harmony to

their various lengths. Much to his surprise, he found that strings with

lengths in the ratios 12:8:6 produced tones bearing musical relation-

ships with one another. With the ratio 12:6 the longer string gave a

tone an octave below that of the other; the ratio 8:6 was found to

correspond to the musical interval of a fourth, and the ratio 12:8 to

that of a fifth. Indeed, all the tones of the lyre could be thus expressed

as simple numerical ratios of a single fundamental one. It was only

natural that this fact should be exploited at a time when general prin-

ciples were being sought in every particular phenomenon. The dis-

tinctive contribution of the Pythagoreans in this regard was that

theirs was a quest for unity in form rather than in matter itself. Their

search for the basic design of the universe was in the domain of num-

bers. How easily geometry was included in its scope! For had not a

cube 12 edges, 8 corners and 6 faces? How readily astronomy fitted

in the scheme; for there were 7 planets (including the sun and the

moon at that time) corresponding to the seven strings of the lyre!

Moreover, each of these was supposed to emit a divine note as its

celestial sphere rotated. This unheard music of the spheres inspired

much thought and contemplation, e.g., Kepler’s Harmonice Mundi

with his celebrated harmonic law (third). Even matter was found to be

susceptible of classification according to this principle of number; for

the four regular solids, namely, tetrahedron, octahedron, icosahedron,

cube, were looked upon as symbolizing the four elements fire, air,

water and earth respectively. (The later discovery of the last regular

solid, the dodecahedron, was embarassing until someone realized that

it signified the whole universe.) How far these awe-inspiring analogies

could be carried became a problem for philosophers, and not for mere

7 H. HeitmuHoutz: On the sensations of sound. (3rd ed. 1895, translated by A. J.

E.tis.) p. 1.

AuGusT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 345

physicists. The fact remains, however, that there have been other con-

sequences more important than these unwarranted speculations. One

is the famous quadrivium of early medieval education: absolute num-

bers (arithmetic), applied numbers (the studies presided over by the

nine muses—called collectively music), magnitude at rest (geometry),

magnitude in motion (astronomy). Furthermore, the search for simple

numerical relations has played no mean role in the formulation of

modern physical theories. More than once a hypothesis has been re-

jected or accepted on the basis of the simplicity of its mathematical

formulation. For instance, the experiments of Regnault were even

questioned at one time because they did not conform to the simple

law of Boyle and of Mariotte. The early rejection and later accep-

tance of Prout’s hypothesis (1815), that all atomic weights are in-

tegral, reminds us of the powerful demand for simple numerical regu-

larities. And so we must ever be on guard that our science does not

distort its reflected view of nature, that it does not substitute its own

convenient simplicity for nature’s incomprehensible multiplicity, that

it does not altogether hide synthetic processes behind its analytic

harmony. To illustrate, what accounts for the universality of simple

harmonic motion? Is nature characteristically simple and harmonic?

On the contrary, this arises from the customary procedure of neglect-

ing higher order terms of the Taylor expansion of the potential energy

about a position of equilibrium—justifiable for small displacements

only. Hence, we have to beware always of the fatalistic mysticism of

numbers, as the later history of the Pythagorean school itself re-

vealed. It is significant, however, that mathematics and experiment

should have been so closely associated at the beginning of physics.

For without experiment mathematics is physically meaningless and

without mathematics data are physically incomprehensible. In other

words, it is equally difficult to listen to someone speak in an unknown

language as it is to hear one converse incoherently about this and

that. What makes facts worthwhile is their ordering, not their al-

manac-like compilation. As Poincaré® has so well expressed the idea:

“Science is built up with facts, as a house is with stones. But a collec-

tion of facts is no more a science than a heap of stones is a house.”

Indeed, we would go one step further and say that it is no more a

mere organized collection than a house is a home. The human spirit

broods over the chaotic facts of nature until they warm with cosmic

life. Creative concepts make science a functioning organism as well

as a mechanical organization.

8 H. Poincars: Foundations of science. (Reprint 1929, translated by B. Hausrap.)

Dp: 27.

346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

Other experiments that are recorded dealt with the proof of the

corporeality of air—a fact first suggested by Anaximander, but dis-

regarded by Anaximenes. (Cf. Voltaire’s® erroneous notions about air

a century after Boyle’s work.) In the fourth book of Aristotle’s

Physics! we find such experiments described. One due to Anaxagoras

demonstrated “that air is a physical substance by inflating bladders

and showing their strength of resistance to compression.’’ A second,

that of Empedocles, pointed out the same conclusion by means of a

water-clock, i.e., an open vessel with a small hole in the bottom for the

water to flow. Suppose the vessel is emptied and inverted in a con-

tainer of water, while one’s finger is held over the aperture. The water

will not rise owing to the presence of the air. These experiments are

particularly remarkable in that they were cited to refute specific

fanciful speculations.

We turn our attention again to the rapid development of mathe-

matics which preceded the work of Archimedes, the greatest mathe-

maticran of antiquity. Although Socrates’ (c. 470-399 B.C.) theory of

ideas was of little value to the direct study of matter, it replaced in-

genious sophisms with reasoned proofs and thereby stimulated mathe-

matical investigations because of its emphasis on form. For example,

consider the triangle. Regardless of its size, shape or substance it al-

ways has the sum of its angles equal to 180° (in Euclidean space).

Thus universal truths can be reaped without the chaff of incidental

conditions. Now the history of physics itself can be said to be a con-

tinual search for just such generality. At the time of Socrates, how-

ever, its great significance was chiefly its stress upon a rational reality

that was not materialistic; hence, it was not many years before me-

chanics joined mathematics as an abstract study. Properly speaking,

we should say that the seed of the theory of ideas was planted by Py-

thagoras and that its cultivation in moral and aesthetic fields was the

special task of Socrates. The Academy of Plato (c. 428-348 B.C.), who

was intimately acquainted with the Pythagorean, Archytas of Taren-

tum, utilized it in mathematics. Nevertheless, Plato’s main interest

in this subject lay in the educational value of its clear-cut definitions

and of its rigorous reasonings in the training of philosophers. Above

his porch was the following inscription for those entering: ‘‘Let none

that is ignorant of geometry enter my doors!’ But nothing was said

about the mathematics of those leaving. What his method accom-

° Oeuvres completes de Voltaire (Firmin-Didot 1874) 7: 41-45.

10 ARISTOTLE: The physics. (Translated by P. WickstEEp and F. M. CornrorbD

1929) Book 2, Section 6.

AuGusT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 347

plished, therefore, was more the development of mathematical inter-

est than of interesting mathematics. (His physics was worthless, as

may be appreciated by reading his Tzmaeus.) This impetus given to

the study of mathematics led gradually to its divorce from philosophy

so that mathematics was finally studied for the sake of mathematics.

This was particularly true in Alexandria where cosmopolitan influ-

ences minimized irrelevancies in the search for truth. In the famous

museum of this city (c. 300 B.C.), dedicated to the Muses, began a

period of investigation that is outranked only by the modern era.

Indeed, the Elements of Euclid, i.e., 13 books on geometry, have sur-

vived as have few other works. Their pedagogical discipline has been

of inestimable value owing to the author’s synthetic method of de-

ducing his theorems from certain definitions, postulates and axioms

set out at the start. Although modern geometers reject the unique

validity of the fifth postulate of Book I (the so-called parallel postu-

late), they are still indebted to Euclid for showing how any single

geometry has to be constructed logically. The immediate effect of the

Elements was to mold the form of the Mechanics of Archimedes of

Syracuse, the foremost thinker of the Alexandrian school.

The very legends that have enveloped the inventions of Archimedes

(Cf. Lucian’s story of the use of reflected sunlight to set the Roman

ships on fire) are a measure both of the respect in which he was held

and of his genius. Even to-day we are amazed at his powerful use of

mathematics. In order to consider his physical studies in some detail,

we shall only mention his outstanding mathematical contributions:

viz., the quadrature of the parabola by a modification of Kudoxos’

method of exhaustion, (the primitive form of integration), the evalua-

tion of 7 between the limits of 3 10/70 and 3 10/71 (3.14287 and

3.14083), the discovery and analysis of the spiral bearing his name,

the determination of the ratio of the area of a sphere to that of its

great circle (4:1) and of the ratio of the volume of a sphere to that of

its circumscribed cylinder (2:3). (A picture of the last was sketched

upon his tomb at his own request.) It is important to realize that

these high mathematical attainments made it possible for him to solve

such a physical problem as the equilibrium of a right segment of a

paraboloid of revolution immersed in a liquid, and that he was here

concerned with a creative concept, the center of mass. The substitu-

tion of a symbolic mass-point for an irregular solid had already been

used previously in practice, but was first computed mathematically

by Archimedes for a parallelogram, triangle, trapezium, and a para-

bolic segment. Moreover, all these proofs were based on the law of the

348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

lever so that he first had to derive the law in a way which we shall now

consider.

All his proofs follow the method of Euclid in the postulation of self-

evident truths. The first three of the seven postulates that head the

first book,!! On the equilibrium of planes, are as follows:

(1) ‘Equal weights at equal distances are in equilibirum, and

equal weights at unequal distances are not in equilibrium but in-

cline towards the weight which is at the greater distance.”

(2) “If, when weights at certain distances are in equilibrium,

something be added to one of the weights, they are not in equilibri-

um but incline towards the weight to which the addition was made.”

(3) “Similarly, if anything be taken away from one of the

weights, they are not in equilibrium but incline towards the

weight from which nothing was taken.”

These are used in propositions 6 and 7 to deduce the law of the lever,

1.e., Two magnitudes whether commensurable or incommensurable bal-

ance at distances reciprocally proportional to the magnitudes. For from

[s Fe R

a LS a

[tas Fe R

ZN a

22 e ae Ee

Figs. 1-2.—Illustrations used in Archimedes’ derivation of the law

of the lever.

(3) follows the converse of (1), viz., that weights which balance at

equal distances are equal. Otherwise, it would be possible to remove

the excess weight and have equilibrium, which is absurd on the basis

of the principle of sufficient reason and symmetry (the essential rea-

son for the first part of postulate 1). We shall now use this conclusion

to illustrate Archimedes’ reasoning for the simplest case of one weight

u T.L. Hearn: The works of Archimedes. (1897) p. 189.

AuGustT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 349

A being double another weight B. First suppose two weights A and

2B are in equilibrium (Fig. 1) at the same distance from each side

of the fulerum. Then they are equal, i.e. A =2B. Now divide one of

the weights, say the one 2B at L, into two equal parts B and transfer

each of these in opposite directions to a distance a from L (Fig. 2).

These two weights B are symmetrically located with respect to L

and therefore are in equilibrium (postulate 1), but their center of

mass at Z is still in equilibrium with the weight at R. Thus the entire

system remains in equilibrium after the displacement. The weight B

at F, however, can now be removed inasmuch as it is supported by the

fulerum. And so B balances A at a distance twice as great as 2B did.

This method can be easily generalized to include any case.

Mach” has pointed out that the above reasoning is fallacious as far

as proving something new is concerned. Criticisms! of Mach’s views

notwithstanding, it would be surprising if the mere knowledge of the

variables, weight and length, were sufficient to determine their func-

tional combination. Where, then, is this relationship assumed in the

proof? It is assumed in the displacement from ZL. For this involves

the tacit assumption that weight and length each enter in the condi-

tion for equilibrium only in the first degree. Suppose the law were of

the second degree. In the set-up of Fig. 1 we have for equilibrium

Aad = Aa?

But the positions in Fig. 2 give for equilibrium

A/2(a+a)?+A/2(a—a)?=Aa?.

2Aa? = Aa’.

On the other hand, if the law is of the first degree, the second case

gives

A/2(a+a)+A/2(a—a) =Aa

Aa=Aa.

In other words, it is the use of the concept of center of mass with its

inherent linear distribution that makes the displacement possible and

this is an application of the very law of the lever which we started

2 KE. Macu: The Science of mechanics. (4th ed. 1919, translated by T. J. McCor-

MACK.) Chap. 1.

8 C. SryaurR: Studies in the history and method of science. (Contains an essay by

i hea Curxp entitled Archimedes’ principle of the balance and some criticisms upon it)

350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

out to deduce. We have completed a vicious circle with all the dignity

of logic. Where did we first err? The fact is that the basic law of statics

is experiential and occurs in nature in many equivalent forms; it must

be implied in any proof that deals with observed relations. Despite

the sanity of expecting to discover experiential laws only in actual

phenomena, thinkers have been attacked by a mania for Euclidean

demonstrations again and again. They have made many attempts to

ascertain the fundamental law of statics, e.g., they have discussed the

meaningless question as to whether the law of the lever is more basic

than the law of the inclined plane. Yet reversible demonstrations show

that these are equivalent and only emphasize their essential similar-

ity. If theory demands definite postulates as starting places, truth it-

self is insufficient as the criterion for them. It was many years, how-

ever, before convenience came to be recognized as the basis of selec-

tion, and John Bernoulli’s principle of virtual work was finally ac-

cepted in this sense as the fundamental one from which the specific

laws of statics are to be obtained. It is noteworthy that Archimedes

had in his grasp the necessary conditions for such equilibrium, viz.,

the balancing of forces and their lever-like distribution. And yet,

what is most significant about Archimedes is that he appreciated the

extrapolation of his laws to elements beyond his immediate experi-

ence; he used his concept to predict. This is epitomized in his boast:

‘Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the earth.” And he ac-

tually did move Marcellus’ attacking army with his huge levers in the

forms of catapults, etc.

We have already mentioned his classic work on hydrostatics. He

began the first of his two books On floating bodies’ with the following

definition of a fluid: ‘‘Let it be supposed that a fluid is of such a char-

acter that, its parts lying evenly and being continuous, that part

which is thrust the less is driven along by that which is thrust the

more; and that each of its parts is thrust by the fluid above it in a

perpendicular direction if the fluid be sunk in anything and com-

pressed by anything else.’’ Then in proposition 7 he probably gave

his method of solving the problem of the crown, viz., ‘‘A solid heavier

than a fluid will, if placed in it, descend to the bottom of the fluid,

and the solid will, when weighted in the fluid, be lighter than its true

weight of the fluid displaced”’ (Archimedes’ principle). Let us apply

this to the problem of the crown. Consider a lump of gold having the

same weight as the crown in air. Weigh the gold and the crown in

4H. PomncaRé: op. cit. pp. 106, 125, 173, 208.

1 T. L. HEATH: op. cit. p. 253.

AuGustT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 351

water separately and compare their losses in weight. If the crown is

made of pure gold, it will have the same loss of weight as the gold

lump. The basic concept employed is specific gravity, i.e., the ratio

of the weight of a body in air to that of an equal volume of water;

hence, the problem can also be solved by the direct consideration of

density, or rather, its reciprocal, specific volume, for different sub-

stances of the same weight have different volumes. Thus the volume

of the displaced water can be used to determine the composition of the

crown. This is the method Vitruvius'® mentions as being the one Ar-

chimedes used. This interpretation seems to us less likely because no

proposition in Archimedes’ works is directly concerned with this idea,

whereas, proposition 7 is proved in a thorough manner. It is incon-

ceivable that he would have omitted the proof of so important a

method. It might appear that the fact of the bath would help answer

this dilemma. In either case, however, he could have obtained a eriti-

cal clue from the water. The first method would have been assisted

by his surmising that the buoyant effect of the water varied charac-

teristically with different materials (for the same weight of sub-

stances). On the other hand, the difficulty with the second method was

the determination of the volume of the highly ornamented crown.

The overflow of the water might have suggested the way to obtain

this from immersion of the crown in a full vessel. At any rate, in both

cases the essential feature was the need of a concept that was adequate

because of its uniqueness and its generality as well as the additional

factor that it had to be creative, i.e., it had to predict, directly or

indirectly, a practicable experiment. Obviously, a concept, such as

characteristic shapes of the atoms, would have been useless because

of their indeterminacy. We note also the intuitive use of the factor

of simplicity in that the specific gravity was used and not the sum of

its square and its cube root, which, nevertheless, satisfies all the other

demands. The consummate skill of Archimedes rested in his ability

to choose a simple creative concept.

We shall briefly mention some of the inventions of the period before

considering the later activities of the Alexandrian school. To Archytas

is credited the pulley and the screw (also a child’s rattle that Aristotle

recommended as something good to keep children from breaking

things about the house); to Archimedes is credited the endless screw,

the hydraulic screw and the compound pulley; to Ctesibios of Alex-

andria, the force-pump, the hydraulic clock and the hydraulic organ;

to Heron of Alexandria, a steam-engine, a siphon and many automatic

16 M. Virruvius: De Architectura. Book 9, Section 3.

352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

devices. Of greater scientific interest is the ingenious determination of

the diameter of the earth by Eratosthenes of Cyrene (c. 273-192B. C.),

who was a librarian of the Museum. (The Pythagoreans had al-

ready introduced the globular form of the heavenly bodies because

of the simple perfection of the sphere.) His method consisted of deter-

mining the distance D between two cities on the same meridian,

Zen cth

\ A

Sun ee Eprcucle

Detferent

Fig. 3.—An illustration of Eratosthenes’ method of determining the diameter of

the earth. Fig. 4—An illustration of Apollonios’ epicycle description of the motion

of the planets.

Meroe (near Alexandria) and Syene, and then observing the angle

the sun’s rays made with the zenith at the former when the sun was

at the zenith of the later (Cf. Fig. 3). This angle was the same as that

subtended by the radii to these points. Consequently, the radius R

could be determined from the relation D=Ré@. The observed data!’

were D =5040 stades and 6 =7°15’. The ancient use of different values

of the stade in various localities makes it impossible to check the

accuracy absolutely to-day. On the basis of the stade!* being equal to

516.73 feet, the polar diameter was 3925 miles as compared with the

modern value of 3949.99 miles. The importance of this method is its

use of quantitative observation. This was exemplified even better

later by another Alexandrian, Claudios Ptolmaeos (c. 138 A.D.),

whom Sarton’® praises as having performed ‘‘the most remarkable

experiment in antiquity.”’ It was a study of the refraction of light.

Although the rectilineal propagation of light was well-known to

Euclid and inevitably aroused his interest because of its applicability

to the geometry of perspective, his Catoptrics revealed either a poor

account of what he did know or else a good account of what he did not

17 Gesgraphica Strabonis. (recognovit A. MEINEKE 1866) 1: Book 2.

18 J. L. E. Dreyer: History of the planetary sy systems. (1906), p. 175.

19 G. Sarton: Introduction to the history of science. (1927) 1: 274.

AuGustT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 353

know. It was Heron who noted the law of reflection and proved that

it was equivalent to the principle of the shortest optical path (Cf.

Fermat’s Principle of Least Time). The search for the law of refrac-

tion was made by Ptolemaeos by a method quite different from that of

Archimedes. The latter deduced observable relations from postulates;

TABLE 1.—PtToxtemMaecos’ Data For His Law or REFRACTION

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (1) ANGLE OF REFRACTION (r) afr sin 7/ sin r®

(1) Arr To WATER

10 8 il 25 125

20 5} 2 1.29 1.28

30 2225 1.33 il Sil

40 29 1.38 1.33

50 35 1.43 1.34

60 40.5 1.48 i 3333

70 45.5 1.54 I a

80 50 1.60 1.29

Average il ail

(2) Arr To Guass

10 U 1.43 1.43

20 1B 0 1.48 1.46

30 19.5 1.54 1.50

40 25 1.60 152

50 30 1.67 iL B83

60 34.5 1.74 1253

70 38.5 1.82 it Sil

80 42 1.90 1.47

Average 1.51

(3) WaTER TO GLASS

10 9.5 1.05 1.05

20 18.5 1.08 1.08

30 27 Wil 1.10

40 35 1.14 2

50 42.5 1.18 i183

60 49.5 iL Ail 1.14

70 56 1.25 tl 1133

80 62 1.29 i 2

Average il Wi

® Computed by the author.

the former arrived at laws from observable data. Thus we have the

beginning of the application of the inductive method in science in

addition to the deductive one; to-day both are still necessary, neither

is sufficient alone. And yet, as is well known, Ptolemaeos failed to

obtain the correct form of the law, which was discovered much later

by Snell. We emphasize the word form; for the data of Ptolemaeos

was not at fault (Cf. Table)*°*. His failure was partly owing to the fact

20 L’Ottica di Claudio Tolomeo da Eugenio. Riddotta in Latino (pubbliccata da G.

Govi 1885) a. Sermo Quintus, b. Introduzione.

354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

that his trigonometric functions were crudely defined and partly to

the fact that he was intent upon getting a simple law. As Govi?®» has

shown, his data conform more to a law of the quadratic type than to

a simple proportion, e.g.,7 =a7i+b7*, where 7 is the angle of incidence,

r the angle of refraction and 6 a constant much smaller than the con-

stant a so that the second term is negligible for small angles. All in all,

Ptolemaeos was not far from modern science. It is in the field of

astronomy, however, that his creative power is best known inasmuch

as his Almagest (Meytorn ZYiwrak&¢) with its complete Ptolemaic sys-

tem became the embodiment of Aristotelian cosmology. To under-

stand its scientific significance we turn back to the interest aroused in

this branch of applied mathematics by Plato.

Up to the time of the Attic philosophers the chief astronomical

problem had been to account for the diurnal motion of the sky and

was usually solved by the hypothesis that the stars and the planets

were attached to a rotating sphere. In the Pythagorean scheme, how-

ever, a daily revolution of the earth was supposed to take place about

a primordial fire-center (not the sun), which was never seen on ac-

count of an interposed counter-earth. Both of these explanations

failed to take cognizance of the irregular motions of the planets. So

Plato proposed the problem to his students with the hint that they use

“uniform and ordered”’ motions in its solution. Eudoxos, the origina-

tor of the method of exhaustion, which was the ancient analogue of the

modern theory of limits (Cf. Euclid: Book XII), gave an ingenious

geometric answer. He considered every celestial body to be on the

equator of an individual sphere rotating uniformly about its polar

axis. To account for the retrograde and latitudinal motions of the

planets, he further assumed that the poles of these planetary spheres

were also attached to a sphere concentric with the first, but rotating

with a different angular velocity about a differently directed polar

axis. Since these still proved to be inadequate for the description of

the observed motions, other spheres were similarly introduced so that

four spheres in all had to be associated with each of the planets and

three with either the sun or the moon. (All these spheres were to be

regarded as independent of one another.) Finally, one additional

sphere was necessary for the entire group of fixed stars. This purely

kinematical approach to astronomical motions was the forerunner of

other nondynamical theories that held sway for many years because

of their adequate description. One of these was suggested by Calippos

of Cyzicos (n. 370 B.C.), who added a sphere in each case for Mars,

Venus and Mercury as well as two for the sun and two for the moon.

AuGusT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS Byo})

The ones for the planets were to produce retrogression without alter-

ing appreciably the synodic period, i.e., the time between successive

conjunctions of the sun and moon. In the case of the sun the spheres

were necessary to describe the unequal lengths of the seasons, which

had been noted in 432 B.C. by Meton and Euctemon at Athens. The

most startling modification, however, was made by Aristotle (c. 384—

322 or 321 B.C.). Lacking the insight of the mathematician he insisted

upon having real mechanical spheres in contact with one another.

And then in order to prevent the motion of the sphere of an outer

planet from being communicated to that of an inner one, he had to

add a few more spheres—22 in all. Thus Aristotle’s theory required

55 spheres for the heavenly bodies as compared with 34 for that of

Calippos and 27 for that of Eudoxos. The system was becoming too

cumbersome. Fortunately, its abandonment was hastened by the

discovery that the planets appeared brighter at times, as if they

moved closer to the earth. No system of rigid spheres was sufficiently

flexible to permit this so that about all that could be retained of the

Aristotelian system was its geocentricity, nevertheless, his authority

in this particular outweighed the geoheliocentric proposal of Hera-

clides of Pontos (c. 888-315 or 310 B.C.), i.e., that Mercury and Venus

revolved about the sun while it revolved with the other bodies about

the earth (Cf. Tycho Brahe’s extension of this, that all the planets

revolved about the sun, which revolved about the earth). Indeed,

even the complete Copernican-like hypothesis of Aristarchos of Samos

(fl.c. 280 B.C.) had to wait for Copernicus to expound its daily rota-

tion of the earth and its increased size of the universe to account for

the fixedness of the stars. This delay was assisted by the epicyclic

theory stressed by another astronomer, Hipparchos of Nicaea (ec.

136 B.C.), who noted also a 48’’ advance or precession of the equi-

noxes each year (the modern value is about 50’’).

Apollonios of Perga (c. 260-200 B.C.), the great geometer, who wrote

eight classic books on conic sections, first applied epicycles to astron-

omy. Their value in the description of planetary motions is evident

on examination. Consider a planet moving on a circle (the epicycle)

with a period of one sidereal year while the center of this circle, in turn,

moves in the same sense on another circle (the deferent) with the

period of the planet’s revolution. At some points B and C (Fig. 4) the

motions will annul each other so that the planet will appear at rest.

From C to V via A the motion will be progressive with an increase of

speed from C to A and a decrease from A to B. From B to C the mo-

tion observed on the earth will be retrograde. In this way the motions

356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

of the outer planets can be explained qualitatively. For the planets

Mercury and Venus the deferent was given the period of the sidereal

year and the epicycle that of the revolution (about the sun on the

modern view). As for the sun and moon, which do not show retrograde

motions, the motion on the epicycle and that on the deferent were

considered to be in the opposite sense. Moreover, the hypothesis of

eccentric circles was found to be so useful in describing certain irregu-

larities that Hipparchos used it to fully explain the motions of the sun

and the moon. But his greatest contribution was not so much his use

of epicycles as it was the beginning of accurate observations that were

carried on for three centuries and were thus available for later theoret-

ical study. Indeed, the distinguishing feature of the system of Ptole-

maeos was the making of the deferent eccentric in the case of the

moon and the five planets. Various minor corrections that also had to

be made, need not concern us in our present discussion.

It is particularly important to interpret the Greek attitude to this

system correctly. It was not regarded even by Ptolemaeos himself as

an actual representation of the planetary motions, but it was con-

sidered merely a means of computing the positions of the planets

at future times; it was a creative concept. The cumbersome geometry

had to be employed in lieu of any algebra at all.

In conclusion, we would emphasize the unmistakable direction

that the Alexandrian school pointed out to the early seekers of knowl-

edge, viz., mathematical analysis applied to concepts for the purpose

of experimental predictability. That this quest for creative concepts

was pursued more in astronomy than in physics was owing to the fact

that the former was free from the entangling preconceptions and

the snarling misconceptions of philosophy, whereas the latter retained

intimate relations with philosophical speculations. Later the pressure

of mind as superior to matter stifled physics completely. And yet, we

must be careful not to disparage the thought of an age by considering

its thinkers as indeterminately banded together. For the brilliant

torch of research has been handed down in the main from individual

to individual, from group to group, without regard to popular plurali-

ties. Hence, the contributions of Greece to the development of physi-

cal concepts should be measured by the blazing peaks her pioneers

discovered and not by the dark lowlands in which their associates

rambled.

AuGusT 15, 1935 CLAWSON, COUCH, AND BUNYEA: SODIUM CYANIDE 357

PHARMACOLOGY .—The toxicity of sodiwm cyanide and the effici-

ency of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination as a remedy for poisoned

animals.1 A. B. Cuawson, JAMES F. Coucn, and H. Buny#a,

Bureau of Animal Industry.

The poisonous qualities for sheep of potassium cyanide and of

hydrocyanic acid have been discussed briefly in former papers and the

results that may be expected by treating the poisoned animals with

sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulphate in combination have been

pointed out.” More recently the writers have had an opportunity of

testing the toxicity of sodium cyanide for sheep and the nitrite-

thiosulphate combination as a remedy for animals poisoned by it. It

is proposed in this paper to present the results of tests with sodium

cyanide and briefly to compare them with similar results obtained in

the experimental work with potassium cyanide and with hydrocyanic

acid. Such a comparison seems especially fitting as the animals used

in the experiments with the different cyanides had been subjected to

very similar conditions and during the respective investigations were

handled in the same way.

TOXIC AND LETHAL DOSES OF SODIUM CYANIDE

In determining the toxic and lethal doses of sodium cyanide, when

administered as a drench in a water solution, 17 experimental tests

were made on 14 sheep. The dosages and results are shown in table 1.

TABLE 1.—QvantITIEs or SopiuM CYANIDE GIVEN TO SHEEP IN A DRENCH AND THE

Errects PrRopUCED WHEN NO REMEDIES WERE USED.

Sheep Quantities* given and effects produced

ate 19 ;

mer No. eee Symptoms Sickness Death

Jan. 19 1457 34.92 34.66

19 1453 36.73 34.30

19 1482 38.55 32.69

19 1474 37.64 13.95

14 1467 53.06 5.78

14 1471 Bill, 74) 5.56

16 1472 39.91 Naor

18 1479 29 .02 5.28

14 1468 42.63 5.22

18 1453 30. (3 5.20

18 1476 37.64 5.19

16 1466 35.83 5.10

18 1469 43.99 4.92

16 1454 46.49 4.82

14 1466 3) st) 4.63

16 1453 36.73 4.57

16 1455 30.84 4.15>

; The quantities are given as milligrams of sodium cyanide per kilogram of animal's weight.

Symptoms very mild, consisting only of astimulation of the respiration.

1 Received March 26, 1935.

* This JOURNAL 24: 369-395, 528-532, 1934; 25: 57-59, 272-276: 19353

358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

One sheep was used three times and one was used twice. Each of

the other animals was used in a single experiment. In 7 additional

cases a solution of 1 gram of sodium nitrite and 2 grams of sodium

thiosulphate in 15 c.c. of water was injected intraperitoneally at

periods ranging between 1.5 and 4 minutes after the cyanide was ad-

ministered. These are shown in table 4.

The sodium cyanide solution was carefully prepared and checks

made so that each c.c. of solution contained 21.003 mg. of sodium

cyanide equal to 11.147 mg. of the cyanide radical (CN), or the equiy-

alent of 11.575 mg. of HCN.

In all cases the dosages were computed as milligrams of sodium

cyanide per kilogram of animal weight.

As shown in table 1, a quantity of sodium cyanide equivalent to

4.15 mg. per kg. of animal weight was the smallest dose given. As

the effects were very slight, consisting of a mild stimulation of the

respiration, and as somewhat larger doses gave correspondingly more

marked results, this quantity (4.15 mg. per kg.) is evidently very

close to the minimum toxic dose.

The minimum lethal dose is somewhat in doubt, but evidently is

close to 5.22 mg. per kg. of animal weight. Sheep 1468, the animal

killed by this quantity; sheep 1479, killed by 5.28 mg., and sheep

1476, killed by 5.19 mg., had received no previous drenchings of

cyanide. As compared with these, sheep 1453 made sick by 5.20 mg.,

had been poisoned three times previously by cyanide, the last time on

January 17, when it had been given 3 m.l.d. of hydrocyanic acid,

followed by an intraperitoneal injection of the nitrite-thiosulphate

combination, and sheep 1469 which died following the administering

of 4.92 mg. had been given two previous doses of 3 m.l.d. each of

hydrocyanic acid, followed by the nitrite-thiosulphate combination.

It is possible, although not clear, that the previous treatment may

have somewhat modified the results. It is evident that the m.].d. does

not exceed 5.22 mg. per kg. of animal weight.

COMPARATIVE TOXICITY OF CYANIDE WHEN GIVEN IN DIFFERENT FORMS

For comparison with potassium cyanide and hydrocyanic acid, the

minimum toxic and minimum lethal doses are given in table 2. In this

table the dosages are given in terms of the substances actually admin-

istered and of the cyanide radical (CN) equivalents.

Based on the smallest quantities of the substances themselves that

produced visible effects, hydrocyanic acid, potassium cyanide, and

AuGusT 15, 1985 CLAWSON, COUCH, AND BUNYEA: SODIUM CYANIDE 359

TABLE 2.—ReEwaTIvE QUANTITIES? oF KCN, HCN anp NaCN Requirep, WHEN

GIvEN As A DrEeNcH, TO PRODUCE SYMPTOMS IN AND TO KiLL SHEEP.

Minimum toxic dose Minimum lethal dose

Substance given

As substance given As CN equivalent As substance given As CN equivalent

HCN 1.05 1.01 2.29 2.20

KCN 2.438 .95 1) ./ Py PA)

NaCN 4.15 2.20 5.22 24 U0

8 Dosages given as milligrams per kilograms of animal weight.

sodium cyanide bear the approximate relationship represented by the

values 1:2.3:4. That is, sodium cyanide is one-half as toxic as the

potassium salt and one-fourth as toxic as hydrocyanic acid. If con-

sidered on the basis of their cyanide equivalents, their ratio is 1:1:2.2.

The ratios for the minimum lethal dose are somewhat different,

being 1:2.4:2.8, when based on the substances actually administered,

and 1:1:1.26, if based on the cyanide equivalent. Apparently sodium

cyanide is less poisonous than either hydrocyanic acid or potassium

cyanide, while there is no appreciable difference between the two lat-

ter forms.

The relationship between minimum toxic and minimum lethal

doses of the three forms differ somewhat. For hydrocyanic acid and

potassium cyanide the relationship is nearly the same, it being ap-

proximately 1:2 in both cases. For sodium cyanide it is close to 1:1}.

That is, with HCN and KCN, about twice as much is required to kill

as to produce visible effects, while with sodium cyanide the lethal dose

is only about 25 per cent greater than the minimum toxic dose.

As the efficiency of any remedial measures in cyanide poisoning is

closely related to the promptness with which it is given, or, more cor-

rectly, the stage of illness when it is administered, a comparison of the

rates at which the stages of poisoning develop when the different forms

of cyanide are administered is of considerable interest. The various

stages overlap so that no actual sharp boundary exists between them.

In most cases, however, three points could be determined fairly

closely. These are: (1) symptoms, or the time when the respiratory

movement began to show the effect of stimulation; (2) collapse, or

when the animals fell and were unable to get to their feet; and (3)

death. Considering the cases in which fairly accurate observations

were obtained, and eliminating such as were influenced by the admin-

istration of remedies, averages, times between the giving of the cya-

nide and the appearance of the effects, were obtained. These are

shown in table 3.

360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

TABLE 3.—SHOWING THE TIME FROM THE GIVING OF CYANIDE IN THE THREE FORMS

(HCN, KCN, ann NACN) anp Various Errects.

Time to effect

Form in which given Effect No. of cases Minimum Maximum Average

Min. Sec. Min. Sec. Min. Sec.

Hydrocyanic | Symptoms 28 20 2 50

acid Collapse 23 50 51 30 5 52

Death 11 12 30 51 46 30 16

Potassium Symptoms 79 30 3 00 1 7

cyanide Collapse 80 30 23 00 2 46

Death 13 6 00 56 00 25 49

Sodium Symptoms 24 30 1 45 1 00

cyanide Collapse 18 30 9 50 2 59

Death 11 8 00 90 00 34 39

Although table 3 is based on too small a number of cases for positive

conclusions, it furnishes certain information. The form in which the

cyanide is administered as a drench in water solution has no signifi-

cant influence on the time it takes symptoms to develop. Apparently

the time to collapse is somewhat longer when hydrocyanic acid has

been given than when potassium or sodium cyanide has been admin-—

istered. However, the average time in the hydrocyanic acid cases is

in part due to two animals that appear to have been unusually resis-

tant. One of these collapsed after 244 minutes and one after 513

minutes. With these eliminated the average time was 3 minutes 33

seconds. Of the 23 cases, 17 (or 75 per cent) collapsed in 3 minutes or

less. Following the administration of potassium cyanide there were

likewise two prolonged cases, one lasting 19 minutes, and one 233

minutes before collapse. Without these, the average time is 2 minutes

17 seconds. Of the 80 cases 80 per cent collapsed in 3 minutes or less.

With sodium cyanide the average is essentially the same as for the

potassium cyanide cases. Of the 18 cases, 13 (or 72 per cent) collapsed

in 3 minutes or less.

Taking all facts into consideration, it is not apparent that any

essential differences exist in the rate at which illness develops follow-

ing the administration of the three forms of cyanide under considera-

t-on. If any one of the substances acts more slowly than the others, it

is the hydrocyanic acid.

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE REMEDY USED

As previously stated, 7 animals that had received sodium cyanide

were treated with the nitrite-thiosulphate combination. Each animal

AuGusT 15, 1985 CLAWSON, COUCH, AND BUNYEA: SODIUM CYANIDE 361

was injected intraperitoneally with 15 ¢.c. of a solution containing 1

gram of sodium nitrite and 2 grams of sodium thiosulphate, the two

solutions being mixed just before being injected. The quantities of

sodium cyanide given these animals varied from 2.5 to 3.15 times the

m.l.d. The remedy was administered in from 13 minutes to 4 minutes

after the cyanide. The results are shown in table 4.

TABLE 4.—Suowine THE Errects oF THE NitTRiTE-THIOSULPHATE COMBINATION

ADMINISTERED INTRAPERITONEALLY AS A REMEDY FOR SHEEP POISONED BY

SopIuM CYANIDE

Time in minutes from giving drench

Sheep = of NaCN to

Date 1935 SSS eS atta = Result

No. eet Symptoms Collapse cone

Jan. 18 1482 38.55 2.0 0.75 3.25 3.75 Recovery

18 1480 47.62 Ze 1.00 love IL 540) Death

18 1481 42.63 2.75 1.5 2.25 2.25 Death

18 1457 34.92 3.00 1.0 3504 4.00 Recovery

18 1477 41.72 3.00 ORS I 7/5) 33245) Death

18 1478 38.55 3.00 1.0 7) 3.00 Recovery

16 1473 40.82 3.15 0.75 1.00 2.00 Recovery

Four of the 7 cases, including 3 of the 4 given 3 m.l.d. of sodium

cyanide recovered. As shown by the few cases the nitrite-thiosulphate

combination is as effective against sodium cyanide as against potas-

sium cyanide? poisoning, but apparently somewhat less effective than

against hydrocyanic acid.‘

SUMMARY

When given to sheep as a drench in water solution, 4.15 mg. of

sodium cyanide per kg. of animal weight produced symptoms of

poisoning and 5.22 mg. or more killed, and these quantities are con-

sidered to be the approximate minimum toxic and minimum lethal

doses, respectively.

Basing the doses on the CN content, sodium cyanide is somewhat

less toxic than potassium cyanide or hydrocyanie acid.

Following the administration of sodium cyanide the average time

to the appearance of symptoms is approximately 1 minute, to collapse

3 minutes, and to death 343 minutes. Taking into account the prob-

ability of experimental error, these respective periods are about the

same as for poisoning by potassium cyanide or by hydrocyanic acid.‘

The nitrite-thiosulphate combination was effective in 57 per cent

of the cases in which it was tried.

3 This JoURNAL 24: 528-532. 1934.

4 This JoURNAL 25: 272-276. 1935.

362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

PALEONTOLOGY.—WNotes on the genus Breviarea.1 Liuoyp WIL-

LIAM STEPHENSON, U. 8. Geological Survey.

The name Breviarca was introduced by Conrad? in 1872 as a sub-

genus of T’rigonarca Conrad (not Trigonoarca). He did not specify a

genotype, but named two examples, Trigonarca perovalis Conrad,

from the Snow Hill member of the Black Creek formation of North

Carolina, and Trigonarca saffordi Gabb. The former species was later

erroneously described by Conrad’ under the name T'rigonarca (Bre-

viarca) carolinensis. The type of the true Trigonarca saffordi (Gabb)*

came from the Midway group (Eocene), Hardeman County, Tenn.,

and is now known to be a Cucullaea;? Gabb originally assigned it to

Arca.

Meek‘ in 1876, treated Breviarca as a subgenus of Trigonarca and

named T'rigonarca perovalis Conrad as an example. The first author

who definitely designated a genotype for Breviarca was Stewart’ who

in 1930 selected Trigonarca saffordi (Gabb) Conrad, the second ex-

ample cited by Conrad. Emphasis is to be placed on the fact that

Stewart’s selection pertained to the specimen figured by Conrad (his

pl. 2, fig. 3), which, as shown below, was a specimen identified as

safford: from the Woodbury clay of the Matawan group, Haddonfield,

New Jersey, and was not from Hardeman County, Tenn.

Whitfield,* in 1885 treated Breviarca as a genus and accepted the

specific name safford: for the New Jersey material. He says, ‘The

specimen which I have figured on plate 12, figs. 11 and 12, appears to

be the same with that used by Mr. Conrad for generic figures in 1872,

and I have made the figures as accurately as it is possible to measure

the specimen.”

The specimen to which Whitfield refers is a right valve preserved in

the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and is accompanied

in the same tray by 138 other smaller shells, 9 left valves and 4 right

valves; the lot is from Haddonfield and bears the number 13141. This

lot has been kindly lent to me by the authorities of the Academy. I

1 Published by permission of the director, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington,

D.C. Received June 10, 1935.

2 Conrab, T. A. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Proc. 24: 55, pl. 2, figs. 3,4. 1872.

3 Conrad, T. A. Rept. Geol. Survey North Carolina. 1: App. A: 3, pl. 1, fig. 4.

1Si See also StepHENSOoN, L. W., North Carolina Geol. and Econ. Survey. 5: 110.

“4 Gasp, Wo. M. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Proc., 2d ser., 4: 397, pl. 68, fig. 38

(not fig. 37). 1860.

ui re G. D. Bull. Amer. Paleontology. 1: no. 4: 51-53, pl. 3, fig. 11; pl. 4, figs.

ee Mrrx, F. B. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey Terr.9: 90-91. 1876.

7 Stewart, Raupw. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Special Publication 3: 86. 1930.

8 WHITFIELD, R. P. U. 8S. Geol. Survey Mon. 9: 87-88, pl. 12, figs. 11, 12. 1885.

AuacustT 15, 1935 EWAN: PELLAEA COMPACTA 363

have carefully compared the large right valve with the figures given

by both Conrad and Whitfield, and am convinced it is the specimen

figured by them; it is marked with a green and a red diamond. Fur-

ther evidence is afforded by two card labels in Conrad’s handwriting,

to which specimens had been glued, one bearing the name Trigonarca

safford: Gabb, and the other Trigonarca (Arca) saffordi Gabb.

It is clear from the foregoing facts that the Haddonfield specimen,

which must be accepted as the genotype of Breviarca, was incorrectly

referred to Gabb’s species saffordi and that it is in need of a new name.

I therefore propose the name Breviarca haddonfieldensis, and designate

as holotype the large right valve from Haddonfield, figured by Conrad

in Academy of Natural Science Philadelphia Proceedings, vol. 24, p.

55, pl. 2, fig. 3, 1872, and by Whitfield in United States Geological

Survey Monograph, vol. 9, p. 87, pl. 12, figs. 11, 12, 1885. The speci-

men is adequately described by Whitfield. Twelve of the 13 shells

accompanying the holotype (9 left and 3 right valves) belong to the

same species as the figured specimen. The thirteenth shell, a right

valve, differs from the others in form, and resembles Breviarca um-

bonata (Conrad), from the Snow Hill member of the Black Creek for-

mation of North Carolina; this shell has been placed in a separate vial.

It follows that the genotype of Brevarca is Trigonarca saffordi

(Gabb) Conrad (=Breviarca haddonfieldensis Stephenson), and not

Cucullaea saffordi (Gabb).

In 1923 I referred Conrad’s species T'rigonarca (Breviarca) perovalis

and five other associated species, to the genus Striarca, which is based

on Arca centenaria Say, a species from the Miocene of Maryland. The

principal common character which was thought to indicate this con-

generic relationship, was the transversely striated triangular liga-

mental area. After further consideration I am now of the opinion that,

although the Miocene and Cretaceous species do possess this feature

in common, and are related, there are sufficient differences in form and

ornamentation to warrant retaining Conrad’s Breviarca for the Cre-

taceous species.

BOTAN Y.—The status of Pellaea compacta (Davenp.) Maxon, and a

probationary method in systematic botany. JosmpPpH Ewan, Uni-

versity of California. (Communicated by W. L. JEPSON.)

There occurs at elevations of 6500 to 8800 feet in the mountains of

southern California an endemic fern whose systematic status has vari-

1 Received April 2, 1935.

364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

ously shifted. Pellaea compacta (Davenp.) Maxon was first published

by J. G. Lemmon as var. californica of Pellaea Wrightiana Hook. in

1882.2 The following year George E. Davenport published Pellaea

Wrightiana var. compacta,® based on material from the same general

locality (San Bernardino Mts.) as that studied by Lemmon. Maxon

clarified the Pellaea confusion in the Southwest by delimiting what

had long been taken sensu latissima as Pellaea Wrightiana, of which

he had summarily said in 1901 ‘‘extremely variable,’’* and by pro-

posing in 1917 Pellaea compacta® as the name, now in full specific rank,

for the endemic high-montane fern of southern California. Munz and

Johnston considered the characters for this species and its indubi-

table relative, Pellaea mucronata (D.C. Eaton) D.C. Eaton, as not

varying together, and therefore in 1922 combined the oldest varietal

name with Pellaea mucronata to constitute var. californica (Lemmon)

M. & J.° Subsequently Maxon’ and Jepson® have maintained this

fern in species status.

My first introduction to Pellaea compacta in the field was very possibly in

the locality at which W. G. Wright first collected it, though I was unaware

of the fact at the time, on the slopes of Mt. San Bernardino at 7500 feet

elevation in the range of that name (Hwan, July 22, 1928). Although Maxon®

gives a more general locality, from the text of Davenport’s varietal deserip-

tion I believe that Wright must have collected it there. Moreover, the Wright

collection seen in the Eaton Herbarium by Maxon and considered by him as

being collected on Mt. San Bernardino at “‘7000 feet” is very probably from

the same station, if not collected at the same time as the specimen Daven-

port had before him when he described his var. compacta. My conclusions

regarding Wright’s collections are reached by studies made particularly at

the Los Angeles Museum, where they are well represented. I found here

collections of the same species differing but slightly in the wording of their

sketchy labels, which upon a close examination could be unquestionably

considered as of the same collection. Pellaea compacta grows on the higher

slopes of Mt. San Bernardino along the old trail, now little used, that leads

from Mill Creek (precisely from Forest Home, a resort at 5300 feet in that

2 Lemmon, J. G. Ferns of the Pacific Coast (San Francisco, 1882). p. 10.

8’ Davenport, Geo. E. Cat. Davenport Herbarium Suppl. 46. 1883 (fide Maxon,

Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 30: 183. 1917, not seen).

4 Maxon, W.R. List of ferns and fern allies of North America north of Mexico, ete.

Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 23: 634. 1901.

ae ec W.R. Notes on western species of Pellaea. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 30:

oO. Ws

6 Munz, P. A. & Jounston, I. M. Distribution of Southern California Pterido-

phytes. Amer. Fern Jour. 12: 106. 1922.

7 Maxon in ABrams, LERoy. (Jllus. Flora Pacific States 1: 31. 1923.

8 Jepson, W. L._ Man. Fl. Pl. Calif. p. 33. 1923.

® Maxon. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 30: 183. 1917.

AuGustT 15, 1935 - EWAN: PELLAEA COMPACTA 365

Fig. 1.—a. Pellaea compacta (Davenp.) Maxon. Typical plants; Islip Trail, near

Islip-Hawkins Divide, 7,500 ft., San Gabriel Mts., Raseorg & mia 4891, b. P. com-

pacta. Atypical (ecologic) plants from lower margin of its range; Big Cienaga above

Crystal Lake, 6,500 ft., San Gabriel Mts. Hwan 2704. _ c. P. mucronata (D. C. Eaton)

D. C. Eaton. Typical plant; Cajon Pass, 4,000 ft., San Bernardino Co., Hwan 5564.

366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

watershed) to Dobbs Cabin!’ and eventually to the summit. It may be found

poking out from beneath large boulders on the gravelly talus slopes thinly

populated by very fine veteran Jeffrey Pines. It persists when such slopes

are transformed into unsightly “burns” and the insolation much increased.

Though passing through a considerable size range (blade at maturity

falling about two averages: 3-5 or 8-12 em. long), the plants in their opti-

mum habitats show a group of constant morphological characters and match

other collections from similar montane elevations through the region oc-

cupied, in the compactness and configuration of their blades. I have observed

and collected this fern whenever botanizing in the higher mountains, con-

tinually marvelling at its distinctness in the field and at its “intermediate”

states. I consider ‘‘typical’”’ Pellaea compacta to be represented by such a

collection as Lemmon, May 30, 1876 (UC), likely a topotype (postulating

Mt. San Bernardino as the type locality), and Pellaea mucronata by such

collections as Geo. B. Grant 920 from ‘Sierra Madre Mountains” (i.e. San

Gabriel Mountains “behind” Pasadena and San Gabriel Valley) and

Braunton 750 from Eaton Canyon, San Gabriel Mountains. Pellaea mu-

cronata is also well illustrated by a photograph in Christ’s work on the geog-

raphy of Polypodiaceae." To my knowledge there has never heretofore been

published a photograph of Pellaea compacta.

I coneur with Munz and Johnston that between Pellaea compacta and

Pellaea mucronata ‘“‘the most striking difference is in the arrangement of the

pinnules,’’” giving a wholly different aspect to these ferns in their typical

_ states, as illustrated by figs. 1 a and c. After the examination of more than

two hundred sheets of the two species involved I present Table 1 of differ-

entiae:

The habitat and altitudinal distribution of these Pellaeas likewise differ,

for whereas mucronata favors the semi-shade beneath sclerophyllous shrubs

of the foothill chaparral belt, especially the widespread Adenostoma fasci-

culatum association, compacta is found in the boulder crevices of open ridges

and slopes, often along exposed “‘divides.”” And whereas mucronata uncom-

monly ascends to the lower portions of the Transition Zone, where it often

occupies less xerophytic situations, compacta is normally an inhabitant of

the upper Transition Zone. Maxon quotes Parish™ as to the existence of a

“‘veographical hiatus between the two species in which no Pellaea occurs,”

but I have seen collections of the two species altitudinally only 1200 feet

apart and it seems unlikely that the two ferns do not meet. It is true that the

two Pellaeas do not commonly merge and that there is a “fairly distinct

geographic range.”’* It is from such meeting-grounds as San Antonio Can-

10 Dobbs Camp, on U.S. Geol. Survey San Gorgonio Quadrangle, ed. 1902, reprint

1927. Precisely a delapidated cabin at a cienaga on Falls Creek.

1 Curist, H. Die Geographie der Farne, p. 158, fig. 72, 1910.

12 Amer. Fern. Jour. 12: 107. 1922.

18 Amer. Fern Jour. 8: 90. 1918.

14 Amer. Fern Jour. 12: 107. 1922.

AuGusT 15, 1935

EWAN: PELLAEA COMPACTA

367

TABLE 1.—DistincuisHinGe CHARACTERS OF PELLAEA MUCRONATA AND

P. cOMPACTA

P. mucronata

P. compacta

Attitude of pin-

nae “in nature”’

Attitude of pin-

nae on herbar-

ium sheet

Length of stipe

Spacing of pinnae

Division of pinnae

Pinnule® orienta-

tion

Pinnule gross mor-

phology

Duration of fronds

Dry season condi-

tion

Ranked in 2 planes to form a

trough with a basal right

angle

Usually obliquely ascending

(whereas widely spreading

in the field)

Stipe as long as the blade or

less

Pinnae distant their width

Pinnae always partly bipin-

nate (i.e. pinna divisions

near rachis trifid)

Pinnule when unrolled (in na-

ture by drenching rains, in

laboratory by boiling) never

overlapping adjacent pin-

nules

Pinnule, though strongly revo-

lute, not strictly condupli-

cate but more nearly terete

and not at all faleate

Pinnules deciduous, to leave

naked spinose pinna rachises

Pinna segments appear as pen-

dent bullate sacs from fili-

form wiry rachises; thus

wholly unlike divaricate

aspect of wet season

Curving toward each other to

form an imperfect cylinder

Secundly superimposed as any

cylinder would appear if

flattened (see fig. 1, a)

Stipe always longer than the

blade (to twice as long)

Pinnae all contiguous to pairs

above and below

Pinnae strictly pinnate (i.e.,

pinna divisions always sim-

ple)

Pinnule when unrolled (never

under normal conditions in

nature, in laboratory by

boiling) closely overlapping

each adjacent pinnule

“Fertile pinnules . . . broadly

revolute, often conduplicate

and faleate with age.”’ A false

intruded suture and charac-

teristic shape give an Astrag-

alus-pod aspect to the pin-

nule (under binocular)

Pinnules persistent; last year’s

weathered fronds (stone gray

color) intact among fronds

(gray green) of the season

Pinna segments appear as

equally ranked members on

either side of rachises; unal-

tered in position throughout

the year

® Pinnule here taken as the ultimate segment of any fern pinna.

yon, San Gabriel Mountains, the place of the above observation, that the

troublesome outlying variants arise.

The intermediate (better simply ‘‘atypical’’) states of these two species

are due, I believe from field observation, to ecologic (soil or climate or both)

factors which may affect either species, occurring chiefly along the margins

of their vertical ranges, as when mucronata interfingers upwards into the

lower Transition Zone. Plants of Pellaea mucronata near its upper altitudinal

limits may have much reduced pinnules, and these abundant and crowded

368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

—not at all like the common foothill fern in aspect—which comes close to

the outlying forms of compacta as that species reaches its lower limits.

Fosberg 8497, San Antonio Canyon, 4500 feet, represents this phase.

On the other hand when Pellaea compacta grows in partial shade under

pines it may assume the habit of P. mucronata in bearing the pinnae di-

varicately, in the manner of the Arizonan Pellaea Wrightiana. This condi-

tion is illustrated by Johnston 1593, San Antonio Canyon, San Gabriel

Mountains, at 5750 feet—about the lower altitudinal limit for compacta!—

and a likely zone of flux. Here the aspect of compacta is quite unlike plants

at higher altitudes in the same range. Furthermore, when this species grows

in deep north-facing crevices of boulders the pinnae may assume more widely

atypical asplenioid forms (fig. 1, b) with a few plane rounded pinnules.

Growing at the same station, however, at Big Cienaga above Crystal Lake,

San Gabriel Mountains (at 6500 feet—here the zone of flux because of the

ascent of the Sonoran elements immediately below to raise the whole zona-

tion), are plants of compacta (Hwan 2703) with divaricate pinnae and of

open habit, nearly plane, and only slightly glaucous, whereas typical con-

pacta is often distinctly glaucous. Still other plants from this station (Hwan

2702), growing in the full sun, match the Lemmon collection above cited

from the San Bernardino Mountains in all characters. It is such a typical

collection (Fosberg & Ewan 4891—though not the Big Cienaga collection

referred to above) that is illustrated by fig. 1, a. Careful search will then dis-

close what might be taken as negative evidence for concluding that Pellaea

compacta is a valid species, but there appears to me to be yet another justified

conclusion and disposition.

The systematic relationship in these ferns introduces a principle in the

treatment of “unstable species” that, as a working idea, merits considera-

tion. Both Pellaea mucronata, conceivably the parent species, and Pellaea

compacta, the derived species resulting from isolation, in part, and its multi-

plex resulting factors, are very susceptible to an abnormal environment,

with consequent morphological changes away from those characters exhib-

ited by plants of typical habitats. Especially does this reaction occur when

the two species approach their altitudinal limits. Irrespective of such uncer-

tain forms as may be found, not at once referable to either species but al-

ways peripheral in distribution and numerically few among the species as a

whole, a sound working basis is to maintain the limits, when well-defined, as

distinct species. Perhaps a parent species and such a limital one may repre-

sent a confluent unit, were all the intercalary states known. Nevertheless

the recognition of such limital species awaits the day, perhaps decades dis-

tant, when a comprehensive knowledge from several correlated fields of

study will relate the data presented by new collections in the then better

understood mosaic of life forms among plants. The chief disadvantage with

the practice of relating minor or questionable limital forms to another long-

known species on present incomplete evidence is the fact that such a practice

Lk llll— t—~—~—

auGcusT 15, 1935 EWAN: PELLAEA COMPACTA 369

hides away these plants from the critical observation which might easily

be given them were they maintained by botanists on ‘‘trial grounds.” A

recommended practice for the consideration of such uncertain (published)

forms in manuals and floras is that in favor among many botanists in giving

a characterization (preferably quite full, if not verbatim, from the original

description) of such forms, without keying them, as a subhead near the most

closely related keyed species.

Therefore, when a plant exhibits a clear set of morphological characters

under optimum growing conditions for that species and these characters

recur among plants found in similar floristic areas, I favor the recognition

of such plants (the ‘‘extremes’” of some botanists) as species. Many such

species may be found commonly to terminate a phylogenetic line, recently

budding from the parent species, and therefore will be areally limited. The

dubious forms that occur between such species would be then considered

taxonomically as individuals, at the same time pointing out their avowed

differences and affinities and relating them when practicable to the species

which they most nearly approach in the sum total of their characters. This

treatment, as species, of what have often been considered as ‘‘extremes”’

necessitates the clear definition of such a plant group, repeating an ap-

preciable number of times the characters present over several floristically

related stations.” Allowing for local or individual genetic variation the

majority of the “intermediates” will be found, I believe, to represent plants

in active evolution on the margins of their normal ranges, immigrants into

new territory.

O. F. Cook’s simile in elucidating the species problem is, among the ver-

biage extant on that topic, a happy one. ‘‘The categories of the biologist are

artificial like those of the geographer, but not more so. Geographers do not

agree in the grouping of the archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean, but this is

not considered a reason for denying that islands exist or that some islands

are close together and others far apart. Species are biological islands, in a

sea of non-existence.” Awaiting the results of studies by the experimental

grower, the geneticist, ecologist, and student of nutrition, the systematic

botanist holds a probationary attitude toward the lesser known plant forms

in an attempt to differentiate between specific units and those marginal

states which approach the better known species in one or several characters,

meanwhile being in accord with the view that the ultimate ‘‘only way to

solve taxonomical difficulties with polymorphic species goes along lines of

experimental research.’’!”

1s For “narrow endemics”’ 3 or 4 stations would suffice, if these were of the same

floristic subarea populated by identical or closely related species at the separate sta-

tions.

16 Coox, O. F. EHzistence of species. Jour. Hered. 5: 158. 1914.

17 Goppisn, W. A. On the species conception in relation to taxonomy and genetics.

Blumea 1: 81. 1934.

370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

SUMMARY

Pellaea compacta (Davenp.) Maxon is believed to have been first collected

on the slopes of Mt. San Bernardino, where it grows in fair abundance,

though not definitely so stated in Davenport’s original description of the

fern.

Pellaea compacta, confined to the higher mountains of southern California,

morphologically well-defined in its typical state but undergoing wide varia-

tion under abnormal environments, is considered specifically distinet from

the geographically widespread Pellaea mucronata.

The so-called “intermediates” of the two species are found to occur in-

variably along the margins of their vertical ranges, being absent from

within the range of typical plants of either species. These outlying forms are

generally atypical in only one or two characters which may be understood

from field observation to be of edaphic or climatic origin.

Well-defined limital forms (what have often been tagged ‘‘extremes’’) of

generally accepted species, sharing with the plants of several floristically

related localities definite morphological characters, are reeommended to be

treated as species.

Atypical forms may be best considered as ‘‘near’” or “towards” either

species according to the sum total of their characters, with a clear statement

of their aberrant morphological nature.

BOTANY.—WNew species of Bomarea from the Andes.’ E. P. Kiuuip,

U.S. National Museum.

Bomarea, a genus of Amaryllidaceae, contains some of the most

showy plants of the South American mountains. The brilliant flowers,

usually red and yellow, are often massed in clusters of 50 or more, and

present a striking appearance against the dark green foliage of the

forest. Though most of the species are high-climbing vines, some

inhabit the high mountain plateaus, and these generally are low erect

plants, with stiff narrow leaves.

As a member of expeditions to Colombia and Peru I have made a

special study of Bomarea, and am preparing a revision of the genus.

Since this can not be published at present, and the names of several

new species are used in a forthcoming article in The National Horticul-

tural Magazine, I am describing herewith eleven as new, most of these

based upon material in the herbaria of the Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew, the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, and the

Botanisches Museum, Berlin. To the directors of these institutions I

wish to express my appreciation of their many courtesies. Photo-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived June 4, 1935.

AuausT 15, 1935 KILLIP: BOMAREA 371

graphs, and in some cases fragments of the types, are deposited in the

U. 8. National Herbarium.

The most comprehensive monographs of Amaryllidaceae are those

of Herbert,? Kunth,? and Baker.’ In treating Bomarea Baker recog-

nized as subgenera two small groups of species, which both Herbert

and Kunth had placed in separate genera, these subgenera being des-

ignated by Baker as Wichaurea and Sphaerine. In classifying the true

Bomareas Baker followed his predecessors in recognizing four main

groups, as follows:

Umbel rays simple.

Petals and sepals subequal (Multiflorae).

Petals much longer than the sepals (Caldasianae).

Umbel rays forked.

Petals and sepals subequal (Hdules).

Petals much longer than the sepals (Vitellinae).

I have given names to these groups as above, in order to refer to

them more readily. The arrangement is not wholly satisfactory, and

- perhaps does not express the actual relationships of the species, but

until more herbarium material, expecially more fruiting material, is

available, it will suffice.

Bomarea (Wichaurea) campanuliflora Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis strictus (?), parte suprema recurvata, glaber; folia linearia, re-

voluta, rigida, subtus rufo-pilosula; radii 4, glabri, 1—2-furcati; ovarium

+superius, glabrum; sepala late ovata, rubra; petala oblanceolato-ungui-

culata, quam sepala longiora, rubra, apice viridi.

Stem apparently erect, recurved toward apex, about 3 mm. in diameter,

leafy except toward base, glabrous; leaves linear, 3 to 9 em. long, decreasing

toward apex, 3 to 6 mm. wide (the upper the broader), crowded, strongly

revolute, rigid, sessile, rufo-pilosulous beneath; bracts similar to the leaves,

slightly involute; umbel rays 4, about 4.5 em. long, glabrous, once or twice

forked, bracteolate, the lowest bractlets up to 2.5 em. long; ovary broadly

turbinate-campanulate, glabrous, partly superior; sepals broadly ovate,

2 to 2.5 cm. long, 1 to 1.5 em. wide, acuminate, glabrous, red; petals oblance-

olate-unguiculate, 2.5 to 3 em. long, the blade longer than the claw, 1 to

1.3 em. wide, acute, red, green-tipped; stamens subequal to the petals, the

paces oblong, about 3.5 mm. long; styles exserted, the stigma shallowly

trifid.

Type in the herbarium of the Botanisches Museum, Berlin, collected at

Quebrada de Toipata (?), Department of Puno, Peru, August, 1864, by A.

Raimondi (no. 10229).

The general appearance of the inflorescence suggests B. grandis, but be-

cause of the proportionately broad sepals and the strongly involute leaves

it is evidently a distinct species.

® Hprpert, W. Amaryllidaceae. 1837:

3 Kuntu, C.S. Enum. Pl. 5: 467—850. 1847.

4 Baxer, J. G. Handbook of the Amaryllideae. 1888.

372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

Bomarea (Wichaurea) zosteraefolia Killip, sp. nov.

Ubique glaberrima; caulis strictus, rigidus, ad apicem recurvatus, foliosis-

simus; folia linearia, subrevoluta, membranacea; radii ca. 6, prope medium

furcati; ovarium turbinatum; segmenta perianthii subaequalia, sepalis

lineari-oblongis, subacutis, petalis oblongo-spathulatis, flavescentibus (?),

purpureo-maculatis.

Plant erect, rigid, 30 or more em. high, glabrous throughout; stem sub-

terete, 2.5 to 4 mm. in diameter, recurved toward apex, densely leafy, the

leaves reduced or probably wanting toward base; leaves linear, 4 to 12 em.

long, 2 to 3 mm. wide (diminishing from middle of stem to apex), acute,

sessile, slightly revolute, membranous, green on both surfaces, divaricate;

bracts similar to the leaves; umbel rays about 6, 2.5 to 3 em. long, slender,

forked near middle, the bractlets similar to the leaves, 1.5 to 2 em. long;

ovary turbinate, sulcate; sepals linear-oblong, about 2.5 em. long and 6 mm.

wide, subacute, red, green-tipped; petals oblong-spatulate, subequal to the

sepals, yellowish(?), green-tinged and purple-maculate at apex; stamens

subequal to the perianth, the anthers oblong, about 2.5 mm. long; style

slightly exserted, trifid.

Type in the herbarium of the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle,

Paris, collected in the Department of Ancachs, Peru, by Martinet (no. 742).

The longer spreading leaves, which are of a much thinner texture, scarcely

revolute, and glabrous beneath, and the diffuse inflorescence are characters

by which this may be distinquished from B. dulcis, a related species.

Bomarea uniflora (Mathews) Killip

Alstroemeria uniflora Mathews; Herb. Amaryll. 104. 1837, as synonym.

Wichaurea dulcis uniflora M. Roemer, Fam. Nat. Syn. 4: 278. 1847.

Bomarea (Sphaerine) incana Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis strictus, teres, tener, glaber; folia pauca, ovato-oblonga, membran-

acea, subtus pilis albidis vel brunnescentibus dense hirsuto-tomentosa; radii

1 vel 2, ad medium furcati vel subfurcati, bracteolis foliis similibus; ovarium

auguste obconicum, rufo-tomentellum; segmenta perianthii aequalia, sepalis

oblongis, petalis oblanceolato-spathulatis, flavis, apice viridi, purpureo-

punctatis.

Stem erect, 50 to 60 cm. high, slender, terete, glabrous, leafless in lower

half, few-leaved in upper half; leaves sessile or subsessile, ovate-oblong, 4-6

em. long, 1.2 to 2.3 em. wide, acute at apex, rounded at base, membranous,

glabrous above, densely hirsute-tomentose beneath with white or light

brown hairs, the hairs chiefly borne on the side of the veins, divaricate but

closely appressed to the blade; bracts 2, similar and equal to the leaves;

umbel 1 or 2-rayed, the rays 5 to 12 em. long, forked near middle (or one fork

scarcely developed), bracteolate at fork, the bractlets similar to the leaves,

1.5 to 3 em. long; ovary narrowly obconic, densely rufo-tomentellous; peri-

anth segments equal, 2 to 2.3 em. long; sepals oblong, 6 to 9 mm. wide, red

and puberulous without, pale and glabrous within; petals oblanceolate-

spatulate, the blade 6 to 7 mm. wide, yellow, green-tinged apically and

purple-spotted; stamens subequal to perianth; stigma trifid.

Type in the herbarium of the Jardin Botdnico, Madrid, collected at the

Alto del Condor, between Ibagué and El Nevado del Tolima, Department

of Tolima, Colombia, altitude 3,500 meters (Central Cordillera), May 17,

AuaustT 15, 1935 KILLIP: BOMAREA 373

1932, by J. Cuatrecasas (no. 2224). Represented also by Goudot 4 and Dawe

807, from the same general region.

This is nearest B. holtonii, also a Colombian species, which has 7 or 8

primary rays, a quadrangular stem, and sparingly pilosulous leaves.

Bomarea (Hubomarea § Caldasianae) vegasana Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis volubilis, angulatus, rufo-tomentulosus; folia lanceolata, subcori-

acea, subtus minute puberula; radii ca. 35, simplices, ebracteolati, cum ovario

conico viscoso-tomentosi; sepala lineari-oblonga; petala cuneato-unguicu-

lata, sepalis longiora, lutea.

Herbaceous vine; stem rather stout, 4 to 6 mm. wide, angular, densely

rufo-tomentulous; petioles 6 to 8 mm. long, winged; leaves lanceolate, 8 to

12 em. long, 2 to 2.5 em. wide, acuminate at apex, abruptly narrowed at

base, subcoriaceous, glabrous above, minutely puberulent beneath; bracts

of 2 forms, the outer oblong-lanceolate, 3 to 5 cm. long, 8 to 10 mm. wide,

reflexed, the inner linear, 1 to 1.5 em. long, 8 mm. wide, suberect; umbel

simple, about 35-rayed, the rays 4 to 5 em. long, ebracteolate, viscous-

tomentose; sepals linear-oblong, about 3 cm. long, 6 mm. wide, red, puberu-

lent without; petals cuneate-unguiculate, about 4 cm. long, the blade sub-

equal to the claw, yellow, not spotted; stamens 3 to 3.5 em. long, unequal,

the anthers ovate-oblong, 6 to 7 mm. long.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,351,609, collected in moun-

tains east of Las Vegas, Department of Santander, Colombia, altitude 3,300

to 3,400 meters (Eastern Cordillera), December 21, 1926, by E. P. Killip

and A. C. Smith (no. 15784). Represented also by Killip & Smith 15587,

from the same locality.

This closely resembles B. andreana, but the petals are definitely unspotted

and the leaves, which are of thicker texture, are minutely puberulent be-

neath.

Bomarea (Hubomarea § Edules) subsessilis Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis substrictus et subflexuosus, tenerrimus, glaber; folia oblanceolata

vel elliptica, ad basin attenuata, subsessilia, subtus breviter crispato-pilosa;

bracteae 2; radii 2-4, tenerrimi, glabri, 1—2-furcati, bracteolis parvis; ovarium

late turbinatum; segmenta perianthii subaequalia, apice viridi, sepalis ob-

longo-spathulatis roseis, petalis spathulatis-unguiculatis, flavidulis.

Stem 35 to 50 cm. long, suberect or at least very slightly voluble, sub-

flexuose, angulate, slender, glabrous; leaves oblanceolate or elliptic, 2.5 to

5.5 em. long, 0.7 to 1.8 em. wide, acute at apex, tapering to base without a

well-defined petiole, resupinate, divaricate or somewhat ascending, mem-

branous, glabrous above, short-crispate-pilose beneath; bracts 2, ovate-ob-

long, 7 to 13 mm. long, 3 to 5mm. wide; umbel 2 to 4-rayed, the rays slender,

3.5 to 4.5 em. long, glabrous, once or twice forked, bearing at the forks an

ovate-oblong or linear-oblong, reddish bractlet 7 to 10 mm. long; ovary

broadly turbinate, 6 to 8 mm. long, up to 6.5 mm. in diameter at apex,

about one-fifth superior, longitudinally suleate, glabrous, black; sepals ob-

long-spatulate, 1.2 to 1.6 em. long, 5 to 7 mm. wide, obtuse, reddish pink,

green at apex; petals spatulate-unguiculate, subequal to sepals in length and

breadth, pale yellow, green-tinged; stamens shorter than the perianth, un-

equal, the anthers orbicular-oblong, about 1.5 mm. long; pistil subequal to

stamens, the stigma trifid.

374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

Type in the herbarium of the Botanisches Museum, Berlin, collected

near Cochabamba, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia, 3,400 meters alti-

tude, February 27, 1928, by C. Troll (no. 1630). Represented also by Bang

2039, from the same locality.

This is one of several species that are clearly distinct in themselves but

which, because of our imperfect knowledge of the lines of demarcation of

the subgenera, are difficult to assign systematically. The suberect habit of

the plant, the absence of a definite petiole, and the partly superior ovary

suggest the subgenus Wichaurea. In other respects it seems more closely

allied with the small-flowered species of Hubomarea § Edules.

Bomarea (Hubomarea § Edules) campylophylla Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis volubilis, teres, glaber; folia lineari-lanceolata, subfaleata, con-

spicue nervosa, glabra; bracteae foliis similes, faleatae; radii 5 vel 6, sub-

glabri, supra fureati, biflori, 1-2-bracteolati; ovarium cylindrico-turbinatum;

segmenta perianthii subaequalia, sepalis oblongis, petalis spathulatis, quam

sepalis augustioribus, luteis, purpureo-maculatis, apice viridi.

Herbaceous vine; stem terete, 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, glabrous; petioles

up to 6 mm. long, crispate-margined; leaves linear-lanceolate, 6 to 12 cm.

long, 1 to 1.5 em. wide, subfaleate, acuminate at apex, rounded at base,

strongly and closely nerved, glabrous, concolorous; bracts similar to the

leaves, 7 to 10 em. long, 5 to 8 mm. wide, falcate; umbel 5 or 6-rayed, the

rays 10 to 15 em. long, divaricate or arcuate-ascending, rufo-puberulent and

viscid at apex, otherwise glabrous, forked near apex, 2-flowered, bracteolate

at fork and sometimes just below fork, the lower bractlets similar to the

bracts, 4 to 5 em. long; ovary cylindric-turbinate, densely rufo-tomentose;

perianth segments subequal, about 1.5 em. long, the sepals oblong, 7 to 8

mm. wide, red and rufo-puberulent without, yellow within, green at apex,

the petals spatulate, slightly narrower than the sepals, yellow, purple-

maculate, green at apex; stamens shorter than the perianth, the anthers

ovate-oblong, about 2.5 mm. long; style trifid.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,192,850, collected at Vill-

cabamba, Department of Hudnuco, Peru, altitude about 1,800 meters, July

17 to 26, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 4961). Duplicate at the Field Museum.

This is allied to B. salsilla, B. subsessilis, and B. nematocaulon, species of

Eubomarea § Edules with very small flowers, the perianth being not more

than 1.5 cm. long. There are many points of difference between these three

species and B. campylophylla.

Bomarea pennellii Killip

Bomarea longipes Krainzl. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 40: 234. 1908, not Baker,

1882.

In assigning a specific name to this Colombian plant Krinzlin overlooked

the earlier use of longipes for a wholly different plant from Ecuador. It is

appropriate that the species be named for Dr. F. W. Pennell, whose extensive

explorations in Colombia have done much to make known the plant life of

that country.

AuGcusT 15, 1935 KILLIP: BOMAREA 375

Bomarea (Hubomarea § Edules) trichophylla Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis volubilis, glaber; folia ovato-lanceolata, subtus in nervis dense

pilosa; radii 4-7, glabri, supra medium 2-8-furcati, bracteolis oblongo-

lanceolatis vel lineari-lanceolatis; ovarium late turbinatum, glabrum; seg-

menta perianthii aequalia, apice viridi, sepalis obovato-oblongis, extra

roseis, intus flavidulis, petalis oblongo-spathulatis, luteis; capsula turbinata,

aurantiaca.

Herbaceous vine; stem rather slender, 2 to 3 mm. thick, sulcate, glabrous;

petioles 1 to 1.5 em. long, narrowly winged; leaves ovate-lanceolate, 7 to 11

em. long, 2 to 3.5 em. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded at base, membra-

nous, glabrous above, densely pilose on nerves beneath with divaricate whitish

hairs; bracts leaflike, persistent, varying in size in individual plants from 5

to 7 em. long and 1 to 2.5 em. wide, petiolate, pilose on nerves beneath;

umbel rays 4 to 7, 15 to 25 em. long, glabrous, twice or thrice-forked above

middle, bracteolate at the forks, the lowermost bractlets oblong-lanceolate,

1 to 1.5 em. long, 2 mm. wide; ovary broadly turbinate, glabrous; perianth

segments equal, 2 to 2.5 em. long, the sepals obovate-oblong, 1 to 1.2 cm.

wide, pinkish without, yellowish or cream-color within, green-tinged at

apex; petals oblong-spatulate, 8 to 11 mm. wide, yellow, green at apex,

purple-dotted within; stamens equal, slightly shorter than the perianth, the

anthers ovate, 4to 5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide; fruit turbinate, about 2 em. in

diameter, orange.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,574,158, collected near

Vetas, Department of Santander, Colombia, altitude 3,100 to 3,250 meters

(Eastern Cordillera), January 19, 1927, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith

(no. 17881). Represented also by several other Killip and Smith collections

from the departments of Santander and Norte de Santander.

This species most nearly resembles B. moritiziana, but differs in having

glabrous rays and ovaries, larger flowers, and obovate-oblong sepals.

Bomarea (Hubomarea § Edules) perlongipes Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis et folia desunt; bracteae late ovato-lanceolatae, subtus dense

hirsutae; radii 10 (vel ad 20?), perlongi, crassi, erecti vel adscendentes, glabri,

supra medium bifurcati, bracteolis ovato-lanceolatis, infimis magnis;ovarium

cylindrico-turbinatum, glabrum; segmenta perianthii aequalia, sepalis obo-

vato-oblongis, roseis, petalis oblongo-spathulatis, luteis, brunneo-maculatis.

Stem and leaves wanting; bracts broadly ovate-lanceolate or oblong-

lanceolate, 7 to 11 cm. long, 2 to 5 em. wide, abruptly acuminate at apex,

subacute at base, glabrous above, densely hirsute beneath; umbel rays 10

(up to 20?), about 40 cm. long, stout, erect or ascending, glabrous, twice-

branched above middle, bracteolate at forks, the bractlets ovate-lanceolate,

acuminate, glabrous above, sparingly hirtellous and puberulent beneath, the

lowermost 6 to 7 em. long, 2 to 2.5 em. wide, the upper decreasing in size;

ovary cylindric-turbinate, glabrous; perianth segments equal, 4 to 5.5 cm.

long, the sepals obovate-oblong, 7 to 8 mm. wide, callous-thickened at apex,

rose, the petals oblong-spatulate, 1.2 to 1.5 em. wide, yellow, brown-spotted;

stamens 3 to 3.5 em. long.

Type in the herbarium of the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle,

Paris, collected in the Province of Ocaha, Department of Norte de San-

tander, Colombia, altitude about 1,525 meters, July (1846-1852), by L.

Schlim (no. 718).

376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

The specimen at hand has been cut off just at the base of the umbel,

three bracts being attached. The stem and leaves may have been mounted

on another sheet or perhaps not distributed to the Paris herbarium. Schlim’s

455, consisting of two leaves and a short stem only, may represent this

species; it was also collected in the Province of Ocafia, but at a much higher

altitude. The stem is rather slender and glabrous, and the leaves are broadly

ovate (16 to 17 em. long, 7.5 to 8 em. wide) and bear beneath an indument

very similar to that of the bracts of B. perlongipes.

Among the large-flowered species of this group B. perlongipes is readily

recognized by the prominent bractlets.

Bomarea (Hubomarea § Vitellinae) schultzei Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis volubilis, crassus, glaber; folia late lanceolata, membranacea, sub-

tus hirsuto-tomentosa; radii ca. 20, teneri, bifurcati, bracteolis ovatis; ova-

rium turbinatum, rufo-tomentulosum; sepala late ovata, roseo-rubra;

petala cuneato-unguiculata, sepalis multo longiora, viridia, ad basin roseo-

rubra.

Herbaceous vine, up to 4 meters long; stem stout, 4 to 5 mm. wide, sub-

angular, glabrous; petioles up to 2 em. long, winged; leaves broadly lanceo-

late, 12 to 14 em. long, 4.5 to 5 em. wide, caudate-acuminate at apex,

rounded at base, abruptly tapering to petiole, thin-membranous, glabrous

above, sparingly to densely hirsute-tomentose beneath, the nerves scarcely

elevated above; bracts leaflike, lanceolate, up to 8 em. long and 2 em. wide;

umbel about 20-rayed, the rays about 25cm. long, glabrous, pilosulous toward

apex, fairly slender, twice-branched, bracteolate at the forks, the bractlets

ovate, acuminate, the lowermost up to 2.5 em. long and 1.1 em. wide; ovary

turbinate, sulcate, rufo-tomentulous; perianth segments very unequal, the

sepals broadly ovate, 2.5 to 3 em. long, 1.2 to 1.4 em. wide, obtuse, glabres-

cent, bright rose-red, the petals cuneate-unguiculate, 3.2 to 3.7 cm. long, the

blade 1.4 to 1.8 em. wide, bright green, spotted with brown, the claw slightly

shorter than the blade, rose-carmine; stamens unequal, 3 about 2.7 cm. long,

3 about 8 mm. longer, the anthers ovate-oblong, about 4 mm. long; pistil

about 1.5 em. long.

Type in the herbarium of the Botanisches Museum, Berlin, collected at

Aguadita, Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, altitude 1,750 meters

(Eastern Cordillera), April 12, 1925, by Arnold Schultze (no. 213).

This handsome species belongs to the small section with unequal perianth

segments and forked umbel rays. It is readily distinguished from B. vitellina,

its nearest relative, by the much broader sepals, the pubescence on the under

side of the leaves, and the coloring of the petals.

Bomarea (Eubomarea § Vitellinae) hazeni Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis volubilis, glaber; folia ovato-lanceolata, subtus in nervis pilosa;

radii 5-9, cum ovario viscoso-tumentosi, 1—3-furcati, bracteolati; segmenta

perianthii inaequalia, sepalis oblanceolatis, extus pubescentibus, petalis

cuneato-unguiculatis, quam sepalis longioribus, non punctatis.

Herbaceous vine; stem stout, 3 to 5 mm. in diameter, subterete, glabrous,

sparingly pilosulous at extremity; petioles up to 1 em. long, narrowly winged,

densely pilosulous on one side; leaves ovate-lanceolate, 6 to 11 cm. long, 2

AuGusT 15, 1935 KILLIP: BOMAREA 377

to 4 em. wide, caudate-acuminate at apex, rounded at base, subcoriaceous,

15 to 20-nerved (nerves elevated beneath), glabrous and lustrous above,

pilose on nerves beneath; bracts lanceolate, up to 5 cm. long, reflexed; umbel

5 to 9-rayed, the rays 7 to 15 em. long, densely viscous-tomentose, 1 to 3

times forked, bracteolate at the forks, the bractlets lanceolate, about 1 cm.

long; ovary turbinate, viscous-tomentose; perianth segments unequal, the

sepals oblanceolate, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. long, 7 to 9 mm. wide, pubescent and red

without, yellow within, the petals cuneate-unguiculate, about 5 mm. longer

than the sepals, the blade 1 to 1.5 cm. wide, truncate, deep yellow, un-

spotted; stamens unequal, 3 slightly longer than the other 3, the anthers

oblong, about 4 to 5 mm. long; pistil slightly shorter than the stamens.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,143,705, collected at Magana,

Quindio Trail, Department of Caldas, Colombia, altitude 3,400 meters (Cen-

tral “eo August 2, 1922, by E. P. Killip and T. E. Hazen (no.

9174). :

Additional specimens examined, all from Colombia: Cundinamarca:

Triana 525. Tolima: Killip and Hazen 9492, 9500; Pennell 2978. Caldas:

Pennell and Hazen 10085.

The general shape of the perianth segments and their coloring suggest

species of Caldasianae, but the rays are forked, the secondary flowers being

well developed. The species is more closely related to B. vitellina, which has

much larger flowers and glabrous leaves.

Bomarea (Hubomarea § Vitellinae) inaequalis Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis volubilis, crassus, glaber; folia oblongo-lanceolata, subcoriacea,

subtus in nervis dense pilosa; radii ca. 8, teneri, elongati, pilosuli, bifurcati,

bracteolis ovato-lanceolatis; ovarium turbinatum, viscoso-tomentosum;

segmenta perianthii valde inaequalia, sepalis obovatis, glaberrimis, petalis

quam sepalis longioribus, cuneato-unguiculatis, luteis, dense purpureo-

punctatis.

Herbaceous vine; stem stout, about 5 mm. wide, subangular, glabrous;

petioles 1 to 1.2 em. long, narrowly winged; leaves oblong-lanceolate, 15

to 18 cm. long, 2.5 to 3 em. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded at base, sub-

coriaceous, glabrous above, densely pilose on nerves beneath; bracts ovate-

lanceolate, about 4 cm. long and 1.3 cm. wide, acuminate; umbel rays about

8, slender, 12 to 15 cm. long, sparingly pilosulous below, densely so above,

twice branched above middle, bracteolate at forks, the bractlets ovate, the

lowermost about 1 cm. long; ovary turbinate, viscous-tomentose; perianth

segments very unequal, the sepals obovate, about 1.5 em. long and 6 mm.

wide, glabrous, red (?), the petals cuneate-unguiculate, 2 to 2.3 cm. long, the

blade about 1 em. wide, yellow, conspicuously spotted with purple; stamens

unequal, 3 about as long as the petals, 3 shorter, the anthers oblong, about

4mm. long.

Type in the herbarium of the Botanisches Museum, Berlin, collected at

Rio Frio, Department of Santander, Colombia, July 3, 1878, by W. Kal-

breyer (no. 760). Duplicate at Kew.

The petals of B. inaequalis are very markedly longer than the sepals and

the umbel rays are forked; in this small group it comes nearest §B.Shazeni,

which has pubescent sepals, small ovato-lanceolate leaves, and very ob-

securely marked petals.

378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

PALEOBOTANY.—A Douglas fir cone from the Miocene of south-

eastern Oregon.! CHESTER A. ARNOLD, University of Michigan.

(Communicated by E. C. Cass.)

Occasional reference has been made in the literature to remains

of Pseudotsuga in the Tertiary and Quarternary deposits of west-

ern North America but the material is seldom abundant or well pre-

served. A recently discovered impression of a well preserved cone

which shows not only the scales but also the exserted bracts is con-

sidered worthy of mention.

The cone under consideration (fig. 1) was discovered by Mr. Percy

Train in 1932 while engaged in excavating plant fossils in the Trout

Fig. 1—Pseudotsuga taxifolioidea sp. nov. Natural size.

Creek diatomite in the southeastern part of Harney County, Oregon,

All the organic matter of the cone had disappeared, leaving only the

somewhat flattened cavity, on the inner surface of which imprints of

the cone scales can be seen. A fortunate break had split the specimen

exactly in half so that both sides of the cavity are retained. Extending

laterally from between the closely appressed cone scales are several

trident-shaped bracts, characteristic of Pseudotsuga. One bract is

nearly complete while only portions of others are clearly visible. These

bracts render generic identification of the fossil positive.

Pseudotsuga taxifolioidea Arnold, sp. nov.

The cone is 2.5 em. wide and slightly over 8 em. long. It is long-oval,

rounded at the base, slightly broadest below the middle and rather tapering

above. The scales are broad and rounded apically. They are tightly ap-

pressed, characteristic of Douglas fir cones that have been water soaked. The

bracts project outward for a distance of approximately 1.5 cm. beyond

the cone scales and are about 0.5 em. wide.

The similarities between this cone and the cones of Douglas fir, Pseudot-

suga taxifolia, are close. It is too small for the cone of P. macrocarpa, in

which the range in length, as given by Jepson (1), Sargent (2), and Sud-

1 Received May 2, 1935:

AuGustT 15, 1935 ARNOLD: DOUGLAS FIR CONE 379

worth (3) may be from 10 to 18 em. Those of P. tazifolia may range from 4

to 11 em. Therefore, the Trout Creek specimen is well within the size limits

of the latter species although probably somewhat larger than a cone of aver-

age size. The exsertion of the bracts is also indicative of affinity with this

species since this feature is often cited as a diagnostic character. The bracts

of P. macrocarpa protrude but little. There are no points of resemblance

between this specimen and P. japonica, the Japanese species.

Abundant seeds from the Trout Creek diatomite have been de-

scribed by MacGinitie as Pseudotsuga masoni (4). He also assigns

twigs to this species, and it is quite possible that the seeds, twigs and

cones in the diatomite all belong to the same species. Identity of these

detached organs might also seem more probable as Pesudotsuga is not

a large genus and the seeds and cones of the different species are dis-

tinguishable. Whether or not this is true for the extinct types is un-

known although the fossil record does not indicate that the genus was

ever a large one. The reason, however, for assigning the Trout Creek

specimen to a new species is because erroneous determinations of

organs in the detached condition lead to confusion. MacGinitie re-

marks upon the close resemblance between the seeds he assigns to

P. masoni and those of living P. taxifolia, a resemblance which is in-

deed close. But whether these seeds belonged to a plant that is really

conspecific with P. taxifolia, as the living species is defined, is only

conjectural, since the fossil record of Pseudotsuga is meager. Conse-

quently it is considered advisable to describe this cone as new while

at the same time keeping in mind the close resemblance to the living

species as well as its intimate association with P. masonz. It is felt

that in this way less confusion would result if later investigations were

to demonstrate that during Miocene times there were other species of

Pseudotsuga to which these organs might belong. The name Pseudo-

tsuga taxifolioidea sp. nov., is therefore proposed for this cone, the

specific name indicating its resemblance to the living form. The holo-

type is No. 17241 of the University of Michigan collection.

Among the heretofore unrecorded species associated with Pseudo-

tsuga taxifolioidea in the Trout Creek diatomite the following may be

noted.

Acer bendirei Lesq.

Ailanthus sp. fruit (ef. living A. glandulosa)

Amelanchier sp. (ef. living A. alnifolia)

Castanopsis sp.

Catalpa? sp. (ef. living C. speciosa)

Celtis cf. obliquifolia Chaney

Cladrastis sp. nov.

380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 25, NO. 8

Cornus sp. (ef. living C. ctrcinata)

Crataegus sp. (ef. living C. pinnatifida)

Equisetum sp. (ef. living EH. hyemale)

Nymphaeophyllum gen. et sp. nov.

Ostrya oregoniana Chaney (fruit sac)

Peltandra sp. nov.

Polpulus balsamoides Goepp.

Populus sp. (ef. living P. grandidentata)

These, along with other species, will be discussed in future publica-

tions.

LITERATURE CITED

. Jepson, W. L. A manual of the flowering plants of California. 52. 1923-25.

. SARGENT, C.S. A manual of the trees of North America. 54. 1905.

. SupwortTs, G. B. Forest trees of the Pacific Slope. 104. 1908.

. MacGinitiz, H. D. The Trout Creek flora of southeastern Oregon. Carnegie Inst.

Publ. 416: 47, pl. 3, figs. 1, 2, 3. 1933.

ewe

ZOOLOGY .—Contributions to Texas herpetology. III. Bullsnakes of

the genera Arizona and Pituophis.! CHaries E. Burt, South-

western College. (Communicated by L. STEJNEGER.)

Four species of bullsnakes of the genera Arizona and Pituophis are

now known to occur in Texas, P. melanoleucus ruthveni being here re-

ported from the state for the first time. Distinguishing characters of

the species are presented in the following key.

1. Keels present on some or all of the dorsal scales.................. 2

Dorsal scales smooth.

Arizona elegans elegans (Kennicott).

2. Normally with not more than one upper labial (4 or 5) bordering eye 3

Two upper labials (3-4 or 4-5) bordering eye. Southern Texas.

Pituophis deppet deppet (Duméril and Bibron).

3. Dark dorsal saddles on body and tail more than 56.

Pituophis sayi sayi (Schlegel).

Dark dorsal saddles on body and tail 56 or less. Eastern Texas.

Pituophis melanoleucus ruthveni (Stull).

These four species resemble each other in being large, beneficial,

non-poisonous, carnivorous, field-inhabiting forms with many dark

blotches or saddles on the back.

Arizona elegans elegans (Kennicott)

This snake has been reported from Texas, west of the 98th meridian

(Blanchard, 1925, p. 22). A dead example removed from the road 11

1 Received May 15, 1934.

AuGustT 15, 1935 BURT: BULLSNAKES 381

miles north of Encino, Brooks County, on April 4, 1931, occurred at a

point almost precisely on the 98th meridian. It had 31 scale rows at

the middle of the body. The United States National Museum has

three Texan specimens of this form. The type (No. 1722) from the

Lower Rio Grande Valley is faded but well preserved. Two examples

from Bexar County were taken at San Antonio (Hurter Coll., May 19,

1908) and Somerset (A. J. Kirn, Mar. 12, 1926) respectively.

Pituophis deppei deppei (Duméril and Bibron)

This form is typically a native of Mexico, but Stull (1932) has in-

dicated that it ranges northward in Texas as far as San Marcos, Hays

County.

Pituophis melanoleucus ruthveni Stull

A bullsnake, secured on May 9 on the road near a plot of grass 5

miles southeast of Zavalla, Angelina County (U.S.N.M. No. 83672),

in the sandy cut-over pine barren region of eastern Texas, resembled

sayz of more western and northern areas so closely that it was pre-

sumed to be that form until it was identified in the laboratory. Here

it was soon found to have the reduced number of dorsal saddles or

blotches assigned to ‘“‘P. melanoleucus ruthveni”’ by Stull (1929), rather

than the higher number specified for the form which was termed “P.

say? sayv”’ in the same publication. This led to the identification of

the specimen at hand as ruthveni (thus introducing the form into the

state of Texas) and to a charting of the characters of the several bull-

snakes from the critical region in Texas and Louisiana to see if an im-

plication of continuous and progressive geographical variation might

be drawn for these snakes. The following table presents these data:

TABLE 1.—VartaTions or PiruorHis IN HASTERN TEXAS AND IN LOUISIANA

La. (type) La. (paratype) Texas

. : : Texas Texas

Locality ede Rapides eugelng Ellis Co. Clay Co.

Seale formula 31-33-25 | 31-31-22 | 31-28-21 | 31-33-25 31-33-25

Ventrals 219 218 213 223 215

Caudals 59 60 56 62 56

Labials 9-8/15 8/14 9-8/13-14 8/12 9/13

Postoculars 4 3 2-3 3 3

Dorsal saddles on tail 9 ? 10 12 12

Dorsal saddles on body 41 ? 42 48 54

Total saddles 50 ie 52 60 66

Before discussing the taxonomic significance of the above data,

attention is called to the geographical position of each of the individ-

uals concerned. The type and paratype of ruthveni are from Rapides

Parish, central Louisiana, and the additional specimen of ruthveni is

382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

from Angelina County, eastern Texas, in a line almost directly west of

the type locality. The specimen of sayz from Ellis County, Texas, is

from a point east of the previously known range of sayz and in this

way it represents the closest known geographical approach of the

range of sayz to the range of ruthveni; whereas the example of sayz

from Clay County, Texas, is near the previously known eastern bor-

der of the area occupied by sayi, but yet far enough north to be con-

sidered as more nearly representative of the typical form. Here, then,

we find a fine geographical range of specimens arranged in a line from

central Louisiana to north-central Texas.

From the standpoint of scutellation, the table reveals no particu-

larly significant differentiation between the eastern and western

stocks, even the type specimens of ruthveni having the exact scale

formula of examples of sayz from Ellis and Clay counties, Texas.

But, from the standpoint of the color pattern, with specific refer-

ence to the number of dorsal saddles (which seems to be the only sig-

nificant criterion advanced in the original diagnosis of ruthvenz for its

separation from sayz), there is a definite correlation. Originally the

gap between ruthveni and sayz appeared to be wide—perhaps a matter

of 15 dorsal saddles as obtained in comparing the extremes in the

above table (50 to 66 saddles) but, in parallel with the development

in many similar cases, additional specimens from intervening areas

here greatly reduce the known differentiation between the two popu-

lations. Thus, we find that the known number of dorsal saddles is

raised two in ruthveni by the specimen from eastern Texas (52 saddles)

and lowered six in sayz through the example from Ellis County, cen-

tral Texas (60 saddles); and the fact that this leaves a gap of only

seven saddles between the diverging extremes concerned bears tax-

onomic significance in making it obvious that ruthveni and sayz must

ultimately be ranked as subspecies? of each other and that therefore

the taxonomy indicated in the original description of ruthvent must

be changed in some way.* Published data of intergradation between

ruthvent and a subspecies of melanoleucus have not been advanced,

although Mr. Percy Viosca, Jr., has informed me that certain eastern

Louisiana specimens that he has seen are approximately intermediate

* Speaking generally from what is known of the variation of other herpetological

forms in this region (particularly those of the genera Lampropeltis, Masticophis, Tan-

tilla and Cnemidophorus), it seems logical to assume that the collecting of additional

bullsnakes in eastern and central Texas will enable us to bring these significantly ap-

proaching extremes of variation in two subspecies of Pitwophis closer and closer to-

gether, thus ever more definitely revealing the somewhat superficially concealed inter-

gradation between them.

¥: 3 This view has been expressed by Dr. Frank N. Blanchard in a written communica-

ion.

AuGusT 15, 1935 BURT: BULLSNAKES 383

between ruthveni and lodingi. If this is revealed and if lodingz in its

turn intergrades with the true melanoleucus that occurs still further

east, a whole chain of geographical races or subspecies of the long

known melanoleucus will be placed in evidence. Such action is not un-

likely. The ultimate series may include the following forms: melano-

leucus, mugitus (southern Florida), lodingi (Alabama and probably

Mississippi), ruthveni, sayz and affinis (west Texas). Pending the ap-

pearance of data contained in Dr. Stull’s forthcoming revision of the

genus Pituophis, and also in anticipation of further field work in

eastern Texas and in Louisiana, the present writer feels that nothing

is to be gained by making a nomenclatorial change here in the pro-

posed status of either ruthveni or sayt.

Pituophis sayi sayi (Schlegel)

Several representatives of this form were collected near grassy

areas from whence they had wandered to cement pavement to be

killed by passing automobiles. Data pertaining to some of these in-

dividuals have been presented and interpreted above under ruthvenz,

which appears to intergrade with this form. The following U.S.N.M.

and personal records of sayz are available, including that of the type

(No. 1540) and a paratype (No. 1541) of the synonymous meclellani

from Deaf Smith County. Reports are by counties.

BORDEN: Gail (Vernon Bailey). cARSoN: 6 mi. W. Groom (May 28, 1934).

cLAY: 1 mi. N. W. Jolly (Apr. 18, 1931). crospy: 2 mi. N. W. Crosbyton

(Luther Hoyle, June 13, 1933). Drar sMITH: Red River Valley (R. B. Marcy

and Geo. B. McClellan, June 28, 1852). ponLEy: Jericho (May 28, 1934).

ELLIS: 1 mi. N. W. Waxahachie (May 26, 1931). roarD: 3 mi. N.E. Thalia

(Luther Hoyle, June 11, 19383). Gray: 1 mi. W. Alanreed (May 28, 1934).

MOORE: Dumas, and 1 mi. N. Etter (May 28, 1934). pecos: 12 mi. N. E.

Ft. Stockton (Luther Hoyle, June 16, 1933). porrmr: 8 mi. E. Amarillo

(May 28, 1934). presipio: Paisano (Wm. Lloyd, July 21, 1890). REEVEs:

1 mi. 8. Red Bluff (Aug. 12, 1934). sHprMAN: 3 mi. S. W. Texhoma, and 2

mi. N. E. Stratford (May 28, 1934). vaL vERDE: Cave, 20 mi. N. Comstock

_ (J. H. Gaut, May 9, 1903).

LITERATURE CITED

BuancHarpD, F.N. A key to the snakes of the United States, Canada, and Lower Cali-

fornia. Papers Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters 4(2): 1-65, illus. 1925.

Stuut, O. G. The description of a new subspecies of Pituophis melanoleucus from

Louisiana. Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 205: 1-3. 1929.

Sruuty, O. G. An annotated list of the forms of the genus Pituophis. Ibid. 250: 1-5.

1932.

384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Nores

National Academy of Sciences—Dr. Wi1LL1AM WALLACE CAMPBELL re-

tired from the presidency of the National Academy of Sciences on the ex-

piration of his term of service and Dr. Frank Rarrray Lire, elected

president at the Annual Meeting of the Academy, assumed his duties as

President on July 1, 1935.

National Bureau of Standards.—The Edgar Marburg Lecture for 1935 was

delivered by Dr. L. B. Tuckerman of the National Bureau of Standards be-

fore the American Society for Testing Materials in Detroit on June 26.

Doctor TucKERMAN spoke on aircraft materials and testing, confining

himself to the relations between the mechanical properties of the material

and the design of parts. Future improvements in aircraft will come through

better designs, rather than through stronger materials, because present de-

signs can not utilize the full strength of materials already available.

Dr. W. F. Mreceurs, chief of the spectroscopy section, attended the meet-

ing of the International Astronomical Union in Paris, July 10-17. Doctor

Merccers is a member of the committee on wave lengths and most of his

time was occupied in the work of this committee.

Dr. H. C. Dickinson attended the 30th anniversary summer meeting of

the Society of Automotive Engineers, at White Sulphur Springs, West Vir-

ginia, June 16-21. While there he exhibited a new design of “‘ Ride-Meter”’

or indicator for determining the riding qualities of automobiles. The ride-

meter in its present form consists essentially of a pneumatic cushion, and

record is made of the total amount of roughness experienced in any given

trip. Doctor Dickinson also exhibited a wobble-meter, jointly designed by

himself and Mr. R. W. Brown and Dr. F. A. Moss, used to determine the

fatigue reactions of passengers after riding in automotive vehicles.

To determine how winds stress large buildings, National Bureau of Stand-

ards scientists have built a model of the world’s highest structure, New

York City’s Empire State Building, and several blocks of its surrounding

buildings. Subjected to regulated and artificial breezes in a 10-foot wind tun-

nel, this miniature Manhattan gives information that will allow engineers

to design buildings that are safe in high windstorms with due regard to least

possible cost.

Children’s Bureau.—In response to numerous requests, the Children’s

Bureau made estimates as to the number of children removed from industry

by the NRA codes. Employment-certificate statistics collected by the Chil-

dren’s Bureau indicate that in 1929 more children left school to go to work

than in the previous year. By 1930, however, when the depression had begun,

there was a drop of 46 per cent in the number of boys and girls going to work

in manufacturing and mercantile industries. Between 1930, when the last

Census was taken, and 1933, when the codes went into effect, there was a

further drop of at least 50 per cent. On the basis of the 1930 census figures

it is estimated that in that year between 120,000 and 150,000 children under

16 were gainfully employed in the occupations later affected by the 16-year

age minimum of the codes. The textile industry alone employed approxi-

mately 20,000 children; the clothing industries nearly 9,000; and other

branches of manufacturing something less than 40,000. Another 8,000 were

AuGcustT 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 385

employed in hotels and restaurants, beauty parlors, and laundries; 28,000

were employed in mercantile establishments.

The higher age set by some codes for employment of minors in hazardous

occupations affected some young people over the general code age of 16.

Over three-fourths of the codes fixed 18 as a minimum age for employment

in hazardous occupations. According to the 1930 census 12,000 minors be-

tween 16 and 18 were employed in saw and planing mills alone. The lumber

and timber products code prohibited their employment under 18. Ap-

proximately 5,000 16-year-old laundry workers were removed from hazard-

ous employment through the 17-year minimum of the laundry code. It is

roughly estimated that 50,000 16- and 17-year-old minors were prohibited

from hazardous employment by the NRA code regulations.

Bureau of Fisheries.—In recognition of his scientific record in the Bureau,

Western Maryland College conferred upon J. R. Mannina, chief technolo-

gist, the degree of Doctor of Science.

Dr. P. 8. Gaursorr left Washington in June to establish headquarters

at the United States Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass.,

for the conduct of oyster pest control investigations during the coming

summer.

WitiiamM Hagan, JR., was transferred recently from the Division of Fish

Culture to the Division of Scientific Inquiry to take charge of field investiga-

tions on oyster pest control on the eastern shore of Virginia. Mr. Hagan

will be in charge of the U. 8. S. Kittery, which will serve as quarters for a

considerable number of men detailed to drill control studies by the Transient

Rehabilitation Camp at Fort Eustis, Va.

Dr. Witt M. F. THompson, director of scientific investigations for the

International Fisheries Commission, United States and Canada, who has

been directing research on the Pacific halibut since the establishment of the

Commission, visited the Bureau of Fisheries and conferred extensively with

the Bureau’s scientific staff at Cambridge, Mass., engaged in North Atlantic

fisheries investigations, en route to the annual meeting of the International

Fisheries Commission at Ottawa.

National Park Service—Assistant Director H. C. Bryant left Washington

headquarters late in June for a tour of inspection of a number of the national

parks and monuments in the West.

Dr. J. Votnry Lewis, geologist connected with the Service’s Naturalist

Division, has just completed a monograph on caves and caverns of the

United States. Present plans call for the issuance of this work in mimeo-

graph form.

Under the direction of Earn A. Tracer, Chief of the Naturalist Division,

Washington Office, a geological program for the national and state parks has

been formulated. Plans call for the setting up of 8 districts, in each of which

a geologic technician will supervise and coordinate all geologic projects.

Carnegie Institution of Washington.—Discovery of an orange-red pottery

well, from which thirsty Maya Indians drew water centuries ago, is an-

nounced by Otiver G. RickeTson, JR. The ancient well, which shows how

ingenious Mayas stored water, was unearthed at Quirigua, Guatemala,

where one of the Mayan cities was located. The well consisted of a pipe of

pottery which led down to a big pottery water jar. The jar was buried in

stones and sand and served as a cistern. Holes in the jar below the water

table permitted free entrance of water.

386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8

Conference of state and territorial health officers ——The regular meeting

of state and territorial health officers beginning on June 18 considered as

its principal business the formation of plans for the expenditure of $8,000,000

provided for in the Social Security bill as a fund for promoting and protecting

the health of the nation.

Discovery of a new disease and progress already made toward its preven-

tion were announced simultaneously by Dr. CHARLES ARMSTRONG, of the

U. 8. Public Health Service, and Lieut. Com. Paut F. Dickens, of the

Navy Medical Corps. The malady, which has appeared in isolated instan-

ces ina number of states, has features resembling meningitis, infantile par-

alysis, and epidemic encephalitis, or sleeping sickness. The discoverers

suggest the scientific name ‘‘acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis” for it.

The agent causing the disease was found to be a filterable virus. Monkeys,

mice and guinea pigs are susceptible to the virus causing the malady, and

the two physicians suggest that “‘a reservoir of the disease may exist in an-

imals.’’ Tests show that a blood serum of patients who have recovered serv-

es to protect experimental animals from the virus, but the serum has not

yet been used in human patients to test its power to forestall development

of the disease.

Solving problem of photosynthesis ——Announcement was made to a biolog-

ical conference in Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., by Dr. DEAN Burk, U. S.

Department of Agriculture, that he and Hans LiInEWEAVER, working in the

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils in Washington, have come five steps nearer

understanding the baffling chemical processes by which the leaf manufac-

tures carbohydrates. It is now only a matter of time, Dr. Burk said, until

several more leaf reactions will be discovered. Dr. BurK compared the reac-

tion of photosynthesis to an endless chain bucket pump in which the sun

furnishes the power, the chlorophyll and another catalyst acting as buckets

in pumping the carbon products to a higher energy level. The chemical equa-

tions he developed depend upon changes of energy content. The Depart-

ment of Agriculture scientists experimented with a green alga, Chlorella, in

the life of which little happens except the change of carbon dioxide to proto-

plasmic carbohydrates.

Giant camera for survey—The world’s largest aerial camera, which can

photograph a ground area of 760 square miles, or over twice that of New

York City at a single ‘‘shot,”’ has been built by Fairchild Aerial Surveys and

Aerial Camera Companies for use by the Department of Agriculture in a

mapping survey of central New Mexico.

Weighing 275 pounds without films, the camera has ten lenses mounted

in two sets of five. When the ten lens shutters are snapped at exactly the

same instant by a master electric trigger, ten negatives, making a com-

posite print which measures 32X32 inches, are exposed. Soil Conservation

Service workers, starting a survey from the air of the rugged and almost in-

accessible terrain of central New Mexico about mid-July, will make first use

of the new camera.

Proposed underground water resources survey.—A scientific attack on the

drought problem is provided for in a plan for exploring, measuring and chart-

ing the underground water resources of the nation, especially in the drought-

stricken areas, proposed by the U. S. Bureau of Mines. Application for

$1,619,100 of Public Works funds was made by the Bureau for this purpose.

Underground water supplies are now badly needed in many parts of the

auGustT 15, 19385 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 387

United States, Bureau officials explain. A systematic survey of the nation’s

hidden water resources has been recommended by the National Resources

Board. Electrical methods of geophysical exploration will be used for locat-

ing water and various geological formations in this survey, according to the

plans.

Research by Department of Agriculture.—Scientific research that will

benefit future generations, as well as the present, is contemplated by a bill

introduced in the House by Rep. Marvin Jonzs, of Texas. The measure has

passed both House and Senate.

According to the terms of the bill, the Secretary of Agriculture ‘“‘is author-

ized and directed to conduct research into laws and principles underlying

basic problems of agriculture in its broadest aspects,’ and also to carry on

investigations looking to improvements in handling and marketing, as well

as ‘‘research relating to the conservation development of land and water re-

sources for agricultural purposes.”

The research thus contemplated is to supplement, not to replace, other

researches now going under the aegis of the Department of Agriculture;

but both activities are to be coordinated so far as practicable, and ‘“‘shall be

conducted by such agencies of the Department of Agriculture as the Secre-

tary may designate or establish.” The initial funds for this work will amount

to $1,000,000. This sum will be increased by an additional $1,000,000 each

year until the total reaches $5,000,000, and thereafter the special research

fund will be maintained at the latter sum each year Forty per cent of the

total in any year is to be expended under the direct supervision of the Secre-

tary of Agriculture, in any places and for any research purposes he may

approve within the scope of the act. The remaining sixty per cent will be

prorated among state agricultural experiment stations according to the size

of their respective rural populations. Funds thus allocated must be matched

dollar for dollar by the states receiving them.

The establishment of new laboratories is within the authorizations of the

act, since it is provided that funds may be used for the erection of buildings

and the purchase or rental of land needed for the purpose. These laboratories

might be set up in the major agricultural regions of the United States, in

places designated by the Secretary of Agriculture.

Reporting Hurricanes.—The hurricane weather service of the U. 8.

Weather Bureau was placed on a decentralized basis on July 1. Instead of

the single central office in Washington, three stations have been established

in the South, at New Orleans, Jacksonville and San Juan, P.R., respectively.

The Washington office will be directly concerned with only such tropical

storm centers as move north of latitude 35 degrees, approximately the

parallel of Cape Hatteras.

Ships at sea are asked by the Hydrographic Office, U. S. Navy, to radio

reports of all hurricanes they may encounter. Radio dispatches may be sent

in a special code, obtainable from the Hydrographic Office or from the

Weather Bureau. Shore stations ‘‘talking’”’ with ships in the neighborhood

are authorized to forward to the U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington, by

wire collect, information on storms thus received.

News Briers

Dr. HerBerT FRIEDMANN, Smithsonian Institution curator of birds, has

made a survey of the forms of bird society reported from all over the world,

and concluded that birds that are most advanced evolutionally are also the

388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 8

most individualistic. Birds that flock together most persistently belong to

the more “‘ primitive” zoological groups.

BraprorD WASHBURN, leader of the National Geographie Society’s

Yukon Expedition, has returned to Washington after four months in the

field to make his report to Dr. GiLBerT GROsvENOR, president of the

Society. A two-thousand square mile blind spot, in southwestern Yukon

Territory, a region of lofty mountain ranges and deep glacier-filled valleys

and gorges, has been erased from the map of North America, he said.

Dr. A. G. Grutiam, Dr. W. P. DEarine and Dr. J. P. Leake were sent

to North Carolina from the U. 8. Public Health Service to assist state and

local health officials in fighting an outbreak of poliomyelitis, or infantile

paralysis.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Hon. Henry A. Watuace, Secretary of Agriculture, was granted the

degree LL.D., honoris causa, by Harvard University at the June commence-

ment, and also received a similar degree from Columbia University.

Dr. Herpert F. Prytuercs, of the U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, has been

elected president of the National Shellfisheries Association and chairman

of the State Board of Directors of the North Carolina Fishermans Coopera-

tive Association.

Dr. IsatanH Bowman, chairman of the National Research Council and

director of President Roosevelt’s Science Advisory Board, addressed the

American Association for the Advancement of Science on the value of a

proposed program of intensive research on weather records of the past

eighty years which he said should be valued “‘more than all the gold in the

Klondike.”

Dr. WatTER A. BLoEporN, of George Washington Medical School, in

addressing the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement

of Science in Minneapolis, said that iron, one of the oldest medicines in the

world, is still one of the most dependable for certain types of anemia.

Mrs. KatHEerRInE K. Mappen, of Washington, with Dr. GrorceE E.

SHAMBOUGH, JR., of Chicago, announced at the Cincinnati meeting of the

American Federation of Organizations for the Hard of Hearing a plan

whereby deaf persons may make postmortem disposal of their ears for the

purpose of scientific research.

Fireflies that flash simultaneously in large numbers do not always be-

have alike. They vary according to species, is the contention of Gerrit 8.

Miter, JR., of the U. 8. National Museum, commenting in Science on an

explanation offered by JoHN BonnER Buck, of the Johns Hopkins Univer-

sity, for the simultaneous flashing of fireflies over a whole meadow or lawn.

Mr. MILLER presented observations made by himself in Jamaica. Here a

different firefly species flashes in large groups or “constellations,” but these

“constellations,” though within sight of each other, do not adopt the same

flash-rhythm, as observed by Mr. Buck. Instead, each group is a law unto

itself for a time. Then a disintegration of the rhythm sets in, and the flashes

come wholly at random.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS

Physics.—The beginnings of physics. II. The quest for creative con-

cepts. RAYMOND J:SHHGER... 5 Ge seus eae aac

Pharmacology.—The toxicity of sodium cyanide and the efficiency of

the nitrite-thiosulphate combination as a remedy for poisoned

animals. A.B. Cuawson, Jamus F. Coucn, and H. BunYnrA....

Paleontology.— Notes on the genus Breviarca. Liuoyp WitLiAM

STWPHENSON...... cs, /s Fty bea oe hide Be Ee cae a

Botany.—The status of Pellaea compacta (Davenp.) Maxon, and a

probationary method in systematic botany. JosprpH Ewan....

Botany.—New species of Bomarea from the Andes. E. P. Kiuir....

Paleobotany.—A Douglas fir cone from the Miocene of southeastern

Oregon: CHEmsrar A: ARNOLD... 30:00 on ve ee

Zoology.—Contributions to Texas herpetology. III. Bullsnakes of the

genera Arizona and Pituophis. CHaRLEs HE. Burt............

Scrantiric Nores anp: NwWS. 2:20.06. oe eee

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Page

34]

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 25 SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 | No. 9

GEOPHYSICS.—Testing a theory of the earth’s interior.1. REGINALD

A. Daty, Harvard University. (Communicated by L. H.

Adams.)

The processes responsible for the structure of the visible part of

the earth have been controlled by the physical properties of the

invisible part. The character of this incomparably greater volume

of material presents the most fundamental and important problem

of physical geology. How shall it be solved?

Atomic physics and astrophysics are being guided to major dis-

coveries by the testing of models of atoms and models of stars. Geo-

detic measurements and seismological results are becoming increas-

ingly accurate by the use of theoretical models of the earth. Similarly,

physical geology will be advanced by examining the merits of theoreti-

cal models of the globe, models constructed in the light of the myriad

field and laboratory observations already published. As a result of

such synthetic study the writer presented in his book Igneous

Rocks and the Depths of the Earth of the year 1933 a preferred

picture of terrestrial material. Since the manuscript of the book was

sent to press new data from seismology, on the radioactivity of

rocks, and on thermal gradients in the earth’s crust, particularly the

gradients given by R. H. Cleland for Pre-Cambrian rocks in Canada,

suggest the need of changes of the earth model in detail, but seem to

demand no change of principle.”

The present paper discusses the validity of this theoretical model

with respect to the distribution of strength in the earth’s body, as

now constituted. The conditions of earlier epochs are not considered.

“Strength” is defined as the power to resist the deforming tendency

of a shearing stress indefinitely prolonged. The tests of validity form

two groups. The first includes those that have been supposed, though

apparently without warrant, to prove considerable strength in the

deep interior of the planet. The second group give a positive result

1 Substance of an address to the Geological Society of Washington, April 24, 1935.

Received May 15, 1935.

2 See CLELAND, R. H. Trans. Canad. Min. Inst. 33: 379. 1933.

389

390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

and indicate extreme weakness in all of the earth-shells beneath a

comparatively thin crust.

A MODEL OF THE EARTH

Essential characteristics of the earth-shells, according to the pre-

ferred picture of 1933, are summarized in the following table.

TABLE 1.—CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH-SHELLS

A > 7 Reacti

Earth-chell thickness | 4verage | Temperature | ty chear- | Strength

(km.) ; stress

1. Crystalline crust:

a. Continental seg-| Circa 60 2.89 10°-1350°C. | Elastic Consider-

ment able

b. Suboceanic Cirea 75 3.03 1°-1400° Elastic Consider-

(deep-Pacific) able

segment

2. Vitreous, basaltic ? (prob- 2.80— | 1350°-1400° | Elastico- | Vanish-

substratum ably less 2.85 at top viscous ingly

than 400 at top small

km.)

3. Vitreous silicate Ca. 2300 | Ca.3.5— ? Elastico- | Vanish-

shell, more basic MGRS viscous ingly

than 2 small

Major discontinuity

4. Core, probably Ca. 3500 | Ca. 10.5- zs Elastico- | Vanish-

metallic iron 125 viscous ingly

or fluid small

Elastico-viscosity for the subcrustal shells is assumed: first, be-

cause the assumption seems to offer the only means of reconciling

the high rigidity proved by the seismologist with the degree of isos-

tasy proved by the geodesist; secondly, because the exalted tempera-

ture of those shells means thorough atomic agitation, and consequent

instability of any space-lattice in the aggregations of atoms. The de-

cay of rigidity may follow Maxwell’s law, involving the first power of

the stress-difference. However, when the stress-difference .becomes

extremely small, the law followed may be that of Adams and William-

son, involving the square of the stress-difference.* If the average time

of relaxation were as much as 100 years, the stress-difference would

become immeasurably small during a small fraction of a geological

period. This whole idea, that most of the earth’s body behaves under

shearing stress like pitch, is of course not new to science.

§ Maxwe.u, J.C. Phil. Mag. 35:134. 1868; Apams, L. H., and Winuiamson, E. D.

Jour. Franklin Inst. 190: 619, 631, 1920. -

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 DALY: EARTH’S INTERIOR o9l

OBJECTIONS TO ASSUMING AN ELASTICO-VISCOUS INTERIOR

1. The first argument against the validity of the model is based

on clear proofs of high rigidity of the whole silicate shell of the

earth, with respect to small stresses of short periods. Seismic and

tidal waves give such stresses, and their propagation is so perfect

that associated, non-elastic displacements, if real, are too small for

measurement. On the other hand, Jeffreys has found that even the

small stress-differences set up during the cycle of the variation of

latitude appear to be accompanied by some plastic yielding of the

earth’s body. He has explained the apparent fact by supposing the

subcrustal material to be elastico-viscous, with a time of relaxation

of rigidity equal to about ten years.’ Jeffreys’ discussion is only one

illustration of the manifest fact that rigidity has no necessary con-

nection with strength.

The high rigidity, effective in all such cases of slight, periodic stress-

ing, is regarded as a derivative of viscosity, enormously increased by

the intense hydrostatic pressure exerted on subcrustal material. This

explanation, though prompted by analogies found in Bridgman’s ex-

periments on the viscosity of organic liquids at high pressures, is

frankly speculative and to be suspected until the results of more

direct experimentation are in hand.’ However, the combination of

great rigidity and non-crystallinity in earth-shells below the depth

of 80 kilometers or so is assumed partly for a quite different reason:

that this hypothesis appears best to account for the major displace-

ments of, and in, the earth’s crust. Both lines of argument are mani-

festly subject to doubt, and the writer fully realizes the need of bet-

ter geophysical support for this basal assumption regarding the con-

nection between rigidity and the state of the earth’s materials.

2. From deflection residuals and gravity anomalies Clarke, Hel-

mert, Berroth, and Heiskanen deduced an elliptical form for the geoid

in the plane of the equator. In other words, these authors were led to

propose a triaxial ellipsoid as the approximate “figure of the earth.”’

Heiskanen’s calculations gave a difference of about 500 meters be-

tween the major and minor axes of the geoid at the equator. This

would mean for the solid surface of the earth an equatorial ellipticity

of about 1000 meters.°®

4 Jerrreys, H. The Harth, 2nd ed., Cambridge, Eng., p. 266,1929.

> BripamMan, P. W. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, 61: 96. 1926; The

Physics of High Pressure, New York, chap. 12, 1931.

6 HbISKANEN, W. Gerlands Beitraege zur Geophysik. 19: 356, 1928, with references

poe ue a scuaer writers; cf. Jerrreys, H. The Harth, 2nd ed., Cambridge, Eng., p.

,1929.

392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

Since geology knows no reason why the corresponding stresses

could have been developed in recent geological time, the deduced

triaxiality would mean practical strength at great depth. Yet there

are several grounds for doubting the hypothesis of triaxiality. The

number and distribution of gravity stations are still inadequate for

solution of the problem. Its data are imperfect until our present

ignorance of the correct basis for reducing the field observations of

gravity is dispelled. The values of gravity found by Vening Meinesz

in the extensive West Indian and East Indian regions do not agree

with any triaxial formula.’ After all, as Jeffreys points out, the hypo-

thesis of triaxiality reduces deflection residuals and gravity anomalies

only a few per cent. And, finally, the hypothesis ill accords with the

ice-cap proof of minute or zero strength for the deeper earth-shells.

3. The Moon is elliptical in its equatorial section, the major and

minor axes of the ellipse being found to differ by approximately 500

meters. The inequality, regarded as a frozen tide that was raised when

the moon was much nearer the earth than it is at present, means

notable stress-differences at relatively great depth below the surface.

These stresses have been resisted for more than a billion years. Hence

the lunar material at the depth concerned must have practical

strength. Jeffreys has argued that the earth is homologous, of quali-

tatively similar properties. However, there is good reason to be-

heve: that the moon has cooled much faster than the earth, which is

fifty times larger in volume and of mass eighty times larger; and

hence that the moon early became crystallized to a far greater rela-

tive depth, if not to its actual center. Also in view of the low value of

gravitation by the moon, it seems legitimate to explain the observed

inequality of the lunar figure by the strength of crystallized rock;

it is equally legitimate to question the argument for strength in the

deeper earth-shells so far as this argument is based on an assumed

homology between planet and satellite.

4. Many earthquakes have been shown to have originated around ~

focal points from 100 to 700 kilometers below the earth’s surface.

As yet seismologists are unable to understand why seismic blows can

be struck at such depths. The reality of the deep foci seems to add one

more argument against the idea that the earth-shell involved is

utterly weak. The question whether the shocks imply solid-elasticity

or elastico-viscosity awaits an answer. In either case brittleness and

7 See HEISKANEN, W. Gerlands Beitraege zur Geophysik, 36: 197. 1932; VENING ©

Meinesz, F.A. Gravity at Sea, Netherlands Geodetic Commission Pub. 2: 109. 1934.

8 JEFFREYS, H. The Earth, 2nd ed., p. 229, 1929.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 DALY: EARTH’S INTHRIOR 393

sudden slips of the deep material are conceivable. Indeed the phenom-

ena connected with the isostatic deformation of the earth’s crust in

response to unloading with deglaciation appear best explained by as-

suming spasmodic, vertical shears to depth of the order of 1000

kilometers. (See below.) However, these sudden displacements affect

zones which in ground plan are thousands of kilometers long, and

there is no obvious reason why the movements should cause specially

energetic shocks at “points” in the zones. The same difficulty ap-

pears when the analogous mechanism of isostatic adjustment be-

tween erosionally unweighted continent and weighted sea-floor is

studied. Probably the answer to the question will come when seis-

mologists thoroughly understand why displacements along rifts at

the surface and hundreds of kilometers long are accompanied by the

actual, highly localized shocks. Pending further investigation it

seems right to hold that the discovery of deep seismic foci does not

disprove the rule of elastico-viscosity at depths exceeding 100 kilo-

meters.

5. The existence of peneplains has been thought to demonstrate

strength for the deeper earth-shells. According to the argument the

earth’s crust remains unmoved while heavy loads of wide spans are

removed by secular erosion. During those millions of years isostasy

is supposed to fail in each peneplained region, and stresses of some

magnitude are supposed to reside in the material far below the sur-

face. However, no proof of such significant departure from isostasy

for any extensive peneplained area has yet been produced. In the

United States as elsewhere many peneplained areas have kept nearly

the same relation to their baselevels as they had during the removal

of matter, and nevertheless exhibit no systematic gravity anomalies

of negative character.

Further, the upwarping of peneplained surfaces does not necessarily

mean previous failure of isostasy. The strongest warping is found

in orogenic belts, where mountain-roots have been sunk deeply into

the earth’s body. Thus the isotherms were depressed. Their restora-

tion to their original levels has taken millions of years. It seems fair

to assume expansion of the material beneath the visible mountain-

structure, and enough delay in the expansion to cause warping of a

surface already peneplained. Then there is a second possibility, the

slow heating and expansion of mountain roots by radio-activity.

Whatever the cause, the upwarping of any peneplain can not be

considered a priori evidence of important lack of isostatic balance in

the region at any stage of its erosional history.

394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

6. Because individual plus and minus areas of gravity anomaly

appeared to have spans of 1000 or more kilometers, Barrell and

Jeffreys attributed strength to the material at depths of hundreds of

kilometers. For example, from the 1912 anomaly map of the United

-’ e-5

/“ MADISON

KILOMETERS

Fig. 1.—Isostatic anomalies (in milligals) and (broken) lines of zero anomaly,

separating plus and minus areas. Computations based on 18 stations and on the cor-

rected Helmert 1901 formula for the figure of the earth; Pratt-Hayford depth of com-

pensation assumed to be 113.7 kilometers. (Special Publication No. 10, U. S. Coast

and Geodetic Survey, Illustration No. 2, 1912.)

States (89 gravity stations) Barrell supposed one such area to have a

width of 2800 kilometers, and a maximum departure from isostasy

measured by the weight of 380 meters of rock. He therefore concluded

that the earth-shells at depths exceeding 500 kilometers could per-

manently support decided stress-differences. From the data of the

1917 anomaly map, including measurements at 130 additional sta-

tions, Jeffreys came to a similar conclusion. However, as more and

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 DALY: EARTH’S INTERIOR 395

more gravity stations in the United States are occupied, the areas

characterized by anomalies of one sign tend to decrease to a notable

extent. Some illustrations will make this important fact clear.°

a. On the 1912 map eight plus areas and four minus areas were

e » /

°+17 «+6 es Te

ST. PAUL \

°+36 —

KILOMETERS

Fig. 2.—Isostatic anomalies (in milligals) and lines of zero anomaly in the same

area as that shown in Fig. 1. Computations based on 41 stations; otherwise as in the

case represented by Fig. 1. (Special Publication No. 40, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic

Survey, Illustration No. 11, 1917.)

contoured in the United States; on the 1917 map, thirteen plus areas

and eight minus areas; on the map of 1924, seventeen plus areas and

seven minus areas.

b. The wide plus area shown on the 1912 map west and southwest

®See Barret, J. Jour. Geology, 23: 30 ff. 1915; Jerrreys, H. The Earth,

2nd ed., p. 201,1929; Hayrorp, J. F., and Bowie, W. U.S. Coast and Geod.

Survey, Spec. Pub. 10, Illustration no. 2 (anomaly map) 1912; Bowrn, W. ibid.,

Spec. Pub. 40, fig. 13 (anomaly map), 1917; and ibid., Spec. Pub. 99, fig. 7 (anomaly

map),1924; Principal Facts for Gravity Stations in the United States, with map, issued

by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1934.

396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

of the Great Lakes (Fig. 1) was greatly narrowed on the 1917 map

(Fig. 2), after only a relatively small addition to the field data.

c. The region covered by Figure 3 was, on the 1917 map, marked

as characterized by positive anomalies, except for the small part at

the northwest corner, indicated by the stipple pattern. The field

measurements available in 1934 show the necessity of breaking up this

wide plus region into at least three plus and three minus areas, as

depicted by the drawing. In the same region the mean anomaly with

tet cue

37 oso,

ile wtoigtSo eta £3)

sl l+23 +

—\.

CODY Os=31 -37,-32, =9\

—

i] °-7

THERMOPOLISO 413

KILOMETERS

109°

Fig. 3.—Isostatic anomalies (in milligals) and lines of zero anomaly in Wyoming.

Computations based on the 1930 International formula; Pratt-Hayford depth of com-

pensation assumed to be 113.7 kilometers. (Data circularized by the U. S. Coast and

Geodetic Survey, 1934.)

regard to sign was, according to the facts known in 1917, +28 mil-

ligals; according to the fuller data of 1934, it is +14 milligals. Evi-

dently the region is more nearly in perfect isostatic adjustment than

had been thought.

d. In 1934 twelve stations in northwestern Texas (Nos. 408-419

inclusive) were reported. Eight show plus anomalies and four minus

anomalies, with a mean anomaly with regard to sign of +7 milligals.

On the 1917 map the whole of the same region was marked with nega-

tive anomaly.

e. Central Kansas, between the meridians of 96°30’ and 100° W.

Long., was mapped in 1917 as belonging entirely to an area of positive

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 DALY: EARTH’S INTERIOR 397

anomaly, but the values of gravity reported in 1934 give in the same

region two negative belts and an intervening positive belt.

f. On the 1917 map the State of Connecticut appears as a region

of negative anomaly; the great majority of the new stations, re-

ported in 1934, give positive anomalies, with mean of +22 milligals.

g. Similarly, qualitative and quantitative changes have been com-

pelled in the Chesapeake Bay region because of the addition of the

1934 data to those of 1917.

However, there is one important exception to the rule of diminu-

tion of anomalies in the United States with the increase of stations.

The Pacific coast belt of continuously negative anomalies, shown on

the 1917 map, is not essentially narrowed by the addition of the

data from stations occupied later. This belt is not far from 1000

kilometers wide and extends beyond the actual coast to some line

to be drawn east of Vening Meinesz’s stations at sea. The maximum

anomaly on land south of the Columbia River (data of 1934) is

—83 milligals and the mean with regard to sign is —20 milligals.

The mean anomaly for the stations at sea, just off the California coast,

is +20 milligals.

Explanation of these apparent departures from isostatic equilib-

rium is not obvious. Bowie regards the departures as not real and

attributes the negative anomalies to the low density of the more

superficial rock formations along the coast. Heiskanen has offered

a quite different solution to the problem in terms of the Airy theory of

isostasy.'° Neither of these experts finds compelling evidence that

there is actual failure of isostasy in the coastal belt. Some failure

there may be, merely because this part of the earth has not yet had

time to reach equilibrium after its late-Tertiary, Cordilleran dis-

turbance.

The problem raised by the wide coastal belt is baffling, but the

writer still believes that the study of gravity values in the United

States does not prove the existence of rock loads too great to be borne

by the strength of the crust alone.

In review, it appears that each of the six objections to the idea of

almost or quite perfect weakness for all earth-shells below a level not

more than 100 kilometers down from the surface lacks cogency. At-

tention will now be drawn to the affirmative tests, three in number.

All will be presented merely in outline.

10 Bowigr, W. Investigations of Gravity and Isostasy. U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey,

Spec. Pub. 40: 76. 1917; Hetskanen, W. Annales Acad. Scient. Fennicae. 36

(3): 128. 1932.

398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

AFFIRMATIVE TESTS

1. A somewhat detailed discussion of the first appears in the

writer’s book The Changing World of the Ice Age.“ There it was

shown that each principal Pleistocene ice-cap caused both elastic and

plastic deformation of the globe, the result being delayed but ulti-

mately close isostatic adjustment for the load of ice. After the melting

of each great cap, with corresponding removal of superficial load, iso-

static adjustment in the reverse sense has progressed so far that the

residual stress-differences in the earth are all extremely small. Never-

theless the adjustment still continues, indicating vanishingly small

strength for the material that has been, and is, flowing. Further, there

is evidence that, while the horizontally directed flow may be dis-

tributed through all depths, it has been concentrated largely below

the 1000-kilometer level. If so, the weakness of the deep interior must

be nearly or quite absolute.

2. The second test is based on an assumption: that the earth’s

internal weakness is due to temperature so high as to prevent crystal-

lization at all depths greater than about 75 kilometers below the

surface. According to the facts of geology and petrology the upper-

most layer of the non-crystalline or vitreous material is best regarded

as of basaltic composition, and is conveniently called the basaltic

substratum. The layer immediately above—the lower part of the

earth’s crust—has the elastic properties reasonably assigned to basalt,

when crystallized under pressure greater than 10,000 atmospheres.

There the velocities of earthquake waves probably exceeds the

velocities in the vitreous material just beneath. If so, the time-

distance curve of the seismic waves should exhibit the discontinuity

that goes with a ‘“‘shadow zone,” analogous to that well established

and explained by the sudden drop in velocities at the transition from

the earth’s silicate shell to her “iron” core. In fact at epicentral

distances between about 1000 kilometers and 1700 kilometers there is

no strong seismographic record of longitudinal or transverse waves

that have penetrated the substratum. For stations at these distances

from epicentra the seismograms give no record at all for the waves

described, or else record very weak impulses from them. The existence

of these slight impulses may be attributed to diffraction along the

discontinuity. The theory of the shadow zone here considered will

soon be discussed in printed form by the writer’s colleague, Dr. L. D.

Leet. The reality of the zone has already been suggested by B.

Gutenberg.” Seismologists will do well to examine still more carefully

1 Yale University Press, Chapter 4, 1934.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 ROSSINI: THERMOCHEMISTRY 399

the evidence for the shadow zone and the corresponding change of

state at moderate depth in the earth.

3. The remaining test is this: How does the suggested model of

the earth work with respect to the major problems of petrogenesis,

orogeny, and crust-warping? In the writer’s opinion this model offers

more and better solutions to these problems than any other yet

imagined, and is therefore worthy of further testing in the field and

laboratory.

CHEMISTRY.—The development of thermochemistry.! FREDERICK

D. Rossin1, National Bureau of Standards.

Thermochemistry may be defined as that branch of chemistry

which treats of the changes in intrinsic energy or heat content asso-

ciated with chemical reactions.

The first quantitative measurement of the heat evolved in a chemi-

cal reaction was made some years before 1800, and, in the early years

of the science, contributions to thermochemistry were made in France,

Great Britain, and Russia, by chemists who were famous for other

accomplishments as well: Lavoisier, Dalton, Davy, Despretz, Hess,

Dulong, Graham, and Andrews.

While these first measurements in thermochemistry were very

crude as judged by our present day standards, nevertheless great

credit is due these pioneers for their work and for their insight into

the meaning of their experimental results. Even at that early day,

these investigators sensed the idea that the heat energy associated

with a given reaction was in some way related to the chemical activity

of the substances concerned. Before 1850, there were extant in the

literature data of varying degrees of accuracy on the heats of a large

variety of chemical reactions: heats of solution of salts and of their

hydrates in water; heats of neutralization of acids and bases in

aqueous solution; heats of combustion of gases and of metals in

oxygen; heats of direct combination of metals with non-metals.

Soon after 1850, several things occurred which were destined to

raise thermochemistry to a very high place. The first of these hap-

penings was the general acceptance of the first law of thermody-

namics, and the other was the arrival into the field of thermo-

2 GuTENBERG, B. Gerlands Beitraege zur Geophysik, 17: 364. 1927; Mt.umr-

PoviLyeT, Handbuch der Physik, 5: 670. 1928; Bull. Seism. Soe. America. 21: 216.

1931.

1 An address delivered before the Chemical Society of Washington, March 14,

1935, on the occasion of the award of the Hillebrand Prize for 1934. Publication

approved by the Director of the National Bureau of Standards of the U. 8. Depart-

ment of Commerce. Received May 3, 1935.

400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

chemistry of Julius Thomsen, a Danish chemist at Copenhagen, and

of Marcellin Berthelot, a French chemist at Paris.

These two investigators independently announced the same prin-

ciple relating heat of reaction with chemical affinity, stating that the

heat of a given reaction was a direct measure of the chemical affinity

of the substances concerned, and that only those reactions would

proceed which were accompanied by an evolution of heat energy.

Spurred on by their profound belief in the validity of this direct rela-

tion between heat content and chemical affinity, Thomsen and

Berthelot amassed an enormous amount of data on heats of reaction.

Each made notable contributions to the technic of calorimetry.

Thomsen developed a reaction vessel for measuring the heats of

combustion of gases at constant pressure; Berthelot developed a re-

action vessel for measuring the heats of combustion of organic liquids

and solids in a closed bomb. Other chemists of the day became

imbued with the enthusiasm of Thomsen and Berthelot for the im-

portance of data on heats of reaction, and thermochemistry assumed

a lofty place in the science reaching its peak at about the time of the

publication of Thomsen’s monumental four volumes of thermo-

chemical data in 1882-1886.

By this time, however, the second law of thermodynamics had

come into chemistry, and its true relation to chemical reactions was

being developed by Clausius, Gibbs, Helmholtz, Van’t Hoff, and

others. It was shown that the true measure of the chemical affinity of

a Substance was not its heat content, but a quantity (which we now

call free energy) differing from the heat content by a term involving

the product of the entropy and the absolute temperature.

Before the close of the century, both Thomsen and Berthelot ac-

cepted the second law of thermodynamics, and acknowledged that

the heat of reaction alone was only an approximate measure of the

chemical affinity, and that in some cases their old principle yielded

completely erroneous results. A decline in the work of thermochem-

istry then set in, and investigators turned their attention to those

measurements which would yield true values of chemical affinity or

free energy. In the three decades following 1900, researches in thermo-

chemistry were, with a few notable exceptions, sporadic and casual,

and our main body of thermochemical data remained those of Thom-

sen and Berthelot.

About 1906, Nernst pronounced this famous heat theorem, which,

with certain limitations, became accepted as the third law of thermo-

dynamics. The third law made possible the determination of en-

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 ROSSINI: THERMOCHEMISTRY 401

tropies by measurement of heat capacities down to low temperatures,

near the absolute zero, and combination of these values of entropy

with data on heats of reaction yielded values of the changes in free

energy. The full power of the third law, particularly with regard to

organic substances, was soon appreciated, and a great number of these

entropy data were obtained. But it was soon found that the existing

data on heats of reaction were not comparable in accuracy with the

data on entropies, and that the uncertainties in the resulting values

of free energy were practically equal to the uncertainties in the data

on heat content. This was no reflection upon the work of Thomsen,

Berthelot, and their coworkers, whose values more than satisfied

the requirements of the 1880’s, but it indicated a real need for new

and accurate data on heats of reaction.

About 10 years ago, a new and powerful tool for chemical thermo-

dynamics was developed. This was the use of spectroscopic data on

the energy levels of gaseous molecules for calculating very accurate

values of entropy. These values of entropy were combined with data

on heats of reaction to obtain values of the changes in free energy.

But, in order to obtain the full benefit of the accurate spectroscopic

values of entropy, it was necessary that data on heats of reaction be

of the highest possible accuracy. Thus arose another real need for new

and accurate thermochemical data.

Again about 10 years ago, the theoretical physicists and chemists

began applying the new mechanics to the calculation of the energies

of the atomic linkages in molecules. In order to correlate and check

the calculations of their theories, accurate data on heats of formation

were required. And so arose a third real need for new and accurate

values of heats of formation.

Thus, about a decade ago, the stage was set for a renaissance in

thermochemistry. One of the first to sense this need and to promote

a renewed interest in thermochemical measurements was the late

EK. W. Washburn, who, as editor-in-chief of the International Critical

Tables, was in a particularly good position to appreciate the inade-

quacy of the existing data.

Though many new thermochemical values have been obtained in

the past few years, chiefly in the United States and Germany, we

still depend upon many of the data obtained half a century ago. It

should be pointed out that Thomsen, Berthelot, and their coworkers

had not the advantages of our modern calorimetric apparatus and

technic, nor of our pure substances, and therefore the value of their

work should not be judged on the basis of present day accuracy. Fifty

402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

years ago, an accuracy of 1 part in 1000 was as remarkable in calo-

rimetry as is 1 part in 10,000 today. It can be said, in general, that the

accuracy requirements of thermochemical data have increased about

tenfold in the past half century.

Today, the problem of obtaining a reliable value for the heat of a

given reaction resolves itself into two parts: First, one must investi-

gate the purity of the given reaction as it proceeds under the condi-

tions of the calorimetric experiment, and determine to what extent,

if any, side reactions occur. In the time of Thomsen and Berthelot,

because of the less rigid requirements of accuracy, the purity of the

calorimetric reaction was not investigated as fully as it is today.

Second, one must measure the heat of the reaction in terms of a funda-

mental unit of energy. As recently as twenty years ago, the accepted

calorimetric unit of energy, called the calorie, was defined in terms of

the heat capacity of water. From the standpoint of chemical thermo-

dynamics, this calorie was not a satisfactory unit of energy, but it _

was then the only practical one available. Today, we make our

measurements in terms of a fundamental unit of electrical energy, the

joule. We do also report our thermochemical values in calories, but

these calories are obtained from the fundamental joule by means of

an arbitrarily defined factor, and the resulting defined calorie bears

no relation, except incidentally and historically, to the heat capacity

of water. ,

The principle of the modern calorimetric method for measuring

heats of reaction is to compare the heat evolved by a measured

amount of chemical reaction with the heat evolved by a measured

amount of electrical energy, using the calorimeter as the comparator

for the two kinds of energy. In this substitution method, the calori-

metric conditions are made practically identical in the two kinds of

experiment, so that many of the common calorimetric errors are

eliminated.

The ultimate end of experimental thermochemistry is the assembly

of a table of values from which one may calculate accurately the

heat of every one of the infinite number of theoretically possible

chemical reactions. Fortunately, it is not necessary to measure the

heat of every possible chemical reaction in order to compile such a

table, but only to determine the heat of formation, from its elements,

of every chemical substance. The determination of the heat of forma-

tion of a substance from its elements requires only the measurement

of the heat of a reaction in which all the reactants and products,

except the given substance, are substances whose heats of formation,

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 BASSLER: TENNESSEE FOSSILS 403

from their elements, are known. Actually, in order to know the heats

of formation of 10,000 chemical compounds, including hydrocarbons,

it is necessary to measure the heats of less than 10,000 different re-

actions, because of a simplifying rule for some of the higher hydro-

carbons. With these 10,000 values, one can calculate the heats of

many, many times that number of chemical reactions.

Fortunately for the peace of mind and the economic security of

investigators in thermochemistry, the possibility of the complete

compilation of the ultimate table of heats of formation is extremely

remote, because, with the passing of time, some values are continually

becoming obsolete with respect to accuracy, and furthermore, many

new compounds whose heats of formation must be determined are

continually being synthesized or discovered by the organic and in-

organic chemists.

PALEONTOLOGY .— Descriptions of Paleozoic fossils from the Cen-

tral Basin of Tennessee! R. S. Bassuer, U. 8S. National Mu-

seum.

In a volume entitled ““The Stratigraphy of the Central Basin of

Tennessee,’ published in 1932 as Bulletin 38 of the Division of

Geology of the State of Tennessee, the writer included plates il-

lustrating the characteristic fossils of the various Paleozoic forma-

tions discussed. Among these guide fossils were forty-one new species

of invertebrates and algae for which there was no place for their

description in the text, although in the explanation of the plates the

exact horizon and locality were given in addition in some instances to

comparisons with well known forms. This stratigraphic volume was

in press for several years, during which time the rules of nomenclature

were changed so as to disallow the recognition of species figured but

unaccompanied by descriptions. This article is issued to remedy this

deficiency in the present case. For economy, the citations to the

Tennessee volume are restricted to noting the plate and figure in

parenthesis after each of the species. The types of all the following

species are the property of the U. 8. National Museum.

Solenopora compacta cerebrum Bassler, 1932 (pl. 12, figs. 1, 2)

This common widespread Ordovician alga is represented in the Hermitage

formation by large, much convoluted masses resembling a brain, for which

reason the varietal name cerebrum was proposed. Careful study of this

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived May 29, 1935.

404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

genus will probably show the present variety to be worthy of specific stand-

ing.

Trenton (top of Hermitage): 6 miles northwest of Carthage, Tenn.

Buthotrephis inosculata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 9, fig. 3)

A fucoid alga consisting of rounded, slightly flattened stems 6 to 8 mm.

in diameter, branching dichotomously in the same plain at intervals averag-

ing 30 mm., and also penetrating limestone layers several feet thick until

they are completely occupied with these remains.

Black River (Tyrone formation): Hoover’s Mills, west of Woodbury,

Tenn.

Licrophycus libana Bassler, 1932 (pl. 5, fig. 9)

This fucoid occurs so often on limestone surfaces in spreading, fanshaped

fronds arising from a simple stem which by repeated division expands to

a diameter of 50 mm. and often overlying each other so that it must repre-

sent the remains of a definite organism instead of inorganic markings as

regarded by some authors. Although closely related to the type of the

genus, L. ottawense Billings, the present species is distinguished by its

smaller, narrower, shorter, more frequently dividing stems.

Stones River (Lebanon limestone): 2 miles south of Murfreesboro, Tenn

Camarocladia gracilis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 8, fig. 4)

This primitive spongelike organism of uncertain classification is distin-

guished from the genotype, C. dichotoma Ulrich and Winchell, by its stouter,

less regularly dividing branches. C. rugosa Ulrich, a related species, is still

unfigured and all the fossils of this nature require more study.

Black River (Tyrone limestone): Near Dixon Springs, Tenn.

Camarocladia implicatum Bassler, 1932 (pl. 5, fig. 10)

Similar to the preceding in general characters but differing in that the

branches are 5 mm. wide, divide at intervals of 15 or more mm., and form

a closely matted mass.

Stones River (Lebanon limestone): Lebanon, Tenn.

Saccospongia massalis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 15, figs. 3, 4)

Sponge forming masses of 160 or more mm. in height and width, com-

posed of frequently dividing, closely united branches about 15 mm. in

diameter, each with a central canal 7 or 8 mm. wide and with the usual

porous structure of Saccospongia visible at the surface, three of the pores

occurring in 10 mm.

Trenton (Cannon limestone): 2 miles east of Hartsville, Tenn.

Saccospongia laxata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 15, figs. 1, 2)

A branching sponge similar to S. danvillensis Ulrich in growth, but differ-

ing in the much larger pores of its network, 4 occurring in 10 mm. longi-

tudinally in contrast to 7 of the mentioned related species.

Trenton (Cannon limestone): Near Carthage, Tenn.

Cryptophragmus arbusculus Bassler, 1932 (pl. 16, fig. 9)

Hydrozoon with the transverse partitions and other internal structure

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 BASSLER: TENNESSEE FOSSILS 405

of C. antiquatus Raymond, the genotype, but with a stout, frequently

branched colony, the branches averaging 10 mm. in diameter.

Trenton (Cannon limestone): 41% miles east of Hartsville, Tenn.

Tetradium? carterensis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 7, figs. 2, 3)

Coral of solid cylindrical stems, 30 to 40 mm. in diameter, composed of

somewhat flattened corallites about 2 mm. in their longer diameter, showing

a tendency to imbricate. No septa observed; generic position doubtful.

Black River (Carters limestone) : 2 miles southeast of Priest, Tenn.

Tetradium saffordi Bassler, 1932 (pl. 19, fig. 2)

Colony a reticulate mass made by cells having the characteristic 4 septa

and arranged in chainlike unilinear or bilinear rows uniting so as to form

broad meshes 20 mm. in diameter.

Trenton (Cannon limestone): 2 miles east of Milton, Tenn.

Tetradium laxum Bassler, 1932 (pl. 18, figs. 10-12)

Corallite with septal structure of Tetradium, forming masses 70 or more

mm. in diameter consisting of loosely growing single tubes each about 1 mm.

in diameter, sometimes isolated but often adhering in unilinear sheets, all

forming an open network with meshes averaging 7 mm. in width.

Trenton (Cannon limestone): 2 miles east of Hartsville, Tenn.

Tetradium ulrichi Bassler, 1932 (pl. 19, fig. 1)

Like 7. saffordi Bassler in general growth and structure, but meshes

are only about half as broad.

Trenton (Cannon limestone): 21% miles northwest of Woodbury, Tenn.

Columnaria [alveolata] minor Bassler, 1932 (pl. 11, figs. 1, 2)

Corallum small, composed of polygonal thin-walled corallites in close

contact, 2144 mm. wide when mature, each with a primary set of 12 septa

extending well towards the center and a shorter secondary set. The small

corallites distinguish this species which was figured as a variety, since 5

mm. is the average width in C. alveolata.

Trenton (Basal Hermitage): 1 mile south of Belfast, Tenn.

Nyctopora [Columnaria] crenulata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 13, figs. 3, 4)

Corallum of small, rounded masses composed of polygonal thin-walled

corallites in close contact, with 5 to 6 in6 mm., each corallite with 8 primary

septa extending a short distance into the tubesand a set of shorter second-

ary septa. Tabulae in two zones, a crowded one where two occur in a tube

diameter, and the other where they are spaced on an average of a tube

diameter apart. No mural pores.

Trenton (top of Hermitage): 4 miles south of Carthage, Tenn.

Lichenaria globularis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 13, figs. 1, 2)

Small globular masses, composed of polygonal, thin-walled corallites with

8 to 9 in 6 mm., without septa or mural pores. Tabulae developed at inter-

vals of twice the tube diameter in the uncrowded zone, but in the other zone

2 or 3 occur in the same space.

Trenton (top of Hermitage): 6 miles northwest of Carthage, Tenn.

406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

Lichenaria grandis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 12, figs. 7, 8)

Similar to L. globularis but more massive and with larger corallites, of

which there are 6 in 6 mm. Septa absent; tabulae present and spaced as in

the previous species.

Trenton (top of Hermitage): Near Bradyville, Tenn.

Enopleura punctata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 18, fig. 9)

This well marked cystid is distinguished from the genotype, H. balanoides

(Meek) by its flattened theca and especially by its highly punctate surface.

Trenton (Cannon limestone): 44 mile north-northeast of Pulaski, Tenn.

Scolithus columbina Bassler, 1932 (pl. 16, fig. 8)

Type specimen a piece of fine-grained dove limestone pierced by worm

borings, tubes about 0 5 mm. in diameter filled by crystalline calcite and

spaced at intervals of several mm. The minuteness of the borings distinguish

this from all other species.

Trenton (base of Cannon limestone): Near Franklin, Tenn.

Amplexopora convoluta Bassler, 1932 (pl. 12, figs. 3, 4)

Bryozoan zoarium, a convoluted mass of 40 or more mm. in diameter,

made up of closely intertwining branches composed of angular zooecia with

the wall and acanthopore structure of Amplexopora and with 8 occurring

in 2 mm. In vertical sections the immature region has diaphragms at inter-

vals of 3 to 4 tube diameters, but in the mature zone 3 occur in one tube

diameter.

Trenton (top of Hermitage): 2 miles west of Hartsville, Tenn.

Stellipora stipata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 11, figs. 3, 4)

Zoarium of incrusting lamellae with closely spaced star clusters in which

the rays are narrow and leave little space between them for mesospores.

In the genotype, S. antheloidea Hall, the clusters are much farther apart

and each exhibits at its center a broad area of mesopores.

Trenton (top of Hermitage): 2 miles east of Cottage Home, Tenn.

Lioclemella bifurcata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 25, fig. 21)

Similar to the genotype, L. ohioensis Foerste, in zooecial structure and

pointed base for articulation, but differing in that the zoarium bifurcates

forming a distinct prong-shaped object; the zooecia are smaller (8 in 2 mm.)

and the mesopores smaller and more numerous.

Richmond (Fernvale formation): 214 miles northwest of Pulaski, Tenn.

Sowerbyella lebanonensis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 5, figs. 7, 8)

Brachiopod shell similar to S clarksvillensis and related species, but dis-

tinguished by the surface markings of very fine striae with 3 or 4 delicate

ribs alternating with a single larger one, with cardinal extremities somewhat

angular and the dorsal lamellae extending almost to the front of the valve.

Surface flat to gentle convex.

Stones River (Lebanon limestone): Shelbyville, Tenn.

Rafinesquina hermitagensis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 12, figs. 5, 6)

Shell of 2. fracta group but rather strongly convex in the median region

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 BASSLER: TENNESSEE FOSSILS 407

and without any geniculation. Differs also in the greater breadth of the

valves in contrast with the length, an average shell being 22 mm. long by

30 mm. wide.

Trenton (near base of Hermitage): 2 miles south of Middleton, Tenn.

Strophomena odessae Bassler, 1932 (pl. 25, figs. 7-12)

Shell similar to S. parvula Foerste, but differing in its general proportions,

smaller size, less angular cardinal extremities and finer surface markings.

Richmond (Fernvale formation): 24 miles northwest of Pulaski, Tenn.

Tentaculites obliquus Bassler, 1932 (pl. 11, fig. 9)

Shell 8-10 mm. long, 1 mm. in greatest diameter, differing from other

species of the genus in its slightly curved form.

Trenton (Hermitage formation): Danville, Ky.

Hormotoma columbina Bassler, 1932 (pl. 18, figs. 1, 2)

Shell similar to H. major Hall, differing in a smaller apical angle making

it narrower and less robust. S trentonensis Ulrich and Scofield is also similar

but is a shorter and more rapidly enlarging shell.

Trenton (Cannon limestone): 1 mile southwest of Franklin, Tenn.

Lophospira ulrichi Bassler, 1932 (pl. 17, figs. 5, 6)

Related to L. sumnerensis Safford, but characterized by its low spire and

unusual breadth. An average shell measures 2222 mm.

Trenton (Cannon limestone): Near Hartsville, Tenn.

Ctenodonta hermitagensis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 11, figs. 7, 8)

Similar to Ctenodonta pectunculoides in general outline and dentition,

but shell smaller and beak more produced with general surface marked by

strong concentric lines.

Trenton (top of Hermitage): 3 miles east of Mt. Pleasant, Tenn.

Leperditia pondi Ulrich and Bassler 1932 (pl. 21, fig. 8)

A Leperditia with valves 16X12 mm., in length and height, character-

ized by the unusually equal curvature of both anterior and posterior ends.

Surface smooth with a narrow rim and slightly developed ocular tubercle

in the anterior dorsal third.

Trenton (Catheys formation): Nashville, Tenn.

Isochilina apicalis Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 21, fig. 9)

An Isochilina with valves about 11 by 6144 mm. with eye tubercle close

to the dorsal margin and a ridge almost one third the length of the valves

just below the center and parallel to the hinge line.

Trenton (Catheys formation): Nashville, Tenn.

Isochilina columbina Bassler, 1932 (pl. 17, fig. 2)

A narrow, elongate Isochilina with dimensions of about 9X5 mm. with

smooth surface, no marginal rim and a minute eye spot close to the anterior

dorsal angles.

Trenton (Cannon limestone): Nashville, Tenn.

408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

Isochilina nelsoni Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 21, fig. 10)

Carapace equivalved, each valve about 137 mm., with surface smooth

and a narrow rim along the free margins and with well developed ocular

protuberance and accompanying nodes in the dorsal section.

Trenton (Catheys formation): Nashville, Tenn.

Aechmina longicornis Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 6)

An Aechmina distinguished by the spine arising from the anterior half of

the dorsal edge of the valves, which has a broad base and narrows to a point

abruptly. A row of minute spicules occurs along the free margin of the

valve. Valves excluding spine 0.90.5 mm.; spine 0.7 mm. long.

Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn.

Ulrichia tenuimuralis Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 14)

This species is particularly marked by the presence of a ridge close to the

free margin and by a large oval node occupying the central part of the dorsal

half of the valve. A smaller node anterior to this and the reticulate surface

complete its characters. Valves 1 by 0.6 mm.

Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn.

Paracythere cornuta Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 13)

A Cythere-like ostracod with a small but prominent node near the dorsal

in the narrow anterior part, with a much broader posterior end, and with

surface marked by concentric lines arranged around a small muscle spot

posterior to the node. Valves 1 by 0.6. mm.

Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn.

Monoceratina [Bursulella] tennesseensis Ulrich and

Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, figs. 11, 12)

A subtriangular-shaped ostracod with the apex of the triangle below and

formed by the continuation of the ventral edge into a strong prominent

spine. Valve excluding spine 1.5 by 1.1 mm.

Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn.

Beyrichiopsis modesta Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 10)

This species differs from the genotype, B. fimbriata Jones and Kirkby,

in that the surface markings are reduced to a single, small rounded post-

median node, and that the frill extending from the edges of the valve is of

more uniform diameter throughout. Valve with frill 1 by 0.6 mm.

Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn.

Beyrichiopsis pulchra Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 1)

Distinguished from the associated B. modesta by its larger proportions,

the very spinous surface, the small rounded subventral node and especially

the double row of spines representing the frill paralleling the free edges.

Valve measuring 1.8 mm. by 1 mm.

Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn.

Allostraca fimbriata Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 5)

This, the only known species of the genus, is distinguished by its Cythere-

like valves with a very broad subcentral eye or muscle spot, a distinctly

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 KNECHTEL: INDIAN HOT SPRINGS

409

granular surface, and a prominent striated frill extending some distance

beyond the free edges of the valves. Valve including frill 1.6 mm. by 0.8 mm.

Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn.

Paracythere granopunctata Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 4)

Outline and surface markings of valve much as in Allostraca fimbriata

except that the striated marginal rim of the latter is lacking. Valve 1.7 mm.

by 1 mm.

Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn.

Barychilina lineata Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, figs. 2, 3)

Distinguished from other species of the genus by the delicate concentric

lineate structure of the surface markings. Valves 16 mm. by 0.9 mm.

Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn.

HYDROLOGY.—Indian Hot Springs, Graham County, Arizona.!

M. M. Knecuret, U. 8. Geological Survey.

by O. E. MErInzEr.)

(Communicated

The health resort known as Indian Hot Springs, at Eden, Arizona,

isin sec. 17, T.5S., R. 24 E., about 8 miles northwest of the town of

Pima, Arizona. (See fig. 1.) Here 5 thermal springs and a flowing well,

epee

We 8

liFton

all

Mey

Slaw

3 Nee Y,

% Nyce i

VIN

orucson

Fig. 1.—Map of part of southeastern Arizona, showing location of Indian Hot Springs.

Survey. Received June 10, 1935.

* Published with permission of the Director of the United States Geological

410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

having a combined discharge of about 320 gallons a minute, furnish

water for general use at the adjacent hotel, for several Roman baths,

and for a large swimming pool. Most of the water, however, escapes

unused and runs in ditches directly to the Gila River. The elevation

of the springs is about 2,820 feet above sea level.

The writer’s study of Indian Hot Springs was made late in 1933 in -

connection with an investigation by the United States Geological

Survey.’

The springs occur in a small reentrant in the face of a terrace that

was carved during Pleistocene time out of lacustrine sedimentary

Mountain Mountain

NFS

Gila River

Bak Well Alluvium \ ot wer eel Z

——— Ne + Central d--. flot oa

Sa na.

WN /

= +

3 =)

< ¢

2 s

s 2

a s

e °

o &

GILA CONGLOMERATE

AN PP

a Ge

IAEA

Impervious clays Porous sand and Undifferentiated

silts tuffs and ravel metamorphic and

limestone; all of 3 ley

; jai (Fanglomerate phase) igneous rocks

lacustrine origin. g P (Gmpervious)

Fig. 2.—Interpretative cross-section of the Gila valley looking south-

eastward near Indian Hot Springs.

deposits that form part of the Gila conglomerate (in this area Plio-

cene, at least in part). These deposits are poorly exposed in the

locality of the springs, and their local structure is therefore unknown.

In this valley, however, the lake beds and fanglomerates of the Gila

conglomerate are in general not much disturbed. (See fig. 2.)

The well which is known as the ‘‘Beauty Spring,” is about 600 feet

deep and discharges 156 gallons of water a minute with a temperature

of 119°F. Spring No. 1 yields 145 gallons of water a minute at 116°F.;

spring No. 2 yields 10% gallons at 116°F.; spring No. 3 yields 61%

gallons at 118°F.; and spring No. 4 yields three-fifths of a gallon

at 81°F. Spring No. 5 is a slow seepage of water at 107°F.

> Knecutet, M. M. Geology and ground-water resources of the Gila and San Simon

valleys, Graham County, southeastern Arizona, U. 8. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper

(in preparation).

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 KNECHTEL: INDIAN HOT SPRINGS 411

Samples of water were collected from the well and from 3 of the

springs (Nos. 1, 3, and 4) and were analyzed by E. W. Lohr of the

United States Geological Survey. The analyses, which are given in

the accompanying table, show that all the samples contained a com-

paratively large amount of disolved solids, and that the different

mineral constituents were present in each sample in about the same

amounts and proportions. The amounts and proportions, moreover,

were nearly the same as in a sample of water collected from a flowing

TaBLE I.—ANALYSES OF WATERS AT INDIAN HoT SPRINGS AND NEAR

Pima, ARIZONA.®

il 3 4 A B

Calcium (Ca) 80 78 102 78 73

Magnesium (Mg) 9.4 9.0 12 10 UoP

Sodium and Potassium

(Na+K) (calculated) 1,048 1,043 1,182 878 1,190

Bicarbonate (HCOs;) 100 98 114 106 96

Sulphate (SO,) 405 404 518 357 419

Chloride (Cl) 1,420 1,410 1,580 1,190 1,610

Fluoride (F) Aral 3.7 4.3 B68 4.9

Nitrate (NOs;) .0 0 5) 0 0

Total dissolved solids

(calculated) 3,016 2,996 3,455 2,568 SEool

Total hardness as CaCO; 239 232 304 236 PP

® Collected November 20-30, 1933. Analyzed by E. W. Lohr. Parts per million.

1. Spring No. 1; Indian Hot Springs, Eden, Ariz. Temperature 116°F.; discharge 145

gallons a minute.

3. Spring No. 3; Indian Hot Springs, Eden, Ariz. Temperature 118°F.; discharge 61%

gallon a minute.

4. Spring. No. 4; Indian Hot Springs, Eden, Ariz. Temperature 81° F; discharge 3/5

gallon a minute.

A. Drilled flowing artesian well (‘ ‘Beauty, Spring’’); about 600 feet deep; Indian Hot

Springs, Eden, Ariz. Temperature 119°F.; discharge 156 gallons a minute.

B. Drilled flowing artesian well 3,767 feet deep; 1 mile northwest of Pima, Ariz. Tem-

perature 138°F.; discharge about 2200 gallons a minute.

artesian well with a discharge of about 5 second-feet of water, which

was drilled unsuccessfully for oil to a depth of 3,767 feet at a point

about 7 miles to the southeast, in the NW14 NEY, sec. 13, T. 65.,

R. 24 E., near the town of Pima. Furthermore, though these 5

analyses differ little from each other, they bear much less resemblance

to the analyses of samples collected from 44 scattered wells and

springs that receive water from sands and gravels at various hori-

zons in the sedimentary deposits of this valley trough.

From the similarity in chemical composition of all the waters col-

lected at Indian Hot Springs and from the Pima well, and the fact

that the ‘“‘Beauty Spring”’ well water and the water of the 3 springs

412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

that flow most copiously show a variation in temperature of only 2

degrees, it may be inferred that all this water issues from the same

horizon. The fact that the water of Nos. 4 and 5 is cooler, and that the

water of the Pima well is 20 degrees hotter, than that of the ““Beauty

Spring” and Nos. 1, 2 and 3 may be explained as follows:

The temperature of spring No. 4 is 35 degrees lower than that of

spring No. 1, which is less than 20 feet distant. As these springs

yield water of similar chemical composition, which therefore probably

comes from the same source, the difference in their temperatures is

probably due to the great difference in their rates of flow, the water

from spring No. 4 being cooled to a temperature lower than that of

spring No. 1 because it rises more slowly to the surface. This implies,

of course, that all or a part of the ascent is made through independent

openings. This explanation also applies to the temperature of spring

No. 5 which is 9 degrees lower than that of spring No. 1.

The temperature of the ‘‘Beauty Spring” well water and the water

of the three principal springs at Indian Hot Springs averages about

117°F. If it is assumed that the water rises from a depth of only 600

feet, the depth of the “Beauty Spring” well, then unusual local ther-

mal conditions must be invoked to explain the high temperature at

this comparatively shallow depth below the surface. It is probable,

however, that the water comes to the surface through fractures, per-

haps caused by faulting, from an artesian source much deeper than

600 feet and that the well merely taps the upward-moving stream.

A depth-temperature study of field data collected by the writer on

78 flowing artesian wells in the Gila and San Simon valleys was made

by H. C. Spicer, of the United States Geological Survey. His compu-

tations, which with one exception were based on wells ranging in

depth from 100 feet to 1,450 feet, indicate a rise in temperature of

1°F. for each 57 feet of depth. A temperature of 135°F. for a depth

of 3,540 feet, as computed from this gradient, checks surprisingly well

with the measured temperature (138°F.) of the water flowing from the

mouth of the deep well near Pima, most of which rises from a horizon

at that depth. Most of the data on the depths of wells, and espe-

cially of the deeper wells, used in these computations, were reported

to the writer from memory by various persons, some of whom had in

turn acquired their information by hearsay. However, they are be-

lieved to be fairly reliable as a whole. The water temperatures were

those observed by the writer at the mouths of flowing wells and

probably are slightly lower than the temperatures of the water at

depth. Some heat is lost by the water during its ascent to the surface,

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 SWALLEN: NEW GRASSES 413

especially in wells that have only small flows, and as many of the

wells are not cased, the water issuing from a given well may come from

several horizons at which the temperatures differ. In general, however,

by far the greatest discharge is from the bottom of the well, and the

cooling effect of water from higher levels is small. It is therefore be-

lieved that the average temperature, about 117°F., of the water from

the 4 principal flowing units at Indian Hot Springs may be taken as a

fair indication that the water rises from a depth of about 2,500 feet,

this figure being derived from the plotted gradient as worked out by

Mr. Spicer from the field data.

The mechanism that forces the water from this depth to the surface

may be the same as that suggested to account for the pressure in the

numerous artesian wells of this valley. It may be briefly stated as fol-

lows: The altitude of the water table in the porous gravels and sands

(fig. 2) under the intake area along the margins of the valley is much

higher than the surface of the central part of the valley. The pressure

of the water in the marginal belts is transmitted underground to

vertical openings, such as wells, in the dense lacustrine deposits of the

central part of the valley. If the wells are at points where the surface

altitude is sufficiently low, artesian pressure will cause discharge of

water at their mouths.

BOTANY.—Two new grasses from the United States and Mexico.

JASON R. SwauLen, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Two new grasses have recently been discovered in the United

States and Mexico. The first is a new species of Calamagrostis col-

lected in Jackson Co., Ohio, by Floyd Bartley and Leslie L. Pontius,

and the second is a new species of Boutelowa found in Baja California

by Forrest Shreve.

Calamagrostis insperata Swallen, sp. nov.

Perennis; culmi 85-95 cm. alti, glabri, e rhizomatibus erecti; vaginae

glabrae, internodiis multo breviores; laminae planae, acuminatae, 10-22

cm. longae, 3-8 mm. latae, glabrae, marginibus scabris; ligula 5 mm. longa;

panicula 12-14 em. longa, ramis adscendentibus; spiculae appressae, 5—-5.5

mm. longae; gluma prima lanceolata, 1—nervis; gluma secunda acuta, gluma

prima paulo brevior, 3-nervis; lemma 4 mm. longum, 5-nerve, scabrum,

apice erosum; pili calli lemmate duplo breviores; rachilla 0.5 mm. longa,

pilis 2 mm. longis; arista 1 mm. supra callum inserta, geniculata, circiter

3 mm. longa.

Perennial; culms 85-95 ecm. tall, erect, glabrous, with slender creeping

rhizomes; sheaths much shorter than the internodes, smooth or scaberulous;

1 Received June 14, 1934.

414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

blades flat, acuminate, 10-22 em. long, 3-8 mm. wide, glabrous, the margins

scabrous; ligule membranaceous, about 5 mm. long; panicles 12-14 em.

long, the branches narrowly ascending, at least some of them naked toward

the base, the lower ones as much as 5 em. long; spikelets appressed to the

branches, 5-5.5 mm. long; glumes unequal, somewhat keeled, scabrous on

the keels, the first lanceolate, 1-nerved, the second acute, 3-nerved; lemma

4mm. long, 5-nerved, scabrous, the narrow tip erose; callus hairs moderately

dense, the lateral ones about half as long as the lemma, those on the back

of the callus shorter; prolongation of the rachilla 0.5 mm. long, the hairs

2 mm. long; awn inserted about 14 above the base, equaling the lemma,

twisted below, geniculate, protruding from the glumes at maturity.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 1,611,713. Collected in Ofer

Hollow, Liberty Township, Jackson Co., Ohio, August 1, 1934, by Floyd

Bartley and Leslie L. Pontius.

This species is closely related to C. pickeringiz, in which the spikelets are

only 4-4.5 mm. long, the callus hairs are scant, and the rachilla hairs are

only 0.5 mm. long.

Bouteloua annua Swallen, sp. nov.

Annua; culmi dense caespitosi, erecti, basi geniculati, 3-25 cm. alti,

glabri, ramosi; vaginae internodiis breviores; laminae planae, acutae, 1—3.5

em. longae, 1.5-2 mm. latae, pubescentes vel glabrae; ligula ciliata, 0.2 mm.

longa; spicae 2—7, 1.5-2 em. longae; spiculae 8-10 mm. longae, non pecti-

natae; gluma prima 1-nervis, 3.5-7 mm. longa, angusta; gluma secunda 6-9

mm. longa, l-nervis, lata; lemma fertile, gluma secunda paulo longius, 3-

nerve, 3-dentatum, dentibus 2 mm. longis; flos imperfectus pilosus, aristis

3 scabris.

Annual; culms densely tufted, erect or geniculate spreading at the base,

3-25 em. long, glabrous with a single branch from the middle node; sheaths

shorter than the internodes, glabrous; blades flat, 1-3.5 em. long, 1.5-2

mm. wide, acute, pubescent on the upper surface or nearly glabrous; ligule

ciliate, 0.2 mm. long; inflorescence as much as 8 cm. long with 2-7 rather

distant ascending to spreading spikes, these falling entire; spikes distant,

1.5-2 em. long, bearing 4~7 usually appressed spikelets, the rachis produced

beyond the uppermost spikelet; spikelets 8-10 mm. long, appressed, green

or usually purple, with one fertile floret and a 3-awned rudiment; glumes

1-nerved, more or less scabrous on the nerves, otherwise glabrous, the first

3.5-7 mm. long, very narrow, the second 6-9 mm. long, much broader,

inclosing the florets; lemma a little longer than the second glume promi-

nently 3-nerved, 3-toothed, the teeth about 2 mm. long, sparsely appressed

pilose in lines especially close to the nerves, the callus densely pubescent;

rudiment somewhat exceeding the lemma, the base stout, pilose, the awns

scabrous.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium no. 1,611,715. Collected 4 miles

east of San Ignacio, Baja California, March 6, 1935, by Forrest Shreve.

This species belongs to the section Atheropogon, in which the spikes fall

entire from the main axis and the spikelets are not pectinately arranged.

Two other annual species, B. alamosana and B. aristidoides, belong to this

group. The first differs from B. annua in having tuberculate hairy foliage,

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 WEHR: FILARIOPSIS ARATOR 415

and shorter spikes (10-15 mm. long), the spikelets closely appressed to the

rachis. The second differs in having very slender spreading spikes with dis-

tant appressed spikelets. B. annua resembles B. filiformis in the form of the

inflorescence, but that species is strictly perennial.

ZOOLOGY .—A restudy of Filariopsis arator Chandler, 1931, with a

discussion of the systematic position of the genus Filariopsis van

Thiel, 1926 Kvnretr E. Wenr, Bureau of Animal Industry.

(Communicated by Exoisr B. Cram.)

Van Thiel (1926)? proposed the genus and species Filariopsis asper

for nematodes collected from the lungs of a “roaring monkey”

(Mycetes seniculus) by Dr. C. Bonne in Surinam, British Guinea. Five

years later, Chandler (1931)’ described a second species Ff. arator for

nematodes collected from the lungs of a South American monkey

(Cebus sp.) by Dr. W. H. Taliaferro in Chicago, Illinois. Van Thiel

referred the genus Fvlariopsis to the superfamily Filarioidea without

assigning it to a family. Chandler, however, created the family

Filariopsidae solely for its reception.

The present writer has made a restudy of the type specimens of

Filariopsis arator Chandler, 1931. The results of this study have made

it necessary to revise the original description of this species in certain

respects. It has also made it possible to include a discussion of the

cephalic papillae which have not been described in the literature.

RESTUDY OF FILARIOPSIS ARATOR

In the original descriptions it was stated that the oral opening was

surrounded by 3 either ‘“‘conspicuous”’ (/’. asper) or ‘“‘very inconspicu-

ous” (F. arator) lips. According to the present writer, the head of

Filariopsis arator is provided with 2 lateral trilobed lips (Fig. 1) on

which are located a number of papillae. These papillae, numbering 14

in all, are divided, according to their mode of innervation, into 2

circles: An external circle of 8 papillae arranged in 4 groups of 2

papillae each, of which the dorsodorsals and ventroventrals are

slightly smaller than, and situated internal to, the laterodorsals and

lateroventrals; and an internal circle of 6 papillae, consisting of 1

papilla on the anterior border of each of the 6 lobes of the 2 trilobed

lips. The amphids are located posterior to the internolateral papillae.

1 Received June 7, 1934.

2 Van Tue, P. H. On some filariae parasitic in Surinam mammals, with the de-

scription of Filariopsis asper n. g., n. sp. Parasitology 18: 128-136. 1926.

3’ CHanpuerR, A. C. New genera and species of nematode worms. Proc. U.S. Nat.

Mus., (2866), 78: 1-11. 1981.

416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

The anterior extremity of F. arator (Fig. 3) was not figured by

Chandler, but it is similar to that of F. asper as figured by van Thiel.

Figs. 1-7.—Filariopsis arator. Fig. 1—Head, en face view. Fig. 2.—Male tail,

ventral view. Fig. 3—Anterior extremity, dorsoventral view. Fig. 4.—Male tail,

lateral view. Fig. 5.—Female tail, lateral view. Fig. 6.—First-stage larva. Fig.

7.—Cross section ‘of body just back of excretory pore, showing excretory canal and

the 2 subventral excretory cells on each side of it.

The clavate esophagus is short and muscular, and the broad, thick-

walled intestine contains multinucleated cells. Two subventral ex-

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 WHEHR: FILARIOPSIS ARATOR 417

cretory cells extending from the excretory pore posteriorly along each

lateral side of the excretory canal were found in F. arator.

The caudal extremity of the male was described and figured by

Chandler as lacking caudal alae and caudal papillae. Present ob-

servations indicate that alae are apparently absent or very poorly

developed, and that there are 7 pairs of caudal papillae (Figs. 2 and 4)

arranged in 4 groups and situated along the lateral and posterior

margins of the body. The most anterior group on each side is com-

posed of 2 papillae, the next of 3 papillae, and the last 2 groups 1

papilla each. Each papilla is joined to the body proper by a very

weakly developed bursal ray. In the 2 male specimens available for

study, the 2 approximately equal spicules do not appear to be joined

together by a membrane, but each spicule is provided on its inner bor-

der with a wing-like membrane extending for about the middle two-

thirds of its length. The so-called gubernaculum, boat-shaped in ven-

tral view, appears in lateral view as an elongated cutinous plate with

the distal end presenting a hook-like structure on its lower surface.

The vulva of the female of F’. arator (Fig. 5) is located just anterior

to the anal opening; that of F. asper occupies a similar position, ac-

cording to van Thiel.

The first-stage larva (Fig. 6) is about 300u long and 10 to I1u wide,

with the anterior end slightly attenuated and the tail very long,

slender, and pointed at the tip. The esophagus extends about 14

the total length of the body, with a swelling near the equator and

another at the posterior end. In general body form, the first-stage

larva of F. arator is similar to that of F. asper.

As a result of the present morphological study there seems to be no

reason to believe, as Chandler did, that the 2 above species may

eventually have to be placed in different genera. The male of F.

asper has been described by van Thiel as possessing small caudal alae

and 5 pairs of caudal papillae; it differs from that of F. arator, there-

fore, chiefly in the number of caudal papillae, since, according to van

Thiel’s figure of the male tail of F. asper the caudal alae, if present at

all, are much reduced. Both species have similar spicules; F’. asper,

however, is described as having 2 gubernacula and F’. arator as having

only one.

SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE GENUS FILARIOPSIS VAN THIEL, 1926

Van Thiel did not state the reasons for his conclusion that the genus

Filariopsis possesses filarioid affinities. As one of the characters of

this genus, he mentioned the presence of microfilariae and, in all

418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

probability, his belief that the young of this species were true micro-

filariae caused him to allocate this genus to the Filarioidea. None of

the other characters of this genus mentioned by van Thiel, namely,

(1) cuticle covered with conical protuberances, (2) situation of vulva

close to anus, and (3) equality of 2 spicules, suggest filarioid affinity

as the superfamily Filarioidea is defined today. Chandler debated

whether to place the genus Filariopsis in the Spiruroidea or the

Filarioidea, but finally decided tentatively to include it in the Filari-

oidea because of the absence of paired lips, the long and slender body,

the position of the adults in the lungs of the host, and the presence of

“‘microfilaria-like’’ embryos in the uteri, although, as he said, the

genus differs from the other members of the Filarioidea in having

the vulva near the anus, in the short muscular esophagus, and in the

‘“non-coiled tail of the male.”

As a result of his recent study of F. arator, the present writer has

come to the conclusion that the genus Filariopsis belongs to the

Metrastrongyloidea rather than to the Filarioidea. This conclusion

is based on the following findings: The microfilaria-like embryos re-

ferred to by Chandler and van Thiel are not true microfilaria as they

possess a distinct esophagus with 2 swellings, one near the equator

and the other at the posterior end; the presence of 2 subventral ex-

cretory cells and of multinucleated intestinal cells in the adult (the

present writer has demonstrated the presence of similar cells in

Metastrongylus elongatus), and the character of the adult esophagus

and the male tail. The presence of subventral excretory cells is a char-

acteristic of the Strongylata, according to unpublished observations

made by Dr. B. G. Chitwood, Zoological Division, Bureau of Animal

Industry. The polymyarian condition of the somatic musculature, the

absence of longitudinal cuticular markings, and the character of the

esophagus of the first-stage larva tie F. arator to the Metastrongy-

loidea, and the much reduced bursa and bursal rays allocate it to the

family Pseudaliidae and the subfamily Filaroidinae.

SUMMARY

A restudy of the type specimens of Filariopsis arator Chandler,

1931, has made it possible to add to the previous description of this

nematode. From this new evidence and a critical analysis of the

earlier descriptions of F. arator and F. asper, it is concluded that the

genus Filariopsis belongs in the superfamily Metastrongyloidea,

family Pseudaliidae, subfamily Filaroidinae.

SepreMBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 419

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1073RD MEETING

The 1073rd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October

27, 1934, President DrypEN presiding. On a motion proposed by the Rey-

erend HaAwkEsSworRTH, which was unanimously approved, the recording

secretary was instructed to convey to Paut R. HEY1t, a past president of

the Society, the Society’s condolence and deep sympathy because of the

accident he suffered, October the twentieth.

The program consisted of two addresses upon the stratosphere flight of

the Explorer.

L. J. Briaes: The flight of the stratosphere balloon Explorer.—The strato-

sphere flight on July 28 was sponsored by the National Geographic Society

and the Army Air Corps. The great spherical balloon had a capacity of

3,000,000 cubic feet—three times as large as any balloon heretofore con-

structed and was designed to reach an altitude of 75,000 feet. The gondola,

100 inches in diameter, carried about a ton of apparatus and equipment.

The principal objectives were: (1) the measurement of the ionization

produced by cosmic rays at different altitudes; (2) the directional effect of

cosmic rays; (3) the spectrographic determination of the position of the

ozone layer and the far ultraviolet spectrum of the sun; (4) the collection

of air samples from the stratosphere; and (5) the determination of the rela-

tionship between altitude (computed from photographs with a vertical

camera) and air density (computed from the observed pressure and temper-

ature).

The ascent was made from a natural bowl in the Black Hills, chosen to

provide protection from wind during inflation. All the apparatus functioned

perfectly. The ascent was stopped at 61,600 feet because rips appeared in

the bottom of the balloon. A slow descent was begun, and at 18,000 feet

the gondola was opened. The descent continued at about 12 feet per second,

but the tearing of the lower fabric increased until finally the entire bottom

of the balloon below the catenary tore away. The flight personnel decided to

try to land the balloon as a parachute, but at 3,000 feet the balloon suddenly

disintegrated. Major Kepner, Capt. Stevens, and Capt. Anderson took to

their parachutes and the gondola went crashing into the ground.

Reliance had been placed largely on photographic recording of the observa-

tions. All cameras were broken open by the impact, but the films which

remained tightly rolled, although badly light-struck, were found to be legible

up to the highest altitude of the flight. The sun spectrograph, suspended

below the gondola, had been cut loose before the balloon failed and landed

safely on its own parachute. Consequently, much information was gained

from the flight, despite its unfortunate ending. (Awthor’s abstract.)

L. B. TuckrerMaNn: Technical difficulties in stratosphere ballooning.—The

technical difficulties in stratosphere ballooning in contrast to ordinary

ballooning depend upon the greatly increased pressure differences encoun-

tered. First, the decrease in density of the air, which is on the average some-

what more thanl% for each 20,000 feet of altitude, requires very much larger

balloons to carry the same load. The necessity of maintaining sufficient air

420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

pressure to keep the passengers alive increases the necessary dead weight

and still further increases the necessary size of the balloon.

The large size makes net balloons impractical so that in stratosphere bal-

loons, as in racing balloons, the gondola is hung from a catenary suspension

band instead of from a net. The great size, however, prevents the use of an

inflation net, as is customary in racing balloons. This is replaced by an

upper catenary band controlled by yaw ropes during inflation.

The great decrease in pressure also makes it impractical to fill the balloon

completely at the ground level. The gas in the balloon would expand some-

where between 22 to 28 times its volume in rising 75,000 feet instead of

approximately twice as it would if the balloon were to rise to only 20,000

feet. It is customary to provide for a loss of approximately 14 of the gas

volume at the maximum so that the balloon at the take-off is only approxi-

mately 1/15 full.

The technique of folding and inflating the balloon must therefore be such

as to allow the balloon to fill out during the ascent without undue stresses

occurring in the fabric. Two techniques have been used.

In the open bottom technique the requisite amount of hydrogen is put

in the bag and air allowed to enter as the yaw ropes are eased off, so that

at the time of take-off the air inside the lower portion of the bag is in pressure

equilibrium with the air outside. This facilitates a smooth arrangement of

the bag but has the disadvantage of the constant menace of a hydrogen-air

explosion.

In the closed bottom technique no air is admitted, so that the whole

lower portion of the balloon is collapsed and held tightly together under

the excess pressure of the outside air. This makes it difficult to arrange the

folds of the balloon smoothly, especially the lowest portion between the

suspension ropes. To avoid this difficulty in the Explorer the lowest por-

tion was folded inside the portion above the suspension band, making the

inflation of the balloon much easier. Unfortunately this allowed the trans-

mission of excessive local stresses from the outer fabric to the inner fabric

through the shear resistance of adhesions. These stresses produced multiple

radial tears in the lower portion of the balloon. In future flights, this diffi-

culty can be avoided in several ways, the particular method to be used de-

pending upon estimates of cost.

The Explorer descended as an open bottom balloon. The explosion which

destroyed the balloon at about 2500 feet from the ground emphasizes the

danger inherent in the open bottom technique.

With present ballooning technique it does not seem feasible to reach alti-

tudes much above 90,000 or perhaps 100,000 feet. Rough estimates indicate

that to carry the scientific apparatus and the gondola of the Explorer to a

height of 100,000 feet would require a balloon of over 25,000,000 cubic feet

and that over 7500 Ib. of ballast would need to be retained at its maximum

altitude to bring the balloon down safely.

To reach 150,000 feet the estimates give the fantastic figures of over

2,000,000,000 cubic feet, a balloon of over 1500 feet in diameter, carrying

over 125,000 lb. of ballast. These estimates, based upon present balloon

practice and our imperfect knowledge of the atmospheric conditions above

75,000 feet, can of course only indicate orders of magnitude. However, no

feasible modifications in balloon technique seem to offer materially smaller

figures. (Author’s abstract.)

There was a joint discussion of these addresses participated in by Messrs.

HAWKESWORTH and W. P. Wuitt.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 421

1074TH MEETING

The 1074th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November

10, 1934, President Dryp&n presiding.

Program: R. E. Gipson: Compressibility of aqueous solutions.—Measure-

ments of the compressibility of aqueous solutions made at the Geophysical

Laboratory were presented and these were correlated by means of the fol-

lowing relation: the change in volume upon compression of an aqueous

solution is equal to the sum of two volume changes: first, that of the pure

solute under the externally applied pressure, and second, that of pure

water initially under a so-called internal pressure when subjected to a further

increase of pressure equal to the applied pressure on the solution. The

internal pressure is proportional to the volume concentrations of the water

and solute. (Secretary’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. HAawKESWORTH, MonuLER, WHITE, KRACEK, ADAMS,

Heck, and BricKWEDDE.

L. R. Maxwe.u: Electron diffraction and its application to the structure of

molecules.—Recent advancements in the field of electron diffraction were

presented. The experiments on the diffraction of electrons from thin metallic

foils and diatomic gases were shown to be in agreement with the theories of

electron scattering. This justifies the use of electron diffraction for the de-

termination of the structure of complex molecules. Examples of this kind

were given for NO, and N2O;. From a treatment of the molecule 1, 2 diiodo-

benzene clear physical evidence was shown for the phenomenon of steric

hindrance. The relation between the C-C distance and strength of bond was

given and also the values of the C-C distances characterized by aliphatic

and aromatic compounds. Brief summary of all structure determinations by

electron diffraction was presented. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Gipson and Briaes.

Informal Communications: L. B. TuckERMAN.—Debye and Sears showed

that standing high frequency acoustic waves in a transparent medium acted

like a grating. Schaefer and Bergmann set up waves simultaneously in three

different directions mutually at right angles, thus setting up a space lattice

of concentrations of stress. Passing ordinary light waves through the medium

either liquid or solid, produces a Laue pattern. Slides copied from the follow-

ing published articles were shown: C. Schaefer u. L. Bergmann: Lauwe-Pro-

gramme mit optischen Wellen.—Sitz. Ber. Preuss. Akad d. Wiss., X: 152-

153, March 22, 1934, and Neue Interferenzerscheinungen an schwingenden

Prezoquarzen.—|. c., XIII-XIV, April 26, 1934. (Author’s abstract.)

W. J. Humpureys and H. L. Drypen.—This dealt with the orientation

of falling hexagonal, columnar crystals of ice in air, that is, with the question

as to whether the crystals falling with the long axis of the column horizontal

fall with the long diagonal of the hexagon horizontal or vertical. The solar

halo called the Peary Are is produced by crystals oriented with the long

diagonal of the hexagon horizontal. Wind tunnel tests on a wooden model

showed that the most stable position for the model was that with the long

diagonal in a direction corresponding with the vertical. (Secretary’s Abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. NcNisw and MaxweE tu.

1075TH MEETING

The 1075th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November

24, 1934, President DrypmEN presiding.

The program consisted of three papers dealing with different phases of

422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

Finding the fact about strong earthquake motion with special relation to its

effect on structures.

N. H. Heck: Outlining the problem.—In designing buildings to resist

earthquakes some assumptions have been made which should be tested in

the light of present knowledge. The adoption of an acceleration of 0.2 or

0.1 g. as a true measure of a great earthquake was shown to be merely a

guess that works for reasons not directly connected with the earthquake.

The range of 0.5 to 2.5 sees, as that of dangerous periods of buildings, with

the inference that other periods are not dangerous, was shown to be prob-

ably due to the fact that this range covers the periods of most of the build-

ings in Japan where the idea was suggested and the effect is simply reso-

nance.

Earthquakes have a very wide range of periods and it is not possible to

design a building to escape a period which may set it into resonance. How-

ever if the ground can be set into vibration in its own period then there

will be prevailing periods in any earthquake which can and should be avoided.

Observations of ground period at Géttingen, Germany, by means of a ma-

chine which sends controlled vibrations through the ground showed that

definite periods exist. The results were checked by observations of seismo- °

grams from earthquakes a few hundred miles away, by explosions and by

study of microseisms.

The investigations in California include strong motion measurements

which have been made as the result of eight earthquakes in California and

two in Nevada. In the case of one of the latter as well as in one in Panama

the instrument was about 200 miles from the earthquake epicenter. The

instruments are placed in the basements of buildings, in the top or else-

where in buildings. Accelerographs and displacement meters are operated

together. The result is a wide range of records obtained under varying con-

ditions.

The investigations also include measurement of vibration periods of build-

ings, tanks, bridge piers and dams; the measurement of ground periods

by controlled vibrations and by analysis of earthquake records, including

strong motion; the study of earthquake damage in the Long Beach earth-

quake of March 10, 1933; and the development and construction of instru-

ments needed to accomplish these purposes.

The program was developed at a series of conferences in California last

spring which resulted not only in an effective and broad plan, much of

which is now in operation, and also arrangements for application of the

information to building design, a field into which the Coast and Geodetic

Survey does not enter. The organizations represented include the organiza-

tions of structural, civil and mechanical engineers, and several universities

interested in the work. (Author’s abstract.)

H. E. McComps: Development of instruments—Instruments which have

been developed elsewhere for use in areas frequented by strong earthquakes

were found to be unsuitable for the particular problems in hand. Hence,

the program called for much preliminary testing of crude designs, prepara-

tion of plans and specifications for completed instruments and equipment

on a quantity basis and study of all other phases of the project which would

involve continuous operation and maintenance of a large number of instru-

ments at great distances from Washington. As a result of rather intensive

application the Coast and Geodetic Survey had in operation on the Pacific

Coast, thirty-three 3-component accelerographs, six displacement meters

and eleven low-magnification mechanical seismographs. One accelerograph

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 423

is also in operation in the Canal Zone. In addition to the seismographic

equipment three interferometric tiltmeters, for use in studying pre-seismic

tilting effects of the ground, have been installed in the vicinity of well-

known faults.

Instruments and other accessories have been altered, in many cases,

quite radically, when, after extensive tests, it has been proved that much

would be gained in simplicity, convenience of adjustment and interchange-

ability of parts without sacrificing accuracy or reliability. The most radical

change was from quadrifilar accelerometer suspension to pivot and helical

spring suspension. In addition to this improvement there has been designed

a low-magnification attachment for the accelerometers which permits any

single unit to record at normal magnification and also simultaneously at

about 44 normal on the photographic recorder, the spots being in the

same phase and free from parallax. Actual records obtained at Long Beach

show that this reduced magnification should simplify interpretation of the

main record and will insure full registration of the most severe earthquakes.

Instruments, resembling in many respects, standard Wood-Anderson

seismometers, have been constructed for use in studying building vibrations.

Shaking tables for use in testing the vibration meters have been designed

and are under construction. At Pasadena, Dr. Benioff of the Carnegie In-

stitution of Washington is cooperating in the program by constructing

some electromagnetic seismographs for use in studying effects of after-

shocks. He has also constructed a series of simple recording pendulums of

different natural periods operating side by side. At Stanford University,

Dr. Jacobsen has constructed a device for placing buildings or the ground

into vibration for convenient study by vibration meters.

About 40 slides were shown and several instruments of recent design

were exhibited. (Awthor’s abstract.)

Franck NEUMANN: Analyzing the records.—The engineer expects about

five different classes of data as a result of the present seismological investi-

gations now being undertaken by the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey in

California. They are: (1) Periods of earthquake waves, (2) Natural vibra-

tion periods of geological formations in seismic areas, (3) Periods of buildings,

(4) Motion of the ground during an earthquake in terms of acceleration and

displacement, and (5) Motions of the upper floors of structures during an

earthquake.

Periods of earthquake waves are obtained by direct measurement on

strong motion seismograms, as the pendulum of a seismograph is forced to

swing in the period of the wave, but amplification on the record varies

greatly, depending upon the ratio of the earth wave period to the pendulum

period. The periods of geologic formations are observed by studying the

dominant periods on seismographic records, or by forcing the ground to

vibrate artificially with an agitator or unbalanced wheel. In the latter case

the largest amplitudes are recorded on a sensitive seismograph when the

period of the agitator tunes in with the natural period of the formation.

Building periods are obtained by observing with a sensitive seismograph

the natural swaying of a structure caused by wind or an agitator. The period

of a building is dependent not only on the physical properties of the struc-

ture itself, but also on a foundation factor or hinge effect. J. Creskoff has

shown theoretically that the fundamental period and its ratio with the

first overtone vary with the type of foundation. Period observations, there-

fore, furnish directly information which is necessary in computing the

period of a structure. The aim of the engineer is to design structures which

424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 9

will not tune in with the most prevalent earth wave periods during an earth-

quake, or with the natural vibration periods of the geological formations

on which they are built.

Ground movements during an earthquake are measured with displace-

ment meters and accelerometers. The problem of analyzing the records is

greatly simplified by assuming sustained simple harmonic motion of the

earthquake waves over small portions of the record, and by using a so-called

harmonic magnification curve. The latter shows the ratio between the dis-

placement of a seismograph pendulum (with respect to the moving ground)

and the actual displacement of the ground itself. In a displacement meter

the earth wave periods are relatively short with respect to the pendulum

period so that the mass remains almost fixed in space while the ground

moves beneath it. In the accelerometer the harmonic magnification terms

become practically equal to the ratio of the square of the pendulum period

over the earth wave period, and when this is substituted in the expression

for simple harmonic acceleration, the earth wave periods are eliminated,

showing that acceleration is independent of the earth wave period. Pendu-

lum periods in an accelerometer must be less than one-third of the periods

of the earth waves to be measured.

Building movements are measured in the same manner as ground move-

ments. Experience teaches that the top of a moderately tall building may

sway through seven times the amplitude of the ground during an earth-

quake.

When simple harmonic motion cannot be assumed the records must be

integrated to obtain true ground motion. Work has been done in double

integrating acceleration curves to obtain displacement with some success,

but the deflections of the acceleration trace are so small for the longer period

earthquake waves that the task becomes extremely difficult. The accelero-

gram is magnified about eight times by means of a lantern projector and

the image traced with a pencil on coordinate paper. The average ordinate

is tentatively accepted as the axis and the integration carried through. From

the dimension of the bend in the resulting double integrated curve, the

errors in the acceleration and velocity curves can be computed, and the

work is then repeated so the final curve lies along a straight axis. The work

of integration is done on standard adding machine. (Awthor’s abstract.)

There was a joint discussion of the three papers participated in by Messrs.

H. L. Curtis, McNisu, Heck, HumpHreys, DrypEN, BRICKWEDDE, and

WENNER.

1076TH MEETING

The 1076th meeting, constituting the 64th annual meeting, was held in

the Cosmos Club Auditorium, December 8, 1934, President DrypDEN pre-

siding.

The treasurer reported receipts of $3669.47 including the payment of a

real estate note amounting to $1500.00, and expenditures of $2333.40 in-

cluding the purchase of a bond amounting to $1024.82, leaving a cash

balance of $1336.07. The treasurer’s report showed an active membership

of 299.

The secretaries reported that the following new members were elected

during the year: A. K. Brewer, C. F. Brown, P. Curzanowsk1, W. E.

Demine, J. M. FRANKLAND, R. E. GespHarpi, L. C. GortscHatK, R. B.

Hosss, H. H. Hows, E. A. Jounson, R. T. Mitner, M. M. Monx, J. A.

Puiueee, P. A. SmitH, R. Winse, P. H. Wiviiamson, and O. R. Wutr.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 425

The following deaths were reported: R. Y. Frrner, G. O. Squier, and

G. F. STROHAVER.

The following officers were declared elected for the year 1935: President,

O. H. Gisu; Vice Presidents, N. H. Heck and F. Wenner; Recording Secre-

tary, L. R. Harsrap; Treasurer, R. HE. Gipson; Members-at-large of the

General Committee, F. G. Brickwrppk and H. E. McComs.

During the year the fourth Joseph Henry Lecture, in memory of the

first president of the Philosophical Society, was given by Professor OSwaLpD

VEBLEN of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, N. J.

At the conclusion of the business part of the program, Mr. W. J. Hum-

PHREYS presented a paper, illustrated by slides, entitled Tall tales of the

prairie twister. Following the presentation of the paper there was a dis-

cussion participated in by Messrs. DrypENn, Curtis, Heck, HAWKESWORTH,

Wait, Maris, Rorser, Hazarp, SHEPHERD, SILSBER, TUCKERMAN, GISH,

and four others unknown to the secretary.

(Author’s abstract)—The tornado, a violent rotating wind starting at

the cloud level and burrowing down to the earth, occurs more frequently

in the United States, mainly in the Mississippi Valley, than in any other

country. It appears to be caused by vertical convection at the boundary

between oppositely-flowing masses of air, turns counterclockwise in the

Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in the Southern, and leaves a sharply-

defined path of destruction.

It is exceedingly noisy, even when away from contact with the earth,

and its power of destruction, owing partly to the velocity of the wind and

partly to the decrease of pressure in the vortex, is astonishingly great. The

dominant effects of the tornado are wreck and ruin, but also many surpris-

ing things occur. Trees, houses, and bridges may be utterly demolished, and

yet out from the welter of destruction delicate and easily breakable things

may be carried miles away without harm.

In one case a steel beam, one of the supports of a bridge, was torn from

its setting and hurled an eighth of a mile where, end on, it struck a tree and

penetrated clear through it, 20 feet above the ground. Amazing weights

are lifted, concrete posts pulled out of the ground, and even locomotives

and heavy steel coaches thrown from their tracks. Planks are stuck into

the ground like fence posts, driven through trees and even, in one case,

through the thick steel web-plate of a bridge.

And sometimes there seems to be a bit of grim humor in what the tornado

does. It sticks straws end on into trees and leaves us the puzzle of explaining

how; pulls the wool from a sheep’s back with never a break in his skin;

makes boastful roosters silent members of the flock, with every feather

gone; and a man, woman or child it may leave unscathed on a neighbor’s

lawn with never so much of the conventional dress as even a chemise or

shirt.

Unfortunately the great majority of the tales of the tornado, the smallest

but most violent of all storms, are tales of tragedy; yet some are humorous,

even ludicrous, while many are indeed tall, in the sense of surprising.

F. G. BrickwEpDE, Recording Secretary

426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Novres

Biological Survey’s Golden Jubilee.-—Fifty years ago, in 1885, a modest

appropriation of $5,000 by Congress for the promotion of ‘‘economie or-

nithology,’’ marked the first beginnings of the activities that have come to

be centered in the Biological Survey of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture.

Upon the recommendation of the American Ornithologists’ Union, Dr. C.

Hart Merriam, physician and naturalist, was appointed head of the new

project, with which he served until his retirement in 1931. The project was

first established as a branch of the Division of Entomology. The year fol-

lowing, with a doubled appropriation, it achieved independent status as

the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy. In 1896, the name

was changed to Division of Biological Survey, and in its twentieth anni-

versary year, 1905, it received its present title of Bureau of Biological

Survey.

Secretary Henry A. WaLuAce and Jay N. Daruina, chief of the Bureau,

were among the speakers at the thirteenth annual convention of the Izaak

Walton League of America in Chicago last spring. A number of members of

the Survey also participated.

Amos B. Emery has been designated to coordinate and direct the work

of some 25 CCC camps on refuges administered by the Survey.

By Act of Congress, approved by the President on June 15, any person

is authorized to purchase migratory bird hunting stamps. A waterfowl

hunter must have in possession a stamp that has been validated by writing

his signature across its face. The same Act carried an appropriation of

$6,000,000 to be used for the acquisition of lands for refuge purposes. Funds

from the Emergency Act of April 8, 1935, may also be allocated by the

President for refuge-acquisition purposes.

Food and Drug Administration—Two Doctors NEtson have been ap-

pointed as chiefs of new divisions of the Food and Drug Administration,

Dr. E. M. Newson as chief of the Vitamin Division and Dr. Erwin E.

Newtson as chief of the Pharmacological Division. The Department of

Agriculture announced that each is now assembling a staff taken in part

from older units of the Department and in part recruited from specialists

in the sciences involved in the work of the new divisions. The Vitamin

Division will check the claims and help establish standards for food and

drugs for which claims of vitamin potency are made. The Food and Drug

Administration has been doing some routine work of this sort, but it has

been inadequate to meet the growing need. The Pharmacological Division

in addition to more comprehensive testing of certain medicinal products,

will pay particular attention to several relatively new fields of work—the

testing and standardization of glandular preparations put on the market in

recent years, investigations of the effect of poisons and impurities present

in foods, and testing of the effects of new synthetic chemicals used in foods

and medicines. Of the poisons and impurities, the question of spray residues

on fruits and vegetablesis now most pressing. In regulating interstate com-

merce in sprayed products the department is urgently in need of more posi-

tive and authoritative guides to safe practice.

National Park Service.—Chief Naturalist Earn A. TRAGER during August

SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 427

made a geological inspection tour of the states north of the District of

Columbia. Included in his itinerary were visits to several of the state parks

in Pennsylvania and New York, the Acadia National Park in Maine, and

a tour of the section which would be traversed by the proposed Green

Mountain Parkway.

Vincent W. VANDIVER of Missouri has received appointment as regional

geologist for the National Park Service. His headquarters will be Washing-

ton, D. C., and he will probably be assigned to the region including the

states of Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico and Utah. Before coming to the

Park Service he was a member of the Missouri Geological Survey.

Sumner M. ANpERSON of New York and Dr. Roy A. Witson of Okla-

homa have also been assigned to work in connection with the Service’s

geological program. Mr. ANDERSON has made extensive geological studies

in South America, and the middle section of the United States. Dr. W1Lson

has served as professor of geology at the University of Oklahoma. It is

planned to assign him to the Rocky Mountain region.

National Bureau of Standards—Dr. Morton G. Luoyp attended sessions

of the International Electrotechnical Commission at the Hague and Brussels

June 18 to 27, and sessions of the International Commission on Illumination

at Berlin and Karlsruhe July 1 to 10. He also attended the National Electri-

cal Convention of Great Britain held at Bournemouth early in June.

Dr. F. C. Breckenripe® attended the sessions of the International

Commission on Illumination at Berlin and Karlsruhe July 2 to 10 and is

spending some time in Europe inspecting facilities for air transport, par-

ticularly lighting and light signals. Mr. BrecKENRIDGE is in charge of a

group of men engaged on study of such problems on behalf of the Bureau of

Air Commerce and the Navy Department, and the primary purpose of his

trip is to obtain information of value to those organizations.

Dr. Lyman J. Briaas, director of the National Bureau of Standards,

presided at a meeting in Akron, Ohio, on July 24 of a special board of in-

quiry called for the purpose of ascertaining the cause of failure of the strato-

sphere balloon Explorer II. The board is composed of representatives of the

National Geographic Society, Army Air Corps, and members of various

scientific societies and the National Bureau of Standards.

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.—Dr. EK. H. BraMuat., physicist

of the Byrd Antarctic Expedition II, has been appointed professor of

physics at the University of Alaska to succeed Prof. VeryL R. FuLLER, who

died suddenly on May 30. Since June 10, Dr. BRAMHALL has been engaged

at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington in making the final comparisons with standards and in deter-

mining constants and corrections for the instrumental outfit used during

the Byrd Antarctic Expedition II, and in the development of the technique

for the ionospheric program at College, Alaska, which he will continue when

he takes up his duties there.

Dr. J. BarTEts, professor of physics at the Forstliche Hochschule, Ebers-

wald, Germany, and lecturer in geophysics at the University of Berlin,

and Dr. 8. CuHarman, chief professor of mathematics at the Imperial Col-

lege of Science and Technology, London, England, both research associates

of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, are spending the summer in

America, chiefly at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, engaged on

research problems in geophysics.

428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9

News Briers

By executive order of the President, the Science Advisory Board has

been continued until December 1, 1935.

A device for the rapid sectioning of hair, wool and other fibers, to facili-

tate microscopic examination, has been invented by Dr. J. I. Harpy of the

Bureau of Animal Industry, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. In addition

to its primary usefulness in fiber technology, it may find employment in

the Federal Bureau of Investigation, U. 8. Department of Justice.

The Smithsonian Institution has published a description of the Badianus

Manuscript (Vatican Library), which is the earliest known American Her-

bal. It was written in Mexico City in 1552, in Aztec, by an Aztec Indian

student at the College of Vera Cruz, and was translated into Latin by an-

other Aztec Indian.

Obituary

Marion Dorset, chief of the Biochemic Division, Bureau of Animal In-

dustry, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, died at his home in Washington,

D.C., July 14, 1935, after a brief illness. He was born December 14, 1872, in

Columbia, Tennessee. After graduating from the University of Tennessee

in 1893, with the degree of Bachelor of Science, he attended the University

of Pennsylvania for a year. Dr. Dorset then entered the U. 8. Department

of Agriculture as assistant chemist. While there he continued his scientific

education at George Washington University, receiving the degree of Doctor

of Medicine in 1896. Eight years later he became chief of the Biochemic

Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry, a position he held until his

death. The honorary degree, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine was awarded

in 1915 by Iowa State College.

Although known especially for his research studies of hog cholera and his

discovery of an effective preventive serum treatment for this devastating

scourge, Doctor Dorset made many other important scientific contributions

covering a wide field. They included research studies on the tubercle bacil-

lus, keeping qualities of meats, composition and nutritive value of various

meats and meat food products, the development and testing of disinfectants

and dipping preparations, biological products used against animal diseases,

research in dairy bacteriology, and extensive related work. Dr. Dorset

organized the Federal inspection of establishments licensed to manufacture

serums, viruses, toxins, and related veterinary biological products. He like-

wise formulated the laboratory procedures in the administration of the

Federal Meat Inspection Act. As its first chairman Dr. Dorset organized

the Insecticide and Fungicide Board and in collaboration with the other

members initiated enforcement of the Insecticide Act of 1910. In addition

to the Washington Academy of Sciences he was a member of the American

Chemical Society, the Society of American Bacteriologists, the American

Public Health Association, a fellow of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, and an honorary member of the American Veteri-

nary Medical Association.

th ee er a, ae "

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CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS

Gropuysics.—Testing a theory of the earth’s interior. REGINALD -

Ae DALY cs Ghe recone ten Cee areas ait vette

CueEmistry.—The development of thermochemistry. FREDERICK D.

FROSSINE. 136205574 ke wt bese eee ee se Te

PALEONTOLOGY.—Descriptions of Paleozoic fossils from the Centr

Basin of Tennessee. R.S. Bassbur................ a

Hypro.tocy.—Indian Hot Springs, Graham County, Arizona. M. M.

KwHCuTebi adr oe ea gte Moan Sea Ee ree

Borany.—Two new grasses from the United States and Mexico. Bie Be

SON, Ri. SwWacuRMe bet poe ate thea ets. nate eae v tee eae val

ZooLtocy.—A restudy of Filariopsis arator Chandler, 1931, with a dis-

cussion of the systematic position of the genus Filariopsis van

Thiel, 1926." “Evmnmrrdt, WHER. ?s) 7: cleo oe

PROCEEDINGS

PHILOSOPHICAL ‘SOCIETY. «2,0... Fs: Se deters. ef stoi

Screntiric Norges anp NEws...... hte ie aes Pe aoe

OBITUARY: MARION DORSET.» (oe sees | ee eer cee OX ates

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Ocroper 15, 1935 No. 10 ;

JOURNA

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY

= OF SCIENCES :

BOARD OF EDITORS

¥ rs ys

hey mA. SrrvENson F. G. BricxkweppEr Rotanp W. Brown

oe CEMA OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS

U. 8, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

_H. T. Wenset i Harotp Morrison

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Pes” ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY :

AaNes CHASE ; J. R, Swanton =

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3 be.

R. E. Grsson : :

CHEMICAL SOCIETY 4

PUBLISHED MONTHLY

BY THE ‘y

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 25 OcroseErR 15, 1935 No. 10

SEISMOLOGY .—Earthquakes associated with the 1934 eruption of

Kilauea, Hawaii. Austin E. Jonzs, U. 8S. Geological Be ee

Meommuanicated by T. A. JAGGAR.)

This paper is essentially a continuation of a previous paper en-

titled Harthquakes associated with the 1933 eruption of Mauna Loa,

Hawaii,’ although a sharp line cannot be drawn between the after-

shocks associated with the 1933 eruption of Mauna Loa and the fore-

shocks of the 1934 eruption of Kilauea. However, because the erup-

tions of Mauna Loa and Kilauea were the only known eruptions in

Hawaii in 1933 and 1934, respectively, the earthquakes for these

years are described as being associated in 1933 with the Mauna Loa

eruption and in 1934 with the Kilauea eruption.

The same seismograph stations (Table 1) were maintained in 1934

as in 1933 for as long a period as finances permitted.

TABLE 1.—SEISMOGRAPH STATIONS IN Hawatt IN 1934

Name Symbol Name Symbol

Hawaiian Voleano Observatory V Hilo® H

Uwekahuna U Kealakekua? K

Halemaumau (Pit) \2 Waikii? W

& Stations run by volunteers

Station discontinued October 1934.

These stations were maintained by the U. 8. Geological Survey and

the Hawaiian Volcano Research Association. The work done by the

writer was undertaken as a cooperative project between the U. 5S.

Geological Survey and the University of Hawaii.

The locations of the earthquakes shown in Table 2 and on Figures

1 and 2 were made by the graphical method of Isikawa,’ using the

S-P curves developed in previous studies of the Hawaiian volcanic

earthquakes.* These previous studies indicate that the following

! Published by permission of the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. Received

June 19, 1935.

2 JONES, Austin E. Earthquakes associated with the 1933 eruption of Mauna Loa.

This JouRNAL 24: 413-418. 1934.

’ Bypruy, Perry. Bull. N.R.C. Physics of the Earth, 6, Seismology, p. 162.

4 JONEs, Austin E. Hawaiian Travel Times. Bull. 8. "8. A. 24: no. 1; A Seismo-

logical Study of the Kilauea Eruption 1931-1932. Univ. of Hawaii research paper no. 9,

429

430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

TABLE 2.—EARTHQUAKES PRECEDING AND FOLLOWING THE

1934 Eruption or KILAUEA

Sept. 22

No. of |Lat. N

Phases

NR RNWEOWRHWRWNRNWNWNNNNNRN NW WWW WHR ORE

ONRNNNWH WWRe Ww Ww WwW

NE NH NR RPN WHR Nw

Long. W

° ,

Recording

stations

Depth

~oCnykU So

dad

CoOowe

(vs)

ROO OC VWNMO VOWS

mito

Inten-

sity

v.f.

feeble

slight

feeble

Remarks

Felt in Honomu, Waikii, Kilauea

Felt in Mokuaweoweo

Not felt; in Kilauea

Felt generally, phases confusing

Felt generally in Hawaii

Not felt, near Kilauea

Not felt

Felt generally, stronger at Kapa-

pala

Located and felt near Kilauea

crater

Felt in NE Hawaii

Felt generally, may be shallower

Not felt

Very doubtful location

Doubtful location

Located on a line,® at no. 16

On Mauna Loa SW rift

Probably shallow. East of Hawaii

Felt in Kohala

Not felt

Not felt in Kilauea

Not felt

Felt in Hilo and Olaa

Felt near Kilauea

Not felt

Probably deep

Felt generally; with alarm in

Hakalau; slight damage in Hilo

Felt on the island of Maui 180

. distant

Aftershock felt in Hakalau, may

be shallower

Felt at Kilauea and in Hilo

Felt; location agrees with angle

from V

Felt; location agrees with V. and

K. angles”

Focus deep?

In Kilauea crater

Larger record at Hilo anomolous

(S-P)

Felt generally

Felt in Honokaa

Tremor at W

Felt strongly near Pit :

Felt at Kapapala. First location

at no. 64 may be better, 7 km.

deep

Not felt in Kona

At no. 16

Distance circles fail to intersect

Felt in Hilo

Felt in Hilo and Honomu

Kilauea crater i

Felt and located near or in

Kilauea crater :

Awakened residents near Kilauea

crater s

Outbreak of lava in Pit

Felt in Hilo and Honomu

Two of seven felt at Kapapala

OcToBER 15, 1935 JONES: EARTHQUAKES IN HAWAII 431

TABLE 2. (Continued)

Map No. of | Lat. N | Long. W| Recording Inten-

No. DEUS Phases| ° / ° * | stations Drains sity? ERED

64 Sept. 23 1 19 15 | 155 27 | VKH 24 Vite

65 Oct 2 19 19 | 155 27 | VKH 31 v.f. At no. 39

65A | Oct. 12 1 20 10 | 155 30 | V?K?H 120? tr.

65B | Oct. 12 — 20 00 | 155 30} no ? tr.? Felt in Honokaa

66 Oct. 13 2 19 23 | 155 28 | VKH 60 |moderate| Felt generally

67 Oct. 18 2 19 31 | 155 39 | VKH 58 feeble Felt generally

68 Oct. 18 1 19 31 | 155 39 | VHK ? v.f. Aftershock at no. 67

69 Oct. 27 1 19 33 | 155 32 | VKH 45 feeble Felt near Kilauea

70 Nov. 12 2 19 12 | 155 22 | VH ? v.f.

° An earthquake recorded on two stations only can be located indefinitely on a line, unless directions are

used, Distances from three stations may define a point.

Increasing intensity on the Hawaiian volcanic scale, starting with the least and comparing with the

pencenorel scale in Roman numerals, is, tremor, I; very feeble, I; feeble, I; slight, II; moderate, III; and

strong “

(aR

ea)

1550" 15450

Fig. 1.—Earthquake epicenters in Hawaii.

432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

equations, although not perfect, for very near and high focus earth-

quakes are better.

Sse i cosas

SP. :: #t :: 0.125-0.245A

SPs 2 ts (2:°O:20-0.2174

These curves supersede the ¢, equation used in the 1933 study. The

‘* and t, curves are still considered applicable. Because these curves

were derived from the study of earthquakes that probably occurred

within eight kilometers of the surface, it is doubtful if they give more

than approximate data when used for finding the deeper foci, although

the figures obtained should be roughly proportional.

The preliminary seismographic results for 1934 were published in

the monthly issues of the Volcano Letter.° Approximately 40,000

minutes of harmonic tremor were recorded as resulting from the

eruption in Halemaumau, and 1,400 spasmodic tremors, or minutely

recorded earthquakes, were recorded from unknown areas. Of the

168 stronger shocks recorded about 25 percent were felt, and about 40

percent of those recorded are located by this study.

The seismicity index, referred to in the Volcano Letter, is formed

from earthquakes and tremors recorded at the Observatory. These

phenomena are weighted in terms of the Rossi-Forel scale. This index

is the basis of a continuous curve, that, in the opinion of the workers

at the Observatory, is representative of the local volcanic activity.

Study of the seismicity for 1933-1934 suggests that the activity of

Mauna Loa was dying away for some months following the eruption.

A peak seismic index, caused by a sequent swarm of earthquakes,

was reached on February 5, 1934. It was followed by a lower peak

on February 26. The lowest seismicity of the year was reached May

21-23. It was followed by a peak on June 10-17. This latter peak was

possibly the unrecognized premonitory swarm preceding the Kilauea

eruption of September 1934. There is some doubt of this, however,

for another swarm of small earthquakes that centered less than 16

kilometers away from Kilauea crater, were recorded in July 1933.

Premonitory swarms have been mentioned in the previous paper.

Sequent swarms appear to follow the typical Hawaiian eruption after

periods of from one to six months. A premonitory swarm came two

months before the eruption of Kilauea in 1931-1932 and a sequent

swarm came three months after.’ Sequent swarms occurred seven

® Published by the Hawaiian Voleano Observatory, Hawaii National Park, T. H.

5 Jones, A. E. A Seismologic Study. Op. cit.

OcToBER 15,1935 JONES: EARTHQUAKES IN HAWAII 433

weeks after the 1933 eruption and 11 weeks after the 1934 eruption.

The map (Fig. 1) shows the location of epicenters. Although there

is considerable doubt as to the accuracy of the locations, it is thought

that the true epicenters may lie inside the circles shown on the map.

The larger scale map of Kilauea crater (Fig. 2) shows more accurately

the locations near the crater.

Table 2 contains the map number, the date of occurrence, the

number of P and S phases recognized in the Observatory record, the

latitude and longitude, the initials of the stations used in locating

the epicenter and focus, the apparent depth of focus in kilometers, the

EPICENTERS

Goop

X Poor

N2 APPROXIMATE

KiLAvEA CRATER

S Km.

Fig. 2.—Earthquake epicenters at Kilauea Crater.

intensity of the shock on the Hawaiian volcanic scale, and remarks

mostly on macroseismic data.

Approximately one-seventh of the foci are under the sea, usually

under the submarine slopes of the island. Less than a tenth fall under

the quiescent volcanoes of Mauna Kea, Kohala and Hualalai. The

remainder cluster primarily about Kilauea crater and secondarily

about Mokuaweoweo crater on Mauna Loa.

The eruption in Mokuaweoweo crater apparently ended December

18, 1933. The previous paper gave the locations of nine earthquakes

between that date and January 1, 1934.’ The statement that “‘after

the eruption the known seismic activity migrated away from the

volcanic center”? was violated three times in the three months im-

mediately following the cessation of outflow (see epicenters 2, 9,

and 14). During the next three months, earthquakes 29, 34, and 38

7 Jones, Austin E. Op. cit.

434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

occurred. Although they are not close to the crater of Mokuaweoweo,

they, with 10, are definitely Mauna Loa shocks. It is believed that

they are due to subsidence of the mountain, caused by withdrawal

of the lava within.

The seismicity peak of June 10-17 was composed of a swarm of

102 spasmodic tremors. This seismicity peak later appeared to be

premonitory in character, though it was not recognized as such at

the time. Spasmodic tremors are very infrequently located, but by

a process of elimination it appears that they often occur in the

Kilauea area. The located earthquakes of about this time were

occurring about 20 kilometers from Kilauea near the Mauna Loa

northeast rift. More than half of the located shocks during July and

August were near or in Kilauea crater. Earthquake number 49 was

felt by several standing near Halemaumau Pit and in the vicinity of

the southwest crater rim. It appeared less strong at the northeast

end of the crater.

The eruption came as a surprise early on the morning of September

6. The premonitory swarm in June was not intense enough to attract

much attention. A swarm that did attract attention occurred in July

1933 but it is doubtful if the eruption pended for 14 months; although

in September 1934 the earthquake activity indicated that the lava

was immediately below the earth’s surface ready to break out. The

fact that part of the lava spurted out of a fresh rift high up on the

walls of the Pit would imply that the conduit had been well sealed.

Study of the tilt as measured by the seismographs at the Observa-

tory and at Halemaumau Pit gave some qualifying facts. The ob-

servatory records also show that the tilt was to the northeast, or away

from the crater, for some time prior to the outbreak. This is not

significant for at that time of year the change in the annual tilt is

usually to the northeast. It was noticed that the year’s accumulated

tilt, compared with the same period in 1933, was to the northeast.$

Study of the Halemaumau seismogram showed that there was

considerable southwest tilt about 12 hours before the outbreak, that

is, away from the crater at that point. Two and a half hours before

the outbreak the first small shock was recorded. It was followed by

several others, none of them being over two kilometers distant. They

were accompanied by a stronger west tilt that soon had the E-W

seismograph pen in its limiting position. At 2:21 a.m., 20 minutes

before the outbreak of lava the slight earthquake, located at 60,

awakened most of the people living on the rim of Kilauea crater.

8 Volcano Letter, August, 1934.

OcToBER 15, 1935 SMITH: CHLOROARSENATE OF CALCIUM 435

A few more unlocated and very feeble shocks were recorded before

the final shock occurred at 2:44 a.m. So far as known this last shock,

located at 61, was coincident with the flowing of the lava. In less

than a minute the earthquake coda had faded into harmonic tremor

that continued to record for a month. The maximum ground ampli-

tudes at the Halemaumau seismograph were approximately 80 to

100 microns during the first two hours whereas at the Observatory

they were about 50 microns; the period remained at 0.6 second. The

illustrations of the seismograms made during an eruption of Ve-

suvius’ shows a harmonic tremor that is similar to that recorded

during an eruption of Kilauea.

During the eruption the four located earthquakes were south and

southwest of Kilauea crater and deeper than the average. After the

eruption the located shocks were more scattered and even deeper.

As after the Mauna Loa eruption, the known seismic activity was for

a time at some distance from the volcanic center. Few earthquakes

were recorded during November and December 1934. The peak of

the sequent swarm did not occur until January 4, 1935.

CHEMISTRY.—A new chloroarsenate of calcitum.! C. M. Smrru,

Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

Chloroarsenates of many of the metals are reported in the litera-

ture. Those mentioned in Volume IX of Mellor’s Comprehensive

treatise on inorganic and theoretical chemistry include two compounds

of calcium, namely Ca(CaCl) AsO, and Cas(CaCl)(AsO,);. The first

has been reported as having been made only by fusion, and the latter

both by fusion and by heating the reacting chemicals with water in

sealed tubes.

When the author undertook a study of calcium arsenate several

years ago, he considered the possibility of the formation of chloro-

arsenates of calcium in aqueous solutions at ordinary pressure in a

manner similar to the formation of mimetite from dilead arsenate

and soluble chlorides demonstrated by McDonnell and Smith (Amer.

Jour. Sci. 42: 189-145, Aug. 1916). In the effort to produce such com-

pounds, dicalcium arsenate, CaHAsO,-: H,0, was heated on the steam

bath with concentrated solutions of calcium chloride. None of the

experiments produced either of the compounds described in the

literature, but from several of them there was obtained a well-

crystallized compound with a composition corresponding to the

2 Sranorn, Francesco. Bulletin Voleanologique 19-22: 48. 1929;

1 Received May 27, 1935.

436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 10

formula (CaCl),HAsO,-2H.O. The experiment which produced the

best specimen of this material was performed as follows:

Fifty g of anhydrous CaCl. was dissolved in 50 ce H.O, and 5 ce

concentrated HCl added to destroy the carbonate and hydroxide

which were present. Then dicalcium arsenate, CaHAsO,-H.O, was

added to saturation and the mixture set on the steam bath. In the

course of 11 days a crystalline precipitate formed. At the end of that

time a large volume of alcohol (in which CaCl, is easily soluble) was

added to prevent hydrolysis of the solid material and the latter was

filtered on a Biichner funnel, washed with alcohol, and dried at 110°

for one-half hour, at the end of which time the alcohol had been

completely expelled.

Analysis of this product gave the following results:

Theory for

(CaCl) HAsO,:-2H.O Found

Percent Percent

Ca 24.50 24 .30

HAsO, 42.79 42.54

Cl 21.69 De ae

H.0O of cryst. 11.02 11.61 by diff.

100.00 100.00

Examination with the polarizing microscope showed an apparently

uniform product consisting of well-formed crystals with parallel ex-

tinction, lying almost invariably perpendicular to the acute bisectrix.

The optic angle is about 120° in air, and the negative character is

well marked. The crystals are very probably orthorhombic. There

appears to be no doubt that this is a definite chemical individual.

The formula assigned to it is empirical, and was adopted merely as

a means of relating the compound to the normal calcium arsenates.

BOTAN Y.—Three new species of Aphelandra from Colombia.! E. C.

LEONARD, National Museum. (Communicated by WiLu1aM R.

Maxon.)

The new species described in this paper are based on material

collected in the region of Mt. Chap6n, Department of Boyacd, Colom-

bia, by A. E. Lawrance. The type specimens of two are in the her-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived June 11, 1935.

OcToBER 15, 1935 LEONARD: APHELANDRA 437

barium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; the other is in the U.S.

National Herbarium.

Aphelandra lawranceae Leonard, sp. nov.

Herba perennis, suffruticosa; folia basi spicae subrosulatim conferta,

anguste oblongo-elliptica, apice acuta, basin versus sensim angustata et in

petiolum decurrentia, glabra, subtus purpurea; spicae terminales, simplices,

sessiles; bracteae imbricatae, oblongo-lanceolatae, acuminatae vel acutae,

Fig. 1.—Aphelandra lawranceae Leonard, sp. nov. A, plant, one-half nat. size; B,

flower bract; C, bractlets; D, calyx spread to show segments. (B, C, D, nat. size.)

integerrimae, puberulentae, ciliatae; bracteolae et calycis laciniae striatae,

puberulentae; corolla coccinea, puberula, labio superiore integro, inferiore

trilobo, lobis subaequalibus.

Suffrutescent, up to 12 em. high; stems terete, glabrous, more or less ver-

rucose; leaves opposite, the internodes 1.5 to 5 em. long, or often 4 or 5

pairs crowded at the base of the spike, forming a rosette; leaf blades narrowly

oblong-elliptic, up to 17 em. long and 3 em. wide, gradually narrowed at

base and decurrent on the petiole, acuminate at apex, ending in a blunt tip,

entire or undulate, both surfaces glabrous, the under surface often dark

mauve; petioles up to 2 em. long; spike terminal, up to 7 em. long and 2 em.

in diameter, the rachis puberulent; bracts rather closely imbricate, erect-

spreading, oblong-lanceolate, up to 2.5 em. long and 9 mm. wide (nar-

rowed to 5 mm. at base), abruptly acuminate to acute at apex, entire, puber-

438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

ulent, ciliate; bractlets narrowly lanceolate, up to 9 mm. long and 1.5 mm.

wide, 1-nerved, striate, puberulent, some of the hairs glandular; calyx seg-

ments subequal, about 9 mm. long, narrowly lanceolate, acuminate, the

posterior one 3 mm. wide, minutely bidentate at apex, the anterior pair 1.7

mm. wide, the lateral pair 1.5 mm. wide, all striate, puberulent toward tip

(glandular and eglandular hairs mixed); corolla up to 6.5 em. long, brilliant

red, finely pubescent, the tube gradually enlarged from 3 mm. at base to 5

mm. at throat, the upper lip entire, oblong, about 15 mm. long and 6 mm.

wide, the lower 3-lobed, the lobes subequal or the lateral slightly shorter,

up to 2 em. long, the middle lobe obovate, up to 8 mm. wide, the lateral

lobes oblong, up to 6 mm. wide; filaments about 3.5 cm. long, glabrous or

minutely pubescent toward base; staminode slender, about 13 mm. long,

pubescent at tip; style puberulent; ovary glabrous below, pilosulous above.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,482,539, collected in the

forest region of Mt. Chapén, Department of Boyac4, Colombia, alt. about

1650 meters, June 17, 1932, by A. E. Lawrance. Lawrance 243 and 252,

from the same locality, are also of this species.

This beautiful and rare species is conspicuous because of its brilliant red

flowers and purple leaf blades. The spike, bracts, and corollas resemble those

of Encephalosphaera vitellina Lindau, but that species is described as having

the leaves ovate, rather than narrowly oblong-elliptic, and the pollen grains

are globose and marked by clefts into six nearly equal spherical squares,

whereas those of A. lawranceae are of the elongate ‘‘spaltenpollen” type,

i.e., marked by clefts extending from one end of the grain to the other.

Named in honor of Mrs. E. A. Lawrance, wife of the collector.

Aphelandra alexandri Leonard, sp. nov.

Herba perennis, suffruticosa, glabra; folia elliptica, apice acuminata, basi

sensim in petiolum angustata; spicae terminales, simplices, sessiles; bracteae

imbricatae, oblongo-ellipticae, acutae, integerrimae; bracteolae lineares;

calycis laciniae lanceolatae subaequales; corolla extus scarlatina, intus flava,

labio superiore elliptico, acuto, inferiore trilobo, lobis subaequalibus.

Suffrutescent, glabrous, up to 1 meter high; leaf blades elliptic, up to 15

cm. long and 5 cm. wide, narrowed at base and decurrent on the petiole,

acuminate, ending in a blunt point, entire or undulate, green, the costa and

lateral veins (9 or 10 on each side) rather prominent; petioles up to 3 em.

long, winged; spikes terminal, sessile, up to 10 em. long and 2 em. in diam-

eter, the bracts rather closely imbricate, erect or erect-spreading, oblong-

elliptic, up to 18 mm. long and 3 mm. wide at base and 1 cm. wide at middle,

acute at apex, subchartaceous, veiny; bractlets linear-subulate, 1 mm. wide

at base, striate; calyx segments lanceolate, subequal, 8 or 9 mm. long, bear-

ing at base triangular calluses (these conspicuous on the outside), the

posterior segment oblong, 2.56 mm. wide, 2- or 3-toothed at tip, the anterior

pair (1.5 mm. wide) and the lateral pair (1 mm. wide) narrowly lance-

attenuate; corolla about 6 em. long, brilliant red without, yellow within,

glabrous except the lips, these minutely pruinose within; tube gradually en-

larged from 4 mm. in diameter at base to 6 mm. at mouth, the upper lip

elliptic, about 2 cm. long and 8 mm. wide, acute, the lower lip 3-lobed, the

lobes sukequal, oblong-obovate, about 2 em. long, 7 to 8.5 mm. wide near

middle, acute or acutish at apex; staminode not evident in flower examined;

OctToBER 15, 1935 LEONARD: APHELANDRA 439

filaments and style glabrous; pollen grains elongate, muricate, of the “‘spal-

tenpollen” type.

Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected in the region of Mt. Chapon,

Department of Boyac4, Colombia, Feb. 4, 1933, by A. E. Lawrance (no.

601).

Related to A. lawranceae, which it resembles closely in many respects.

The bracts and corolla are strictly glabrous, however, whereas in A. law-

ranceae the bracts are densely puberulent and the corolla is pubescent.

Furthermore the flowers of this species are yellow within, but those of A.

lawranceae are red throughout.

Fig. 2.—A phelandra alexandri Leonard, sp. nov. A, leaf, one-half nat. size; B,

flower bract; C, bractlets; D, calyx spread to show segments. (B, C, D, nat. size.)

Aphelandra parviflora Leonard, sp. nov.

Herba; caulis simplex, basi procumbens, nodis infimis radicans, adpresso-

pilosus; folia pauca, oblonga, apice acuta vel obtusa, in petiolum decurrenti-

angustata, subglabra, costa et nervis lateralibus strigosis; spica gracilis,

pedunculis elongatis, fere nudis, strigosis; bracteae erecto-patentes, ellipti-

cae, grosse spinuloso-serratae, parum strigosae; bracteolae subulatae, sub-

hyalinae; calycis laciniae oblongo-acuminatae, subaequales, glabrae (mar-

ginibus exceptis), striatae; corolla parva, flava, minute pilosa, labio superiore

bilobo, inferiore trilobo, lobis orbiculatis.

Herbaceous, the stem 10 cm. high or more, ascending, rooting at the lower-

most nodes, strigose; leaves usually several, the blades oblong, up to 25 em.

long and 18 cm. wide, elliptic, obtuse or obtusish at apex, cuneate at base

and decurrent on the petioles, entire or undulate, purple beneath, sparingly

strigillose, glabrescent except for costa and lateral nerves (15 to 18 pairs),

these strigose; petioles slender, up to 6 em. long, strigose; spikes slender, up

to 13 em. long, about 1 cm. in diameter, the peduncles up to 12 cm. long,

strigose, bearing a pair of bractlike leaves about 2 em. below the base of the

spike; bracts rather loosely imbricate, erect-spreading, elliptic, 1 cm. long,

3 to 4 mm. wide, acuminate, ending in an obtuse tip, firm, veiny, sparingly

strigose, with several erect-spreading narrow teeth up to 1.5 mm. long on

each side; bractlets lance-subulate, 3.5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide at base, thin,

subhyaline, nerved; calyx segments narrowly oblong, acuminate, subequal,

5 to 6 mm. long, the posterior one 2 mm. wide, the anterior pair 1.5 mm.

wide, and the lateral pair 1 mm. wide, subhyaline, striate-nerved, minutely

440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

glandular-ciliolate; corolla yellow, 1 to 1.5 em. long, obliquely hypocrateri-

form, minutely and sparingly pubescent, the tube 1 mm. broad at base,

about 4 mm. broad at mouth; limb about 8 mm. broad, the lips equal, the

upper one 2-lobed, 5.5 mm. broad, the lower 3-lobed, the lobes orbicular,

4.5mm. in diameter; stamens included.

Fig. 3.—Aphelandra parviflora Leonard, sp. nov. A, plant, one-half nat. size; B,

flower bract; C, bractlets; D, calyx spread to show segments. (B, C, D, twice nat.

size.)

Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected in the region of Mt. Chapén,

Department of Boyaca, Colombia, June 10, 1932, by A. E. Lawrance (no.

201). Represented also by Lawrance 291, from the same locality.

Well marked by its purple leaves and loose, slender pedunculate spikes

of small flowers.

OcTOBER 15, 1935 BROWN: FOSSIL CONIFERS 441

PALEOBOTANY.—Some fossil conifers from Maryland and North

Dakota.t Rouanp W. Brown, U.S. Geological Survey.

Fossil cones and other remains, resembling or suggesting those of

living coniferous species, are not rare in American Cretaceous de-

posits. The fact that many of these cones are found detached, al-

though often associated in the same strata with foliage and fossil

wood, is a circumstance that has resulted, perhaps unavoidably, in

the description of numerous species, many of which, unfortunately,

are based upon very fragmentary types whose characters, especially

when figured, are so misleading that identification of new specimens

by comparison with them, is difficult for experienced and inexperi-

enced students alike. It is considered appropriate, therefore, in look-

ing toward a clarification of this condition, to describe and figure

such new and better material as may be discovered.

MARYLAND FOSSIL CONIFERS

The writer’s interest in an unreported locality for Lower Cretaceous

fossil plants in Maryland was enlisted early this year (1935) by James

H. Benn, of the U.S. National Museum, and two young Washington

collectors, Floyd A. Rapp and Douglas Graham, who found in de-

posits there a large amount of fossil wood and several well-preserved

cones. This locality includes about 1500 feet along the bank of the

Northwest Branch of the Anacostia River, beginning at the new

bridge on Queen’s Chapel Road, three-fourths mile beyond the Dis-

trict of Columbia line, and running northwestward upstream. The

general geologic section and situation of this exposure are as sketched

in Figure 13. The Northwest Branch, in that part of its course, has

cut a channel 6 to 10 feet below the floodplain surface through com-

paratively young alluvium composed of sands, sandy clays, and

gravels, into slightly southeastwardly dipping Lower Cretaceous sedi-

ments consisting of bluish sandy clays, crossbedded sands, and in-

frequent lenses of fragmental material cemented by iron oxide. That

the latter are Lower Cretaceous strata is clearly demonstrated from

the fact that a little more than a mile west of this locality the igneous

and metamorphic basement complex emerges, and since its eroded

surface, upon which the Lower Cretaceous deposits rest, slopes sea-

ward at the rate of 75 to 100 feet per mile, it follows that the strata

outcropping at the locality on Northwest Branch are about 125 feet

above that unconformity and belong to the Lower Cretaceous

1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. Received

July 24, 1935.

442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 10

Potomac group, for the total thickness of that group at nearby points

in the District of Columbia and Maryland reaches approximately 600

feet.

At the bottom of the sketch the waters of the Northwest Branch

are shown washing the Cretaceous outcrop and its embedded fossil

wood. These prostrate logs, some measuring nearly 6 feet in di-

ameter, are much flattened and are jumbled or matted together in a

manner suggesting driftwood. They are now lignite, jet-black in color,

with occasional impregnations and fillings of marcasite. The wood,

in many instances, shows well-preserved cellular structure that indi-

Fig. 13.—Sketch of geologic section, 8 feet deep, along Northwest Branch of

Anacostia River, Md. The irregular line A—B marks the great unconformity between

the Lower Cretaceous and young alluvial deposits.

cates its coniferous relationship alluded to in the name, Cupressin-

oxylon wardi, given it by F. H. Knowlton in 1889. Only rarely may

cones, such as those to be described below, be found among these

wood remains.

It is conjectured that if this Cretaceous deposit could be uncovered

over a large area thousands of logs might be revealed, simulating in

some respects but on a smaller scale, a sight like that in the Petrified

Forest of Arizona. However, such an exposure of this lignite would not

persist intact for many days because on drying the wood checks and

disintegrates rapidly. To preserve cones and wood of this kind it is

necessary to remove the absorbed water from them but they must be

prevented from drying in air. This may be accomplished by dehy-

OctToBeErR 15, 1935 BROWN: FOSSIL CONIFERS 443

drating the specimens for several hours in 95 per cent alcohol and then

shellacking them with a thin solution of celloidin in acetone or some

similar preparation.

The irregular line A—B in Figure 13 represents the eroded, chan-

neled surface of the Cretaceous strata upon which rest 6 feet, more or

less, of younger alluvium beginning at the bottom with a foot or more

of coarse gravel and sand and grading upward through two sequences

of sand, sandy clay and silt, to top soil. In the gravel at the base is a

lens of sand and clay from which by sieving with a fine screen there

have been recovered a number of decalcified fresh-water mussels

(Elliptio complanatus), insect fragments including four beetles (Calo-

soma scrutator, Chlaenius impunctifrons, Dicaelus sp., Euphoria ful-

gida), unflattened, little-altered logs and branches of white pine

(Pinus strobus), northern hemlock (T'suga canadensis), and white

oak (Quercus alba), and 35 species of fruits and seeds (P2nus strobus,

Tsuga canadensis, Sparganium androcladum, Potamogeton nuttallit,

Carex sp., Quercus alba, Q. rubra, Q. phellos, Corylus americana,

Carpinus caroliniana, Hicoria glabra, H. ovata, Juglans cinerea,

Myrica carolinensis, Polygonum sp., P. hydropiperoides, Lirvodendron

tuliprfera, Tilia americana, Staphylea trifolia, Platanus occidentalis,

Prunus serotina, Rubus sp., Phytolacca decandra, Claytonia virginica,

Sassafras variifolium, Impatiens biflora, Rhus glabra, Vitis sp., Sam-

bucus canadensis, Viburnum acerifolium, V. prunfolium, Nyssa syl-

vatica, Cornus amomum, C. florida, C. paniculata). Of these 35 species,

probably all but two, northern hemlock and shagbark hickory, may

be found living in the basin of the Northwest Branch today. The

nearest native hemlocks are in the vicinity of Occoquan and Great

Falls, Virginia, and these appear to be relict stands abandoned when

the species kept pace northward with the receding cool climatic con-

ditions accompanying the dissipation of the last Pleistocene ice sheet.

Although the writer has seen no shagbark hickories along the North-

west Branch it is possible there may be a few scattered trees in the

upper reaches of the basin.

This collection of relatively recent material will remind those inter-

ested in the younger deposits of the District of Columbia and vicinity

of the remains taken from the excavations for the Mayflower Hotel?

and Government Printing Office.? The significant species in those

collections was the bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) which is not

2 This JOURNAL 14: 1-41. 1924.

3’ Berry, E. W. New occurrences of Pleistocene plants in the District of Columbia.

This JouRNAL 23: 1-25. 1933.

444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

present in the collection from the Northwest Branch. Conversely,

hemlock and shagbark hickory are absent from those collections; but

the Printing Office collection is nevertheless more closely comparable

to that from the Northwest Branch than is that from the Mayflower

site, which is regarded as representing a flora adapted to slightly

warmer, or In some way, more congenial, climatic conditions than

those obtaining at present. The altitude of the deposit in the May-

flower Hotel excavation is between 40 and 60 feet; that at the Print-

ing Office, 20 feet; and that on the Northwest Branch, between 25

and 30 feet above sea level. Because of these respective elevations the

deposit at the Mayflower site is considered as belonging to the Wi-

comico terrace stage of the mid-Pleistocene, and the deposit at the

Printing Office to the Pamlico terrace stage of the late Pleistocene.

On this basis the deposits on the Northwest Branch, if they are ter-

race sediments, which is not proved, should be assigned to the Pamlico

or to the transition between Talbot and Pamlico. The evidence from

the organic remains is not strictly conclusive. The state of preserva-

tion of the remains is about the same at all these localities. The

mussels and beetles are found in the Anacostia River region today;

and so far as the plants are concerned, the only positive statement

that can be made is that the deposits antedate the disappearance of

northern hemlock from that basin.

It is worth noting that both the Cretaceous and younger driftwood

were very likely accumulated in the same manner, but at an interval

of about 125,000,000 years, represented in the unconformity A—B.

During the passage of that unimaginably long period of time the

flowering plants (angiosperms) evolved from their primitive Creta-

ceous ancestors and gradually displaced in dominance the ferns,

cycads, and conifers that clothed the land surface of this part of the

country when these Lower Cretaceous sediments were deposited.

The species of cones from the Cretaceous strata are as follows:

Abietites macrocarpus Fontaine Fig. 12

Abietites macrocarpus Fontaine. U.S. Geol. Survey, Mon. 15: 262, pl. 132,

fig. 7. 1890.—Berry, E. W. Lower Cretaceous. Md. Geol. Survey, p. 405,

pl. 67, figs. 1-4. 1911.

Cone, 14.5 em. long, 2.2 cm. in diameter, with numerous, imbricated, thin,

striated, persistent scales, having rounded or emarginate upper margins.

Jet-black and lignified.

The type of this species described by Fontaine from Lower Cretaceous

strata at Dutch Gap Canal on the James River, Virginia, is a fragmentary

longitudinal section of a narrow, elongated cone with broken scales. The

present specimen exhibits the characters of the type, so far as those features

OcToBER 15, 1935 BROWN: FOSSIL CONIFERS 445

can be determined, but being complete and well-preserved, is figured here as

a more readily recognizable typical example of the species. That the species

is a primitive Abzes, as the name implies, may well be doubted, because, if

judged by the nature of cones from living species of Abzes, the scales should

not be persistent long after maturity. Piceites might be a better reference

than Abietites. Unfortunately no foliage was found with this cone, nor were

seeds present between the scales. Evidently the cone had matured, shed its

seeds, and fallen from the tree into the water that carried it to the site of

entombment and lignification. Confusion of this species with Pinus, es-

pecially the white pine (Pinus strobus), whose long, narrow cones resemble

the fossil, is unnecessary because the cone scales of P. strobus are distinctly

acute and are tipped with round, blunt, resinous scars or points.

Figured specimen in the U.S. National Museum.

Cedrites primevus Brown, n. gen. and n. sp. Fig. 11

Cone, 10.5 cm. long, 4 cm. in diameter, narrowly elliptic in shape, with

truncated apex. Scales relatively few, large, imbricated, broadly rounded,

coarsely and sparsely striated, apparently persistent, with entire margins.

The figure reproduced here is that of a plaster cast made from the fossil

which is a hollow mold or impression left in the rock matrix by the original

cone, no remains of which were recovered with the impression: Choice of

Cedrites as a name for this species should only be regarded as suggestive

rather than as indicative of its botanic relationship. This species is three

times larger and has fewer scales than that called Cedrus lee (Fontaine)

Berry,’ from Lower Cretaceous strata at Baltimore, Maryland.

Type in the U.S. National Museum.

Piceites cretaceus Brown, n. sp. Fig. 8

Cones, 3.5 cm. long, 1.5 em. in diameter, elliptic in shape, with blunt

apex and cuneate base. Scales numerous, imbricated, rounded, finely stri-

ated, persistent, with entire margins. Jet-black and lignified.

Five specimens of this species are now in the National Museum collec-

tions. The fact that they are of uniform size appears to indicate that they

represent a well-defined species different from any other so far described from

Lower Cretaceous strata. The reference of the species to Piceztes is based

principally upon the rather striking resemblance of these cones to those of

some species of Picea, particularly the white spruce (P. canadensis) of the

northern United States. The fossil species called Pityites (Pinites) solmsi

Seward® from the Lower Cretaceous of England, is not unlike this species.

It seems reasonable to expect that a primitive predecessor of Picea should

have been present in these early Cretaceous floras.

Type in the U.S. National Museum.

The flora of the Lower Cretaceous of Maryland, the District of

Columbia, and Virginia, is fully reviewed by Berry® who lists 144

species. These consist of ferns, clubmosses, horsetails, cycads, a

ginkgo, conifers, and primitive angiosperms. The conifers number 29

4 Berry, HE. W. Lower Cretaceous. Md. Geol. Survey, p. 411, pl. 77, figs. 4, 4a.

1911.

5 Smwarp, A.C. Fossil plants 4: 373, text figs. 772, 773. 1919.

6 Berry, E. W. Lower Cretaceous. Md. Geol. Survey. 1911.

446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, No. 10

— eee Ee

Estas

For explanation of Figs. 1-12, see bottom of opposite page.

OcTOBER 15, 1935 BROWN: FOSSIL CONIFERS 447

species and are distributed among the genera Nagevopsis, Cephalo-

taxopsis, Brachyphyllum, Araucarites, Abietites, Pinus, Cupressin-

orylon, Frenelopsis, Sphenolepis, Laricopsis, Arthrotaxopsis, Wid-

dringtonites, Cedrus, and Sequoia. It is almost needless to say that,

although most of these genera may be recognized readily, little is actu-

ally known about their exact botanic relationships. The disposition

of the three cones discussed above must be regarded as tentative until

cones and foliage are found in organic connection when a realignment

may be necessary.

NORTH DAKOTA FOSSIL CONIFERS

A short distance beyond the bridge over the Cannonball River

thirty miles south of Mandan, North Dakota, another highway

branches off eastward toward Solen and the mouth of the Cannon-

ball on the Missouri River. In secs. 31 and 32, T. 134 N., R. 81 W.,

on both sides of that highway, badlands appear in the somber-

colored strata of the lower part of the Lance formation, immediately

above the Fox Hills sandstone and beneath the Cannonball marine

member of the Lance. The weathering of ferruginous lenses in these

somber beds isolates the well-preserved mud casts of Sequoia cones

(Figs. 1, 2). A similar occurrence in the same beds is located along the

Cannonball River in sec. 36, T. 131 N., R. 86 W., where the cones

are normally somewhat smaller in size. At both localities the writer

and Kiguma J. Murata, of the United States Geological Survey, in

1931, found detached, fragmentary leaves and twigs of Sequoza.

Sequoia dakotensis Brown, n. sp. Figs. 14

Cones, 1.5-4 em. long, 1.2-3 em. in diameter, with about 30 scales, ar-

ranged in two sets of spiral rows, the steep-angled set in 5 rows, and the

flat-angled set in 3 rows. The faces of the scales present sections that are

long and narrow, roughly diamond-shaped, but occasionally with one or

two additional angles. Peduncle of the scales abruptly narrowed to the

point of attachment at the axis of the cone. Surface of the scales smooth,

or sometimes slightly wrinkled.

These cones are ferruginous mud casts, the solid portion of which repre-

sents the spaces, and the cavities the woody substance of original cones like

those of the redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Figure 7, or the big tree (S.

Figs. 1-4.— Sequoia dakotensis from the Eocene (?) of N. Dak. Fig. 1 is a top view

of Fig. 2. Fig. 5— Sequoia ambigua from the Lower Cretaceous, Muirkirk, Md. Fig.

6.—Tsuga canadensis from alluvial deposits on Northwest Branch of Anacostia River,

Md. Fig. 7.—Sequoia sempervirens, living redwood, Calif. Fig. 8.—Piceites cretaceus

from the Lower Cretaceous on Northwest Branch, Md. Figs. 9, 10.—Sequota gigantea,

living big tree, Calif. Fig. 11.—Cedrites primevus from the Lower Cretaceous on North-

west Branch, Md. Fig. 12.—A bietites macrocar pus from the Lower Cretaceous on North-

west Branch, Md. All figures natural size. Drawings by Miss Frances Wieser.

448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 10

gigantea), Figures 9 and 10. Falling from a tree into water, the original

cones became water-logged, sank to the bottom and were covered with mud

that also filled the spaces between the scales. The dissolution of the wood

helped to impregnate and harden the mud with iron oxide; but the spaces

occupied by the slowly disintegrating woody scales did not have an oppor-

tunity to be filled with soft mud because the mud surrounding the cone had

also hardened in the meantime; hence, in the resulting fossil casts the orig-

inal woody parts are represented by cavities.

Some 50 species of Sequoia have been described from American

strata ranging in age from Lower Cretaceous to Pleistocene. Many

of these are designated merely as Sequoia sp., the rest by binomials.

In few instances have cones and foliage been found in organic connec-

tion, so that it is most likely that more species have been described

than the remains justify, although it is not improbable that 50 or

more species or varieties of Sequoia may have been in existence dur-

ing the long and widespread history of that genus. In describing the

present cones as a new species the writer hopes that he is not adding

to the confusion associated with the identification of fossil sequoias,

many of which are based upon foliage which is known to be extremely

variable and therefore not reliably diagnostic. A few species are based

upon fossil wood.

Comparison of these cones with other well-preserved fossil Sequoza

cones and with those of the living species, reveals significant differ-

ences. The scales of these cones number about 30 and are conspicu-

ously longer than broad when viewed in face section. The normal

number of scales in S. sempervirens varies from 14 to 26, in S. gigantea

from 35 to 40. The fossil cones therefore belong to neither of the two

living species. The fossil species, regarded as the most nearly equiv-

alent to if not identical with the living redwood, is the Tertiary

species, S. langsdorfii, but, having normally a less number of scales

than the cones under discussion, it must be considered a different

species, although Knowlton gives it a range that extends into the area

and the horizon from which these cones were recovered, an extension

of range and identification that apparently does not seem to be Jjusti-

fied by the evidence. Another fossil cone given the same backward

range as S. langsdorfii is S. nordenskiéldi. Since the cone type of

this species described by Heer’ is a longitudinal section only, and

since there was no other basis, except figured foliage, for identify-

ing the American material with Heer’s Spitzbergen specimens there

seems to be ground for questioning and perhaps rejecting this identi-

fication also. The cones of both these species taken from Cretaceous

7 Heer, OswaLp. Flora fossilis arctica 2(abt. 2): 36, pl. 4, fig. 4a. 1870.

OcToBER 15, 1935 BROWN: FOSSIL CONIFERS 449

strata in North Dakota, although not identifiable with the types of

those species, are, however, the same as the cones now called S.

dakotensis.

An unattached cone similar in size and scale arrangement to S.

dakotensis is that described by Knowlton as Sequoia sp.?* from Upper

Cretaceous beds 10 miles northwest of Wild Horse Lake, Alberta,

Canada. Found in the same Judith River strata on Willow Creek,

12 miles north of Musselshell post office, Montana, is much material,

but no cones, of a Sequoia that Knowlton confidently referred to that

ubiquitous Cretacedus species, S. recchenbachi. He intimated that the

cone suggests some of the latter species figured by Heer from Green-

land.* However, Heer’s Figure 4 shows the face of the cone scales

to be more broadly rhomboidal than those of Knowlton’s cone. Simi-

larly, Berry’s cone! of this species, although smaller than Heer’s,

has the same broadly rhomboidal scale faces, agrees with Heer’s

type, but differs from Knowlton’s. It appears therefore that the

North Dakota and Alberta cones cannot be referred with assurance

to S. reichenbachi. For the same reason, namely, the more broadly

rhomboidal shape of the scale faces, that small-coned species, 5S.

ambigua (Fig. 5), originally described by Heer from Greenland and

reported by Fontaine! from Lower Cretaceous beds at Dutch Gap

Canal, Virginia, and Muirkirk, Maryland, is a species different from

S. dakotensis. Cones, similarly preserved and indistinguishable from

S. dakotensis, were collected in 1907 by Barnum Brown from the Hell

Creek member of the Lance formation in the valley of Big Dry Creek,

28 miles south of Lismas and 35 miles northwest of Circle, Montana,

and were identified as S. heert by Arthur Hollick. This, however, is

clearly a misidentification, for Lesquereux’s type of S. heerz’? from

Sage Creek, near Medicine Lodge, Montana, is a small, crumpled cone

having less than 20 scales, and is, in fact, an example of S. langsdorfiz,

similar to the smaller cones of that species from the lower part (Bridge

Creek shale of authors) of the John Day formation in Oregon, and

also mistakenly identified as S. heeri by J. S. Newberry and F. H.

Knowlton.

8 Stanton, T. W., and Harcuer, J. B. Geology and paleontology of the Judith

River beds, with a chapter on the fossil plants by F. H. Knowlton. U.S. Geol. Survey,

Bull. 257: 131, pl. 14, fig. 2. 1905.

§ Heer, Oswaup. Flora fossilis arctica 3(abt. 2): 77, pl. 20, figs. 1-8. 1875.

10 Berry, BE. W. The upper Cretaceous and Eocene floras of South Carolina and

Georgia. U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 84: 23, pl. 4, fig. 1. 1914.

1 Fontaine, W. F. The Potomac or younger Mesozoic flora. U.S. Geol. Survey,

Mon. 15: 245, pl. 120, fig. 6. 1889.—Ibid., Mon. 48: 555, pl. 110, fig. 13. 1905.

2 LESQUEREUX, Leo. The Tertiary flora. U.S. Geol. Survey Terr. Rept. 7: 77,

Dlewiptigs is. L878

450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

The strata in which the cones of S. dakotensis were found belong to

a group whose geologic age is in dispute, the United States Geological

Survey designation being Eocene (?). Some students assign the beds

to the Upper Cretaceous, others regard them as early Eocene. Simi-

larly the age of the somewhat younger Fort Union formation has also

been questioned. In the latter, at several localities in North Dakota,

Montana, and Wyoming, the writer has found Sequoia cones that

greatly resemble S. dakotensis, except that apparently the average

number of scales is about 28, a reduction from S. dakotensis and an

approach toward the S. langsdorfii and S. sempervirens types. Whether

these considerations concerning S. dakotensis can be made a part of

the basis for the geologic dating of these disputed beds remains to

be tested by further evidence.

Types and figured specimens in the U. 8. National Museum.

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new race of the crested eagle-hawk, Spizaetus

ornatus.! HERBERT FRIEDMANN, U. 8. National Museum.

On examining a long series of Spizaetus ornatus, representing the

combined material of the Museum of Comparative Zodélogy, the

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the Carnegie Museum,

the Field Museum, California Institute of Technology, United States

Biological Survey, and the United States National Museum, it be-

came evident that there were two races involved, one from the

Guianas, Brazil, and Venezuela, to Paraguay, northeastern Argen-

tina, and Bolivia; and one from Mexico and Central America, south

to Colombia and Ecuador, and, possibly, to Peru. When sending me

the Carnegie Museum series, Mr. Todd wrote me that he had long

suspected the existence of two races, a Central American and a South

American. When I found that there were indeed two races although

their ranges were not quite as Todd’s brief note suggested, I wrote

him suggesting that he describe the northern form. This he declined

to do as I had all the material assembled before me. The least I can

do in return for his courtesy is to use one of his specimens as the type

of the new race.

Inasmuch as the type locality of ornatus is Cayenne, it follows that

this name must be applied to the birds of the Guianas, Brazil, etc.

Although several synonyms are extant for the nominate race, no name

seems to be applicable to the Central American-western South

American form. I therefore propose the name

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

June 29, 1935.

OcToBER 15, 1935 FOX: CHINESE SPIDERS 451

Spizaetus ornatus vicarius subsp. nov.

Type: Carnegie Museum number 24881, adult female, collected by Mor-

ton E. Peck, in the pine ridge country near Manatol Lagoon, British Hon-

duras, July 5, 1905.

Subspecific characters: Adult similar to that of the nominate race, but with

the sides of the face, neck, and throat duller, snuff brown to mikado brown

(instead of cinnamon rufous to hazel as in typical ornatus); the abdomen

more heavily streaked with black transverse spots; and with the black malar

stripe from the angle of the bill, separating the brown cheeks and auriculars

from the white chin and mid-throat, generally, but not invariably, broader:

young similar to that of the nominate race, but with the crown generally

more heavily washed with tawny cinnamon and with numerous, small, dark

fuscous streaks (crown almost or entirely without dark fuscous streaks in

young of the typical form).

Range: As indicated above—southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras,

British Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador.

I have seen no Peruvian specimens and cannot say whether or not birds from

that country are of this form. The species has been recorded from Chyavetas,

Peru. I should expect from the fact that the Ecuadorian bird seen (from

Paramba in northern Ecuador) is vcarzus and that Bolivian examples seen

(from Rio Surutu and Rio Yapacani) are ornatus, northern Peruvian birds

would be closer to vicarzus and southern and especially southwestern ones to

ornatus.

I have seen no birds from Trinidad and assume that they are ornatus like

those from Venezuela. However, the only Tobago bird seen, a young one, is

as similar to vicarius as to ornatus. It may be, however, that the juvenal

plumage characters of the two races are not valid, in which case there would

be no reason for considering this bird vicarius.

Material examined: S. 0. ornatus: 8 specimens from British Guiana, Brazil,

Venezuela, Paraguay, Bolivia, and one from Tobago that may be vicardus.

S. 0. vicarius: 25 specimens from Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, British

Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador.

I am greatly indebted to Mr. Peters, Dr. Stone, Mr. Todd, Mr. Boulton,

Mr. van Rossem, and Mr. Wheeler for the loan of material used in this study.

ZOOLOGY .—Chinese spiders of the family Lycosidae.! Irvine Fox.

(Communicated by Paut Barrscu.)

Through the kindness of the United States National Museum I

was granted the opportunity of studying a collection of spiders made

by D. C. Graham in Szechwan Province, China, during the years

1923 to 1930. I wish to express my appreciation to the authorities of

the Museum for their helpfulness while this study was in progress,

and especially to E. A. Chapin, curator of the Division of Insects.

All the species described or discussed in this paper are in the collection

of the United States National Museum.

1 Received June 27, 1935,

452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

Arctosa gertschi, n. sp.

Male: Total length, 10.8 mm. Carapace, 6.23 mm. long, 4.05 mm. wide.

Carapace dark brown in the alcoholic specimen, with indications of a lighter

median band. Sides brown, with marginal lines of white hairs. Sternum,

labium, endites, and coxae black. Legs reddish brown without annulations.

The shrivelled abdomen is black.

First row of eyes narrower than the second (33/37), slightly procurved,

the medians larger, closer to each other than to the laterals. Eyes of the

second row their diameter apart. Third row wider than the second (45/37),

and much narrower than the carapace at that point. Quadrangle of posterior

eyes wider than long (45/34). Clypeus equal in height to five-sixths the

diameter of the anterior median eyes. Chelicerae with two teeth on the lower

margin, and three on the upper. Legs stout, the tibiae with 2-2-2-spines be-

low, the last pair apical, the posterior tibiae with basal and submedian spines

above. Tibia and patella I, 6.23 mm. long. Tibia and patella IV, 7.02 mm.

long. Male palpal organ as figured.

TyPE LocALITy.—China: male holotype from Chaotung, Yunnan Proy-

ince, 1925. Type: U.S. N. M. Cat. No. 1137.

Although this spider differs markedly from the generality of the species

of Arctosa in the spinal armature of the anterior and posterior tibiae, the

structure of the palpal organ is characteristic of that genus resembling in

certain respects that of the male palpus of Arctosa cinerea (Fab.), the geno-

type.

Lycosa wulsini, n. sp.

Female: Total length, 17.50 mm. Carapace, 9.30 mm. long, 7.13 mm.

wide. Abdomen, 8.22 mm. long, 6.14 mm. wide. Carapace brown, with a

median longitudinal light band which is wider than the posterior row of

eyes anteriorly, but which narrows abruptly before the dorsal groove, and

continues backward as a line about one-third the width of the anterior por-

tion. Sides of the carapace dark brown with distinct broad, whitish, sub-

marginal lateral stripes limited by narrower brown bands below them. Mar-

ginal lines of white hairs at the edges of the sides. Sternum, labium and

endites black. Legs brown shaded with black; coxae black with lighter por-

tions at the bases, femora with indistinct longitudinal black lines above.

Abdomen brown above; at the base a solid black mark extending a little

more than half the length of the abdomen. At the posterior portion of this

mark, and below it are scattered numerous black dots. Venter of the ab-

domen with a solid black spot which would include the entire venter were it

not outlined on all sides by an orange band.

First row of eyes narrower than the second row (40/43), slightly pro-

curved, median eyes larger than the lateral, and closer to the lateral than to

each other. Eyes of the second row further apart than the diameter of one of

them (17/13). Posterior row of eyes broader than the second row (57/48),

much narrower than the width of the carapace at that point. Quadrangle of

posterior eyes broader than long (57/45). Clypeus higher than the diameter

of the anterior median eyes (9/7). Chelicerae armed with three teeth on the

lower margin. Legs moderately stout, tibiae with 2-2-2 spines below, the

last pair apical, the posterior tibiae with basal and submedian spines above.

Tibia and patella I, 5.15 mm. long. Tibia and patella IV, 8.71 mm. long.

Epigynum as figured.

OctToBER 15, 1935 FOX: CHINESE SPIDERS 453

TyPr LocaLiry.—China: female holotype from Shanghai, collected by the

National Geographic Society Expedition under F. R. Wulsin, August, 1922.

Type: U.S. N. M. Cat. No. 1138.

Lycosa chapini, n. sp.

Female: Total length, 14.35 mm. Carapace, 7.12 mm. long, 5.74 mm.

wide. Abdomen, 7.22 mm. long, 5.05 mm. wide. Carapace brown, anteriorly

with a light reddish brown design consisting of a thin median line extending

from the posterior lateral eyes to the dorsal groove, and a short but wide

transverse bar crossing this, giving off at its ends two thin lines which meet

forming a point with the median line. Sides of the carapace brown with sub-

marginal light bands having irregular edges and frequent interruptions.

Clypeus reddish brown with dark discolorations below the lateral eyes.

Chelicerae densely covered with long hairs. Sternum, labium, and endites

brown with lighter edges. Sternum with a lighter central area. Dorsum of the

abdomen reminiscent of Pardosa having a black mottled ground on which

are four pairs of indistinct light spots with black centers. Venter pale or red-

dish. Legs brown, femora with four rings, rest of the joints indistinctly an-

nulate.

First row of eyes narrower than the second (31/37), slightly procurved,

medians larger, somewhat closer to the laterals than to each other. Eyes of

the second row their diameter apart. Third row of eyes wider than the

second (55/36). Clypeus high, about one and one-half the diameter of the

anterior median eyes. Chelicerae armed with three teeth on the lower mar-

gins. Legs tapering from the proximal to the distal ends, tibiae with 2-2-2

spines below, the last pair apical. Tibia and patella I, 8.12 mm. long. Tibia

and patella IV, 9.21 mm. long. Epigynum as figured.

Type LocaLity.—China: female holotype from Kunghsien south of Suifu,

Szechwan Province, April 3, 1930; three female paratypes from Tatsientu,

Sei Province, July 20, 1923. Type and paratypes: U.S. N. M: Cat.

o. 1139

Lycosa chengta, n. sp.

Female: Total length 11.00 mm. Carapace, 4.55 mm. long, 3.66 mm.

wide. Abdomen, 6.43 mm. long, 2.57 mm. wide. Carapace brown, medially

with a light central orange band as wide as the third row of eyes. A short

tongue-like projection from this band goes forward between the eyes of the

third row to a point midway between this row and the second eye row. At

the dorsal groove the band has irregular edges; posteriorly it tapers to a nar-

row stripe. Sides of the carapace brown, the margins black with wide sub-

marginal light bands. Sternum and labium dark brown, endites and coxae

lighter. Legs light brown; femora with annulations. Dorsum of the abdomen

brown, medially with several pairs of light brown spots with black centers

arranged in series. Venter the same color as the dorsum.

First row of eyes narrower than the second (21/29), straight, the medians

larger and closer to the laterals than to each other. Eyes of the second row

their diameter apart. Third row of eyes wider than the second (36/29), and

much narrower than the carapace at that point. Quadrangle of posterior eyes

broader than long (36/26). Clypeus one and one-half times as high as the

diameter of the anterior median eyes. Chelicerae with three teeth on the

lower margin. Legs slender, the tibiae armed with 2-2-2 spines below, the

last pair apical, the posterior tibiae with basal and submedian spines above.

454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

Fig. 1.—Lycosa subcoelestis, n. sp., carapace. Fig. 2.—Arctosa gertschi, n. sp.,

male palpus, ventral view. Fig. 3.—JLycosa grahami, n. sp., epigynum. Fig. 4.—

Lycosa wulsini, n. sp., epigynum. Fig. 5.—Lycosa chengta, n. sp., epigynum. Fig.

6.—Lycosa chapini, n. sp., epigynum.

OcToBER 15, 1935 FOX: CHINESE SPIDERS 455

Tibia and patella I, 5.24 mm. long. Tibia and patella IV, 6.03 mm. long.

Epigynum as figured.

Typr LocaLtity.—China: female holotype and three female paratypes

from Chengtu, Szechwan Province, 1200 feet, April 1, 1980. Type: U.S.

N. M. Cat. No. 1140.

Lycosa coelestis L. Koch

Lycosa coelestis L. Koch Verh. Zool-Bot. Gesell. Wien 27: 772, pl. XVI,

figs. 35, 36. 1877.

ReEcorpDs.—China: Szechwan Province, Suifu, 1000 feet, May, 1924, 3

females and 2 males; June, 1925, one female; May, 1930, one female.

Lycosa grahami, n. sp.

Female: ‘Total length, 14.35 mm. Carapace 7.62 mm. long, 5.94 mm.

wide. Carapace reddish brown in the alcoholic specimen, showing signs of a

lighter median longitudinal band. Sides of the carapace edged with black.

Sternum, labium, endites, and coxae blackish brown. Legs reddish brown

with longitudinal black stripes at the lateral faces. Abdomen (shrivelled in

the specimen) black.

First row of eyes narrower than the second (30/84), slightly procurved,

the eyes subequal with the medians closer to the laterals than to each other.

Second row narrower than the third (34/49), the eyes more than their

diameter apart. Quadrangle of posterior eyes wider than long (49/36).

Clypeus much higher than the diameter of the anterior median eyes (9/5).

Chelicerae with three teeth on the lower margins. Legs moderately stout,

tibiae with 2-2-2 spines below, the last pair apical. Tibia and patella I, 7.33

mm. long. Tibia and patella IV, 7.92 mm. long. Epigynum as figured.

TyPE LocaLiry.—China: female holotype from Chaotung, Yunnan Prov-

ince, 1925. Type: U.S. N. M. Cat. No. 1141.

Lycosa pseudoannulata (Bosenberg and Strand)

Tarentula pseudoannulata Bosenberg and Strand Abh. Senckenb. Naturf.

Gesell. 30: 319, pl. 8, fig. 106; pl. 13, figs. 323, 326, 334, 338. 1906.

Recorps.—China; Szechwan Province, Suifu, 1000 feet, many females,

males, and immatures taken November 25, 1929, October 15, 1930, and June,

1930; Kuanshien, 2000 feet, March 2, 1930, females; Kunghsien, 1200 feet,

April 3, 1930, males and females; Chengtu, 1200 feet, April 1, 1930, females;

Yunnan Border, 6000 feet, October, 1928 males, females, and immatures.

Lycosa subcoelestis, n. sp.

Female: Total length 10.89 mm. Carapace 5.64 mm. long, 4.45 mm.

wide. Abdomen 5.05 mm. long, 4.15 mm. wide. Carapace brown with a

median longitudinal light brown band which begins at a point midway be-

tween the second row of eyes and the third row. This band widens as it

progresses backwards, half-way down the cephalothorax it is as wide as the

third eye row, here it abruptly narrows to a thin line one-third the width of

the anterior portion which widens slightly at the dorsal groove, but narrows

again after leaving it. Sides of the carapace brown, the margins dark, with

submarginal light bands. Sternum and endites light brown, the labium

darker, coxae and the other joints of the legs clear light brown. Abdomen

orange at the sides, medially with a narrow light brown, basal band extend-

ing almost one-half the total length of the abdomen; at its caudal end this

456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

band bears two light spots on each side. Posterior portion of the abdomen

with numerous yellow spots scattered in the dark field. Venter orange.

First row of eyes as wide as the second, straight, the medians larger, and

closer to the laterals than to each other. Eyes of the second row their di-

ameter apart. Third row of eyes broader than the second (35/26), and much

narrower than the carapace at that point. Quadrangle of posterior eyes

wider than long (35/28). Clypeus equal in height to the diameter of the

anterior median eyes. Chelicerae with three teeth on the lower margin and

strong indication of a fourth one. Legs moderately stout, the tibiae with

2-2-2 spines below, the posterior tibiae with basal and submedian spines

above. Tibia and patella I, 4.55 mm. long. Tibia and patella IV, 5.14 mm.

long. Epigynum: Similar to that of Lycosa coelestis L. Koch.

Type LocaLity.—China; female holotype from Suifu, Szechwan Prov-

ince; 3 female paratypes from Yachow District, Szechwan Province, 1800

feet, May 1928; 2 female paratypes from the Yunnan Border, 6000 feet; 2

female paratypes from Shin Kai Sei, Mt. Omei, 4400 feet. Type: U.S. N.

M. Cat. No. 1142.

This species closely resembles Lycosa coelestis L. Koch, but is distinguish-

able from it by the different designs on the cephalothorax and abdomen

(fig. 1), by the light sternum and venter, and by the smaller size. Paratypes

from the above localities were smaller than the type by as many as 3 mm.

The total length of the females of L. subcoelestis varies from 8.5 to 11.5 mm.,

while that of L. coelestis L. Koch ranges from 12 to 15 mm.

Pardosa astrigera L. Koch

Pardosa astrigera L. Koch Verh. Zool-Bot. Gesell. Wien 27: 775, pl. 16,

figs. 37,38. 1877.

Recorps.—China: Szechwan Province, Suifu, 1000 feet, May 1928, 3

females; Yachow District, 1800 feet, May, 1928, female.

Pardosa laura Karsch

Pardosa laura Karsch Verh. Ver. Rheinl. 36: 102, pl. 1, fig. 21. 1879.

Recorps.—China: Szechwan Province, Suifu, 1000 feet, June 1925, fe-

male; May, 1928, 3 females; Shin Kai Sei, Mt. ‘Omei, 4000 feet, August ff

1929, "female; Yachow District, 1800 feet, 1 May, 1928, ” female; West of Ya-

chow, 2000 feet, June, 1923, male.

Mature females have distinct annulations on the legs, which is in accord-

ance with Karsch’s original description. The annulations of the legs of males,

however, are indistinct and sometimes obsolete.

Pirata clercki (Bosenberg and Strand)

Tarentula (Piratica) clercki Bosenberg and Strand Abh. Senckenb. Naturf.

Gesell. 30: 316, pl. 8, fig. 107; pl. 13, fig. 320. 1906.

Recorps.—China: Szechwan Province, Suifu, 1200 feet, April 1, 1930,

2 females; Kunghsien, 1200 feet, April 3, 1930, five females; Chungking, 6000

feet, September 20, 1930, 2 females.

OcToBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 457

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1077TH MEETING

The 1077th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January 5,

1935, President GisH presiding.

An address entitled The frontiers of aerodynamics, illustrated by slides,

was delivered by the retiring President H. L. Drypn. This address was pub-

lished in this JoURNAL 25: 101-122, 1935.

1078TH MEETING

The 1078th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

January 19, 1935, President GisuH presiding.

Program: Pauu Smitu: Ray paths of sound in deep sea water.—During

1933 and 1934, experiments were made by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic

Survey to determine the horizontal path of sound through sea water, and

valuable information has been obtained. The ships Pioneer and Guide on

the Pacific Coast operated in depths of about 1000 fathoms and many

oscillograph and chronograph records were made of small bombs fired near

the surface and to depths of 600 fathoms, with distances from 16 to 48

kilometers between ships. On the Atlantic Coast, the ships Oceanographer

and Lydonia experimented with both ships in depths of 1450 fathoms and

again with one ship stationed at 793 fathoms while the other steamed to-

ward shore into shoal water. In the Atlantic Coast experiments, time inter-

vals were measured only by chronograph. The records of these experiments

show that up to certain distances the bomb signal may be received by di-

fracted paths and also by reflected paths between the bomb and the hydro-

phone. The experiments have given data of great value for the purpose of

increasing the accuracy of radio acoustic ranging. (Author’s abstract.)

Herpert G. Dorsey: The Dorsey fathometer—To be published in this

JOURNAL.

These papers were discussed by Messrs. GisH, Stimson, HUMPHREYS,

Curtis, McNisH and Rups.

1079TH MEETING

The 1079th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February

2, 1935, President GisH presiding.

Program: L. 8. Taytor: The problem of measurement of x-rays and gamma-

rays.

F. L. Mouter: Bactericidal effects of x-rays —When an X-ray quantum is

absorbed by matter the entire energy is given to a single electron. This

high-speed electron gradually dissipates its energy leaving a trail (column)

of ions behind it. In liquids and solids the density of ionization in these

columns is so great that nearly all the ions recombine and the effects are

strictly limited to the columns of ionization. The theory proposed is that

killing bacteria depends simply on the chance that a column of ionization

passes through the cell or a certain part of the cell and the probability is

expressed in terms of the effective collision area S for a fatal encounter. If

this is true then the fraction surviving an exposure of time ¢ will be A(t)/Ao

458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

=e~*', Wyckoff and Rivers! studied first the killing of bacteria by 155 kv

cathode rays. A dilute culture of colon bacilli was flowed over a surface of

agar jelly and exposed to a measured current of cathode rays. After an in-

cubation period a count of the colonies gave the survival ratio which de-

pended on exposure time according to the exponential law. If S is the area

sterilized by each cathode ray then nS is the fraction of the area sterilized

by a flux of n cathode rays per second and nS can be equated to a. The re-

sulting value of S is .7610-'° em.2 The bacilli are short rods with cross sec-

tions of the order of 10° cm? so the vital spot is a small part of the bacillus.

Wyckoff has published comparable measurements of the killing of colon

bacilli by characteristic soft X-rays of different wave lengths. In this case

the dosage in r units is given. From this one can estimate the number of

quanta n absorbed per cm per sec. in the agar. Each fast electron goes a dis-

tance x and sterilizes a volume Sz. Equating nSz to a gives values of S

which vary somewhat with the X-ray wave length. Wave lengths of .56 and

.70A give values nearly the same as for cathode rays, viz. .7107!° em’.

Wave lengths ranging from 1.5 to 4A give values from 1.9 to 2.6 X 10~'° em?.

The density of ionization is very much greater for the longest wave lengths

so that the effectiveness in terms of r units is much less for the longest wave

lengths.? (Author’s abstract.)

F. O. Cor: Opaque media in clinical roentgenography.—After the first few

months of the use of Roentgen rays in medicine one of the early writers con-

cluded that Roentgenographic methods would be of some value in the fol-

lowing conditions: (1) foreign bodies imbedded in any of the soft tissues of

the body; (2) foreign bodies in certain of the organs and viscera; (3) foreign

bodies found within the body itself. (4) inflammatory swellings and new

growths; (5) fractures and dislocations.

In Roentgen’s first two classical communications he reported his findings

on the absorption of X-rays by a large number of metals and other sub-

stances. Roentgen had noted that lead, gold and heavier metals were opaque

to the rays he was using, while some of the lighter metals and some organic

substances were much less so.

Dr. Williams of Boston suggested the use of bismuth subnitrate mixed

with food in the fluoroscopic examination of the esophagus, and thus was

created the prototype of all subsequent diagnostic procedures in the esoph-

agus.

Immediately following the first experiments bismuth subnitrate meals

were used in the examination of the stomach. Cannon then gave dogs and

cats bismuth with their meals and did his classical research on the gastro-

intestinal tract. About 1917 barium sulphate was substituted and has since

been in use. This media complies with all of the necessary requirements. It

is of high atomic weight, is easily obtained in a pure form, is non-toxic and

is inexpensive.

Because of their high atomic weight and lack of toxicity in certain chemi-

cal combinations the substances now being commonly used are barium sul-

phate; iodine in many combinations; and thorium in several forms.

The law governing the absorption of Roentgen rays in general is that the

absorption is directly proportioned to the fourth power of the atomic num-

ber.

These opaque substances used in clinical Roentgen diagnosis have been

administered in two ways: (1) By direct introduction into the hollow vis-

cera, either by swallowing them or by injection, (2) those given by mouth

1 J. Exp. Med. 51: 921. 1980.

2 J. Exp. Med. 52: 485. 1930.

OcToBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 459

or intravenously, and then selectively excreted or absorbed in certain organs.

The element of danger in the use of Roentgen rays has been recognized

and largely overcome. The present problem is the refinement and extension

of available methods and of more importance, the correct interpretations of

the many variations from the normal pattern. (Author’s abstract.)

These papers were discussed by Messrs. TucKERMAN, WENNER, GISH,

Humpureys, MAXWELL, Curtis and KRAcEK.

1080TH MEETING

The 1080th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February

16, 1935, President GisH presiding.

Program: F. B. StnsBeEn: Superconductivity at radio frequencies.—The re-

sults of measurements made in the temperature range 2.5°K to 4.2°K on the

electrical resistance of wires of tin and of tantalum were reported. These

showed that the temperatures at which half of the resistance had vanished

were the same for alternating currents of frequencies up to 10° cycles per

second as for direct current. The effective resistance when the specimens

were well below their transition temperatures were too small to detect even

at radio frequencies by the calorimetric and electrical methods tried.

Experiments in which alternating current of 200 kilocycles per second

was superposed on direct current in a tin wire showed a component of po-

tential difference having a frequency of 400 kilocycles per second. The mag-

nitude of this component, and its variation with temperature and with the

values of the currents, indicated that the specimen must have been fluctu-

ating in resistance cyclically as a result of the cyclic disturbance of the super-

conducting condition by the magnetic field of the currents. (Awthor’s ab-

stract.)

F. G. BrickweppeE: The uses of deutertwm and the measurement of its

vapor pressures.—Published in this JouRNAL 25: 157-166, 1935.

These papers were discussed by Messrs. Ives, Giso, Kracex, McNisu,

TuUcKERMAN, RoESER, SWINGLE and others.

Informal communication.—H. lL. DrypEn presented the Society with a

gavel made from historic wood, by M. Lancs of the National Bureau of

Standards, and inscribed as follows: ‘““This gavel was made from timbers

placed in the White House in 1816 and removed in 1927.”

1081sT MEETING

The 1081st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 2,

1935, President GisuH presiding.

Program: L. V. BeRKNER: Ionosphere observations at the department of

terrestrial magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.—Exploration of

the ionization of the earth’s upper atmosphere or zonosphere are made

possible by the transmission of radio waves and observation of the reflec-

tions returned. Methods have been devised which allow the recording of the

state of this ionization through the whole height of the region. Observations

by these methods have been made in both the northern and southern hemi-

spheres and give generalized ideas concerning the ionosphere.

Two general regions of ionization are found at night. The lowest or E-

region ionization ex'sts at about 100 km. The highest or F-region ionization

is observed above 250 km. With sunrise, the ionization of both regions in-

creases rapidly. If the latitude is such that the sun approaches within about

40° of the zenith at noon, the F-region separates into two ionized regions.

460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 10

The lower of these, the Fy-region falls to about 180 km. while the upper or

F,-region rises to above 300 km. As a result, the »-region appears as a bulge

roughly circular in area under the sun, with the F;-region beneath it and de-

pressed below the level of the surrounding F.-region, with the two layers

merging together at zenith angles of about 40°.

The maximum ionization of the #- and F;-regions varies with the altitude

of the sun, and this consideration together with the data obtained during the

solar eclipses shows that the chief ionizing agency must be ultra-violet light.

The maximum ionization of the F/.-region starts to rise with sunrise, but if

the sun reaches high altitudes, the rise ceases or a decrease occurs near noon,

with a rise to a maximum in the afternoon or evening. A great variability

in maximum ionization of the F2-region ionization occurs from day to day.

These interesting and complex effects cannot be explained as a simple func-

tion of the altitude of the sun, as is the case with the lower layers. It is

significant that such variability should occur in the region of the atmosphere

most directly exposed to the sun, above which the absorption of the sun’s

rays is small.

Sources of ionization other than ultra-violet light are known to be present

in the lower region between 100 and 150 km. This is evidenced by sudden

increases in ionization to abnormal values which may occur at any time dur-

ing the twenty-four hours. Such ionizations have been shown to be local

rather than general in extent.

There is also some evidence that intermediate regions of ionization may

exist between the H- and F-regions, but it is difficult to determine whether

such regions actually exist separately, or whether the effects may be due to

an inhomogeneity of ionization of the whole region of ionization which must

extend upward from the H-region to the F-region. The evidence for very

high night layers is also considered, but the data is not sufficiently complete

to reach any conclusion, as such effects might arise from other causes.

(Author’s abstract.)

E. O. Hutsurt: Theory of the ionosphere. The atmosphere above about

180 km. is heated by the absorption by molecular oxygen of the spectral

region from 1200 to 1800A of sunlight. Calculation indicates that the tem-

perature of the atmosphere from 180 to 300 km. may increase 50° per hour

in the daytime, which causes molecular oxygen, and possibly nitrogen, to

dissociate into atoms. Due to the heating and dissociation there is a marked

daily expansion, and nightly contraction, of these outlying levels.

For a static atmosphere, with no motion, winds or diffusion, the density y

of the ionization of any region during the day is related to the zenith angle

Z of the sun approximately by

y = yoVcos Z (1)

if the recombination coefficient of electrons and positive ions is of the form

given by the three body collision theory of Sir J. J. Thomson, and if the

ultra-violet light of the sun is the cause of the ionization.

The recently published ionosphere data of the National Bureau of Stand-

ards and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Insti-

tution are the most comprehensive and accurate which have yet been ob-

tained and constitute the first approach to a world-wide survey of the

ionosphere.

The E region.—The hourly average values of y of E agree closely, within

10 per cent, with (1) throughout the year, showing that the solar ultra-

OcToBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 461

violet light is the cause of the ionization and, as expected from theory, that

diffusion is unimportant. Sporadic variations of y may be due to winds and

to the liberation of energy by excited atoms and molecules.

The F; region.—The observed diurnal and seasonal curves of y of F; are

somewhat flatter than those given by (1). Diffusion of the ionization seems

adequate to account for the difference between the observed and theoretical

curves.

The F 2 region.—For F» the ionization caused by solar ultra-violet light is

modified by the daily expansion of the atmosphere above 200 km. and by the

winds which result from the expansion. Omitting details it may be stated

that the theory gives qualitative agreement with most of the complex daily

and seasonal changes in /2, such as the double daily maximum of y of FP»

at the equator, the noon winter maximum and the evening summer maxi-

mum in temperate regions. (Author’s abstract.)

These papers were discussed by Messrs. Mouipr, HAwkKESWoRTH, GISH

and others.

Presentation of a paper on Jonosphere observations of the National Bureau

of Standards was cancelled due to illness of the author.

Informal communications: E. BuckineHam: The calculation of potential

flow in aerodynamics.

H. C. Dickinson: The statistical distribution of actual incomes as compared

to the presumably random distribution of earning ability.

1082ND MEETING

The 1082nd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March

16, 1935, President GisH presiding.

Program: G. GamMow: The problems of beta-ray disintegrations.—Experi-

ments on the beta rays emitted from the radioactive elements have shown

that beta particles, as ejected from the nucleus, have a continuous distribu-

tion in energy, whereas alpha particles emitted in both preceding and sub-

sequent transformations show discrete energy values. The continuous spec-

trum of beta rays implies an infinity of isomers while the discrete alpha-

particle energies suggest that all nuclei of the same isotope are identical.

Two hypotheses have been suggested for explaining this paradox. The

first, by Bohr, escapes the beta-ray difficulty by relinquishing the Law of

Conservation of Energy for interactions of beta particles at distances com-

parable to nuclear dimensions, since these are below the critical limit for

which Dirac’s theory is applicable. However, Landau has shown that Bohr’s

hypothesis encounters difficulties when considered from the viewpoint of

general relativistic gravitation theory.

The second hypothesis, proposed by Pauli, assumes the existence of par-

ticles of zero charge, and of mass comparable to the electron, and that these

particles (called neutrinos) are emitted at the same time as the beta particle

in such a way that the sum of the energies of charged and uncharged parti-

cles is constant. The neutrino hypothesis appears to be most attractive at

the present time, especially since it is also of value in clarifying problems

in the apparently urelated field of spectroscopy. The fact that such neu-

trinos have not been observed experimentally cannot be taken as strong evi-

dence against their existence since their properties are such as to render them

practically unobservable. (A uthor’s abstract.)

The lecture was discussed by Messrs. Kracrek, GisH, WHITE, TUCKER-

MAN, BRICKWEDDE, RoxrsEeR, Gipson, McNisH, Sercrer and Harsrap.

462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 10

1083RD MEETING

The 1083rd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

March 30, 1935, President Gisx presiding.

The program consisted of the fifth Joseph Henry lecture by P. R. Hryt

on the subject What ts electricity. This lecture was published in this Jour-

NAL 25: 201-220, 1935.

1084TH MEETING

The 1084th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 13th,

1935, Vice-President Hecx presiding.

Program: G. B. ScHuBAUER: Turbulence and its relation to the diffusion of

heat.—The turbulent condition of the air in a wind tunnel is one of the

factors which makes the wind in a wind tunnel unlike a natural wind and also

unlike the wind created by motion through still air. Pecause of this fact,

much attention has been given to the effect of turbulence on aerodynamic

forces and to methods of measuring the amount of turbulence itself. One

means of expressing the amount of turbulence in a stream is to use the root-

mean-square of the speed fluctuations introduced by the turbulent motions.

This quantity, usually divided by the average speed and expressed as a per-

centage, is often correlated with the various effects of turbulence.

Since the apparatus necessary for the measurement of percentage turbu-

lence is quite complicated and requires considerable skill on the part of the

operator, it is desirable to find some simpler measuring device which if de-

sired might be calibrated in terms of percentage turbulence. In the search

for such an instrument, a study was made of the diffusion of heat from a

platinum-iridium wire, 0.002 inches in diameter and 3 inches long, placed at

right angles to a stream which was made turbulent by placing ahead of the

platinum-iridium wire, wire screens of various mesh size. The temperature

distribution at a given distance behind the wire in the sheet of heated air

carried down stream from the wire was found to be greatly affected by the

amount of turbulence in the stream. The temperature distribution was de-

termined by a thermocouple connected to a sensitive galvanometer. The

width of the temperature distribution curve at half maximum temperature

was selected to characterize the width of the heated sheet; and the part of

this width remaining after deducting the width due to the thermal conduc-

tivity of the air was found to be a function of percentage turbulence alone,

regardless of the scale or eddy size of the turbulence.! For this reason the

width of the temperature distribution curve at half maximum temperature

is a satisfactory substitute for percentage turbulence.

A study of diffusion by turbulent motions such as outlined here offers a

promising field for future research both in theory and experiment. (Author’s

abstract.)

W. RaMBERG: Propeller vibrations and propeller failures—The recurrence

of propeller failures resulting in serious damage and sometimes in loss of life

has led to numerous investigations into the causes of such failures. It was

seen that failures took place at relatively low design stresses. At the same

time the appearance of the fractures with their successive zones of failure

supported the view that alternating stresses were the cause of failure. The

generation of sufficiently intense alternating stresses could be explained only

by resonance vibrations most probably sustained by periodic variations in

1 ScouBavuER, G. B. A turbulence indicator utilizing the diffusion of heat. Tech-

nical Report, No. 524, N.A.C.A., 1935.

OcToBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 463

the driving torque. The problem resolves itself into a study of the stresses

set up in a propeller vibrating at a natural frequency.

The speaker reviewed briefly the work on this problem done outside the

National Bureau of Standards. He then described in some detail the method

of investigations used in that Bureau. He showed the electrical set-up used

for exciting full-sized non-rotating propeller blades to resonant vibrations

and explained the method of measuring the amplitude of these vibrations

and also the stresses at the surface of the blade. A number of stress distribu-

tions obtained experimentally were shown and it was indicated that these

served as an explanation of the mid-blade failures and tip failures in service.

The measured stress distributions were shown to agree satisfactorily with

those computed theoretically upon the assumption that the propeller blades

vibrated asa cantilever beam of variable section. A further check on the cor-

rectness of the observed results was obtained by noting that eight blades

vibrated without rotation at relatively high tip amplitude, eventually de-

veloped a fatigue crack at a point where the stresses were within a few

percent of the measured maximum stresses.

In conclusion the speaker pointed out some of the problems yet to be

solved to explain service failures of propellers. He also demonstrated a model

showing an extension of the electrical method of excitation used at the

Bureau of Standards to set up vibration in a rotating propeller. (A uthor’s

abstract.)

The papers were discussed by Munx, Dryprn, TucKkKERMAN, HAWKEs-

WORTH, BRICKWEDDE, Heck, and others.

1085TH MEETING

The 1085th meeting was held in the Cosmos Ciub Auditorium, May 11,

1935, President GisH presiding.

Program: M. A. Tuvn: Some recent developments in high-energy physics.—

The speaker outlined the problems in this field which had been discussed at

the Conference on Theoretical Physics recently held in Washington under

the joint auspices of the George Washington University and the Carnegie

Institution. Of the questions considered at this Conference, the following

appeared to be of outstanding importance: (1) magnetic moments of the

fundamental particles (2) emission of dipole or quadriipole radiation (3) inter-

action forces of particles (4) mechanism of capture of slow neutrons (5)

energy conservation in beta-ray disintegrations (6) correction of the Aston

Mass Seale (7) failure of Maxwells equations at high energies.

Discussed by Messrs. TucKERMAN, Kracnx, ApAms, Harsrap and others.

Informal communications: L. B. TuckERMAN.—Experiments he had per-

formed whereby material specimens placed under heavy hydrostatic pres-

sures showed tension fractures were described. Sample test specimens were

exhibited.

Discussed by Tuvr, ApAms and others.

A radio broadeast address by L. J. Briggs on the 1935 stratosphere flight

was also presented as an informal communication.

L. R. Harsrap, Recording Secretary

1086TH MEETING

The 1086th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium May 25,

1935, Vice-president WENNER presiding.

Program: Paut H. Emmurr: Adsorption and catalytic conversion of ortho-to

para-hydrogen over tron synthetic ammonia catalysts —A combined study of

464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 10

the adsorption of hydrogen on iron catalysts and of the influence of pres-

sure, temperature and poisons on the catalytic ortho-para hydrogen inter-

conversion over iron has been made. The experiments show the existence of

at least three types of adsorption of hydrogen on the surface of iron syn-

thetic ammonia catalysts, a physical or van der Waals’ adsorption at —190°

to 130°, a low temperature (type A) activated adsorption between —90°

and 0°, and a higher temperature (type B) activated adsorption at and above

100°C. The temperature coefficient of the orthopara interconversion is

positive throughout the range —190° to 60°, the latter being the highest tem-

perature used. The apparent energy of activation became progressively

larger as the temperature increased, rising from a few hundred calories at

—190° to about 6000 calories at room temperature. The time for half

conversion increases with the pressure both at —190° and at higher temper-

atures. The low temperature (—190°) conversion is presumably associated

with the van der Waals’ adsorption. At —78° the rate of conversion begins

to inerease rapidly with temperature and is apparently brought about by

type A activated adsorption. The conversion at —190° is strongly poisoned

by either the type A or type B activated adsorption, the latter being about

8 times as poisonous per unit volume adsorbed as the former. (Author’s ab-

stract.)

Discussed by Messrs. BuckINGHAM, HAWKESWORTH, HUMPHREYS,

TUCKERMAN, BRICKWEDDE, GIBSON and Curtis.

Informal communication: F. G. Brickweppe and R. B. Scorr (presented

by F. G. Brickweppk): The vapor pressure of hydrogen deuteride-—Hydro-

gen deuteride (HD) was separated by distillation from 4 liters of an equi-

librium mixture of H,, HD and De, containing equal parts of hydrogen and

deuterium, using a still with a reflux rectification column, immersed in

liquid hydrogen. There were obtained 500 em* of HD of purity 99.95 percent

TABLE 1.—VAPOR PRESSURE OF HyDROGEN DEUTERIDE

Temperature, Vapor Pressure in Latent Heat of HD

SKS mm. of Hg in cal/mol

H HD Vaporization Fusion

22). Wed® 1230 760.0

20.38 760.0 438 .0 261

16.60» 201.4 93.6 265 (liquid) 37

16.60 201.4 93.6 302 (solid)

13.92 54.0 15.96 296

= Obtained by extrapolating the vapor pressure equation to P(HD) =760 mm.

b Triple Point.

or better as estimated by a comparison of its vapor pressure with that of

two fractions collected immediately before and after. The vapor pressure of

this pwre HD was compared with that of liquid normal H, in the range 13.92

to 20.38°K. The following empirical equations were obtained, expressing

pressures in mm of Hg:

logioP(HD liquid) = —0.85411 + 1.27713 log:P(H») — 0.02212

logio°P (He)

logioP(HD solid) = —1.11571 + 1.33969 logioP (He)

Using the Clapeyron equation and the equation of state of H» for HD,

latent heats were calculated from the above equations for HD, and the

vapor pressure-temperature equation of normal hydrogen.

OcToBER 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 465

After 15 days there was no reversion to the equilibrium mixture of Hn,

HD and D, that could be detected by a change in vapor pressure. (Author’s

abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Gipson, HawkESwWoRTH, BUCKINGHAM, SEEGER,

Strmson and TucKERMAN.

F. B. SinsBen, Acting Recording Secretary

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Nores

Washington Scientists at International Congresses—Numerous Washing-

ton scientists served as official delegates of the United States Government

at various international congresses held in Europe during the past summer

and autumn. A partial list follows:

Sixth International Botanical Congress, Amsterdam, September 2 to 7:

Dr G: EH. Coons, Mr. T. P. Dyxsrra, Dr. A. S. Hircacock, Mr. B. Y.

Morrison and Dr. Neri E. Stevens, all of the U.S. Department of Agri-

culture, and Mr. Exusworty P. Kinurp, of the U. 8. National Museum.

Twelfth International Congress of Zoology, Lisbon, September 15 to 21:

Dr. LEONHARD STEJNEGER, U. 8. National Museum, and or. CHARLES W.

STILEs, Smithsonian Institution.

Third Conference of the International Society of Soil Science, Oxford,

July 30 to August 6: Dr. C. E. Ketioae, Dr. W. C. Lowprrmiix, Dr. A. G.

McCatt and Dr. OswaLp SCHREINER, allvorithesUess: Department of

Agriculture.

Sixth International Congress on Entomology, Madrid, September 6 to

12: Dr. LronHarp Strsnecer, U. 8S. National Museum, and Mr. Len A.

Strona, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Fourth International Technical and Chemical Congress of Agricultural

Industries, Brussels, July 15 to 28: Dr. ATHERTON SEIDELL, U. 8. Public

Health Service, and Dr. JAmms M. Doran, Distilled Spirits Institute.

Fourteenth Session of the Medical Days of Brussels, Brussels, June 29

to July 3: Maj. Epaar E. Hume, Medical Corps, U. 8S. Army, and Medical

Director C. C. Prrrcz, U.S. Public Health Service.

Celebrations of Centenary of Geological Survey of Great Britain, London,

July 3 to 5: Dr. ArtHUR L. Day, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Seventh International Congress on Industrial Accidents and Occupational

Diseases, Brussels, July 22 to 26: Dr. C. C. Prerczr, U. 8. Public Health

Service, and Mr. Witu1am G. Ricr, Division of Labor Statistics.

First International Congress of Gastro-Enterolog gy, Brussels, August

8 to 10: Lt. Col. Joan H. Triprr, Medical Corps, U. 8S. Army, Dr. Ray L.

Sexton and Dr. Wittram G. Moraan.

Twelfth International Congress on Pharmacy, Brussells, July 30 to August

5: Maj. Epcar E. Humes, Medical Corps, U. 8. Army.

Meetings in Ibero-American Countries —Washington scientists also at-

tended inter-American gatherings held in the capitals of our neighbor re-

publics to the south. Among these were:

466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 10

Seventh American Scientific Congress, Mexico City, September 8 to 17:

Dr. Croyp H. Marvin, President, George Washington University, Dr.

Neiu M. Jupp, U.S. National Museum, and Dr. Francr V. SHouEs, Car-

negie Institution of Washington.

Third Pan American Red Cross Conference, Rio de Janeiro, September 15

to 25: Rear Admiral Cary T. Grayson, Chairman, American National Red

Cross, and Dr. THomas W. Gos.ine, Director, American Junior Red Cross.

National Committee on Inter-American Intellectual Cooperation.—A Na-

tional Committee to cooperate with the Division of Technical and Scientific

Exchange of the Pan American Union was recently established and its six-

teen members appointed by the Secretary of State, under the Chairmanship

of Mr. Joun W. SrupEBAKER, Commissioner of Education in the Depart-

ment of the Interior. The action was taken to carry out the terms of resolu-

tions adopted by the Seventh International Conference of American States

that met in Montevideo, Uruguay, in December, 1933. Those resolutions

had for their general theme the promotion of such measures as would facili-

tate scientific and technical interchange among the American countries in

order to raise the cultural level and in general to further the advancement

of the peoples of the Western Hemisphere.

Water Resources Committee—Water resources of the United States are to

be planned on a basis of national use, by a newly appointed committee which

will deal with PWA projects involving any use or control of water or re-

sources dependent on water. The scope of the committee’s activities will

include power, flood control, erosion, wildlife conservation, and a number of

other problems. The personnel includes: ABEL WoLMAN, chairman of the

Maryland Planning Board; THORNDIKE SAVILLE, of the American Society

of Civil Engineers and associate dean of the College of Engineering, New-

York University; N. C. Grover, chief hydraulic engineer, water resources

branch, U.S. Geological Survey; ELwoop Mrap, director of the Bureau of

Reclamation; JAy N. Darina, chief of the Biological Survey; H. H. Bren-

NETT, chief of the Soil Conservation Service; R. Y. TarBeErt, sanitary en-

gineer, U. 8. Public Health Service; Maj. Gen. Epwarp M. Marxkuam,

chief of the U. 8S. Army Engineer Corps; Tuomas R. Tarts, director of the

National Power Survey, Federal Power Commission; H. H. Barrows,

professor of geography at the University of Chicago and formerly a member

of the Mississippi Valley Committee and the National Resources Commit-

tee; Epwarp Hyatt, state engineer, California.

National Bureau of Standards.—Mr. E. C. CrirtenpEN, Assistant Direc-

tor of the National Bureau of Standards, sailed from Baltimore on Sep-

tember 5 to attend a meeting of the advisory committee on electricity

appointed by the International Committee on Weights and Measures. This

meeting was held at Sevres and Paris the week of September 23. The meet-

ing of the advisory committee was followed by the regular biennial session

of the International Committee, of which the American member is Prof.

A. E. KENNELLY of Harvard University.

U.S. National Park Service.—Director ARNo B. CAMMERER left Washing-

ton in late August for the West, accompanying members of the Committee

on Public Lands and Surveys of the Senate on an inspection tour of national

park projects. Mr. Brn H. THompson, formerly of the Wildlife Staff and

now special assistant to the Director, is accompanying Director CAMMERER

on this trip.

OctToBER 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 467

Dr. Cart P. RussELu, in charge of Eastern Museum Activities of the

Service, will leave Washington in late September for a visit to the Field

Division of Education at Berkeley, California. Dr. Louis ScHELLBAcH,

Assistant to Dr. Russpiu, will leave Washington at the same time for

Berkeley where he plans to remain to direct museum work in western parks

and monuments.

Depariment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

—The establishment of radio communication over an assumed path greater

than half the earth’s circumference between the radio station at Washing-

ton Grove, Maryland, and the Watheroo Magnetic Observatory operated

by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington in Western Australia, was reported by the former station on

August 21, 1935. Ordinarily communications between the Watheroo Mag-

netic Observatory and stations in the vicinity of Washington are achieved

over paths crossing the Pacific Ocean, some 11,900 miles in length. As the

communication referred to above took place between 6:30 and 7:00 P.M.,

75th meridian time, it is assumed that the transmission-path was over the

eastern portion of the globe, which at that time was in darkness.

H. W. We tts, observer in the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of

the Carnegie Institution of Washington, who for the past three years has

been assisting in the program of ionosphere-work at the Huancayo Magnetic

Observatory in Peru, returned to Washington on September 5.

News Brirrs

Sugar cane produces a “virus-paralyzing”’ substance in its growing tips,

which combats the effects of cane mosaic, Drs. E. W. BranpEs and Junius

Martz, U.S. Department of Agriculture, reported to the fifth triennial con-

gress of the International Society of Sugarcane Technologists held at Bris-

bane, Australia, in August. They found that when juice extracted from

healthy tissue taken from near the growing tips was mixed with juice from

mosaic-sick plants, known to contain the virus, and the mixture then in-

jected into healthy canes, the resulting infection was much less severe than

control infections caused by unmixed virus-containing Juice.

The Federal study of chronic illness in nineteen “sample” states through-

out the country is scheduled to start October 15. The study will be directed

by GrorGs St. J. PERROTT, statistician of the U. 8. Public Health Service,

under a PWA grant of $3,450,000. Ninety percent of the personnel will be

taken from the work-relief rolls of the various states. Some of the informa-

tion will be obtained from the records of hospitals and sick-benefit associa-

tions. The rest will come from a house-to-house canvass of 750,000 families

selected as representative of the general population, at various income levels.

Besides chronic illness, data will be collected on physical disabilities such as

blindness, deafness and loss of limbs. Field headquarters will be in Detroit.

ee eer ee ov eEe————————————SVva_—ooV_VuaX-

468 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 10

Obituary

Wa.trer HouaGu, head curator of anthropology at the U. 8. National

Museum, died at his home, 1332 Farragut Street, N. W., Washington, D. C.,

September 20, 1935, after a short illness. He was born April 23, 1859, at

Morgantown, W. Va. After graduating from the University of West Vir-

ginia in 1883, he taught in a boys’ school at Alton, Ill., until 1886, when he

became an aid in the division of ethnology at the National Museum, rising

eventually to the position of head curator of anthropology in 1923. He re-

ceived the Ph.D. degree from his alma mater in 1894 and was elected to

membership in Phi Beta Kappa there in 1914.

Doctor Hough conducted numerous explorations in the Southwestern

States, Mexico, and other regions in search of archaeological and ethno-

logical data about the American Indian. The results of these and other re-

searches are embodied in many publications, the chief of which deal with

such subjects as aboriginal use of fire, history of illumination, primitive

armor, Hopi ethnobotany and pigments, Malayan ethnography. Doctor

Hough was twice president of the Anthropological Society of Washington.

He was also a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences, American

Association for the Advancement of Science, Société d’Anthropologie, Swed-

ish Society of Anthropology and Geography, and a Knight of the Order of

Isabella of Spain.

Ernst Grore FiscHer, formerly chief of the Instrument Division of the

Coast and Geodetic Survey, died at Garfield Hospital, Washington, D. C.,

September 22, 1935. He was born at Baltimore, Md., August 6, 1852. At the

age of two he was taken to Dresden, Germany, where he attended elemen-

tary schools and studied and worked as an engineer until 1870. He then re-

turned to America taking up private engineering practice. In 1887 Mr.

Fischer entered the Instrument Division of the Coast and Geodetic Survey

and served as the Chief of this Division until his retirement in 1932. In 1934

the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia awarded him the Howard M. Potts

gold medal for “‘a lifetime spent with marked success in the design of instru-

ments of precision for the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.” A

list compiled in 1922 contains 24, including tide gauges, artificial horizon,

geodetic level, transit micrometer, pressure sounding tube and most remark-

able of all, a tide-predicting machine, which won for him widespread recog-

nition. Mr. Fischer was a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

the Philosophical Society, the Society of Washington Engineers and the

Cosmos Club.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS

SrismoLocy.—Harthquakes associated with the 1934 eruption of

Kilauea, Hawaii. Austin E. JoNnzEs.. Sia! eae

Botany.—Three new species of Aphelandra from Colombia. ‘ie C. se

EROWABD a! aeons. . Roope ae BES eae os ee

PALEOBOTANY.—Some fossil conifers from Maryland and N orth —

Dakota. Ronanp W. BRown.......... Sauk ele ee eee

OrNnITHOLOGY.—A new race of the crested caglechaw, Sica

ornatus. HERBERT FRIEDMANN........ Se eT eee Sark te Zea

ZooLtocy.—Chinese spiders of the family Lycosidae.:

x PROCEEDINGS

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.......... ce a a ea ee:

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals _

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OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

F. G. BrickwEepp5 Roxuanp Ws Brown

BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVHY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Was Wense1 f Harotp Morrison

: | PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCINTY

1B. ad. Gonpman : W. W: Rusny

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Acnes CHAsE ~ J; Ri Swanton

BOTANICAL SOCINTY 4 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

R. E. Gipson

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 25 NoveMBer 15, 1935 . No. 11

PHYSICS.—The Dorsey fathometer HmRBERT GROVE DorsEyY.

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The regular type of fathometer (U.S. Patent No. 1,667,540 to the

writer), has been used by the United States Coast and Geodetic

Survey since 1925 and has proved very valuable in measuring all

depths from 15 fathoms to 3,000—the deepest encountered by this

Bureau in regular surveying work. This work has all been done by

what is called the red light method, in which the depth is indicated

by a flash in a rotating neon tube and recorded in the sounding book.

While this type fathometer gave exce.lent results in depths greater

than 15 fathoms, there was need for an instrument of high precision

for depths less than 15 fathoms; consequently, in January, 1933, it

was decided to develop an instrument primarily for shoal water

only, that is, depths no greater than 20 fathoms which would over-

lap the depths measured by the regular type instrument, and since

it is desirable to have a comparatively large number of indications

per second it was decided to make the scale from 0 to 20 fathoms and

have 20 indications per second, so that there would be indicated a

nearly continuous profile of the bottom. In order to get sufficient

accuracy, it was decided to use a tuning fork driven by thermionic

tubes and drive a synchronous motor from this source. Figure 1

shows schematically the operation of the entire system.

INDICATOR

The indicator consists of the rotor, the stators and a starting motor

to bring the rotor up to synchronism. It was considered desirable

that the indicator run at its correct speed or not at all. The rotor is

run by current taken from the fork circuit and amplified by a pair

of power triodes. A tuning fork can easily be kept on its frequency

with an error less than 0.1 per cent, and if temperature control of

the fork be used, any desired accuracy can be obtained. The forks

1 Presented before the Philosophical Society, January 19, 1935. Publication ap-

proved by the Director of the Coast and Geodetic Survey of the U. S. aoe oa

of Commerce. Received July 8, 1935.

469

470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11

used are made of steel having a low temperature coefficient of modu-

lus of elasticity and temperature control is unnecessary since a change

of temperature of 30°C makes only about 0.1 per cent change in

frequency. By using a frequency of 1025 cycles per second and a

stator without polarizing current, a synchronous motor having 100

teeth on the rotor will rotate at a speed of 20.5 revolutions per second.

60 cycles

PHOTOELECTRIC LIGHT - 110 volts

TUBE mee E

TUNING FORK

1025 cycle supply

KEYING CIRCUIT INDICATOR

17.5 k.c supply

TRANSCEIVER

110 volts

60 cycles

CONVERTOR : 1\ f

On IS WE

110 volts, D.C. si oy te

SHIPS SUPPLY ' 13, f

fe if

Ocean bottom

Fig. 1—The Dorsey fathometer, schematic diagram of method of operation.

An annular space in the rotor is filled with mercury to act as a bal-

ance. In any method of controlling speed by a governor no correction

to the speed can be made until the speed has changed, whereas, with

a tuning fork the regulation is almost continuous. With this fork

frequency the velocity of calibration is 820 fathoms, or 1499.6 meters,

per second. On the same shaft with the rotor is a disk having a nar-

row radial slot and just back of this disk is a neon tube bent in the

form of a circle of 7 inches inside diameter, so that when the neon

tube is ionized it will be seen through the slot in the disk. The dura-

Nov. 15, 1935 DORSEY: DORSEY FATHOMETER 471

tion of this flash is probably not over 2 or 3 millionths of a second,

resulting in a brilliant red flash so brief that the slot appears station-

ary and for a constant depth the indication is so steady that it can

be viewed through a magnifying glass and the variation on the scale

is less than 1/32 inch. In front of the disk is a glass scale calibrated

to 20 fathoms, the fathoms being subdivided into feet. The diameter

of the scale is about 8 inches giving a scale length of 25 inches, thus

giving 0.2 of an inch for 1 foot of depth or 1.8 centimeters per meter

depth for a scale calibrated in the metric system. These divisions

can easily be read to tenths so that it is possible to read to tenths of

feet or to 10 centimeters on a metric scale. The dial is frosted slightly

so that little light is reflected, making the flashes more readily per-

ceptible. At one side near the teeth of the rotor is a small neon lamp,

actuated from the 1025 cycle alternating current, giving 2050 flashes

of light per second on the teeth, making them appear stationary

when the rotor is in synchronism with the tuning fork.

In order to send the signal, contacts were found unreliable, due to

chattering, so a small concave mirror is rotated on the shaft to reflect

light from an incandescent lamp to a photo-electric tube. The tube

and lamp are placed on top of the indicator under small hoods. A

slot under the photo-electric tube is adjustable, to correct the posi-

tion of the flash made at the zero of the scale when the signal is pro-

duced, so that the readings may indicate surface depth instead of

depth under the ship. Figures 2 and 3 show the front and side of the

indicator.

POWER SUPPLY

The electromotive force generated by the flash of light on the

photo-electric tube is amplified by a single triode and then changes

the grid bias of a thyratron, FG 65, a hot cathode gaseous triode,

causing a condenser, with renewable charge, to discharge through

the anode-cathode circuit of the thyratron. This discharge current

passes through the primary of a transformer, the secondary of which

is in the screen grid circuit of a pair of power pentodes in a self-

exciting push-pull circuit tuned to a frequency of 17.5 kilocycles.

The signal is then amplified by a pair of power triodes in the push-

pull circuit and passes to the transceiver. The method of changing

the screen grid voltage from about 200 volts negative to 300 or 400

volts positive gives a very short and regular signal. No current is

taken by the anode circuit of the tubes until the screen grids become

positive, thus economizing the high tension current. This method of

472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11

;

‘

DORSEY |

FATHOMETER |

& d} 5 7

{

Calitented for » Velocity of 620 Fathors pat wee. |

{

ete 3 i :

2 Ben ‘ Bimoigte ee | 4

? . * ie i j

Fig. 2—Front view of indicator. Fig. 3.—Side view with front removed.

Nov. 15, 1935 DORSEY: DORSEY FATHOMETER 473

TO PHOTOCELL AMPLIFIER——~

To =

TRANSCEIVER >

A 1025 CYCLE POWER SUPPLY

|S ee ae SE

0.C. POWER SUPPLY

Fig. 4.— Wiring diagram of power supply.

sending the signal has proved very simple and absolutely reliable.

With no moving contacts in the indicator, construction and per-

formance are simplified and less energy is necessary to drive the mov-

ing parts.

— sd

474

Photo cell

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO.

DC Voltages while re-

> ceiving echo of about

3'c 7

460 V

Keying Chr

Fil

Fig. 5—Wiring diagram of amplifier.

nov-ac

Nov. 15, 1935 DORSEY: DORSEY FATHOMETER 475

While it is easier to send on one instrument and receive on an-

other, it was decided to use only one transceiver, so that the scale

of the indicator would be uniform throughout; consequently, no mat-

ter how shallow a depth is measured, there is no correction due to the

longer path required for the sound waves when two separate instru-

ments are used for sending and receiving. Although the difficulties

were great at the beginning, the increased effort to use the single

transceiver made it worth while to spend the extra time in the de-

velopment. Figure 4 shows the power supply circuit.

AMPLIFIER

The amplifier consists of a pair of push-pull triple grid tubes as a

preamplifier, after which a superheterodyne circuit is used to amplify

on an intermediate frequency of 175 kilocycles, after which the signal

is rectified and actuates a pair of thyratrons in series through the

anode-cathode circuit of which a condenser is discharged, as was de-

scribed in the keying circuit. The discharge of this condenser through

a transformer generates a voltage of about 700, which produces a

flash in the circular neon tube back of the rotating disk. The whole

apparatus is so sensitive to changes in depth that the indicator regis-

ters the differences in depth when a small surveying ship rises and falls

on a light swell. Figure 5 shows the amplifier circuit.

The instrument has been used during the last field season for two

months on the surveying ship Lydonia and about a month on the

Hydrographer. The ranges of depth measured were from 5 feet to

120 feet. On the Lydonia comparisons were made every day for several

weeks between the fathometer indications and the lead line to deter-

mine if there were any variations between the two methods. It ap-

pears that the fathometer indications are more reliable than the lead

line, even when the latter is handled by a skilled leadsman of many

years’ experience. With the ship stopped, the lead line and fathometer

indications agree to within a few inches, or as close as can be read,

but with the ship under way, there is always a slight difference, the

lead line indicating the greater depth by an amount of about one

foot. On the Hydrographer, the cross sounding lines of the survey

show agreement of depth to a few inches with the fathometer, while

with hand leading soundings an agreement to within a foot is gener-

ally considered satisfactory work.

During the coming season it is expected to use the fathometers on

these two ships again and in addition make an installation on the

476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

Tender Gilbert and one on a 75-foot launch to determine its operation

on small craft.

In this work the writer desires to express his thanks to his assist-

ants, Charles G. Mcllwraith, R. B. Wright and Thomas B. Hickley

for their numerous valuable suggestions in the development and un-

tiring efforts in the laboratory and at sea; to wireless operators Wil-

liam Smith and G. D. Nedley for their help in maintenance on the

Lydoma and Hydrographer; to Captain Gilbert T. Rude, Chief of

the Division of Hydrography and Topography for his continued keen

interest and encouragement and to Captain R. 8. Patton, Director

of the Bureau for his faith in the ultimate outcome of the develop-

ment and for the honor conferred in naming the instrument the

Dorsey Fathometer.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY .—Alternating axes and symmetry symbols in

crystallography.t.| J. D. H. Donnay, Johns Hopkins University.

(Communicated by G. TUNELL.)

It is well known that all thirty-two crystal classes cannot be de-

rived if the only symmetry elements used are the plane of symmetry,

the center of symmetry, and the rotation axis of symmetry (or axis

of symmetry of the Ist kind). Only thirty-one classes are obtained

in that manner, the missing one being the tetragonal disphenoidal

(or sphenoidal tetartohedral) class of the tetragonal system. Bravais

has often been criticized for omitting this possible crystal class in his

celebrated Etudes cristallographiques; as a matter of fact, he did

recognize the possibility of alternating symmetry as he explicitly

states that this concept will be deliberately left out of his treatment.

From the practical standpoint, the fact that no substance was known

at the time to belong to the tetragonal disphenoidal class might have

justified Bravais’ attitude. On theoretical grounds, however, alternat-

ing symmetry must be introduced for the sake of completeness.

Another reason for using this type of symmetry has been given by

Austin F. Rogers? who redefined symmetry operations as ‘““movements

by means of which each and every face of the general form of a

crystal may be derived directly from an arbitrarily selected face.”

The trend of his argument is as follows: (1) the symmetry operations

of a general crystal form {hkl} have been proved to form a group;

(2) the number n of symmetry operations in the group (or the order

n of the point-group) is equal to the number of faces of the general

1 Received November 23, 1934.

2 Austin F. Rocrers. <A mathematical study of crystal symmetry. Proc. Am. Acad.

Arts and Se. 61: 161-203. 1926.

Nov. 15, 19385 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 477

form {hkl}; (3) by the very definition of a group, the product of any

two symmetry operations is also a symmetry operation; hence, (4) in

order to emphasize this individuality of each symmetry operation,

usually concealed under the symbolic product of two generating

operations or powers thereof, every symmetry operation should be

represented by a distinct symbol (in each one of the thirty-two

point-groups).

Now, in this scheme, elements of alternating symmetry cannot be

dispensed with. Rogers’ method gives a truer picture of symmetry

relations than that which is based on the use of generating operations,

their powers and products. Mathematically, it may not be of any

moment to stress the fact that a product of two operations is also an

operation by coining a special word to designate the new symmetry

operation; such an idealized composite operation (rotatory-reflection

or rotatory-inversion) may be considered a very artificial entity being

as it is almost always reducible*® to a product of two simpler opera-

tions. Physically, however, the concept introduced by A. F. Rogers

has unquestionable significance. A form is defined as the assemblage

of all similar (or equivalent) faces; hence, in the general form, any

face should be derivable from any other face by means of one sym-

metry operation only and not in successive steps, inasmuch as, from

the physical point of view, there is no justification for privileged

symmetry operations (generating operations).

Rogers’ original application of group theoretical notions to crystal

classes throws unexpected light on the nature of crystal symmetry.

Not only does it bring out the fact that the polyhedron crystal is

carried to self-coincidence by a symmetry operation, it also em-

phasizes the equivalence of the faces (edges and corners, as well) of

the general form. The symmetry concept is thereby renovated and

enriched.

For the two reasons given in this introduction, the necessity of

using alternating symmetry appears undisputable.

TWO DEFINITIONS OF ALTERNATING SYMMETRY

Crystallographers have defined the operation of alternating sym-

metry in two different ways: (1) as a rotation followed by a re-

flection in a plane perpendicular to the axis; or (2) as a rotation

accompanied by an inversion through a point lying on the axis. These

two composite operations may be termed respectively rotatory-

3 Let us recall here the exception of the tetragonal disphenoidal class where the

alternating axis is irreducible.

478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

reflection and rotatory-inversion or, more concisely, rotoflection and

rotoversion, after Rogers’ proposal.

Before going further, the system of notation of symmetry opera-

tions and symmetry elements to be used in the discussion must be

explained. The symbols are taken from Rogers.‘

Plane of symmetry: P.

Center of symmetry: C.

Rotation axis: A,; rotoversion axis: C\,; rotoflection axis: 2,;

where the period p indicates the value of the angle 360°/p through

which the crystal is rotated about the axis (the possible values of p

are 2, 3, 4, and 6). It should be remarked, however, that a 2-fold

rotoversion axis is the equivalent of a plane of symmetry for which

the symbol P seems more logical and, similarly, that a 2-fold roto-

flection axis is equivalent to the center of symmetry which should

preferably be designated by C.

As for symmetry operations, small italics are used: p (reflection),

c (inversion), a (rotation), ap (rotoflection), and ca (rotoversion).

In the last three symbols, a subscript gives (in degrees) the total

rotation performed. The identical operation is represented either by

1 or by the power zero of any operation.

There has been no general agreement as to what operation of

alternating symmetry should be used in preference to the other.

Some authors have adopted rotoflection, others have employed roto-

version. A. F. Rogers uses both; he departs from Hilton in advocating

the use of the rotoflection axis ®,; in the rhombohedral and hexagonal

scalenohedral classes of the trigonal subsystem instead of the roto-

version axis C\;; he represents the symmetry of the trigonal di-

pyramidal class by (4, in contradistinction with Jaeger who uses the

rotoflection axis 23.

Interest in that much debated question is now being revived by

the recent adoption, at Ziirich, of a system of international symmetry

symbols’ which is based on the use of one type of alternating axes

only, the rotoversion axes. The purpose of the present paper is to

show: (1) that the symbols #; and C\; on the one hand, Ci, and 2; -

on the other hand, are strictly equivalent and can be used inter-

changeably just in the same manner as #, and (Ay; consequently,

(2) that the reasons for adopting rotoversion axes rather than roto-

flection axes are more formal than fundamental, being simply a

matter of convenience and harmony in classification schemes.

4 Similar symbols for the 3-fold alternating axes had to be added, since Rogers only

recognizes alternating axes with an even period (4 or 6).

§ Maucuin. Sur le symbolisme des groupes de répétition...ete. Z. f. Kr., 76:

542-58. 1931.

Nov. 15, 1935 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 479

Alternating axes of crystal symmetry only need be considered here.

A complete discussion including non-crystallographic alternating axes

has been published by F. Becke.®

EQUIVALENCE OF ALTERNATING AXES

Rogers attempts to rule out the 3-fold alternating axes on the

principle that the period p of an alternating axis ®, or (A, should

always be even. In the discussion of the trigonal dipyramidal class,

for instance, he says: ‘‘Since there are six distinct operations involved,

the axis is clearly 6-fold and not 3-fold. Three powers of api2° do not

form a group; the six powers of cdso° are required. CA, and not 2;

must be used to indicate the symmetry in this class.”

It is essential to recognize that the period of an alternating axis does

not necessarily indicate the order of the group of symmetry operations

represented by that axis. The two are different: (1) The order n of a

point-group indicates the number of operations contained in the

group or the number of faces in the general form. (2) The period p

of any axis, whether the axis be of the first sort (rotation axis) or of

the second sort (alternating axis), refers to the amplitude 360°/p

of the rotation performed. The group #3, for instance, is of order 6

although the rotation amounts to 360°/3 in the rotoflection and the

period of the axis is consequently 3.

When the period of an alternating axis is an even number, such as

in the symbols #, (or (Ay), ®e, and CAs, then the period of the axis

is equal to the order of the group represented by the alternating axis.

Whether it may not be advantageous to have the order of the group

indicated by the period of the axis (when the axis constitutes all the

symmetry present) is another question but that this condition should

always be fulfilled is by no means required. This point should be kept

in mind throughout the following sections.

EQUIVALENCE OF THE 6-FOLD ROTOFLECTION AXIS AND THE

3-FOLD ROTOVERSION AXIS

In the rhombohedral class of the trigonal subsystem, Rogers writes

the symmetry operations of the point-group as follows:

Pe=1, Apso’, Aia?, C, A240°, AD300°-

Using the same symbols, we may write:

CAs =1, @pso0°, A240°, C, A120°, Apeo°.

6 FRIEDRICH BEcKE. Inversionsachse und Spiegelachse. N. Jahrb. f. Min., B. B.,

57A: 173-202. 1927. In the preparation of this article, I had overlooked Becke’s im-

portant paper, which was brought to my attention by Dr. A. F. Roarrs.

480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11

SUC Coho

General

the

point-group

CAs

BP;

LP,

CA,

(counter-clockwise

rotations)

—

Nov. 15, 1935 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 481

This will become apparent from inspection of the stereographic pro-

jection’ of the general form obtained in each case (Figs. 1 and 2).

The rotations are taken counter-clockwise. The six equivalent faces

are numbered from 0 to 5, thus indicating the power of the generating

operation which is ape in the case of Ps and Cdaia° in the case of G;.

The equivalence of the operations in both cases may be shown as

follows. Let x represent the 120° rotoversion cai.°. The powers of

that operation will be:

cole

® =CAi20° =Ap30°,

1 =

Cie.

i 120°,

XL =CAz10° = APoo°.

The two groups 4, and (CA; are thus identical since both contain

the same operations. The only difference lies in the sequence of the

symmetry operations, but it is well known that the elements of a

group may be listed in any order (or rearranged).

Another way of illustrating the identity of the two groups is to

remark that the six equivalent faces of Fig. 1 can be derived by

means of a CA; and those of Fig. 2 by means of an 2, provided simply

that the convention of signs be reversed (clockwise instead of counter-

clockwise rotations).

EQUIVALENCE OF THE 6-FOLD ROTOVERSION AXIS AND THE

3-FOLD ROTOFLECTION AXIS

For the trigonal dipyramidal class of the hexagonal system, the

identity of the two groups C\, and 2; can be proved in like manner.

The Ist power of apia° is equal to the 5th power of cag°; the 2nd of

Qp120° to the 4th of cag’, ete.

The six operations may be written indifferently:

Cg =1, CA0°, Ai20°, DP, Azan®, CA300°,

Bs 3 =1, CA300°, A240°, Py A120°, CA60°.

The general form is shown in stereographic projection (Figs. 3

and 4).

7 The face-poles are projected on the equatorial plane; the projecting point is the

South pole for all faces.

482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. I1

The same remark holds true with regard to the order in which the

six faces are derived and the convention of sign for the rotations.

EQUIVALENCE OF THE 4-FOLD ROTOFLECTION AND

ROTOVERSION AXES

For the sake of completeness and in order to stress the perfect

analogy of the three cases, the identity of , and (A, (tetragonal

disphenoidal class of the tetragonal system) is also shown here by

means of the usual projections (Figs. 5 and 6).

The two groups may be written:

BP, =1, Apos?, A130°, AP 27°;

and

CAs =1, ape7°, A130°, Apo’.

Here again, the second group contains the rearranged elements of

the first group. The equivalence of the 4-fold alternating axes was

brought out by A. F. Rogers in his article.

It has been shown that an alternating axis of period 3 can be used

to represent a point-group of order 6. This result leaves intact the

method proposed by Rogers for the derivation of faces in the general

form. Whether rotoflection alone or rotoversion alone be used, it is

possible to derive each and every face of the general form {hkl}

directly from any arbitrarily selected face.

The symmetry operations of the rhombohedral class (trigonal sub-

system), the tetragonal disphenoidal class (tetragonal system), and

the trigonal dipyramidal class (hexagonal system) may be listed in

either one of the two following ways:

CA3 =1, CA120°, A240, C, Ai29°, CA24)°,

CA, =1, Cdg0°, Ai30°, C4279°, (I)

CAg =1, CA60°, A125°, Dy A240°, CA330°}

By =1, apes’, A123°, C, A240°, AP 300°,

B 4=1, Apo’, Aiss?, AP 270°, (IT)

P3=1, Api20°, A240°, Dy A120°, AP 24°

The equivalence of the new symbols with those employed by A. F.

Rogers is given below:

CQj29° =AP 300°, CAo4)° =Apsr,

CAg0° =APe270°, CA20° =ADps-°,

APi20° =CA30°, APosn? =CAg.

Nov. 15, 1935 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 483

CHOICE OF THE ALTERNATING AXES

There are two main possibilities: (1) Discard the 3-fold alternating

axes and use #, (or (Ay), 2s, and CAs. This is the course followed by

Rogers. (2) Use one kind of alternating axes only, either rotoflection

axes (25, P41, ®3) or rotoversion axes (CA3, CAy, CAs). The exclusive

use of rotoversion axes was the solution adopted by international

agreement at the Ziirich meeting.

The merits of the alternating axes of even period will be discussed

first.

The advantage of this solution can be seen by glancing over the list

of the symmetry symbols given by Rogers for the 32 crystal classes*:

the order of the point-group (hence, the number of faces in the general

form) can be read directly from the symmetry symbol or can be

deduced from it by a simple count:

(a) When there is only one element of symmetry present, its order

is the order of the group. It is equal to 2 in the case of a plane of

symmetry (P), a center (C), or a 2-fold axis of symmetry (A;). In

general, the subscript of the axis symbol gives its order (Ae, Az, As,

4, Be, CAg).

(b) When there are several symmetry elements, the order of the

group is given by 1 (identical operation) plus the order of each

element each decreased by one. Example:

3A,.4A3.6Aa, order =1+3X3+2X4+4+1X6 =24.

Symmetry elements placed between parentheses in Rogers’ symbols

must be ignored in the count since they are implicitly included in the

other symmetry elements listed.

common, brackets are used. The total obtained by the above rule

should be decreased accordingly. Minus one for one element between

brackets.

Example:

A,[®,].P.C, order =1+3X2+1x2-—1=8.

Minus four for two elements between brackets.

Example:

Ag[ Po] [CAs] (P) .(C), order =1+5 X3 —4=12.

(d) In two isometric classes (diploidal and hexoctahedral) where

4 ®, are found, it should also be realized that the center is included

8 Op. cit., p. 200.

484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11

in each one of these, so that the order found must be corrected accord-

ingly (minus 3).

Example:

4 ®,.3A,.3P.(C), order =1+5 K4+3+3 —3 =24.

The value of using one kind of alternating axes is of course sim-

plicity ; it is better to resort to one type of alternating symmetry than

to two.

There is no particular advantage in choosing rotoflection only. The

selection of rotoversion axes, on the contrary, lends itself to a better

division of the 32 classes into systems. This fact, which had been

pointed out by Hilton,’ probably accounts for the adoption of roto-

version axes by the Ziirich convention.

Let us observe that the rhombohedral and hexagonal scalenohedral

classes, both of which belong to the trigonal subsystem, have a CA;

in their respective symmetry symbols. Similarly, the trigonal di-

pyramidal and ditrigonal dipyramidal classes of the hexagonal system

include the symmetry element Cis. A further advantage is seen in the

isometric system where all five classes now have four 3-fold axes

(either rotation axes or rotoversion axes) parallel to the cube di-

agonals.

It will be realized that the reasons for selecting rotoversion axes

are of no fundamental importance, the object being merely to attain

a set of convenient symbols fitting in the frame of the traditional

classification into systems. It must be added that this aim, modest

as it was, has been fully reached.

THE INTERNATIONAL SYMMETRY SYMBOLS

The international system of symmetry notation agreed upon at

the Ziirich meeting, August 28-31, 1930, is due to the collaboration

of C. Hermann, Ch. Mauguin, J. D. Bernal, P. P. Ewald, and others.

It may be said to be epoch making in that, through its compre-

hensiveness, it bridges the gap which so far has divided geometrical

and structural crystallographers. It remarkably brings out the re-

lationships between the various groups of symmetry operations in

the 3-dimensional space: the 32 point-groups or groups without any

translation (one point remaining fixed), the 75 chain-groups or groups

with one independent translation only, the 80 net-groups or groups

° Haroxtp Hitton. Note on the thirty-two classes of symmetry. Min. Mag., 14:

261-3. 1906.

Nov. 15, 19385 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 485

with two translations, and the 230 space-groups or groups with three

translations.

The 230 space-groups and the 32 point-groups obviously are the

most important from the practical viewpoint. The new symbols

recognize the fact that each one of the 230 space-groups is iso-

morphous with one of the 32 point-groups: slight modification of a

space-group symbol immediately leads to the symbol of the iso-

morphous point-group.

It appears that, from now on, the Ziirich symbols will be used both

in geometrical and in structural crystallography. It seems advisable

TABLE 1.—PRINCIPLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYMMETRY SYMBOLS

Elements of Symmetry: Symbols:

FROUATTONEAKES ett de ye ca iey eae ae eo Seo ertetp steed eee aera aeneus il, &, 4h @:

Remark: Any straight line may be considered a 1-fold rota-

tion axis. Class 1 is the pedial class.

Rotoversion axes:

Wathgankod dapenod ppc) feces ck oiciaie secre cueiisrars aye i,

Remark: These always contain the center of symmetry;

the axis is at the same time a rotation and a rotoversion

axis of the same period. Class I is the pinakoidal class.

With an even period:

DEVO! Oi! CONG? Oi HANIMNCWAY. osoccacooccguscvgcened DAG

Remarks: (a) a 2n-fold rotoversion axis is at the

same time a n-fold rotation axis.

(b) 2is a plane of symmetry m......... 2=m.

(@) Zing sR. 60 ococccoccopeacnue 4.

(d) 6 includes a 3-fold rotation axis and a

plane of symmetry perpendicular toit........ 6=3/m.

Wentro-=s ym trichieere cies) meee comic sone cle neers eros neuen cers 2/m, 4/m, 6/m.

Remark: These axes are at the same time rotation

and rotoversion axes of the same period; they

always include a plane of symmetry normal to

the axis.

to introduce their use in elementary courses in crystallography. The

present discussion of alternating axes may serve as an introduction

to the study of the new symbols the simplicity of which is mostly

due to the use of the sole rotoversion axes.

A brief summary of the notation will be given here insofar as it

deals with the 32 crystal classes (see Table I). The new symmetry

symbols are listed in Table II. Other symbols are also given for com-

parison: Schoenflies, A. F. Rogers, together with the nomenclatures

of Groth and Dana.

In the complete form of the Mauguin point-group symbols, there

are as many terms as there are kinds of symmetry axes in the group.

In an orthorhombic symmetry symbol, the three terms refer to the

a-axis, the b-axis, and the c-axis respectively (right-handed system

486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

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Nov. 15, 1935 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 487

used by crystallographers). In the dimetric systems (trigonal, tetra-

gonal, hexagonal), the first term refers to the vertical axis (c-axis),

the last (one or two) to the horizontal axes of two-fold symmetry.

In the isometric system, the first term refers to the axes parallel to

the edges of the cube; the second term, to the axes parallel to the

body-diagonals of the cube; the third term, to the axes parallel to the

face-diagonals of the cube. All isometric point-group symbols have

the figure 3 as their second term.

Abridged symbols are obtained by omitting the third term in all

cases and writing m instead of 2/m for the second term of the symbol

in the case of a centro-symmetric point-group.

The preferred symbols retain all symmetry planes in view of general-

izations to be made in the space-group symmetry symbols (see

Mauguin, loc. cit.).

It will be noticed that the Greek letter u of the former Hermann’s

symbols is now replaced by m, the initial of mirror, to designate the

plane of symmetry.

The new international notation aims at representing the groups by

short, self-explanatory symbols listing a minimum of symmetry

elements, sufficient to characterize all the symmetry present.

THE STATUS OF THE CENTER OF SYMMETRY

In connection with the preceding discussion of alternating axes,

it is thought appropriate to consider briefly the so-called validity of

the center as a true element of symmetry.

First of all, it should be realized that there is no point of funda-

mental importance to be settled in this ‘‘problem”’ and that all dis-

cussions on the subject, due to the very nature of the case, are apt

to be vain and sterile. The following remarks can be made.

There is no more reason to discard the center of symmetry and

replace it by a 2-fold rotoflection axis than there is to abolish the

plane of symmetry and substitute a 2-fold rotoversion axis for it.

In the first instance, the bare fact is this: in a centro-symmetric

crystal, to any face arbitrarily selected at one end of the crystal,

there corresponds a parallel face, similar (equivalent) to the first,

at the opposite end of the crystal. It is possible to derive the second

face from the first by means of a symmetry operation. Whether this

operation should be characterized as an inversion through the center

or a 180° rotoflection about a rotoflection axis (which cannot be

defined in direction) is only a question of words; the fundamental

observation will not be changed by either interpretation.

488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

Likewise, in the case of a plane of symmetry, the fact is that to

every face on one side of a plane there corresponds a similar face, the

mirror-image of the first, on the other side of the plane. Why should

one consider the operation involved as a 180° rotoversion about a

rotoversion axis (normal to the plane of symmetry) when this new

picture has no advantage over the age-old and simple concept of the

“‘reflection’’? The only essential point to be stressed is the existence

of a symmetry operation by means of which a face and its mirror-

image can be derived from each other. It must be admitted that

there is no need to introduce a composite operation when there is

already a simple operation providing for direct derivation.

The status of the center of symmetry and that of the plane of

symmetry are thus intimately linked. The use of the composite

operation in either case masks the facts more than it brings them out.

Both center and plane of symmetry should therefore be retained.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank my former professor Dr. Austin F. Rogers of

Stanford University for a critical reading of this manuscript and

for his continued interest in my work. Valuable suggestions were

also obtained from Dr. George Tunell of the Geophysical Labora-

tory, which are gratefully acknowledged.

BOTANY.—The genus Chionopappus of Bentham (Asteraceae).}

S. F. Buaxe, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In 1873 George Bentham described the new genus Chionopappus

of the tribe ‘“‘Mutisiaceae,’”’ subtribe Onoserideae, in the family Com-

positae. It was based on a single species, to which no name was

assigned, which was said to be a native of northern Peru. Nothing

has been added to our knowledge of the genus, and after the lapse

of more than sixty years it remains a “genus without a species.”

Baillon (1882) placed it in the Mutisieae, and Hoffmann (1893) in

the Mutisieae-Gochnatinae, both accounts being based entirely on

Bentham’s original description. Bentham remarked that the genus

was remarkable in its tribe for its opposite leaves and paleaceous

receptacle, and abnormal in its ligulate not bilabiate ray corollas,

but that in its style and its rays, 4-merous according to their vena-

tion, it agreed with no other tribe.

1 Received July 18, 1935.

Nov. 15, 1935 BLAKE: CHIONOPAPPUS 489

During the last twenty years there have come to hand from the

Department of Lima, Peru, several collections of a Liabum-like Com-

posite agreeing closely with Bentham’s description in all major fea-

tures—foliage, heads, involucre, paleaceous as well as pilose recep-

’ tacle, corollas, and pappus—but differing in at least two points of

structure that are of great importance in the classification of Com-

positae. Bentham described the style of the hermaphrodite flowers

as undivided or barely emarginately 2-lobed, and the anthers as

sagittate at base and with long, very slenderly caudate-acuminate

auricles. In the recently collected plants the style branches are rather

long, linear, obtusish, and hispidulous outside with the hairs con-

tinuing far below the fork, almost in the manner of Vernonia, and

the anthers, while deeply sagittate, are polliniferous almost to the

tip of the lance-linear auricles, with only a very short (about 0.1-

0.2 mm. long) obtuse cellular sterile apiculation, and so not truly

caudate. Through the kindness of Sir Arthur W. Hill, I have been

permitted to borrow Bentham’s type sheet? from the Kew Herbarium

and resolve the riddle.

The type sheet bears three pieces of stem a few inches long and a

pocket containing flowers, achenes, pappus, and a few phyllaries

derived from one of the heads, as well as a head in bud. The speci-

mens are nearly leafless, bearing altogether only a couple of pairs of

upper leaves and a few bracts. They are accompanied by a printed

label: ‘‘Lima et Peruvia septentrionalis. H. Cuming, 1831,” with the

written number 996. In publishing the genus, Bentham quoted only

the second part of the habitat as given, whereas recent collections

are all from the region of Lima, indicating that Cuming’s plant proba-

bly came from the same region, in central western Peru. The name

Chionopappus does not appear on the sheet. In addition to some

notations by Bentham on the details of structure, the sheet bears

the name “‘Liabum? n. sp.” and “Cf. Erato’? in Bentham’s hand. The

specimens are clearly identical specifically with the later collections

by Rose, Macbride, and Pennell. Examination shows that most if

not all the detached styles preserved in the pocket have had their

tips chewed off by insects, thus presenting the appearance of being

undivided recorded by Bentham. Examination of one of the heads

on the sheet with a lens, however, reveals uninjured forked styles

2 The sheet sent me is one from Bentham’s own herbarium. Mr. John 8. L. Gilmore

writes that there is another sheet of the same collection, also with very scanty material,

in the Hooker Herbarium.

3 Hrato is now treated as a section of Liabum.

490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11

Fig. 1—Chionopappus benthamti Blake.—a, plant, x1; b, disk flower, X34; ¢,

ray flower, X214;d, achene with pappus fallen, 8; e, style of disk flower, X44; f, two

stamens, X10; g, receptacular pale, *4.—All drawn from Macbride & Featherstone

162, in the Field Museum, except fig. d, which is drawn from the type, Cuming 996,

in the Kew Herbarium.

Nov. 15, 1935 BLAKE: CHIONOPAPPUS 491

protruding from some of the anther-tubes. The anthers are some-

what shriveled and appear to have more slender auricles than the

recent specimens, but are not really different in structure. In no case

do they have the stiff texture so characteristic of the terminal ap-

pendages and the anther tails in both Mutisieae and Cynareae. Ben-

tham’s description of the heads as nodding was obviously based on

only one of the four heads on the type sheet, and since the numerous

heads on the recent specimens are all erect, the appearance of this

head must be attributed to some peculiarity of preparation. Finally,

Bentham’s emphasis on the 4-merous nature of the ray corollas, as

deduced from their venation—the nerves were described as 4—as an

indication that the genus could go in no other tribe is a curious slip,

for the reason that the alternation of nerves and teeth which is

fundamental in the corollas of Compositae makes it necessary for a

normal 3-merous ray to have four nerves’ (when supplementary ones

are not present), and for a 4-merous ray to have five.

Since the principal characters relied on by Bentham to place the

genus in the Mutisieae are based on wrong interpretation of the

material, there arises a question as to its proper position. Its com-

bination of characters rules out all tribes except the Senecioneae

(subtribe Liabinae), and—doubtfully, from the fact that the anthers

are not truly caudate—the Inuleae (subtribe Buphthalminae) and

the Mutisieae (subtribe Gochnatinae of Hoffmann). Comparison with

these groups shows that the natural position of Chionopappus is

definitely in the subtribe Liabinae next to Liabum, from which genus,

taken in its broad sense, it differs primarily only in its truly paleaceous

receptacle® and its 1-seriate pappus of relatively few long-plumose

awns united at base and deciduous in a ring. In all other features—

habit, opposite leaves which are tomentose beneath, involucre,

several-seriate narrow rays, disk corollas, achenes, styles, and an-

thers—it can be closely matched in the Liabum group. The revised

generic description and the specific description follow.

4 One running toward each sinus, one on each side of lamina about midway be-

tween the sinus-nerve and the margin.

5 Bentham and Hooker described the receptacle in Liabum as naked, alveolate, or

fimbrillate. Rydberg (N. Am. FI. 34: 289. 1927), who splits the North American and

West Indian representatives of Liabum into 5 genera, describes it in his restricted genus

Liabum (including the L. wmbellatum and L. igniarium groups) as “bristly-fimbriate

to chaffy with subulate paleae.’’? The receptacle in these species does not bear true

paleae but is deeply alveolate, with the margins of the alveolae prolonged into stiff

mostly subulate awn-like structures about the length of the achenes and surrounding

them. Chionopappus, in contrast, has true paleae in the shape of slender linear-subu-

late chaff, one to each flower. That this difference is not sufficient to exclude Chionopap-

pus from the Liabum alliance is indicated by a more or less similar variation in several

of the tribes of Compositae.

492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

Curonoparrus Benth. in Benth. & Hook. Gen. Pl. 2: 485.

1873 (without species name)

Suffrutescent, branching, pubescent; leaves opposite, ovate to oblong-

ovate, short-petioled, triplinerved, coarsely serrate, green and scabrous-

pubescent above, white-tomentose beneath; heads medium-sized, hetero-

gamous, radiate, short-peduncled, mostly ternate at tips of stem and

branches, the rays yellow, the disk purple; involucre campanulate or hemi-

spheric-campanulate, usually with a few leafy bracts at base, the proper

phyllaries strongly graduate, about 5-—7-seriate, ovate to (inner) lance-

linear, acuminate, erect, subchartaceous, the outer with short and narrow

obscurely herbaceous tip; receptacle broad, flat, densely long-pilose, pale-

aceous throughout with linear-subulate firm pales about equaling the pap-

pus; rays very numerous, 2—3-seriate, pistillate, fertile, yellow, the lamina

spreading, linear, usually 3-denticulate, 4-nerved; disk flowers very numer-

ous, hermaphrodite, fertile, their corollas regular, tubular, slender-funnel-

form, deeply 5-fid, the lobes much longer than the throat; anthers deeply

sagittate at base, with obscurely appendaged auricles, and with oblong-

ovate apical appendages; style hispid far below the fork, the branches linear,

obtuse, at length spreading, hispidulous outside, stigmatiferous over whole

inner surface, unappendaged; achenes oblong or narrowly obovoid, some-

what compressed, 8—10-ribbed, small, glabrous; pappus of 10-15 1-seriate

very slender long-plumose white awns, united at base and deciduous in a

ring. Type species, Chionopappus benthamiz.

Chionopappus benthamii Blake, sp. nov.

Suffrutescens ca. 1 m. altus opposite ramosus; caulis subteres fragilis

albidus v. brunneus subdense hirsuto-pilosus pilis patentibus multiloculatis

basi subtuberculatis et parum puberulus, aetate glabratus; internodia 2.5-6

em. longa; petioli 1-2 mm. longi vix marginati basi connati, basibus demum

incrassatis et breviter vaginiformibus; laminae ovatae v. oblongo-ovatae

3.8-6 cm. longae 1.5—2.8 cm. latae acutae calloso-mucronulatae basi cunea-

tae v. rotundato-cuneatae in petiolum breviter decurrentes prope basin

triplinerviae subtenues grosse et irregulariter serratae dentibus majoribus ca.

6-8-jugis calloso-mucronulatis supra virides dense scabro-hispidae et his-

pidulae pilorum basibus tuberculatis persistentibus aetate rugoso-bullatae

subtus venis majoribus breviter hirsutis exceptis dense et persistenter albo-

arachnoideo-tomentosae; capitula apice caulis et ramorum saepe ternata

erecta ca. 2-3.3 cm. lata basi bracteis 2—4 foliis similibus sed multo minori-

bus lanceolatis patentibus v. reflexis suffulta, pedunculis sicut caule pubes-

centibus 0.7—4 cm. longis; discus (siccitate) 1-1.2 em. altus 1-2 em. diam.;

involucri 9-11 mm. alti juventate paullum arachnoideo-tomentosi phyllaria

flavido-albida ad apicem saepe purpurascentia inconspicue 1—3-nervia dense

sordido-puberula et versus apicem saepius patenti-hirsuta, exteriora acumina-

ta apice interdum sublaxa breviter subherbacea, interiora linearia v. lineari-

lanceolata longe acuminata exterioribus multo angustiora; radii ca. 100 aurei

apice interdum purpurascentes ad apicem tubi et basin laminae sparse pub-

eruli ceterum glabri, tubo 5 mm. longo, lamina ca. 11 mm. longa 1 mm. lata;

corollae disci valde numerosae glabrae infra pallidae supra medium saturate

purpureae ca. 8mm. longae (tubo ca. 3.5 mm., faucibus 1.5-1.8 mm., den-

tibus anguste triangularibus acuminatis apice intus paullum incrassatis 2.5-

Nov. 15, 1935 READ: CLADOXYLON 493

3 mm. longis); paleae receptaculi anguste lineari-subulatae firmae albidae

longe ciliatae et pilosae ca. 8 mm. longae; achenia albida 2 mm. longa 0.5

mm. lata; pappus niveus 7-8 mm. longus, aristis angustissimis complanatis

ad apicem multo brevius plumosis.

Peru: “Lima et Peruvia septentrionalis,” 1831, Cuming 996 (type, Herb.

Kew; photog., U. S. Nat. Herb.); vicinity of Matucana, 9 July 1914, Dr.

& Mrs. J. N. Rose 18663 (U. 8. Nat. Herb.); rock crevices and in loose

rock, Matucana, 12 April-3 May 1922, Macbride & Featherstone 162 (Field

Mus., U.S. Nat. Herb.); open rocky slopes, along Rio Chill6én, near Viscas,

Hee alt. 1800-2000 m., 10-15 June 1925, Pennell 14480 (U. 8. Nat.

erb.).

Macebride and Featherstone describe their plant as woody at base, very

brittle, 3 ft. high; Pennell describes his as a shrub, with “light cadmium”’

rays and “‘bordeaux”’ disk.

PALEOBOTANY.—An occurrence of the genus Cladoxylon Unger,

in North America: CHariEs B. Reap, U. 8. Geological Sur-

vey. (Communicated by Rotanp W. Brown.)

In 1882 J. W. Dawson published a brief account of a specimen of

Cladoxylon mirabile Unger from the Styliola limestone (Genundewa

limestone member of Genesee shale) of western New York.? Although

no figures are given, it is clear from the text that the plant was of the

Cladoxylon type and distinct from Asteropteris noveboracensis, with

which Dawson was well acquainted. It is unfortunate that in most

of the more recent accounts of Cladoxylon this single American record

had been overlooked or else considered too questionable to mention.

In the collection of thin sections of fossil plants prepared under

the direction of the late Dr. F. H. Knowlton and now in the hands

of the U.S. Geological Survey there is a single transverse section

labeled Cladoxylon mirabile Unger and recorded from the ‘Genesee

shale, Styliola layer (Genundewa limestone), Canandaigua, New

York,” and presented to Knowlton by John M. Clarke. Since Clarke

was the collector of Dawson’s material, it is probable that this sec-

tion is from the block recorded in the Canadian report. At any rate

the specimen is material evidence of the occurrence of Cladoxylon in

America and therefore deserves to be brought to the attention of

paleobotanists. The writer prefers to record this form as new rather

than to place it in a doubtful synonomy with the poorly figured C.

mirabile or other European species.

t Published with the permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. Re-

ceived July 8, 1935.

2 Dawson, J. W. The fossil plants of the Erian (Devonian) and Upper Silurian

formations of Canada, Canada Geol, Survey Pt. 2: 126. 1882.

494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

Fig. 1—Photograph of transverse section of Cladorylon dawsoni, n. sp., showing

the radiating bands of xylem. X18. Fig. 2—Same specimen showing the details

of two of the plates of xylem. Note the “loops” near the outer edge indicating the

position of protoxylem. X42. Fig.3.—Thin section of C. dawsoni, n.sp., showing the

general aspect of the plant. 614.

Nov. 15, 1935 READ: CLADOXYLON 495

CLADOXYLON Unger

Unger, Franz, in Richter, Reinhard, and Unger, Franz. Beitrag zur Paldon-

tologie des Thiiringer Waldes. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-nat. Klasse,

Denkschr. Bd. 11:179. 1856.

Solms-Laubach, H. Graf zu. Ueber die seinerzeit von Unger beschriebenen

strukturbietenden Pflanzenreste des Unterculm von Saalfeld in Thiiringen.

K. preuss. geol. Landesanstalt, pp. 52-56. 1896.

Cladoxylon dawsoni, n. sp.

Cladoxylon mirabile Unger. Dawson, J. W. The fossil plants of the Erian

(Devonian) and Upper Silurian formations of Canada. Canada Geol.

Survey. Pt.2:126. 1882.

A photograph at low magnification of the thin section of Cladozrylon

dawson from New York is shown in Figure 3. It is clear from this that the

stem, which is very well preserved, consists of a central area of steles and

a rather thick sheath of cortex. These steles, which are several, are radiating

plates or flattened strands of xylem presumably surrounded by phloem and

pericycle, although these latter tissues are not preserved. As is indicated

more clearly by Figure 1, some of the steles are highly curved and form

narrow U- or V-shaped masses, the extremities of which abut on the pe-

riphery of the stelar area.

The protoxylem groups occupy immersed positions in the distal or pe-

ripheral portions of the steles and in the instance of the strongly curved and

forked strands these groups may be several. The position of the protoxylem

is marked by a cavity or loop, the delicate tissue usually being disorganized.

These loops are well shown in both Figures 1 and 2.

As regards the mass of the xylem, it is for the most part primary. A

limited amount of secondary growth occurs on the periphery of a few of the

steles but is of very limited extent. Since longitudinal sections are not avail-

able it has been impossible to make a detailed study of the pitting. How-

ever, at a few points in the transverse section contortion of the tissue is suf-

ficient to expose short portions of the tracheids obliquely, so that it can be

stated with confidence that the pitting is scalariform.

As has been previously indicated, the zone referable to the phloem is very

poorly preserved, only occasional vestiges of tissue remaining. In general

this area conforms in its outlines to the contour of the xylem, and the tissue

must have occupied the deep embayments between the xylem plates as well

as a limited zone around the periphery. Very few observations have been

made, in fact, on the phloem of any species of Cladoxylon, owing to the al-

most invariably poor preservation.

The cortex consists of a broad zone of thin-walled, large-lumened tissue,

apparently of parenchymatous nature. Locally the cell walls may appear

thickened, but this is due to masceration and swelling. In the type speci-

men of Cladorylon mirabile from Saalfeld in Thuringia, Solms-Laubach®

states the cell walls of the cortical tissue are thickened and somewhat fibrous.

However, it is probable that this is due to the preservation, for Solms-Lau-

bach mentions in the same account that the Saalfeld material characteristi-

cally shows a swelling of the cell walls with resulting diminution in size of

the lumens.

3 Soums-Lausacu, H. Grar zu. Ueber die Seinerzeit von Unger beschriebenen

strukturbietenden Pflanzenreste des Unterculm von Saalfeld in Thiiringen. K. preuss.

geol. Landesanstalt, p. 53. 1896.

496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

The peripheral edges of several of the strands are marked by the pres-

ence of small, annular masses of xylem apparently departing in the manner

of leaf traces. Here again the preservation is poor, so that it is impossible to’

describe these structures in detail. At several points in the cortex there are

similar concentric areas of disorganized tissues which suggest leaf traces.

More material is necessary, however, to determine the details of these.

An examination of the available figures of the several species of Cladory-

lon suggests a comparison with Cladoxylon (Arctopodium) radiatum Unger.

The published figures are not sufficiently definite to tie the two together,

however. Further, Dr. Paul Bertrand, who has made a detailed study of the

Saalfeld Cladoxylons, has examined the specimen here under discussion and

is inclined to regard it as new. In consequence the name Cladoxylon dawsoni

has been given this specimen in honor of the eminent Canadian paleontol-

ogist who first described it.

The interest of this fossil lies at present not so much in its structure,

which naturally cannot be completely worked out with the scanty

material at hand, but rather in its occurrence in the New York

Devonian in the same beds with several species of Callizxylon that

Arnold? has described. It is regrettable that this record of Dawson’s

has been overlooked for so long.

As regards affinities, it will be recalled that specimens of the genus

Cladoxylon have excited speculation as to their phyletic position ever

since their discovery by Unger in Thuringia. Ascribed variously to

the Pteridophyta and the Cycadofilicales, published investigations

have not yet definitely proven their relationships. The discovery by

Kriausel and Weyland’ of the leaves of Cladoxylon scoparium in strata

of Middle Devonian age near Elberfeld, Germany, has, however,

cleared up certain points. In this plant, identified by its stem struc-

ture, the leaves are spirally arranged and are small, petiolate, divided,

and forked organs, the venation of which has not been determined.

In addition to these sterile leaves there are fertile leaves—sporophylls

—fan-shaped and lobed and with the distal edges hollowed to form

numerous cup-shaped depressions which suggest marginal sori. As-

sociated with these are the remains of numerous sporangia and spores.

Bertrand® has discussed in several short papers the possible rela-

dari New York. Michigan Acad. Sci. Papers 11: 1-50, pls. 1-19, 1 text fig. 1929

1930).

5 KrAusEL, R., and Weyuann, H. Bettrdge zur Kenninis der Devonflora, Pt. 1.

Senckenberg. Wiss Mitt. Bd. 5 (Heft 5-6): 154-184. 1923. Beitrdge zur Kenntnis

der Devonflora, Pt. 2. Senckenberg. naturf. Gesell. Bd. 40 (Heft 2): 113-155. 1926.

6 BERTRAND, Pauu. Sur les stipes de Clepsydropsis. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci.

Paris 147: 945-947. 1908. Observations sur les Cladoxylées. Assoc. frang. Av. Sci.,

40th Sess., pp. 506-509. 1911. tat actuel de nos connaissances sur les genres ‘‘Cla-

doxylon”’ et “‘Steloxylon.’’ Assoc. franc. Av. Sci., 43d Sess., pp. 446-448. 1914.

Observations sur les Cladoxylées de Saalfeld. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 195: 1303.

1932. Valeur morphologique du rachis primaire des Cladoxylées et des Zygopteridées.

Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 196: 864. 1933. Specifications des Cladoxylon et des

Clepsydropsis de Saalfeld. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 196: 365. 1933.

Nov. 15, 1935 BALL: NEW GYPONAS 497

tionship of Clepsydropsis antiqua (a fern-like petiole) to Cladoxylon

and has outlined a phyletic series connecting the Cladoxyleae with

the Zygopterideae. The most important of these intermediates is

Asteropteris noveboracensis Dawson. This note is scarcely the place

for a discussion of these views, so it must suffice for the present to

say that the evidence is quite suggestive although not conclusive.

This single specimen of Cladoxylon dawsoni is from the Genundewa

limestone member of the Upper Devonian Genesee shale in the vicin-

ity of Canandaigua Lake in western New York. At Saalfeld, Thu-

ringia, the several species of Cladoxylon occur in strata regarded as

Upper Devonian (Cypridina shales) in age.

ENTOMOLOGY.—Some new Gyponas with notes on others... E. D.

Bau, University of Arizona.

The writer made a preliminary revision of this group in 1920? with

keys to the subgenera and species. With several years of additional

biological work on the Eastern and Florida forms, Ball and Reeves?

made still further revisions and gave the food plants and distribution

as far as then known. Since coming to Arizona, the writer has continued

the food plant studies and made further collections. These have so

increased the number of species in one group that a new key is nec-

essary.

KEY TO THE GENUS GYPONANA BALL (IN THE U. S.)

A Margin of vertex produced and foliaceous throughout.

B_ No black spots on pronotum or hinge. Reticulations absent on basal

part of elytra or, if present, no white flecks between.

C_ Species large, broad bilineate.................. 1-octolineata Say

C@* Species smaller; narrows pales. see ne esos a oe: 2-tenella Sign

BB. A pair of block spots on pronotum and another pair on the hinge

(sometimes wanting), elytra densely reticulate (rugose) with white

flecks between.

D_ Head almost as wide as pronotum, the vertex broad and rounding,

species large, with long rounding elytra.

E_ Species without a black line under vertex.

F Vertex slightly produced beyond the eyes then rounding, female

segment with a rectangular median notch. (S.E.), 3-rugosa Sign

FF Vertex rounding from the eyes, female segment with two

oblique upturned thumb-like projections..................

SRA aie cans £ ese ie MS i nee ne ee (Ariz.), 4-ampliata Ball

1 Received August 14, 1935.

2 Annals Ent. Soc. Amer. 13: 83-100. 1920.

3 Annals Ent. Soc. Amer. 20: 488-500, 2 pl. 1927.

498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11

EE A black line under vertex margin, appendix broadly smoky and

the male pygofers scarlet............... (Ariz.), 5-pullata Ball

DD Head definitely narrower than pronotum, which narrows an-

teriorly, vertex more or less angled.

G Vertex obtusely angled or almost rounding.

H_ Vertex very obtusely angled, species tawny green............

«tied hao aya N Goh epee ee ee (Ariz.), 6-ramosa Kirk

HH Vertex almost aright angle, species pale..................

= 2h te st foes es aS a cee (Ariz. & Utah), 7-turbinella Ball

GG Vertex right angled or acutely angled, species powdered

CE TN An ene eae eee (Utah), 8-chadana Ball

AA Margin of vertex and front angled, but not foliaceous.

I Small species (about 2 mm. wide), vertex about twice as wide as long.

J Extremely elongate with two oblique stripes on each elytron.......

nidiss bp eee yy hae Glee Re ee (Calif.), 9-elongata Ball

JJ Normal shape and without stripes... (Ariz. N. Mex.), 10 delta Ball

II Large species (about 4 mm. wide) vertex three times as wide as long

52 eCRe UA teal Nee ne ae ee let Ae ee (S.W.), 11-dorsalis Sign

Gyponana rugosa Spang. This eastern species has not appeared in Arizona

except in the higher mountain regions of the N. E. portions, which is the

region of the deciduous oaks.

Gyponana ampliata Ball n. sp.

Big broad tawny-green, heavily reticulate with milky spots and the usual

black dots on pronotum and hinge, closely resembling rugosa, paler, with the

vertex rounding from the eyes, instead of produced and then rounding.

Length 2 10 mm., width 3.5 mm.

Head practically as wide as pronotum, vertex shorter than pronotum,

rounding directly from eyes, elytra broad, densely and evenly reticulate with

apices rounding and appendix narrow. Female segment with the customary

median quadrangular notch almost obliterated by the semicircular emar-

gination of the lateral portions of the segment leaving oblique, thumb-like

projections, which would form the margin of the notch if they were not

turned up at right angles against the pygofers. The median portion broadly,

shallowly bilobed. Male plates very narrow and widely separated at base,

the inner margins broadly expanded, then narrowing to the rounding apices,

beyond which the dark, spine-like styles project. In rugosa the plates are

approximately parallel margined, 3 times as long as wide, and cover the

styles.

Holotype* 2 and 2 paratypes Santa Rita Mountains, July 6, 1933,

allotype &@ Chiricahua Mountains July 5, 1930, four paratypes Huachuca

Mountains, June 15, 1930, and one Santa Rita Mountains, June 20,

1929, (labeled Tucson). All taken from oak in the high mountains of

Southern Arizona by the author, most of them from the silver leaf oak

(Q. hypoleuca). This species can be recognized by the very distinct genitalia

of either sex.

4 All types are in the author’s collection.

Nov. 15, 1935 BALL: NEW GYPONAS 499

Gyponana pullata Ball n. sp.

Resembling ampliata, but much narrower and more nearly parallel mar-

gined. Darker with a black line under the vertex and a broad, smoky ap-

pendix. Length 9 9mm., width scarcely 3 mm.

Slender, parallel margined. Head as wide as pronotum, vertex as long as

ampliata, but narrower so that it is more acutely rounding. Elytron long and

narrow with rounding apex and a broad, smoky appendix. Female segment

with a broad notch occupying nearly one-half the segment, the margin of

the notch rounding back to the lateral angles, base of notch nearly filled by

a broad bilobed pyramid that extends nearly as far as the segment. Male

plates 214 times as long as their individual width, each one convex below

and angularly pointed, much exceeded by the long slender slightly knobbed

styles. Pygofers and margins of abdomen scarlet.

Holotype @2 and allotype & Santa Rita Mountains July 6, 1933, nine

paratypes taken with the types and in the Chiricahua and Huachuca Moun-

tains, all taken by the author from the silver leaf oak in the mountains of

southeastern Arizona.

This is the species Gibson keys out as ramosa Kirk, but cannot be the one

Kirkaldy had in hand, as he does not mention the black line on vertex and

states definitely that it had no appendix while this one has a broad appendix.

This species does not occur at Nogales which is below the range of the silver

leaf oak. The black line on vertex, smoky appendix, and red pygofers in the

male, as well as the distinct genitalia, will easily separate this species. It

rather strikingly, but superficially resembles the green males of Gypona

verticalis in color and shape, but the reticulate elytra places it in a different

group.

Gypona ramosa Kirkaldy. A narrow-headed species with a slightly angular

vertex, but little over half as long as its basal width, a very narrow appendix

and often showing a dark line around the apex of each elytron. They are

pale green, without the tawny reflection, and heavily white flecked. A few

of them show traces of a sinuate dark band on pronotum but this char-

acter is not constant in any known species. The female segment has the

median third deeply roundingly emarginate, with a bilobed tooth two-thirds

the length of the notch.

Through the kindness of Mr. E. P. Van Duzee, we have examined the

Gyponas of the Koebele collection from which Kirkaldy described this

species. There were ten examples of a single reticulate-veined species. This

proved to be the common form found on the two oaks (Q. emoryi and ob-

longifolia) that grow in the Nogales region. This species answers Kirkaldy’s

description in every particular and as suggested previously, the slightly

angulate vertex, lack of appendix and deeply bisinuate female segment

definitely eliminates the species described above as pullata on which Gib-

son placed the name.

Gyponana turbinella Ball n. sp.

Resembles chadana, larger, broader, with a broader vertex, slightly smaller

than ramosa with a much longer and more strongly angled head. Pale green,

500 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

with white fleckings and a very slightly obtusely angled vertex. Length

2 8mm., width 3 mm.

Head almost as long as the width between the eyes, narrower than the

base of pronotum, vertex slightly shorter than pronotum, slightly obtusely

angled, instead of acutely angled as in chadana. Elytra broad, rounding

posteriorly, instead of narrower and almost acutely angled, as in chadana.

Female segment with a narrow shallow notch with sloping margins, the

median feebly bilobed projection about as long as segment. Male plates long,

silky, gradually narrowing to rounding apices that exceed the slender pale

styles.

Holotype 9, allotype o October 6, 1929 and six paratypes of various

dates, Granite Dell, two from Yarnell Heights, and four from Superior,

August 1, 1929. All taken by the author from the Chaparal oak (Q. turbinella)

in the mountains of Arizona. This is the common species in the Chaparal

region from Globe to Williams, Arizona, and appears again around St.

George in Utah. The long, definitely triangular head will separate it from

all but chadana, in which the head is still more pointed and the whole insect

is covered with a whitish bloom.

Gyponana elongata Ball n. sp.

Still longer and narrower than tenella, with a head as wide as the prono-

tum. Pale green with four black stripes on the elytra. Length 2 7.5 mm.

width 1.8 mm.

Head much wider than in tenella, as wide as the pronotum, eyes small,

vertex broad, the anterior margin paraboloid or a trifle angled, the margin

rather thick and short, scarcely foliaceous. Pronotum, with the lateral mar-

gins long and almost parallel, scarcely longer than the vertex. Elytra very

long and slender, tapering toward the rounded apices—a few coarse, tawny

reticulations scattered along posterior half of corium. Female segment

scarcely longer than the adjoining one, broadly roundingly or slightly

angularly emarginate, the lateral angles acute. Sometimes a median pro-

jection is faintly indicated. Male plates extremely long and slender, slightly

tapering.

Color: Pale creamy, with a greenish tinge, ocelli red, a pair of widely

separated dark dashes on the scutellum. A black stripe just outside the claval

suture and another outside the inner fork of the outer sector. A smoky line

around the apex. Below pale creamy.

Holotype @, allotype o”, and eleven paratypes taken by the writer from

Red Shanks (Adenostoma sparsifolium) at Pine Valley, California, July 6,

1931. Strikingly distinct on account of the black stripes.

Gyponana delta Ball n. sp.

Resembling tenella, but paler with a more angular head and a “U” shaped

notch in the female segment. Extremely pale green fading to creamy trans-

lucent. Length 2 8 mm., width 2.5 mm.

Head definitely narrower than pronotum, the vertex roundingly angled

with the apex bluntly rounding, the margin thick and not foliaceous. Vertex

quite variable in length, varying from scarcely 2/3 to nearly the length of

pronotum. Elytra about as in tenella, with very little reticulation. Female

segment rather long with the lateral margins narrowing, the lateral angles

rounding, posterior margin elevated over the ovipositor with a deep “U”

shaped or slightly angular notch extending nearly half way to the base.

Nov. 15, 1935 BALL: NEW GYPONAS 501

Male plates long, slender, tapering, exceeding the pygofers, but exceeded by

the sickle like white styles. The inner margins of the plates are thickened

and reflexed and there is a row of long white spines towards the tip.

Holotype @, allotype &, and 7 paratypes taken on snake weed (Gutzerrezia

sarothrae) at Paradise, Arizona. Six paratypes taken on Mortonia scabrella

at Tombstone, Arizona, June 13, 1932, all taken by the author. In the an-

gulate head this speciesresemblesGypona angulata, but that isa larger species

with simple segment and no reticulations.

Gyponana delta var. alomogorda Ball n. var.

Form and structure of the species, but nymphs and adults powdery white,

the darker hind wings slightly showing through the elytra.

Holotype 2, allotype o’, and seven paratypes taken by the writer May 5,

1933, on a powdery white mint (Paliomintha incana) growing on the white

sands at Alomogorda, New Mexico.

Gypona villior Fowler is closely related to verticalis and like that species

has males ranging from green all the way to black. The extremely large and

prominent veins of the elytra are its most distinctive character. Nymphs

and adults have been taken by the writer on the Apache plume (Fallugia

paradoxa) from Prescott to the Huachuca and Chiricahua Mountains in

Arizona.

Gypona melanota Spangberg. The study of a larger amount of western

material in wnicolor indicates that the broad, short eastern species is dis-

tinct from the longer Rocky Mountain one. G. melanota described from black

males from New Jersey and Georgia is apparently the oldest name available

for the eastern species.

Prairiana orizaba Ball and Reeves. This extremely long, slender Mexican

species with the acute vertex has been taken by the writer (males only)

from Brownsville, Texas; Granite Dell, and Santa Rita Mountains, Arizona.

Prairiana moneta Van Duzee. The writer has taken this California species

with its broad foliaceous head and smoky male, at Bunkerville, Nevada;

Yuma and Phoenix, Arizona. They have all been swept from Bermuda grass

in low, damp, alkaline areas and at low elevations.

Prairiana sidana Ball n. sp.

Smaller and narrower than moneta Van Duzee with a more acute, but less

foliaceous head. Dead grass color in the female with the posterior margin of

pronotum and all back of that smoky to shining black in the male. Length

9 7mm, width 2.8 mm; male smaller.

Head slightly narrower than pronotum, the marginal line of pronotum

and vertex continuous. Vertex nearly paraboloid, slightly acutely angulate

in male, as long as pronotum, much longer proportionally to its width than

in moneta. Front more inflated than in moneta, the vertex margin only

slightly foliaceous across front. Elytra short, rather broad in female, nearly

parallel margined in the male, exceeding abdomen by less than the apical

cells. Female segment bisinuate, the median lobe much smaller than in

moneta. Male plates long, strap shaped, their points divergent, much longer

than the dark spine-like styles. Pygofers angled, but not as acutely as in

moneta.

502 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

Holotype @, allotype o, and 8 paratypes taken by the writer from a

prostrate mat-like mallow (Sida diffusa) growing under the short grasses on

the range slopes of the Baboquiviri Mountains, Arizona, August 29, 1931,

and four paratypes taken under similar circumstances at Patagonia, Arizona,

September 20, 1930.

There is no question but what the coloration of this and the other species

of Prairiana is an adaptation to concealment in dead grass, but the food

plant of this species is definitely the mallow creeping below the grass. Most

of the species of this genus are more restricted than grass inhabitants usually

are and it will probably be found that that restriction is due to food plants

growing beneath the grass cover. In the case of subta both larvae and adults

were found beneath a clump of grass on the plains of Colorado, but there

was a mallow (Malvastrum) scattered all through the area.

Ponana sonora Ball n. sp.

Resembling a small pale citrina, straw-colored with a very narrow an-

gulate head and six black spots in a semicircle. Length 9 8 mm, width 2.2

mm.

Head extremely narrow, scarcely wider than scutellum; vertex sloping,

obtusely angled, one-half wider than long, the anterior margin rounding

over to front, much broader than in citrina. Ocelli very large, scarcely their

own width from the front margin of vertex and midway between the eye and

the median line. The front inflated, strongly convex in both diameters;

pronotum half longer than the vertex, broad behind, the lateral margins

narrowing so rapidly as to form a semicircle with the front margin. Elytra

more nearly parallel margined than in citrina. Female segment feebly bisinu-

ate; male plates elongated spoon-shaped emarginate near the apex, conceal-

ing pale, slender styles with out-turned sickle-like tips.

Color: pale creamy or greenish straw. The ocelli very large and dark red,

pronotum with four black spots on the submargin, which, with those on the

hinges, form a semicircle. In the darkest specimens the disc of the pronotum

is covered with minute dark points. Elytra uniform subhyaline straw with a

smoky spot beyond the apex of clavus. Occasionally the eight points appear

on the elytra as in citrina.

Holotype 2 and allotype @ Santa Catalina Mountains, Arizona, Septem-

ber 19, 1930, and 9 paratypes taken at the same place at various dates from

April on. The writer took these, with their white-haired nymphs, from a

white-leaved perennial mallow (Abutilon incanum) growing on the south

slopes of Sabino Canyon.

Ponana dohrni Signoret. The writer has taken nymphs and adults of this

species from the white sandbar-willow (Salix exigua) in a number of places

in southern Arizona. They are especially common on second growth sprouts.

Ponana candida Van Duzee, described from the Gulf of California, has

been taken by the writer at the High Tanks on the Mexican border in

Arizona. This beautiful black and white species was found as large nymphs

and adults May 17, 1936, feeding on a six-foot white mallow (Horsfordia

alata). :

Ponana curiata Gib. The writer took a number of adults of this species

Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 503

from a woody mat-like composite at the control station on the way up to

Mt. Lemmon, Arizona, August 15, 1931. He took a pair at Redondo Beach,

California, July 4, 1931, on a hairy, aster-like plant, (Heterotheca grandi-

flora).

Ponana marginifrons Fowler. This long, strikingly marked species with

heavily margined nervures has been taken in abundance, both nymphs and

adults, from the three-leaved sumac (Rhus trilobata). It is found in S. W.

Colorado, 8. E. Utah, Arizona and New Mexico, south into Mexico.

Ponona marginifrons var. suilla Ball n. var.

Head form and genitalia of marginifrons nearly. Size, shape of body and

short elytra of resxma Fowler. Uniform pale cinnamon with powdered elytra

and greenish costa. Length 2 8 mm, width 3 mm.

Head about as in marginifrons, the vertex less sloping, slightly more an-

gulate with the margin upturned like a hog’s snout. Elytra much shorter and

broader than in marginifrons, about as in resima, but without the prominent

nervures of either. Females segment of an entirely different pattern from

that of resema, but resembling margznzfrons in the acute lateral angles, and

the angularly produced median portion with a heavily chitinized projection

at the apex.

Color: strikingly distinctive, uniform pale cinnamon. The elytra pruinose

with the basal half of the costa greenish, the nervures concolorous. There are

no spots or markings, except sometimes the round black dots back of the

eyes and dash on hinge that are typical of the group.

Holotype @, and one paratype female from the Pinal Mountains above

Superior, Arizona, August 1, 1929. Allotype & and two paratype females

from the same place July 11, 1935. All beaten from Chaparal Oak (Q. tur-

binella) by the writer.

In appearance this form is quite distinct and resembles res¢ma, but in

structure, except for wing length, it is close to marginifrons and will prob-

ably be found to be an adaptation to its food plant.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

522ND MEETING

The 522nd meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, January 9, 1935, President W. T. ScHALLER presiding.

Informal communications.—JEWEL J. GuAss described what is probably

the largest known zinnwaldite (a rare variety of mica) crystal, the portion

recovered alone weighing 24 pounds. It was found at the Morefield mine in

the celebrated pegmatite region near Amelia Court House, Virginia. This

mine has also produced germanium-bearing topaz crystals of unusual size,

some weighing as much as 500 pounds.

GEORGE Otis SmitTH described crack systems in river ice in Maine due

504 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

principally to changes of level of the water. Very little movement was found

along the cracks. Although offsets of certain cracks occurred along other

cracks these did not indicate lateral motion of the ice blocks. Discussed by

G. F. LouGuHuin.

M. A. Pentz described the stratigraphic sequence of rocks and clays found

by boring in the Carolina bays. No evidence was found supporting a meteoric

origin of the Carolina bays; the sediments lie undisturbed at a shallow depth.

Program.—Epwin D. McKeze: Some observations on the Middle Permian

marine formations of northern Arizona. The numerous lithologie types in-

cluded in the formation known as the Kaibab limestone, in northern Arizona,

include marine sandstones, bedded cherts, “redbeds,’’ white cross-bedded

sandstones, gypsum deposits, and several types of limestones. The complex

interrelationships between these various types and the transitions from one

type to another may be observed and traced in numerous localities in this

region, especially along the walls of the Grand Canyon and the Little Colo-

rado Canyon. Here then is found an exceptionally fine area for determining

various features of Permian deposition. In a section of normal Kaibab lime-

stone there are three distinct limestone units or members characterized by

distinctive lithologic and faunal elements. These are separated from one

another by sandstones and probably represent distinct invasions of the sea.

The limestones and intermediate sandstones control to a great extent the

development of topographic features, and are well expressed in typical can-

yon profiles of the region. In each limestone member of the Kaibab forma-

tion the fauna is represented by two facies. These are best described as the

normal open sea facies, with brachiopods of the Productus group predominat-

ing, and the brackish water facies composed of pelecypods and gastropods

with Bellerophon most conspicuous.

The lower member of the Kaibab limestone is separated from the middle

limestone or upper cliff-forming member by an unconformity which has been

noted in several localities. The hiatus represented probably is not great but

involves a time of slight erosion before the second sea invaded the area. The

uppermost limestone differs greatly in lithologic character from the middle

limestone and is separated from it over wide areas by a relatively thin bed

of crosslaminated sandstone. No evidence of an erosional break has been

noted between these limestones but the contrast between their faunas is

marked. The details concerning the nature of the transitions which occur

both vertically and laterally between the sandstones, limestones, bedded

cherts, and gypsum deposits are best brought out by three series of sections

made along general east-west lines located (1) through the deep canyons

south of Flagstaff, Arizona, (2) along the rim of Grand Canyon, and (3)

near the Arizona-Utah border. The work on this problem is still in a pre-

liminary state, but enough has been done to indicate many significant fea-

tures regarding Middle Permian sedimentation, paleogeography and ecologi-

cal conditions. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. Butts, MERTIE,

Miser, GOLDMAN, HENBEST.

G. A. Cooper: Stratigraphy of the Tully limestone, New York.

J. C. Rerep and J. M. Hanseu: Quicksilver deposits near Little Missouri

River, Southwest Arkansas. Cinnabar was discovered near the southern

border of the Ouachita Mountains in southwestern Arkansas in 1930 but

was not identified until June 1931. The quicksilver district is now known to

have an east-west length of about 30 miles and an average width of less than

a mile. The part covered in this paper is concerned with a 12-mile segment

of the district near the Little Missouri River, and includes the 3 mines, Gap

Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 505

Ridge, Parker Hill, and Parnell Hill, from which most of the production to

date has come. The principal rocks exposed in the district are shale and sand-

stone of the Atoka, Jackfork, and Stanley formation, of Pennsylvanian age,

which aggregate many thousands of feet in thickness. The rocks have been

deformed by close folding and thrust faulting and the three formations form

several east-northeast trending belts.

All the cinnabar deposits are in a northward overriding thrust block that

is cut by northeast trending cross faults and is deformed and fractured by

cross folds. The cross folding has not yet been adequately explained but it

apparently is related to the thrusting. The cross faults appear to be tear

faults formed during the thrusting. Mineralization occurs principally in a

sandstone member of the Stanley shale but locally is found at other horizons

in the Stanley and in the overlying Jackfork sandstone. The cinnabar fills

fractures related to the cross folding, and the linear distribution of the ore

occurrences is believed to have been due to mineralizing solutions ascending

along the thrust fault until they reached fractured sandstones of the Stanley

whence they followed these permeable beds toward the surface. Some of the

cross faults may be worthy of prospecting. (A uthors’ abstract.) Discussed by

Messrs. WASHBURNE, Huss, Ferguson, Henpricxs, Miser, Hewett.

523RD MEETING

The 523rd meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

January 23, 1935, President ScHALLER presiding. ;

Informal communications.—H. D. Miser reported that the urgent need

for more manuscript papers to be published in the Bulletin of the American

Association of Petroleum Geologists had been brought to the attention of

the Geological Society of Washington. Authors having suitable manuscripts

may submit them to Mr. J. P. D. Hutu, Business Manager, Box 1852,

Tulsa, Okla.

D. F. Hewert stated that in connection with field work in the mineral

resources near Boulder Dam during the spring of 1934, observations were

made on the north and south ends of Avawatz Mountain which show that

post-Miocene thrust faulting on a large scale is present west of the Death

Valley trough as well as east of it. The Garlock fault is interpreted as a tear

fault which turns southward around Avawatz Mountain and limits a block

of pre-Cambrian gneiss that is thrust over Miocene sands and volcanic rocks.

Program.—L. W. Currier: Structural features of the Illinois-Kentucky

fluorspar field. The areal structural pattern due to doming and normal

faulting, together with the unusual occurrence of numerous igneous bodies,

led to an earlier belief by several geologists that the uplift of the region re-

sulted from a deep-seated intrusion of magma, and that the faults represent

a subsequent settling of the dome. The striking symmetry of the Hicks dome,

a small structure in the northwest part of the field, is highly suggestive of a

laccolithic intrusion, but the general fault pattern of the field as a whole

seems more clearly a result of broader regional warping because (1) of the

lack of a concordant relation between the fault trends and the longer axis

of the dome, (2) the general absence of dikes from fault fissures, (3) the

offsetting of dikes by faults of the prevailing northeast-southwest system,

and (4) the continuance of narrow faulted belts from this area to southeast

Missouri on the west, and central and eastern Kentucky on the east. It

seems likely that the area experienced regional warping, effects of which

were local emplacement of the magma beneath the domed area, and intru-

sion of the dikes; continuing or later crustal disturbance imposed the major

506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11

fault systems, and in these fissures were deposited vein minerals of hydro-

thermal origin. Incidentally, an interesting suggestion has been made by

Bucher, who speculates concerning an incipient geosynclinal trough involy-

ing the upper part of the Mississippi embayment area. The axis of this trough

had it developed beyond the embayment, would, according to him, probably

have followed the zones of crustal tension now marked by fault systems that

extend eastward from the fluorspar field into central and eastern Kentucky.

It is to be noted that the highly fractured fluorspar field lies at a sharp bend

in this postulated axis.

An interesting recent development has been the exploitation of another

type of fluorspar deposit, designated by some as “blankets,” and by others

as “bedded deposits.” The connotations of these terms are misleading and

the writer prefers to call them ‘“‘bedding replacement deposits” since it is

believed that they were formed by the replacement of limestone along bed-

ding planes, directly beneath impervious shale or dense limestone beds.

These deposits are not obviously connected with prominent faults, but

recent work seems to indicate that solutions arose along minor fractures of

little or no displacement, connected with minor faults, and these in turn

with a major fault zone. Solutions rising along small fractures in the locally

warped Cave in Rock fluorspar district were impounded or greatly im-

peded beneath the impervious beds, and lateral replacement of the lime-

stone took place with preservation of the bedding of the limestone producing

a “coon-tail” type of banded ore. The writer dissents from the ‘diffusion

banding” theory of Bastin as a major process for several reasons that will

be treated in a later paper. (Author’s abstract.)

M. Kine Huppert: Determination of certain structural features in Illinois,

Kentucky, and Alabama by electrical resistance methods. The work herein dis-

cussed was conducted chiefly during the summer of 1934, though it was a

continuation of work begun earlier for the Illinois State Geological Survey.

Two distinct areas were involved: (1) the fluorspar-bearing district of

southern Illinois and of northwestern Kentucky, and (2) the limonite iron-

bearing area around Russellville in northwestern Alabama. Most of the

work was done in the fluorspar region and only a short amount of time was

devoted to experimental work in Alabama. Three methods were used: (1)

the Wenner four-electrode technique with Gish-Rooney apparatus for the

determination of specific electrical resistivity of the ground. (2) equipoten-

tial-line mapping, and (8) potential-drop-ratio depth correlations.

The resistivity method was used for locating faults in Illinois and Ken-

tucky. The resistivity of the rocks on the opposite sides of a fault is fre-

quently quite different. This fact enables one to locate faults not otherwise

known by making cross-country traverses on which resistivity measure-

ments effective to depths of the order of 100 feet are taken at intervals of

100 feet. Faults are frequently disclosed by abrupt changes in the readings

of specific resistivity in these traverses.

An equipotential-line map was made of one area in Kentucky which was

crossed by a dike and by a complex of faults, and was known to be fluorspar

and galena bearing. Most of the faults produced no noticeable effects. One

fault, however, produced a very severe distortion of the equipotential lines.

These lines in this case changed direction abruptly in the vicinity of the

fault and ran parallel to it for a distance of 100 feet or more. This indicated

a very highly conductive zone along this fault. Galena is the only mineral

common to the area which seems sufficiently conductive to account for this

anomaly.

Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 507

Work by the potential-drop-ratio method was conducted in Alabama.

The stratigraphic column there was: Chert gravel underlain by limonite

with massive limestone beneath. All of these, it proved, were very highly re-

sistive with very little contrast. Numerous depth profiles by the potential-

drop-ratio technique gave a faint correlation, but one not distinct enough to

make the method seem reliable as a potential substitute for test holes in

locating ore. (Author’s abstract.) Contributors to the discussion of the two

papers of the regular program at the conclusion of the second were: Messrs.

ScHALLER, Henpricks, Bastin, FERGUSON, GoLDMAN, Hewett, R. C.

WELLS, HENBEST.

524TH MEETING

The 524th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

February 13, 1935, President SCHALLER presiding.

The following resolution was presented by Dr. T. W. Stanton and

unanimously adopted by the Society: WHEREAS, Dr. Davip WHITE, a char-

ter member and Past President of the Geological Society of Washington,

died at his home in this city February 7, 1935, at the age of 72, it is fitting

that the Geological Society should pause for a moment in tribute to the

memory of one whose splendid character, innate ability and outstanding

accomplishments in the broad and varied fields of his life work have been

and are an inspiration to all who knew him. As another colleague has said

of him, Dr. White ‘“‘has long been the foremost Paleozoic paleobotanist on

this continent and perhaps in the world. His work here was not merely sys-

tematic and descriptive but was interpretative from the beginning. He was

a stratigraphic paleontologist of the highest rank. He was our foremost

authority on the origin and evolution of coal. His great generalization,

known widely as the carbon ratio hypothesis, was an outgrowth of his

studies on the origin and evolution of both coal and petroleum. It established

a ‘dead line’ beyond which oil pools will not be found. This has great eco-

nomic significance. It alone stamps him as a rare original investigator and

thinker. He contributed significantly in the field of isostasy. He adminis-

tered an important unit of government during the Great War in such fashion

as to make it most useful during the crisis.’ These quoted words suggest

only a few of the varied fields in which he excelled. Here in the presence of his

friends it is not necessary to enumerate the many honors and responsibilities

that came to Dr. White during his life time. They were all received by him

most modestly. To those of us who have known him through most of his

long service in Washington—almost half a century—he was an inspiring

leader, a helpful counsellor, an ever faithful friend.

THEREFORE, it is moved that these few and most inadequate words of

appreciation be incorporated in the minutes of this meeting and that the

Secretary be instructed to convey to Mrs. White the sincere sympathy of the

entire membership, and a copy of these resolutions.

Informal communications.—C. 8S. Ross reported that the tentative con-

clusion that euhedral analcite resulted from the alteration of glassy vol-

canic ash, probably deposited in a saline lake, was confirmed by the recent

studies of Bernard M. Moore. The material studied by both Ross and

Moore came from the vicinity of Wikieup Post Office, western Arizona.

Microscopie examination showed all stages in the alteration of glassy vol-

canic ash to a nearly pure analcite rock. One section showed tiny analcite

grains forming within typical glassy ash grains. Discussed by Messrs.

GOLDMAN, RuBEY, SCHAIRER, MILTON.

508 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

A. H. KoscHMann stated that work in slaty rocks in southeastern Alaska

showed that the usual relationships between cleavage and structure—uni-

formity of dip and strike over large areas—did not apply. The cleavage

varied from place to place within a short distance. In general it was found to

be parallel to the limbs of folds. In extreme cases it was even found dipping

in opposite directions in alternate layers varying from an inch up to one foot

in thickness. Discussed by Mr. BRADLEY.

J. P. MarBLeE stated that the Committee on Determination of Geologic

Time desires to secure samples from fine-grained sills, flows or dykes of

known geologic provenance, for examination of the “Helium Method” at

the hands of Dr. W. D. Urry, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Samples should be from fresh exposures, and not taken from or near old

surfaces. They should be sent to Prof. A. C, Lans, Chairman, Tufts College,

Cambridge, Massachusetts, or to J. P. Marsus, U.S. Geological Survey.

Program.—P. D. Trask and H. E. Hammar: Organic content of sediments.

This paper has been published in full in Proceedings of the American Pe-

troleum Institute Production Bulletin 214, 1934, and in the Oil and Gas

Journal, vol. 33, no. 27, pp. 43-46; no. 28, pp. 40-41; no. 29, pp. 36-39,

Nov. 22, 29, Dec. 6, 1934. It is essentially a progress report which presents

data about the distribution of organic matter among sediments from several

oil-producing areas in California, Wyoming, Colorado, Montana, Kansas,

Oklahoma, and Texas. The report explains briefly the methods of deter-

mining the organic content of sediments; and one method, that of ascertain-

ing the degree of oxidation by means of chromic acid, is described in detail.

Sediments, in general, contain little organic matter. The average organic

content is about 1.5 per cent, and relatively few sediments contain more than

4 per cent. Since the average organic content of recent marine sediments is

about 2.5 per cent, it would seem as if the loss in organic matter during burial

is of the order of magnitude of 50 per cent. The scarcity of sediments con-

taining more than 4 per cent organic matter indicates that a large organic

content is not required for the generation of petroleum in commercial

quantity, even in consideration of the fact that the organic content of the

sediments is less now than at time of deposition. However, the association of

so many oil horizons with sediments, like the Miocene of California, the

upper Cretaceous of Wyoming, the Cherokee shale and Chattanooga shale

in Oklahoma, and the Eagle Ford shale in Texas, which contain consider-

able more organic matter than the general average for sediments, indicates

that relative richness (but not necessarily extreme richness) is a favorable

indication of source beds. On the other hand, the organic content is not an

absolute index of source beds; as some rich sediments are not associated with

oil horizons, and some oil horizons are not associated with rich sediments.

Evidently other factors, like the volatility, the degree of reduction of the

sediments, or the ease of migration of oil out of the sediments, have to be

considered. In fact, some of the data already obtained seem to indicate that

comparatively high volatility and high degree of reduction are favorable in-

dications of source beds. (A uthors’ abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. SCHALLER,

WELLS, FAHEY.

P. J. SHenon: Utah earthquake of March 24, 1934. An earthquake of major

intensity which centered near Kosmo, Utah, at the northern end of Great

Salt Lake, was felt in 4 states over an area of about 150,000 square miles on

March 24, 1934. The first and strongest shock was felt for 650 miles in an

east-west direction and for 400 miles in a north-south direction. The in-

tensity in the epicentral area was 8 to 8+ of the Modified Mercalli scale of

Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 509

1931 and 8+ to 9— of the Rossi-Foral scale. The first shock was recorded

in the epicentral area at 8:06 a.m., M.S.T. It was followed by hundreds of

aftershocks but no foreshocks were reported. The earthquake was strong

enough to alarm inhabitants throughout an area having a radius of nearly

100 miles. Many people became dizzy or nauseated and most people be-

came very sensitive to the smaller shocks that followed the first disturbance.

Considerable property damage as well as loss of life was avoided only be-

cause of the sparsity of population in the epicentral area. All chimneys were

shaken down in the epicentral area. Brick and stone buildings at Snowville

were damaged and some damage was done as far away as Salt Lake City,

where cracks developed in some office buildings. The tracks of the Southern

Pacific railroad, 3 miles east of Kosmo, were displaced vertically about 4

inches.

A number of ground cracks developed in the epicentral area. Most of the

fractures were in the salt flats or in poorly consolidated gravel and related

rocks that probably belong to the Lake Bonneville sediments. The ground

cracks extended in an east of north direction for at least 5 miles although no

one fracture was continuous for a great distance. Rather there was a tend-

ency for the cracks to develop en eschelon patterns. All of the fractures

noted by the writer had nearly vertical dips and so far as known the move-

ment along them was entirely vertical. Four distinct fractures crossed the

road about 3 miles north of Kosmo. They were about 14 mile apart. The ver-

tical displacement along these fractures ranged from about 2 inches to 20

inches and, except for one, all were displaced downward on the east side.

The west side dropped about 3 inches along the fault which crossed the road

nearest to Kosmo.

Numerous springs developed in the epicentral area as a result of the

earthquake. So far as known all of them arose along well defined fractures

and most of them formed in the salt flats. Where the flow was localized along

fractures mud cones were built up at the surface. Some of the springs that

developed during the earthquake flowed as much as 0.5 sec. ft. of water.

It is believed that settling and readjustments in the saturated material

along the old shore line of Great Salt Lake was responsible for the develop-

ment of the springs.

The earthquake was probably caused by movements along faults in

Hansel valley. All of the fractures showing displacements in the epicentral

area were in gravel and related rocks; hence it cannot be definitely stated

that they were not formed by slumping and settling as the result of earth-

quake vibrations. However, the close association of the fractures with the

terraced forms and lines of old springs strongly suggests that the recent dis-

placements followed old surfaces of movement. This in turn suggests that

the fractures may have been caused by adjustments in the bedrock below

and that the faults that define Hansel Valley are still active and that the

recent earthquake was caused primarily by movements along these faults.

This is supported by the fact that this vicinity has been an active seismic

center for many years. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Captain Heck and

Mr. C.S. Ross.

G. W. Stosr and Anna I. Jonas: An erosion remnant of a great overthrust

sheet in the Highlands near Reading, Pa. The Reading-Boyertown Hills of

Pennsylvania are a part of the Appalachian Mountains and trend northeast

between the Great Valley on the north and the Triassic belt on the south.

From their western end in South Mountain, southwest of Wernersville, they

are continuous across eastern Pennsylvania into the Highlands of New

510 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11

Jersey and into New York. The present paper sets forth the results of a

structural study of the Reading-Boyertown Hills north of the Triassic rocks

during which the mapping of the Paleozoic rocks has been revised and ex-

tended and the overthrust nature of the mountain belt has been worked out.

The oldest rock in these mountains is a pre-Cambrian graphitic gneiss of

sedimentary origin with marble lentils. It is invaded by an igneous com-

plex also of pre-Cambrian age. The Lower Cambrian Hardyston quartzite,

with an estimated thickness of 300 feet, unconformably overlies the pre-

Cambrian rocks. It includes a basal arkosic pebbly quartzite overlain by

thick-bedded vitreous quartzite, the upper part of which contains Scolithus

linearis. The limestone of the Great Valley includes from the base upward

Lower Cambrian Tomstown dolomite, Middle Cambrian Elbrook lime-

stone, Upper Cambrian (Ozarkian of Ulrich) Conococheague limestone, and

the Ordovician Beekmantown and Leesport limestones, overlain by Martins-

burg shale of Trenton to Eden age.

The Irish Mountain mass and Lock Ridge, which form a front line of

hills, are anticlinal uplifts of pre-Cambrian rocks and Lower Cambrian

quartzite which dip normally under Cambrian (Tomstown) limestone. The

rest of the mountain area from its end southwest of Wernersville to South

Mountain south of Allentown, a distance of over 50 miles, and probably

across Pennsylvania to Easton, is part of a great overthrust sheet, here

called the Reading overthrust, which has ridden northwestward on a flat

fault plane in its crystalline core over Lower Paleozoic rocks which are now

exposed in Oley Valley and in many other mountain valleys. Evidence of

the overthrust character of the mountain belt is based on structural and

stratigraphic discordance of the mountain rocks with the adjoining rocks

of the valley border, and mylonites on the borders of the thrust block where

pre-Cambrian rocks and quartzites have been ground out into mylonites

on the sole of the overthrust sheet.

Many small detached areas of the main overthrust sheet, or klippen, oc-

cur on the borders of the mountains. The largest is Neversink Mountain

lying south of Reading, which is a narrow anticline of pre-Cambrian rocks

bordered on both sides by much crushed quartzite. The older rocks of this

mountain lie on Middle Cambrian (Elbrook) limestone. The mountains are

dissected by many steep-sided flat-bottomed valleys in some of which lime-

stone and quartzite are exposed. These valleys are interpreted as windows

in the overthrust sheet which has been cut through by erosion to the under-

lying limestone. Evidence for this is in the blocks of chert found in most of

the valleys, the chert having been formed by silicification of the limestone

along the thrust fault, and the presence of granite and quartzite mylonites

at the valley borders. The roots of the thrust are buried under the Triassic

rocks dropped down by the Triassic border fault.

It is suggested that Jenny Jump Mountain, N. J., and the Highlands of

New Jersey lying northwest of the Green Pond Mountain syncline of Si-

lurian and Devonian rocks are part of the overthrust block observed in the

Reading-Boyertown Hills. The Highlands of New York which lie southeast

of the Green Pond Mountain syncline trend southwestward and pass under

the Triassic sediments southeast of the strike of the overthrust sheet here

described. The youngest rock involved in the overthrust is Martinsburg

shale, hence the age of the movement is at least post-Eden. It is believed

that the thrust is Appalachian in age. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by

Messrs. C. 8. Ross, H. D. Miszr.

Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY oll

525TH MEETING

The 525th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

February 27, 1935, President ScHALLER, presiding.

Informal communications—A. H. KoscHMANN showed a slide illustrat-

ing a phenomenon very probably caused by pressure exerted by growing

erystals. On Annette Island, Southeastern Alaska, pyrite crystals in a cal-

careous shale have tapering wedges of quartz on two and some on four sides.

The longest pyrite-quartz crystal is 1.7 inches in length. Molds show that a

film of quartz also completely surrounds the pyrite. The quartz shows no

crystal outline and it is believed that the wedge-shaped openings now occu-

pied by quartz were formed by the growing pyrite. Discussed by Mr. Bevan.

Program.—L. G. Hrnpest: Cyclical sedimentation and the stratigraphy

of the Bloyd shale, Morrow group, near Fayetteville, Arkansas. The Bloyd shale

around Fayetteville, Arkansas, contains three well known members, namely,

the Brentwood limestone—at or near the base, the Baldwin coal—near the

middle, and the Kessler limestone—about 50 feet below the top. The general

character of the Bloyd shale has already been described and is generally

known, but certain inconspicuous details of the stratigraphy have a his-

torical significance that has escaped attention. This is particularly true of

the sediments associated with the Baldwin coal.

The Brentwood limestone in this vicinity is typically massive in the lower

part but grades upward into alternating marine marl and limestone beds.

These marine beds are abruptly terminated above at a sharp, unweathered

contact, above which lies 15 feet, more or less, of terrestrial, variously

sandy shale. The top of the terrestrial shale is weathered and grades upward

into the underclay of the Ealdwin coal. The coal is followed by 0-5 feet of

terrestrial, plant-bearing, carbonaceous shale and this in turn by a limy,

conglomeratic, quartz pebble bearing marine sandstone, generally 5 feet or

more thick. In northeast Fayetteville the limy sandstone is richly fossilifer-

ous, but its original character is almost completely obliterated by weather-

ing in the natural outcrops.

The stratigraphic succession described above is so closely similar to that

which characterizes the Pennsylvanian cyclothems in Illinois that it may

confidently be considered the same in origin. In certain respects the ex-

ample near Fayetteville is even more suggestive of the opinion which the

writer has held for some time that the Illinois cyclothems were produced by

saltatory but always dcwnward movements of basins of deposition that were

open to marine invasion as a consequence of each subsidence. According to this

hypothesis, each cyclothem appears to have begun with a relatively rapid

and even depression of the basin, accompanied by a similarly rapid marine

invasion and recorded by an advance marine deposit composed of macerated

and decomposed plant material, mud, and remains of an advance marine

fauna. A brief period of crustal stability followed and two different types of

sedimentation (marine and deltaic) began simultaneously to fill the shallow

basin and to force a slow retreat of the strand line. In marine areas that re-

ceived little silt and afforded a normal marine fauna, limestone and limy

marls were laid down, but in areas where large amounts of land-derived

sediments were received and sudden, drastic changes in the composition of

sea water were common, barren clays and silts were deposited. In such locali-

ties as the last, sporadic invasions of marine organisms or the drifting in

of organic remains from land or sea furnished nuclei for subsequent forma-

tion of concretions, both calcareous and sideritic.

512 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

The rapidity and wide extent of the submergence that initiates the

cyclothem is evidenced by the abrupt change from terrestrial to marine

deposition, general absence of erosion at contact, and parallelism of the coal

and marine beds. The subsidence which initiated the cyclothem was ac-

companied in all likelihood by uplift of adjacent positive areas. As a conse-

sequence the streams were rejuvenated and began vigorously to degrade

the uplands and to extend deltas into the basin, thereby causing a simul-

taneous migration seaward of the strand line and the zones of lime, marl,

barren clay, and terrestrial deposition. The migration must have been in-

terrupted or its record varied by exceptional floods, climatic cycles, bio-

logic changes, shifts in ocean currents, or combinations of all or part of

these.

The advancing terrestrial deposits were generally cross-bedded, channeled

and filled, locally peaty, and generally characterized by great variation in

composition, texture, and bedding structure. In their areas of alluviation

the master streams or their distributaries evidently migrated from side to

side as they advanced and in places cut deeply into or through their own

sediments and into the preceding marine deposits, but they generally met

strong resistance wherever they encountered the thick peat bed at the top

of the preceding cyclothem. Inasmuch as the bottoms of the channels evi-

dently were rarely or never exposed to air and as the channels were con-

stantly migrating, the sediments beneath the intraformational uncon-

formities were not weathered, therefore producing the fresh contacts which

commonly are found in Illinois at this position. Back of the advancing

front, the low-lying, poorly drained, alluvial plain became a favorable place

for the formation of a soil (the anlage of most underclays), the growth of a

lush flora, and the accumulation of peat if the climate was propitious. Lo-

cally, a veneer of plant-bearing clay or silt was deposited on the peat and

ended the cyclothem record, possibly heralding the disturbance of land

levels associated with approaching subsidence.

The dynamic background for this deformation is not clearly inferable at

present, but circumstances strongly suggest a connection between the sur-

face processes of simultaneous degradation and aggradation of adjacent

areas and the periodicity of crustal yielding. Though covering thousands of

square miles in some instances, the load of water-logged sediment composing

a cyclothem rarely exceeded 50 to 125 feet, which is about one-sixth to one-

twelfth the load supposed to be capable alone of causing an isostatic adjust-

ment. In an area weakened by previous failures and enduring accumulating

diastrophic stresses, a light load should be capable of hastening failure and

promoting a more complete though temporary adjustment to the larger

diastrophic forces at work in the region generally. Accordingly, isostatic ad-

justment is here regarded as an immediate, dynamic cause of the eyclothem

and a factor whose importance as an agent promoting periodicity of def-

ormation was much greater than the relative magnitude of its force. In

relation to the more remote and fundamental causes of the extensive di-

astrophism of the time, isostasy was probably a sort of accessory-after-the-

fact agent rather than a primary cause and possibly negligible at that.

The black, fissile, marine shale which overlies some coal beds and lies at

the base of the cyclothem in which it occurs probably originated from bottom

gel in the invading sea. This proposed origin for the fissile shale accounts for

the association of macerated plant material, very fine to submicroscopic

carbonaceous substance, and marine shells, and accounts for the finely lamel-

Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 513

lar character of this shale. Except when strongly built, marine shells in these

fissile shales are generally flattened by subsequent compaction of the sedi-

ments.

For practical and theoretical reasons the boundary between cyclothems

is placed at the beginning of marine deposition above the coal zone instead

of at the base of the advance, terrestrial deposits. (A uthor’s abstract.) Dis-

cussed by Messrs. Mispr, Wrutiams, Henpricks, GILLuLY, TRASK, SEARS,

RUBEY.

Captain N. H. Heck: Investigation of strong earthquake motions in Cali-

fornia. By means of earthquake maps of the earth as a whole and of the

United States, the relation of earthquake activity in California was clearly

brought out. A comprehensive attack on earthquake problems is now in

progress, which, while primarily for the engineers, has many points of

‘interest to the geologist. For the last two years, measurement of strong

earth motions has been in progress by means of short period instruments

known as accelerographs, long period instruments known as displacement

meters (both types recording photographically) and visually recording in-

struments known as the Weed strong motion instruments. The present in-

struments are not capable of recording the strongest earthquakes that have

occurred in California, but before long such instruments will be available.

All of these are operated only during an earthquake. Features of the instru-

ments include automatic starting and stopping (starting due to the earth-

quake itself), time marking, adequate damping, and naturally, low magnifi-

cation.

Beginning with the Long Beach Earthquake, valuable records have been

accumulated. Among those of special interest to geologists are those from

the Long Beach Earthquake of March 10, 1933, which show changes in

geological structures in different stations, a very different type of record ob-

tained in the Imperial Valley, and records obtained in the same vicinity on

several types of instruments. The latter has made it possible to determine the

validity of a method of integration perfected by Mr. Frank Neumann of the

Coast and Geodetic Survey, which among other things, brings out the fact

that at the very starting of an earthquake and in the immediate vicinity of

the epicenter, periods ranging from 15 seconds to nearly a minute occur.

Triangulation and leveling have been quite well extended in California

to cover the principal areas where crustal movement is to be expected. A

program with repetition of measurements at reasonable intervals has been

developed. The possibility of tilting along major faults is being tested

through tiltmeters at the University of California.

The various activities are made possible through regular and P. W. A.

funds assigned to the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Cooperating agencies

include the Carnegie Institution of Washington, California Universities, the

Structural Engineering Organizations, Bureau of Standards and many

others. None of the recent earthquakes have involved important geological

changes, therefore the United States Geological Survey and similar organiza-

tions have not been required to take an active part in this particular pro-

gram, but the need for such geological studies may come at any time.

(Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. RuBry, TRASK, CALLAGHAN.

W. D. Jounston, Jr., and G. TUNELL, Secretaries

514 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Nores

U.S. Naval Observatory.—The greatest outburst of sunspot activity since

last summer swept the sun recently, photographs obtained at the Naval

Observatory indicate. Above the sun’s equator, on what would be the

northern hemisphere of the earth, a giant streamer extended from 47 to

82 degrees of longitude, or over one-sixth of the sun’s diameter. The stream-

er’s length was approximately 144,000 miles. In the southern solar latitudes

were five separate groups of sunspots, some containing as many as three

spots.

Coupled with the increased sunspot activity there was a succession of

moderately severe magnetic storms, according to reports from the U.S.

Coast and Geodetic magnetic station at Cheltenham, Md. ‘‘The storms,”

reports W. M. McFaruanp, “seem to be a recurrence of the magnetic

activity of late August and late July. There is often an interval of about 27

days between these recurrences, and sometimes such a group of magnetic

disturbances wiJl continue to occur for several years with this 27-day in-

terval between the appearances. The present group of disturbances seems

to have appeared first about two months ago.”

National Bureau of Standards.—Dr. Lyman J. Briaces, Director of the

National Bureau of Standards, recently announced the formation of a new

section for research on organic plastics. The increasing use of these materials

by Government departments, coupled with a growing volume of requests

for information, made a survey of their sources, properties, and uses impera-

tive. Dr. Gorpon M. Kung, the chief of the new section, has been a member

of the Bureau’s staff for six years, during five of which he has been engaged

in research on plastic materials.

Mr. Rawpu W. Situ of the weights and measures division of the National

Bureau of Standards left Washington on October 6 to attend a meeting of

weights and measures officials of the State of California in Los Angeles,

October 16, 17 and 18. On November 6, 7, and 8 he will represent the Bureau

at a meeting of weights and measures officers of the State of Michigan at

Flint, Michigan. At the Los Angeles and Flint meetings Mr. Smith will

speak on the activities of the National Conference on Weights and Measures

with particular reference to specifications and tolerances for weighing and

measuring devices.

Dr. Mitton Harris, the research associate of the American Association

of Textile Chemists and Colorists at the National Bureau of Standards has

returned from Europe where he visited the laboratories of the British Wool

Research Association, the Shirley Institute for Cotton Research, the British

Leather Manufacturers Association, and the Leeds University in England;

and the Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers in France.

North American Council on Fishery Investigations.—This organization

held its 22nd meeting September 17 to 19, in the Department of Commerce

Building. The Council is composed of the heads of fishery services in France,

._ Newfoundland, Canada, and the United States, and eminent fishery scien-

tists attached to their respective organizations. During recent years annual

meetings have been held for the purpose of coordinating investigations of

Nov. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 515

the various countries in North Atlantic waters where fishermen from re-

spective countries share in the sea fisheries of the region. Representatives of

the United States Government were FRANK T. BELL, Commissioner of

Fisheries; Dr. H. B. BiceLow of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu-

tion, Chairman of the Council; and Etmmr Hicerns, Chief of the Bureau’s

Division of Scientific Inquiry. R. H. Frepumr, Chief of the Division of

Fishery Industries, and Messrs. O. D. Sntrn, W. C. Harrinaton, R. A.

Nessit, and JoHN R. WesstTerR of the Bureau’s North Atlantic staff of

biologists attended the meeting and participated by presenting reports on

scientific investigations during the past year. Fishery experts of Newfound-

land, Canada, and the United States presented technical reports on their

investigations during the past year dealing with cod, haddock, mackerel,

herring, Atlantic salmon, and other important species, and dealt extensively

with improved methods of investigation regarding currents, temperatures,

fisheries. Plans for collecting improved fishery statistics as a guide to indus-

try were also developed.

At the close of the session the Council adopted a resolution calling upon

the Government’s representative to draft an international treaty for the

protection of the great North Atlantic haddock fishery. Reports of investi-

gators indicated that this fishery, worth to the fishermen more than four

and one-half million dollars in 1933, is facing commercial destruction.

U.S. Bureau of Fisheries investigators have demonstrated that a tremen-

dous destruction of undersized, unmarketable fish occurs in trawl fishing.

In some years this destruction has amounted to two-thirds of the total num-

ber of fish caught. Practical experiments at sea have shown that an increase

in the size of the openings in the net from 3 inches as now used to 434 inches

will permit the escape of the great majority of these young fish and thus re-

duce the strain of the fishery by more than one-half. On the basis of these

findings the Council recommended to the governments of the nations con-

cerned the drafting of a treaty to require the use of nets of larger mesh.

National Park Service—VERNE E. CHATELAIN has been designated as

Acting Assistant Director in charge of the Service’s newly-established

Branch of Historic Sites and Building, Washington Office. Authorization

for establishment of this branch was contained in the 1936 Interior De-

partment Appropriation Act.

Dr. Fritior M. Fryx=.u, formerly of the Washington Office, has been

transferred to the Service’s Field Educational Division at Berkeley, Cali-

fornia, where he will plan museum exhibits for western national parks.

Bren H. Tuompson, special assistant to the Director, has returned to

Washington Headquarters from the West, where he accompanied Director

Cammerer and members of the Senate Committee investigating proposed

national park sites.

KennetH B. DisHer, is now connected with the Eastern Museum

Division, Washington Office, lining up the Bureau of Reclamation Exhibit

for the new Interior Department Building Museum. Mr. Disher came to

Washington from the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military

Park, for which area he planned museum exhibits. During the summer of

1934 he served as a ranger naturalist at Grand Canyon National Park and

was stationed at the Wayside Museum.

Asiatic grasses for the West.—Erosion-checking grasses and other plants

that can fight the droughts, winds and occasional floods of the Great Plains

516 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11

area have been sought in Asia by three expeditions of the U. 8. Department

of Agriculture. Now, the explorers’ work finished, the seeds and cuttings are

being tested under field conditions at four stations in the West by agrono-

mists. The expeditions were in Asia at various times during the past two

years. One, under H. G. MacMiuuan and J. C. Srerxens, collected in

Manchuria. A second, under the direction of H. L. Westover and C. R.

ENLow, traversed Russian Turkestan. The third, under Prof. NicHoLas

Roegricu, worked in northern China. The scientific spoils thus far checked

number well over 2,000 lots of seed and planting stock, with some ship-

ments yet to be accounted for. Among them are 798 grasses, 555 legumes

and 889 miscellaneous items. By far the greatest number of packages re-

ceived were in the Westover-Enlow collections.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Surgeon-General Hucu 8. CumminG attended a meeting of the Health

Committee of the League of Nations at Geneva, October 7 to 16, and also

the sessions of the International Health Office in Paris, beginning October

iva

Commissioner Frank T. BELL of the Bureau of Fisheries, U. 8. Depart-

ment of Commerce, was elected president of the American Fisheries Society,

at its September meeting in Tulsa, Oklahoma. In attendance with Mr. Bell

were R. H. Frepuer, Etmer Hicerns, Tep Litrie and H. §. Davis, of the

Bureau.

Col. Ropert Brrnis, U. 8. Army Ordnance Corps, retired, was awarded

the Ordnance Medal of Merit by the Army Ordnance Association, in recog-

nition of his pioneer work in gun design.

@Obituary

FrepeErick L. RaNsomp, economic geologist and a former president of the

Washington Academy of Sciences (1918), died at his home in Pasadena,

Calif., October 6, 1935. He was born at Greenwich, England, December 2,

1868. At the University of California he received the B.S. degree in 1893,

the Ph.D. degree in 1896, and Phi Beta Kappa membership in 1910. From

1896 to 1897 he was assistant in mineralogy and petrography at Harvard

University. In 1897 he joined the U. 8S. Geological Survey as assistant ge-

ologist and from 1912 to 1923 was geologist in charge of the section of metal-

liferous deposits. During the next four years he was professor of economic

geology at the University of Arizona, and from 1927 until his death he held

a similar position at the California Institute of Technology.

Doctor Ransome was active in many clubs and scientific societies, includ-

ing the National Academy, Geological Society of America, American As-

sociation for the Advancement of Science, American Institute of Mining and

Metallurgical Engineers, and Society of Economic Geologists. He was an

associate editor of Economic Geology and the American Journal of Science.

His numerous publications deal chiefly with the ore deposits and geology

of western mining districts.

CONTENTS

Puysics.—The Dorsey fathometer. HrrBert GROVE Dons.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.—Alternating axes and a symbols 1

crystallography. J.D. H. Donnay.............. :

Borany.—The genus Chionopappus of Besruane (Asteraceae).

North ‘Ace CHARLES B. ee Se 2 es

BAGO PS. 7 A. 6 wh bec d uead oe sae Ce ee ee ee

GEOLOGICAL: SOCIETY... o.0 o R 1 ol oe a ee eee arc

Screntiric Norms anD NEWS... 2... ..ceeseseesectaee

OBITUARY: FREDERICK L..RANSOME? <). 0 o7.4 saacea adele eng

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

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Vou. 25 DEcEMBER 15, 1935 No. 12

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Joun A. StmevENSON F. G. BrickwEDDE Rouanp W. Brown

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BURBAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

H. T. Wenseu Haroutp Morrison

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCINTY

E. A. GoLpMAN W. W. Ruspny

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY

AGNES CHASE J. R. Swanton

BOTANICAL SOCIBTY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIDTY

R. E. Gipson

CHEMICAL SOCIDTY

PUBLISHED MONTHLY

BY THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

450 Aunarp Sr.

at MpnasHa, WISCONSIN

Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis,

Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925,

Authorized January 21, 1933.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

This JourNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes:

(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; 3 .