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JOURNAL

OF THE 2

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

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VOLUME 28, 1938

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CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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ERRATA

Vol. 28, 19388

Page 102, line 47: take out “G”’ before “formations.”

"or aes, = tat é

ze, ie ae te pie a

JANUARY 15, 1938 No. 1

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_ OF SCIENCES

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JOURNAL

OF THE

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Vou. 28 JANUARY 15, 1938 No. 1

CHEMISTRY.—The formation of hydroxy B-diketone acetates from

bromo a-diketones.1 A. H. Buatr, Howard University.

In recent years there has been accumulated a considerable amount

of evidence which indicates that many of the replacement reactions

of a-haloketones proceed through addition to the carbonyl group and

subsequent ethylene oxide formation, followed by ring opening to

furnish the final replacement product.? To cite a specific illustration,

desyl halides react with alcoholates to form epoxides, such as (1),

which can then undergo ring opening either by addition of a mole-

cule of alcoholate or by rearrangement which takes place on heating

or in the presence of acids. These possibilities are shown in the follow-

ing equations:

OCH

C,H;CH X COC,H:; -- NaOC.H; == ao ee ma

ONa

OC.H;

| NaOC.H;

C;H:;CHCC,H; SSS C.,H;CHC(OC2H;).CeHs

O OH

4 |

{

ea = as oc

OH OCH; OH

CsH;COCH(OC:H;)C,.H;

It is, it will be noticed, a consequence of this mechanism of re-

placement that, when ring opening occurs by rearrangement, the

entering group is found attached to what was, in the a-haloketone,

the carbonyl carbon atom, while the carbonyl oxygen atom shifts

1 Received November 19, 1937.

2 (a) Ward, J. Chem. Soc., 1929: 1541.

(b) Kohler and Brown, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 55: 4299. 1933.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 1

from its original location to an adjacent carbon atom. In the desyl

halides such a shift, because of the symmetry of the molecule, would

not reveal itself, and to the best of our information no one has sought

to verify this consequence of the replacement mechanism just de-

scribed by an examination of the products obtained from a sub-

stituted desyl halide. However, an extremely simple experimental

test of the mechanism in question is possible if one starts not with a

simple a-haloketone but instead with a halo a-diketone, for in this

latter case the shift of the carbonyl oxygen atom will result in the

formation of a derivative of a 6-diketone. Thus, if phenyl bromo-

benzyl diketone (II) is subjected to a replacement reaction with,

say, potassium acetate, the product should be the acetate of diben-

zoylearbinol (III).

OCOCH;

CsH;COCOCHBrC,.H; + CH;COOK — [Cs;H;CCCHBrC.Hs;] —

(II)

OOK

Ce | ee

[(C;H;CC—CHC,H;] — C;H;CCHCC,H;

| \Z7 Ne eal

O O O

(IIT)

We have verified this by examining the reaction between phenyl

bromobenzoyl diketone and potassium acetate and have found that

the product is the hydroxy 8-diketone acetate (III). In addition we

have found that the two isomeric bromo a-diketones, phenyl p-

methoxybromobenzyl diketone (IV) and anisyl bromobenzyl dike-

tone (V), react with potassium acetate to furnish the same hydroxy

B-diketone (VI).

C.H;CO COCHBrC,H.0 CH;-p C,H;CHBrCOCOC,H.O0CH3—p

(IV) CD)

CeH; COCHCOC,;H.0CH;—p C,H;COCHBrCOC,.H;

(VI) (VII)

Ce-H;CHCOCOC,H:; C,H;COCHBrCOC,H ,OCH;3—p

OCOCH;

(VIII)

JAN. 15, 1938 BLATT: HYDROXY 6-DIKETONE ACETATES

“ae ad Bi eo

OCOCH; OCOCH;

(X) (XI)

hy eh

Coma) Sie eres

WA a

(XII)

In view of the foregoing discussion and facts it may appear sur-

prising at first glance that bromodibenzoylmethane (VII) reacts

with potassium acetate to yield the acetate (III) and not (VIII), and

that p-methoxybromodibenzoylmethane (IX) with the same re-

agent furnishes the acetate (VI) and not (X) or (XI). In neither case

does a shift of the carbonyl oxygen atom take place. In our opinion,

however, there is no inconsistency in these results. Rather, they in-

dicate that the replacement of a halogen atom in an a-haloketone

need not of necessity proceed by way of addition and ethylene oxide

formation. Instead, the reaction may follow a course comparable to

that of the replacement of the halogen atom in an alkyl] halide. Such

a suggestion is in harmony with all the available facts for, with two

competing reaction paths available, the course of the replacement

process with a given reagent would be determined by the relative

reactivities of the carbonyl group and the halogen atom. In the

bromo a-diketones discussed in this paper there is present an ex-

tremely reactive carbonyl group activated by the adjacence of a

second carbonyl group,’ while in the bromo 6-diketones under con-

sideration there is present an unusually reactive halogen atom acti-

vated by adjacence to two carbonyl groups.

We have examined a number of other reactions of phenyl bromo-

benzyl diketone (II) in order to see whether they follow a course

parallel to that with potassium acetate, but unfortunately in only

two cases were the products sufficiently tractable to furnish definite

information. With o-phenylene diamine, phenyl bromobenzyl dike-

tone furnishes the halogen free quinoxaline (XII). The same quinoxa-

line is also obtained when bromodibenzoylmethane is treated with

this reagent. The quinoxaline (XII) is derived, it will be noticed,

from neither of the bromoketones but, instead, from diphenyl trike-

ae Matuszeski and Gray, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 56: 2099. 1934 and earlier

articles.

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 1

tone. With hydriodic acid, phenyl bromobenzyl diketone is reduced

to phenyl benzyl diketone. The same reagent reduces bromodiben-

zoylmethane to dibenzoylmethane. Up to the present time, reduc-

tion with hydriodic acid is the only reaction we have found which,

applied to isomeric bromo a- and 8-diketones, leads to products whose

structures correspond with those of the starting materials.

Experimental

The reactions between the bromoketones and potassium acetate

were run in acetic acid using 10 cc. of solvent per gram of bromoke-

tone. To the bromoketone dissolved in the solvent at its boiling

point, was added 2.5 equivalents of fused potassium acetate. The

acetate dissolved rapidly and within five minutes a heavy precipitate .

of potassium bromide separated. After thirty minutes the reaction

mixture was cooled, diluted with water, and extracted with ether.

The ether, on evaporation after appropriate washing and drying, fur-

nished the hydroxy 6-diketone acetate in a yield varying between

70 and 80 per cent. Dibenzoylearbinol acetate (III) obtained from

phenyl bromobenzyl diketone’* was identified by comparison with an

authentic specimen.® Benzoyl p-methoxybenzoylearbinol acetate (VI)

obtained from phenyl p-methoxybromobenzoyl] diketone ([V),° from

anisyl bromobenzyl diketone (V),’ and from benzoyl anisoylbromo-

methane (IX )° is a colorless solid melting at 70° which is moderately

soluble in the ordinary solvents. It can be distilled in high vacuum.

For analysis it was crystallized from methanol. Anal. Caled. for

CisH 1705: OCHs, 9.91. Found: OCHs, 10.138.

When bromodibenzoylmethane in alcohol containing acetic acid

was boiled for a half hour with a molar equivalent of o-phenylene

diamine the blood-red solution furnished, after the usual treatment,

2-phenyl-3-benzoylquinoxaline (XII) which was identified by com-

parison with a sample prepared according to Gastaldi and Cherchi.?

The same quinoxaline was obtained from phenyl bromobenzyl dike-

tone but only after vacuum distillation of the first oily reaction prod-

uct.

Bromodibenzoylmethane dissolved in alcohol acidified with hydro-

chloric acid was reduced by the addition of potassium iodide. After

4 Jorlander, Ber., 50: 417. 1917.

5 Neufville and Pechmann, Ber., 23: 3375. 1890.

* Moureu, Ann. Chim., (10), 14: 364. 1930.

7 Jorlander, Ber., 50: 410. 1917.

8 Pond and Shoffstall, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 22: 684. 1900.

* Gastaldi and Cherchi, Gazz. chim. ital., 43:1, 299. 1913.

JAN. 15, 1938 BLATT: HYDROXY 6-DIKETONE ACETATES 5

removing the liberated iodine with thiosulfate, dilution of the alco-

hol with water precipitated dibenzoylmethane. Phenyl bromobenzyl-

diketone on similar treatment was reduced to phenyl benzyl diketone

which was isolated as the antimony derivative.

In order to test the possibility that the formation of the acetate

(III) from the bromo a-diketone (II) might have been due to the

rearrangement of a positive fragment, such as C,-H;C+tHCOCOC,Hs,

after elimination of a bromide ion, we treated the bromo a-diketone

(II) with pyridine, for the formation of a pyridinium salt would in-

volve just such a process. The product of the reaction was an oily

pyridinium salt which could not be purified and which was not identi-

cal with the product obtained from bromodibenzoylmethane and

pyridine."

On treatment with alcoholates, with phenylmagnesium bromide,

with hydroxylamine hydrochloride and with ammonia, phenyl bro-

mobenzyl diketone gave only intractable products.

Summary

Indirect replacement of the halogen atom in an a-haloketone

should result, in certain cases, in a shift of the carbonyl oxygen atom

from its original position to an adjacent carbon atom. This shift

could easily be detected by employing halo a-diketones for with these

ketones it would lead to derivatives of hydroxy 8-diketones, and an

examination of the reaction between some bromo a-diketones and

potassium acetate shows that acetates of hydroxy 6-diketones are

formed. The structural factors which determine the course of replace-

ment reactions of a-haloketones are briefly discussed and the con-

clusions from this discussion are shown to be consistent with the ob-

served facts.

10 Dufraisse and Moureu, Bull. soc. chim., (4) 41: 1611. 1927.

1 Kroéhnke. Rer. 68: 1180. 1936.

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, No. l

BOTAN Y.—Additions to the grass flora of British Honduras Ja-

son R. SwWALLEN, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Since the publication of ‘““The Grasses of British Honduras and the

Petén, Guatemala,’’? two collections have been made in British Hon-_

duras which add many grasses to the flora. One of these was made by

Rev. Dr. Hugh O’Neill in the Belize District, and the other by C. L.

Lundell in the El Cayo District.

Several of the species in these collections were found for the first

time outside of the United States, some are South American not be-

fore known from North America, others are Eastern United States

and West Indian species found for the first time in Central America,

while the rest were to be expected in British Honduras but have not

previously been reported. There are also six species new to science.

Arthrostylidium spinosum Swallen, sp. nov.

Culmi scandentes, 5-15 m longi, ramis spinosis; vaginae (ramulorum)

internodiis longiores, glabrae, fimbriatae, marginibus ciliatis; ligula firma,

0.2 mm longa; laminae lineares, 10-25 cm longae, 5-8 mm latae, infra gla-

brae, supra pubescentes, marginibus hispidis; paniculae rami curtissimi

densi, axe curto pubescente; spiculae 3-10 cm longae, cylindricae, patentes

vel adscendentes; glumae curtissimae; lemmata inferiora reducta; lemma

flosculorum fertilium amplexans 15-18 mm longum, ad 7 mm latum, multi-

nervium, acutum, aristatum; palea 10 mm longa, inter carinas ciliata, 1.5—

2 mm lata, pubescens, marginibus latissimis 3-nerviis; stamina 3, 5-7 mm

longa.

Culms clambering, 5-15 m long, hollow, thick walled, branching, the

branches as much as 8 mm thick, with a solitary conspicuous spine (rarely

two) and a dense fascicle of slender, stiff, leafy branchlets at each node;

sheaths (of the branchlets) overlapping, the margins densely short ciliate,

otherwise glabrous, with slender erect to flexuous fimbriae 2-3 mm long on

the truncate shoulder; ligule firm, about 2 mm long; blades deciduous,

linear, 10-25 cm long, 5-8 mm wide, firm, pungent, abruptly rounded at

the base into a minute pedicel, scaberulous on both surfaces, often pubes-

cent on the upper, the margins appressed hispid; panicles at the ends of

leafy or nearly leafless branchlets, the branches very short, crowded on the

short, pubescent axis; spikelets 3-10 cm long, about 2.5 mm thick, cylindric;

glumes very small, scale like; rachilla joints striate, about half as long as

the lemmas; lower lemmas much reduced, many-nerved, mucronate; fer-

tile lemmas 15-18 mm long, as much as 7 mm wide clasping the base of

the one above, many nerved, acute, aristate, the slender awns 3-5 mm long;

palea 10 mm long, 1.5-2 mm wide between the ciliate keels, pubescent, the

margins 3-nerved, glabrous, overlapping enclosing the flower; stamens 3, 5

mm long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 1649171 collected along the

Belize River at El Cayo, El Cayo District, British Honduras, June-August,

1936, by C. L. Lundell (no. 6939).

1 Received November 16, 1937.

2 SWALLEN, Jason R. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 461: 143-189. 1936.

JAN. 15, 1938 SWALLEN: GRASS FLORA a

This species of Arthrostylidium differs from all others in having prominent

spines at nearly all the nodes. In this respect it resembles Guadua, but in

that genus the florets have six stamens and the palea is winged, while in

Arthrostylidium there are only three stamens and the palea is wingless.

Fournier’ described Chusquea spinosa from sterile material collected in

Oaxaca by Liebmann (no. 130). This appears to be the same species as the

one described above, but since there were no flowering specimens, it can

not definitely be determined.

ERAGROSTIS HIRSUTA (Michx.) Nees. Locally abundant in sandy pine-

oak uplands, San Agustin, Mountain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6738). First

record outside of the United States. Dry fields and open woods, southeastern

United States and British Honduras.

TRIPLASIS PURPUREA (Walt.) Chapm. On the strand, Puerto Cortez,

Honduras (O’ Neill 8423). First record outside of the United States. Open

sandy ground, eastern United States and Honduras. Although not properly

belonging to the flora of our region, this species is noted here because of the

great extension of range which the above collection records.

ARISTIDA IMPLEXA Trin. Locally abundant in sandy pine uplands, San

Agustin, Mountain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6904). Plains, rocky slopes and pine

woods, British Honduras, Salvador, and Panama; Brazil to Paraguay.

ARISTIDA PURPURASCENS Poir. In tropical pineland, Old Hector Creek

(O’Neill 8438). First record outside of the United States. Dry sandy soil,

eastern United States and British Honduras.

ARISTIDA LONGIFOLIA Trin. Rare in wet sand at edge of stream, Rio On,

Mountain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6801). First record from North America.

Sandy, open or brushy ground, British Honduras; eastern Brazil.

ARISTIDA TENUISPICA Hitche. Common in sandy pine uplands. San

Agustin, Mountain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6815). First record outside of

Florida. Pine woods, southern Florida and British Honduras.

Digitaria multiflora Swallen, sp. nov.

Annua; culmi graciles, erecti, simplices vel ramosi, glabri; vaginae in-

ternodiis longiores, carinatae, glabrae, basi in marginibus sparse pilosae;

ligula membranacea, 2-3 mm longa; laminae planae, acuminatae, 10-28 cm

longae, 4-8 mm latae, glabrae vel scaberulae, supra sparse papilloso-hir-

sutae, marginibus scabris; racemi 8-25, 6-15 cm longi, graciles, adscenden-

tes; pedicelli teretes glabri vel sparse scabri 1-4 mm longi; spiculae 1.2 mm

longae ternatae; gluma prima obsoleta; gluma secunda 1 mm longa, acuta,

3-nervia, inter nervos et in marginibus dense pubescens; lemma sterile

quam lemma fertile paulo brevius, acutum, 3-nervium, inter nervos et in

marginibus sparse vel dense pubescens; lemma fertile 1.1 mm longum,

acutum, fuscum, striatum.

Annual; culms slender, erect, simple or sparingly branched, 50-115 cm

tall, glabrous; sheaths longer than the internodes, keeled, glabrous, the

margins more or less pilose or ciliate toward the base; ligule membranaceous,

brownish, 2—3 mm long; blades flat, acuminate, 10-28 cm long, 4-8 mm wide,

smooth or scaberulous on both surfaces, sparsely papillose-hirsute on the

upper at least toward the base, the margins scabrous; axis of the inflores-

cence 8-15 cm long; racemes 8-25, 6-15, cm long, slender, ascending or

3 FOURNIER in Hemsl. Biol. Centr. Amer. Bot. 3: 587. 1885.

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 1

sometimes spreading, rather evenly scattered along the axis, the rachis

wingless, 0.8 mm wide, the margins scabrous; spikelets 1.2 mm long, in

groups of 3 or 4, the unequal pedicels terete, glabrous or sparsely scabrous,

1-4 mm long, somewhat spreading; first glume obsolete or nearly so; second

glume 1 mm long, acute, narrower than the fruit, 3-nerved, with dense

lines of white pubescence on the internerves; sterile lemma a little shorter

than the fruit, acute, 3-nerved, pubescent like the second glume but the

hairs shorter, sometimes nearly wanting on the internerves; fruit 1.1 mm

long, extending slightly beyond the second glume and sterile lemma, acute,

dark brown, striate.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium no. 1647576 collected in sandy

pine-oak uplands, San Agustin, Mountain Pine Ridge, El Cayo District,

British Honduras, July-August, 1936, by C. L. Lundell (no. 6730).

The usually numerous spreading racemes with many minute spikelets

are characteristic.

Digitaria cayoensis Swallen, sp. nov.

Annua; culmi erecti vel adscendentes, ramosi, 80 cm alti, glabri; vaginae

internodiis longiores, dense hirsutae; laminae planae, acuminatae, ad 16

cm longae, 3-5 mm latae, scabrae, supra sparse pilosae; racemi 6-8, graciles,

adscendentes, 8-12 cm longae; spiculae 1.5—1.6 mm longae, ternatae, pedi-

cellis subplanis, scabris, 1-8 mm longis; gluma prima obsoleta; gluma se-

cunda 1.3 mm longa, acuta, 3-nervia, inter nervos et in marginibus dense

pubescens, pilis apice glumae paulo longioribus; lemma sterile quam lemma

fertile paulo longius, 3-nervium, inter nervos et in marginibus pubescens,

pilis quam pilis glumae secundae brevioribus; lemma fertile 1.4-4.5. mm

longum, fuscum, acutum, striatum.

Annual; culms erect or ascending, sometimes geniculate and rooting at

the lower nodes, freely branching, as much as 80 em tall, glabrous; sheaths

longer than the internodes, rounded, or keeled only toward the summit,

densely hirsute, or the uppermost nearly glabrous, the hairs ascending or

spreading; blades flat, acuminate, as much a 16 cm long, 3-5 mm wide,

scabrous, the upper surface very sparsely pilose; axis of inflorescence 5-8

cm long; racemes slender, ascending, 8-12 cm long, pilose in the axils, the

rachis 0.3 mm wide, the very narrow margins scabrous; spikelets 1.5—-1.6

mm long, in groups of three, the unequal pedicels flattened, scabrous, 1-3

mm long; first glume nearly obsolete; second glume about 1.3 mm long,

acute, 3-nerved, with dense lines of white hairs on the internerves and

margins, the hairs near the tip somewhat longer than the others, extending

slightly beyond the glume; sterile lemma a little longer than the fruit, 3-

nerved, densely pubescent in lines on the internerves and margins, the hairs

shorter than those on the second glume; fruit 1.4-1.5 mm long, dark brown,

striate.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 1647578, collected in soil

pockets in granite in stream-bed, San Agustin, Mountain Pine Ridge, El

cca District, British Honduras, July-August, 1936, by C. L. Lundell (no.

6670).

This species is closely allied to the preceding but differs in having fewer

racemes and larger spikelets, the pedicels of which are flattened and sca-

brous instead of terete and nearly glabrous.

JAN. 15, 1938 SWALLEN: GRASS FLORA 9

Known also from Pocoboch, Yucatan (Gawmer 2494). This specimen was

previously referred to Digitarza filiformis.

PASPALUM BLODGETTII Chapm. Locally abundant, San Agustin, Moun-

tain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6714). Open or brushy places, southern Florida, the

West Indies, Yucatan, Honduras and British Honduras.

PASPALUM CLAVULIFERUM Wright. On pine ridge. Maskall (O’ Nezvll, 8451).

Moist open ground and waste places, southern Mexico and the West Indies

to Brazil.

PASPALUM CORCOVADENSE Raddi. Occasional at San Agustin, Mountain

Pine Ridge (Lundell 6640). Native of Brazil; new to North America.

PASPALUM CORYPHAEUM Trin. Rare in wet sand of stream bed, Rio On,

Mountain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6784). First record north of Panama.

Savannas, brushy slopes, and river banks, British Honduras and Trinidad

to Brazil.

PASPALUM NUTANS Lam. Rare, Cohune Ridge (Lundell 6525). Shady

slopes, Central America and the West Indies to Brazil.

PASPALUM PILOSUM Lam. Locally abundant, Vaquero, Mountain Pine

Ridge, (Lundell 6877). Occasional, San Agustin, Mountain Pine Ridge (Lun-

dell 6659). Wooded slopes and brushy savannas, British Honduras to Bo-

livia and Brazil.

PASPALUM REPENS Berg. Deep water, Mussell Creek, 5 miles west of

Boomtown, (O’Neill 8461A.). Floating in streams and ponds, southern

United States to Paraguay.

PANICUM AGROSTOIDES Spreng. New River at Orange Walk, (O'Neill

8505). First record outside of the United States. Wet ground, eastern Uni-

ted States and British Honduras.

Panicum lundellii Swallen, sp. nov.

Perenne, glaucum; culmi erecti, crassi, rhizomatosi 2.5 m alti, glabri;

vaginae purpurascentes, glabrae, marginibus ciliatus; ligula ciliata, 2 mm

longa; laminae planae, attenuatae, 40-70 cm longae, 15-20 cm latae, gla-

brae, marginibus hispido-serratis; panicula 35 cm longa, ramis adscendenti-

bus ad 15 cm longis, in parte inferiore nudis; spiculae 4—4.5 mm longae,

glabrae; gluma prima acuta vel acuminata, 2.5-3 mm longa, 3-nervia; gluma

secunda acuminata, 4-4.5 mm longa; lemma sterile acutum, 3-3.5 mm

longum, obscure 5—7 nervium; fructus ellipticus, 2.56 mm longus, 0.9 mm

latus, albescens.

Perennial, glaucous. Culms coarse, erect, 2.5-3 m tall, as much as 9 mm

thick at the base, producing short rhizomes, glabrous; sheaths glabrous, or

the margins ciliate, mostly a little shorter than the long internodes, deeply

tinged with purple especially near the nodes; ligule ciliate, about 2 mm long;

blades firm, flat, narrowed toward the base, attenuate-pointed, 40-70 cm

long, 15-20 mm wide, glabrous, the margins hispid-serrate; panicle about

30 cm long, the branches narrowly ascending, naked in the lower half,

the lower as much as 15 cm long; pedicels terete, glabrous, 1-5 mm long;

spikelets 4-4.5 mm long, glabrous, usually tinged with purple; first glume

rather abruptly acute or acuminate, 2.5-8 mm long, 3-nerved; second

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 1

glume abruptly acuminate, 4-4.5 mm long, 5-nerved; sterile lemma 3-3.5

mm long, acute, 5-7 nerved, the nerves rather obscure especially toward

the base; fruit (immature) 2.5 mm long, 0.9 mm wide, elliptic, blunt, whitish.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium nos. 1647561 and 1647562, col-

lected in wet alluvial lowland, along Mahogany Creek, Mountain Pine

Ridge, El Cayo District, British Honduras, July-August, 1936, by C. L.

Lundell (no. 6903).

Panicum lundellii is closely related to Ponicum virg.tum L., but differs

in having much stouter culms, which root at the lower nodes, and usually

broader blades. The base of the type specimen is incomplete, there being

only an extravaginal bud, which would indicate the plant produces rhi-

zomes, but it is impossible to determine whether they are long or short. It

seems probable, however, that they are much shorter than those of

P. virgatum.

PANICUM NEURANTHUM Griseb. Edge of creek near Salt Creek (O’ Neill

8454). Open ground, southeastern United States, the West Indies, and

British Honduras.

PANICUM PARVIGLUME Hack. Occasional in patches, open places at top

of limestone hill, San Agustin, Mountain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6809). This

specimen differs from the typical form in having blades densely pubescent

beneath. Along banks and ditches, Mexico to Costa Rica.

PANICUM PATULUM (Scribn. & Merr.) Hitche. In tropical pineland, Boom-

town (O'Neill 8430). Low woods, southeastern United States, Hispaniola,

and British Honduras.

PANICUM POLYCAULON Nash. In tropical pineland, Boomtown (O’ Neill

8480). Sandy pine woods, southeastern United States, the West Indies, and

British Honduras. |

PANICUM SELLOWII Nees. Occasional at San Agustin, Mountain Pine

Ridge, (Lundell 6734). Rocky places, the West Indies, British Honduras,

Venezuela and Brazil.

Ichnanthus lagotis (Trin.) Swallen, comb. nov.

Panicum lagotis Trin. Mem. Acad. St. Pétersb. VI. Sci. Nat. 1: 326. 1834.

Rare along roadside in limestone valley, San Antonio (Lundell 6941).

First record in North America. Open woods and brushy borders, British

Honduras; eastern Brazil.

Ichnanthus villosus Swallen, sp. nov.

Perennis; culmi erecti vel decumbentes, 90-110 cm longi, ramosi; vagi-

nae internodiis breviores, dense villosae; ligula truncata, 0.5 mm longa;

laminae lanceolatae, 8-13 cm longae, 12-20 mm latae, infra pubescentes,

supra scabrae et pilosae; panicula 25 cm longa, ramis gracilibus divergenti-

bus, ad 11 cm longis, sparsifloris; spiculae 4-4.5 mm longae, appressae;

gluma prima acuta, 3-nervia, scabra; gluma secunda et lemma sterile sub-

equalia, 5-nervia, acuta; lemma fertile 3.3 mm longum, glabrum, lucidum,

appendicibus 0.7—0.8 mm longis, subhyalinis.

Perennial; culms erect or decumbent at the base and rooting at the lower

nodes, 90-110 cm long, sparingly branched; sheaths shorter than the inter-

JAN. 15, 1938 SWALLEN: GRASS FLORA 11

nodes, rather densely villous, ligule membranaceous, truncate, more or less

ciliate, 0.56 mm long; blades lanceolate, acuminate, asymmetric, 8-13 cm

long, 12-20 mm wide, softly pubescent on the lower surface, scabrous and

pilose on the upper; panicle about 25 cm long, the slender branches stiffly

spreading, the middle ones longest, as much as 11 cm long, with one to few

branchlets at the very base; spikelets 4-4.5 mm long, appressed, usually in

pairs, one on a pedicel 8-20 mm long, the other on a much shorter pedicel;

first glume acute or subacuminate, 3-nerved, scabrous; second glume and

sterile lemma nearly equal, acute or blunt, 5-nerved, more or less scabrous,

extending well beyond the fruit; fruit 3.8 mm long, narrowly elliptic, blunt,

smooth, shining, the wings subhyaline, 0.7—0.8 mm long, rather broad.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium no. 1647573, collected in sand along

creek at Vaquero, Mountain Pine Ridge, El Cayo District, British Hon-

duras, July-August, 1936, by C. L. Lundell (no. 6852). Also collected along

the Rio On, El Cayo District (Lundell 6785).

Ichnanthus villosus resembles I. lezocarpus (Spreng.) Kunth, but in that

species the first glume and the fruit are as long as the second glume and

sterile lemma, and the wings of the fertile lemma are more conspicuous,

1.2-1.38 mm long.

_ SETARIA TENAX (L. Rich.) Desv. Occasional in sandy pine-oak uplands,

San Agustin, Mountain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6731). Open or brushy places,

Mexico and the West Indies to Brazil.

ERIOCHRYSIS CAYENNENSIS Beauv. Locally abundant, San Agustin, Moun-

tain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6628). Wet ground, southern Mexico and the West

Indies to Paraguay.

ANDROPOGON ELLIOTTII Chapm. Common in sandy pine uplands, San

Agustin, Mountain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6727). Occasional in wet sand in

stream bed, Rio On, Mountain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6785), Open ground,

eastern United States, Cuba, and British Honduras.

ANDROPOGON LATERALIS Nees. On granite along stream, Rio On, Moun-

tain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6791). Grassy places, Cuba and British Hon-

duras; Colombia and Brazil to Argentina.

SORGHASTRUM SETOSUM (Griseb.) Hitchc. Occasional in sandy pine up-

lands, San Agustin, Mountain Pine Ridge (Lundell 6865). In tropical pine-

land, Boomtown (O’Nezll 8481). Grassy hillsides and pinelands, southern

Mexico and the West Indies to Argentina.

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, No. 1

ZOOLOGY.—Stored nutritive materials in the Trophosome of the

nematode, Agamermis decaudata (Mermithidae).1 B. G. Curr-

woop and Lzon Jacoss, Bureau of Plant Industry.

During parasitic development, colorless globules accumulate in

the intestine of Agamermis decaudata, Cobb, Steiner and Christie,

1923, and during adult free-living life these globules gradually disap-

pear. Since the greater part of the globules are insoluble in alcohol-

xylol, Rauther? pointed out that they are not fat. In the present note

the results of our observations on the globules of this Agamermis are

presented.

Strong Flemming’s mixture or osmic vapor blackens only a small

proportion (about 10 per cent) of the globules; alcohol, xylol, ether,

and chloroform remove about the same proportion of globules, and

after such treatment osmication is without effect. Nile blue sulphate,

prepared by the method of Smith,’ stains the majority of the globules

blue (indicating a fatty acid according to Smith) but a small propor-

tion red (indicating a neutral fat according to Smith); only blue-

coloration is observed after alcohol extraction. Scharlach R stains

all globules. From these results it appears that a small proportion of

the globules are neutral fat and that the majority contain some fatty

acid but do not behave as do normal fatty acids.

Material previously extracted with alcohol contains most of the

original globules. These give positive xanthoproteic and ninhydrin

reactions and stain with gentian violet or haematoxylin, indicating

their protein nature. When hydrolized in 10 per cent KOH the sur-

face tension of the solution is reduced about 10 per cent as indicated

by capillary tests with 10 per cent KOH as a control, the readings of

the tests being 48 and 58 mm and the controls 52 and 59 mm re-

spectively. This reduction in surface tension indicates the presence

of a fatty acid.

Artificial gastric juice removes the majority of the globules from

untreated material, supporting the conception that they are a pro-

tein. Hydrolysis with 10 per cent HCl produces the same effect.

The residual globules after such treatment are stained red by Nile

blue sulphate, and black with osmic acid, confirming the conclusion

that they are a neutral fat.

The above observations show that the stored nutritive materials

1 Received October 19, 1937.

2 Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Anat. 23 (1). 1-76. 1906.

J Jour bavheand Bact. 1221 1907.

JAN. 15, 1938 HARTMAN: POLYCHAETOUS ANNELIDS 13

of Agamermis decaudata are of two types; namely, a protein with

reactions of a conjugated fatty-acid-protein, and a neutral fat. It is

also indicated that Scharlach R and Nile blue sulphate are not speci-

fic tests for uncombined fat or fatty acid but may indicate the pres-

ence of a fatty-acid-protein complex. Substances which are stained

by Scharlach R or Nile blue sulphate must be shown to be extractable

in fat solvents, to be non-digestible in artificial gastric juice, and to

give negative xanthroproteic and ninhydrin reactions, before it can

be concluded that they are free fatty acids or neutral fats.

Preliminary observations indicate the presence of protein (?-fatty-

acid-protein) globules in Rhabditis strongyloides Schneider (Rhabdi-

tidae), and Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kiihn) Filipjev (Tylenchidae).

The writers are indebted to Mr. Jacob M. Schaffer, Mr. Robert R.

Henley and Mr. Howard R. McMillin of the U. 8. Bureau of Animal

Industry for valuable suggestions.

ZOOLOGY.—Nomenclatorial changes involving types of polychaetous

annelids of the family Nereidae in the United States National Mu-

seum.1 OtGA HartTMAaN. (Communicated by Mary J. Ratn-

BUN.)

An examination of the types of polychaetous annelids deposited

in the U. 8. National Museum indicates a necessity for several

changes of names in the family Nereidae. The following alphabetical

list gives the original name, reference, type locality, museum catalog

number, and revised name. Synonyms are enclosed in brackets.

[Ceratonereis alaskensis Treadwell] (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 60: 1-3, figs. 1-5,

1921) from Alaska, U.S.N.M. no. 19029, is C. paucidentata (Moore).

Ceratonerets bartletts Treadwell (Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 27: 30-31, figs. 8-13,

1937) from western Greenland, U.S.N.M. no. 20224, is close to, if not

identical with, C. hircinicola (Eisig). Area I of the proboscis lacks teeth,

area III has a circular patch of 7 teeth; the jaw has 5 oblique teeth.

Ceratonerets gracilis n. comb., for Nereis gracilis Webster.

Ceratonerets irritabilis, n. comb., for Nereis irritabilis Webster.

Ceratonereis paucidentata, n. comb., for Nereis paucidentata Moore, includes

Ceratonereis alaskensis Treadwell.

Ceratonereis pusilla, n. comb., for Nereis pusilla Moore.

[Heteronerets caeruleis Hoagland] (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 100: 608, pl. 47,

figs. 13-16, pl. 48, figs. 1-4, 1920) from the Philippine Islands, U.S.N.M

no. 18948, is a Perinereis. It is close to P. camiguina Grube, but differs

in that the areas V and VI of the proboscis have numerous small flat

plaques in addition to the single series of transverse plates character-

istic of the genus Perinereis, also, areas I and II lack paragnaths. P.

1 Received November 1, 1937.

14. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 1

neo-caledonia Pruvot (Arch. zool. éxp. Paris, 70: 50—54, pl. 3, figs. 77—

79) from New Caledonia, seems to be identical with P. caeruleis. This

has already been suggested by Pruvot.

[Leptonereis acuta Treadwell] (Rev. Mus. Paulista Sao Paulo 13: 3-5, figs.

1-7, 1923) from Brazil, U.S.N.M. no. 19030, is identical with Leptonereis

culvert (Webster).

Leptonereis culvert, n. comb., for Nereis culvert Webster, includes Leptonerets

acuta Treadwell.

[Neanthes palpata Treadwell] (Rev. Mus. Paulista S40 Paulo 13: 5-9, figs. 6—

15, 1923) from Brazil, paratype U.S.N.M. no. 19031, is a Pseudonerets.

Transverse teeth are present on area VI, pointed cones are present on

areas V, VII and VIII and rows of pectinae are on the maxillary ring.

[Nerets brevicirrata Treadwell] (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 58: 467—468, figs. 1-4,

1920) from Brazil, U.S.N.M. no. 18934, is a Perznerers. Area V of the

proboscis has 2 conical teeth, side by side, area VI has 2 transverse

teeth in similar arrangement but nearer the maxillary ring, areas VII

and VIII have about 12 larger flattened cones on the oral side and an

irregular row of smaller cones on the maxillary side; area I has 2 teeth

in tandem.

[Nereis culvert Webster] (Ann. Rep. New York Mus. 32: 111-113, pl. 3,

figs. 23-30; pl. 4, figs. 31, 32, 1879) from New Jersey, U.S.N.M. no. 541,

is a Leptonereis. Paragnaths are absent from both rings. Jaws are deli-

cate, amber, with 9-12 closely set teeth; parapodia have greatly short-

ened dorsal and ventral cirri. The types of N. culvert and Leptonerets

acuta agree favorably.

[Nerezs decora Treadwell] (Rev. Mus. Paulista Sao, Paulo 17: 15-17, figs.

6-11, 1932) from Brazil, U.S.N.M. no. 19639, is identical with Nereis

raiser Grube.

[Nereis disparsetosa Treadwell] (Rev. Mus. Paulista Sao Paulo 17: 15-17,

figs. 6-11, 1932) from Brazil, U.S.N.M. no. 19638, is a Pseudonereis,

identical with Ps. palpata. Area VI of the proboscis has a transverse

chitinous plate, area V a pointed cone, areas VII-VIII have 21 cones

in a single continuous row. Posterior dorsal lobes are elongate, flattened,

foliaceous, convex along the dorsal edge, the dorsal cirrus is inserted

terminally. Jaws are dark brown, each with 6 indistinct crenulate teeth.

Dorsal, middle and ventral parapodial lobes are pigmented.

[Nerevs eucapitis Hartman] (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 83: 468-469, fig. 46, 1936)

from California, U.S.N.M. no. 20198, is identical with Nereis hetero-

cirrata Treadwell. |

[Nereis gracilis Webster] (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 25: 313-314, pl. 9, figs. 29-

35, 1884) from Bermuda, U.S.N.M. no. 4787, is a Ceratonereis. Para-

gnaths are absent from the oral ring. Paragnaths on the maxillary ring

are arranged as follows: areas I and II none, areas II and IV each with

about 9 to 12 tall, slender cones in a crescent. Jaws are light horny

brown, each with 4 or 5 teeth. The name, N. gracilis is preoccupied by

Hansen (Mém. cour. Belg. 44: 10, 1882). Since, Webster’s type is a

Ceratonereis, no change seems necessary.

Nereis heterocirrata Treadwell (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 80: 1-2, figs. la-e,

1931) from Japan, U.S.N.M. 19323, includes N. eucapitis Hartman.

[Nereis irritabilis Webster] (Trans. Albany Inst. 9: 231-234, pl. 5, figs. 56—

64; pl. 6, figs. 65-69, 1879) from Virginia, U.S.N.M. no. 531-534, is a

Ceratonereis. It differs from the widely known C. hircinicola (Hisig)

JAN. 15, 1938 SHOEMAKER: AMPITHOB nS

which it resembles in some respects, in having area III of the proboscis

provided with a broad band of 8 or 4 irregular rows of teeth, which al-

most meet those of area IV, instead of having a subcircular patch.

Transformation of parapodia in epitokous females is at the 31st para-

podium.

[Nerezs (Neanthes) linea Treadwell] (Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 83: 268-270, fig.

19, 1936) from China, U.S.N.M. no. 20115, is a Perznereis, identical with

P. aibuhitensis (Grube).

[Nereis (Neanthes) orzentalis Treadwell] (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 83: 270-272,

fig. 19, 1937) from China, U.S.N.M. no. 20116, is identical with Peri-

nereis aibuhitensis Grube. The type is a male heteronereid.

[Nereis paucidentata Moore] (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, pp. 430—

431, pl. 24, figs. 28-30, 1903) from Alaska, U.S.N.M. no. 15709, is a

Ceratonereis.

[Nereis pusilla Moore] (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, pp. 428-429, pl.

24, figs. 25-27, 1903) from Japan, U.S.N.M. no. 15734, is a Ceratonereis.

The specific name has been previously used by Bose in 1802, and by

Langerhans in 1879. Neither of these, belongs to the genus Ceratonereis,

thus a change of name is unnecessary.

Perinereis aibuhitensis Grube (Mem. Acad. Sci. St. Petersburg 25: 89-90,

pl. 5, fig. 3, 1878) from the Philippine Islands, includes Nerezs linea and

Nereis orientalis, both from China.

Perinereis caeruleis, n. comb., for Heteronerers caerulers Hoagland.

[Platynereis integer Treadwell] (Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. 100: 595-597, figs.

1—4, 1920) from the Philippine Islands, U.S.N.M. no. 18939, is identical

with Pl. polyscalma Chamberlin (vide Monro, in Scientific Reports, 4:

18, 1931, and Fauvel, in Voy. Indes orient. Neérlandaises, p. 23, 1931).

Platynereis polyscalma Chamberlin (Mem. Mus. Harvard 48: 219) from the

Gilbert Islands, U.S.N.M. no. 19449, includes Pl. znteger.

[Pseudonereis atopodon Chamberlin] (Mem. Mus. Harvard 48: 228, pl. 35,

figs. 3-5, 1919) from the Tonga Islands, U.S.N.M. no. 19467, is identical

with P. palpata.

Pseudonereis palpata, n. comb., for Neanthes palpata Treadwell, includes

Nereis disparsetosa Treadwell and Pseudonereis atopodon Chamberlin.

Uncinereis agassizi (Ehlers) (Die Borstenwiirmer, pp. 542-546, p. 23, fig. 1)

from the Gulf of Georgia, British Columbia and Mendocino, California,

includes U. substa Chamberlin.

[Uncinereis subita Chamberlin] (Mem. Mus. Harvard, 48: 215-219, pl. 30,

figs. 1-4, 1919) from California, U.S.N.M. no. 19495, is identical with

U. agassizi (Ehlers).

ZOOLOGY .—Three new species of the amphipod genus Ampithoe

from the west coast of America.1| CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER,

U. S. National Museum. (Communicated by Watpo_ L.

SCHMITT. )

When examining collections of Amphipoda from the west coast of

America from time to time, I have noted several specimens of Am-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived November 4, 1937.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 1 —

pithoe which did not appear to belong to any of the species with which

I was familiar. After studying the literature of this genus, I have

concluded that at least three new species are represented in the ma-

terial. These new species, the descriptions of which follow, are Am-

pithoe plumulosa represented from Ecuador, Lower California, Cali-

fornia, and British Columbia; Ampzthoe dallt from Alaska, Bering

Island, British Columbia, and Puget Sound; and Ampithoe rubrica-

toides from the Aleutian Islands and the Pribilof Islands, Alaska.

Family AMPITHOIDAE

Ampithoe plumulosa, n. sp. Fig. 1

Description of male—Head with lateral lobes prominent, rectangular,

corners evenly rounding. Eye rather small, oval, black. Antenna 1 longer

than antenna 2, and over two-thirds the length of the body; first peduncular

joint equal in length to the second, which is over three times the length of

the third; flagellum over twice as long as the peduncle and composed of about

forty-eight joints. Antenna 2 much stouter than antenna 1; fifth joint a

little shorter than fourth; flagellum a little longer than fourth joint and

composed of about twenty-eight joints; the anterior two-thirds of the lower

margin of the fifth joint and the flagellum densely clothed with long plumose

setae. Right mandible with six spines in spine-row; palp well developed,

third joint shorter than second and very little, if at all, expanded distally,

the obliquely rounding distal end bearing long curved setae. Maxilla 1,

inner plate very short, conical, and bearing four setae on the outer margin,

outer plate armed with ten spine-teeth. Maxilla 2 normal and as figured by

Sars for A. rubicata. Maxillipeds, inner plate reaching beyond the base of

the first joint of the palp, outer plate reaching to the end of the second joint

of the palp. Lower lip very much as figured by Sars for A. rubicata.

Gnathopod 1 with side-plate produced far forward; second joint bearing

a forward-pointing lobe on the outside distal corner; third joint with lobe

on the inside front margin; fifth joint about four-fifths as long as the sixth

with the hind margin produced into a shallow lobe; sixth joint with margins

parallel, palm oblique, broadly and evenly rounding and defined by a spine;

seventh joint greatly overlapping palm and finely serrate on inner margin.

Gnathopod 2, second joint with outside distal corner produced into a for-

ward-pointing lobe; third joint with inside front margin produced into a

lobe; fifth joint about half the length of the sixth joint; sixth joint large

and powerful, palm slightly oblique, central portion in old males occupied

by a long, flat tooth, but in younger males evenly convex; seventh joint

strongly curved so that when closed the apex meets the rather blunt defining

angle of the palm. Peraeopods 1 and 2 alike except that 1 is slightly the

longer; second joint somewhat expanded; fourth joint slightly expanded and

slightly produced distally. Third peraeopod as represented by Fig. 1 m.

Peraeopods 4 and 5 alike, but 5 a little the longer; second joint moderately

expanded with hind margin produced below into a short, downward-point-

ing lobe; sixth joint with three or four stout spines on the lower hind margin,

and a pair of smaller spines nearer the seventh joint. The seventh thoracic

segment bears ventrally a median, forward-directed, translucent, lamellar,

oval keel armed with marginal teeth, those on the anterior half pointing

Jan. 15, 1938 SHOEMAKER: AMPITHOE 7,

Fig. 1.—Ampithoe plumulosa n. sp., male. a, anterior end of animal; b, posterior

end of animal; c, mandible; d, maxilla 1; e, maxilliped; f, outer plate of maxilliped,

enlarged; g, lower lip; h, gnathopod 1; 72, end of gnathopod 1, enlarged; 7, gnathopod 2;

k, end of gnathopod 2 of fully developed male, enlarged; 1, peraeopod 1; m, peraeopod 3;

n, peraeopod 4; 0, end of peraeopod 4, enlarged; p, ventral, oval keel of seventh thoracic

segment, drawn on the same scale as the peraeopods; q, keel on larger scale showing

its situation in reference to the male genital organ; r, keel greatly enlarged showing

the marginal teeth; s, uropod 3; t, gnathopod 2, 2; u, end of same, enlarged.

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 1

forward and those on the posterior half pointing backward. The penes are

prominent and are situated on either side of this keel.

Third abdominal segment with lower postero-lateral margin broadly and

evenly rounding and lower postero-lateral angle scarcely perceptible. Uro-

pods 1 and 2 extending back the same distance, but not as far as uropod 3.

Uropod 1, distil half of upper margin of peduncle armed with spines, and a

row of fine spines or setae on outer surface; outer margin of outer ramus

closely set with spines. Uropod 2, distal half of outer margin of peduncle

armed with three spines. Uropod 3, peduncle extending farther back than

telson and without marginal spines, but bearing a row of short spines at the

upper distal edge. Telson a little broader than long, sides converging to the

rather narrow, slightly excavate apex. Length of animal about 16 mm.

Type.—A mature male taken from a tide pool at La Jolla, California,

by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, Sept. 20, 1918, U.S. Nat. Mus. cat. no. 71443.

The female is much like the male except in the following characters.

Side-plate 1 is not produced so far forward. Gnathopod 1 is like that of the

male except there is no lobe on the third joint. Gnathopod 2 very slightly

larger than gnathopod 1; third joint without lobe; sixth joint one-third longer

than fifth, palm formed by an oblique compound curve which ends in a blunt

defining angle below which is a stout spine; seventh joint slightly overlapping

palm and bearing fine serrations on inner margin. The keel on the ventral

surface of the seventh thoracic segment is not so prominently developed as

in the male, and in some specimens is reduced to a low ridge.

The first specimens of this species were taken by Dr. Wm. H. Dall at

Catalina Harbor, Catalina Island, California, in 1874.

The specific name plumulosa is given in reference to the prominent

plumose setae on the distal portion of the second antennae.

Specimens from the following localities are in the national collection:

Salinas, Ecuador, September 12, 1926, Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, collector, 4

specimens.

La Libertad, Ecuador, January 19, 1933, Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, collector, 1

specimen.

La Ensenada, Lower California, November 28, 1936, low tide, Steve A.

Glassell, collector, 7 specimens.

*Velero III Sta. 639, San Lorenzo Channel, Espiritu Santo Island, Lower

California, March 7, 1937, 3-5 fathoms, sandy coralline algae, Hancock

Pacific Expeditions 1937, 4 specimens.

*Velero III Sta. 683, outside Concepcion Bay, Lower California, March 15,

1937, 12 fathoms, corallines, Hancock Pacific Expeditions, 1937. 1

specimen. 3

*Velero III Sta. 706, Puerto Refugio, Angel de la Guardia, Lower California,

March 20, 1937, 8-10 fathoms, Ulva, Hancock Pacific Expeditions,

1937, 1 specimen.

*Velero III Sta. 731. Tiburon Island, Gulf of California, March 28, 1937, 12

fathoms, Hancock Pacific Expeditions, 1937, 7 specimens.

San Diego, California, May 29, 1927, Wilbur Reed and Leroy Arnold, col-

lectors, 1 specimen.

La Jolla, California, tide pools, September 1918, Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, col-

lector, 15 specimens, and 25 specimens received from the Scripps In-

stitution.

* Published by permission of Captain G. Allan Hancock.

JAN. 15, 1938 SHOEMAKER: AMPITHOE 19

Corona Del Mar, California, January 31 to March 3, 1933, Mr. G. E. Mac-

Ginitie, collector, 1 specimen.

Newport Bay, California, November 15, 1933, Mr. G. E. MacGinitie, col-

lector, 2 specimens, and July 14, 1935, 35 specimens.

Off Balboa, California, November 25, 1932, Mr. G. E. MacGinitie, collector,

1 specimen.

Long Beach, California, September 26, 1925, University of Southern Cali-

fornia, 16 fathoms, 1 specimen.

Catalina Island, California, 1874, Dr. Wm. H. Dall, collector, 3 specimens,

and 5 specimens collected by W. A. Hilton, Aug. 24, 1918.

Patos Island, Strait of Georgia, British Columbia, April 23, 1921. 3 speci-

mens.

Ampithoe dalli n. sp. Fig. 2

Description of male-—Head with lateral lobes prominent and rectangular,

corners evenly rounding. Eyes rather small, circular, black. Antenna 1

shorter than antenna 2, which is about one-half the length of the body;

peduncle extending very nearly to the end of the fourth joint of antenna 2;

second joint a little shorter than the first and a little over twice the length

of the third; flagellum composed of about thirty joints. Antenna 2 rather

robust; fourth and fifth joints about equal in length; flagellum composed of

about eighteen joints and equal in length to the fourth and fifth peduncular

joints combined. Mandible with rather stout palp; second joint shorter than

the third; third expanding distally and with the obliquely truncate upper

margin bearing the usual long curved spines. Maxilla 1 with small conical

inner plate bearing one lateral seta; outer plate bearing ten serrate spine-

teeth; palp with distal end rounding and bearing five straight spines below

which are two slender setae. Maxilla 2, inner plate much narrower than

outer. Maxilliped with inner plate rather short, bearing distally and on the

inner margin long, slender setae, and at the inner distal corner a stout spine;

outer plate reaching perhaps a little beyond the second joint of the palp

and broadest a little beyond the middle, upper third of outer margin with

curved spines, inner margin bearing the usual serrate spine-teeth; palp rather

short and strong, first and second joints about equal in length, the third

joint is a little shorter than first or second.

Side-plate 1 produced forward, but not so much so as in A. plumulosa.

Gnathopod 1, second joint rather short and robust and with distal anterior

corner produced into a lobe; third joint short, without anterior lobe; fourth

joint with lower distal margin somewhat produced; fifth joint shorter than

sixth, lower margin extended downward into a shallow lobe which is not at

all produced forward; sixth joint with the oblique, slightly convex palm

merging into the hind margin by an evenly rounding curve, palm defined by

a stout spine; seventh joint fitting palm, but the apex extending beyond

the defining spine. The inside surface and lower margin of all the joints,

except the sixth and seventh, of gnathopod 1 are densely clothed in long

plumose setae. Side-plate 2 about as deep as side-plate 1 and much longer

than deep. Gnathopod 2, second joint shorter than sixth and with lower

anterior corner produced downward into a prominent lobe; fourth joint

rectangular; fifth joint short, lower part narrowly produced between fourth

and sixth, a low protuberance on upper proximal margin; sixth joint strong

and robust, front and hind margins divergent, front margin slightly convex

and twice the length of the hind margin which is continued distally into a

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 1

unl x

eee f

See \

hag

Fig. 2.—Ampithoe dalli n. sp., male. a, anterior half of animal; b, posterior half

of animal; c, mandible; d, maxilla 1, e, maxilla 2; f, maxilliped; g, end of peraeopod 1,

enlarged; h, peraeopod 38; 2, 7, peraeopods 4 and 5, drawn on a smaller scale than

peraeopod 3; k, telson; /, gnathopod 2, 9 ; m, end of same, enlarged.

JAN. 15, 1938 SHOEMAKER: AMPITHOE 21

forward-pointing tooth; palm very oblique and passing by an uneven con-

cave curve from a prominent tooth near the dactyl hinge to the distal tooth

of the hind margin. Seventh joint strong and very much curved, the apex

meeting the palm some distance short of the tooth of the hind margin. Side-

plates 3 to 5 much deeper than the two preceding and increasing slightly in

depth from the third to the fifth, lower margins evenly rounding. Peraeopods

1 and 2 subequal in length; second and fourth joints only moderately ex-

panded. Peraeopod 3, second joint longer than broad with hind margin pro-

duced into a rather flat lobe whose margin is slightly concave on the lower

half; sixth joint bearing on the hind margin five stout spines which increase

in length toward the seventh joint, which is strong and much curved.

Peraeopods 4 and 5 much alike, rather short, but 5 slightly the longer; second

jeint very moderately expanded; sixth joint bearing five or six stout spines

on front margin; seventh joint strong and much curved.

Pleon segments 1 to 3 with lower margins evenly rounding and no ap-

parent lower postero-lateral angle on the third. Uropods rather short and

stout. Uropod 1 reaching back only very slightly farther than 2; peduncle

with very few spines on the upper inner and outer margins, and a few groups

of fine spines or setae on the lower outer margin; rami with a few short spines

on upper edges. Uropod 2 with rami much shorter than peduncle; upper outer

edge of peduncle bearing three spines; rami bearing a few short spines on

their upper edges. Uropod 3 extending back a little farther than 2; peduncle

nearly twice as long as the rami and bearing no spines on the upper surface

except the transverse distal row; the outer ramus bearing, besides the two

terminal upward-pointing spines a group of slender spines on the central

area of the upper surface. Telson about two-thirds the length of the peduncle

of uropod 3, broadly triangular, with the sides, each of which bears a row of

upward-pointing spines and two plumose setae, converging to a narrowly

rounded apex bordered on either side by a hooked spine and a long slender

spine. Length of male 15 mm.

Type.—A mature male taken by the steamer Albatross, June 24, 1914, at

Yakutat Bay, Alaska, U. 8. Nat. Mus. cat. no. 73274.

The species is named in honor of Dr. Wm. H. Dall, who collected the

first specimens in 1873 in Kyska Harbor, Kyska Island, Alaska.

The female is like the male except in the first few side-plates and the

gnathopods. Side-plates 1 and 2 are not longer than deep, as they are in the

male, and side-plate 1 is not produced forward as much as in the opposite

sex. Gnathopod 2 is very slightly larger and stronger than gnathopod 1,

which is like that of the male, but without the plumose setae; sixth joint

like that of gnathopod 1 except the palm is not evenly convex and does not

merge into the hind margin by an evenly rounding curve, but is defined by

a blunt rounding angle. Length of female 15 mm.

Specimens from the following localities are in the national collection:

Kyska Harbor, Kyska Island, Aleutian Islands, Alaska, 1873, beach, Wm.

H. Dall, collector, 2 female specimens.

Lissonkovaya Bay, Bering Island, August 22, 1882, L. Stejneger, no. 1491,

1 female specimen.

Unalaska Island, Aleutian Islands, Alaska, May 26, 1906, taken by the

steamer Albatross, 4 female specimens.

Attu Island, Aleutian Islands, Alaska, shore, June 10-11, 1906, taken by the

steamer Albatross, 2 male specimens.

Adakh Island, Aleutian Islands, 1 male and 1 female specimen.

8S SS ee

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 1

Ucluclet, British Columbia, May 19, 1909, John Macoun, collector, no. 9,

4 specimens, male and female; and no. 10, 1 male specimen.

Observation Island, Alaska, June 27, 1914, taken by the steamer Albatross, 3

specimens.

Neah Bay, Puget Sound, April 27, 1914, taken by the steamer Albatross, 1

male specimen.

Yakutat Bay, Alaska, June 24, 1914, taken by the steamer Albatross, 1 male

specimen.

Friday Harbor, Puget Sound, in eel grass. August 5, 1928, Mr. K. L. Hobbs,

collector, 25 specimens, male and female.

False Bay, Puget Sound, August 12, 1928, Mr. K. L. Hobbs, collector, 1

female specimen.

Ampithoe rubricatoides n. sp. Figs. 3, 4

Description of male-—Head, lateral angle with upper front corner broadly

rounding, lower corner scarcely perceptible, front of lobe passing by an al-

most straight line into the lower front margin of head; eye small, round,

very pale in alcohol, and about the same color as the rest of the head.

Antenna 1 apparently a little shorter than antenna 2; second peduncular

joint a little shorter than first and a little over twice as long as third;

flagellum a little shorter than peduncle and composed of about twenty

joints. Antenna 2, fourth joint a little longer than fifth; flagellum equal to

or a little longer than the fourth and fifth joints combined and composed

of about fourteen joints; the lower margin of the fifth peduncular joint and

the lower margin of the flagellum bearing conspicuous groups of setae.

Mandible with small tooth on anterior edge of triturating surface of molar

and a racket-like spine and a simple spine on the upper corner, a very

conspicuous grooved prominence near the base of the palp; six spines in

spine-row; palp rather short and stout, second joint about half the length

of the third, the upper edge of which is very obliquely truncate. Maxilla 1,

inner plate with one marginal seta; outer plate with ten simple, curved

spine-teeth; rounding apex of palp bearing five slender spines and upper

inside margin with five or six longer spines, Maxilla 2, outer plate not much

wider than inner; apex and upper half of inner margin of outer plate with

long spines; apex and entire inner edge of inner plate with long spines.

Maxilliped very much like that of A. dalli, inner plate extending a little

beyond the base of the first palp joint, apex rounding, with no apical teeth,

but apex and inner margin bearing long spines; outer plate extending a little

beyond the end of the second palp joint, upper half of outside margin and

rounding apex armed with long curved spines, inner margin with the usual

spine-teeth, which do not appear to be serrate; palp short and stout.

Side-plate 1 produced moderately forward. Gnathopod 1, second joint

bearing forward-pointing lobe on the lower front corner; fifth joint over half

the length of the sixth; sixth joint widest through the middle; palm very

oblique, defined by a spine and passing by a scarcely perceptible angle into

the hind margin, both palm and hind margin of sixth joint bearing con-

spicuous setae; seventh joint fitting palm, but slightly overlapping it.

Gnathopod 2 much resembling gnathopod 1 but larger and stronger, and

the lower front lobe of the second joint is less produced; sixth joint stout

and strong, widest through the middle, palm oblique, concave, and forming

a blunt angle with the hind margin, a submarginal palmar spine on inside

surface of joint just before the defining angle; seventh joint strong, moder-

JAN. 15, 1938 SHOEMAKER: AMPITHOE

< SS ae

sSorasnen BV y

Fig. 3.—Ampithoe rubricatoides n. sp., male. a, anterior end of animal; b, posterior

end of animal; c, mandible; d, lower lip; e, uropod 3, enlarged; f, telson.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO.

Fig. 4.—Ampithoe rubricatoides n. sp., male. a, gnathopod 1; b, gnathopod 2;

c, peraeopod 1; d, peraeopod 3; e, peraeopod 4; f, peraeopod 5.

JAN. 15, 19388 SHOEMAKER: AMPITHOE 25

ately curved, not fitting palm when closed, but apex resting on the inside

of sixth joint against the submarginal spine; the palm and lower surface of

sixth joint conspicuously setose. Peraeopods 1 and 2 subequal in length,

second joint moderately expanded; fourth joint moderately expanded with

lower front corner produced slightly downward. Peraeopod 3, second joint

longer than wide and widest across upper third; sixth joint armed on hind

margin with about five stout spines. Peraeopods 4 and 5 very much alike,

but 4 a little the longer, second joint moderately expanded; sixth slightly

expanded distally and armed on hind margin with five stout spines; seventh

joint strong and much curved.

Pleon segments 1 to 3, lower postero-lateral margins merging into lower

margins by a broad evenly rounding curve. Uropod 1 reaching back a little

farther than 2, rami about two-thirds the length of the peduncle, peduncle

with the distal two-thirds of the upper outer edge furnished with a row of

short closely-set spines, while the spines on the upper inner edge are set

farther apart, lower outer edge provided with a row of fine setae; outer edge

of outer ramus with fine closely-set spines throughout, inner edge apparently

without spines; inner edge of inner ramus with spines set farther apart than

those of outer ramus, the opposite edge apparently without spines. Uropod

2, rami about three-fourths the length of the peduncle; the distal half of

upper, outer edge furnished with short closely-set spines; armature of rami

the same as in uropod 1. Uropod 3 extending back very little beyond 2,

rami a little over half the length of the peduncle, which bears two very short

spines on the upper surface, and a row of very short closely-set spines on

the upper distal margin, outer side of peduncle with two groups of slender

setae; outer ramus with the usual uncinate distal spines, a very short spine

near the proximal margin of upper surface, and a group of setae on the

outer surface; inner ramus bearing apically a transverse row of very short

spines and a row of long slender setae. Telson as broad as long, and about

reaching the end of uropod 3, sides converging by a convex curve to a nar-

rowly rounding apex which is bordered on either side by a short blunt

tooth or spine, upper surface with a group of setae proximally on either side

and a group of setae distally nearer the center. Length of male 24 mm.

Type—A mature male from Kyska Harbor, Kyska Island, Aleutian,

Islands, taken in 1873 by Dr. Wm. H. Dall, 10 fathoms, U.S. Nat. Mus. cat.

no. 74661.

The female is very much like the male in general appearance. Gnathopod

1 like that of the male. Gnathopod 2 very little larger than 1 and closely

resembling it in form, but the palm is obliquely straight and not concave.

The armature of uropods is the same as in the male. The females which I

have seen are considerably smaller than the largest males, but these speci-

mens may not have attained their greatest development.

There are in the collection of the U. 8. National Museum the following

specimens:

Kyska Harbor, Kyska Island, Aleutian Islands, Alaska, 1873, 9-12 fathoms,

sandy, mud, collected by Dr. Wm. H. Dall, no. 164 (1001), 3 specimens.

Kyska Harbor, Kyska Island, Aleutian Islands, Alaska, in pass, 1873, 10

fathoms, collected by Dr. Wm. H. Dall, nos. 234 (1035), 235 (1036), and

236 (1037), 4 specimens.

Saint Paul, Pribilof Islands, Alaska, July 24, 1874, 6-9 fathoms, sand, col-

lected by Dr. Wm. H. Dall, no. 721 (1163), 4 specimens.

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 1

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new anobiid beetle from Alaska.! W. S&S.

FisHer, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. (Com-

municated by E. A. CHAPIN.)

The beetles described in this paper were submitted for identifica-

tion by James H. Condit from the Sheldon Jackson Museum at

Sitka, Alaska, who reported them as doing considerable damage to

the wooden articles in the museum, as well as to the surfaces of the

supporting columns of the building.

Hadrobregmus destructor, n. sp.

Elongate, subcylindrical, brownish black (tarsi and antennae slightly

paler), subopaque, rather densely pubescent.

Head deeply sunk within the prothorax, strongly carinate around the an-

tennal bases, with a round, smooth, median spot beneath; front uneven; sur-

face broadly, transversely depressed behind the eyes; finely, densely granu-

lose, sparsely clothed with recumbent, brownish yellow hairs; maxillary

palpus with the last segment elongate oval, pointed at apex, slightly wider

than preceding segment; labial palpus with the last segment subtriangular,

rounded on inner side, much wider than preceding segment. Eyes moder-

ately large, strongly convex. Antenna 11-segmented; first and second seg-

ments robust, oblong; third to eighth segments narrow, not serrate, subequal

in length; ninth, tenth, and eleventh segments slightly flattened, subequal

in length, and together longer than the preceding segments united.

Prothorax distinctly narrower than the elytra, deeply excavated beneath

for the reception of the head, which is received in repose upon the antericr

coxae. Pronotum as wide as long; sides parallel anteriorly, acurately nar-

rowed posteriorly; lateral margin irregular, distinct, strongly elevated at

posterior angle; anterior margin strongly sinuate; disk strongly gibbose

posteriorly; surface finely, densely granulose, rather densely clothed with

moderately long, recumbent, brownish yellow hairs.

Klytra twice as long as wide, slightly wider behind the middles; sides

nearly parallel from bases to apical fifths, then arcuately narrowed to the

tips, which are conjointly broadly rounded; disk strongly convex; each

elytron with about ten longitudinal rows of deep, coarse punctures; intervals

from two to three times as wide as the punctures, feebly elevated basally,

strongly, irregularly elevated apically; surface rather densely clothed with

moderately long, recumbent, brownish yellow pubescence, which forms more

or less distinct vittae between the alternate rows of punctures.

Body beneath finely, densely granulose, rather densely clothed with

moderately long, recumbent, brownish white pubescence. Front and middle

coxae widely separated, the antennae received between them. Metasternum

not at all or only vaguely excavated in front, but with a broad, deep,

median depression near the posterior margin. Abdominal sternites free,

with the sutures straight; second sternite slightly longer than the fifth.

Length, 3.25—5.25 mm; width, 1.25-1.75 mm.

Type locality Sitka, Alaska.

Type and paratypes.—No. 52232, United States National Museum.

Described from 25 specimens (one type) collected in the Sheldon Jackson

1 Received November 6, 1937. Paper No. 4250 of the Bureau of Entomology and

Plant Quarantine.

JAN. 15, 1938 CUSHMAN: EPIURUS 27

Museum during July 1937 by James H. Condit. The work of this beetle is

similar to that of the ‘‘Kuropean death-watch”’ beetle (Anobium punctatum

De Geer). Mr. Condit reports this species as working in a dugout Thlinget

canoe, an old deadfall trap, a birch canoe, and in the unpainted surfaces of

the supporting columns of the building. The articles affected have been in

the concrete building for some 45 years, but some ten years ago new wooden

cases were installed and it is Mr. Condit’s belief that the insects were

brought in at that time.

This species resembles Anobium punctatum De Geer, but it differs from

that species in being larger, in the pubescence on the elytra forming more

or less distinct vittae between the alternate rows of punctures, and in not

having the metasternum deeply excavated in front. It differs from the other

known species of Hadrobregmus in having the pubescence on the elytra

forming more or less distinct vittae.

ENTOMOLOGY .—A new European species of Epiurus, parasitic on

a leafmining sawfly (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae)! R. A.

CusHMAN, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

(Communicated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK).

The new species described below was originally reared in Europe

by agents of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, from

mines of the sawfly leaf-miner of birch, Phyllotoma nemorata (Fallén).

Living individuals brought to the United States were bred at the

Melrose Highlands, Mass., laboratory of this Bureau. Some of the

specimens on which the description is based are first-generation prog-

eny of imported parents. Many were released in areas in New Eng-

land infested by the host species, but at this writing no specimens of

the parasite have been recovered.

The figure was drawn by Mary Foley Benson.

Epiurus foliae, n. sp. Fig. 1

Female.—Length 8.5 mm; antennae 5 mm; ovipositor sheath 4.5 mm.

In Schmiedeknecht’s key to the European species of Pimpla, sens. lat.

(Opuscula Ichneumonologica, Suppl., Bd. 18-19, 1933-1934) this species runs

to Epiurus inquisitor (Scopoli), and agrees very closely with the description

of that species except that the hind tarsus is pale, with only narrow apices

of the joints dark, and that the propodeum is not striate posteriorly. Com-

parison of specimens shows the most striking difference between the two

species to be in the form of the apical portion of the ovipositor, which in

profile is strongly, concavely curved on the dorsal margin from the high

point to the apex in foliae and is nearly straight in inquisitor; this is ade-

quately shown in the accompanying figure. The epipleura are narrower in

foliae than in inquisitor and the sclerotized portions of the abdominal

sternites broader, broadly oval in foliae and elongately oval in inquisitor.

Otherwise like inquisitor in structure, sculpture, and color.

1 Received November 10, 1937. Paper No. 4269 of the Bureau of Entomology and

Plant Quarantine.

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 1

Male.—Differs from male of znquisitor principally in the much smaller

extent of dark color on hind tarsal joints, more than half of the basal joint

being white.

Host.—Phyllotoma nemorata (Fallén).

Type locality —Freistadt, Austria.

Type, allotype, and paratypes—No. 52251, U. S. National Museum.

Paratypes.—British Museum; Paris Museum.

i ag —

it rtaahvt OAD

i. sppppr aces aoe

Dern a

Fig. 1.—Epiurus foliae Cushman. a, apex of ovipositor; b, same of Hpiurus in-

quisitor (Scopoli).

Three females (including holotype) and one male from the type locality,

reared under Gipsy Moth Laboratory No. 13610 B, June 3, 1933 (holotype) ,

October 8. 1932 and May 16, 1933; 10 females from the type locality, under

No. 13610 B1, reared May 28, 1935; also 11 females and six males (including

allotype) reared May 10, 1934, at Melrose Highlands, under No. 13613A,

progeny of European specimens; and one male from Austria, reared in

May 1934, under No. 13618, as a secondary parasite through Phanomeris

phyllotomae Muesebeck.

JAN. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 29

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1111TH MEETING

The 1111th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January

16, 1937, President WENNER presiding.

An address entitled Explorations in the superconducting state, illustrated

by slides, was delivered by the retiring President, F. B. Stuspun. This address

was published in this JOURNAL 27: 225-244. 1937.

1112TH MEETING

The 1112th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January

30, 1937, Vice-President Woouarp presiding.

Program: RicHarp M. Firup, Princeton University: Structure of conti-

nents and ocean basins.—This address, which was published in this JouRNAL

27: 181-195. 1937, was discussed by Messrs. McNisu, FLEMING and GItsH.

Ross Gunn: On the origin of the continents and their motions.—An ap-

proximate quantitative study has been made of the relation of the observed

symmetry of the earth to certain aspects of geological evolution and to the

problem of the origin of the solar system.

Geophysical data from several sources emphasize the unusual nature of

the Pacific basin with its encircling mountain chains and suggests that the

sub-Pacific layers of appreciable strength are slightly denser (1 or 2 per cent)

than elsewhere. It is shown, as a result of this asymmetry and the isostatic

adjustment of the continents, that the mass per unit area of the earth’s outer

shell in Pacific regions is about 3/100 per cent greater than in the continents.

This relatively slight mass asymmetry is found to produce geologically im-

portant tangential forces on the continents of gravitational origin which

frequently compress their boundaries playing an important part in mountain

building and may actually produce continental motions. The force of North

America urging it to the south and west, for example, approximates 10”

dynes and is adequate, or at least nearly adequate, to crush or produce over

thrusting in the resisting Pacific basin, permitting continental motion with

a velocity of the order of an inch per year. The author’s earlier theory of

the earth’s origin, which was based upon purely astronomical facts (Phys.

Rev., 39: 130 and 311. 1932),is found to be particularly adapted to describe

the origin of the continents and the observed asymmetry of their distribu-

tion. (Author’s abstract.)

This was discussed by Messrs. GisH, Bow1n, Finups, Picot and WRIGHT.

1113TH MEETING

The 1113th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February

13, 1937, President WENNER presiding.

Program: M. A. Tuve and L. R. Harstap, Department of Terrestrial

Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington: Structural forces

within the atomic nucleus —An important new physical force, in its way as

fundamental and significant as the force of gravitation or that of electric

attraction and repulsion, was directly observed and measured for the first

time in the laboratory of the DTM, CIW, during the past year. This force

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, No. 1

is an attraction between the component primary particles, protons and neu-

trons, causing them to aggregate and form the central nuclei of all atoms;

thus, it underlies the existence and form of all larger things in the material

universe. It has hitherto been inferred to exist, because atoms heavier than

hydrogen are known. The truly basic physical forces are exceedingly few in

number, and the initial observation and measurement of such a force is a

correspondingly unusual event. It is worthy of emphasis that these measure-

ments represent the attainment of one of the original objectives in a pro-

gram of fundamental investigations begun ten years ago.

Two rather similar heavy units, protons and neutrons, form the massive

nuclei of all atoms, the protons being electrically charged (positively).

There exist as well two other units of small intrinsic mass, again similar to

each other but both electrically charged, positive electrons, and the negative

electrons which form the outer ‘‘shells’” of all atoms; these latter units act

as the chief connecting links between matter and energy in the form of

electromagnetic radiation. The basic forces which bind together matter and

energy to form atoms and then all larger material bodies are necessarily

very few. They comprise the mutual interactions between protons and neu-

trons, the interactions between these units and electrons (positive and nega-

tive), and lastly the interactions of these several types of particles with

energy in the form of radiation.

By experimentally measuring at different voltages the frequency with

which high-speed protons from a well-defined beam are scattered through

various angles as a result of single collisions with other relatively stationary

protons in a given volume of hydrogen, a basis becomes available for im-

portant deductions as to the forces of interaction which protons exert on

each other when separated by various specific small distances. The scattering

to be expected on the basis of the familiar (1/r?) —law of repulsion between

like charges, assumed to hold even for minutely close distances of approach,

was worked out by Rutherford and Darwin (1911-14) with the minor numer-

ical modifications resulting from the quantum-mechanical identity of the two

protons added later by Mott (1930).

Using the Department’s 1200-kilovolt electrostatic generator, with the

new high-resistance voltmeter and properly aligned tube to produce a

highly homogeneous proton-beam of the desired adjustable energy, counts

were made (using a linear amplifier) of the number of protons scattered

through various angles when passing through a path, about 2 mm long, of

hydrogen at a pressure of 12 mm. For angles in the range measured (15°

to 50°) plural scattering is negligible for this case, both experimentally and

theoretically, and the observed particles are primary and recoil-particles

which enter the particular angular region under observation as a result of

single collisions. The measurements, carried out for voltages of 600, 700,

800, and 900 kilovolts, were made on an absolute basis, with an accurately

defined scattering-volume and with an angular definition of about 2°. For

angles of 15° and 20° the observed scattering at each voltage was about

two-thirds of that predicted by Mott’s formula, whereas at 45° the scattering

varied progressively with voltage from somewhat under Mott’s value at

600 kilovolts to four times Mott’s value at 900 kilovolts. Intermediate angles

show correspondingly progressive changes.

Interpreted in terms of proton-proton interaction, these results show that

at small distances, of the order of 5X10-® em or less, the ordinary inverse-

square repulsion between like charges is overwhelmed by another proton-

JAN. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 31

proton force, which is shown to be an attraction, according to the careful

quantum-mechanical analysis of our measurements by Breit, assisted by

Professor Condon of Princeton and Professor Present of Purdue. As men-

tioned above, these new attractive forces explain the aggregation of protons

and neutrons into groups to form the nuclei of the various elements of the

atomic table, thereby accounting for their existence. A satisfying feature of

these results is the fact that the observed variation of the anomalous

scattering with angle and with voltage permits of a simple and direct inter-

pretation on the basis of the ‘‘wave-mechanics”’ which has so successfully

met all previous requirements as a description of atomic phenomena. In

terms of this theory the observed proton-scattering is accounted for as a

simple scattering (phase-shift) of the spherically symmetrical wave-com-

ponent by a ‘‘potential-well’” (superposed on the Coulombian potential)

which has almost exactly the depth and width previously assumed for the

proton-neutron interaction. Furthermore, no appreciable effect on the higher

wave-components appears to be required.

Immediately after the announcement that these proton-scattering results

led to a proton-proton interaction very similar to that hitherto assumed by

theoretical physicists for the proton-neutron interaction, serious doubts

were cast on the latter interaction by Goldhaber of the Cavendish Labora-

tory, who announced measurements on the scattering of neutrons by pro-

tons widely different from the expected values. We were just then under-

taking similar measurements of nearly the same kind under well-defined

conditions—possible through the use of artificial neutron-sources of high

intensity. Because of the doubt arising from Goldhaber’s measurements,

however, a repetition of his neutron-scattering experiment was made, using

the (carbon-+deuteron)—neutrons instead of his photo-neutrons from

deuterium. Our measurements agreed astonishingly well with the value pre-

dicted by theory. The observed cross-section for scattering was 4.2 10-*

em?, whereas the values predicted by Wigner’s theory of the deuteron lie

between 5.4 and 3.2 x 10-*4 em? depending on the values taken for the excited

level of the deuteron and for the exact energy of the carbon neutrons used

(600 to 1200 kilovolts, probably about 900). These measurements are being

refined and extended.

It thus appears that the earlier conclusions by Breit on the basis of our

proton-scattering results that the proton-neutron, proton-proton, and neu-

tron-neutron interactions are identical is probably valid, and a real step

has been made toward the final understanding of the forces underlying the

structure and behavior of all matter. (Author’s Abstract.)

These addresses were discussed by Messrs. WHITE and STEPHENS.

An informal communication on ball lightning was presented by L. B.

TUCKERMAN. It was discussed by W. J. HUMPHREYs.

WattTEeR P. WHITH presented an informal communication on some un-

usual formation of ice crystals. This was discussed by Messrs. WENNER and

HUMPHREYS.

1114TH MEETING

The 1114th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February

27, 1937, President WENNER presiding.

Program: Frrep L. Mouumr, National Bureau of Standards: The vertical

distribution of ozone from the sky spectrum.—This was a report of results ob-

tained in cooperation with Dr. Brian O’Brien and Mr. H. 8S. Stewart, Jr. of

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 1

Rochester University from the 1935 Stratosphere Flight of Major Stevens

and Captain Anderson. Two spectrographs were carried for the purpose of

measuring the vertical distribution of ozone in the atmosphere. One recorded

the ultraviolet spectrum of sunlight while the second instrument photo-

graphed the sky spectrum at an angle of 9° above the horizontal. The amount

of ozone above the balloon was computed from the sun spectrum by the

conventional method. The ultraviolet intensity of the sky spectrum depends

on the distribution of ozone in a layer extending 4 to 6 Km above the

balloon. Previously published results from the sun spectrum indicate very

little ozone below 15 Km and a rapidly increasing amount up to the ceiling

of the flight at 22 Km. The sky spectra show that the amount of ozone

is a maximum near 22 Km and drops rapidly to less than half the maximum

amount at 25 Km. Half of the ozone in the atmosphere is below 27 Km.

Results are published in full in National Geographic Society Contributed

Technical Papers 2, 19386. (Author’s Abstract.)

This address was discussed by Messrs. GisH, TUCKERMAN, DRYDEN,

HAWKESWORTH and HUMPHREYS.

O. R. Wuur, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils: The atmospheric ozone equi-

librium and its rate of maintenance.—The hypothesis that the ozone of the

atmosphere exists as a consequence of the photochemical action of solar

radiation can be tested by computing the distribution with height which the

ozone existing in the photochemical steady state should possess on this

assumption. The results of such a treatment yield a distribution sufficiently

in accord with observation to indicate that photochemical action can ac-

count for the major aspects of atmospheric ozone. (O. R. Wulf and L. S.

Deming, Terr. Mag. Washington, 41: 299. 1936; 41: 375. 1936.) Critical

for the calculations are the absorption coefficient of ozone and oxygen as a

function of wave-length, and these are not as well known as might be de-

sired. Atmospheric circulation can lead to disturbances in the photochemical

steady state, and can cause the transportation of ozone into lower regions

where it is stable, protected in large measure from photochemical action,

thereby leading to high apparent vertical ozone paths. These effects can be

illustrated rather simply in the laboratory under conditions analogous to

the atmospheric case. Variations which have been observed under condi-

tions where the change in the character of the air over the observer was

fairly well known, suggest that such effects are probably of considerable

importance in the well established changes which the vertical ozone path

exhibits from day to day. (Author’s Abstract.)

This was discussed by Messrs. MoHLerR, HumMPHREYS and GISsH.

1115TH MEETING

The 1115th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 13,

1937, President WENNER presiding.

The seventh Joseph Henry Lecture entitled Fundamentals of photosyn-

thesis was delivered by JAMES FRANCK of Johns Hopkins University. It was

published in this JourNau 27: 317-329. 1937.

1116TH MEETING

The 1116th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 18,

1937, as a Joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences, Presi-

dent Thom presiding. Ropert R. McMaru of the University of Michigan

gave an address on Solar phenomena in motion pictures and A motion picture

journey to the moon.

JAN. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 30

1117TH MEETING

The 1117th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March

27, 1937, President WENNER presiding.

Program: Epaar W. Woo.uarp, U. 8. Weather Bureau: The physical

basis of air mass analysis——This paper drew attention to the fact that

meteorology, considered as the scientific investigation of weather phe-

nomena, is essentially a branch of physics; and outlined the nature of the

physical analyses of weather phenomena that are now being used to aid in

weather forecasting, with particular attention to air mass analysis. (Author’s

Abstract.)

H. R. Bryrers, U. 8. Weather Bureau: The practical analysis of synoptic

data.—While theoretical studies in meteorology for many years had pointed

toward, and even had arrived at, the ‘‘counter-currents”’ theory, which was

the basic form of the Norwegian concepts, the application of these ideas to

the synoptic chart represented a more nearly revolutionary step; it was in

practical synoptic meteorology that the Norwegians made their greatest

contribution.

Air mass analysis on the synoptic chart involves delineating the air

masses by locating the discontinuities or fronts which separate them. The

rules for finding the fronts may be stated rather simply, but in practice the

task often becomes difficult.

The proper analysis does not carry with it necessarily a correct prognosis.

Neither do kinematic calculations alone, even if correct, produce an exact

forecast of the weather. Thermodynamic processes and new developments

in the moving systems themselves must be considered. Examples of these

prognostic factors are provided by the maps of September 15 and 16, 1936.

(Author’s Abstract.)

H. Wexuer, U.S. Weather Bureau: Some dynamical problems of air mass

analysis.—By considering the radiation exchange between a snow surface

and a clear, calm, sunless atmosphere, it is possible to determine a relation

between the temperature of the snow surface and the maximum free-air

temperature. For the snow surface temperature to fall below the value given

by this relation, the maximum free-air temperature must decrease; and the

cooling process will be one whereby the atmosphere loses energy to space

mostly through the spectral band of the black-body radiation emanating

from the snow surface to which water vapor is transparent. As the cooling

continues, the steep temperature lapse-rate characteristic of polar maritime

or tropical air decreases until, finally, the atmosphere becomes practically

isothermal from above the shallow surface layer of cold air to a certain

height dependent on the initial lapse-rate. The cooled air mass is what may

properly be called polar continental air, and is found covering extensive

land and frozen maritime areas during winter.

When cooling of air over a certain region occurs, the air contracts, the

isobaric surfaces are lowered, and the consequent inflow of air aloft raises

the surface pressure, giving rise to a surface anticyclone. An explanation of

the mechanics of the compensating inflow was attempted on the basis of

the Brunt-Douglas isallobaric velocity component, which is directed into

the deepening cyclone (polar cyclone) aloft. The vertical distribution of

this inflow was studied and it was found that in going.through the front

from the polar continental air to the air above, a twenty-fold discontinuity

in isallobaric velocity occurs, showing that almost all the increase in surface

pressure results from convergence in the air above the lower cooled air.

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. I

At any given time in the life-history of the growing polar anti-cyclone it

is possible to construct surface pressure tendency profiles, and the magnitude

of these increases seems to be in satisfactory agreement with those observed

on weather maps.

It was pointed out that the next step in the problem is to explain the

release of these large masses of cold air, which occurs in a discontinuous

manner, sometimes with no apparent clue from the shape of surface insobars.

A few suggestions regarding this problem were made from the standpoint

of the stability of the westerly winds above the polar wedge. (Author’s

Abstract. )

The first two papers were discussed by Messrs. GisH, HumMpHR»EYs, Mc-

NisH, HawkESwortH, Wu.LF and TUCKERMAN.

1118TH MEETING

The 1118th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 10,

1937, President WENNER presiding.

Program: I. C. GarpngirR, National Bureau of Standards: The 1936

solar eclipse in Russia.—A nine-inch photographic objective was specially

designed and constructed for eclipse photography. The design comprises

two doublets and the relative aperture and field of view are f/25 and

4.5 degrees, respectively. If f denotes the focal length of the combination,

f/2 and —f/2 are the focal lengths of the first and second doublets, respec-

tively, and f/4 is the separation. With this design, if the same pairs of

glasses are used in the two doublets and if each is separately achromatized,

one has an achromatic system that also satisfies the Petzval condition.

By “‘bending”’ the second doublet a flat field free from distortion is obtained,

after which correction for spherical aberration and coma is obtained by

“‘bending”’ the first doublet. An objective of this construction is of the tele-

photo type, an important advantage, as the total length of the camera is

only three-quarters of the equivalent focal length. The lens was ground and

polished by Mr. Robinson from glass produced in the optical glass plant of

the National Bureau of Standards.

The camera proper was constructed of fabricated aluminum tubing with

a plate-holder that moves on ways to compensate for the motion of the sun

during an eclipse. The packing boxes were designed to serve as a base for

the camera when set up at the eclipse station. With this construction one

has an eclipse camera that can be focussed in the laboratory, rather than at

the eclipse site. It is easily transported and can be erected in a few hours.

The image of the sun is approximately two inches in diameter. The equiva-

lent focal length and aperture of the lens have been selected so that the

image is sufficiently large to enable the photographic plate to record all

detail that is resolved by the lens. Consequently, it is considered that a

photograph taken with this objective will show as much detail as if a lens

of the same diameter had the much longer focal length such as is frequently

characteristic of eclipse cameras.

Under the sponsorship of the National Geographic Society and the

National Bureau of Standards, this lens was taken to Ak Bulak, in Asiatic

Russia, to photograph the total solar eclipse of June 19, 1936. At the time

of the eclipse the quality of seeing was excellent and eight exposures were

made, six on Dufay color films and two on panchromatic process plates.

A one-second exposure on the process plate showed the coma extending

nearly a diameter from the sun’s limb. With a ten-second exposure the

longer coronal streamers extended beyond the limits of the 8X10 plate or

JAN. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 35

more than two solar diameters from the limb. The black-and-white photo-

graphs and one of the color pictures are reproduced in the February (1937)

issue of the National Geographic Magazine. (Author’s Abstract.)

This was discussed by Messrs. Briaas, BIrTtTINcER, BRopr and HAWKEs-

WORTH.

1119TH MEETING

The 1119th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 24,

1937, President WENNER presiding.

Program: W. J. Moxom, U.S. Weather Bureau: Ohio river flood of Janu-

ary—February 1937.—The Ohio River flood of 1937 will long rank as one of

the greatest floods, not only on account of the record-breaking stages, but

for the unusual conditions that produced it and the numerous interesting

features connected with it. Practically all the precipitation occurred from

January Ist to January 24th with an exceedingly heavy rainfall during the

the second half of this period. The total loss by flood damage will never be

known. Mud was happily absent from most of the flooded areas. Another

characteristic of the flood was the long duration of high stages. The long

soaking received by Paducah, Ky., intensified the damage from submerg-

ence. Relatively, more of Paducah was affected than any other large com-

munity. Louisville suffered the greatest total loss of any city in the valley.

Me#rRRILL BERNARD, U.S. Weather Bureau: Plans for the development of

river forecasting methods——One of Webster’s definitions of the word phil-

osophy is: Practical wisdom; calmness of temper and judgment; equanimity,

as to meet misfortune with philosophy. The word can hardly be applied to

human conduct at congested centers along our principal rivers during peri-

ods of major floods. One does not have to take part to visualize the dis-

order, panic and lawlessness accompanying such a catastrophe, for no more

graphic story has ever been broadcast than that heard over the radio during

the recent flood, in which the actual direction of flood rescue work at

Louisville, Kentucky, was heard in millions of homes throughout the

country. The news reel, too, has made the flood scene commonplace, so

that all here have some conception of the misery and stark tragedy that

follows in the wake of a calamitous flood.

Into a situation like this it is difficult to believe that such a thing as

order can be injected. However, it is the hope of the Weather Bureau and

other interested agencies, that, through careful coordination of effort, and

the issuance of dependable and timely warnings all loss of life, much of the

misery, and an appreciable part of the property damage may be prevented.

The undertaking requires not only the support of the meteorologist and

the engineer, but the aid of those experienced in human relationships. I

have seen children playing around a home that stood literally in the shadow

of a levee whose top was being hastily raised a matter of 6 inches to prevent

overtopping. In assisting in the evacuation of backwater areas of the Missis-

sippi during the flood of 1927 I spent precious minutes in the effort to con-

vince an old man that the approaching flood would exceed the depth of the

famous flood of 1884, which he assured me could not be possible, returning

the following day to pick him out of the branches of a tree. Highlights along

the route of evacuation—the tragedy of an abandoned sow and litter; an

expensive car with two exhausted calves draped over the hood; a lost child,

an hysterical mother. And in the concentration camps—the comedy of a

negro baby, bath, unexpected reunions, family feuds over clothes-line space.

an improvised maternity ward. In short, the philosophy of floods and flood

relief should make interesting reading.

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 1

A philosophic acceptance of the situation can be carried a bit too far, as

in the case of the mother who, in her ordinary circumstances, worried but

little over the uncertainty and irregularity with which food reached her

table. She, with others from her neighborhood, found herself and family

in one of the many concentration camps distributed along the border of the

flooded area during the recent flood. For the first time she and her family

were enjoying clean beds and good food. On the first morning, in her zeal

to take full advantage of her opportunity, she hastened back to her tent,

after having passed through the food line three times, to round up her flock

and for once in their short lives to fill them up. Her instructions to the chil-

dren were to get into the line and stay there until they were filled up or

caught. In due time she strolled back to the center of camp and coming

upon a crowd worked her way to the center to find her children spread out

on the ground, all but unconscious. They had, in following her hurried direc-

tions, gotten into the line for typhoid inoculation.

It is the authorized function of the Weather Bureau to observe meteorologi-

cal conditions throughout the country, measure river stages, forecast weather,

issue storm and flood warnings, and carry on climatological research. The

river forecasting work of the Bureau is carried on at some 50 odd river fore-

casting centers throughout the country. On the lower reaches of the princi-

pal rivers the Bureau has for many years accurately forecast and published,

days and even weeks in advance, the approach of flood crests. A flood crest

on a large river like the Mississippi or the Ohio travels rather slowly—about

40 miles per day—so that there is usually ample time to correct and refine

a forecast at a lower river point before its arrival.

As the headwaters are approached, however, river stage prediction be-

comes increasingly complicated. The amount and rate of the rainfall, the

slope of the land and the stream channel, the character of the watershed and

its cover, and the influence of antecedent rainfall, factors which have been

integrated into terms of stage on the lower river, now become variables

which must be dealt with separately and quantitatively.

Our Nation is rapidly becoming flood conscious with the result that the

Weather Bureau has been forced to extend its river forecasting service into

the headwater areas of nearly all the principal streams. There has been neither

time, nor opportunity, to prepare for basic changes which involve method

and procedure wholly without precedent. Where the flood forecaster on the

lower river has days to refine an estimate as the flood crest approaches, he

has, at many of the important up-river stations, only a comparatively few

hours to foretell the approach of a flood and that under the conditions of

‘‘flashy”’ streamflow typical of headwater tributaries. Pittsburgh is perhaps

the best example of such a situation. Here the Allegheny and Monongahela

Rivers combine to form the Ohio at the triangle so famous for its industrial

wealth. The time of concentration at Pittsburgh for a large part of the con-

tributing area is a matter of hours, and not days, and therefore any plan

to meet this situation must be prepared to predict flood stage practically as

the rain falls and snow melts. The City itself must be organized to evacuate

certain areas with the precision of a fire department. Industry and business

occupying danger zones must plan to waterproof against the rising water or

be prepared with minimum notice to remove perishable and damageable

goods to higher levels. This city, and other municipalities so situated, must

maintain stand-by emergency water supplies and lighting facilities. Per-

manent concentration centers must be selected in advance and emergency

JAN. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY oO”

housing provided. These and other plans in considerable detail are being

formulated by the agencies charged with responsibility of dealing with the

great floods.

It is the plan of the Weather Bureau to establish ultimately over the

watersheds of the headwater tributaries rain gages which record not only

the total depth of rainfall, but the rate at which the rain is falling. In co-

operation with the United States Geological Survey, run-off from many of

the smaller watersheds will be measured. Certain of these watersheds will

prove to be accurate indices of surface conditions over much larger areas

and will indicate the extent to which the rain, as it falls, will appear as

stream flow in the principal channel. The record of both rainfall and run-off

being continuously recorded, will be transmitted immediately, either through

arrangements with amateur broadcasters or automatic radio transmitters,

to a central routing office, where the rainfall data will be quickly analyzed

and converted into terms of streamflow. Thus, almost as quickly as rain

falls, can its effect on river stage at points downstream be ascertained.

The first step in the expansion of the flood forecasting service has been

made possible under a project in which the Weather Bureau, the Geological

Survey, and the State of Pennsylvania are cooperating. Approximately 130

recording rain gages will be established in the watersheds of the Allegheny,

Monongahela, Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers. These rain gages will be

established on 3 circuits over which experienced hydrologic engineers will

travel on schedule, attending and servicing the gages and, in season, con-

ducting snow surveys. It is hoped that such cooperation may be established

in other states.

Great floods have occurred periodically throughout the years and will

continue to occur with painful regularity. Plans for flood control promise to

reduce their magnitude and protect favorably situated areas, but as long

as communities and industries find it profitable to occupy that portion of

the stream channel intended by Nature for the passage of flood waters,

accurate and timely flood forecasting and the methodical evacuation of

stricken areas must be integrated into the National plan of river regulation

and control. (Author’s Abstract.)

The second paper was discussed by Messrs. TUCKERMAN and CuRTIS.

L. B. TuckERMAN presented an informal communication on A curious

Edison patent. This was discussed by Messrs. McNisH, HAWKESWORTH and

SILSBEE.

1120TH MEETING

The 1120th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 8,

1937, President WENNER presiding.

Program: Wiuu1AM M. BuEaxney, National Bureau of Standards: Dy-

namic strain gages—The recent demand for information on vibratory

stresses developed in structures under service conditions has stimulated

interest in dynamic strain gages, particularly of the recording type. One of

the difficulties encountered in trying to apply existing strain gages to the

measurement of dynamic strain has arisen from deformation within the

gage caused by the inertia of the gage itself when subjected to high accelera-

tions. These deformations in general affect the reading of the gage and may

cause serious errors. It has been customary in the past to decrease the mass

and increase the rigidity of the gage in an effort to minimize these deforma-

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 1

tions. The Tuckerman optical strain gage, modified for dynamic work, is

the most precise instrument available at present. It is an example of the

practical limit in the construction of rigid strain gages, but even it is subject

to error under severe vibratory accelerations.

The new method (See N. B. 8. JourNnaL of ResnarcH 18: 1005. 1937.)

consists in so adjusting the ratio of stiffness to inertia of the parts of the

gage that these deformations are compensating. The indications of the in-

strument may thus be made independent of any acceleration of the gage as

a whole. Methods of applying the compensation principle to various general

types of gages were discussed with the aid of slides. The speaker also de-

scribed a particular electromagnetic strain pick-up unit embodying this

principle. It was designed by him in collaboration with the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology and the Sperry Gyroscope Company for the Navy

Department, for the purpose of recording strains in airplanes during flight.

A third method, developed by DeForest (See AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES 4:

227. 1937.), makes use of a light flexible resistance unit which is glued di-

rectly to the specimen in which the strain is to be measured. (Author’s Ab-

stract.)

L. B. Tuckerman, National Bureau of Standards: What hardness is or

what hardness is not.—Much effort has been expended in an attempt to give

an all inclusive definition of ‘‘hardness’”’ which would receive universal

scientific and technical acceptance. Frequently such phrases as ‘‘true hard-

ness,”’ ‘‘absolute hardness,”’ ‘‘real hearness,’’ etc., appear in the literature.

Even as keen a thinker as Heinrich Herz could say ‘‘ Now as I went on work-

ing it became clear to me what hardness really was.”’

All attempts to formulate a definition of an inclusive concept which would

cover all the current technical implications of hardness and thus warrant

the designation of ‘‘true’’ or ‘‘absolute”’ or “‘real” hardness, have so far

failed, and in the nature of the case must fail. ‘‘Hardness” in common

parlance and even in technical usage represents a hazily conceived con-

glomeration or aggregate or properties of a material more or less related to

each other.

A study of the very diverse properties included under the one term “‘hard-

ness’ shows that they are all in their essence negative properties. A material

is called hard if it is not easily scratched; is not easily worn down; is not

easily deformed, either elastically or plastically; is not easily broken; is

not easily melted; is not easily demagnetized; etc. etc. All that is common

to these properties is that the physical state of the material is not easily

changed in one or more particulars by outside mechanical, thermal or other

physical influences.

A better understanding of their diversity is obtained by thinking rather

of the different implications of softness, i.e., of the different ways in which

the physical state of a material may be changed, rather than of their nega-

tion ‘‘hardness.”’

The softness of a feather pillow is obviously something wholly different

from the softness of putty. The softness of annealed steel is different from

either, and the softness of soft glass is something different from any of these.

Not only may the “‘softness”’ of different materials represent wholly dif-

ferent kinds of behavior, but even the same material may exhibit different

kinds of softness. The softness of a piece of copper in plastic yielding under

a ene entirely different from its softness when scratched or

abraded.

JAN. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 39

This is easily shown by comparison of a copper alloy with an annealed

mild steel. Pairs of such materials may easily be found in which the steel

scratches the copper but the copper indents the steel. In such a case there

is no answer to the question, ‘‘Which is the harder of the two?” unless the

whole complex of procedure involved in the determination of the particular

‘not softness’’ is specified in detail. (This was illustrated by numerous ex-

periments with a wide variety of materials.)

The fact that it is impossible to formulate any acceptable definition of

hardness to include all the current implications, in no way lessens the prac-

tical value of the common indentation and scratch tests. They are among the

most useful tests in the control of the uniformity of a product. (Author’s

Abstract.)

These papers were discussed by Messrs. WENNER, McNisy, Hawxes-

WORTH and McComs.

H. H. Hows presented an informal communication on Errors in the theo-

retical determination of the velocity of light. This was discussed by Mr. Bucx-:

INGHAM.

1121sT MEETING

The 1121st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 22,

1937, President WENNER presiding.

‘Program: F. C. BRECKENRIDGE and W. R. ScHaus, National Bureau of

Standards: An orthogonal color coordinate system having uniform chromaticity

scales —The advantages and limitations of the I. C. I. coordinate system

(See J. Optica Soc. Am. 23:359. 1933.) and the trilinear coordinate system

yielding uniform chromaticity scales as proposed by Judd (See J. OptTican

Soc. Am. 25: 24. 1935.) were compared. The advantages for engineering

applications of a system combining the rectangular coordinates with the

uniform chromaticity scale (UCS) was pointed out. The UCS triangle has

been transformed to give such a system. A slight modification of the con-

stants and a simple translation gives a system of coordinates in which the

first quadrant contains only greens, the second reds and yellows, the third

purples and the fourth blues. A diagram containing small areas illuminated

with the appropriate colors was exhibited. (Author’s Abstract.)

WiuuiaM F,, FRIEDMAN, Signal Reserve: Cryptography.—Beginning with a

brief history of cryptography, including examples of the use of cryptography

in Biblical and ancient times, the speaker illustrated the various types of

codes and ciphers employed by the Federal Army and the Confederate Army

in the Civil War, and by the various belligerents in the World War, 1914-18.

These examples included instances of the employment of sympathetic or

invisible inks, code books, cipher systems, and cipher devices, the last

named opening the way for a discussion of modern cryptographic machinery

constructed for the purpose of facilitating the enciphering and deciphering

of messages with great rapidity and with a high degree of cryptographic

security. The speaker concluded this part of his paper with the comment

that the development of such machinery was today engaging the attention

of many large governments and that the hope of reaching a satisfactory

solution would no doubt be fulfilled. Question was raised as to the possi-

bility of devising a system which could be regarded as being absolutely

indecipherable. The speaker stated that while theoretically such a system

is possible, despite the famous dictum established by Poe to the contrary,

the actual embodiment of this theoretical possibility in a practical machine

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, No. l

or system remains yet to be accomplished. The speaker then directed atten-

tion to one of the interesting side lights of his subject, namely, the attempts

on the part of various persons to prove, by means of cryptography, that the

authorship of certain works, principally those of Shakespeare, is spurious

and that these works should be credited to others. (Author’s Abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. TuckmrRMAN, HAwWKESWORTH,

WENNER, HUMPHREYS, BROMBACHER and DRYDEN.

An informal communication on Radio fade outs was presented by A. G.

McNIsH. |

H.S. McComps, Recording Secretary.

Le ee eS ee

| i

i |

CONTENTS

CHEMISTRY.—The formation of hydroxy 6-diketone acetates from

bromo .a-diketones. A: H: BLATT. 2.24440 ee

Borany.—Additions to the grass flora of British Honduras. Jason R.

SWALLEN® 6.2.0.2 6 SO ee PO ee eee

ZooLocy.—stored nutritive materials in the Trophosome of the nema-

tode, Agamermis decaudata (Mermithidae). B. G. Cairwoop and

LEON JACOBS ).0 2060 050 oo

ZooLocy.—Nomenclatorial changes involving types of polychaetous

annelids of the family Nereidae in the United States National

Museum. OLGA HARTMAN... 2.2.02) )00. 20 Fe ee

ZooLtocy.—Three new species of the amphipod genus Ampithoe from

the west coast of America. CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER.... K

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new anobiid beetle from Alaska. W.§S. FisHpr....

EnToMoLoay.—A new European species of Epiurus, parasitic on a leaf-

mining sawfly (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). R. A. Cusn-

MAN. 0. 0s vee Ss gp ee

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

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ml BOARD OF EDITORS

Epen H. Tooun Freperick D. Rosstnt

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 28 FRBRUARY 15, 1938 No. 2

PALEONTOLOGY .—Fossil peccary remains from the upper Pliocene

of Idaho C. Lewis Gazin, U. 8. National Museum.

In 1934 the Smithsonian Institution expedition to southern Idaho

was fortunate in securing unusually good material of the extinct

peccary, Platygonus. These remains, together with those of a variety

of other mammalian forms, were found in deposits considered to be

of late Pliocene age, exposed along the west side of the Snake River

near the town of Hagerman, Idaho.

‘Many fragmentary specimens were found at various localities in

the deposits, but the most nearly complete specimens were obtained

at a small quarry about 3 miles south of the Pleszppus shoshonensis

quarry (see fig. 9, p. 11, Explorations and field work of the Smith-

sonian Institution in 1934). The material from this locality includes:

an articulated skeleton of an adult animal, complete except for the

left fore limb, and articulated portions of two young individuals, one

of which includes the skull and lower jaws (Fig. 1).

The occurrence of Platygonus in the Pleistocene of North America

is not rare, but remains of this form are not well known from upper

Pliocene deposits and only the material from the Blanco formation

(Gidley, 1903) of Texas and the Coso Mountains locality in Cali-

fornia (Schultz, 1937) has been certainly referred to this genus. Pec-

cary remains from the Benson locality in the San Pedro Valley of

Arizona are also recognized as belonging to this genus, and certain

fragmentary specimens from the Eden beds (Frick, 1921) and the

upper Etchegoin deposits (Merriam, 1915) in California may possibly

be Platygonus.

Platygonus pearcet, n. sp.

Type.—A nearly complete adult skeleton, U.S.N.M. no. 13800. Named

for Mr. George B. Pearce who found the specimen designated as the type.

Locality.—T.78., R. 13 E., about 3 miles south of Plesippus quarry, near

Hagerman, Idaho.

Horizon.—Hagerman lake beds.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Received

November 11, 1937.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

Specific characters—Size of skull slightly less than that of Platygonus

cumberlandensis. Rostrum of skull elongate and slender. Cranium short.

Fic. 1.—Platygonus pearcei, n. sp. Articulated skeletons prepared for exhibition

as they occurred in the matrix. The adult skeleton, U.S.N.M. no. 13800, is the type

of the species. About 13/100 natural size.

Articulation with lower jaw very low with respect to basicranium. No

anteroventral projection or keel along symphysis of lower jaws. I; present.

Frs. 15, 1938 GAZIN: FOSSIL PECCARY 43

Upper and lower canines slender. Cingula and accessory cuspules not

strongly developed on cheek teeth. Inner and outer cusps of transverse lophs

on molars more distinct than in Platygonus cumberlandensis. Heel or third

lobe on M? and M3; strong and simple. Third and fourth metacarpals not

fused. Third and fourth metatarsals generally fused but not to the extent

seen in Platygonus cumberlandensis.

Description of skull—Species of Platygonus show considerable variation

between individuals in proportions and characters of the skull, as observed

in the material of Platygonus cumberlandensis from Maryland (Gidley, 1920;

Gidley and Gazin, 1938) and as noted by Williston (1894, p. 23) in the

Platygonus leptorhinus material. The skull of Platygonus pearcez is distinctly

larger than those of Platygonus leptorhinus or P. compressus (LeConte, 1848

and Leidy, 1853), and is only slightly smaller though noticeably less robust

than in P. cumberlandensis.

The skull of P. pearcei, U.S.N.M. no. 13800 (Figs. 2a and 2b) is of an

advanced adult with well worn teeth and a slender, elongate rostrum, re-

sembling specimens of P. cumberlandensis that have been regarded as female.

The palatal surface is narrow and elongate though noticeably distorted by

crushing. It is more distinctly concave between the canines than in P.

cumberlandensis and extends considerably behind the last molar. The latter

character is probably not significant, however, as the extent of the palate

behind the dentition varies greatly in P. cumberlandensis.

The cranial portion appears relatively short by comparison with P.

cumberlandensis and the temporal ridges converge more abruptly to the

sagittal crest. The occiput is almost as high above the condyles as in P.

cumberlandensis but the glenoid surfaces are placed below the orbits a dis-

tance equal to that in the more robust skulls of P. cumberlandensis. The

development of the jugal below the orbit is comparable to that in fully

mature female skulls of the Maryland form.

As compared with a skull (Am. Mus. no. 10388) of Platygonus leptorhinus,

that of P. pearcei is considerably more elongate with a much deeper zygoma

and a deeper occiput and cranium. The elongate rostrum may be shallower

and perhaps narrower, although the width has been much reduced through

crushing. The frontal area appears more convex and the glenoid surface is

placed noticeably lower with respect to the condyles or basicranium. Also,

the ridge or expansion along the lower margin of the jugal is carried farther

forward on the rostrum than in P. leptorhinus, but not so markedly as in

male specimens of P. cumberlandensis. Moreover, the occipital area is not so

widely expanded dorsally with the lateral margins more nearly parallel.

The basicranial region is not well preserved in the skull of P. pearcei. The

cancellous bullae are nearly obliterated and the basisphenoid and basioc-

cipital are damaged. The basisphenoid in skulls of Platygonus are directed

abruptly upward from the basioccipital in a nearly vertical direction as con-

trasted with the gentler slope of this element in the living peccaries. The

external audital tube extends posterodorsally and slightly outward in a

groove in the ascending wing of the squamosal. The posterior process of the

tympanic overlaps to a marked extent the posterior surface of the squamosal

and is firmly fused medially and posteriorly with the exoccipital.

As in recent peccaries, Platygonus possesses a foramen that opens ven-

trally in a position corresponding to that normally occupied by the post-

glenoid foramen. Dorsally the foramen opens anteroexternal and adjacent

to the external auditory meatus. According to Van Kampen (1905), Pearson

(1923), and others this foramen is not the postglenoid, although Rusconi

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

Og EN

MO LEE

Fie. 2.—Platygonus pearcei, n. sp. Skull and mandible, type specimen, U.S.N.M.

no. 13800; a, lateral view of skull and mandible; b, ventral view of skull; c, dorsal view

of mandible. 3/10 natural size. Upper Pliocene, Hagerman, Idaho. Drawing by

Sydney Prentice.

Frs. 15, 1938 GAZIN: FOSSIL PECCARY 45

(1929) so regards it. The venous sytem communicating with the inner and

outer portion of the cranium along the base of the tentorial plate drains

ventrally through a small foramen or fissure between the margins of the

alisphenoid and squamosal, lateral to the foramen ovale and adjacent to the

bulla. This opening is conspicuous on the skull of Platygonus pearcei and its

position is equivalent to that in Pecarz angulatus. Functionally it more

nearly corresponds to the postglenoid foramen.

The petrosal, which was found in position in the right side of the cranium,

is noticeably larger than in living forms. When viewed from above and

medially the most conspicuous feature is the prominent anterodorsal pro-

jection which joins the tentorial plate, although it does not fuse with it. In

Pecarz and Tayassu this process is much less developed. The hiatus facialis

lies in the deep angular excavation formed between this process and the

anteroventral apex. The floccular fossa, posterodorsal to the internal audi-

tory meatus is also larger and much better defined. The prominence (emi-

nentia arcuata) just below the floccular fossa, covering medially the aque-

ductus vestibuli, is well developed and is connected by a broad ridge with

the process joining the tentorial plate. The slit-like aperture of the aque-

ductus cochleae is directly below the internal auditory meatus, on the lower

margin of the petrosal.

In ventrolateral view of the petrosal the promontorium is no larger than

in recent peccaries, and the fenestrae are similar in form and position. The

fossa tensoris tympani is larger and the facial sulcus is larger and relatively

deeper. Directly above the fenestra ovalis on the crista facialis is a clearly

defined impression occupied by the crus breve of the incus. The incus was

preserved although the other auditory ossicles were not found. This element

is about one half larger than in Pecarz angulatus, but is otherwise similar. A

particularly noticeable feature in a lateral view of the petrosal is a conical

prominence projecting nearly vertical from the dorsolateral portion of the

bone, separate from the remaining slight mastoid portion. It rises from above

the fossa for the tensor tympani, about over the ampula for the lateral and

dorsal semicircular canals, and projects into an impression apparently in the

squamosal. In Pecari the low ridge representing the mastoid portion does

not exhibit the conical projection. In Tayassu this portion of the periodic is

even less developed.

Mandible—The mandible, no. 13800 (Figs. 2a and 2c) of P. pearcezt shows

the elongate anterior portion characterizing the skull. The length of the

diastema between the canine and cheek teeth is nearly as great as in the

longest of the P. cumberlandensis jaws. However, a second mandible, no.

13798 (Fig. 3), of a young adult P. pearcez exhibits a somewhat shorter

diastema than in any of the P. cumberlandensis jaws with an adult dentition.

The difference is probably not greater than might be attributed to the dif-

ference between an advanced adult female and a young male, as suggested

by the P. cumberlandensis material. The elongate symphysial portion

appears more proeumbent than in P. cwmberlandensis or P. leptorhinus, due

in a large measure to the absence of the pronounced anteroventral projection

or keel along the symphysis in this species. The lower surface of the sym-

physial portion is evenly rounded transversely. The depth of the mandible

below the cheek teeth is noticeably great in no. 13800; this is variable in the

Cumberland form. The lower portion of the angle does not flare outward so

markedly as in either P. cumberlandensis or the specimen of ,P. leptorhinus

(Amer. Mus. no. 10388). The margin of the angle is evenly curved and does

not extend posteriorly with reference to the condyle as much as in P.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

cumberlandensis. The anterior surface of the coronoid process is distinctly

broader than in P. cumberlandensis and the apex is more acute. In P.

cumberlandensis the apex of the coronoid is broad anteroposteriorly with a

more pronounced dorsoposterior projection. The distance between the third

molar and the condyle is greater in P. pearcez than in P. leptorhinus.

Dentition—An important character in the dentition is seen in the per-

sistence of the third lower incisor, characteristically absent in the Pleistocene

species, although a small vestige of an alveolus for it was seen in one side of

one of the lower jaws of P. cwmberlandensis. Six lower jaws of P. pearcet have

this portion preserved and show this tooth to be present and moderately

developed. Its presence was also noted in the Coso Mountains material.

ce ENS

Tey IiNs Nik

Fic. 3.—Platygonus pearcet, n.sp. Mandible, U.S.N.M. no. 13798, occlusal view

showing cheek teeth of left ramus. 3/5 natural size. Upper Pliocene, Hagerman,

Idaho. Drawing by Sydney Prentice.

The remaining incisors, upper and lower, show no important differences

from those in the Pleistocene form. The canines are slenderer than in either

P. cumberlandensis or P. leptorhinus. The upper and lower cheek teeth are

somewhat smaller than the average in P. cumberlandensis, though larger

than in P. leptorhinus, and are similar to those in P. cumberlandensis in the

development of the transverse lophs, but with a slightly greater separation

of the inner and outer cusps, more noticeable in the third molars. The cheek

teeth exhibit fewer accessory cuspules than in the Cumberland form and the

cingula are less prominent, particularly in the upper teeth. The third lobe of

M3 is a large but simple cusp, not showing the incipient cusps on either side

usually present in P. cumberlandensis. .

The cheek teeth in no. 13800 from Hagerman are smaller than those in the

isolated jaws, no. 13798. A similar difference in size of the teeth, particularly

in the robustness of the premolars was noted between specimens of P.

cumberlandensis, sorted according to sex as presumed from the development

of the zygomae. The larger premolars are generally associated with a shorter

diastema and a more rugged, flaring development of jugal.

The heel of Ms; in P. pearcez is quite unlike that figured by Cope (1893,

pl. 18, fig. 5) for Platygonus bicalcaratus of the Blanco formation of Texas.

The tooth fragment described by Cope is much smaller, and relatively nar-

rower through the portion considered as the second or posterior crest, more-

over, the heel is made up of several relatively small cusps. The anterior

portion of the Texas tooth is missing, this fact together with the character

of the preserved portion strongly suggests that the fragment represents an

Frs. 15, 1938 GAZIN: FOSSIL PECCARY 47

incomplete P3 or P, rather than M3. The heel portion of lower premolars in

Platygonus is highly variable in character, and may be represented by a

prominent portion of the cingulum to a heel fully as developed as that in the

above tooth.

TABLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS OF SKULL AND MANDIBLE OF Platygonus pearcet

U.'S.N.M. U.S.N.M.

no. 13800 no. 13798

Skull:

Length of skull from premaxillae to top of occipital

ED ES bs 0 oc 5 Buch ree a ai a Mm ce an ig ee 396 mm

Length of skull from premaxillae to occipital condyles. 350*

Distance from anterior extremity of premaxilla to

OSA MONG PEOCESS A. 6. Ta tais se sk be ste yee ee 300*

Distance from anterior extremity of premaxilla to

postorbital process of frontal (oblique)............ 3207

Width across postorbital processes................. 2 os

Greatest extent of jugal below orbit..........:..... 68

Distance from lower margin of orbit to glenoid surface. Tho

Distance from middle of occipital crest to center of

PA MOI ROSS Montes iat rhece Mire ce So ss otis Sud eaeagn et AE UES 165

Distance from occipital crest to lower margin of con-

RS SME ae en Sia hy Paths we aisha Bes pla Dew 9 90% 128*

Greatest width across dorsal portion of occiput...... 63

prondible:

Length from anterior extremity of symphysis to pos-

fewoOmmMarmin ol CONIC. ork 6... ee ek eee ee ees Piles

MEM MMOMES VN PMVSIS. . tn kg nutes ee ee ee 103 85 mm

Distance between M; and posterior margin of condyle. 79

Wepinvonyaw below Mi (outside)................2.. 55* 45

Greatest distance between top of coronoid process and

menemarrin@l ANGIC. fo... sae. ee eee was se 120*

Height of mandible from condyle to base (table top).. 100*

Distance between inner margins of canine alveoli..... 25 19

Dentition:

L Se], TRG! lie hs ote Sra tne ne oe Ua et na 209*

Drastema between © and P2... .2.3 cece ee ee ee ne 76

HPSS ILLS, TIL ooo nSe each anny arg ieee el cee ae 82

2=124, TOG oe: cca oie I Rerun een a ee te aa 29.3

MLM, AHN NP ee eae owt rer cone sas MM da tet 54.2

Lye anteroposterior diameter: transverse diameter....| 10.2:12.8

M3, anteroposterior diameter: transverse diameter.... PB AVES Diliss) edkee

I,—Ms3, TOMES 5 sath alg et Sa an a> Pee gh ren Nr Z03" 187

Diestemarbenween.© and: Po. 2... 2... fe ee O. 78 54

Legs lMig, TICES Ee ee a 84.5 93.6

LPs=iE a, TENG ce aera ere Rc ae ea Bile? Beal

lip lig, TG le oe ke ae ei ae en 54 59.8

P,, anteroposterior diameter: transverse diameter....| 11.4: 9.9 13.1:10.3

M;, anteroposterior diameter: transverse diameter....| 25.2:14.5 PA 5).0 tH ots)

* Approximate.

The upper dentition which Gidley (1903, pp. 477-478, fig. 1) referred to

P. bicalcaratus includes much larger teeth than would be associated with an

M; of the size figured by Cope. Considering this tooth as a lower premolar

no disparity in size is apparent, but the specimen as a type has little diag-

nostic value.

The upper teeth of P. pearcei do not show the well isolated cross lophs seen

in the upper dentition referred to P. bicalcaratus. Also M? has a moderately

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 2

developed heel not seen in the tooth which Gidley considered to be the third

upper molar of P. bicalcaratus. The upper dentition in the type of P. texanus

Gidley (1908, pp. 478-481, figs. 2, 5) has somewhat larger and relatively

much wider molars than P. pearcez. Also, the cingula are better developed

than in the Idaho teeth.

Limbs.—The bones of the fore and hind limbs are for the most part about

the same length as in P. cumberlandensis, but slenderer, with smaller,

distinctly narrower articular surfaces. The trochlea of the humerus is nar-

rower and not as deep. The distance across the condyles on the femur is less

and the ridges bounding the anterior portion of the trochlear articular sur-

face are distinctly closer together. The head of the tibia is of less diameter

and the cnemial crest is less outstanding.

The metacarpals and metatarsals, in keeping with their earlier geologic

age, show a less advanced stage in the fusion between the third and fourth

than do those of the Cumberland Cave form. None of the metacarpals in the

Idaho material were found to be co-ossified, but several pairs in the Pleisto-

cene material are fused. In the pes the third and fourth metatarsals are

united in most cases but the co-ossification does not extend so far down the

shafts as in P. cumberlandensis.

In a few instances the second metacarpals and metatarsals were found.

In the articulated skeletons these splints are seen to be about two-thirds the

length of the adjacent element in the manus and, though incomplete, at

least one-half the length of the third metatarsal in the pes.

Remarks.—The record of Platygonus prior to upper Pliocene time is very

incomplete. fragmentary specimens from the Miocene and earlier Pliocene

that have been referred to this genus in most cases were found later to

represent Prosthennops. A tooth from the middle or upper Miocene which I

(1932, p. 81) referred to Platygonus doubtless belongs to some form of

Thinohyus or Desmathyus. As pointed out by Matthew (1924, pp. 177-178)

Desmathyus in the Miocene probably stands in a relation intermediate be-

tween Perchoerus and Platygonus, but an appreciable hiatus still remains

between the known forms of Desmathyus and Platygonus.

LITERATURE CITED

Corr, E. D. A preliminary report on the vertebrate palentology of the Llano Estacado.

4th Ann. Rept., 1892, Geol. Surv. Texas., pp. 1-87 (68-70), figs. 1-2, pls. 1-23

(Goll, US sae, 5) OR

Ducé&s, ALFREDO. Platygonus alemanii, nobis, fosil cuaternario. La Naturaleza, ser..

2, vol. 1, pp. 16-18, pls. 1-2, 1891.

Frick, Cuinps. Extinct vertebrate faunas of the badlands of Bautista Creek and San

Timoteo Canon, southern California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bull. Dept. Geol., vol.

12, no. 5, pp. 277-424 (354-356), figs. 1-165 (64-65), pls. 43-50, 1921.

Gazin, C. L. A Miocene mammalian fauna from southeastern Oregon. Carnegie Inst.

Washington, Publ. no. 418, pp. 37-86 (81), figs. 1-20 (14), 6 pls., 1932.

Fossil hunting in southern Idaho. Explorations and Field-Work of the Smithsonian

Institution in 1934, pp. 9-12, figs. 7-9, 1935.

Gipuey, J. W. On two species of Platygonus from the Pliocene of Texas. Bull. Amer.

Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 19, art. 14, pp. 477-481, figs. 1-5, 1903.

—— Pleistocene peccaries from the Cumberland Cave deposit. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol.

57, pp. 651-678, pls. 54-55, 1920.

Giptey, J. W. anv C. L. Gazin. The Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from Cumberland

Cave, Maryland. U.S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 171 (in press). i

Hay, O. P. The Pleistocene mammals of Iowa. Ann. Rept. Iowa Geol. Surv., vol. 23,

pp. 1-662 (211-228), figs. 1-142 (84), pls. 1-75 (19-27, fig. 1), 1914.

Kurppart, J. H. Discovery of Dicotyes (Platygonus) compressus Le Conte. Proc.

Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, 23rd meeting, 1874, Hartford, pp. 1-6, 1875.

Frs. 15, 1938 HICKSON: ALCYONARIAN 49

Lz Conts, JosEPH. On Platygonus compressus, a new fossil pachyderm. Mem. Amer.

Acad. Arts and Sciences, vol. 3, pp. 257-274, pls. 1-4, 1848.

LriIpy, JosEPH. A memoir on the extinct dicotylinae of America. Trans. Amer. Philos.

Soc., n.s., vol. 10, pp. 3238-843, pls. 35-38, 1853.

—— Observations on the extinct peccary of North America; being a sequel to ‘‘A memoir on

the extinct dicotylinae of America.’’ Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 11, pp. 97-

105, pl. 6, figs. 2-7, 1857.

— On Platygonus, an extinct genus allied to the peccaries. Trans. Wagner Free Inst.

Science, Philadelphia, vol. 2, pp. 41—50, pl. 8, fig. 1, 1889.

MatrHew, W. D. Third contribution to the Snake Creek Fauna. Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist., vol. 50, art. 2, pp. 59-210 (176-181), figs. 1-63, 1924.

Merriam, J. C. Tertiary vertebrate faunas of the north Coalinga region of California.

Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n.s., vol. 22, part 3, pp. 1-44 (87), figs. 1-49 (41), 1915.

M®RR1IAM, J. C. AND CHESTER, Stock. Notes on peccary remains from Rancho La Brea.

Univ. Calif. Publ. Bull. Dept. Geol. Sci., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 9-17, figs. 1-8, 1921.

Prarson, Heuca 8. Some skulls of Perchoerus (Thinohyus) from the White River and

John Day formations. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 48, art. 3, pp. 61-96,

essa 7, 1923.

Peterson, O. A. A mounted skeleton of Platigonus leptorhinus in the Carnegie Museum.

Ann. Carnegie Mus., vol. 9, nos. 1-2, art. 7, pp. 114-117, pl. 29, 1914.

Rusconi, Caruos. Anatomia craneodental de los tayassuinos vivientes (pecaries).

Anales de la Sociedad Cientifica Argentina., vol. 107, pp. 1—75, figs. 1-21, pls. 1-9,

1929.

—— las especies fdésiles Argentinas de pecaries (‘‘Tayassuidae’’) y sus relaciones con

las del Brasil y Norte América. Annal. Museo Nac. Hist. Nat. Buenos Aires,

vol. 36, pp. 121-241, pls. 1-18, 19380.

ScHuuTz, J. R. A late Cenozoic vertebrate fauna from the Coso Mountains, Inyo County,

California. Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. No. 487, pp. 75-109 (101-102),

nesel—o, pls: I—8 (pl. 8, figs: 3-6), 1937.

Stock, Cuester. A peccary from the McKittrick Pleistocene, California. Carnegie

Inst. Washington, Publ. no. 398, art. 3, pp. 23-27, figs. 1-7, 1928.

WaGcner, GrorcE. Observations on Platygonus compressus Le Conte. Journ. Geol.,

vol. 11, pp. 777-782, figs. 1-4, 1903.

Wiuuiston, 8. W. Restoration of Platygonus. Kansas Univ. Quart., vol. 3, no. 1,

pp. 23-89, 6 figs., pls. 7-8, 1894.

Van Kampen, P.N. Die Tympanalgegend des Sdugetierschidels. Gegenbaurs Mor-

phologisches Jahrbuch, vol. 34, pp. 321-722 (583-588), figs. 1-96 (67-68), 1905.

PALEONTOLOG Y.—An alcyonarian from the Eocene of Mississippi."

SipNrey J. Hickson, Cambridge, England. (Communicated by

Watpo L. ScHMITT.)

Prof. J. Magruder Sullivan, of Millsaps College, Jackson, Mis-

sissippi, found in the Moody marl of the Eocene Jackson group on

Town Creek in the city of Jackson a very interesting specimen repre-

senting part of the axis of an alecyonarian. As the Alecyonaria are not

frequently found in fossil state it is deemed worth-while to record

this occurrence.

Eogorgia sullivant Hickson, n. gen. and sp.

Figs. 1-4

Description.—This specimen is about 170 mm in length by 25 mm in

diameter and is cylindrical in shape. It consists of a series of concentric

laminae of a calcareous substance mixed with grit and intercalated with an

irregularly disposed black substance that is insoluble in acid. The surface 1s

scored by a number of parallel grooves, with a slight spiral twist as regards

1 Received December 7, 1937.

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

the axis of the specimen. The calcareous substance is mainly amorphous,

but by an examination of fragments chipped off from and between the

Fics. 1-4.—FEogorgia sullivani Hickson, n. gen. and sp. 1, side view of holotype

x1. 2, cross-fracture surface, X1. 38, spindle-shaped spicule, X200. 4, spicular

needle, 200.

laminae two kinds of spicules have been found—a, long slender needles of

unknown length but about 0.015 mm diameter, provided with a few short

Frs. 15, 1938 CHASE: GRASSES 51

conical tubercles; b, thick spindles about 0.14 mm in length by 0.07 mm in

diameter, provided with numerous prominent tubercles. These spicules are

not easy to find among the amorphous calcareous debris, but I have found

them in several preparations.

Remarks.—I am of the opinion that there are sufficient reasons for believ-

ing that this fossil was a part of the axis of an alcyonarian belonging to the

Scleraxonia division of the Order Gorgonacea. The surface grooves probably

correspond with the positions in which the main nutritive canals were

situated, such grooves being occasionally found on the axis of Recent

Gorgonacea. The black substance probably corresponds with the horny

matter (usually called ‘‘keratin’’) which is commonly found in the axis of

Gorgonacea. The amorphous calcareous matter may have been formed in

the course of time by the solution of calcareous spicules and redeposition

in an amorphous form. Some of the spicules remain in an unaltered condition.

The long needle-shaped spicules (a) agree very closely with the spicules

found in the sheath of the axis of the species of the Recent genus Iciligorgia,

belonging to the Scleraxonia. The spindle-shaped spicules are similar to

some of the spicules found in the axis of [czlzgorgia orientalis of Australian

waters.

The fossil has a diameter much greater than that of the main stem of any

species of Iczligorgia I have seen, indicating that the whole colony must

have been originally of great size; but specimens of another genus of

Scleraxonia, Paragorgia of the Norwegian fjords, have been dredged with a

diameter of the stem much greater than that of this fossil.

I do not consider that we are justified in referring this fossil to the genus

Iciligorgia or to any other genus of Recent Gorgonacea, and as a new

generic name must be found I would suggest that it be called Hogorgia sul-

livant, genotype and holotype, U.S.N.M. No. 510859.

BOTAN Y.—New grasses from Oregon.!| AGNES CHASE, Bureau of

Plant Industry.

Among grasses recently received from Professor Morton E. Peck,

collected by him in little known regions of Oregon, are two un-

described species. One, a species of Plewropogon is of especial interest,

since it has paleas awned from near the base of the keels as in the type

species of the genus, P. Sabina R. Br. of Arctic America, which sug-

gested the generic name. The only other species hitherto known,

P. californicus (Nees) Benth. and P. refractus (A. Gray) Benth., of

the Pacific Coast of the United States, have paleas toothed only. The

new species is not closely related to P. Sabiniz, which is a low plant,

with small spikelets with awnless lemmas and paleas with short dorsal

1 Received December 8, 1937.

i I

¥ Ss ee Ne

ill

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

awns, but resembles P. refractus, except that the spikelets are ascend-

ing, not reflexed or drooping. Two specimens of this undescribed

species were in the National Herbarium in the cover of P. refractus,

the well-developed though inconspicuous dorsal awns of the palea

having been overlooked. One of these is chosen as the type, since it

shows well developed rhizomes and has longer spikelets than has

Professor Peck’s specimen.

The other undescribed grass is a tall, rather coarse species of Poa

from the region of Metolius River, which forms the southern bound-

ary of Warm Springs Indian Reservation. Professor Peck writes, in

answer to my inquiries, ‘The Poa, no. 19804, is from a point remote

from any Erosion Control project. It seems quite certain to me that

the plant is native. I find no indications of rhizomes and feel sure there

were none.” In the last two years a number of Old World grasses have

appeared in the United States, hence it was necessary to study the

whole genus before venturing to propose a new species in so large and

variable a genus as Poa. But careful search of species of America,

North and South, and of the Old World, fails to find any showing the

combination of characters found in Professor Peck’s specimen.

Pleuropogon oregonus, sp. nov.

Perennis; culmi 55-90 em alti, e rhizomatibus tenuibus, erecti; vaginae

internodiis longiores, scaberulae; ligula 4-5 mm longa, subhyalina, laciniata;

laminae erectae, planae, 8-18 cm longae, 4-7 mm latae, acuto-mucronatae,

subscaberulae; racemus suberectus, 6—16 em longus; pedicelli 2-12 mm longi;.

spiculae 6-8, adscendentes, 7—13-florae, 1.5-4 em longae; glumae pallidae,

subhyalinae, 2-4 mm longae, enerves; lemmata 5.5—-7 mm longa, 3 mm lata,

7-nervia, purpurea, scabra, apice lato, hyalino; arista 6-10 mm longa, scabra;

palea lemmata aequans, dorso infra medium biaristato.

Perennial with slender rhizomes with purplish-red scales and long soft

internodes; culms erect, 55 to 90 em tall, rather soft and spongy; sheaths

overlapping, the lower rather loose, purplish red, nearly smooth, the others

scaberulous, striate; ligule 4 to 5 mm long, white, subhyaline, lacerate; blades

erect, flat, 8 to 18 cm long, 4 to 7 mm wide (the uppermost reduced),

abruptly narrowed into an acute, mucronate-tipped apex, slightly scaberu-

lous on the upper or on both surfaces; raceme suberect, the slender slightly

flexuous axis 6 to 16 cm long with 6 to 8 ascending spikelets on slender

pedicels 2 to 12 mm long; spikelets loosely 7- to 13-flowered, 1.5 to 4 em long

(excluding the awns); glumes pale, subhyaline, 2 to 4 mm long, nerveless,

often erose; rachilla joints 2 to 3 mm long; lemmas 5.5 to 7 mm long, about

3 mm wide, strongly 7-nerved, purplish and scabrous, except at the broad

hyaline pale erose summit, the midnerve extending into an erect scabrous

awn 6 to 10 mm long; palea as long as the lemma subhyaline, each of the

keels bearing, about one-third from the base, a slender, scabrous, erect to

spreading awn, from 2 to 7 mm long, the pair of a single palea often unequal,

the summit of the palea hyaline the nerves extending into delicate teeth.

Frs. 15, 1938 CHASE: GRASSES 53

| | Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 913360, collected at Union,

| Oregon, June 8, 1901, by A. B. Leckenby.

- Only known from Oregon, two additional collections being Peck 19568,

wet meadow, 16 miles east of Adel, Lake County, and Cusick, in 1886,

Fic. 1.—Pleuropogon oregonus. Raceme, X1; floret, <5.

| without locality, probably Union.

]

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

Poa Pecki, sp. nov.

Perennis; culmi caespitosi, erecti, circa 100 cm alti foliosi; vaginae

internodiis longiores, carinatae, scabrae; ligula firma, 0.3-0.4 mm longa,

laminae firmae, planae vel conduplicatae, acuminatae, 30-45 cm longae,

3-5 mm latae, utrinque scabrae, supra sparse pilosae; panicula 17 cm longa,

ramis fasciculatis, scaberrimis; spiculae subcrebrae, compressae, 3—5-florae,

5-5.5 mm longae; gluma prima lanceolata, acuminata, 2.5-2.8 mm longa;

eluma secunda latior, 3-3.5 mm longa; lemmata 3.5-4 mm longa, acuminata,

sub lente minutissime papillosa, basi arachnoidea, nervis mediis marginali-

busque infra medium villosis, inter nervos glabra.

Fic. 2.—Poa Pecki. Floret and spikelet, X20.

Perennial, without rhizomes, rather pale; culms tufted, erect, about 100

em tall, leafy; sheaths overlapping, carinate, scabrous, the lowermost papery

becoming shredded; ligule firm, 0.3 to 0.4 mm long; blades firm, flat or folded

or subinvolute toward the acuminate boat-shaped tip, 30 to 45 cm long,

3 to 5 mm wide, scabrous on both surfaces and sparsely pilose, the hairs

appressed, some retrorsely so toward the summit; panicle long-exserted,

rhomboid- pyramidal, open, 17 cm long, the branches in distant fascicles of

3 or 4, very scabrous, naked and simple below, those of the lowest whorl

3.5 to 9.5 em long; spikelets rather crowded on short scabrous pedicels on the

short branchlets of the upper half to two-thirds of the main branches,

strongly compressed, tawny, 3- to 5-flowered, 5 to 5.6 mm long; glumes

acuminate, the first lanceolate, 2.5 to 2.8 mm long, the second broader, 3 to

3.5 mm long; lemmas 3.5 to 4 mm long, acuminate, under a lens very

minutely papillose, copiously webbed at base, silky-villous on the lower

third to half of the keel and marginal nerves, glabrous between the nerves.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 1,720,372, collected in dry

woods, along Metolius River near Camp Sherman, Jefferson County,

Oregon, July 11, 19387, by Morton E. Peck (no. 19804).

This species is most nearly related to Poa occidentalis Vasey of Colorado

and New Mexico, from which it differs in the more scabrous foliage, the

minute firm ligule, the longer, firmer blades, appressed-pilose on the upper

Fas. 15, 1938 KOL: SNOW ALGAE 55

surface, the shorter, less open, more densely flowered panicle, and in the

shorter lemmas, minutely papillose under a lens.

BOTANY.—Some new snow algae from North America| Erzs&BET

Kou,? Szeged, Hungary. (Communicated by H. H. Barrett.)

During my sojourn in America in 1936 I had the opportunity to

work in the laboratory of the Department of Botany of the University

of Michigan, for which I am very thankful. Professor William Ran-

dolph Taylor was so kind as to give me his algal collections from

British Columbia to look over. I found in these collections some

interesting snow samples, but I could not study the whole collection

in the short time available. The snow samples No. 38 and No. 60

contained some Raphidonema specimens which, to my knowledge

have not previously been described from the snow fields of North

America.

‘The snow samples which form the subject of this report were col-

lected in 1923 and 1925. A full account of the type of country in which

the collections were made will be found in Taylor’s account (1928).

Sample number 38 was collected at an elevation of about 7000 feet

in Eagle Pass Mountains, British Columbia, September 3, 1923, and

contained the following kryobionts: Raphidonema brevirostre var.

canadense, var. nov., R. nivale var. taylori, var. nov., Rh. sabaudum

f. minus, f. nov., Chlamydomonas nivalis Wille?, and Chionaster nivalis

(Bohl.) Wille. With the exception of R. sabaudum f. minus the same

forms were found in sample number 60, collected at Lakes of 5S.

Grizzly group, British Columbia, August 31, 1925.

Raphidonema brevirostre Scherffel var. canadense, var. nov. Figs. 1-2

Filaments short, consisting of 4-8—16-32, straight or curved with slightly

pointed ends. Cells usually not as long as broad, or cylindrical, 1—-1.5y diam.

and 0.8-1.5u long. Cell wall thin. Chromatophore yellowish-green, single,

a parietal plate without pyrenoid or starch.

Vegetative reproduction by cell division and by separation of the filament

into two parts. The filament breaks transversely into two portions, the newly

fractured ends of which eventually develop the taper characteristic of this

species.

Nearly related to R. brevirostre, differing in the slightly smaller average

dimensions.

1 Paper No. 620 from the Herbarium and the Department of Botany of the Uni-

versity of Michigan. Received November 9, 1937. Toe

2 Holder of the International Fellowship Crusade of the American Association of

University Women fellowship for the academic year 1935-36; for which the writer is

deeply grateful.

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

In red snow; North America: British Columbia, Eagle Pass Mountains and

Lakes of the 8. Grizzly group, collected by Professor William Randolph

Taylor.

Filamentis liberis brevibus, 4-8-16-32 cellularibus, rectis, vel leniter

curvatis; apicibus breviter acuminatis. Cellulis in media parte filamenti

brevibus, cylindraceis, 1—-1.5u latis et 0.8-1.5u longis. Membranis cellularum

tenuibus. Flavoviridibus chromatophoris singulis; pyrenoido et amylo nullo.

Multiplicatio: filamenta in duas partes aequales fragmentant, deinde

genicule flectunt et vitae sempiternae in geniculiformis ultimoque cellulae

apicibus tangentibus acuminant.

Differt ab Raphidonemato brevirostri Scherffel dimensione cellulae.

Habit: in nivibus rubris, in America: ‘British Columbia: Eagle Pass Mts.

et Lakes 8 Grizzly group.”

Fic. 1, 2.—Raphidonema brevirostre var. canadense. Figs. 3-5.—Raphidonema

nivale Lagerh. var. taylori, separation of the filament. Figs. 6, 7.—Raphidonema

sabaudum f. minus. (X38000)

R. brevirostre was collected for the first time by Professor Istvan Gyorffy

in Hungary in the year 1910 and was described by Professor Aladar Scherffel

(1910). I found it also in Switzerland in the year 1930.

Raphidonema nivale Lagerh. var. taylori, var. nov. Figs. 3-5

Filaments short, consisting of 2—4 cells, straight or slightly curved, with

pointed ends. Cells long cylindrical, 1-1.5u diam. and 2—7y long. Membrane

thin, chromatophore a parietal plate without pyrenoid or starch.

Vegetative reproduction by cell division and separation of the filament.

In this species the wall developed before separation is always a little oblique,

and each half of the filament then develops the attenuate end characteristic

of the species, these ends overlapping until separation occurs, when they

slip apart.

In red snow; North America: British Columbia, Eagle Pass Mts. and

Lakes of the 8. Grizzly group.

Filamentis liberis brevibus, 2—4 cellularibus, rectis vel leniter curvatis,

apicibus longe acuminatis. Cellulis 1-1.5u latis et 2—7u longis. Membranis

cellularum tenuibus, achrois. Chromatophoris planis, rare marginibus

lobatis; pyrenoido et amylo nullo.

Multiplicatio: flamentum inter 4—4 (2-2) cellules membranis oblique dis-

positis fragmentatum apicibusque novis filia filamenta acutiusculunt, et ad

extremum ea separant.

He. 15, 1938 KOL: SNOW ALGAE oe.

Differt ab Raphidonemato nivali Lagerh.: 1. dimensione cellulae, 2. forma

cellularum.

Habit: in nivibus rubris, in America: “British Columbia: Eagle Pass Mts.

et Lakes S. Grizzly group.”

Nominata in honorem ill. ac clarissimi Domini omnibus noti ord. botan.

professoris Michiganensis: William Randolph Taylor.

This microorganism differs from Raphidonema nivale Lagerh. in the smaller

size and in the form of the cells.

Raphidonema sabaudum Kol f. minus, f. nov. Figs. 6, 7

Filaments short, consisting of 8-16-32 cells, straight or variously curved,

with pointed ends. Cells not as long as broad. 1—1.5u diam. and 0.6-1.2u

long. Membrane thin, chromatophores either one or two plates, without

pyrenoid.

Vegetative reproduction by cell division and by separation of the fila-

ment in two parts, the ends overlapping and developing the characteristic

tapered form before separation.

Nearly related to Raphidonema sabaudum, differing in the slightly smaller

average dimensions.

In red snow; North America: British Columbia: Eagle Pass Mts.

Filamentis liberis brevibus, tenuiter articulatis, 8-16-32 cellularibus, rectis

vel curvatis; apicibus longe acuminatis respective setigeris. Cellulis in media

parte filamenti: brevibus cylindraceis, 1—1.5y latis et 0.6—-1.2u longis. Mem-

branis cellularum tenuibus, chromatophoris in centro cellularum sedentibus,

planis; pyrenoido et amylo nullo.

Multiplicatio: filamentum inter 4—4 cellulas membranis oblique dispositis

fragmentatum apicibusque novis filia filamenti acutiusculunt, et ad ex-

tremum ea separant.

Differt ab R. sabaudo Kol dimensione cellulae.

Habit: in nivibus rubris, in America: ‘‘British Columbia: Eagle Pass Mts.”

I found R. sabaudum for the first time in France on the snow-fields of

Mont Blane in 1933.

This investigation was initiated in the Department of Botany of

the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, under the direction of

Professor William Randolph Taylor, for whose advice the writer is

deeply grateful.

LITERATURE CITED

Gain, L. La flore algologique des régions Antarctiques et subantarctiques. Théses pré-

sentées 4 la faculté des sciences de Paris. pp. 1-218. 1912.

Kou, E. Ueber die Kryovegetation der Hohen Tatra I. Folia Cryptogamica (Szeged,

Hungary) 1(6): 613-622. 1928.

—— Nouveaux documents se rapportant ala cryovégétation dela Suisse. Bull. Soc. Bot.

Genéve 23:8. 1981.

—— pe la neige verte du Massif du Mont Blanc. Bull. Soc. Bot. Genéve 25: 1-8.

1933.

—— Kryobiologische Studien am Jungfraujock (3470m) und in dessem Umgebung. Beil.

Bot. Centralbl. 53: 34-4. 1935. ‘

ScHERFFEL, A. Raphidonema brevirostre n. sp. egyuttal adalék a Magas-Tatra nivalis

florajahoz. Botanikai Kézlemenyek (Budapest, Hungary) pp. 116-123. 1910.

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

Taytor, Wm. R. Notes on some algae from British Columbia. Rhodora 24: 101-111.

1922.

— Further notes on British Columbia algae. Rhodora 26: 160-166. 1924.

—— The alpine algal vegetation of the Mountains of British Columbia. Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Phila. 89: 45-114. 1928.

ViscHeR, W. Ueber einige kritische Gattungen und die Systematik der Chaetophorales.

Beih. Bot. Centralbl. I. 51: 1-100. 1933.

PALEOBOTANY.—Pleistocene fossils from Westmoreland County,

Virginia.| Epwarp W. Brrry, The Johns Hopkins University.

In a short article published in 1909 the writer recorded the acorns

of an unidentified species of Quercus and burs of Fagus americana from

the Pleistocene (Talbot) near Nomini bluffs on the right (south) bank

of the Potomac in Westmoreland County, Virginia.” During the past

summer this outcrop was visited by my son, Charles T. Berry, and it

is the purpose of the present note to discuss the material collected by

him.

The locality is about 600 yards below the mouth of Popes Creek

and the deposits represent what Wentworth? calls in Virginia the

Princess Anne terrace and formation, which he regards as of es-

sentially marine origin and extending along the shores of tidewater

Virginia, where preserved, inland to the Fall-line. The Princess Anne

he regards as the equivalent of the youngest Talbot of Maryland and

the youngest Pamlico of North Carolina.

The material is a fine sandy or silty, bluish, ferruginous-stained,

somewhat carbonaceous clay, with more or less pyritized sticks or

branches up to several inches in diameter that suggest Pznus, but

which have not been determined; and a few disseminated and angular

quartz pea gravels. The deposit is interpreted as a Pleistocene bench

of reworked Miocene material that abuts on the cliff section of true

Miocene. The reasons for this interpretation are (1) the somewhat

more silty texture noticeable in weathering and in the much more

friable nature of the Pleistocene material; (2) in the fact that the

latter is packed with the casts of Rangia to the almost total exclusion

of other forms; and (3) to the uncompressed nature of the contained

twigs and branches. In the Miocene, similar stem fragments are

greatly compressed and molluscan remains are relatively uncommon.

Finally the presence of a variety of Pleistocene plants confirms the

field relations. I may say that my identification of Rangia has been

checked by Dr. Julia A. Gardner of the U. 8. Geological Survey.

' Received December 20, 1937.

2 Berry, E. W. Amer. Nat. 43: 432-436. 1909.

3’ WENTWORTH, C. K. Va. Geol. Survey Bull. 32. 1980.

Fes. 15, 19388 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE FOSSILS 59

The variety of identifiable fossils is not large and the chief interest

is the association of brackish water mollusks with the aquatic plants,

Naias and Zannichellia, also frequently found in brackish water, the

last being the most abundant fossil and hitherto unknown from the

North American Pleistocene. This locality is about 30 miles west

(upstream) from the Talbot locality at Wailes Bluff, St. Mary’s

County, Maryland, where a very considerable marine fauna has been

recorded, but is perhaps in no way remarkable since Rangia cuneata

has been recorded‘ from Charles County, Maryland, at a locality on

Nanjemoy Creek over 20 miles farther to the northwest.

The species identified are too few for purposes of correlation or

ecological discussion, but are entirely similar to those found in the

late Pleistocene at many localities in the Coastal Plain of the Middle

and South Atlantic states, all of which is rather consistent in in-

dicating somewhat milder climatic conditions than obtain at the

present time.

Navas sp.

Fruits of Nazas are very common and widespread at various late geo-

logical horizons, especially during the Pleistocene. They are present in the

Wicomico and very abundant in the Pamlico of the District of Columbia.

Pericarps are infrequent at the present locality.

Zannichelia palustris Linnaeus

This interesting aquatic monocotyledon, which in existing floras is found

on all the continents except Australia, is widely distributed in ponds and

streams in fresh and brackish waters. It is said to be monotypic by Ascherson

although other authors (Morong) suggest that more than a single species

may be represented.

The nutlets of this species are much the most abundant forms at the pres-

ent locality. The majority are rather heavily spined, although some are less

so, and a single example is smooth. This is the more interesting as the living

specimens I have seen have fruits that are practically smooth in the eastern

and spinose in the western States, but I have made no attempt to determine

whether this difference extends beyond the insignificant amount of material

I have examined. In any case the fossil fruits are rather more spinose than

any Recent material seen.

So far as I know the present is the first record of this species from the

Pleistocene of North America and I have found no fossil records from other

continents except one by Holmboe® from Norway cited under the name

Zannichellia polycarpa Nolte. The Virginia fossils are well shown in the

accompanying illustration.

4Criark, W.B. Maryland Geol. Survey. Pliocene and Pleistocene, p. 196, 1906.

*> HoumsBog, J. Planterester Norske Toromyrer, p. 180, pl, 1, fig. 7, 1903.

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

Carex sp.

A single specimen of the same size and other features as those figured from

the Wicomico of the District of Columbia compared with the existing

Carex collinsiit Nuttall® except that the style is much shorter in the Virginia

specimen, a feature which might well be due to breakage since only the single

specimen was found.

Fic. 1.—Zanichellia palustris Linnaeus. 3, X6, X73.

Quercus sp.

The acorns and cupules of some species of oak are rather common in the

deposits and were noted in 1909. As there is no certainty that they are

mature and as some are obviously aborted, no attempt has been made to

identify them specifically.

Phytolacca decandra Linnaeus

A characteristic seed of this species. Previously recorded by the writer

from both the Wicomico and Pamlico formations of the District of Columbia

and from the lower terrace of the Chattahoochee River in Alabama, and

more recently by Brown’ from Northwest Branch of the Anacostia River in

Prince George’s County, Maryland.

? Vates sp.

No grape seeds have been discovered in the deposits, but there are several

stout coiled tendrils such as have been found elsewhere associated with

grape seeds and tentatively referred to this genus, e.g. from the Chowan

6 Berry, EK. W. This JouRNAL 14: 17, pl. 1, figs. 4-8, 1924.

7 Brown, R. W. This JouRNAL 25: 443, 1935.

Fes. 15, 1938 HOBBS: CRAWFISH 61

formation of North Carolina? and from the Pamlico formation of the

District of Columbia.?

MOLLUSCA

Rangia cuneata (Gray) Dall

This well known species, which is said to range from the Pliocene to the

Recent, is found at the present time in shallow water along the coast of the

Gulf of Mexico from Alabama westward and southward to Mexico. Although

occurring in both normal sea water and brackish water, it is said to find its

optimum conditions in the latter. Its range reaches northward as far as

Maryland in the late Pleistocene where it has been recorded not only from

the lower beds on both sides of Point Lookout, but from Sparrows Point and

Middle River in Baltimore County, as well as Nanjemoy Creek in Charles

County.

Some of the foregoing occurrences, as well as additional localities in North

Carolina are discussed by Mansfield. |

This species appears to be common in the silty clay below Popes Creek in

Westmoreland County, Virginia, but is in a very bad state of preservation.

? Macoma balthica Linnaeus

This is essentially a northern form although it is said to range southward

to the Mediterranean in Europe and to Georgia along our Atlantic coast.

It was recorded from the Talbot formation of Wailes Bluff in Maryland, and

more recently from Yonges Island, 8. C., by Mansfield. The present record

is based upon poorly preserved material and is therefore tentative. It is

somewhat smaller than the figured specimen from Wailes Bluff. Linnaeus’

type was the thin shell of the brackish waters of the Baltic.

Galls

Gall seales similar to those figured from the Pamlico formation of the

District of Columbia" are not uncommon at the present locality.

ZOOLOGY .—A new crawfish from Florida.1. Horton H. Hoses, JR.,

University of Florida. (Communicated by Mary J. RaTHBUN.)

The first specimens of this crawfish, a male (Form I) and three

females, were collected by Professor J. 8S. Rogers and myself in April,

1935, from a pine flatwoods four miles northwest of Blountstown,

Calhoun Co., Florida. Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, of the U. 8. National

8 Berry, E. W. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140: 115, pl. 57, fig. 6, 1926.

9 Berry, E. W. This JouRNAL 23: 20, figs. 58, 54, 1933.

10 MANSFIELD, W. C. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 150-F, 1928.

11 Berry, EK. W. This JouRNAL 23: 24, figs. 72-77, 1933.

1 Received November 16, 1937.

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

Museum, examined these specimens for me and stated that they are

closely related to the members of the first section of Ortmann’s first

group,” Faxon’s Group II,’ although differing in one or another point

from all known species.

In April, 1937, I collected two males (Form I), two males (Form II)

and one female from the same locality. One of the Form I males is the

holotype (U.S.N.M. cat. no. 75120) and the female the allotype

(U.S.N.M. cat. no. 75121). From two miles further north I succeeded

in taking five males (Form I), one male (Form IJ), and three females

from the same habitat.

Because of Professor Rogers’ interest in crawfishes and the aid and

encouragement he has given my work on these animals, I take

pleasure in naming this species for him.

Cambarus rogersi, N. sp.

Holotypic male (Form I).—Body stocky, thickened dorso-ventrally, com-

pressed laterally. Abdomen much narrower than cephalothorax.

Carapace subovate. Width of carapace slightly greater than depth in

region of caudo-dorsal margin of cervical groove. Greatest width of carapace

about midway between cervical groove and caudal margin of cephalothorax.

(Fig. 4)

Areola linear, almost obliterated, depressed, more than half as long as

cephalic section of carapace; a single row of punctations present along fusion

line of branchiostegites; sides parallel for a short distance in middle.

Rostrum somewhat broad-lanceolate; apex not reaching distal end of

second joint of antennule peduncle; upper surface punctate, excavate, with

margins elevated, gradually tapering off towards the apex; no lateral spines

present. Apex of rostrum directed ventrad, the extreme apex abruptly bent

upward. Cephalic region, in lateral aspect, evenly rounded. Postorbital

ridges extending caudad more than half the distance between apex and cervi-

cal groove.

Surface of carapace punctate; granulate laterally anterior to cervical

groove. No lateral spines present. Cephalo-lateral margins each with one

spine near anterior extremity of cervical groove.

Abdomen shorter and narrower than carapace. Anterior section of telson

with one spine in each of the postero-lateral angles.

Anterior margin of epistoma irregularly semi-circular; without median

anterior projecting spine or point; almost as long as wide.

Antennules of the usual form—a spine present on ventral side of basal

segment of the right.

Antennae extending slightly beyond caudal margin of carapace when bent

backward.

Antennal scale small; extending almost to tip of second joint of peduncle

of antennule. Spine on outer margin strong.

First pereiopod very broad and thin, triangulate, with sharp apex. Inner

margin of palm with eight regular tubercles in a single row. Both surfaces

2 Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 44: 98-101. 1905.

3 Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 40 (8): 411. 1914.

Frs. 15, 1938 HOBBS: CRAWFISH 63

of hand partially punctate; both fingers setose. Both fingers with two dis-

tinct ridges. Palm with a prominent ridge along articulation with moveable

finger. (Fig. 2)

Moveable finger: inner margin excavated near base; dorsal surface with a

prominent sub-median ridge extending from base almost to apex. Outer

edge studded with four tubercles along proximal third; remaining distal

two-thirds with about eight setiferous punctations. Inner margin broken

by two major tubercles; one about midway of the proximal third; the other

just distad to middle. The excavated region between the major tubercles

with one or two smaller tubercles; distad of the distal major tubercle, the

margins with minute denticles. Apex sharply pointed and curved laterad

toward the tip of immoveable finger; when the fingers are brought together

the moveable finger passing beneath the immoveable finger extends slightly

laterad of its lateral margin.

Immoveable finger: outer edge trough-like or punctate, studded with

hairs; a few tubercles present along outer margin of base. Inner margin

broken by one major tubercle which, when the fingers are closed, is about

half-way between the major tubercles of moveable finger. Three or four

smaller tubercles present along proximal half; distal half, as in other finger.

Carpus longer than wide; longer than inner margin of palm of chelae,

with a deep longitudinal groove above; punctate, three tubercles on distad

border of inner surface directed forward terminating in sharp spines. Also

smaller proximal spines on inner margin,

Merus smooth except on lower side which has a row of very small tubercles

(about eleven) on outer margin; a row of larger ones on inner margin (nine

on left, ten on right).

Ischiopodite of third pereiopods hooked; hooks strong, long; caudo-

ventral surface rounded; cephalo-dorsal surface excavate. (Fig. 6)

First pleopods of male extending to base of second pereiopods; distinctly

separated at the tips; tips ending in three distinct parts. The outer, recurved

at right angles with the main shaft, is also turned inward to form the pos-

terior part of the organ. It is the heaviest and most rounded of the three.

The inner one extends forward and terminates in a sharp spine. The third

terminal consists of a flat, thin plate-like structure on the anterior side of

the appendage extending ventrally to the tip of the inner spine and bent

laterally at about a forty-five degree angle and extending beyond the main

shaft. (Figs. 5, 7, 9, 10) A fourth process is sometimes present as a small

spine meso-cephalad of the plate-like structure. (Fig. 3)

Male (Form IT).—Differs from the male of the first form in the following

respects: (1) hooks on ischiopodite of third walking legs greatly reduced, (2)

first pleopod with no horny tips, three processes present but all rounded and

reduced. (Figs. 8 and 11)

Allotypic female.—Annulus ventralis moveable; fossa sinking beneath the

right caudal margin (observer’s right with crawfish lying on dorsal surface

and anterior end away); cephalad and left lateral walls gently sloping toward

the fossa; the caudal, overhanging it; right wall sloping more abruptly. Just

posterior to the annulus, a large rounded tubercle bearing punctations or

ridges. (Fig. 1)

Besides the sexual characters the female shows the following distinctive

structures differing from those described in the male: (1) chelae not quite

as heavy, (2) cephalic section of telson with three spines in right and one

in left postero-lateral corners.

Measurements given below indicate other differences.

VOL. 28, NO. 2

(Legend on bottom of page 65)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

64:

Fes. 15, 1938 HOBBS: CRAWFISH 65

Measurements.—The holotype: carapace, height 1.3, width 1.4, length

2.79; areola, linear, length. 1.11; rostrum, length 0.44, width 0.41; abdomen,

length 2.69; left chela, inner margin of palm 0.6, width of palm 1.06 length

of outer margin of hand 1.93, moveable finger 1.14; carpopodite of 1st

pereiopod, length 0.75, width 0.63 mm. The allotype: carapace, height 1.24,

width 1.32, length 2.58; areola, linear, length 1.02; rostrum, length 0.4,

width 0.4; abdomen, length 2.31; left chela, inner margin of palm 0.52,

width of palm 0.94, length of outer margin of hand 1.62, moveable finger

0.99; carpopodite of Ist pereiopod, length 0.78, width 0.57 mm.

Type Locality —Low pine flat-woods four miles north of Blountstown on

State Highway no. 6. Pitcher plants (Sarracenia psittacina Michx. and

Sarracenia drummondi Croom) and grasses made up the dominant flora. The

soil was a sandy clay mixture. All the crawfish were taken from complex

burrows ranging from one to three feet deep and with several passages. The

water table was about one foot below the surface and the crawfish were

always below it—usually at the end of one of the several tunnels. The bur-

rows were numerous and easily located as each was marked by a neat mound

of carefully piled pellets. These so-called chimneys were usually four to six

inches high. Living in the burrows with the crawfish were other crustaceans:

a few white isopods, Asellus species; several amphipods, HKucrangonyx

gracilis (Smith), determined by Mr. Joel Martin; and quite a number of

copepods.

The male holotype (Form I), the female allotype and a male paratype

(Form II) are deposited in the collections of the United States National

Museum. The paratypes: A male (Form I) and a female have been deposited

in the Michigan Museum of Zoology; a male (Form I) and a female in the

Museum of Comparative Zoology; a male (Form I) and a female in the

Carnegie Museum; four males (Form I), two males (Form II) and three

females I have retained in my personal collection.

Relationships.—Cambarus rogerst probably is more closely allied to the

species of Faxon’s Group III, namely: Cambarus bouviert, simulans, gracilis,

hagenianus, and advena. Structurally, C. rogersi has its closest affinities with

C. advena; the chelae of the two forms are strikingly similar. On the other

hand, C. hagenianus is the only species of this group in which the areola is

obliterated. The first pleopods of Cambarus rogersi are distinct from all

known species and suggest no very close affinities to any of the species

mentioned.

Fig. 1.—Annulus ventralis of female (Allotype). Fig. 2.—Dorsal view of right

chela (Holotype). Fig. 3.—Diagram of tip of 1st pleopod (male) showing the fourth

process which is sometimes present (Fourth process stippled). Fig. 4.—Dorsal view

of carapace. Fig. 5.—Mesal view of the 1st pleopod (Holotype). Fig. 6.—Ischio-

podites of the 8rd and 4th pereiopods showing heavy hook on the 3rd (Holotype).

Fig. 7.—Lateral view of the 1st pleopod (Holotype). Fig. 8—Caudal view of the Ist

pleopod of male (Form II). Fig. 9.—Cephalic view of the 1st pleopod (Holotype).

Fig. 10.—Caudal view of the 1st pleopod (Holotype). Fig. 11.—Cephalic view of the

a“ Pepe of male (Form II). The pubescence has been removed from all 1st

pleopods.

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 2

ENTOMOLOGY.—Three Japanese beetles of the genus Serica

Macleay... Epwarp A. Cuaprin, U.S. National Museum.

In 1927, a few specimens of a Serica, obviously not a described

American species, were taken by Mr. H. C. Hallock at Westbury,

L. I. In succeeding years additional specimens were found at the same

locality. The species was erroneously determined in 1928 as Serica

semilis Lewis and has appeared in the recent literature under that

name. It was later also erroneously determined as Serica brunnea

Linn. and has been so recorded in print. Doubt was cast on the

specific determination of the form in 1936 and specimens of two re-

lated species were sent to the British Museum for comparison with

Lewis’ type. Word came from Mr. G. J. Arrow that neither of the

two species sent agreed with the type of S. samilis. Two specimens

from the type series of semzlzs were kindly loaned the writer for study;

one of these was believed by Mr. Arrow to be the same as the type, the

other apparently different and perhaps the Long Island form. Mr.

Arrow also supplied a pencil sketch of the aedeagus of the type for

further assistance.

The dissection of the two specimens from the British Museum type

series shows that they belong to two species, one of which is S. similis

Lewis, and the other a species different from both similis and the

Long Island form. Further search of the National Museum collection

yielded a single male collected at Yokohama by Kobayashi that is

undoubtedly the same as the Long Island species, which fact tends

to establish the original habitat of the Long Island species as Japan.

There are, therefore, at least three Japanese species which have been

confused under the name Serica similis Lewis.

Serica similis Lewis

Serica similis Lewis, 1895, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 6, vol. 16, p. 391.

Male: Elongate subparallel, not strongly convex above. Color medium

dark brown with frons and vertex nearly black. Clypeus strongly shining,

sides straight and convergent anteriorly. Notches between clypeus and

labrum not evident. Labrum bilobed with median angulation broad and

moderately deep. Surface of head moderately coarsely and rather sparsely

punctured. Antennae 9-segmented, the three segmented club more than

three times as long as the five preceding segments combined. Eyes relatively

large and convex. Pronotum a little more than twice as wide as its length

along median line, posterior angles rounded, anterior produced and acute,

lateral margins evenly curved. Surface slightly more densely and coarsely

punctured than frons. Scutellum elongate triangular with punctation similar

to that of pronotum. Elytra each with nine well impressed grooves which are

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived December 22, 1937.

Fes. 15, 1938 CHAPIN: JAPANESE BEETLES 67

Fie. 1.—Serica similis Lewis. Aedeagus, dorsal view. Fig. 2.—S. similis Lewis,

idem, lateral view. Fig. 3.—S. peregrina, n. sp., idem, dorsal view. Fig. 4.—S.

peregrina, n. sp., idem, lateral view. Fig. 5.—S. lewisz, n. sp., idem, dorsal view.

Fig. 6.—S. lewisi, n. sp., idem, lateral view.

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

finely and densely punctured, intervals convex without punctures, epipleura

narrow, abruptly terminated at apical truncation, with a single row of short

setae. Pygidium subtriangular, slightly convex, coarsely and moderately

densely punctured. Under parts of thorax and posterior coxae with puncta-

tion similar to that of pronotum. First and second visible sternites with

transverse, median patches of setae, third with a few setae at mi ule. In

addition to the dense patches, each sternite has a single row of setae extend-

ing to lateral margins. Aedeagus, figures 1, 2. Length: male 8.5 mm.

Type: in the British Museum.

Type locality: Japan, ““Nagasaki, Hitoyoshi, Nikko and on the Wada-

togé.”’

Material examined: A male from the type series loaned for study by the

British Museum. The specimen bears the locality label “S. Japan”’ only.

The Hitoyoshi specimen has been withdrawn from this species and is made

the type of a new species described below. The Nikko specimen is probably

also different from szmilis as it comes from the mountainous part of Nippon

Island.

Serica peregrina, n. sp.

Serica brunnea Waterhouse, 1875, Trans. Ent. Soc. London, p. 101 in part

(synonomy according to G. J. Arrow in letter to writer); Schaeffer,

1931, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc., vol. 26, p. 176 (not S. brunnea Li. 1758).

Serica similis Hallock, 1929, Journ. Econ. Ent., vol. 22, p. 299; Sim, 1932,

Journ. N.Y. Ent. Soc., vol. 40, p. 381, Pl. 15; Schaeffer, 1932, Bull.

Brooklyn Ent. Soc., vol. 27, p. 50 (not S. similis Lewis 1895).

Male: externally essentially the same as S. szmilis Lewis. Coloration pale

yellowish brown, sides of pronotum less curved and with anterior angles

usually perceptibly more abrupt. Aedeagus, figs. 3, 4.

Female: more robust than male. Eyes proportionately smaller, artennal

club shorter, not twice as long as preceding five segments combine — First

visible sternite alone with patch of dense setae. Anterior tibia less . ender.

Length: male 8-8.5 mm, female 9 mm.

Type and paratypes: U.S. National Museum Cat. No. 52294, pa:atypes

in the British Museum.

Type locality: Long Island, N. Y. (type trom Westbury, paratypes from

Westbury and Douglaston).

Material examined: 40 male and 5 female specimens from the :bove

locality, collected by Mr. H. C. Hallock during June and July. Also a single

male from Yokohama, Island of Nippon, Japan, collected PY Kobayashi.

Serica lewisi, n. sp.

Male: externally essentially the same as S. similis Lewis. Coloration

paler, yellowish brown with frons and vertex only slightly darker than rest

of body. Punctation of pronotum less deeply impressed than in similis.

Aedeagus, figs. 5, 6.

Length: male 8.5 mm.

Type: in the British Museum.

Type locality: Japan Hitoyoshi, Island of Kyushu, May 15-17, 1881.

Material examined: A male from the G. Lewis collection, loaned for study

by the British Museum (withdrawn from the type series of S. stmilis Lewis).

While externally similar to the two preceding species, the aedeagus of this

species is asymmetrical and in this respect quite different from either.

Fes. 15,1938 BRIDWELL: SPECULARIUS ERYTHRINAE 69

ENTOMOLOGY.—Specularius erythrinae, a new bruchid affecting

seeds of Erythrina (Coleoptera)... JoHN C. BRIDWELL, U. 8. Na-

tional Museum. (Communicated by C. F. W. Murseseck).

When some future philosopher assembles data for the psychology

of the color red he may well consider the brilliant red flowers and

beans of Erythrina which have attracted the attention of men of all

races. Few plants encountered by visitors in the tropics are so ad-

mired and the literature of botanical exploration is full of tributes to

these glorified bean plants grown large, often of tree size, the leafless

branches adorned with masses of red or near-red flowers. Aztecs,

Negroes, Hindoos, Hawaiians, and Australian blacks have had a

lively interest in the species in their own countries and, finding many

uses for these plants and their products, have distributed some of

them in cultivation far from their original homes. The botanists dis-

tinguish some thirty species of Erythrina. Three of these occur in the

warmer parts of the United States. One, Erythrina herbacea Linnaeus,

is a perennial herb found from North Carolina to Texas, bearing long

racemes of scarlet flowers, each itself two inches long, succeeded by

pods containing brilliant scarlet beans, in form not unlike kidney

beans. Torrey and Gray report, on the authority of Dr. Boykin, that

its irregular branched rootstock is esculent and it is reported that the

roots of some tropical American species are eaten. The flowers and

tender leaves of some species are used as salad or as cooked vegetables.

The flower buds of one species are boiled and eaten with meat. Wilson

Poponoe? found that the large seeds of Erythrina edulis 'Triana form

an important article of food for the Indians of certain mountainous

regions of Colombia and praised the flavor of the dish prepared in

their manner. Most species, however, are reputed to contain danger-

ously poisonous substances in seeds and bark. The seeds of some are

used to poison rodent pests and the bark serves as a fish poison. Poi-

sonous substances have been isolated from some species and named

but this work needs to be repeated with modern methods and their

reputed medicinal properties require investigation for acceptance.

The flowers and bark are said to yield dyes and the bark a useful

fiber. The light, soft, easily-worked wood serves many uses, for tem-

porary posts and firewood, and in making corks, toys, images of

saints, light boxes, lacquer ware, scabbards, shields, wooden dishes,

water troughs and canoes. The Australian blacks dragged the light

1 Received January 5, 1937.

2 Wiuson Poronos, 1923, in Bur. Plant. Ind. Inventory of Seeds and Plants Im-

ported 64: 89-90, no. 51357.

ili

J 1}

‘ D ,

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

unworked logs into the water to use in crossing creeks and rivers. The

branches are usually armed with stout sharp prickles and readily

strike root when thrust into the ground. Hence they are often used

for hedges to protect garden plots. Being legumes with root nodules

supporting nitrogen-fixing bacteria they have soil-improving proper-

ties, discovered long before the reason became apparent. Hence, in

spite of the brittle nature of the branches, which lessens their value,

they have come to be used toaconsiderable extent for shade for coffee,

tea, cacao, and the Areca palm and as support for the vines of the

true pepper. Although generally considered poisonous the seeds are

widely used for necklaces and other ornamental purposes and in chil-

dren’s games and in games of chance by their elders. But, perhaps

more generally than for any other reason, they are grown as orna-

mental trees because most of the human race is fond of the color red.

While working on the biology of Bruchidae in Hawaii I encountered

two species of Hrythrina. One is a native species not found elsewhere,

the wili- wili tree, Erythrina monosperma Gaudichaud. This tree is

often frequented by Caryedon fuscus (Goeze), formerly called Caryo-

borus gonagra (Fabricius), many adult beetles hiding by day in the

partially opened pods. I have seen hundreds of eggs laid upon the

seeds but not one larva was able to develop within them. The Indian

coral-tree, Erythrina variegata Stickman, formerly known as E. indica

Lamarck, is a common ornamental tree and its seeds were obtained in

quantity for experiment. Most of the species of Bruchidae available

deposited their eggs upon the seeds in confinement but none could

develop within them, as was anticipated in both cases because of the

reputed poisonous nature of the seeds.

In September 1920, W. 8S. Fisher, our well known specialist in

Buprestidae and Cerambycidae, was serving temporarily as inspec-

tor for the Federal Horticultural Board and intercepted the first

examples of a bruchid affecting the seeds of an EHrythrina. This was

an undetermined species collected by Dr. H. L. Shantz, of the Bureau

of Plant Industry with the Smithsonian Expedition at Chuka, Kenia

Province, under the equator far in the interior of British East Africa.

This insect could not then (or now) be referred to any described

genus or species and is described here as Specularius erythrinae, in

allusion to the mirror-like area on the pygidium and to the host-

plant in the seeds of which it develops.

While in India I was surprised to find the same species in December

1924 affecting the seeds of Hrythrina variegata in the suburbs of Bom-

bay on the island of Salsette and learned something of its habits. It

Fes. 15, 1938 BRIDWELL: SPECULARIUS ERYTHRINAE (Al

was also found in Savantvadi State, some fifteen miles inland from

the port of Vengurla in British India along the heavily traveled high-

way leading up to Belgaum in the interior; and at Mormugao Harbor

in Goa, Portuguese India, a few miles away; and again down the coast

at Mangalore, a port of British India. Upon returning to America in

1927 I found in the National Museum one lot of the species intercepted

in the seeds of HL. abyssinica Lamarck (E. tomentosa R. Brown) from

Amani, Tanga, Tanganyika Territory, and another taken from the

seeds of an undetermined Hrythrina at Sabang, Pulu We Island, on the

north coast of Sumatra, by David Fairchild and P. H. Dorsett of the

Bureau of Plant Industry, while accompanying the Allison V. Armour

expedition into that region. Subsequently the species has been inter-

cepted by inspectors of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quar-

antine, mostly in the seeds of Erythrina abyssinica from various east

and south African localities. I know of no records of the seeds of

Erythrina being attacked by other Bruchidae or by this species in

Australasia or America, nor has this species been known to attack

other legumes.”#

Specularius, n. gen.

The most conspicuous character of Specularius is the dark brown, gla-

brous, highly polished, mirror-like, circular area, occupying the greater part

of the plane, sub-vertical pygidium in both sexes, elsewhere found only in

the Brazilian Gibbobruchus speculifer (Gyllenhal), another member of the

Bruchidae, Bruchinae, believed to be not closely allied to Specularius.

Type of the genus, Specularius erythrinae, n. sp.

Specularius erythrinae, n. sp.

Brownish-red with suffused darker, or piceous-black, areas on the head

antennae, pronotum, elytra, breast, hind coxae, femora beneath, some of

the sternites, and pygidium; densely pubescent with coarse appressed hairs

(often abraded) concealing the sculpture except for naked or partly naked

areas on elytra, hind coxae, and pygidium; this pubescence is tawny, vary-

ing to whitish in maculate areas, and darker (blackish) on the darker ele-

vated areas of pronotum and elytra; with large coarse punctures and coarse

micro-sculpture, very irregularly disposed.

Head short with short malar space; eyes moderately granulate, strongly

convex and strongly projecting, emarginate for about two thirds of their

length; front strongly carinate, separating the eyes at the clypeus by a little

more than the width of their upper lobe; temples abruptly declivous to the

contraction; antennae about half as long as the body, a little stouter and

more expanded in the male, pubescent, compressed, expanded and serrate,

22 Note added in proof: Since this paper was written a brief note has appeared in

Proc. Hawaiian Ent. Soc. 9: 368, 1937, saying: ‘‘Mr. D. T. Fullaway mentioned having

reared ... Bruchus pruininus from Erythrina seeds from the Waianae Mts.” It may be

that these beetles were hidden in the pods. My experience with B. pruininus would lead

me to doubt its being able to develop in Erythrina seeds.

== ~— = —= = = = - =

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 2

beginning with the 5th joint; lst and 4th joints subequal in length and

breadth; 2nd and 3rd joints shorter, similar to each other, about as long as

broad; 5th broader than 4th, its apical angle a little produced; 6th—10th

similar to each other, narrowed to base, the inner angle strongly produced,

these joints about as long as broad; 11th narrowly ovate, subacute at apex.

Pronotum conical, its sides nearly straight, converging anteriorly to a

little more than one third of basal width, with very uneven surface, with a

median longitudinal elevation obsolescent in the middle and not strong

anteriorly, divided by a median longitudinal sulcus strong on the basal lobe,

obsolete in the middle, visible anteriorly, together forming four elevations of

which the basal pair are much stronger, outside these in the middle sepa-

rated from the basal pair by a depression is another similar elevation on

either side; lateral lobes strongly depressed; flanks narrow, vertical, not

separated from the dorsum; lateral margin represented by a feeble vestigial

carina above the coxa, seen with difficulty when denuded of pubescence;

cephalic foramen of prothorax strongly inclined backward below; prosternum

a little less inclined, triangular, separating the coxae for two thirds their

length; mesosternum truncate at apex, descending below prosternum about

as far as its length, overlapping the metasternum obliquely; mesepimeron

subtriangular, somewhat acuminate along the meso-metapleural suture, end-

ing remote from the coxal cavity; scutellum small, longer than broad,

emarginate and bidentate at apex; elytra broader than pronotum basally,

broader in the middle, together somewhat longer than broad, separately

broadly rounded at apex and serrulate near the suture, depressed along the

suture, striae 2, 4, 6, and 8 slightly interruptedly elevated, the elevations

accentuated by the pubescence which is blackish on the elevations, an area

on the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th intervals? within and behind the humeral calli is

most strongly elevated (8rd interval depressed between the strong elevations

of 2nd and 4th intervals); striae strongly impressed with strongly impressed

punctures; intervals without punctures, more or less transversely rugulose

and flat except for the elevations of the alternate intervals (which with the

humeral calli are evenly transversely finely ridged); sutural margin in the

middle some distance behind the scutellum dark with dark pubescence;

denuded elytron irregularly checkered with reddish and blackish, all in-

tervals, margins and the apex bearing some dark markings; 10th stria ab-

breviate at about the apical third; 4th and 5th striae abbreviate at apex;

2nd, 5th, 6th and 10th striae extending nearer the base than the others;

base without tubercles or denticles.

Front and middle legs without special structures of note; hind coxa about

as broad as the two sternites next behind it, slightly broader than the femur,

with rather coarse piliferous punctures denser in the middle, lateral fourth

more densely pubescent, hind margin naked, a narrow densely punctate

and pubescent band just before the hind margin extending far toward the

insertion of trochanter; hind femur compressed nearly straight beneath for

most of its length, gradually arcuately widened above to beyond the middle,

then more suddenly narrowed to apex; ventral edge flattened, inner and

outer margins of ventral surface subcarinate apically, inner ventral margin

emarginate and armed before the emargination with a strong acute suberect

tooth and beyond it with one or two small denticles, and before it with one

or two feeble serrulations, outer ventral margin with a small rounded con-

’ The intervals are numbered here from the striae outside which they lie beginning

with the stria nearest the suture as stria 1, hence there are nine intervals and sutural

and lateral margins on each elytron.

Fes. 15, 1938 BRIDWELL: SPECULARIUS ERYTHRINAE 73

dylar lamina, emarginate before the lamina and subangulate before the

emargination; flexed tibia resting between this subangulate process and the

great tooth of the inner margin; tibia nearly straight, dorsoventrally widened

at apex to about three times its basal width, bearing at apex a strong pror-

rect acute mucro, nearly as long as breadth of tibia, a shorter triangular

lateral tooth, and three small subequal subdorsal teeth; outer face with a

ventral longitudinal carina, a less elevated intermediate carina obsolescent

at apex where it approaches the base of the mucro and a strong lateral

longitudinal carina ending in the lateral tooth; basitarsus more than half

as long as tibia, gently arched in the middle, produced into a tooth at apex

beneath, with a longitudinal carina on outer and inner faces and a single

ventral longitudinal carina; second tarsal joint longer than broad, not ex-

panded apically, feebly longitudinally carinate and produced at apex be-

neath; lobes of third joint feeble, not expanded; ungues appendiculate.

Abdomen shorter than the breast, not attaining the apex of elytra or of

hind femora, three intermediate sternites subequal, each shorter than the

first sternite behind the coxa and longer than the fifth in the male, shorter in

female; pygidium flat nearly vertical, broadly triangular, bearing on the

dise a large polished, reflecting area surrounded by a border of whitish pubes-

cence concealing the surface; this area is dark brown with some irregularly

disposed, strongly impressed punctures arranged in a marginal series with

others scattered within; male pygidium slightly reflexed at apex and sub-

truncate, with another tergite visible between pygidium and narrowed fifth

sternite.

Length from anterior margin of pronotum to apex of elytron 2.6-4 mm;

width 1.75-2.8 mm.

Described from a type series in the United States National Museum of

52 9s and 33 o's, with accompanying material showing eggs, pupae, work

in host seeds, and dissections. Type no. 52331 U.S.N.M.

Type locality: Amani, Tanga, Tanganyika Territory, East Africa, type

male, allotype female and two female paratypes labelled ‘““Amani, Tanga,

East Africa on Erythrina tomentosa F.H.B. 89143 March 31, ’25.”

Additional localities and material as follows:

Arrica: Chuka, Kenia Province, Kenia, 3 9s, 1 o, and 3 seeds of host

plant labelled as from Nairobi intercepted by W. 8. Fisher F.H.B. 37623

(Cf. Inventory 65: 33, 34 no. 51637. From seeds of Erythrina sp. collected

by H. L. Shantz, June 16, 1920). Amani, (2nd lot), 3 Qs, 2 o's, 3 seeds of

host plant labelled ‘‘Seed of Erythrina tomentosa, 12.X.’28, H. Y. Gouldman,

P. Q. & C. A. 7581.” South Africa, 5 9s, 3 os, 3 seeds of host plant

labelled “Ex Erythrina from So. Africa, San Francisco, Cal. Jul. 1, ’29 G.

Wilson.” Natal, 2 9s, 1 o& labelled ‘Natal, South Africa Sept. ’36 coll.

R.H.Smith host Erythrina abys[s]yni[cla.’’ Rhodesia,3 9s, 2 seeds of host

plant [Erythrina sp.| labelled ‘‘Wilmore Kentucky Nov. 12, 1937 ex beans

from Rhodesia, 8. Africa.”’ (One additional female paratype and one seed

of host plat were returned to the sender, Lee H. Townsend, University of

Kentucky.)

Inp1a: Goregaum, Bombay Salsette, 12 2s, 9 o's, 10 fragmentary adults

and dissections from them, 5 cocoons containing adults, 2 empty cocoons, 4

pupae, 9 seeds of host plant (Hrythrina variegata, labelled E. indica, Dec.

1924). Borivli, Bombay Salsette, 12 Qs, 8 o's Jan. 1925. Savantvadi

State, 5 Qs, 5 o's, bred from Erythrina variegata, labelled E. indica April,

1926. Mormugao Harbor, Goa, Portuguese India, 1 © coll. Sept. 725.

Mangalore, 1 2 coll. Jan.’27. All these bred or collected by J. C. Bridwell.

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 2

SuMATRA; Sabang, Pulu We Island, 2 9s, 1 o@ labelled ‘Sumatra D. Fair-

child D.F. 431 (Cf. Inventory 87: 22. Obtained by David Fairchild and

P.H. Dorsett. S.P.I. no. 67182. Erythrina sp. No. 431. February 17,1926).”

Dark pubescent spots on the pygidium are not unusual in Bruchidae and

glabrous polished areas occur in groups of the Bruchinae otherwise unlike.

Such an area occurs upon the pygidium of the female of Bruchidius stierlina

(Allard), (affecting Scorpiurus compressus Linnaeus in the Mediterranean

Region), which has been absurdly considered a variety of Bruchidius semi-

narius (Linnaeus). But in this species the area is convex and the pygidium

oblique and the insect is otherwise quite unlike Specularius. In some Ameri-

can Bruchinae affecting seeds of Bauhinia and Cercis perhaps referable to

Gibbobruchus Pic, polished glabrous areas are found on the female pygidium.

Our Gibbobruchus mimus (Say) breeding in the seeds of Cercis canadensis

Linnaeus has a cordate glabrous polished area on the female pygidium but

this is convex and oblique and femoral characters forbid association with

Specularius. These femoral characters are found also in Gibbobruchus specu-

lifer (Gyllenhal) in which the pygidium is much more like that of Specularzus

and the mirror-like area is present in both sexes. The similarity of structure

of hind legs, scutellum and antennae leads me to place these American forms

in Gibbobruchus. The strongly elevated pronotum which Pic used as the

principal character for his group does not run through the genus and in two

undescribed species which certainly belong with mzmus, and probably with

speculifer, the median longitudinal elevation is so reduced as to be almost

imperceptible. In all the species which I should place in Gibbobruchus the

scutellum is transverse (emarginate and bidentate at apex) and thus unlike

the oblong scutellum of Specularius. The hind femur expands above and be-

low in similar even opposed curves to the middle and similarly narrows to

apex. The flexed tibia is received in a groove on the ventral edge of the

femur. The outer margin of this groove is armed with a long series of dentic-

ulations or serrulations and the inner margin bears near apex a stout tooth

and a series of three or more strong acute denticles beyond it, quite unlike

the one or two feeble denticles in the same position in Specularius. The tibia

is more slender and arcuate and lacks the lateral tooth at appex; the inter-

mediate longitudinal carina is more strongly developed so that the tibia is

distinctly suleate beneath with the inner or ventral carina somewhat more

elevated than the outer or intermediate. The basitarsus 1s not produced into

a tooth at apex beneath. In none of them can the antennae ee said to re-

semble those of Specularius.

I have thus particularly compared Specularius with Gibbobruchus since

the differences found seem to remove any probability of an American origin

for this genus of uncertain nativity. I believe the genus originated in the

interior of Africa and was taken to India and Sumatra by inhabitants of

India who were employed in Africa and carried back with them the brilliant

scarlet seeds of Hrythrina abyssinica or other species containing the larvae

of Specularius.

Fes. 15, 1938 BRIDWELL: SPECULARIUS ERYTHRINAE 75

If Specularius is of African origin and not closely allied to Gibbobruchus,

its kin must be sought among Old World Bruchidae without the peculiar

pygidial mirror. Pic has established a genus Callosobruchus of which Cur-

culio chinensis Linnaeus 1758 (= Bruchus scutellaris Fabricius 1792 = Bruchus

pecti{ni|cornis Linnaeus 1767) is the genotype. The callus of the basal lobe

of the pronotum was considered by Pic as its distinguishing character but

this is found in other genera and is not found in some species which must be

placed near chinensis because of other characters. As understood by me the

genus is represented by many species in the Old World tropics, Africa,

southern Asia, and Malaysia. Three of these have been widely distributed

in commerce and established in many countries where their favored host

plants are grown. These are C. chinensis, C. maculatus (Fabricius 1775)

(=quadrimaculatus Fabricius 1792) and C. phaseoli (Gyllenhal 1833), all

affecting food legumes of Old World origin. Also affecting Old World food

legumes but not yet, apparently, established in the Americas are the im-

portant economic species C’.. analis (Fabricius 1781), C. theobromae (Linnaeus

1767), C. subinnotatus (Pic 1914) and other species of still undetermined

status. One somewhat aberrant species, C. ademptus (Sharp 1886) extends

out of the tropics into temperate northeastern Asia affecting the kudzu,

Pueraria thunbergiana Bentham. Another extra-tropical species, C. spiniger

(Baudi 1886) is found in Asia Minor and the Hastern Mediterranean Islands,

its food plant still unknown. Besides these, numerous species attached to

non-economic leguminous host plants are found in tropical Africa, Asia and

Malaysia. All these agree in having the hind femur armed beneath near apex

within and without witha strong tooth. In ademptus only is the outer tooth

so reduced as to suggest comparison with the slight subangulate process in

the same position in Specularzus. None of them have any trace of denticles

beyond the tooth on the inner margin. In all the basitarsus resembles that

of Specularius but the ventral carina is double with a narrow sulcus separat-

ing the carinae. The mesepimeron is more acuminate along the pleural su-

ture, reaching nearly or quite to the trochantin extension of the mesocoxal

cavity and in none of them are the irregularities of the pronotum so fully

developed. The elytra lack the irregularities of surface in Specularius, the

tenth stria is less abbreviate and striae 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 extend evenly to the

base of the elytron. All the species have stronger sex dimorphism than found

in Specularius, the sexes differing in coloration of elytra and pygidium, in

antennal structure, and in form and inclination of pygidium and fifth stern-

ite. Hence it seems to me that Specularius must be considered closely allied

to Callosobruchus but sufficiently unlike to be excluded from the genus.

The pods of the species of Hrythrina remain for a long time attached

to the trees and are only very tardily dehiscent. Being very brittle

they become broken by the whipping of the branches in the wind and

the seeds become exposed and fall to the ground as the pods open

—

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 2

partially or are broken. It is not until the seeds are exposed that ovi-

position by Specularius takes place and the eggs are laid scattered

on the seeds. The eggs resemble those of Callosobruchus maculatus be-

ing long ellipsoidal and firmly cemented to the seed. The contraction

of the cement substance in hardening flattens the egg to an ovate out-

line with one pole elevated into a peak near one end. The larva enters

the seed directly from the egg and develops within the cotyledon,

preparing, when full grown, a strong cocoon attached to a window of

the seed coat ready to be cut by the adult and pushed loose as a per-

fect disc when the adult emerges. In the smaller seed of EH. abyssinica

from one to three adults can develop while in the larger seed of E.

variegata more than a dozen exit holes have been found. The seeds

may be reinfested until the entire contents is destroyed. The tardy

attack of Specularzus upon the seeds of Erythrina makes it a simple

matter to secure uninfested seeds for propagation if the pods are

gathered promptly when they become ripe before the seeds are ex-

posed.

However poisonous the seeds of Erythrina may be shown to be on

further investigation there is nothing surprising in finding a bruchid

adapting itself to feeding in poisonous seeds. Bruchidius villosus

(Fabricius) is not deterred from destroying the seeds of Cytzsus sco-

parius by the toxic alkaloid contained in them; the toxalbumen in

the seeds of Abrus precatorius does not render them unsuitable for

food for the larvae of Caryopemon cruciger (Stephens) in Africa and

C’. lhoster Pic in Ceylon. The rotenone in seeds of Cracca virginiana

has no ill effect upon the larva of Acanthoscelides obsoletus (Say) and

Trelease and Trelease* have recently shown that concentrations of

selenium in the seeds of Astragalus lethal to vertebrate animals may

be endured by Acanthoscelides fraterculus (Horn).

4Sam F. and Heten M. TrELEASE, 1937, Science 85: 590; and Amer. Jour. Bot.

24: 448-451, f. 1-4.

Hy ital

IA! We

ality I

CONTENTS

Page

PALEONTOLOGY.—Fossil peccary remains from the upper Pliocene of “

Idaho, °C. ‘aewas GAIN. (0.0). eg ea 4)

PaLEONTOLOGY.—An alcyonarian from the Eocene of Mississippi.

StpNEY J. HICKSON oe ea 49

Botany.—New grasses from Oregon. AGNES CHASE........... eine

BoTaNy.—Some new snow algae from North America. ErzstBetT

1 Gas Sp CANE USP UINe Ra Pona Un timer fos sy OS iC A oe Bee See Es Rr

PALEOBOTANY.—Pleistocene fossils from Westmoreland County,

Virginia. .Epwarp W. Berry )o). oo ae 58

ZooLtocy.—A new crawfish from Florida. Horton H.Hopsps,Jr.... 61

Entomo.togy.—Three Japanese beetles of the genus Serica Macleay.

EDWARD Av CHAPIN oe OPS iS Ge ee ed aera ce 66

ENTOMOLOGY.—Specularius erythrinae, a new bruchid affecting seeds

of Erythrina (Coleoptera). JoHN C. BRIDWELL..:...... Nt

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

a ool 34 Nae is iT

3 ef iV] f mu We vay

Mimo 48. 19S No.3 42 aa

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 28 Marc# 15, 1938 No. 3

PHYSICS.—The skeptical physicist! Paunt R. Heyu, National

Bureau of Standards.

Those of you who are acquainted with the history of science will

recognize the source whence I have plagiarized the title of this ad-

dress. In the middle of the 17th century the young science of chemis-

try was in a state which troubled the conscience of the Honorable

Robert Boyle, whose interest in this science was life-long. There was

a theory widely held at that time that all substances were composed of

three primary principles—salt, sulphur and mercury. In “The Sceptical

Chymist,’’ published in 1661, Boyle combated this idea, criticizing

the experiments upon which it was based, and pointing out among

other things the difference between mixtures and compounds. Modern

chemistry owes much to the pioneer work of Boyle, and his merits

were not unappreciated by his contemporaries, who dubbed him ‘“‘the

father of chemistry and the brother of the Earl of Cork.”

The term “‘skeptical”’ has an etymology from which its present-day

meaning has widely departed. The Greeks applied the adjective

oKxerTuKos to a person who gave thoughtful consideration to matters

which called for action or decision. The antithesis of such a skeptic

was the person who acted on impulse or emotion. Perhaps because the

judgment of the skeptic was so often adverse, he gradually became

recognized as a chronic doubter or even as an iconoclast. It is possible,

however, that these adverse opinions may have been due in many

cases not to original sin in the skeptic, but to essential unsoundness

in the subjects that he was called on to consider.

I like to think that Boyle used the term ‘‘skeptical’’ in its original

sense, and in that sense I may be permitted to use it in the present

discussion. It is as true now as when Victor Cousin said it, nearly a

century ago, that “‘la critique est la vie de la science,” and the history

of science shows that situations arise at frequent intervals where the

application of this principle is called for. When criticism is stifled,

science is dead.

1 Address before the Philosophical Society of Washington on December 18, 1937»

Received January 12, 1938.

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

One of these situations confronts us at the present time, and has

called forth a protest from a skeptical physicist to which scientific

men of all households of faith may well give attention, for though it

is the science of physics that is immediately concerned, the situation

involves the fundamental question of the attitude of the scientific

man toward Nature.

I refer to Dr. Herbert Dingle and his article on ‘‘Modern Aristo-

telianism’’ which appears in Nature, May 8, 1937. The replies, pro and

con, to this article were so numerous and extensive that it was neces-

sary to devote an entire supplement of Nature to them (June 12,

1937). It will, I think, be interesting and profitable to give a resumé

of Dingle’s article and of some of the replies to it.

Dingle’s article may appear to have been inspired by published

statements by Eddington and Milne, but between the lines there are

some of us who can read sympathetically the stery of a slowly growing

skepticism which has finally burst all bounds.

The term ‘‘Aristotelianism,’’ as Dingle uses it, does not refer so

much to the doings and thinkings of Aristotle himself as to the habit

of mind and the outlook upon Nature of the medieval scholars who

acknowledged the great Stagirite as their master. Orthodox science

since Galileo’s day has held that the first step in the study of Nature

is the observation of phenomena, from which we may pass by induc-

tion to the derivation of general principles. The “Aristotelianism”’ to

which Dingle refers, and which dominated the scholastic thought of

the western world up to the 17th century, was the doctrine that there

are general principles known a priori to the human mind apart from

observation or sense perception.

For instance, Aristotle reasoned that a heavy body must fall more

rapidly than a lighter one, and this a priori principle was accepted

and believed by the Aristotelians for 2000 years, until it was shown

by experiment and observation that such was not the fact. As Emer-

son says, ““Things are in the saddle, and ride mankind.”’

For three centuries this Aristotelian view of Nature has been re-

garded, at least by scientific men, as dead. It is therefore, as Dingle

says, no light matter when we find in our own day a revival of Aristo-

telianism in the front ranks of science itself. As ground for this serious

charge Dingle quotes statements by Eddington and by Milne.

Eddington? says, ‘‘There is nothing in the whole system of laws of

physics that cannot be deduced unambiguously from epistemological

2 “Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons,” p. 327.

Mar. 15, 1938 HEYL: SKEPTICAL PHYSICIST 79

considerations. An intelligence unacquainted with our universe, but

acquainted with the system of thought by which the human mind

interprets to itself the content of its sensory experience, should be able

to attain all the knowledge of physics that we have attained by experi-

ment.”’

Milne? is somewhat more restrained and conservative when he

says, ‘‘It is, in fact, possible to derive the laws of dynamics rationally

.. without recourse to experience.”’

Statements like these, coming from leaders in science, are indeed

serious, and it will be interesting to see what their authors have to

say in their own defense.

Eddington stands by his guns, remarking that the passage cited

by Dingle has been likewise quoted “‘without its safeguards” by al-

most all the reviewers of his book. And what are these safeguards?

Eddington makes it clear that the quoted passage must not be inter-

preted as the a priorz basis of his philosophy, but is the unexpected

conclusion at which he has arrived as the result of his investigations.

And what are these investigations?

Some years ago Eddington, by an abstruse mathematical discussion

which he states did not involve any observational measurements,

. arrived at a figure for the mass-ratio of the proton and electron which

was quite close to the accepted experimental results. Still later he

calculated by relativistic-wave-mechanics method that the total num-

ber of elementary particles in the universe is 2 X 136 X 2°. This result

still awaits experimental check.

‘After a rather extensive series of researches,” says Eddington in

his reply to Dingle, “I have found that a great part of the current

scheme of physics is deducible by a priori argument.’’ But he goes on

to admit that “since we can have no a priort knowledge of an objec-

tive universe such results do not constitute knowledge of an objective

universe.” Just what they do constitute he does not make clear.

Milne, in his defense, takes much the same position as Eddington.

Dingle’s criticism of Milne was directed in part against his doctrine

of “kinematical relativity,’’ which is a study of the consequences of

the assumption that the universe is, on the average, homogeneous

both in distribution and motion. In developing the consequences of

this assumption Milne endeavored to avoid any empirical appeal, and

_ to develop the physics of the universe after the manner of a logical

geometry based upon axioms or space-definitions. In carrying out

3 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 158, 329; 1937.

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

this development Milne appears to have made the same discovery as

Eddington. Milne remarks that it is an astonishing thing to find that

the elimination of empirical appeal, including all appeals to quantita-

tive laws of physics, can be carried as far as it can; and that with the

elimination of such empirical appeals regularities emerge which play

the part of the very laws of Nature which are observed to hold good.

Milne admits that his resulting logical structure may not corre-

spond to Nature any more than do the various hypergeometries that

have been invented, but says that just as results of value have fol-

lowed from the development of such non-realizable abstractions as a

four-dimensional cube, so it may be valuable to construct an abstract

physics for its own sake.

This is a reasonable defense. As long as the limits of such investiga-

tions are clearly recognized, and they are held strictly within these

limits, they may be as valuable and stimulating as any other scientific

speculations. But the essence of Dingle’s criticism is that this line of

action can be carried to such excess and be given such a color as to

deceive the very elect. When those to whom we look for scientific

leadership can say, in effect, ‘“Don’t experiment; calculate! It is

easier, cheaper, more exciting and productive of results,” then science

is on its way back to the Aristotelianism of the Middle Ages.

The ability of a theory to calculate and predict phenomena is an

asset of undoubted importance, but it is not enough, and must not be

over-rated. A modern instance of this is Bohr’s theory of atomic

structure. The flexibility and accuracy with which the Bohr atom

adjusted itself to the manifold conditions required by the periodic

law of the elements were remarkable. The Bohr theory moved along

with regular steps, dropping the right element into each empty com-

partment provided by the periodic law. When it came to the rare

earths the theory halted for a moment, dropped exactly the right

number of elements all into the same compartment, and then resumed

its measured tread, dropping one element at each step until all were

_ put in their proper places. No wonder that Whetham characterized

this behavior as “‘satanic.’”’ Yet with all this to its credit the Bohr

atom, because of its failure to meet three requirements, had to give

place to a still more adaptable theory as soon as one could be found.

The theory of relativity is in a similar position today. It has done

much; it has explained one astronomical puzzle for which the New-

tonian law of gravitation was inadequate; it has predicted two other

physical phenomena whose existence has been experimentally veri-

fied; but when it comes to such a simple matter as centrifugal force,

Mar. 15, 1938 HEYL: SKEPTICAL PHYSICIST 81

then, as Eddington himself says, the theory stops explaining phe-

nomena and begins explaining them away. The theory of relativity

holds its own today only because no one has as yet been able to devise

a better.

The failure of a theory for reasons of this character need reflect no

discredit upon its author. We can still admire a theory which has

marked a step in progress, which has been able to cut a little more

closely to the line than any which preceded it, even though it be soon

superseded by a better. But some theoretical researches in modern

physics fall into a different category, and tend to make the skeptical

physicist a little more skeptical.

These researches are for most of us difficult reading. Perhaps this is

unavoidable, considering the nature of the subject. We of the rank

and file must frequently take the results of our leaders on faith; and

unfortunately we sometimes find in those portions which we can

understand that which seriously shakes our confidence in the parts

that we cannot follow. When, for example, Eddington‘ says that the

mass of the sun is 1.47 kilometers, and repeats this in the second edi-

tion of his book, and when Minkowski> points with pride to what he

calls “‘the mystic formula”’

3x 10° km = V —1 see,

and when it requires no knowledge of the calculus of tensors to see

what the trouble is, the only conclusion possible is that the fundamen-

tal principles of mathematics and physics are like the laws of whist—

for beginners to observe and for masters to disregard.

Minkowski’s memoir on “Space and Time,” in which this “mystic

formula” occurs, has long enjoyed the reputation of a classic. It ante-

dates Einstein’s general theory of relativity by seven years, and in his

paper of 1915 Einstein acknowledges his debt to Minkowski. Min-

kowski’s memoir contains the concepts of the four-dimensional space-

time continuum, of world lines and of space-like and time-like vectors

upon which basis has been erected a vast structure of relativistic

cosmology. With this ‘‘mystic formula”’ staring us in the face it will

be interesting to examine the philosophical basis of Minkowski’s

theory.

The fundamental idea of the memoir is that time in some way bears

4 Report on the Relativity Theory of Gravitation, second edition, 1920, p. 50.

5 “Raum und Zeit,” an address before the German Convention of Natural Scientists

and Physicians, Cologne, Sept. 21, 1908. Phys. Zeitschrift, Vol. X, p. 104, 1900. Eng-

lish translation in ‘‘The Principle of Relativity; memoirs by Lorentz, Einstein, Min-

kowski and Weyl,’’ New York, Dodd, Mead and Co., 1923.

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

a fourth-dimensional relation to our solid space. Now, of course, time

has not the dimensions of a length, but if we multiply it by a velocity

that defect disappears. Minkowski multiples the time ¢ by the velocity

of light c, thus obtaining the length cf which may be used as a fourth

dimension. Unfortunately, it happens that an important equation

resulting from this hypothesis is not symmetrical.

Now every mathematician has in him something of the artist; an

eye for symmetry, for beauty of results and for elegance in the

methods used in obtaining them. An unsymmetrical equation offends

the artistic sense; in addition, it is scientifically undesirable, as results

cannot be obtained from it as readily as from a symmetrical form.

And here Minkowski had a brilliant idea. If we multiply the fourth

dimension ct by ./—1 the unsymmetrical equation becomes sym-

metrical.

Of course this gives us a set of four axes, three of which are real

and one imaginary, but any difficulty attaching to this detail is soon

forgotten in the dazzling light of the brilliant results that begin to

appear. For example, referred to our new coordinates, the compli-

cated Lorentz transformation appears as a mere rotation of the axes

—which, however, involves the turning of the imaginary axis through

an imaginary angle. Whether this makes the Lorentz transformation

any more comprehensible is a question—which the artist-mathemati-

cian answers in the affirmative.

\/ —1 has a legitimate application in pure mathematics, where it

forms a part of various ingenious devices for handling otherwise in-

tractable situations. It has also a limited value in mathematical

physics, as in the theory of fluid motion, but here also only as an

essential cog in a mathematical device. In these legitimate cases, hav-

ing done its work it retires gracefully from the scene; but to make an

imaginary quantity a permanent foundation stone for a physical

hypothesis is, as they say in Ireland, a white horse of another color.

There is no denying the potency of \/ —1 as a useful tool. As an

illustration, I may point out how it helps us to an interesting little

theory of gravitation. Einstein, in discussing the resemblance between

inertia and gravitation, considers the case of a revolving circular plat-

form. Suppose such a disk large enough to hold an observer, and let

it be covered by a dome so that the observer within cannot tell by

direct observation of outside bodies whether the disk is in motion.

Let the disk be at rest. The observer, in moving from one place to

__ § Minkowski discusses this point very briefly. The complete methematical treatment

is given by Eddington in his ‘“‘Report on the Relativity Theory of Gravitation,’ second

edition, 1920, page 14.

Mar. 15, 1938 HEYL: SKEPTICAL PHYSICIST 83

another in his little world would notice no difference between one

point and any other. Let the disk be now set in rotation. The observer,

unless he stood at the center of the disk, would experience a force

urging him radially outward, and the farther he was from the center

the greater would be this force. He would, in fact, be living in a sort

of turned-inside-out gravitational field.

As a theory of gravitation there are two defects in this. The force

increases with the distance from the center; and it is in the wrong

direction, outward instead of inward. The first of these defects is

quite easy to remedy. We may suppose the speed of rotation of the

disk to be variable, governed either by a mechanical device or by a

watchful engineer so that the speed will increase as the observer ap-

proaches the center, and will diminish as he nears the circumference.

The other defect is not so easy to dispose of. It is obviously useless

to give the disk a negative velocity of rotation, as the centrifugal

force depends on the square of the velocity. But if we multiply the

velocity not by —1 but by \/ —1, the trick is done.

Everybody laughs at this; nobody laughs at Minkowski. Yet I

have done nothing but what Minkowski has done. I have turned my

disk through an imaginary angle; Minkowski turned his axes of co-

ordinates through an imaginary angle. The trouble is that I have

made my illustration so simple that anyone can see through it. Had

I made it as abstruse as Minkowski’s memoir it might have been re-

ceived with equal seriousness. Truly, as Dingle says, the criterion for

distinguishing sense from nonsense has been lost; our minds are ready

to tolerate anything, if it comes from a man of repute and is accom-

panied by an array of symbols in Clarendon type.

And yet we must not be too hard on 1/ —1; it may stand us in good

stead on occasion, as is instanced by a tradition of the National Bu-

reau of Standards.

In the early days of the Bureau, when the staff was smaller, and

there were no official guides, the staff-members took turns in conduct-

ing parties of visitors through the laboratories. On one such occasion

the visitors were shown some liquid air, and they asked, ‘‘What is

this used for?” In those days liquid air had not yet found any prac-

tical application, and was merely a scientific curiosity. The guide,

who tradition says was one of the lady-members of the staff, was

rather non-plussed for the moment, but quickly recovered her pres-

ence of mind, and replied, ‘‘It is used to lubricate the square root of

minus one.”’

I sometimes think Minkowski must have heard that story.

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

CHEMISTRY.—Brochemistry by analogy: the sulfur of cystine.!

Brn H. Nicouet, Bureau of Dairy Industry.

We are, I think, all agreed on the proper way to attack a chemical

problem. One should set up a crucial experiment with the substances

supposed to be concerned, carry the experiment to completion, and

see what happens. But often, particularly in biochemistry, this is

hard to do. It may be necessary to carry out an analogous reaction,

under supposedly more or less analogous conditions. This is known

as a ‘“‘model’’ experiment, though it is very far from being a model

of what one might wish to do. It frequently amounts to thinking what

certain molecules should do, and trying to establish, a bit indirectly,

whether such a reaction is really plausible. I shall talk to you this

evening of ‘“‘model’’ experiments, and I intend to see whether I can

convince you of the value of the conclusions, as yet incompletely con-

firmed, which I shall draw from them.

Cystine (1) and methionine (II) are the two best known amino

acids containing sulfur which go to make up proteins. Both are

readily synthesized by plants, but with regard to animals (ineluding

outselves) both are essential amino acids—or nearly so.

An “‘essential’’ amino acid is one which must be supplied in the

diet if an animal is to live and grow normally. In other words, the

animal body cannot synthesize essential amino acids, or cannot do

so in sufficient quantity. According to the latest data,? animals can

not synthesize methionine under any known conditions. On the other

hand, a cystine deficiency can be corrected either by cystine, methio-

nine, or homocystine (III). It is, accordingly, at least very probable

that animals can synthesize cystine, although only, so far as we yet

know, when methionine or homocystine is fed. The problem tonight

is, how cystine and methionine get their sulfur, and, in part, how they

lose it again.

2(-SCH2CH(NH:2)CO.H) CH;SCH.CH.CH(NH.)CO.H

I Il

2(-SCH2CH2CH(NHz2)CO2H)

There are two syntheses of cystine on record. Erlenmeyer treated

benzoylserine with phosphorus pentasulfide. Emil Fischer converted

serine ester hydrochloride to 6-chloroalanyl ester hydrochloride, and

1 Address of retiring president, Chemical Society of Washington, January 13, 1938.

Received January 28, 1938.

2 Rose, Science 86: 298. 1937.

Mar. 15, 1938 NICOLET: BIOCHEMISTRY 85

then allowed this to react with barium disulfide. Hydrolysis gave

cysteine and cystine, respectively.

P.Ss

<_<; ——> eae eee

NHBz NHBz

12 Cl; BaSe

HOCH.CHCO.Et ——— CICH.CHCO.Et ——-—> 2(-SCH.CHCO2Et)

| |

NH-HCI NH-HCI NH2

Surely neither of these syntheses approaches the possibility of being

a biological synthesis.

A few years ago I talked to you once before*®* about cystine. I

asked you then to recall the reactions of aldol formation and dehydra-

tion, and their reversals. It is particularly necessary to remember that

all these reactions are reversible.

OH, ~ © O O

| | | |

SE oe = CH;CH + CH;CH

CH;CH=CHCH + H.0

I presented to you at that time the idea that the desulfurization of

cystine by alkali was essentially analogous to the dehydration of an

aldol, and should obey the same rules, including reversibility. The

work of Dr. H. T. Clarke® and his students on the hydrolysis of

cystine was entirely in accord with the first part of this notion. It

showed very clearly that the chief direction of cystine decomposition

by alkali led to hydrogen sulfides, ammonia, and pyruvic acid. In the

following equations cysteine is used, for simplicity of presentation,

in place of cystine to show the formal analogy to the aldol reactions

shown above. Under suitable conditions, reactions analogous to most

of these types can be demonstrated.

a a aay 7

CHe-CH-CoOn — Cl. —C¢- CoH ECs

If NY

HS HN O OO

| ee | I

HOCH, + CH,-COH CH;C-COH + NH;

3 Nicolet, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 53: 3066. 1931.

4 Nicolet, J. Biol. Chem. 95: 389. 1932.

® Clarke and others, J. Biol. Chem. 94: 541. 1931. 102: 171. 1933. 106: 667. 1934.

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

At the same time, attention was called to the fact that modification

of the cystine molecule in the direction of peptide formation, or, to

put it more simply, in the direction of combining the carboxyl group

with an amide grouping (as in peptide formation) and the amino

group with an acyl group (which could be an aminoacyl group)

facilitated the removal of hydrogen sulfide (or disulfide) and should

facilitate its addition.

It might be argued that the dehydration of an aldol is a very easily

occurring reaction, and is due to the activating influence of the

aldehyde group. Cystine, on the other hand, offers considerable re-

sistance to alkali; and it is well known that the —CO- grouping

present in carboxyl, retains very little of the typical ‘‘carbonyl”’

properties. It was, however, shown quite definitely at that time that

mercaptans add very readily to a,6-unsaturated ketones, such as

benzalacetone.

PhCH = CHCOCH; + RSH = PhCH(SR)CH.COCH;

These products lose mercaptans with extreme ease. A quite small

fraction of the full ‘‘carbonyl” activity would therefore be sufficient

to account for the results obtained.

You will perhaps not ask me to repeat my earlier talk further. Let

us assume that the reactions eliminating sulfur occur as suggested,

and that they are reversible. The simplest reaction by which cystine

(or cysteine) could be formed, would be the addition of hydrogen

disulfide (or hydrogen sulfide) to a-aminoacrylic acid (IV), which we

may also call dehydroalanine, since it represents the removal of two

hydrogen atoms from alanine.

But we shall not expect to be able to demonstrate this reaction, as

such, for two reasons. Aminoacrylic acid itself is so unstable that it

has never been isolated. And, secondly, we should have much better

hope of success if the carboxyl or amino group, or both, were suitably

modified. What we should prefer would evidently be a peptide (V)

(at least a tripeptide) in which the dehydroalanyl group was not at

either end.

CHe

CH: =C(NH:2)CO.H NH:2CHR’CO-NH-C-CO-NHCHRCO.H

IV V

Such a compound was not itself available. For the tentative test,

a compromise had to be made. The simplest known derivative of

aminoacrylic acid is Bergmann’s acetylaminoacrylic acid (VJ). It

Mar. 15, 1988 NICOLET: BIOCHEMISTRY 87

should not be expected to work very well, but it does work.

Heated for ten hours at 100° with benzyl mercaptan and a little

piperidine as catalyst, it gave a small but definite yield of N-acetyl-

S-benzyleysteine (VII). This was hydrolyzed to S-benzylcysteine

(VIII).

CH.,=CCO.H + PhCH.SH — PhCH.SCH2,CHCO.H

NHAc NHAc

VI VII

PhCH.SCH,CH(NH,)CO;:H HSCH,CH(NH,)CO.H

VIII

Dr. Loring was kind enough to apply to this Dr. du Vigneaud’s

process of reduction by means of sodium in liquid ammonia, for the

removal of the benzyl group from sulfur, and obtained a 93 per cent

yield of cysteine, as shown by the specific Sullivan method.

This is a new synthesis of cysteine, and therefore of cystine. But

certain other requirements must be met if it is to be considered as

even a possible model for a biochemical synthesis of these amino

acids.

Since a dehydroalanyl tripeptide such as V was not available,

benzyl mercaptan was next added to benzoyldehydrophenylalany]l-

glycine ester (IX). The resulting mercapto derivative (X) was formed

some 50 or 100 times more readily, as estimated by the much better

yield obtained in a much shorter time.

PhCH PhCHSCH2Ph

PhCONHCCONHCH,CO2Et PhCONHCHCONHCH,CO2Et

IX x

Now peptides containing alanine are very common. It is extremely

probable that, in their metabolism, they pass, in the presence of

suitable enzymes and of suitable hydrogen acceptors (or oxidizing

agents), through the stage of dehydroalanine derivatives. I have

tried to show elsewhere’ that this dehydrogenation should take place

more readily when the alanine was a component of a peptide chain,

and particularly when it was not terminally located. Thus the most

commonly formed dehydroalanyl derivatives should be just of the

type most suitable for sulfide addition. We have thus acquired,

through model experiments, the basis for a picture of the biological

synthesis of cystine which is at least somewhat credible.

As a sort of parenthesis, it might well be remarked here that a

6 Nicolet, Science 81: 181. 1935.

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL., 28 NO. 3

natural synthesis of serine should be based on just the same organic

intermediates as the cystine synthesis. It is here merely a case of

adding water, instead of sulfide.

Silk proteins contain much more serine than any others. They are

also conspicuously richer in alanine than most other proteins, and

therefore should offer a richer source of dehydroalany] derivatives.

This is not, I think an accident

I should now like to extend the ideas already advanced to the con-

sideration of the biochemical synthesis of methionine. Only plants

can make methionine, for Rose has found it an essential amino acid

for animals.

The logical intermediate for its synthesis appears to be methylene-

pyruvic acid (XI). It is a well known fact that plants have at their

disposal for synthetic purposes formaldehyde and pyruvie acid. The

condensation of these to form methylenepyruvic acid would be most

orthodox. Here again we meet a substance which has never been

isolated, presumably on account of its considerable lability.

This is a hindrance to its use by a chemist, but not to its use by

a plant. Formaldehyde has been condensed with pyruvic acid by

various investigators, and under various conditions. The process has

always gone too far, but in such a way as to indicate that methylene-

pyruvic acid, or possibly hydroxymethylpyruvic acid, which would

perhaps serve equally well, has been an intermediate.

CH20 + CH3;COCO.H = CH:=CHCOCO.H =

SH SCH; SCH; NH;

| |

CH2CH,COCO.H — CH.CH:COCO.H — CH2.CHsCHCO.H

XII XIII

Whether the addition reaction involves methylmercaptan, or hydro-

gen sulfide with subsequent methylation, is not at present con-

sidered. Plants, in contrast to animals, have a conspicuous capacity

for such methylations.

| .Since the desired substance was not available, recourse was had to

another model experiment. Benzalpyruviec acid (XIV) was found to

add mercaptans’ with the greatest ease, under the simplest conditions

possible. With no added catalyst whatever, fairly quantitative addi-

tion was obtained in five minutes at 100°. It is considered that this is

an obviously adequate rate of reaction to justify this stage of the

7 Nicolet, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 57: 1098. 1935.

Mar. 15, 19388 NICOLET: BIOCHEMISTRY 89

synthesis. It was further shown that the products had the structure

indicated, since on oxidation they yielded the known £-sulfones of

6-phenylpropionic acid (XVII).

PhCH =CHCOCO.H = PhCHCH.COCO:H

aha wpe la Doxey’

ay HOE oe

PhCHCH.CCO:H PhCHCH,CO.H

XVI XVII

This was the only really doubtful reaction in the series postulated,

Methylenepyruvic acid is an entirely reasonable product of plant

metabolism, and after the addition of the sulfur in whatever form,

there results an a-keto acid such as, according to Knoop, should be

readily converted to a methionine derivative by standard biological

routines.

The addition products (XV) of benzalpyruviec acid have been made

with benzyl and p-tolyl mercaptans, and with thioacetic acid, and

identified as their oximes (XVI). Addition of hydrogen sulfide also

occurs readily, but no serious attempts have yet been made to isolate

the product.

You are asked to consider the hypothetical methionine synthesis

thus briefly presented, not as a phantasy that begins and ends no-

where, but as a definite and coherent outgrowth of the more definite

results already reported for cystine. It is at least possible that plants

actually do make methionine in some such way.

I now wish to change the subject again, and return to cystine.

There remain to be discussed the questions as to why cystine is not

freely synthesized by animals, and how it may be so synthesized.

Clearly, if we accept the picture offered a few minutes ago, it be-

comes necessary to assume that the whole organic skeleton from

which cystine is produced, exists regularly, and quite as a matter of

routine, in animals as well as in plants. In plants, a ready synthesis of

cystine results. In animals, the synthesis takes place, if at all, to a very

insufficient extent, unless there is fed either methionine or homo-

cystine. And yet, serine is not an essential amino acid. If the theory

is even roughly correct, the difference is simply that the animal body

lacks a suitable source of sulfur. The simplest possible source would

be sulfide or disulfide ion—the time has not come to discuss whether

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

cystine or cysteine is first formed. But sulfides are definitely toxic

to animals, and the animal body has developed rather efficient

mechanisms for preventing their accumulation in any considerable

concentration.

Naturally, one cannot feed inorganic sulfides and expect them to

arrive at the site of synthesis, and with the animal normal. But there

might be some other method by which the necessary sulfur could be

supplied.

As already pointed out, we know two substances which are, up to

the present, unique in being able to supply cystine deficiencies. We do

not actually know that methionine and homocystine replace cystine

by causing cystine formation, but this is certainly much the simplest

assumption. The fact that homocystine is as effective as methionine

encourages the idea that it is an intermediate in the metabolism of

methionine. The further stages in the degradation of homocystine

must be somewhat hypothetical. But Knoop’s well known oxidative

deamination would lead to the a-keto acid. This, according to the

principles already discussed in detail, should yield (see, for instance,

XIJ—XJ) reversibly hydrogen disulfide and methylenepyruvie acid.

It must be recalled that this oxidative deamination should take

place at just the time and place (perhaps the liver) at which the

dehydrogenation of the alanyl peptides is going on, to produce the

intermediates necessary for cystine formation. And here it is assumed

that the cystine formation occurs.

A purely inorganic deficiency would thus have been overcome

through the addition of a rather complex organic compound. The

thesis at this moment is essentially this: that methionine or homo-

cystine can cause the animal body to produce cystine, but without

contributing anything whatever to the organic skeleton of the

resulting cystine.

Dr. Brand,* who has also interested himself in this problem, has

made certain suggestions, some of which he has tested by feeding

experiments. None of the tested compounds have as yet produced

cystine when fed. The most ingenious of his suggestions, to my mind,

is that the intermediate between homocystine and cystine might be

a mixed _ sulfide, HO,CCH(NH.)CH.CH.SCH.CH(NH,.)CO.H

(XVIII). This substance has not yet been synthesized for feeding

experiments, but I shall ask you to note two things about it. It is

possible for it to break down according to a mechanism essentially

like that already suggested, to produce cystine; and in that case the

® Brand, Block, Kassell, and Cahill, Proc. Soc, Exp. Biol. and Med., 35: 501. 1936.

Mar. 15, 1938 NICOLET: BIOCHEMISTRY 91

latter would again have been formed without the contribution of any

carbon atoms from the homocysteine portion. Furthermore, the only

important change required in the reactions already outlined would be

one of order. The sulfur of homocysteine would merely have to be-

come a part of the molecule which was to yield cystine, before the

degradation of the homocysteine, instead of after it.

Unfortunately, I cannot at present offer you any further evidence

as to the course of these reactions. The work has not been completed,

and you must share the responsibility for having made me discuss it

at this stage. The current plan is to label the homocystine chain by

the synthesis of y-methyl or y-phenylhomocystine. If one of these,

when fed, should show the power to make good cystine deficiencies in

a diet, it would be rather clear that its carbon skeleton was not being

used for the synthesis.

Dr. du Vigneaud has imagined a mechanism by which three carbon

atoms of the chain in homocystine would be retained in the cystine

produced. We are in most friendly disagreement, to the extent that

I consider his mechanism for this particular reaction as possible

rather than probable. He would perhaps make a similar statement

about mine.

He is now engaged in a subtler attack on this problem, which in-

volves labeling the homocystine or methionine to be fed, not with

methyl or phenyl groups, but with strategically located atoms of

deuterium. Neither of us would really ask for anything better than

to have the question definitely settled, by whatever process, and with

whatever result.

Exactly how this information, when obtained, may be applied to

the economic supplementing of deficient diets, is by no means clear.

On the other hand, such a possibility exists, and there is also the

chance of developing new tools for the study of metabolism.

With the background which I have laid, I should like to shift the

field of discussion once more. Dr. Csonka® has somewhat recently

made a very interesting generalization with regard to the behavior of

the various amino acids occurring in proteins, when fed to animals

which have been treated with phloridzin. He suggests the rule that

those amino acids which are freely produced by animals, cause sugar

formation under these conditions. On the other hand, ‘“‘essential’’

amino acids, which animals are apparently unable to synthesize, or to

synthesize in adequate amount, should not cause sugar formation.

aoe Csonka (unpublished); presented at Am. Soc. Biol. Chem., Washington, April

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

Rather generally, the results of experiment fit the prescribed pat-

tern. But cystine and methionine blur the picture somewhat. Both

produce sugar. Now methionine is rather definitely, by present data,

essential. Cystine I have already spoken of as “nearly essential,”’ for

reasons I have given, though Dr. Csonka prefers to call it non-

essential, for reasons with which I cannot very fully agree.

The logic behind this generalization of Dr. Csonka’s is, it seems to

me, this. If a given amino acid, in the course of its biological break-

down, produces any essential substance in the chain of reactions by

which the body normally breaks down and builds up sugars, it will,

in phloridzinized animals, cause sugar production. :

If one assumes, not unreasonably (although the logical necessity is

not entirely complete), that most or all of these reactions are bio-

logically reversible, then the odds are very good that, if a given amino

acid produces sugar under these circumstances, the normal metab-

olism of sugar will produce also the organic intermediates required

to allow the body to produce the amino acid in question. Stated thus,

the principle has a simple basis, and we should expect it to be moder-

ately general, as indeed it appears to be.

But there is no reason at all why it should be completely general.

To my notion, one might well expect a limited number of exceptions.

These would become, not arguments against the generalization, but

simply challenges to explain why the observed variation exists.

Our earlier discussion of mechanisms of formation of cystine and

methionine has already made clear a possible explanation of these

two exceptions—the sulfur fragment required for synthesis. In the

case of methionine there is an additional point involved, but there is

not time to discuss it here. I think I should personally have had

definite cause to worry, if these two acids, specifically, had not been

sugar formers.

These exceptions, if we assume them to be thus explained or an

occasional additional exception, may perhaps add to the value of

Dr. Csonka’s rule as much as they detract from it. While the rule will

have to be used somewhat tentatively in deciding whether a given

amino acid is or is not “‘essential,’’ the exceptions themselves may

occasionally help to decide among various mechanisms assumed for

the synthesis, by animals, of various amino acids.

If you now have the impression that I have discussed the problems

of cystine sulfur exhaustingly, you may be right. But if you think I

have considered them exhaustively, you are altogether wrong. There

is, Just for instance, the theory of Schéberl, buttressed by a certain

Marz. 15, 1938 MANSFIELD: OLIGOCENE FAUNAS 93

number of facts, and based almost entirely on ‘‘model”’ experiments.

I shall later have arguments about that with some of you—but not

tonight.

Of those of you who have followed me thus far, I am sure that

many will agree with me that biochemistry by analogy may be a most

dangerous adventure. Certainly, any conclusions reached by such a

process should be most carefully controlled by more direct experi-

ments, as soon as these become possible.

But I can at least hope to have some of you agree that processes of

the type outlined possess a considerable fascination, which is perhaps

not merely that of their danger, and that they may at the very least

be profitable for their power to suggest theories which must later be

tested more rigorously.

PALEONTOLOGY .—Oligocene faunas from the lower and upper beds

on the A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida W. C.

MANSFIELD, U. 8. Geological Survey.

The locality from which the fossil material, on which this paper is

based, was obtained is in a small ravine, the stream in which dis-

appears in the bottom of a sink, back of the house on the A. L. Par-

rish farm, about 34 miles southeast of Wausau, Washington County,

Florida. The first reference to this locality is given by Mossom (1).

He reports twenty feet of cream-white soft limestone in a sink at this

locality. He states that the contained fossils indicate, based on a

letter of Miss Julia Gardner, that it is older than the Chipola marl

and probably belongs to the Tampa. An analysis of the limestone as

reported by Mossom, which probably is from the lower part of the

exposure, showed a percentage of 94.7 of calcium carbonate. The

limestones were not differentiated.

The second reference is by Cooke and Mossom (2). They state that

the lower part of the limestone is white, finely granular, apparently

pure, and contains few fossils; the upper part is more argillaceous and

carries an abundant fauna, which appears to be of Tampa age.

The third reference is by Dr. T. W. Vaughan (3a). Doctor Vaughan

States:

“The third collection, sink on A. L. Parrish farm, 33 miles southeast of

Wausau, Washington County, Florida, contains poorly-preserved specimens,

but I think a definite opinion as to the geologic age is justified. One specimen

undoubtedly represents the same species as Cushman’s L. chattahoocheensis

1 Received January 24, 1938.

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

and another is clearly the one which I have been calling L. gigas var.

Other specimens seem to represent the same species as the smaller, thin,

flattish or saddle-shaped megalospheric specimens found near Duncan

Church. Therefore, I have no hesitancy in expressing the opinion that this

material is also Glendon, middle Oligocene age.’’

It is not stated from which bed the foraminifera were collected, but

evidently they came from the lower bed.

The fourth reference is by Mansfield (4). In referring to this

locality Mansfield writes:

‘The limestone is separable into two beds, the lower of which is believed

to be of the same age as that of the limestone exposed at Duncan Church.”’

In reference to the fauna of the upper bed the writer states ‘‘this fauna has

not been studied sufficiently to determine definitely its relation to the

Tampa fauna.”

The first lot of fossils collected from the A. L. Parrish farm was

obtained by F. G. Clapp in 1920 (U.S8.G.S. No. 8854-5-6). Although

his station numbers record different levels in a ‘‘40-foot outcrop,” all

the fossils appear to have been taken from the upper fossiliferous

bed; the second lot by Dr. C. W. Cooke and Dr. Julia A. Gardner in

1921 (U.S.G.S. No. 10461); and a third lot by the author and G. M.

Ponton, 1932, and F. Stearns MacNeil, 1936, and C. W. Mumm,

1937 (U.8.G.S. No. 12723).

An examination by the writer of the section at this place revealed

the existence of two beds. The lower bed consists of a soft, nearly

white limestone composed almost entirely of large foraminifera but

without any observed mollusks. About 8 feet of this bed is exposed

in the lowest part of the sink at the place where a small stream dis-

appears. The upper or overlying bed, which may be as much as 25

feet thick here, consists of a limestone containing many mollusks

preserved as molds. As there has been much slumping of the strata

surrounding the sink, it is dificult to determine with exactness the

original position of the upper fossiliferous bed, but it appears to be

near the top of the section here. No unconformity was observed be-

tween the two beds, the separation being based on the differences in

the lithologies and the faunas.

The photographs used for illustrations were made by Nelson W.

Shupe, and the prints were retouched by Frances Wieser, both of the

U.S. Geological Survey.

Comparison of species from the A. L. Parrish farm with species

in outside formations:

Mar. 15, 1938

MANSFIELD: OLIGOCENE FAUNAS 95

MOLLUSKS (upper bed)

SPECIES FROM A. L.

PARRISH FARM

Terebra sp.

Conus, ? aff. C. cooker Dall

Conus aff. C.

Pilsbry

imitator Brown and

Dritlia’’ sp.

*Olivella aff. O. mississippiensis Con-

rad

*Mitra sp.

*Phos parrishi, n. sp.

*Cassis sp.

Ficus aff. F. mississippiensis Con-

rad

Strombus aff. S. liocyclus Dall.

*Clava parrishi, n. sp.

{Turritella gatunensis Conrad

Xenophora sp.

Ampullina? sp.

*Anadara macneili, n. sp.

*Anadara mummi, n. sp.

Thracia?

Crassatellites sp.

Venericardia sp.

Phacoides (Muiltha) ef.

Dall

Divaricella sp.

chipolana

1|Cardium aff. C. hernandoense Mans-

field

*Chione cf. C. spencert Cooke

Semele aff. S. smithiz Dall

Psamosolen aff. P. sancti-dominica

Maury

Spisula? sp.

Panope cf. P. parawhitfieldi Gardner

* Rather abundant. + Very abundant.

SPECIES IN OUTSIDE

FORMATIONS

Not determined

Conus cookez, Flint River formation,

upper Oligocene

Conus imitator Brown and Pilsbry,

Baitoa formation, Dominican

Republic, and Gatun forma-

tion, Canal Zone.

Not determined.

O. mississippiensis, Oligocene

Cf. undescribed species from the

Flint River formation, upper

Oligocene.

Not determined

Probably near an undescribed form

from the Flint River formation.

F. mississippiensis, Oligocene

S. liocyclus, Tampa limestone

Not found elsewhere

Vamos-a-Vamos bed and lower bed

of Gatun formation; also Chick-

asawhay

Not determined

A. dodona Dall, Oak Grove bie

A. santarosana Dall, Oak Grove

sand; Chickasawhay

Not determined

P. chipolana, Chipola formation and

Oak Grove sand

May be the same as undetermined

species from upper bed at Fall-

ing Water

C. hernandoense. Suwannee lime-

stone; also probably Chickasaw-

hay

Tampa limestone at Cherokee sink

and upper bed at Falling Water

Semele smithii, Chipola formation

P. sancti-dominica. Bowden marl.

Jamaica; Cercada and Gurabo

formation, Dominican Republic

Not determined

P. parawhitfieldi, Oak Grove sand,

Florida

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

SPECIES FROM A. L. SPECIES IN OUTSIDE

PARRISH FARM FORMATIONS

Teredo? incrassata Gabb Suwannee limestone, Oligocene;

Chickasawhay; Cercado forma-

tion, Dominican Republic, Mio-

cene

The following notes on the Foraminifera from the upper and lower

beds are by Lloyd G. Henbest of the U. 8. Geological Survey:

Two collections of limestone from an outcrop in a sink on the A. L.

Parrish farm, 34 miles southeast of Wausau, Washington County,

Fla., were recently submitted to me by W. C. Mansfield for age

determination. These two collections represent two horizons. The

lower one (U.S.G.S. 13857) is a very soft, porous, friable limestone

containing an abundance of Orbitoididae and nullipores. The col-

lection from the upper horizon (U.S.G.S. 12723) consisted of about

25 small pieces of well-indurated matrix that originally surrounded

shells of Mollusca.

Lower bed.—Collection 13857, from the lower bed, contains

Lepidocyclina (Lepidocyclina) yurnagunensis Cushman, L. (Hulepi-

dina) undosa Cushman, L. (Eulepidina) favosa? Cushman. The

search has not been exhaustive, and other species may be present.

This fauna is identical with that described by W. Storrs Cole (3).

On p. 21 Cole states that a collection from a sink on the A. L. Parrish

farm, 34 miles southeast of Wausau (same locality as 13857) was also

a subject of study and definitely implies that it contains the same

orbitoidal fauna as that from the Duncan Church locality. Although

Cole does not state whether his collection was derived from the upper

or lower parts of the section, the detailed similarity of the orbitoidal

fauna in our collections from the same locality indicates that his

collection also came from the lower bed.

Cole, quoting opinions by Vaughan (3, pp. 21, 22) concludes that

the Duncan Church orbitoidal fauna definitely represents Oligocene

age and strongly indicates the middle Oligocene. From my own brief

study of this collection I find no evidence for contradicting or

materially adding to that already presented by Cole; accordingly,

there is no need to review his argument here.

Upper bed.—I find in this material (collection 12723) numerous

scraps of echinoderm plates and a few small nullipore colonies. Milio-

lids Gneluding Quinqueloculina, ete.), Amphistegina?, Archaias??, and

a few other forms recognizable only as foraminifers were intersected

by the sections. In these exposures their specific and in some instances

Mar. 15, 1938 MANSFIELD: OLIGOCENE FAUNAS 97

even their generic identity is not definitely determinable. A peculiar,

uniserial peneroplid was encountered whose generic position is un-

certain and may represent a new genus. The foregoing list of forms

merely suggests Cenozoic age and nothing closer. Of more significance,

however, are a few more or less worn fragments of a minute species of

Lepidocyclina. Fewer unworn or incompletely exposed but subgeneri-

cally unidentifiable specimens were found. Two isolated proloculi of

Lepidocyclina (Nephrolepedina) and two specimens of a minute

species very closely related to Lepidocyclina (Lepidocyclina) yurna-

gunensis were found. The two specimens of L. (L.) yurnagunensis

differ from those described by Cole from the Duncan Church locality

by being more nephrolepidine. Their slightly smaller size may be

accounted for as merely individual variation. Another poorly pre-

served specimen in equatorial section resembles L. supera, but a

definite identification cannot be made without better sections.

If these lepidocyclines from the upper bed are indigenous and not

erratics dered from the lower bed, the age is also Oligocene. A closer

age determination should not be attempted at the present time on

this fragmentary evidence. The other Foraminifera cannot be re-

garded as supporting or contradicting this evidence, because in their

unrecognizable condition they merely indicate Cenozoic age and

nothing more exact.

It is probably significant in this connection that though various

genera of Foraminifera, including a peneroplid, are present, the

faunule does not include any of the highly specialized Peneroplidae

that characterize the Tampa and Chipola Miocene in the same

general region.

FAUNAS OF THE LOWER AND UPPER BEDS

Lower bed.—So far only specimens of Foraminifera have been col-

lected from the lower bed. Relying on the determinations of these

Foraminifera by Cole, Vaughan and Henbest, the age evidently is

middle Oligocene.

Upper bed.—Although the sculpture of the external molds of the

mollusks has been well preserved, impressions taken of these molds

reveal in most cases only parts of the original shell and for that reason

the relationships to better preserved specimens from outside localities

are difficult to determine.

The molluscan fauna is interesting because a number of forms

show a relationship either to the lower part of the Gatun formation

or to the Vamos-a-Vamos beds of the Canal Zone and to certain

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

faunas of the West Indies, thereby probably indicating a migration of

the faunas either northward or southward, during this or a closely

related geological epoch.

The age of the fauna is believed to be not later in time than that

of the Tampa limestone, lower Miocene, or earlier than that of the

upper part of the Flint River formation (upper Oligocene). However,

the evidence, so far deduced, for placing it in the upper Oligocene is

stronger than placing it in lower Miocene, Tampa limestone.

The absence of certain genera of mollusks as Pecten and others

make the correlation with other deposits that contain these genera

more difficult. The possibility of procuring some of these lacking

genera and better preserved specimens in the future would aid in

determining more precisely the age of the bed.

The molluscan forms that indicate an Oligocene age are: Conus,?

aff. cooker; Olivella aff. mississippiensis; Cassis sp.; Anadara macneilr

(an intermediate form between A. lesuweurr (Dall), an Oligocene

species, and A. dodona Dall from the Oak Grove sand, but nearer the

former); Cardiwm hernandoense Mansfield, Suwannee limestone, upper

Oligocene; T'eredo? incrassata Gabb, and perhaps others.

It is the purpose to discuss the Chickasawhay mar! of Mississippi

and Alabama in this paper only in so far as to indicate the probable

relationship of the fauna under discussion with it.

So far as can be observed, the faunas in the upper bed at the

A. L. Parrish farm and that of the Chickasawhay are largely contem-

poraneous. The same T'urritella, Arca, Cardium, Chione and Teredo

appear to occur in both.

Two forms that might suggest Tampa age are: Strombus aff.

liocyclus Dall, and Chione ef. spencer Cooke.

The nearest locality to the A. L. Parrish farm at which the Tampa

limestone fauna occurs is in bed No. 2 at Falling Water, Washington

County, a distance of 9 or 10 miles to the north. At Falling Water

only one small specimen of a Chione similar to that at the A. L. Par-

rish farm has been collected; this form is rather abundant at the

A. L. Parrish farm. Chlamys crocus Cooke, a characteristic Tampa

limestone species, occurs at Falling Water. The sediments at Falling

Water consist mainly of a coarse grained quartz sand, whereas the

material of the upper bed at the A. L. Parrish farm consists of a

limestone.

Two forms, Phacoides ef. chipolana Dall and Panope cf. para-

whitfieldi Gardner, suggest a relationship to the Chipola marl or to

the Oak Grove sand. The nearest locality to the A. L. Parrish farm

Mar. 15, 1938 MANSFIELD: OLIGOCENE FAUNAS. 99

at which Chipola fossils have been collected is in the bed of Econfina

River, Bryant Scott’s farm, Bay County, sec. 28, T. 2 N., R. 12 W.,

about 7 miles southeast. This fauna has been placed at the top of the

Chipola marl by Dr. Julia A. Gardner (5). This fauna, however, is

unlike that at the A. L. Parrish farm.

The fauna of the Baitoa formation, Dominican Republic, contains

some forms allied to those at the A. L. Parrish farm. A small cone from

the A. L. Parrish farm is similar to Conus imitator Brown and Pilsbry

(from Baitoa formation) and Clava parrishi n. sp. from A. L. Parrish

farm is also closely related to an unnamed species from the Baitoa

formation.

The Turritella, which I have identified as T. gatunensis Conrad, is

the most abundant species at the A. L. Parrish farm. T. gatunensis

occurs both in the Vamos-a-Vamos beds (dark-colored beds) and the

lower part of the Gatun formation of the Panama Canal zone.

Woodring (6) places the Vamos-a-Vamos beds in the lower part of

the middle Miocene. The Vamos-a-Vamos beds probably are strati-

graphically lower than middle Miocene.

Concerning the fragmental and poorly preserved specimens of

foraminifera from the upper bed as determined by L. G. Henbest in

this paper, he states “if the lepidocyclines found in this bed are in-

digenous and not erratics derived from the lower bed, the age is Oligo-

cene.”’

A tentative conclusion deduced from a study of the faunas of the

upper bed, would indicate that it is Oligocene, and the bed enclosing

the faunas is contemporaneous, in part at least, with the Chickasaw-

hay marl of Mississippi and Alabama, the Flint River formation of

Georgia, the Suwannee limestone of Florida and the Vamos-a-Vamos

beds of the Canal Zone.

SPECIES OF MOLLUSKS FROM THE UPPER BED

Terebra sp.

One external mold; species not determined.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm.

Conus sp.? aff. C. cookei Dall

One rather large external mold showing part of last whorl. The sculpture

consists of rather wide spiral bands separated by narrow impressed lines.

The nature of the sculpture suggests a relationship to Conus cookei Dall

from the Flint River formation (upper Oligocene) of Georgia but this re-

lationship cannot be fully confirmed with the material at hand.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm.

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

Figs. 1, 2, 8, 6.—Turritella gatunensis Conrad. Squeezes: 1, X4; 2, X3; 3, X95;

6, X2. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 497647. Fig. 4.—Conus aff. C. imitator Brown and

Pilsbry. Squeeze, X8. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 497643. Fig. 5—Phos parrishi Mans-

field. Squeeze of holotype, X3. Fig. 7—Cardium (Trachycardium) aff. C. hernan-

doense Mansfield. Squeeze, X2. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 497653. Fig. 8.—Chione ci.

C. spenceri Cooke. Squeeze, X3. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 497654. Fig. 9.—Clava par-

rishi Mansfield. Squeeze of holotype, X2. Fig. 10.—Phacoides (Miltha) cf. P.

chipolana Dall. Squeeze, X3. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 497652. Fig. 11.—Cassis sp.

Squeeze, X2. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 497645. (smaller specimen). All enlargements ap-

proximate.

Mar. 15, 1938 MANSFIELD: OLIGOCENE FAUNAS 101

Conus aff. C. «mitator Brown and Pilsbry Fig. 4

Two external molds of small specimens. These specimens have a rather

high spire. The whorls are carinate. These specimens closely resemble

Conus tmitator Brown and Pilsbry, a species from the Baitoa formation,

Dominican Republic. C. «mitator also occurs in the Gatun formation of the

Canal Zone.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm.

“Drillia”’ sp.

One incomplete external mold, species not determined.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm.

Olivella aff. O. mississippiensis Conrad

External molds of a rather large species. These may be related to Olivella

mississippiensis Conrad, a Vicksburg, Oligocene species.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm.

Mitra sp.

External molds of large shells of Mitra. The sculpture of the undeter-

mined species consists of rather widely spaced alternating stronger and

weaker spirals over the whole shell. It appears to be closely related to an

undescribed species from the Flint River formation of Georgia.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm.

Phos parrisht Mansfield, n. sp. Fig. 5

Shell of moderate size with an acute spire and rather large body whorl,

both spirally and axially sculptured, the axials being more strongly de-

veloped on the spire than on last whorl. Sculpture of penultimate whorl

consists of 4 primary spirals interposed by a single secondary thread. Two

secondary threads lie below the suture. Axials stronger than spirals and are

weakly nodulated by the overrunning primary spirals.

Holotype (U.S.Nat.Mus. No. 497644) measures: Length about 15mm;

diameter, about 8 mm.

Type locality: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

Cassis sp. Fig. 11

Internal molds of rather large shells and incomplete external molds of

smaller shells are in hand. These larger and smaller specimens, however,

may not represent the same species. The smaller external molds have

rather strong axials on the body whorl and in this respect indicate some

relationship to Cassis sulcifera Sowerby but the ribs are stronger than on

this species and the spire is higher. The undetermined specimens probably

are more closely related to a rather high-spired form in the Flint River

formation of Georgia wrongly identified by Dall as C. sulcifera, but the

material in hand does not warrant at present uniting the two forms under

the same species.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm.

Ficus sp. aff. F. mississippiensis Conrad

Incomplete external and internal molds showing a medium sized form of

the original shell. With the material in hand it is difficult to determine

whether the unidentified form is closer to Ficus mississippiensts Conrad,

102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 3

a Vicksburg, Oligocene species, or to a larger form from the Chipola marl.

The secondary spirals appear to be closer to the Chipola species. However,

it may be more closely related to the Vicksburg species. It is larger than

most of the specimens from the Oligocene and nearly as large as the Chipola

specimens.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm.

Strombus aff. S. lioeyclus Dall

The material consists of incomplete external molds. The body whorl is

without tubercles. Sculpture on the spire consists of broad ribs and spirals

situated below the suture. The unnamed species appears to be closely related

to Strombus liocyclus Dall from the Tampa limestone although it may not

be that species.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm.

Clava parrisht Mansfield, n. sp. Fig. 9

Shell of medium size, slender; nucleus not preserved. Whorls nearly

straight in outline and shallowly constricted by a distinct suture. Sculpture

consists of both spirals and axials—the axials being a little weaker than the

spirals. The spiral sculpture on the spire whorls consists of three narrow,

equally spaced, uniformly sized, nodulous bands and a single intervening

thread. A spiral thread, a little stronger than intervening ones, lies adjacent

to and behind the suture. Last whorl with 6 nodulous primary spirals, all

intercalated with a single secondary thread except the basal two, which

have two secondary threads instead of one. Axials, probably about 15 in

number, arcuate, weaker than spirals and extend across each whorl.

Holotype (U.S.Nat.Mus. No. 497646) measures about 26 mm (including

broken off tip which probably amounts to about 3 mm); diameter, about

8 mm.

Type locality: A. L. Parrish farm, about 33 miles southeast of Wausau,

Washington County, Fla.

Clava parrishi n. sp. is closely related to an unnamed species from the

Baitoa formation, lower Miocene, from the Province of Santiago, Dominican

Republic, stations 8668 and 8558. The upper spiral on the Baitoa species is

a little stronger than the others whereas this spiral on the new species here

described is no stronger than the others.

“Cerithium”’ praecursor Dall, a species in the Tampa limestone, has a

stouter shell and more secondary spirals than the new species here described.

Occurrence: Type locality, quite common. Not found elsewhere.

Turritella gatunensis Conrad | Figs. 1-3, 6

Specimens of Turritella are very abundant at the A. L. Parrish farm. The

depression between the two raised spirals on each whorl on these specimens

begins on the early part of the shell and continues over the later whorls.

The depression on the early whorls appear to characterize the earliest forms

referred to Turritella gatunensis from later forms which have a medial

carina on the 7 or more earliest whorls which is formed by the upper spiral

—the lower spiral, which is developed later, gradually strengthens an-

teriorly.

In examining specimens referred to JT. gatunensis from G formations of

the Canal Zone two varieties are observed. In one variety, which occurs

in the Vamos-a-Vamos bed and in lower faunal zone of the Gatun forma-

Mar. 15, 1938 MANSFIELD: OLIGOCENE FAUNAS 103

tion, a depression develops on the early whorls whereas in the second variety

occurring in the middle faunal zone of the Gatun formation at the Gatun

dam (Station 8365 and other stations) the earliest whorls are medially

carinated, the anterior spiral coming in later.

The form at the A. L. Parrish farm more closely resembles those from the

Vamos-a-Vamos and in lower faunal zone of the Gatun formation.

The Culebra formation of the Panama Canal Zone contains a different

species of Turritella.

Turritella gatunensis caronensis Mansfield from the Brasso beds of Trini-

dad perhaps is more closely related to those in the middle faunal zone of the

Gatun formation.

Turritella gatunensis blountensis Mansfield from the upper middle Miocene

of Florida have weakly carinated early whorls, a shallower suture and lower

primary spirals than those in the Gatun formation.

Two external molds showing the early parts of a Turritella have been col-

lected at Station 13396, above the mouth of Limestone Creek, near the

middle of sec. 25, T.9 N., R. 7 W., Wayne County, Mississippi, by Roy T.

Hazzard. These probably belong to Turritella gatunensis Conrad. Speci-

mens from Station 1/52, Gainstown Ferry, Clarke County, Alabama, re-

ferred by Cooke (7) to the Chickasawhay marl member of the Byram marl,

are the same as those at the A. L. Parrish farm.

Xenophora sp.

External mold of base, species not determined.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm.

Ampullina? sp.

Internal molds, genus not determined.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm.

Anadara macnetli Mansfield, n. sp. Pigs.12, 17, 18

Shell small, ovate, moderately high, inequilateral, and probably nearly

equivalve. Beaks weakly depressed medially. Left valve narrowly rounded

over anterior side, weakly truncate on posterior side and broadly rounded

over the middle. Ribs over beak and early part of the shell single and beaded

and separated by interspaces about as wide as the ribs. The ribs begin to

divide at about the highest part of the shell forming two closely spaced ribs,

the suleation becoming deeper in advancing ventrally. Near the posterior

border each bi-partate rib is shallowly sulcated forming four radials. Right

valve, so inferred, has similar ribs as left.

Holotype, left valve (U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 497648) measures length about

25 mm; width about 20 mm; height about 8 mm.

The paratype (Fig. 17) shows only the anterior half of the shell. The

species is described from squeezes taken from exterior molds.

Type locality: A. L. Parrish farm, 33 miles southeast of Wausau, Washing-

ton County, Fla.

Compared with A. lesweuri (Dall), a Vicksburg species, the new species is

larger, relatively higher and wider, with a more medially impressed beak.

The general outline of the shell of the new species, and the character of its

ribbing agree closely with that of A. dodona Dall, an Oak Grove species.

It appears, however, to be an intermediate form between the Vicksburg

species and the later species.

The species is named after F.Stearns MacNeil of the U.S. Geol. Survey.

104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 3

Anadara mummi Mansfield, n. sp. Fig. 14

Shell rather small and moderately high with a truncate posterior side.

Ribs slightly wider than interspaces, strongly beaded, single over the umbo

but divided over the lower half of the shell. The shell is relatively higher

and stouter, more truncate on the posterior side than Anadara macneili, and

the ribs show no indication of breaking up into four parts.

Holotype, left valve (U. 8. Nat. Mus. No. 497651) measures: Length,

about 20 mm; width, about 20 mm; height, about 9 mm.

Type locality: A. L. Parrish farm, 34 miles southeast of Wausau, Washing-

ton County, Florida. |

The new species appears to be related to A. santarosana Dall, an Oak

Grove species, apparently differing from the latter in having a smaller

shell, with the incisions on the ribs earlier developed.

Compared with Anadara hypomela silicata Mansfield, a Tampa limestone

subspecies, the new species has a shorter shell, a more truncate posterior

side and more beaded ribs.

Other occurrence: Specimens collected at Station 13239, NW sec. 17,

R. 8 N., T. 5 W., Bucatunna Creek, Wayne County, Mississippi, appear

to belong to the same species.

The species is named after C. W. Mumm of the U.S. Geol. Survey.

Thracia? sp.

Fragment showing internal mold. The ribbing suggests that it may belong

to the genus Thracia.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

Crassatellites sp.

One internal mold, species not determined.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

Venericardia sp.

External molds of incomplete shells. Species not determined.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

Phacoides (Miultha) cf. P. chipolana Dall Fig. 10

External mold of an incomplete left valve. The fine concentric sculpture

indicates that it is either very close to or the same as Phacoides (Miltha)

chipolana Dall, a species occurring in the Chipola marl and the Oak Grove

sand.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

Duivaricella sp.

External mold of an incomplete shell. Species not determined. This may

be the same undetermined species as occurs in the upper bed at Falling

Water.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

Cardium (Trachycardium) aff. C. hernandoense Mansfield Figs. 7, 13

External and internal molds of several specimens, which probably repre-

sent a single species. The ribs are rather closely spaced, triangular in outline

and without any observed granules. The specimens have more ribs than

Z : —_ a “ = a =

i ars I eS ae BB cd i a Soe

ES ew

SOs Bie ae

aes,

ae eS ee ye A KO ER eh

Mar. 15, 1938 MANSFIELD: OLIGOCENE FAUNAS 105

Cardium precursor Dall, a species from the Oligocene at Vicksburg, Miss.,

but show some affinity to it.

Cardium (Trachycardium) hernandoense Mansfield from the Suwannee

limestone, upper Oligocene, appears to be closely related to it.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

Other occurrence: External impressions from Station 13396, Hillside

above the mouth of Limestone Creek, Wayne County, Miss. (sec. 25, T.9 N.,

R. 7 W.) may be closely related to the unnamed species.

Chione cf. C. spencert Cooke Figs. 8, 16

Material consists mainly of a number of external molds. These external

molds compare closely with Chione spencert Cooke from Antigua but specific

identity with that species is not confirmed.

The molds show a moderately large shell, inflated, about as long as wide,

and weakly depressed behind the middle. Sculpture consists of erect, con-

centric lamellae and rather strong radials. These lamellae are about 2 milli-

meters apart over the whole shell. These radials undulate the margins of the

lamellae and ornament their ventral slopes and extend across the rather

wide interspaces.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

Other occurrence: Tampa limestone at Cherokee sink, Wakulla County

(two small valves); upper bed at Falling Water, Washington County, Fla.

(one small valve). Although the specimens from the Tampa limestone are

smaller than the specimens from the A. L. Parrish farm, the sculpture on

the specimens from the three localities appear to be identical.

The unidentified species differs from Chione bainbridgensis Dall, a species

occurring in the Flint River formation, upper Oligocene of Georgia, in

having (especially over the umbonal area) wider spaced concentric sculpture

and stronger radials.

Semele aff. S. smithit Dall

The material consists of internal and external molds. The concentric

sculpture consists of closely spaced lamellae. The undetermined species

appears to be related to Semele smithit Dall from the Chipola formation. It

has a smaller shell than Semele chipolana Dall and the concentric sculpture

on Hy is finer but it may be as closely related to S. chtpolana as to S. smithi

Dall.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

Psamosolen aff. P. sancti-dominica Maury

The material consists of an external mold showing about half of the

original shell. The exact relationship of this specimen to other species is

difficult to determine with the material in hand but it appears to be related

to P. sancti-dominica Maury, a species reported to occur in the Bowden

marl of Jamaica and in the Cercado and Gurabo formations of the Domini-

can Republic. The genus is widely distributed in the warmer seas.

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

Spisula? sp.

The material consists of an external mold of part of the original shell.

This specimen probably is a Mactra or Spisula. Not knowing the genus the

relationship to other forms cannot at present be determined.

~ Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 3

Figs. 12, 17, 18.—Anadara macneili Mansfield. 12, squeeze of holotype, <3; 17,

squeeze of paratype, X3. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 497650; 18, squeeze of paratype, X3.

U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 497649. Fig. 13.—Cardium (Trachycardium) aff. C. hernandoense

Mansfield. Squeeze, <3. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 497653. Fig. 14.—Andara mummi

Mansfield. Squeeze of holotype, X38. Fig. 15.—Teredo? incrassata Gabb, X1. U.S.

Nat. Mus. No. 497657. Fig. 16.—Chione cf. C. spenceri Cooke. Squeeze, <4. U.S.

Nat. Mus. No. 497655. Fig. 19—Panope cf. P. parawhitfieldt Gardner, X2. U.S.

Nat. Mus. No. 497656.

Mar. 15, 1938 MARTIN: CALLIRHOE Or)

Panope cf. P. parawhitfieldi Gardner Fig. 19

The material consists of an internal mold of both valves. This specimen

measures: Length, about 40 mm; altitude, about 25 mm. The umbo is

rather low and is situated about 18 mm from the anterior end. So far as can

be determined this specimen most closely resembles P. parawhitfieldi

Gardner, a species occurring in the Oak Grove sands of Florida; however,

an adult specimen of the same species might show differences. |

Occurrence: A. L. Parrish farm, Washington County, Florida.

Teredo? incrassata Gabb Fig. 15

The material consists of fairly good sized tubes and a few fragments.

These tubes occur abundantly in the Suwannee limestone (upper Oligocene)

but have not been found in the Tampa limestone (lower Miocene). They

occur in the Cercado formation and other horizons in Santo Domingo not

definitely placed stratigraphically.

REFERENCES

1. Mossom, Stuart, A preliminary report on the limestones and marls of Florida:

Florida Geol. Survey 16th Ann. Rept., p. 186, 1925.

2. Cooke, C. W., and Mossom, Stuart, Geology of Florida: Florida Geol. Survey

_ 20th Ann. Rept., p. 96, 1929.

3. CoLE, W. Storrs, Oligocene orbitoids from near Duncan Church, Washington

County, Florida: Jour. Paleontology 8: 21-28. 1934.

3a. VAUGHAN, T. W., idem, p. 22. (Copy of Dr. T. W. Vaughan’s letter to Mr.

Herman Gunter, Aug. 4, 1932.)

4. MANSFIELD, W. C., A new species of Pecten from the Oligocene near Duncan Church,

Washington County, Florida: Jour. Washington Acad. Sci. 24: 332. 19384.

5. CUSHMAN, J. A., and Ponton, G. M., The foraminifera of the upper, middle and

part of the lower Miocene of Florida: Florida Geol. Survey Bull. 9: 13, 22. 1982.

6. Wooprine, W. P., Carnegie Institution of Washington Pub. 385: 74. 1928.

7. ess Bises\ oles on the Vicksburg group: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists

9: ; ;

BOTANY.—A new species of Callirhoé.! Ropert F. Martin,

Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by S. F. Buaxkg.)

Nutialia pedata Nutt. ex Hook. was described in 1827 and trans-

ferred by Gray in 1849 when he resurrected the genus Callirhoé of

Nuttall. Although in later years Gray realized that the original

Nuttallia pedata was synonymous with Callirhoé digitata Nutt., he

did not see fit to publish a new name, and Callirhoé pedata has con-

tinued to be used to designate the common annual poppy mallow of

Texas and Oklahoma. That Nuttallia pedata is the same plant as

Callirhoé digitata is shown by the original figure and by a sheet in the

Gray Herbarium collected by Hooker in the Glasgow Garden. This

sheet is annotated, “‘An original of N. pedata.”’ Furthermore, accord-

ing to Carruthers in a letter to Gray, all of Nuttall’s specimens of

N. pedata sent to the British Museum had large perennial roots. It

1 Received December 29, 1937.

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

therefore becomes apparent that the annual has never had a valid

name and I propose:

Callirhoé leiocarpa Martin, sp. nov.

Callirhoé pedata A. Gray, Mem. Amer. Acad. N.S. 4: 16 (Pl. Fendl.) 1849,

excluding name-bringing synonym; Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist. 6: 160

(Pl Lindh.) 1850; p. pi; BIS Wreht, (2 lbs 1852:

Callirhoé pedata var. compacta hort. Damm.; Sprenger, Gartenflora, 35: 313.

1886.

Not Nuttallia pedata Nutt. ex Hook. Exot. Fl. 3: 172. 1827.

Annua; caules erecti, 30-80 cm alti, glabri et saepe glauci; stipulae

ovatae vel ovato-lanceolatae, 5-10 mm longae, lobatae vel auriculatae,

ciliatae; folia 3-5-lobata vel incisa, lobis crenatis, supra strigosa; pedunculus

1-florus, glaber vel strigosus; involucellum nullum; sepala lanceolata, acumi-

nata, 10-14 mm longa; petala obcuneata, 15-25 mm longa, 12-18 mm lata,

apice erosa, purpureo-rubra, in ungue barbellata; carpella glabra, valde

rostrata, in dorso paene laevia.

Annual; stems erect, 30-80 cm high, glabrous and often somewhat

glaucous; stipules lance-ovate, 5-10 mm long, lobed or auricled at base,

ciliate; petioles of the basal leaves up to 10 cm long, glabrous, strigose,

sparingly stellate-pubescent, or rarely pilose, the blades palmately 3—5-lobed

or deeply incised, the divisions crenate to coarsely toothed, strigose above,

appressed-stellate beneath; stem leaves similar, or usually more deeply in-

cised into narrower divisions, and with shorter petioles; peduncles glabrous,

scabrous, or with appressed simple or stellate hairs, one-flowered; in-

volucel wanting; sepals lanceolate, acuminate, 10-14 mm long, glabrous

externally, white-hairy along the margin internally, the nerves often white

and thickened; petals obcuneate, 15-25 mm long, 12-18 mm wide, erose at

apex, purplish-red or cherry, drying bluish, bearded at the base; staminal

column hairy; carpels 10-12, about 4 mm high, glabrous, prominently

beaked, nearly smooth on the back.—Prairies and hills, chiefly in dry soil,

Texas and Oklahoma. April—June.

Type in the herbarium of the National Arboretum, No. 8099, collected

by C. D. Marsh, April 4, 1908, near Spofford, Kinney County, Texas.

Specimens Examined (by counties).?

Texas. Bexar: Palmer 33780 (M, NY). Burnet: Tharp 1340 (NA, T,

US). Coke: Swift, 1856 (US). Comal: Lindheimer 681 (G, M, NY, P,

US). Concho: Reverchon (Curtiss 362**) (M, NY). Duval: Croft 14 (NY).

Gillespie: Jermy 608 (M, US). Goliad: Williams 65 (P, T). Hays: Stan-

field: Spring 1889 (NY). Howard: Tracy 7813 (G, M, NY, T, US). Irion:

Cory 565 (G, US). Kerr: Milligan April (US). Kinney: Marsh April 4,

1908 (NA, type). Lampasas: Wolff 925 (US). La Salle: Small & Wherry

11951 (NY). Live Oak: Tharp June 18, 1928 (T). Llano: Fisher 90 (F).

Lubbock: Demaree 7669 (M, US). Nueces: Hanson June 7, 1919 (M, NY).

San Patricio: Hanson 49-a (US). Schleicher: Jones May 1, 1931 (T).

2 The following symbols are used to indicate the herbaria in which specimens are

deposited: F, Field Museum of Natural History; G. Gray Herbarium; M, Missouri

Botanical Garden; NA, National Arboretum; NY, New York Botanical Garden; P,

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; T, University of Texas; US, United

States National Museum.

Marz. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 109

Tom Green: Palmer 10320 (M). Travis: Tharp May 1, 1928 (NA, T).

Uvalde: Palmer 10182 (M, US). Valverde: Orcutt 6046 (M). Victoria:

Tracy 9235 (G, M, NY, T, US). Wilson: #. Palmer August 1879 (G).

OKLAHOMA. Comanche: Clemens 11690 (M). Custer: White 31 (M).

Kiowa: Stratton 327 (M). Woods: Stevens 1634 (G, M, NY, US).

In general appearance this species often strongly resembles forms of

C. digitata, from which it may be distinguished by the smoother carpels and

slender annual taproot.

ZOOLOGY.—North American monogenetic trematodes. II. The

families Monocotylidae, Microbothridae, Acanthocotylidae and

Udonellidae (Capsaloidea).1| Kmmntr W. Pricn, U. 8. Bureau

of Animal Industry.

This paper represents the second of a series on the North American

monogenetic trematodes and deals with the superfamily Capsaloidea

exclusive of the Capsalidae. The organization and purpose of this

paper are the same as for the first of the series (Price, 1937). With

few exceptions, the species considered in this installment are those

previously described by the late Dr. G. A. MacCallum.

Superfamily CAPSALOIDEA Price, 1936

Diagnosis —Anterior haptors present or absent; when present in form of

a weakly developed oral sucker or pseudosucker, or of 2 laterally placed

suckers, or of corresponding glandular grooves; head organs sometimes

present. Posterior haptor disc-like, usually relatively large and muscular,

ventral surface frequently divided by septa into sucker-like depressions,

with or without hooks; hooks, when present, never with cuticular supporting

bars. Intestine single or consisting of 2 branches frequently provided with

median and lateral dendritic diverticula. Genital aperture median or lateral.

Cirrus sometimes cuticular, without cuticular accessory structures except

in Anoplodiscus (Microbothriidae). One or more testes. Vagina present or

absent. Oviparous.

Type family—Capsalidae Baird, 1853.

KEY TO FAMILIES CAPSALOIDEA

1. Anterior haptors in form of a pair of suckers or corresponding glandular

2p PL BEOSIOLUS REG SAS BE ASE SE oes oo cea nee wr 2

Anterior haptors not in form of a pair of suckers or corresponding glandu-

2 CES DICSSRSTIOIIG: heheh yl SUE bate "eat aed ol Me a we A i OC 4

wmbapestime single. .......0.... 0.002000... UpDONELLIDAE Taschenberg

Pee eine EC OUIe ren er hee rien LOE OUI Ts SE aed 3

do. Male and female genital apertures close together. .CAPSALIDAE Johnston

Male and female genital apertures not close together................

oo 0 Osh REDRESS AEH? edie nS ear ae a ACANTHOCOTYLIDAE Price

4. Posterior haptor provided with hooks....MonocoTyLipaE Taschenberg

Posterior haptor not provided with hooks..... MICROBOTHRIIDAE Price

1 Received January 7, 1938.

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

Family MONOCOTYLIDAE Taschenberg, 1879

Diagnosis.—Body elliptical or oval, flattened dorsoventrally. Anterior

haptor present or absent; when present, in form of an oral sucker or several

preoral suckers; cephalic glands present. Posterior haptor disc-like, with

ventral surface usually divided by septa into depressed sucker-like areas,

and armed with 1 pair of large hooks (absent in Empruthotrema) and 14

marginal hooklets. Oral aperture ventral, near anterior end of body;

pharynx relatively large; esophagus very short or absent; intestinal branches

without diverticula, sometimes united posteriorly. Eyes present or absent.

Genital aperture usually median; cirrus heavily cuticularized, except in

Dionchus. Usually 1 testis, rarely 3 testes or numerous testes. Ovary curved,

frequently embracing right intestinal branch. Vagina single or paired, rarely

absent.

Type genus.—Monocotyle Taschenberg, 1878.

KEY TO SUBFAMILIES OF MONOCOTYLIDAE

i Rosterion hapror withoutesepla ean oe LOIMOINAE Price

Posterior haptor with septa)... ¢ oo... ju i ee 2

Dea ASAIN ASEM, ci a oe SH ecnctol! dno se nee Roe DIONCHINAE Johnston and Tiegs

VAP ima, PFOSOMb. si. so. ccs oe. an os Rebs mE sos cael ee 3

SV OTM A SINC eed: eiiew Wile ELAN 0 it eee eee ae MoNOCOTYLINAE Gamble

Vagina double) s.°. 2.3.0.4 8) Sab 4

AS Wath oral SUCK CIR 4 ya. oee ene ete hae: CALICOTYLINAE Monticelli

Without oral sucker......... MERIZOCOTYLINAE Johnston and Tiegs

Subfamily MONOCOTYLINAE Gamble, 1896

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptor in form of a weakly developed oral sucker;

posterior haptor with central area bounded by a ridge with 7 or 8 septa

radiating from it, and armed with 1 pair of large hooks and 14 marginal

hooklets. Eyes present or absent. Vagina probably always present, single.

Type genus.—M onocotyle Taschenberg, 1878. |

KEY TO GENERA OF MONOCOTYLINAE

1. Ventral surface of haptor with 7 radial septa...... Dasybatotrema Price

Ventral surface of haptor with 8 radial septa...) 55 eee 2

Bo ORee Testes. i ee chi beckeays Remy Gene ee ne Tritestis Price

One testis oo. la 2 2s oho MAB Re eee eee 3

3. Oral aperture surrounded by a somewhat membranous pseudosucker.. .

Lr ee aL RRC EOL GME aN a) OTST 8 hehe i. Monocotyle Taschenberg

Oral aperture surrounded by poorly developed sucker..............-.

Genus Monocoryue Taschenberg, 1878

Diagnosis.—Ventral surface of haptor divided by septa into 8 equal sec-

tors, with 1 pair of large hooks; marginal hooklets (?). Oral aperture almost

terminal, surrounded by a somewhat membranous pseudosucker. Kyes ab-

sent. One testis. Uterine aperture marginal. Cirrus and vagina (?).

Type species.—Monocotyle myliobatis Taschenberg, 1878.

The genus Monocotyle contains only the type species, M. myliobaiis,

which was described by Taschenberg (1878) from the gills of Myliobatis

aquila at Naples; the original description was very brief. Perugia and Parona

Mar. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 111

(1890) gave a fairly detailed description of a species from M. aquila which

they regarded as the same as Taschenberg’s species, and if their observations

are correct, this form differs from all other members of the subfamily in

having a laterally placed uterine aperture. The anterior pseudosucker-like

haptor appears to resemble closely that of Dasybatotrema Price.

Genus HETEROCOTYLE Scott, 1904

Synonyms.—M onocotyle Auct.; Trionchus MacCallum, 1916; Monocotyl-

oides Johnston, 1934.

Diagnosis.—Ventral surface of haptor with central depression surrounded

by a ridge from which radiate 8 septa; one pair of large hooks and 14 mar-

ginal hooklets present. Oral aperture subterminal, surrounded by poorly

developed oral sucker. Eyes present or absent. One testis; cirrus slender,

cuticularized. Vagina probably always present.

Types species —Heterocotyle pastinacae Scott, 1904.

This genus contains the following species: Heterocotyle floridana (Pratt,

1910) n. comb.; H. minima (MacCallum, 1916) n. comb.; H. pastinacae

Scott, 1904; and H. robusta (Johnston and Tiegs, 1922) n. comb. The first

two of these species are from North America and descriptions of them

follow.

Heterocotyle floridana (Pratt, 1910), n. comb. Figs. 1-4

Synonym.—M onocotyle floridana Pratt, 1910.

Description.—Body more or less elliptical, 1.36 mm long by 500u wide,

flattened dorsoventrally; anterior end with narrow projecting dorsal lip.

Oral sucker moderately developed, without definite boundaries, and with

3 cephalic glands imbedded in dorsal wall, the ducts of glands slender and

opening at anterior margin of dorsal lip. Haptor disc-like, 480u wide, sur-

rounded by marginal membrane about 20u wide; dorsal surface with 2

groups of conical papilla arranged in form of 2 triangles near posterior mar-

gin; ventral surface with irregular central area and 8 marginal sucker-like

areas, and armed with 2 large hooks and a number (?14) of marginal hook-

lets. Large hooks about 50u long, disregarding curve of blade; marginal hook-

lets about 12u long, situated on marginal membrane. Oral aperture ventral,

160u wide, leading into a funnel-shaped prepharynx; pharynx barrel-shaped,

240u long by 200u wide; intestinal branches simple, without median or

lateral diverticula, uniting near posterior end of body and forming a short

common cecum (Pratt stated that this cecum sometimes opens to the ex-

terior through a median, thicklipped pore). Brain dorsal to prepharynx; no

eyes. Genital aperture apparently median, ventral, at posterior end of

pharynx. Cirrus heavily cuticularized, slender, curved; ejaculatory bulb

curved, to right of-cirrus. Testis median, about 160u in diameter, postequa-

torial. Ovary curved, pretesticular, to right of median line. Vitellaria lateral,

extending from level of equator of pharynx to posterior end of body proper,

with band of follicles crossing median field distal to testes. No vagina ob-

served. Ootype somewhat piriform, to left of median line; metraterm short,

apparently opening to exterior through the same pore as cirrus. Egg, ac-

cording to Pratt, oval and about 45y long, with short process at one pole.

Host.—A étobatus fréminvillit (Le Sueur).

112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

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Figs. 1—4.—Heterocotyle floridana. 1, complete worm, ventral view; 2, haptor,

dorsal view, from Pratt, 1910; 3, large haptoral hook; 4, cirrus. Figs. 5-7.—Heiero-

cotyle minima. 5, complete worm, ventral view; 6, large haptoral hook; 7, cirrus.

Figs. 8-10.—Dasybatotrema dasybatis. 8, complete worm, ventral view; 9, large hap-

toral hook; 10, cirrus.

Mar. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 113

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Gulf of Mexico).

Specimens.—U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 39582 (cotypes).

Monocotyle floridana was originally described by Pratt (1910) from

specimens collected from a whip-ray, taken in the Gulf of Mexico. The above

description is based upon a part of the cotype material. According to

Pratt, there is no common genital aperture, and no cirrus or penis. While

the writer has been unable to determine the presence of a common genital

aperture in the material at his disposal, the arrangement of the genital

organs is such as to suggest that such an opening is present. On studying the

original drawings and description, there appears to have been some con-

fusion in the interpretation of several structures, the cirrus being mistaken for

a vagina, the ejaculatory bulb for a seminal receptacle, and a sharp curve in

the vas deferens at the point where it enters the ejaculatory bulb for a

vaginal aperture. No vagina was observed in the specimens, but it is possible

that fresh material would reveal such a structure. The cephalic glands are

shown by Pratt to be 4 in number, but in the specimens at the writer’s dis-

posal only 3 could be found; this difference, however, may have no signifi-

cance, since it is possible that the specimens studied were anomalous with

respect to the number of cephalic glands. Pratt also failed to detect the

small marginal hooklets occurring in the marginal membrane of the haptor;

they are very minute and can be detected only on careful study under the

highest powers of the microscope. The exact number of these hooklets could

not be determined, but there are probably 14 as in the case of related forms.

H. floridana resembles H. minima in size and general appearance, but may

be easily differentiated from the latter species by the presence of the 2

groups of conical papillae on the posterior part of the dorsal surface of the

haptor, there being no such papillae on the haptor of H. minima. Other

differences are the presence of eyes and of a conspicuous vagina in H. minima,

while these structures appear to be absent in H. floridana; there is also

considerable difference in the cirri of the two species.

Heterocotyle minima (MacCallum, 1916), n. comb. Figs. 5-7

Synonyms.—M onocotyle dasybatis minimus MacCallum, 1916; Monocotyle

minima (MacCallum, 1916) Johnston and Tiegs, 1922; Trzonchus dasybatis

MacCallum, 1916; Monocotyloides minima (MacCallum, 1916) Johnston,

1934.

Description.—Body elliptical, flattened dorsoventrally, 945y to 1.02 mm

long by 270 to 340u wide, anterior end with narrow projecting lip. Oral

sucker 76 to 85yu wide; haptor disc-like, 247 to 278u wide, surrounded by

marginal membrane about 25u wide; ventral surface with oval central area

and 8 marginal areas separated by septa, armed with 2 large hooks, 1 hook

inserted in each of the postero-lateral septa, and 14 marginal hooklets im-

bedded in the marginal membrane. Large hooks 53 to 57 long, disregarding

curvature of blade; marginal hooklets about 10u long. Nature of nervous

systerm not ascertainable; remnants of eyes present on each side of pharynx.

114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 3

Oral aperture ventral, subterminal, about 38u in diameter. Pharynx barrel-

shaped, 95u long by 68u wide, marked with 6 or 7 transverse grooves;

esophagus very short or absent; intestinal branches simple, extending to

near posterior end of body proper, their tips approaching but not fusing.

Common genital aperture median, 290 to 340u from anterior end of body.

Cirrus cuticularized, expanded and strongly curved proximally, truncate

distally. Ejaculatory bulb oval, 95u long by 57 to 76u wide. Testis single,

subtriangular with base directed anteriad, about 133u long by 114 wide,

median, in posterior third of body. Ovary elongate, curved, pretesticular.

Vitellaria lateral, extending from level of equator of pharynx to posterior

end of body proper, uniting in median field distal to testis. Vagina relatively

large, curved, lying largely in median field, opening slightly to left of median

line at level of transverse vitelline duct. Mehlis’ gland consisting of a num-

ber of large cells with relatively long, slender ducts, median, at junction of

oviduct and vitelline duct. Ootype oval, relatively large, median. Egg tri-

angular, about 95u wide, with relatively long, slender filament.

Hosts —Dasyatis pastinaca (Linnaeus), Squalus acanthias Linnaeus, and

Pastinachus centrourus (Mitchill).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass.)

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35649 (cotypes), 35650 (type

of Trionchus dasybatis), 35651, 35652, and 35653.

The above description is based upon about 20 specimens, all toto mounts,

representing 4 collections made on different dates by the late Dr. G. A.

MacCallum. Most of the specimens were not in good condition because of

the technique employed in preserving and mounting them. Sufficient detail,

however, could be made out to enable the species to be described with a

fair degree of accuracy.

This species is very closely related to Heterocotyle pastinacae Scott and

may possibly be the same species. Scott’s (1904) description and figures of

his species were not detailed and it is thought best to regard the two forms

as distinct until a restudy of H. pastinacae can be made.

MacCallum (1916) described as Trionchus dasybatis, nov. gen. et nov. sp.,

a form from the gills of a sting ray. One specimen (U.S.N.M. No. 35650) of

this species was available for examination. A comparison of this specimen

with specimens of H. minima showed the two forms to be identical, since

the middle hook of the haptor, the character upon which the genus Trionchus

was based, was found to be a fragment of lint which had become attached to

the posterior septum in such a manner as to appear like a double pointed

hook.

Johnston (1934) placed this species in a new genus, Monocotyloides, having

M. robusta (Johnston and Tiegs) as type. A comparison of Monocotyloides

with Heterocotyle shows that the two genera are synonymous.

Genus TritxstTis Price, 1936

Diagnosis.—Ventral surface of haptor divided into equal sectors by 8

radial septa as in Monocotyle. Oral aperture ventral, not surrounded by

Mar. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 115

sucker; anterior end with 4 pairs of gland termini. Eyes present. Three

testes.

Type species.—Tritestis ijamae (Goto, 1894) n. comb.

This genus contains only the type species which was collected from the

mouth of Trygon pastinaca (= Dasyatis pastinaca) in Japan. This form dif-

fers from Monocotyle and Heterocotyle in the number of testes and in the

nature of the anterior end of the body. The anterior end of T. 7jzmae (Goto,

1894) possesses what appear to be head organs (‘“‘sticky glands’’) arranged

as a group of 4 on each side of the anterior end of body similar to those in

Empruthotrema Johnston and Tiegs.

Genus DasyBATOTREMA Price, 1936

Diagnosis.—Ventral surface of haptor divided into 7 sectors by septa,

the posterior sector being the largest; one pair of large hooks and 14 mar-

ginal hooklets present. Oral aperture slightly subterminal, surrounded by

funnel-like pseudosucker having numerous gland termini around margin.

Eyes absent. One testis. Cirrus tubular, composed of cuticular bars. Vagina

present, opening laterally.

Type species—Dasybatotrema dasybatis (MacCallum, 1916).

Dasybatotrema dasybatis (MacCallum, 1916), n. comb. Figs. 8-10

Synonym.—Monocotyle dasybatis MacCallum, 1916.

Description.—Body elliptical, 5 to 7 mm long by 1.2 to 2 mm wide, flat-

tened dorsoventrally. Oral pseudosucker funnel-like, 680 to 935u wide,

with numerous gland openings around margin. Haptor disc-like, 1.2 to 1.8

mm long by 1.1 to 1.6 mm wide, surrounded by a festooned marginal mem-

brane about 75 to 114u wide; ventral surface divided by ridges into a more

or less circular central area and 7 marginal areas, and armed with a pair of

large hooks, 1 hook situated on each posterior ridge, and 14 marginal hook-

lets situated on marginal membrane. Large hooks 280 to 395yu long; mar-

ginal hooklets about 15u long. Oral aperture at base of pseudosucker and

connected with pharynx by a short funnel-like prepharynx; pharynx barrel-

shaped, 425u long by 340u wide, intestinal branches simple, terminating

near posterior end of body proper, their ends approaching but not uniting.

Nervous system not observed; eyes absent. Genital aperture slightly to

right of median line, about 1 mm posterior to base of pharynx. Cirrus 285

to 304u long, relatively thick and composed of pointed longitudinal bars

arranged so as to form a tubular structure; ejaculatory bulb oval, 340u long

by 255u wide; vas deferens, before entering ejaculatory bulb, expanding and

forming a pars prostatica surrounded by unicellular glands. Testis some-

what cordate, about 850u long by 510u wide, median, postequatorial. Ovary

slender, curved, pretesticular. Vitellaria extending from level of pharynx

to posterior of testis. Vagina long and relatively thick, opening ventrally on

left side of body at level of common genital aperture. Ootype oval, sur-

rounded at its base by a number of unicellular glands with long, slender

ducts. Egg triangular, about 110u wide, with relatively short filament.

Hosts—Dasyatis pastinaca (Linnaeus) and Pastinachus centrourus

(Mitchill).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass.).

SSS

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—————S

VPA

116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

Specimens.—U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35654 (type), 35655 (para-

types), 35656, 35657, 35658 and 35659.

MacCallum’s (1916) description of this species contains several errors

which are corrected in the present redescription.

MacCallum stated that ‘‘the genital pore is placed near the division of the

ceca in the angle formed thereby,” but his figure shows it to be situated at

a point opposite the vaginal aperture, which is about 1 mm posterior to the

base of the pharynx. He also stated that the cirrus had a cluster of spicules

at its tip and that the mouth of the ‘‘uterus’”’ was armed with spicules. These

spicules are not present in normal specimens, but in several of the specimens

prepared by MacCallum the end of the cirrus had been crushed and the

pointed tips of the cuticular bars of which the cirrus is composed had become

broken off, and it was these pieces which were mistaken for spicules. Mac-

Callum described the haptor as having 8 ‘“‘chitinous”’ ridges; actually the

ridges or septa are 7 in number and are not chitinous. The posterior median

ridge present in Monocotyle and Heterocotyle is entirely absent, and in this

respect the haptor of D. dasybatis resembles that of species of Capsala and

of the related genera Capsaloides and Tristoma.

Subfamily CALICOTYLINAE Monticelli, 1903

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptor in form of a rudimentary oral sucker; cephal-

ic glands present, opening through a pair of ducts terminating at anterior

end of body. Posterior haptor similar to that of Monocotyle, with 1 pair of

large hooks; marginal hooklets (?). Eyes absent. Testes numerous, inter-

cecal. Vagina double as in Merizocotyle.

Type genus.—Calicotyle Diesing, 1850.

Genus CaLicoTyLE Diesing, 1850

Diagnosis.—Characters of subfamily.

Type species.—Calicotyle kroyeri Diesing, 1850.

The genus Calicotyle contains six species as follows: Calicotyle affinis

Scott (1911), C. australis Johnston (1934), C. inermis Woolcock (1986),

C. kroyert Diesing (1850), C. mitsukurit Goto (1894) and C. stossicht Braun

(1899). No representative of this genus has yet been reported from North

America.

Subfamily MERIZOCOTYLINAE Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptor absent; cephalic glands present, their ducts

terminating in distinct head organs. Posterior haptor with numerous sucker-

like areas separated by septa, armed with 1 pair of large hooks (absent in

Empruthotrema) and 14 marginal hooklets. Eyes present or absent. Vagina

double.

Type genus.—Merizocotyle Cerfontaine, 1894.

KEY TO GENERA OF MERIZOCOTYLINAE

1. Termini of cephalic gland ducts forming numerous head organs.

Rp A Mite tA alr A TERENCE EL oli oo Cathariotrema Johnston and Tiegs

Mar. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 117

Termini of cephalic gland ducts forming

Pen ESPOMMeCAU ORS ANS ey ee Moe ea due og eG ee Z

2. Haptor without large hooks........ Empruthotrema Johnston and Tiegs

Peamnom with. lair of largednooks 2... 7.0. ea ce kk es 3

3. Haptor with 5 sucker-like depressions adjacent to central depression... .

Is hen OT eae eS eas Merizocotyle Cerfontaine

Haptor with 4 sucker-like depressions adjacent to central depression. . .

a, oy ONS Ma tes eit a's Gis leat Thaumatocotyle Scott

Genus M@mrRIzocoTyLeE Cerfontaine, 1894

Diagnosis.—Anterior end of body with 3 pairs of head organs. Haptor

dise-like, with a central oval or circular depression, 6 oval adjacent to cen-

tral, and 18 marginal depressions, the posterior depression the largest; large

hooks and marginal hooklets present. Eyes absent. Testis single.

Type species.—Merizocotyle diaphanum Cerfontaine, 1894.

Two species, M. diaphanum from Raja batis and M. minus from R.

oxyrhynchus, have been described by Cerfontaine (1894, 1898). Neither of

these species has been reported from North American hosts.

Genus THAUMATOCOTYLE Scott, 1904

Diagnosis—Anterior end with 3 pairs of head organs. Haptor with ven-

tral surface divided into sucker-like depressions, 1 central, 4 adjacent to

central, and 13 marginal, the posterior marginal depression being largest;

large hooks and marginal hooklets present. Eyes present. Testis single.

Type species.—Thaumatocotyle concinna Scott, 1904.

Thaumatocotyle dasybatis (MacCallum, 1916), n. comb. Figs. 11-14

Synonym.—Merrzocotyle dasybatis MacCallum, 1916.

Description.—Body elliptical, 1.5 to 2.6 mm long by 480 to 560 wide in

region of testis, slightly constricted in pharyngeal region. Anterior end

slightly expanded, bearing 3 pairs of head organs, these organs being the

openings of ducts from numerous unicellular glands located on each side of

pharynx. Haptor disc-like, 440 to 600u long by 370 to 600u wide; ventral

surface with a diamond-shaped central depression, 13 marginal depressions,

and 4 depressions between the central and marginal depressions, these de-

pressed areas separated by septa; haptor armed with 2 large hooks and 14

marginal hooklets. Large hooks 224 to 260u long; marginal hooklets 24y

long. Oral aperture ventral, median, a short distance from anterior end of

body; pharynx oval, 160 to 220u long by 120 to 200u wide; esophagus very

short; intestinal branches simple, without median or lateral diverticula,

terminating blindly near anterior margin of haptor. Brain immediately an-

terior to oral aperture; special sense organs consisting of 2 pairs of eyes lo-

cated in the brain commissure and 1 pair of sensory papillae at anterior

margin of body slightly median to anterior pair of head organs. Genital

aperture median, about one-third of body length from anterior end; cirrus

cuticular, tubular, 60 to 96u long; ejaculatory bulb oval, 120u long by 60u

wide; vas deferens dilated at level of posterior part of ootype forming a fusi-

form seminal vesicle. Testis irregular in shape, 120u long by 200y wide,

postequatorial. Ovary tubular, curved, embracing right intestinal cecum,

pretesticular. Vitellaria extending from level of base of pharynx to about

midway between distal limit of testis and posterior end of body proper.

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

‘AWIO

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Peay Um

CLS Px

lO. vaes

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Figs. 11-14.—Thaumatocotyle dasybatis. 11, complete worm, ventral view; 12,

haptoral hooks (A—large hook, B—marginal hooklet); 13, cirrus; 14, egg. Figs.

15-18.—Empruthotrema raiae. 15, complete worm, ventral view; 16, cirrus and ejacu-

latory bulb; 17, cirrus; 18, egg. Figs. 19-21.—Cathariotrema selachi. 19, complete

worm, ventral view; 20, large haptoral hook; 21, cirrus.

Mar. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 119

Paired vaginae; vaginal apertures ventral, one in vicinity of each intestinal

cecum about midway between anterior end and posterior end of body proper.

Ootype elongate, muscular, surrounded at its base by numerous unicellular

glands with long, slender ducts. Egg triangular, about 100u wide, with a

relatively long slender filament at apex.

Hosts.—Dasyatis pastinaca (Linnaeus), Pastinachus centrourus (Mitchill)

and Raja erinacea Mitchill.

Location.—Olfactory organs and gills.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass.)

Specimens.—U.S. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 27553 (cotypes), 35098, 35114,

35163, 35184, 35248, 35659, 35660, 35661, 35662, 35663, 35664, and 35665.

Thaumatocotyle dasybatis appears to be closely related to, if not identical

with Thaumatocotyle concinna Scott, 1904, from the nasal fossae of “‘Trygon

pastinaca’”’ in Scotland. Scott’s (1904) description of T. concinna was very

inadequate as was his figure of the species. However, assuming that the

illustration is accurate, the only difference between that form and T.

dasybatis is in the size of the pharynx, which in 7’. concinna is about one-fifth

of the length of the body proper, while in T. dasybatis it is about one-tenth

of the length of the body proper.

Genus EMPRUTHOTREMA Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis.—Anterior end with 3 pairs of head organs. Haptor with ventral

surface divided by septa into sucker-like depressions, 1 central, 5 adjacent

to central, and 14 marginal; large hooks absent, marginal hooklets present.

Eyes absent. Testis double.

Type species.—Empruthotrema raiae (MacCallum, 1916) Johnston and

Tiegs, 1922.

Empruthotrema raiae (MacCallum, 1916) Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Figs. 15-18

Synonym.—Acanthocotyle raiae MacCallum, 1916.

Description.—Body elongate, more or less rectangular, 1.6 to 2 mm long

by 528 to 700u wide, anterior end with 3 pairs of head organs, and with

numerous unicellular glands on each side of pharynx. Haptor circular, 450

to 575u in diameter, with a central sucker-like area, 5 similar areas adjacent

to central area and 14 marginal areas, all separated from each other by

septa; with no large hooks, but with 14 marginal hooklets each about 16y

long. Oral aperture median, ventral, about 100u from anterior end of body;

pharynx 96 to 120u long by 80 to 96u wide; esophagus very short; intestinal

ceca simple, extending to near posterior end of body proper, tips approaching

each other. Nervous system not observed; eyes absent. Genital aperture

median, ventral, about one-third of body length from anterior end. Cirrus

tubular, cuticular, 120 to 135y long; ejaculatory bulb oval, 104 to 120u long

by 72 to 80u wide; distal end of vas deferens expanded and with muscular

walls, curving around anterior end of ejaculatory bulb and entering it from

right side. Testis double, postequatorial. Ovary sharply curved, embracing

right intestinal cecum, equatorial. Vitellaria largely in cecal fields, extending

from level of posterior end of esophagus to near posterior end of body proper,

with band of follicles crossing median field distal to testis. Paired vaginae

as in Merizocotyle. Ootype piriform, widest anteriorly, its posterior end

surrounded by numerous unicellular glands having long, slender ducts. Egg

more or less triangular, about 120u wide, with relatively short filament.

Se ===%

SSS

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120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

Hosts.—Raja erinacea Mitchill and R. diaphanes Mitchill.

Location.—Olfactory organs.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Specomens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35160, 35172, 35666, 35667, —

and 35668.

This species was originally described as belonging to the genus Acanthoco-

tyle, but, as Johnston and Tiegs (1922) have pointed out, it is not congeneric

with species of that genus. A number of specimens were available to the

writer, and a study of these specimens showed that the original description

is accurate in most respects. MacCallum stated that there were 2 testes in

this species, but instead of 2 testes there appears to be a single testis which

is folded in approximately a U-shape. In the original description the size of

the egg was given as 20u, while the writer’s measurements show that it is

about 1204 wide; however, no very accurate measurements could be ob-

tained as all the eggs present were uterine eggs and had become considerably

distorted during the process of dehydration and clearing.

Genus CATHARIOTREMA Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Synonym.—Paramonocotyle Johnston, 1934.

Diagnosis.—Anterior end with numerous gland termini along margins, not

in form of head organs as in Merizocotyle. Haptor disc-like, wider than long,

with its ventral surface divided into a large number of sucker-like depres-

sions; large hooks and marginal hooklets present. Eyes absent. Testis single.

Type species.—Cathariotrema selachit (MacCallum, 1916) Johnston and

Tiegs, 1922

Cathariotrema selachit (MacCallum, 1916) Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Figs. 19-21

Synonym.—M onocotyle selachit MacCallum, 1916; Paramonocotyle selachi

(MacCallum, 1916) Johnston, 1934.

Description.—Body elongate, 4.7 mm long by 880u wide, lateral margins

almost parallel, with slight constriction at level of pharynx. Anterior haptors

in form of a glandular area on each side of anterior end, the glands opening

through numerous duct apertures along margins. Posterior haptor disc-like,

496 to 640u long by 768 to 825u wide, its ventral surface divided by septa

into numerous oval depressions, armed with 2 large, robust hooks directed

postero-laterally and a number (?14) of marginal hooklets. Large hooks 200

to 310u long; marginal hooklets about 12u long. Oral aperture ventral,

median, about 300u from anterior end of body; pharynx piriform, 320 to

336u long by 240 to 280u wide; esophagus very short; intestinal ceca simple,

extending to near anterior margin of posterior haptor. Brain immediately

anterior to oral aperture; eyes absent. Genital aperture median, about 400u

posterior to base of pharynx. Cirrus cuticular, about 40u long; ejaculatory

bulb about 128u long by 80u wide. Testis elongate, in equatorial zone.

Ovary S-shaped, embracing right intestinal cecum; vitellaria extending from

level of base of pharynx to posterior end of body, meeting in median line

distal to testis. Paired vaginae as in Merizocotyle. Ootype oval, relatively

small, its base surrounded by numerous unicellular glands having long

slender ducts. Egg not observed.

Mar. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 121

Hosts——Carcharias obscurus (Le Sueur), C. commersonii (Blainville),

Sphyrna zygaena (Linn.) and Alopzas vulpinus (Bonnaterre).

Location.—Olfactory organs.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Specimens.—U. S. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35669 (type), 35670, 35671,

35672, 35673, and 35674.

Johnston and Tiegs have shown that this species does not belong in the

genus Monocotyle where it was placed by MacCallum, and append it to the

Calceostominae. Their action in this case was based on a study of the original

description and figures which were from mutilated specimens. The ‘‘head-

lobes’? which these writers regarded as showing affinities with Calceostoma

do not exist, the figure given by MacCallum being of a crushed specimen.

Subfamily LOIMOINAE Price, 1936

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptor in form of 4 small preoral suckers; posterior

haptor disc-like, terminal, without septa, with 1 pair of large hooks and a

number (?14) of marginal hooklets. Genital aperture apparently median or

submedian; cirrus long, slender, cuticular; testis single. Ovary apparently

globular; vagina?

Type genus.—Loimos MacCallum, 1917.

Genus Lormos MacCallum, 1917

Diagnosis —Characters of subfamily.

Type species—Loimos salpinggoides MacCallum, 1917.

The genus Lozmos contains only the type species. The affinities of the genus

are somewhat questionable, but on the whole it appears to be more closely

related to members of the family Monocotylidae than to the family Udonel-

lidae where it was placed by Fuhrmann (1928). The presence of a pair of large

hooks and of small hooklets on the posterior haptor, as well as the presence

of a tubular, heavily cuticularized cirrus are characters which exclude it

from the Udonellidae.

Loimos salpinggoides MacCallum, 1917 Figs. 22-25

Description —Body elongate, subcylindrical, 2 to 4.5 mm long by about

220 to 4000u wide. Anterior haptors in form of 4 small preoral suckers ar-

ranged in a transverse row, centrals, smaller than laterals and usually one

of laterals larger than other. Posterior haptor disc-like, terminal, about

460u wide, without septa, armed with 1 pair of large hooks and (?) 14

marginal hooklets. Large hooks about 40y long, similar in form to those

occurring on species of Monocotyle and Heterocotyle, situated at posterior

margin of haptor; marginal hooklets about 8u long. Oral aperture sub-

terminal, about 120u wide, leading into a somewhat funnel-like pre-

pharynx; pharynx oval, about 80u long by 65u wide; intestine apparently

consisting of simple ceca. Nervous system not ascertainable in available

specimens. Genital aperture apparently median, near posterior end of phar-

ynx, its exact position not ascertainable in available specimens. Cirrus

slender, tubular, about 220u long; ejaculatory bulb elongate, about 95y

long by 30u wide. Testis single, median, preequatorial. Ovary apparently

122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

: 23. ~005MM.

feu

002MM.

Figs. 22-25.—Loimos salpinggoides. 22, complete worm, ventral view; 23, anterior

end of body, ventral view; 24, large haptoral hook; 25, cirrus. Figs. 26—28.— Dionchus

agassizt. 26, complete worm, ventral view; 27, haptoral hooks (A—large hook, B—

marginal hooklet); 28, egg. Figs. 29-30.—Dionchus remorae. 29, complete worm,

ventral view; 30, haptoral hooks (A—large hook, B—marginal hooklet).

Mar. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 123

globular, pretesticular. Vitellaria lateral, extending from level of posterior

end of pharynx to near posterior end of body. Vagina (?). Ootype elongate,

its base surrounded by unicellular glands with relatively long ducts. Egg

oval, 130u long by 65y wide, with relatively short filament at posterior pole.

Host.—Carcharias obscurus (Le Sueur).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass.)

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. 35675 (cotypes).

This rather remarkable trematode was collected by MacCallum at Woods

Hole, Mass., August 7, 1916, from the gills of a dusky shark. About 40 of

the original specimens (all toto mounts) were available for study, but un-

fortunately the technique employed in their preparation had distorted most

of the specimens so that many of the characters could not be accurately as-

certained. A study of these specimens revealed several inaccuracies in the

original description (MacCallum, 1917), the most outstanding being the

location of the genital aperture, the number of testes, size of the large hooks,

and size of the egg. The genital aperture is shown by MacCallum to be on

the left side and about the level of the anterior end of the pharynx; no trace

of a genital aperture was found in that location and all indications point to

its location in median line posterior to the pharynx. In a few specimens the

end of the cirrus was in the position indicated by MacCallum but such

specimens were more or less crushed and the rather heavy cuticularized

cirrus could easily have been forced into the position indicated. There is

only 1 testis in this species; it is rather long and cylindrical, and in no speci-

men was there any indication of 2 testes as shown by MacCallum. The large

hooks are about 4 times as long as given in the original description, and the

egg more than twice as large. No trace of an excretory pore was observed at

the posterior end of the body as indicated in the original description, and it

seems reasonable to assume that the excretory apertures are towards the

anterior end of the body as in other monogenetic trematodes.

Subfamily DIONCHINAE Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis —Anterior haptor absent, numerous cephalic glands opening

along margin of anterior end of body. Posterior haptor sucker-like, ventral

surface with septa, with 1 pair of large hooks and 14 marginal hooklets.

Intestinal branches simple, united posteriorly. Eyes present. Genital aper-

ture sinistral, submarginal. Cirrus muscular, unarmed. Two testes, tandem.

Vagina absent.

Type genus.—Dionchus Goto, 1899.

This subfamily contains only the genus Dionchus Goto, and was included

by Johnston and Tiegs (1922) in the family Calceostomidae mainly because

the cephalic gland ducts did not open through “head organs” as in the case

of most of the members of the Monocotylidae. However, the presence of

“head organs’ is not constant in the Monocotylidae and this character

alone does not seem sufficient to exclude Dionchus from that family.

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 3

Genus Dioncuus Goto, 1899

Synonyms.—Acanthodiscus MacCallum, 1916, not MacCallum, 1918, not

Uhlig, 1906 (mollusk); Dionchotrema Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

Diagnosis.—Characters of subfamily.

Type species.—Dionchus agassizt Goto, 1899.

This genus contains only two species, both of which are described below.

Dionchus agassizt Goto, 1899 Figs. 26-28

Description.—Body elongate, 2.2 to 2.8 mm long by 630 to 765u wide»

anterior end triangular, with slight constriction slightly posterior to level

of base of pharynx. Anterior haptor absent, but with numerous adhesive

glands almost filling anterior end and opening along margins of body an-

terior to constriction. Posterior haptor sucker-like, divided into 10 mar-

ginal areas by as many septa, and armed with 1 pair of large hooks and

14 marginal hooklets; large hooks 95u long, with strongly curved, pointed

tips; marginal hooklets about 15u long. Numerous large unicellular glands

anterior to haptor, with long ducts apparently opening into cavity of haptor.

Oral aperture ventral, median, about 340 to 400u from anterior end of body.

Pharynx globular, 95 to 190u long by 114 to 210u wide; esophagus very short,

with groups of esophageal glands extending laterally; intestinal branches

without diverticula, uniting about one-third of body length from posterior

end. Brain anterior to oral aperture; 2 pairs of eyes. Genital aperture sinis-

tral, near margin of body; genital atrium large, more or less globular. Cirrus

small, muscular; vas deferens wide, more or less convoluted. Testes 2 in

number, tandem; anterior testis about 210u in diameter, posterior testis

about 170u in diameter, separated by relatively wide band of vitelline fol-

licles. Ovary U-shaped, pretesticular, median. Vitelline follicles large, ex-

tending from slightly posterior to level of genital aperture to about 500u

from posterior end of body. Vagina absent. Ootype tubular, its base sur-

rounded by relatively large unicellular glands with long ducts; lateral to

ootype are large unicellular glands having less affinity for stain than those

at base of ootype. Egg oval, 106u long by about 60u wide, with long slender

filament at one pole.

Hosts.—Remoropsis brachyptera (Lowe) and Echeneis naucrates Linnaeus.

Locality.—Gills.

Distribution. — United States (New York, N. Y., Newport, R. I., and

Woods Hole, Mass.) and West Indies.

Specumens.—U. 58. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35676, 35677, and 35678.

This species was originally described by Goto (1899) from Remora brachyp-

tera (= Remoropsis brachyptera) and apparently has not been reported since.

Seven specimens, representing collections made August 2, 1915, May 4,

1915, and July 10, 1922, are in the U. 8S. National Museum and were ob-

tained by MacCallum from Echeneis naucrates at the New York Aquarium

and at Woods Hole, Mass. Several additional specimens, mostly immature,

were collected in 1933 by the Johnson-Smithsonian Deep-Sea Expedition

from the latter host in West Indian waters.

Dionchus remorae (MacCallum, 1916), n. comb. Figs. 29-30

Synonyms.—Acanthodiscus remorae MacCallum, 1916, Dzonchotrema re-—

morae (MacCallum, 1916) Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

Mar. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 125

Description.—Body elongate, about 1.5 mm long by 290 wide, anterior

end rounded and with slight constriction at level of pharynx, posterior part

of body slightly attenuated. Anterior haptors absent; cephalic glands numer-

ous, opening along anterior margin of body. Posterior haptor sucker-like,

about 220u in diameter; ventral surface divided into 14 marginal areas by

as many septa, armed with 1 pair of large hooks and 14 marginal hooklets.

Large hooks 35 to 50y long, with strongly curved, pointed tips; marginal

hooklets 18u long. Oral aperture ventral, median, about 150yu from anterior

end of body; pharynx globular, about 57 in diameter; intestinal tract not

observed. Brain anterior to oral aperture; eyes present, 2 pairs. Genital

aperture sinistral, submarginal, slightly anterior to level of oral aperture;

genital sinus relatively small. Cirrus short, bulbous, muscular and unarmed.

Vas deferens widened distally, forming a tortuous seminal vesicle. Testes

oval, tandem, postequatorial; anterior testis 200u long by 135y wide; pos-

terior testis 190u long by 135u wide, separated from anterior testis by a

narrow band of vitelline follicles. Ovary apparently globular, median, sepa-

rated from anterior testis by a relatively wide band of vitelline follicles.

Vitellaria consisting of relatively large follicles, extending from slightly an-

terior to base of ootype to a short distance from posterior end of body proper.

Vagina absent. Ootype slender, relatively long, its base surrounded by a

number of unicellular glands having long, slender ducts. Eggs not observed.

Hosts.—Echeneis naucrates Linnaeus and Caranzx hippos (Linnaeus).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (New York, N. Y.) and West Indies.

Specimens.—U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35679 (type), 35680 (para-

types), 35681, 35682, and 35683.

Dionchus remorae was described by MacCallum (1916) as Acanthodiscus

remorae. Johnston and Tiegs (1922) noted that the genus Acanthodiscus to

which MacCallum assigned the species was preoccupied, the name having

been used by Uhlig in 1906 for a genus of mollusks. These writers recognized

the close relationship of the species to Dionchus, but owing to the fact that

MacCallum figured the species as having a vagina they regarded it as dis-

tinct and placed it in a new genus Dionchotrema. An examination of Mac-

Callum’s original specimens shows that a vagina is absent and the species,

therefore, is transferred to the genus Dionchus.

The material available to the writer consisted of a number of specimens

collected by MacCallum from Echeneis naucrates at the New York Aquarium

May 16, 19, 29, and 30, 1915, and one specimen from Caranz hippos collected

May 8, 1915. In addition to this material, several immature specimens were

available which had been collected in 1933 by the Johnson-Smithsonian

Deep-Sea Expedition from 2 specimens of Echeneis naucrates taken in West

Indian waters.

In restudying this species, several errors have been detected in the

description as given by MacCallum. According to that author, the mouth

is terminal, the genital atrium and cirrus are armed, and a vagina is present;

however, the present writer finds the mouth to be ventral, the genital atrium

and cirrus unarmed, and there is no vagina.

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 3

Dionchus remorae is closely related to Dionchus agassizi but may be easily

distinguished from the latter species by its smaller size, by its more rounded

anterior end, by the extent of the vitellaria anteriorly, and by the number of

marginal areas of the haptor.

(To be continued)

ENTOMOLOGY .—A study of the North American ants of the genus

Xiphomyrmex Forel... Marion R. SmitH, Bureau of Ento-

mology and Plant Quarantine. (Communicated by C. F. W.

MUESEBECK. )

The genus Xiphomyrmex Forel, formerly considered as a subgenus

of Tetramorium Mayr, includes 50 to 75 forms. Species occur in Africa,

Madagascar, Indo-Malaya, Australia, and the Sonoran region of

North America. According to Wheeler these ants nest in the ground,

often forming populous colonies. The following is a translation of

Emery’s characterization of the genus in Genera Insectorum:

W orker.—Anterior border of clypeus feebly emarginate, the lateral border

forming an elevated ridge in front of the antennal fossa. Frontal carinae

well separated. Antenna 1l-segmented. Antennal scrobe well developed.

Hairs simple or clavate.

Queen.— Usually larger than the worker, but similar in structure of head,

petiole, and hairs. Antenna 11-segmented. Anterior wing with the radial cell

usually closed.

Male.—Mandibles toothed. Antenna 10-segmented, the second funicular

segment long and composed of the fused segments 2, 3, 4, 5. Wings as in

the queen.

This paper deals with four forms of Xiphomyrmex known to occur

only in the southwestern section of the United States, and Northern

Mexico. These four forms are the species X. spinosus and its sub-

species insons, hisprdus, and wheelerv. The typical form was described

by Pergande from 14 workers collected at Sierra, San Lazaro, Cape

Region, Lower California, and is known only from these specimens.

The subspecies znsons has been recorded from Texas and Arizona

(Wheeler), wheelert from Arizona and Mexico,(Wheeler), and hispidus

from Arizona (Wheeler). The worker of X. spinosus bears such a

striking resemblance to that of Tetramorium guineense (F.) that the

two could easily be confused except by careful examination. It differs,

however, in the number of antennal segments, the number of carinae

on the clypeus, the shape of the petiole and postpetiole, the shape

of the humeral angles of the prothorax, etc.

1 Received December 30, 1937.

See

Marz. 15, 1938 SMITH: XIPHOMYRMEX 127

In preparing this article I have been fortunate in being able to

study cotypes of all four forms. I wish to express my thanks to the

American Museum of Natural History and the Museum of Com-

parative Zoology for the loan of cotypes, and to Dr. W. 8. Creighton

for the loan of specimens from his personal collection.

My studies have shown that the subspecies of spinosus represent

extreme variations, and that there are other forms intermediate

between the named forms. The existence of these intermediates might

justify the synonymizing of the subspecies with the typical form;

but, since many recognized subspecific forms of ants are based on

characters of no greater strength than those separating the subspecies

of X. spinosus from the typical form, I prefer to retain these forms as

distinct.

Because Pergande’s original description of the species is incomplete

I have redescribed X. spinosus on the basis of type material in the

collection of the United States National Museum. The descriptions

of the three subspecies consist only of statements of the characters

by which they differ from the typical form. Males and queens of the

various subspecies have not been available for study.

The key below should serve to distinguish the workers of the

various forms of spinosus.

KEY TO THE FORMS OF XIPHOMYRMEX SPINOSUS PERGANDE

(for the identification of the workers)

1. First gastric segment finely punctulate, shagreened, subopaque toward

LE DUBE. 2 5 ot Re a ve, UO ee Sear ee 2

First gastric segment entirely smooth, except for scattered, piligerous

“LLB SUURSS Bee sr ge Oe Ra a a ne a 3

2. Erect hairs on the head and thorax long, slender, and tapering; meta-

sternal angles acute, spine-like................... spinosus Pergande

Erect hairs on the head and thorax short, coarse, and blunt; metasternal

angles blunt, not spine-shaped............. subsp. hispidus Wheeler

3d. Metasternal angles acute, spiniform; thorax viewed from above with in-

distinct mesoepinotal constriction............ subsp. insons Wheeler

Metasternal angles blunt, not spine-like; thorax viewed from above with

a distinct mesoepinotal constriction.......... subsp. wheeler: (Forel)

Xiphomyrmex spinosus Pergande

Xiphomyrmex spinosus Pergande, Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., Vol. 5, p. 894

(1895). Worker. Mexico.

Worker. —Length 3.2-3.4 mm.

Head, excluding mandibles, subrectangular, slightly longer than broad,

with moderately convex sides, rounded occipital angles, and faintly emar-

ginate posterior border. Eye prominent, oval, convex, placed a little more

than its greatest diameter from the base of the mandibles. Mandible tri-

angular, moderately convex dorsally, and with 7 or 8 distinct teeth. Clypeus

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 3

convex, posterior border broadly rounded and extending between the frontal

carinae, anterior border very faintly emarginate or impressed medianly.

Antenna 11-segmented, the scape distinctly compressed, and when lying in

the antennal scrobe made on each side of the head by the frontal carina,

not reaching the posterior border of the head; funiculus with a distinct

3-segmented club, which is apparently as long as the remainder of the funicu-

lus. Pronotum from above with broadly rounded humeral angles. Meso-

epinotal constriction faint. Epinotal spines prominent, straight, and acute,

directed backward and gradually divergent; scarcely longer than the dis-

Fig. 1.—Xiphomyrmex spinosus Pergande, worker. A, lateral view of body; B,

frontal view of head. Illustrations by Mrs. Mary F. Benson.

tance between their bases. Metasternal angles distinct, tooth-like, acute,

at least one-half the length of the epinotal spines. Petiole viewed directly

from above subcampanulate, postpetiole viewed from the same aspect

transversely elliptical. Gaster oval, without pronounced basal angles.

Mandibles with moderately coarse, longitudinal striae. Clypeus with 6

to 8 prominent longitudinal striations, some of which are not complete.

Head, thorax, petiole, and postpetiole coarsely rugose-reticulate, the inter-

spaces finely punctulate. The rugae in the center of the head and thorax

with a more nearly longitudinal trend than elsewhere. Gaster smooth and

shining except for the first segment, the basal half of which is finely punctu-

late, shagreened, and therefore subopaque.

Mar. 15, 1938 SMITH: XIPHOMYRMEX 129

Hairs rather abundant over all parts of the body; yellowish, erect, but of

varying lengths; those on the appendages shorter, and suberect.

Ferruginous; mandibles, clypeus, and legs noticeably lighter.

The above description is based on 7 cotype specimens collected at Sierra,

San Lazaro, Cape Region, Lower California, all of which are in the collec-

tions of the National Museum.

Xiphomyrmex spinosus subsp. hispidus Wheeler

Xiphomyrmex spinosus subsp. hispidus Wheeler, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.

Hist., Vol. 34, p. 415 (1915). Worker. Arizona.

W orker.—Length 3.5—3.8 mm.

Posterior border of head very distinctly emarginate. Antennal funiculus

not infuscated distally. Metasternal angles blunt, not spineshaped. First

segment of the gaster finely punctulate, shagreened and subopaque toward

the base. Hairs short, coarse, blunt, and of unequal length.

Description based on 5 cotype specimens labeled ‘‘Desert, east of Tucson,

Arizona; W. M. Wheeler” (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. and Museum of Comp.

Zoology).

Wheeler states that he found these ants ‘“‘nesting in small craters 3 to 4

inches in diameter, in the deserts around Tucson, Arizona (type locality),

and from Phoenix in the same state.’’

Xiphomyrmex spinosus subsp. insons Wheeler

Xtphomyrmex spinosus subsp. insons Wheeler, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,

Vol. 34, p. 416 (1915). All castes. Texas, Arizona.

Worker.—Length 3.5-4 mm.

Posterior border of head emarginate but not so strongly as in wheelerv.

Antennal funiculus not infuscated distally. Mesoepinotal constriction,

viewed from above, very weak, scarcely apparent. Metasternal angles acute,

spine-like. Gaster smooth and shining except for scattered piligerous punc-

tures. Hairs long and slender, and of unequal lengths; on the tibiae shorter

than in wheelerv.

Description based on 3 cotype specimens labeled ‘‘Austin, Texas; W. M.

Wheeler’ (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.).

Wheeler cites Austin, Texas, as the type locality, and lists the species

from the following other localities:

Texas.—New Braunfels, Alamito in Brewster County, Alice, San Angelo,

Fort Davis, Kennedy, Langtry, Barksdale and Del Rio.

Arizona.—Miller Canyon (Huachuca Mts.).

I have referred to this subspecies 3 workers taken from the stomach of

an armadillo at Junction, Texas, and submitted by the Bureau of Biological

Survey, United States Department of Agriculture.

Wheeler, infremarking on the habits of this species, says, ‘‘This ant nests

in small craters in dry, grassy places. There are scarcely more than 70 in-

dividuals in a colony. The workers are very timid and forage singly. The

winged phases appear during the first week in June.”

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

Xiphomyrmex spinosus subsp. wheeleri (Forel)

Tetramorium (Xiphomyrmex) wheeleri Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., Vol. 45,

p. 128 (1901). Worker. Mexico.

Xiphomyrmex spinosus subsp. wheelerz (Forel) Wheeler, Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist., Vol. 34, p. 416 (1915). Worker.

W orker.—Length 3.5-3.7 mm.

Posterior border of head faintly emarginate. Antennal club distinctly in-

fuscated. Thorax, viewed from above, with a very distinct mesoepinotal

constriction. Metasternal angles blunt, not spine-like. Gaster smooth and

shining except for the scattered piligerous punctures. Hairs on the tibiae

apparently longer and more reclinate than with spznosus.

Description based on 3 cotypes from the type locality, Pacheco, Zacatecas,

Mexico; W. M. Wheeler (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.).

Wheeler states that he took in the Miller Canyon (Huachuca Mts.,

Ariz.) specimens of a form closely related to wheelerz but differing in the

size of the epinotal spine, type of rugosity of postpetiole, and infuscation of

the antennal club. I have seen specimens from the Ramsey Canyon of the

same mountains which seem to belong to this undescribed form mentioned

by Wheeler. These were taken by Dr. W.S. Creighton.

Wheeler apparently collected his type specimens from a small colony

beneath a stone in the cactus desert.

PALEOBOTANY.—Two fossils misidentified as shelf-fungi.: Ro-

LAND W. Brown, U.S. Geological Survey.

In 1936 I described Polyporites stevensont Brown? as a Cretaceous

shelf-fungus. This specimen megascopically, and in such microscopic

details as are preserved, resembles very closely a living species of

shelf-fungus growing on Eucalyptus in Australia. Recently, however,

a chance observation of some Paleozoic corals of the syringopore

group caused me to reexamine the supposed fungus with the result

that I am now chagrined to admit that Polyporites stevensoni 1s not a

fungus but a syringopore coral of probably undeterminable species.

Evidently the specimen, which I considered as indigenous to the

flora preserved in Upper Cretaceous strata along the Cannonball

River in southwestern North Dakota, was a pebble that had been

transported from some Paleozoic source far to the west.

The description of Polyporites stevensoni followed a precedent set by

Polyporites browna Wieland? as stated in my paper. The mistake in

regard to P. stevenson, therefore, aroused suspicions with respect to

1 Received February 21, 1938.

2 This JoURNAL 26: 460-462. 1936.

8 WIELAND, G. R. A eee shelf fungus from the Lower Cretaceous of Montana.

Am. Mus. Nov. 725: 1-13. 1934

Mar. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 131

P. brown1, which, however, is said to have been collected from the

Cloverly formation (Lower Cretaceous) exposed along Beauvais

Creek, 40 miles south of Billings, Mont. Through the courtesy of Dr.

Barnum Brown and the American Museum of Natural History I have

been permitted to reexamine that specimen. A chemical analysis by

E. P. Henderson of the National Museum showed a high percentage

of phosphate radical, which is strong, presumptive evidence that the

fossil is a bone, not a fungus. With this hypothesis in mind, and with

the rather distinctive surface and internal structure of the specimen

as a guide, a search with C. W. Gilmore through the National Mu-

seum vertebrate collections resulted in the elimination of every

available possibility except the dental plates of Jurassic and Creta-

ceous species of the lung-fish, Ceratodus. The correspondence, detail

for detail, with these remains is so close that there is little, if any,

doubt that Polyporites brown: represents Ceratodus. The specimen is

therefore renamed Ceratodus brownz (Wieland) Brown, n. comb.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

494TH MEETING

The 494th Meeting was held in the Auditorium of the George Washington

University School of Medicine on Thursday, October 14, 1937, President

NICOLET presiding.

The program was presented in three sections as follows:

ANALYTICAL and INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, A. R. Merz presiding.:

JoHN W. KNOWLTON and FREDERICK D. Rossini: Method and appara-

tus for the rapid conversion of deuterium oxide into deutertum.—A glass bulb

at one end of the evacuated conversion apparatus contains a sealed ampoule

holding the liquid deuterium oxide. This ampoule of “heavy” water is

broken by placing liquid air around the outer bulb, which is subsequently

heated electrically to control the passage of the vapors of deuterium oxide

into the reaction tube, containing powdered magnesium at 480°C, where

the following reaction occurs:

Meg(solid) + D2O(gas) = MgO(solid) + De(gas).

The rate of evolution of deuterium can be made as great as one mole in two

hours. The evolved deuterium passes through a liquid air trap and is col-

lected as liquid in a 0.05 liter brass bottle immersed in ordinary liquid hydro-

gen (temperature about — 253°C). The connection to the conversion appa-

ratus is closed, that to a 1 liter brass bottle is opened, and the deuterium is

permitted to vaporize and fill two brass bottles at room temperature. In

this manner 95 percent of the deuterium is obtained in the 1 liter bottle as

a gas under a pressure of about 23 atmospheres. (Authors’ Abstract)

132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

Herman J. Morris and Hersert O. Carvery: The quantitative deter-

mination of arsenic in small amounts in biological materials.

RALEIGH GILCHRIST: A new procedure for the analysis of dental gold

alloys.

ORGANIC and BrioLoGicaL CHEmMistTRY, N. L. DRAKE presiding:

M. X. Sutuivan: New Tests in the guanidine field.—It has long been

known that guanidine and methylated guanidine are more or less toxic to

man, but what part they might play in health and disease has been prob-

lematical since satisfactory tests have been lacking. In a study of the various

guanidine compounds, Sullivan devised colorimetric tests, highly specific

for simple guanidine NH = C(N Hg), and for unsymmetrical dimethyl-guani-

NH,»

dine NH=C¢ . It was demonstrated that guanidine reacts on

N(CHs3)>

warming with beta-naphtho-quinone-4-sodium sulfonate and dilute NaOH

to give a brown color which on cooling and acidifying with cone. HCl and

HNOs goes to bright red while all other biologically important substances

so far tested go to bright yellow. The test is readily sensitive to 0.5 mg of

guanidine per cc. The test for unsymmetrical dimethyl-guanidine depends

on the finding that of all the substances which react with acetyl benzoyl and

alkali, unsymmetrical dimethylguanidine (1 mg per cc) is the only one so

far met with that is not discharged to colorless on warming for 1 min. with

0.5 ec 8% H2O>s. The color remains brownish due to a faint precipitate, and

on addition of alcohol or toluene goes to an intense purple, while all other

complexes are colorless. Application is being made of these tests in various

diseases, such as muscular distrophy and hypertension. (Author’s Abstract.)

SANFORD M. RosENTHAL: Chemical compounds active against bacterial

infections.—A review of recent advances in bacterial chemotherapy with a

discussion of the active chemical radicals involved was given. Various modifi-

cations of the sulfanilamide molecule in relation to chemotherapeutic effect

were shown. New compounds including di-sulfanilamide and the diphenyl

sulfones, of superior therapeutic action, were presented. (Author’s Abstract.)

V. pu VIGNEAUD, G. W. Irvine, H. M. Dyer, R. R. SEatock: The

differential migration of the blood-pressure-raising and the uterine-contracting

hormones of the posterior lobe of the pituitary.—(The complete article is in

press, to be published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry).

C. E. Sanno: Exhibit: The preservation of agricultural specimens in plas-

tics.—One portion of this exhibit represented plant materials such as roots,

stalks, stems, leaves and flowers, which had been treated chemically in such

a manner as to toughen the tissues and set the natural color, after which

they were preserved between transparent cellulose acetate sheets. These

specimens were prepared by Mr. G. R. Fessenden. The second portion of

the exhibit prepared by Dr. Sando consisted of specimens such as seeds,

beetles and flowers, imbedded in methacrylates. The three outstanding

methacrylate specimens were an ear of corn, which in its imbedded state

measured 24” X3" X7”, an iridescent butterfly, mounted by a process which

prevented actual contact between the specimen and the methacrylate, and

an imbedded group of red globe amaranth flowers. (Author’s Abstract.)

PHysiIcaL CHEmistry, 8. B. HENDRICKS presiding:

STEPHEN BRUNAUER, Paut H. Emmett and Epwarp TELLER: Adsorption

of gases in multimolecular layers.—A derivation of an isotherm equation for

adsorption of multimolecular layers was carried out on the assumption that

the same forces which produce condensation are also responsible for multi-

Mar. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 133

molecular adsorption. The method of derivation was a generalization of

Langmuir’s derivation of the isotherm equation for unimolecular layers. The

equation is

ze 1—(n+1)2"*+n0"1

(A) V =VUmC

1—2 1+(c—1)¢-—cx™

where v is the volume adsorbed at pressure p; x equals p/po, po being the

saturation pressure; Vm is the volume of gas required to form a unimolecular

layer on the adsorbent; c is approximately e(1,-20)/2T, H, being the heat of

adsorption in the first layer and H, the heat of liquefaction of the gas; and

n is the maximum number of layers that can build up on the adsorbent. For

small values of x or large values of n the equation reduces to the linear form

p I Cl p

(B) ——= =

UDierD) nG Unc (po

Equations (A) and (B) were applied to numerous experimental adsorption

isotherms obtained by other investigators as well as by the authors. The

equations seem to represent in a satisfactory manner not only the shape of

low temperature van der Waals adsorption isotherms, but also their tem-

perature dependence. Values obtained for v,, were in good agreement with

those previously estimated empirically directly from the low temperature

adsorption isotherms. (Authors’ Abstract.)

F. W. Ross, Jr: Quantitative analysis, with respect to the component

structural groups, of the infra-red (1 to 2 mu) molal absorptive indices of fifty-

four hydrocarbons.—Data from the previous studies on the infra-red absorp-

tion spectra between 1.2 and 1.8u (5400 to 8900 cm) for 54 hydrocarbons

have been correlated. The total molal absorptive index, K, at any wave

length, is shown to follow, within the limits necessary to define the number

of groups, the formula

K= nat mB + ney +n

Where n, %, 7, Na are the number of —CHs3, ~CH»2, SCH, and ~CH

(aromatic) groups and a, 8, y, and 6 are the values, respectively, of the

absorptive index for a unit group. The formula is demonstrated to hold,

with modifications, for paraffins, cycloparaffins (naphthenes) and aromatic

hydrocarbons, including 10 of high molecular weight (Ces to C32). The ac-

curacy of the method, as well as restrictions on its application are given,

and its use is demonstrated by anexample of the identification of the number

of —CH3, >CHe, and SCH groups in an unknown branched-chain paraffin

hydrocarbon. (Author’s Abstract.)

A. R. Guascow, gr., and 8. T. ScuicxtTanz: A study of ball packings

for laboratory rectifying columns.—The efficiency, liquid hold-up, and surface

area of packings composed of glass balls 2.95 and 3.80 mm in diameter, lead

balls 2.05 and 4.05 mm in diameter, and copper balls 4.00 mm in diameter,

have been determined. The description and operation of the glass experi-

mental column are given. For a column 2.6 cm in diameter packed with balls

0.2 to 0.4 cm in diameter, it is found that: (1) the heat conductivity and

the nature of the material of the packing have no effect on the efficiency

of separation, liquid hold-up, or through-put of the still; (2) the efficiency

is substantially in direct proportion to the total surface area exposed in the

—— —

SSS SSS

- Tee SEES VES

—

eal al = Fie —

~ i

134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 3

packed column, and approximately linear with the reciprocal of the diameter

of the balls; and (8) the hold-up is approximately linear with the total sur-

face area. (Authors’ Abstract.)

R. E. Grsson: The Hoffmeister series of anions and cations, and some

thermodynamic properties of solutions.

495TH MEETING

The 495th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, November 11, 1937, President NicouxtT presiding.

The program was preceded by the annual elections of officers for the

ensuing year. The following were elected: President: NatHan L. DRAKE,

University of Maryland; Secretary: FRANK C. Kracrx, Geophysical Lab-

oratory; Treasurer: Raymonp M. Hann, National Institute of Health;

Councilors: L. B. BRouGHTon, V. DU VIGNEAUD, R. E. Gipson, H. T.

Herrick, G. E. F. Lunpriu, Ben H. Nicoutnt; Board of Managers: Nor-

MAN BEKKEDAHL, H. L. Hauer, M. M. Harina, 8. B. Henrpicks, H. R.

SmiTH, K. T. WILLIAMS

The Society was addressed by Frank C. WuitTmors, President-Elect of

the American Chemical Society and Dean of the School of Chemistry and

Physics of the Pennsylvania State College, upon the subject of Hydrocarbons.

The speaker discussed in considerable detail the research and economic

aspects of hydrocarbon chemistry, stressing particularly the relation of these

compounds to current trends in organic chemistry in general.

496TH MEETING

The 496th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, December 9, 1937, President Nicouer presiding.

The Society was addressed by HERBERT J. WOLLNER, Consulting Chemist

to the Secretary of the Treasury on the subject of the denaturation of indus-

trial alcohol. The speaker explained some of the problems encountered in

the rapidly increasing use of alcohol by the expanding chemical industry,

both from the standpoint of legitimate use and from the standpoint of pre-

venting illegal diversion of the article for non-industrial uses. More and

more exacting demands on specification, resulting from greater chemical

control of ultimate products, require the continual modification of denatur-

ing formulas to suit the requirements of processing. An extensive survey

has been completed on all the industrial uses of alcohol in the United States.

This survey has been paralleled by laboratory studies of the behavior of

denaturants. The results of this study and survey direct the attention to

that particular group of aliphatic compounds which contain oxygen atoms

as providing the greatest promise for denaturants to meet industrial re-

quirements. In this group are the ketones, higher alcohols, and ethers.

497TH MEETING

The 497th meeting, which also was the 54th annual meeting of the So-

ciety, and the 44th annual meeting of the Society as the Washington section

of the American Chemical Society, was held in the Auditorium of the Cos-

ne Club on Thursday, January 13, 1938, with President Draks& in the

chair.

The first part of the meeting was devoted to the annual reports of the

officers. The Secretary reported that the Society had 611 members on De-

cember 1, 1937. Of these, 5.4 per cent were in arrears. During 1937 the

Society lost 51 members by removal, resignation and deaths, and gained

Mar. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 135

109, the net gain being 58. The following members died during the year:

Louis W. MatrTEerN, ALFRED OBERLE. Eight regular meetings were held

during the year, with an average attendance 157, or 27.2 per cent of the paid

up membership. Percentage attendance for all the years of the Society’s

existence is 27.1. The Hi~ueBRAND Prize for 1936 was awarded to

VINCENT DU VIGNEAUD, Professor of Biochemistry at the George Washing-

ton University School of Medicine in recognition of his work on the biologi-

cally important compounds of sulfur. The award was presented to the recipi-

ent at the annual dinner of the Society, held in March. The previous recipi-

ents of the Prizz, and the subjects of the award, published here for the

first time, were:

1925: RicHarp F. Jackson, on Levulose.

1926: George W. Morey, on Constitution of Glass

1927: EpwarpD P. BarTLETT, on the Gas Laws at high Temperatures and

Pressures.

1928: James H. Hipspen, on Radiation and Collision in Chemical Gas

Reactions

1930: CuaupE 8. Hupson, on the Ring Structure of the Sugars.

1931: G. E. F. LUNDELL, on the book, Applied Inorganic Analysis, by

| Hillebrand and Lundell.

1932: F. B. Larorce and H. L. J. HAuumr, on the Structure of Rotenone.

1933: Epwarp W. WasHBURN, posthumously, on the Electrolytic

method of Separation of the Isotopes of Hydrogen.

1934: FrepERIcK D. Rossini, on the Thermochemistry of the normal

aliphatic Hydrocarbons and alcohols.

1935: OutiveR R. WutrF, on the Chemistry of the earth’s Atmosphere in

its Relation to absorbed Solar Radiation, and on his work on Infra-

red absorption Spectra.

The treasurer reported receipts $656.22, expenditures $534.74, unexpend-

ed balance, $121.48. Total resources, as of December 31, 1937: $5,423.98.

The auditing committee (A. R. Mrrz, Chairman, P. H. Groaains, Wo. H.

Ross) had examined the books and had found them to be in order.

The following committees were appointed to serve during 1938: Communi-

cations: G. E. HinBertT, Chairman, J. F. ScHarrer, H. P. Newron, S. B.

Henpricks, N. K. Ricutmyer, H. 8. IsBeiu. Entertainment: EK. R. Smita,

Chairman, L. W. Butz, K. T. Wituiams, A. L. Pirman, STEPHEN BRUN-

AUER, L. A. SuHinn, C. M. Smitru, FLoRENcE Kine, D. Reapy, E. M. NEt-

son, J. J. Fanny, N. K. Ricutmyer, C. E. Wuitrr, Membership: M. M.

Harine, Chairman, F. E. Auitison, E. O. Harmnni, W. J. Hamer, H. M.

HarsHaw, H. S. Ispeti, James McLaren, J. H. Ros, J. R. Spins, F. P.

VerrcuH, JR. Budget: J. F. Coucu, Chairman, H. T. Herrick, C. W. Wurt-

: Finance and Investment: Epwarp WicHERS, M. X. SuLLIVAN, A. K.

ALLS. .

After the presentation and acceptance of the reports, the Society was

addressed by the retiring PresipeNT, Ben H. Nicouet, on Biochemistry

by Analogy: The Sulfur of Cystine. (Published in Tuts JouRNAL, page 84.)

FRANK C. Kracek, Secretary.

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 3

@Obituary

JOHN NapoLteon Brinton Hewitt, ethnologist, Bureau of American

Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, died at his home in Washington, D. C.,

October 14, 1937. In his death there passed from the field of anthropology

the last of that notable group of students of the American Indian which

Major J. W. Powell assembled when he founded the Bureau of American

Ethnology. Mr. Hewitt was born in the neighborhood of Lewiston, Niagara

Co., N. Y., Dec. 16, 1859. His mother, Harriet Brinton (Hewitt), was of

French, English, and Tuscarora Indian descent and his father was a Scotch

physician. Young Hewitt received his early education in the public schools

of Niagara County, and later pursued classical courses in Wilson Union and

Lockport Union academies. His field studies began in 1879, when, as assist-

ant to Mrs. Erminnie A. Smith, ethnologist, he was engaged for seven years

in investigating the language mythology, and social organization of the

Tuscarora and Onondaga Indians. In 1886 he was called to the Bureau of —

American Ethnology where he continued in this line of research to the end

of his life, soon coming to be regarded as the leading authority on the or-

ganization of the Iroquois League and the ceremonials, customs, and usages

of the tribes composing it. He acquired an intimate knowledge of the lan-

guages of the League, including a speaking knowledge of Mohawk and

Onondaga, and also became acquainted with several Algonquian dialects.

During the later years of his active life Mr. Hewitt collected some ma-

terial in the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Delaware dialects of Algonquian, but

most of his personal investigations were devoted to the Iroquois and their

immediate relatives. He was painstakingly conscientious in his work but it

moved so slowly that only a small part was actually printed. In the manu-

script collections of the Bureau there are over 250 entries under his name

including nearly 8000 manuscript pages and 10,000 cards, over half under

the heading Onondaga, but with considerable bodies of Mohawk, Tuscarora,

and Seneca material. He edited the narratives of Denig and Kurz, early

explorers among the western Indians. These were published by the Bureau

in 1930 and 1937. Much of Mr. Hewitt’s time was also devoted to the prepa-

ration of articles for the Handbook of the American Indians, edited by Mr.

F. W. Hodge, Ethnologist-in-Charge, well over a hundred having been

contributed by him. On March 19, 1918, Mr. Hewitt was appointed a mem-

ber of the U: 8. Board on Geographical Names and continued in that capac-

ity until his death. He was a founder of the American Anthropological Asso-

ciation and a member of the Anthropological Society of Washington, which

he served as treasurer from 1911 to 1926, and as President from 1932 to

1934. He was a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences.

seem oti Ahue

CONTENTS

Puysics.—The skeutlaal physicist. Paut R. Heyu. Uae: ee

CHEMISTRY.—Biochemistry by analogy: the lea of baa Eee H. Wee |

WTSOLET. oo tn eee pats ae Sete e cette eee eee eee BE

PALEONTOLOGY.—Oligocene faunas from the lower and upper beds on

the A. L. Parrish farm, Washington enn Florida. WwW. C. Re iis

WEANB RTBU 25 seo se opi) detache ae Gee cake re 98

Borany.—A new species of Callirhoé. Rosert F. Martin. emai 107° ‘

ZooLocy.—North American monogenetic trematodes. II. The families. ee

Monocotylidae, Microbothriidae, a ne a) and es Ce

lidae (Capsaloidea). Emmerr W. Prick.......... : ae me)

EnTomowoey. —A study of the North American ants of ie genus ae |

Xiphomyrmex Forel. Manion R. SMITH... 2200.0. +...

PaLEOBoTaNy.—Two fossils misidentified as shelf-fungi. RouaNnp W. i a

BROWN 2 ahs oes Coe ae oo dr Caen os ear ene

Proceepines: CHmmican SOCIETY... 0... .-.5+ 055006040). 0

Oxsrruary: Joun NaPoueon Brinton Hewirt...... oe a

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals —

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ASSOCIATE EDITORS i

pJ.SEscerR C. F. W. Musszseck

HIOAL SOCIETY = iat ENTOMOLOGIOAL SOCIETY

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GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

oh dea } 34 ten 3 - R 4

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oes

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 28 Apri 15, 1938 No. 4

MICROBIOLOGY .—A microbiologist digs in the sowl.1 CHARLES

TuHom, Bureau of Plant Industry.

PROLOGUE

For his last official appearance, custom has awarded this platform

to each president of the Washington Academy of Sciences, without

restriction in his choice of topic. For one night he can choose the title

of his address and expand it without consulting with the Meetings

Committee. Since he usually expects to continue living in this com-

munity, he is under prudential obligation to broaden his message to

reach members of the Academy who care little for the specific field

which he may have cultivated for half a lifetime.

His first embarrassment is the search for material which will satisfy

this requirement. You will pardon me if I analyze this dilemma in a

somewhat personal way. I have been a biologist for about sixty years;

my father set me to trapping ground squirrels when I was six. Some

of the experience of that first ecological assignment will appear in

what is said here.

If you are to trap a squirrel, first you must find the squirrel’s hole.

Human philosophy will fail you. A squirrel selected the place to dig—

only the squirrel knew why. How about a scientist! Here the safest

course is to “‘tell one’ on myself.

Many years ago, a trustee of the institution in which I was working

brought a friend into my laboratory and said, “‘Tell us about your

work.” I knew that man’s history—he had built success in life for

twenty years around milking cows from 4 to 8 every morning and

from 4 to 8 at night. I spent an hour discussing my project and show-

ing the results attained. I thought I had done it rather well. Without

a word or look at me, he turned to his guest and said, I’d hate to

“earn my living as this fellow does.’ They went out.

Let us go back to our squirrel. Like the scientist, he is industrious.

He piles up dirt about his hole as the scientist does monographs. But

_ 1 Address of the retiring president of the Washington Academy of Sciences, de-

livered February 17, 1938. Received February 18, 1938.

— a ef ar é

amram © SY Fe

ADL | Ry

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

for the most part he is out of sight down his hole. No doubt he does

a good job—down the hole. But down there his vision is limited by

the crooks in his burrow. Now and then he ventures out, mounts his

little pile and utters the chatter of his species. Equally the scientist

appears before the Academy and when the brickbats begin to fly,

dives back into his burrow whence a noxious flow of polysyllabic,

technical jargon discourages all who seek to pursue.

I am not condemning the squirrel type of scientist. Sometimes a

man is inspired to go off by himself and break into new ground.

Again, it is either physically impossible to fit new ideas into existing

systems, or, necessary to leave the integration of results to a coming

generation. But it is always worth while to halt excavation opera-

tions until one has defined the real reason for digging.

Do not misunderstand me—I am quite sure that many a man can

serve his generation best by selecting a limited field in which he digs

deep and disregards his fellows—provided he definitely continues to

dig and to monograph, but refrains from deciding all of the weighty

problems of the world from data acquired—down his hole. I equally

well know that the man who really digs deep, like the squirrel, comes

upon roots of many kinds which lead in many directions so that a

lifetime in what appears to be a very narrow hole, may develop con-

tacts with the “ends of the earth.’ Nevertheless, for most of us it

remains better that we confine ourselves to our monographs and re-

frain from settling all of the affairs of earth and heaven by what we

find down our holes.

Thus I come to my subject.

A MICROBIOLOGIST DIGS IN THE SOIL

If a microbiologist who digs in the soil is to find excuse for discuss-

ing a series of questions of interest to those who care little for the

description of microbes and microbial activities, it must be in the

borderline of his field—not in its purely technical aspects. The broad

significance of his work will appeal to some, whereas his points of

contact with men and movements outside, as viewed from his special

angle, will interest others. The details of his laboratory and field

operations only reach those critically familiar with both soil tech-

nology and microbiological procedures.

However dead the earth may look and be considered in our thought-

less moments, the experience of man far back beyond his written

records has led him to associate trouble capable of multiplying itself

as coming from dirt. Bacillus tetanus, amoebic dysentery, thermo-

Apr. 15, 1938 THOM: MICROBIOLOGIST 139

philic spoilage, actinomycosis and botulism, are new terms, but the

need of freedom from earth in wounds, in food, and in clothing is no

recent discovery. The demonstration that soil, instead of being all

dead, harbors millions of organisms, releases that flight of imagina-

tion which pictures the soil as a sort of Lilliputian zoo in which some

magic hand has eliminated all barriers and set free every grade of

minute but rapacious monster to go roaring after the next lesser

grade as its lawful prey. Thus the soil is pictured to us in terms that

lead us to ask what manner of thing it is.

The mass is firm. We walk upon it. We dump into it the waste, the

worthless and the unwanted. Somehow all disappear. We look at it

and thoughtlessly think of it as the product of the disintegrating

power of cold, heat, rain, snow and all the other lifeless forces of the

earth, yet the late Professor Marbut in one of his lectures said, ‘‘How-

ever fundamental climatic forces may be, they are destructive, not

constructive.” In their effect upon the surface layer of the earth,

“They stop with gravel, sand, silt and clay.’’ No one familiar with the

waste places of earth fails to recognize in these words the desert.

Then Marbut added, ‘“‘Climate produces parent material, life makes

it soil.”” Yet nowhere does the living micropopulation constitute more

than a minute fraction of the soil mass.

The Soil Profile:—A vertical section of the soil is called a soil pro-

file and its more or less apparent layers are designated horizons. The

orthodox soil sampler interprets soil as earthy material hence brushes

away all of the accumulated waste such as dead leaves, stems, and

bits of animal matter which he calls the A, horizon. His soil begins

only when he reaches amorphous material. From this, after his sample

is taken, he discards all visible masses—recognizable as vegetable or

animal in origin, and minerals larger than sand. The more progressive

soil microbiologists, however, can not accept a distinction between

pieces of root, for example, easily picked out, and the multitude of

bits of living or dead roots which escape detection hence remain in the

sample. They therefore have adopted this no man’s land (horizon Ao)

as microbiologically. interesting, important and logically part of their

territory.

Below this layer of organic matter we see a surface layer (A) the

soil proper (solum) containing the black or brown organic substance

known as humus, a second layer (the subsoil, B) partly colored or

‘streaked with humus, and a third layer (C) composed of mineral soil

materials. The organic factor in the upper layers constructively dis-

tinguishes them from the soil materials—mineral in character below.

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

The transition from one horizon to the other may be gradual or

abrupt. On the basis of the structure and chemical composition of

these horizons, the Soil Survey has listed and described something

like 1,700 varieties or types of “‘virgin’’ soil in the United States

alone, and a myriad more of types in other parts of the world. We are

bewildered by the endless diversity in description of superficial form

and structural arrangement; we are confused by formidable geologi-

cal theories and impressive chemical diagrams. Regardless of these

differences, some of us find evidences everywhere of fundamental

homogeneities. Soil forming processes are great levellers. Universally

distributed groups of organisms and universal organic processes are

involved in the decomposition of plant and animal remains and in the

subsequent transformation of the by-products of this decomposition

into food for green plants. These processes follow lines which are

much the same throughout the world, hence the heterogeneity of the

picture is in detail—the really striking thing is, that a significant

homogeneity can be traced through so complex a mineral substratum

grown through and through by multitudes of individual organisms

belonging to diverse groups.

Constructively below ground, the microbiologist is academically

free. He can report his exact findings without risk of controversy out-

side the soil group. Within that group, controversy is the rule, not

the exception. Geologist, chemist, physicist, botanist and agronomist

—each claims a proprietary interest in the soil. Each looks at it from

a different angle. Each feels abundantly able to defend his claims.

Academic freedom among scholars is limited by discretion. Within

the narrow field in which a man has earned the right to speak, he is

commonly heard with respect. Outside that area he is just another

commentator from second-hand data with no special right to consider-

ation. If he generalizes too broadly from the findings of his narrow

field, he is promptly challenged by some one equally learned and

equally sure that he has gleaned the truth, but a different truth from

another line of investigation. Unfortunately the temptation to let our

tongues run at large is always present.

I heard a man once report some very stimulating experiments with

(shall I say?) geese—and apply the results to support his own view

of a controversy about man involving not only physical but intel-

lectual and social values. Another paused in a purely earthly discus-

sion to regret that the Christian’s idea of God is “‘not yet extinct.”

Such incidents are legion; one can stand in awe before him who is

ready to die for a conviction but in some cases he would be tempted

Apr. 15, 1938 THOM : MICROBIOLOGIST 141

to applaud the executioner. In our field there does not seem to be

any ground to cavil at the oath of allegiance and it is hard to see any

definite relation of our data to meditative philosophical systems.

Generalizing from the particular is an ancient sin. Experiments

with soil are expensive, laborious and time consuming. One man uses

undescribed earthy material in which he plants millet, a second plants

tomatoes, a third rye, and all summarize by discussing the reactions

of “plants in soil.’”? The microbiologist is not free from guilt—he

weighs out 50 grams of “soil” adds 2 grams of this or that, incubates,

analyzes and decides that microbial activity in “‘soil’’ is measurable

in ‘‘x’’ milligrams or “‘y’’ parts per million of ‘‘A’’. The complexity

of the micropopulation, further complicated by the difficultly measur-

able environmental factors, warns us that the most explicit statement

of materials and procedures, will add greatly to the usefulness of our

data. We are always thankful to the man who tells us exactly what

he has done, how he did it and who details his results in sharply de-

fined terms. We are also interested in the way he believes those re-

sults to fit into some philosophic whole to round out our knowledge of

a particular field. But if he chooses to break over into the field of

abstract meditation, we have only one request—that he shall not

spoil the value of his scientific contribution by confusing his medita-

tions with his observations.

Having attended a great many meetings of ‘‘learned’’ societies,

having published rather freely, having read bales of “‘proceedings,”’

and having stood at the foot of several martyr monuments, I some-

times wonder how much philosophical turmoil and physical violence

might have been avoided if men had always distinguished clearly

between essentials of truth in their experience and weird meditation

which had no basis in truth.

But let us get back to our soil population. One of the first questions

raised is—how large is this micropopulation? Some figures may be

cited. The Rothamsted group reports between 15 and 25 millions to

the gram; Brown and his colleagues in Iowa consistently found 2 to

6 millions; Waksman in New Jersey got 30,000 to 8 or 9 millions;

Conn in New York State reported 5 to 400 millions. Each claimed to

have determined the total population; the methods used diverged

widely. These figures are sufficient to show that numbers alone help

little, even though determined in a punctiliously taken representative

sample, composited and homogenized from a series of cores taken at

specified distances with the sampling tube. If such determinations

are correlated with the factors in that soil which determine its use-

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

fulness, then if those factors are subsequently altered, and the soil

is reexamined by the same worker, we obtain useful contrasts. We

conclude that such bacterial counting by any method rigidly stand-

ardized may establish a population level or partial population-level

or density, characteristic of a particular type of soil in a particular

condition. Marked rise or fall of that micropopulation from that

level may be correlated with favorable or unfavorable cropping con-

ditions. At best, we have not yet reached the point where we feel

warranted in trying to use such bacterial counts for practical ends.

The great volume of work done has given us a general concept

of population levels, related but not very closely, to soil descrip-

tions.

This micropopulation has been described as composed of ‘myriads

of interlocking units” which make up a ‘‘microcosm.’’ Counts of this

population as already cited run from a few thousands to the gram in

a very acid soil to some hundreds of millions or more under special

conditions. Sir John Russell and his colleagues at Rothamsted con-

clude that ‘‘about 20,000,000 bacteria per gram of soil is now con-

sidered a fair average number.” This figure is based upon the ‘‘plate

count”’ of the bacteriological laboratory made from samples of a good

grade of cropping soil. If we add to Russell’s figure the remainder of

the population—molds, yeasts, protozoa, algae, etc., many of which

scarcely appear in the ordinary “colony count’’ of the culture labora-

tory—we might increase it perhaps 25 per cent. This would make

25,000,000 as an average total population figure for the type of sample

used as a representative.

A few generalizations about these organisms may be worth giving.

Dig into the soil and you find here and there a larger animal or more

frequently, a burrow—but you see none of these millions. You might

roll the whole 25 millions into a pellet and it would be as large as a

very small grain of sand. It would take about 25,000 such pellets

to make a cubic centimeter. Yet their activities are measurable in

various ways. Tests show that carbon dioxide evolved by respiration

of these organisms escapes constantly in measurable quantities from

the surface of the soil. Daily and hourly counts show constantly

changing numbers. There is activity as long as reaction, temperature,

moisture and food supplies permit. Few of them are destroyed by

summer’s heat or winter’s cold, by flood or by drought. Even after

the laboratory sampler has air-dried his earth, thrown out every piece

of so-called foreign matter which he could see, crushed it with a roller

to powder, then run it through a 2 mm sieve—those bacteria are yet

Apr. 15, 1938 THOM: MICROBIOLOGIST 143

there. Pour a little of that soil into a sterile container of fermentable

material and in a few hours of incubation it becomes a seething mass

of microorganisms.

Statistical Analysis :—The totals of population cited from different

authorities vary sufficiently to require further discussion. If we

scrutinize the figures for each tubeful of earth composited in making

up the sample for determining these population totals, we find di-

vergences in successive sampling from the same area so great as to

trouble those bacteriologists to whom mathematical expressions of

this kind are presumed either to have an exact meaning or, in their

variation to hide something discernible by proper analysis. From such

studies they have published page after page of graphs purporting to

synthesize in a statistical way, totals of bacterial counts varying (let

us say) from 13 to 23 millions and searching for a mathematical

meaning in such differences from samples taken out of a single field.

Physical, chemical and general biological data in these samples were

ignored. Despite their efforts to obtain homogeneity, those long

familiar with the hundreds of millions or even billions of bacteria per

gram associated with actively rotting substances elsewhere, would be

surprised if spaced samples from such a heterogeneous mass as soil

gave totals varying less than 25, 50 or even 100%. Physical examina-

tion of the soil profile reveals so great variety of visible components

as to forbid anticipation of close correspondence in bacterial popula-

tions in such samples even though the operator may throw out all

visible pieces of rotten vegetation, living earthworm or dead cat, that

happen to be caught by his sample tube. One wise old soil chemist

expressed the opinion that he lost essential and valuable information

if the laboratory helper put the sample through the homogenizing

process before he saw it.

No one doubts the important service of statistics in fields where

hundreds and thousands of items of reasonably nearly the same kind

must be brought together for a specific purpose. In fields such as soil

bacteriology in which physical limitations reduce the samples which

one group can examine, to numbers readily grasped as individual

figures in a table, the significance of the actual figures and their rela-

tion directly to characters within each sample, commonly far surpass

in importance any generalization by statistical analysis of the group

of samples. The question is not, shall statistics be applied, but where

shall they be applied that they may contribute to, rather than obscure

our search for truth.

If future studies of total soil populations are to yield important

144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

information, the samples taken must be fully integrated with all we

know about the soil.

This changed attitude is represented in recent Canadian papers by

Timonin and Gray in which series of samples were taken from well

identified soil types. Temperature, water content, reaction, and

organic matter were measured and recorded against the bacterial

counts of every sample. The results point the way for future studies in

this field.

If we accept the fact of a large micropopulation, we are faced with

problems of analysis and interpretation. What do we know of these

microbes and how can we use them? Intelligent control of the organ-

isms encountered in farm operations, with the exception of a single

group, stops at the surface of the ground. Nature has furnished the

farmer with his soil-type and with his climate. The farmer knows how

to handle such crop-associates as weeds, nurse-crops, or cover crops.

At its entrance into the soil, his crop-plant passes into an environment

which is unknown to the farmer, and almost unknown to the scientist.

There the crop-plant must compete with a multitude of species of

molds, bacteria and protozoa as well as more complex animal and

plant forms. Of these we know something about certain species which

are destructive parasites; we have actually learned to utilize the

legume nodule bacteria, but the multitudinous remainder continue

to be a task for the future. We have at present no consistent picture

of what goes on—below ground.

Our twenty-five millions of microorganisms to the gram present a

whole series of other problems that lead in different directions. To

the systematist of a generation just past, they presented a new and

great floristic field which yielded long lists of species new to science,

and ecological situations of the utmost interest, because related in so

many ways to human welfare. 7

American attempts at classifying soil organisms began scarcely 40

years ago. Some of those who set the original landmarks are still at

work—notably Chester and Lipman. None of us are real pioneers.

Decomposition of organic matter as a phenomenon had been common

knowledge of mankind for ages. The use of manures for crop growing

was already ancient in Bible times. Legumes as soil improvers were

known to the Romans. The outlines of the nitrogen cycle had been

already drawn and values measured step by step by chemists. Even

sterilization of media goes back to Pasteur who was not interested in

soil. We may as well confess that biologists did not start investigations

in soil bacteriology; they were dragged in by the demand that the

Apr. 15, 1938 THOM: MICROBIOLOGIST 145

organisms whose presence was predicated by facts well established,

be identified and studied. To satisfy this demand, men entered

bacteriology from two directions. The botanists brought morphology

bolstered by a smattering of chemistry into the study of microscopic

species. The chemists brought quantitative analytical methods but

little morphology and too often, no desire for any.

The earlier studies were largely morphological and attributable

to such outstanding figures as DeBary, Brefeld and Ferdinand Cohn

among the botanists. The microbiological literature of that period

(1850 to 1870) was filled with descriptions of polymorphism in the

fungi. Men who knew that they could plant an acorn or a potato, and

follow its whole life history, thought a mold or a bacterium was dif-

ferent. In the early days of the culture laboratory men started with

what they thought was one species and ended with a menagerie. They

gravely described the whole aggregation as different manifestations of

a single form of life—the dissertations of that period are interesting.

Be it known we still receive cultures—supposed to be particular

molds, in which two or three fungi, a half dozen bacterial strains, an

occasional mite and a few protozoa may be found to complicate

identification.

The idea of pure culture developed slowly; some have not caught it

even now. A microorganism often presents strikingly different ap-

pearances upon different culture media. What appears to be strictly

a green Aspergillus on a pair of moldy shoes, becomes a dense layer

of yellow to orange fruit bodies (perithecia) upon 40% sucrose agar.

Is it any wonder that polymorphism caught the fancy of whole groups

of men between 1850 and 1880? Similar contrasts are easily cited for

soil bacteria. With improvement of apparatus, it became easy to

Separate species whose mixtures presented great difficulties to Brefeld.

In the swing away from polymorphism taxonomists accepted the

idea that fundamentals of structure (what are fundamentals any-

way’) could be assumed to be fixed species characters. Color, shape

of units, size of units, aggregation into chains, plates or “‘packets’”’

were selected as diagnostic. Although whole series of strains did not

fit into the preconceived scheme of things, for the time they were dis-

carded with a pretext for dismissal. The idea of dependably fixed but

abstract species-characters developed, and remains today, an en-

demic infection in many strata of workers who deal with micro-

organisms.

The botanical bacteriologists had started with floristic studies.

They made lists of microorganisms found in particular soil popula-

146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

tions; they isolated and described new species. They carried over into

bacterial characterization, detailed description of the color, size and

shape of cells, of cilia, of flagella, of spores, of thickness of cell walls,

of aggregations of units into filaments or masses. Every variation from

type description was given a new name. In accord with botanical °

usages, the substratum in which the species was first found was

designated as habitat, and the geographical region was entered in the

record as locality. The arbitrary conventionalism that the substratum

and place of first discovery typifies the species, has made constant

trouble in subsequent studies of higher plants: when applied to micro-

organisms it produces chaos.

To the early taxonomist the description of a microorganism was a

simple process. Nature was assumed to be made up of units which as

collected represented species. It was assumed that if the original

specimen were described and preserved, succeeding workers had but

to fit their findings to existing diagnostic literature and label their

material accordingly.

From such activity, we inherit long lists of names for species whose

type-habitat is soz. Believing the numbers of species few and readily

separated by brief morphological diagnoses the early describers made

simple task of it. Only a few of their species are safely identifiable

today and still less of them are correlated with their distribution and

function in nature.

Nomenclature and classification of organisms great and small

dominated biology for many years. Perhaps it has been partially

brushed aside on account of sins of scholarship, but no one has yet

suggested a practical method of conveying information useful to his

fellows, about a particular organism, without some kind of name and

grouping definite enough to identify it to his reader or hearer. The

vast literature of biology opens only to him who has for his organism

the name under which that organism has been discussed by his

predecessors. How can we understand each other if a microorganism

appears in the soil under one name, and in medical bacteriology under

another, or perhaps two more? This is no impossible conception.

Examples are easily cited. Every organism great or small, eventually

comes upon or into the soil. There are probably 100,000 kinds of

fungi and nobody knows how many bacteria. Finding an organism in

the soil may mean much or little—it may open vistas in soil biology;

it may prove to be an inconspicuous saprophyte; or it may be a path-

ogen well-known to medical bacteriologists, if proper steps are taken

to identify it.

Apr. 15, 1938 THOM: MICROBIOLOGIST 147

Identification of species is more important today than ever before.

Long, tedious and expensive investigations of incorrectly identified

organisms have been repeatedly published to plague us indefinitely

with citations of activity which no one can verify and no one can

refute. Whatever excuse may be offered for the past, there should be

no place in publication today for elaborate discussion of unidentifiable

material.

One looks in vain through Bergey’s Manual for recognition of

many species which were long ago named and described for activities

in the soil. Although the old barriers between groups of bacteriologists

have partially broken down, there are still men working in medical

laboratories, or dairy laboratories, who forget that dirt does get into

almost everything hence lists of soil organisms should be searched

before new species are described from other sources. Yes, and there

are soil men whose eyes rarely see anything but dirt and to whom

medical bacteriology is not only a foreign field, but one upon which

they rarely even look—over the fence. We can no longer shirk recog-

nition that any bacterium of any type-habitat, may come up to plague

us in our soil studies. Special brands of biologists can hardly hope to

live by themselves and do work in peace. Professor Bailey once made

the remark that a particular scientist had relieved the situation by

resigning, adding, ‘‘We never had but the one man about here who

tried to put a high fence around his field and keep the rest of us out.

We all took special delight in throwing our ‘dead cats’ over that

fence.”

The chemical bacteriologists likewise developed two lines of attack.

Some tested for biological activities in mass. Thousands of samples of

soil were taken by standardized procedure, analyzed, incubated and

re-analyzed; I saw 5,000 flasks (Gottingen, 1905) incubating at one

time for nitrification testing in a great laboratory; such results were

aggregated into generalizations about soil fertility but the agents

active were assumed, not known, and unfortunately sometimes they

were not there. Broad differences in nitrification within great soil

groups were readily established: when applied to particular cropping

areas, the results were disappointing.

Such tests continue in use today but for restricted purposes or special

intensive comparisons only; standardization in soil testing in the lab-

oratory loses sight of so many biological factors operating in the field

that the results can only apply within narrow limits to the solution

of particular cropping problems. However suggestive the theoretic

considerations may have been, very few of the tables covering thou-

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

sands upon thousands of such determinations have any interest today.

The procedures of bacteriology have automatically tended to center

activity upon the laboratory so completely as to give color to the

charge that a pint of soil sent in by a correspondent can keep a whole

group working for several years without feeling the necessity of going

back to examine the field. The sum of abstract human knowledge

perhaps grows thereby but perspective in presenting the specific in-

formation as a part of an integrated whole, is wanting.

In such studies, the single organism, the species and even whole

groups were lost to consideration. Whole populations were dealt with

in mass. The existence of discordant elements in such populations

showed here and there in the results obtained. The biochemist had

perforce to turn to the single species in pure culture to analyze his

troubles. Here again there is a long story but only time for a few

glimpses of its development.

As an example, Beijerinck’s Azotobacter which fixes atomospheric

nitrogen very accommodatingly in the laboratory, caught the imagi-

nation of soil men over the whole world. Publications by hundreds

deal with A. chroococcum in the laboratory, or, with merely finding it

in the field. Imaginative calculators have estimated its service to

agriculture as an annual contribution in fabulous figures, but when

what we actually know about A. chroococcum in the field is put to the

crucial test that units of particular bacterial species must be present

in countless millions if that species is to play a large part in soil

processes, the probable significance of Azotobacter shrinks toward the

mythical. No one has been able to find more than a few thousands

to the gram anywhere and sometimes it is difficult to find at all. While

hope still lingers that Beijerinck’s organism may somehow and some-

time be found to satisfy the fond dreams of its laboratory devotees,

the iconoclasts have largely turned away in quest for some other

agent to explain the nitrogen fixation known to occur.

Frequency of appearance in routine culture does not necessarily

indicate significant responsibility for biochemical activity in the soil.

Aspergillus fumigatus is world-wide in its distribution in the soil, but

it is equally common in decaying vegetation and in and upon cereal

grains; itis parasitic in the lungs of birds and sometimes even in man.

It grows readily from near the freezing point to 45°C. Like most

cosmopolitan organisms it is also omnivorous; it produces a wide

variety of enzymes. In laboratory test one strain of it from the soil.

broke down cellulose so readily that its finder, not knowing the

species, called it Aspergillus cellulosae. Nevertheless, there is little

Apr. 15, 1938 THOM: MICROBIOLOGIST 149

evidence that this species produces in the soil sufficient masses of

vegetative mycelium to be a real factor in the breakdown of plant

remains. This is only one example: Soil mycology papers list whole

series of species easily isolated, universally distributed, but on account

of their limitation in mass development, only capable of being minor

contributors to the aggregate of biochemical changes in the soil.

Nevertheless we have extensive researches upon the biochemical

activities of many of these species. _

As an example in sharp contrast, matted mycelium was easily seen

throughout the top inch of the mineral soil in several acres of a

wooded area in southern Virginia. Conspicuous fruit bodies connected

directly with the strands in this top soil identified the organism as a

species of Clavarza, yet no one has ever reported Clavarza in laboratory

cultures from soil nor has anyone tested this Hymenomycete for bio-

chemical significance. The mushrooms, puffballs and related forms are

constant members of the soil population and form great masses of

vegetative mycelium but only a few of them fruit readily in laboratory

culture. Identification of their mycelia when they do appear is com-

monly impossible. Aside from the cultivated mushroom, we know

therefore exceedingly little of the vegetative activity of the soil in-

habiting members of this whole group with its thousands of species,

although there is constant evidence of their presence in mass in the

field. A new line of attack will be necessary if we are to evaluate their

contribution to soil changes.

Search for organisms capable of special activity has taken many

forms. One of the commonest has been the preparation of the so-

called ‘‘enrichment’’ media. For this purpose, culture solutions pre-

pared to contain approximately the necessary elements for growth

have been used to test for species capable of attacking wide ranges

of organic and inorganic substances. Cellulose fermenting forms have

been studied extensively. Iron bacteria, sulphur bacteria and selenium

_ fungi have been given recent and rather conspicuous attention. Once

in the laboratory few of these organisms have been followed back to

the soil to prove their significance or establish their exact relationship

to soil processes.

The classic nitrification work of Winogradsky, and the arsenic

studies of Gosio, go back to the 1890’s. A few years ago we had oc-

casion to repeat arsenic work of Gosio and found other species in the

soil capable of disclosing the presence of arsenic by volatilizing it when

present even in very small quantities. We were promptly called upon

to produce fungi capable of volatilizing 1,500 pounds of lead-arsenate

en a cr +

150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

to the acre, that we might rid certain areas of this excess. Even if it

had been possible to produce a mold population capable of this

activity within a reasonable time, man and beast would have needed

to move from that neighborhood during the process to escape the

odors evolved.

To read some of this literature one would expect Gosio’s mold to

be a conspicuous example of a species with specialized relations to the

environment, but in fact it (Penicillium brevicaule or Scopulariopsis)

is a cosmopolitan saprophyte which is found in the soil everywhere; it

produces ammonia in cheese cellars; it contaminates stored meat; it

has been found abundantly upon poorly cured hay, and in a thousand

other places. Its effect upon arsenicals does not seem to have any

necessary connection with its growth and development in nature.

Whole series of studies of ‘‘named”’ species have been made in which

no evidence of significant relation to soil problems is presented. Unless

a species can be found capable of development in mass under actual

soil conditions, the demonstration of such an activity in vitro merely

raises the possibility of function somewhere in nature: it does not

establish the importance of the species as a biochemical agent in the

soil.

The history of this quantitative literature about single species is

most interesting. The idea of specificity of activity had crept into

microbiological literature far back in the 19th Century. Each organ-

ism was pictured to us as performing one function. The organic cycle

became the original pattern for the factory assembly line. Decom-

position was supposed to be accomplished step by step. The first agent

performed one process then ceased. A second organism performed

the next process and so on until the end. Recomposition was the same

process reversed. The only difficulty about it is that it is not true. The

agents of decomposition are a tremendously complex aggregation of

competing units of many groups; some of them are capable of per-

forming many functions although no species perhaps is able to com-

plete the whole process. Such a thing as a succession of organisms

exists perhaps in theory but under natural conditions these activities

overlap so completely, and duplicating species are so numerous, that

the old certainties of succession are gone. Nevertheless we find per-

sistent faith in the traditions of our great authorities.

In the purely chemical scheme of things a microorganism became

a special kind of reagent which was to be procured from a morpho--

logical systematist and which could be kept in a bottle with a name

on it, and called upon at will to produce one definite measurable

Apr. 15, 1938 THOM: MICROBIOLOGIST 151

effect under specific conditions. We are told that if a proper survey

of these activities were made, the whole course of nature would be

predictable. The biometrists would reduce biology to equations. The

doctrine is defended as a legitimate part of a mechanistic philosophy.

But we face the fact that the simplest of those complex biological

processes as worked out in the laboratory, took the genius of a genera-

tion of chemists to unravel and constantly requires the intelligent

skill of expert chemists to operate. The infinitely complex processes

which we see undescribed would need omniscience to reduce to formu-

lae and mechanism, and take both omniscience and omnipotence to

operate. So far as the present situation appears, we have done little

more than substitute a new batch of incomprehensible terms for the

usages of the old time vitalist. We must welcome every determination

and every observation which helps establish our control of new proc-

esses and our restatement of old problems, but the limitlessness of

the fields opened up give little promise of completed knowledge thus

pat.

Obviously each step we have discussed tended to carry us farther

and farther away from the soil: There are other soil problems to be

considered.

Dependence on food supplies:—Many descriptions of great micro-

populations report the organisms as growing in the soil but do not

recognize the necessity of organic remains as food supply back of such

aggregates. Even discussions of root rot fungi sometimes put forward

the bald assumption that as vegetative mycelia they start from some

point then spread blindly in all directions, attacking and killing roots

of crop plants when encountered at any point on the advancing front.

To meet this hypothetical picture, Miss Morrow and her co-workers

in Texas excavated whole root systems of cotton plants and demon-

strated that root rot fungi follow visible roots and pass to new plants

where interlacing rootlets meet between the rows of host plants. Lines

of infection are not due to “scout”’ mycelia hunting new victims but

to contact transference. Fungi and bacteria in the soil follow food

supply—they do not search blindly for it. Parasitism upon living

roots, however important to the crop grower, accounts for little of

the soil microbic activity.

The complex interlacing root systems represented by a sod are

familiar. Dittmer computed that his rye plant specially grown in a

box 12 by 12 by 22 inches for 4 months, produced a root system con-

taining some 13 millions of units, totalling 387 miles in length. We

may disregard these exact figures but they emphasize the complete-

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 28, NO. 4

ness of penetration of the soil by the roots of crop plants as ordinarily

spaced in the field. If you cut a block from the forest floor, the mass

is often held together with interlacing tree roots forming half its

volume. At the end of a cropping season in a humid area, the whole

surface soil is readily seen to be matted with roots of corn, wheat or

cotton. Microorganisms are present along every millimeter of these

root systems while living. The background is thus prepared for the

development of immense numbers of bacteria when the surface growth

is destroyed and the root systems die. Even in the unplowed land,

root pruning both of trees and of herbaceous perennials furnishes a

continuous supply of dead and dying plant material. Decomposition

of annuals, becomes an explosive process involving the development

of countless millions of bacteria. There is thus a continuity of food

supply under soil conditions that provides for great micropopulations;

there is microbial activity continuous but fluctuating widely with the

abundance of food and the variation of climatic conditions.

Soil microbiologists have done something toward describing what

we find in these tremendously complex aggregates of roots and mi-

crobes. In one single group they have gone farther and found that

particular bacteria may be isolated by proper methods and inoculated

or planted upon the seed or in the soil, to produce a known and

desirable end. Nodules occur upon the roots of a long list of legumi-

nous plants. By proper culture, we isolate the organisms, Ahizobia,

from the nodules, propagate them in pure culture, and put them back

in the soil or upon plants of the same kind, and render these plants

effective and profitable crops in poor soils in which they grew feebly

without these bacteria. This symbiotic relation makes possible the

accumulation and fixation of nitrogen from the air—hence this whole

group of leguminous plants becomes immensely valuable in our

campaign for land improvement. The history of this achievement is

told in a book by Fred and his colleagues, who cite their sources in

2,000 publications produced mostly within the last 50 years.

Repeated attempts to exercise such control with other crops and

other bacteria have failed. Our people working in Texas have in the

past two years, inoculated plants with particular organisms and ap-

pear to recover those organisms at will—but thus far attempts at

practical applications have not succeeded. That field is open and

scarcely explored today. There is every reason to believe that it has

great possibilities.

This tale of mine might have been designated, confessions. It tells

of failures, of futile ideas followed until the worker reached the

Apr. 15, 1938 WARD AND ROBERTS: TRIASSIC DIABASE 153

dilemma of the Experiment Station which was said to have “‘spent so

much money on Dr. A’s attempt to climb a tree that they did not

dare let him come down.”’ It recites the history of things partly done

and abandoned. It lists unfinished tasks. But it also tells of visions of

problems worth doing which are brought into bold relief by the work

already done.

Bacteriology, as a branch of biology, is new. There are men in this

room who can remember how the world hailed the pioneer discoveries

of Robert Koch in the 1880’s. It took twenty years more to bring the

procedures of the bacteriological laboratory to a stage in which the

worker could keep his vision partly on the ends to be obtained instead

of solely upon the manipulations necessary to reach any results.

Microbiologically, “below ground” was outside the field of science

a half century ago. Like the squirrel of our prologue, the worker had

to feel his way. Is it any wonder that sometimes he got lost?

Twenty-five millions of organisms to the gram of soil! Bacteria,

molds, actinomycetes, myxomycetes, algae, protozoa and more com-

plex!—they fill a microbiological jungle in which friends and foes,

saprophytes and parasites, symbionts and antagonists compete with

each other and with crop plants for space and food. They are a chal-

lenge to our skill in culture, to our discrimination in interpretation

and to our constructive imagination in devising means to control

and direct these myriads to useful ends.

GEOLOGY .—Prismatic jointing in Triassic diabase of Virginia.!

Routanp V. Warp and JosepH K. Roperts, University of

Virginia. (Communicated by RoLanp W. Brown.)

Prismatic jointing in Triassic diabase of Virginia was first observed

during the summer of 1929 when a quarry for road metal was opened

in Fauquier County, approximately 4 miles northwest of Remington,

near U.S. Highway 29. At the present time the quarry is in operation,

and the enlarged dimensions have been sufficiently extensive to expose

the jointing in fresh condition, which has enabled a more detailed

investigation, especially in the mineral content of the diabase. The

quarry 1s approximately 100 by 200 feet, and about 15 feet deep.

Diabase is widespread over the Triassic belts of Virginia, also over

much of the Piedmont and Blue Ridge, and a portion of the Valley

province. This rock occurs both as intrusives and extrusives in the

Border conglomerate, Manassas sandstone, and Bull Run shales of

1 Received February 3, 1938.

154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 4

Fig. 1.—A block of diabase after blasting, showing prisms of diabase.

Fig. 2.—View of the prismatic diabase in place.

Apr. 15, 1938 WARD AND ROBERTS: TRIASSIC DIABASE 155

Upper Triassic age. In the above mentioned quarry the diabase occurs

in the form of an extrusive sheet, and it has the apparent strike of

N-70-E to N-80-E, and the prisms dip from 68° to 72° in a N-15-E

direction. If the prisms were originally in a vertical position, their

present position is to be accounted for by later movements. Of the

twenty prisms measured, thirteen are pentagonal and seven hexag-

onal. None with three, four, or more than six sides were observed

anywhere in the quarry. The sides of the prisms are generally smooth

although a few are curved and irregular. Some taper to a slight extent.

The usual transverse breaking into convex and concave surfaces was

observed in only a few specimens. Width of the faces ranges from 3 to

10 inches. Only a very few prisms show any tendency toward equi-

lateral faces as in the Giant’s Causeway, the Devil’s Tower, or the

extrusive sheets of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. The prisms fit

tightly together in the fresher diabase, and even more compactly in

the weathered rock.

The fresh diabase shows a dull, dark blue color but changes with

the degree of weathering to a reddish brown. The fresh rock is hard

and brittle, and maintains a remarkable uniformity in physical prop-

erties over the Triassic areas of Virginia. The most highly weathered

phases of the diabase crumble easily, and form a characteristically red

residual soil. The megascopic texture is fine grained to dense as ob-

served in the quarry. On one side of the quarry the diabase is jointed,

while on the other side it appears sheet-like. In the latter form the

amygdaloidal structure occurs, and less frequently in the prismatic

diabase. The amygdules vary from a fraction of a millimeter up to

30 millimeters. In practically all of the amygdules are found silica

in the form of chalcedony, and subordinate amounts of quartz and

calcite. There are white stringers of chalcedony, and calcite filling

fissures whose length rarely exceeds 8 centimeters, and width 2 mil-

limeters. No evidence of flow structure has been observed, even under

the microscope. Amygdaloidal structure does not show in the weath-

ered zone, which extends down about five feet.

Microscopically the prismatic diabase shows a typical ophitic

texture, an intergrowth of lath-shaped feldspars and pyroxenes. These

crystals are small, suggest a slower rate of cooling than would have

occurred in the uppermost layers of an extrusive sheet, but compose

a much finer texture than would have resulted from the cooling of an

intrusive sheet of any considerable dimensions. This intergrowth

shows a greater abundance of feldspar and a smaller proportion of

pyroxene than much of the Triassic diabase of Piedmont Virginia,

i é

agi

: 4

—— — ta

Fig. 3.—Photomicrograph showing banded chalcedony, a spherulite lying near a

calcite crystal, and granular quartz. X50. Fig. 4.—Photomicrograph of diabase show-

ing a stringer of opalized silica with a long calcite crystal. x50,

Hi)

wall

Apr. 15, 1938 WARD AND ROBERTS: TRIASSIC DIABASE 157

otherwise it differs in no way from that of the other diabase of dikes

and stocks of the Triassic. The fabric is generally even but in places

irregular. The texture of the prisms remains quite uniform in both

vertical and horizontal directions.

The principal minerals are labradorite and augite. The labradorite

shows twinning despite the variable degrees of weathering, which

cause it to appear as corroded. The augite has apparently undergone

more alteration than the labradorite. Some of it has altered to chlorite

magnetite, and other undetermined oxides of iron. Certain pyroxene

crystals too small to be identified with certainty are believed to be

hypersthene.

The accessory minerals which occur in small and variable amounts

are small anhedral grains of quartz scattered through the rock, oc-

casional crystals of apatite, and ghost crystals of olivine. Small

amounts of biotite were observed in some sections. Secondary min-

erals comprise subordinate proportions of chlorite, calcite, sericite,

magnetite, other iron oxides, and chalcedony. Stringers are filled with

chaleedony, which under the microscope give the appearance of

typically opalized silica with elongated areas of intergrown calcite.

The chalcedony which fills the amygdules is banded in most speci-

mens, and there are small spherulites of the same. Mixed with the

chalcedony are areas of small quartz grains and large crystals of

calcite. The spherulites are formed of radiating fibers. The chlorite

occurs as small flakes, and appears to be due to hydrothermal altera-

tion of the augite, replacing the original crystal wholly or in part.

Quartz is found towards the center of the chlorite. Sericite is scattered

rather profusely through the labradorite. The calcite occurs in both

the stringers and amygdules in irregular masses.

Prismatic jointing in Triassic diabase has been known and de-

scribed from New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New York. Attempts

have been made to determine the cause of the jointing in the ex-

posures in Virginia. Some twenty years ago a comprehensive study of

prismatic jointing was made by Sosman? in which distinctions were

recognized from field studies as between jointings due to contraction,

convection, and those due to weathering. In the light of all available

evidence bearing upon jointing in the Virginia diabase, it seems that

it can best be explained as resulting from contraction on cooling. Us-

ing the criteria cited by Sosman in support of the contraction theory,

there was observed as follows: (1) the pentagonal nature of the greater

2 SosMAN, RopertT B. Types of Prismatic structure in igneous rocks. Jour. Geol.

24: 215-234, 5 figs. 1916.

158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

number of prisms, (2) small diameters of the prisms as compared with

those of the Giant’s Causeway and the Devil’s Tower (the latter at-

taining as much as six feet) (3) no apparent change in texture from

the center to the periphery of the prisms, (4) great irregularity of

faces on the prisms, and (5) relative scarcity of convexity and con-

cavity in cross-jointing. The amygdaloidal structure suggests that

the diabase is a sheet which was extruded towards the close of Upper

Triassic (Keuper) time in Virginia.

PALEONTOLOGY .—Five new genera of Carboniferous Crinoidea

Inadunata.|. Epwin Kirk, U. 8. Geological Survey.

Owing to a series of misunderstandings, mischances, and mistakes

the genera Zeacrinus, Woodocrinus, Pachylocrinus, Scaphiocrinus, and

Graphiocrinus have been involved in a maze of nomenclatorial dif-

ficulties. Springer (1911) was well on the way toward clearing up the

situation in part and did extricate Pachylocrinus from the confusion,

which was his immediate purpose. He suggested the separation of one

group of species under a new genus, but unfortunately did not give

it a name, referring the species to Woodocrinus? instead. Subsequently

Springer (1926) threw typical members of this latter group back into

Zeacrinus, under which they had first been described in the main.

This action again made Zeacrinus a catch-all for Carboniferous

crinoids whose ‘‘only stable character,’ according to Springer (1926,

p. 78), “is the heterotomous arm-branching, with mostly uniserial,

short and distally quadrangular brachials.”’ It is only fair to state

that this paper was written by Springer under most adverse condi-

tions, with seriously impaired health and without access to specimens

and limited access to literature. It seems probable that he overlooked

his own conclusions of 1911, for otherwise he certainly would have

mentioned them and given reasons for their abandonment.

In the present paper a number of species will be considered, most

of which have been referred to Zeacrinus at one time or other, chiefly

by Wachsmuth and Springer and by Springer. To these are added

some species that seem referable to the genera here described. It is

not my purpose at this time properly to assign to their respective

genera the large number of species that at one time or other have been

referred erroneously to Zeacrinus. In earlier days Meek considered

Zeacrinus a probable synonym of Hydreionocrinus. Meek and

Worthen, Shumard, and Lyon considered the possibility that Zea-

1 Published by permission of the pes Geological Survey, United States De-

partment of the Interior. Received Feb. 1938.

Apr. 15, 1938 KIRK: CRINOIDEA INADUNATA 159

crinus and Graphiocrinus were synonyms. Later, Miller and Gurley’s

species of Zeacrinus were about equally divided between Zeacrinus

and Phanocrinus. Some species referred to Zeacrinus will fall into

Pachylocrinus. The reference of many of the described species to their

respective genera can best be made after the genera involved are

clearly defined, each with a nucleus of characteristic species referred

to it. Short of a monographic study of the Inadunata, a treatment

such as that given here seems the most feasible method of attack on

an admittedly difficult problem. The group more or less centering

about Zeacrinus was chosen because it seemed to be the one most in-

volved in nomenclatorial difficulties, and the species of which his-

torically were the most uncertain of placement.

An attempt is here made to create generic groups on the basis of

genetic relationship and evolutionary trends. In the Carboniferous

thousands of specimens of Inadunata are available for study in the

collections, representing a long and not greatly interrupted period of

geologic time. It should then be possible to segregate lines of descent

and express the results in terms of classification. Undue emphasis on

one structural feature, such as the ventral sac or the plates of the

posterior interradius, is unfortunate. It has been found that combina-

tions of characters, with varying weights given to different factors

dependent on the stage in phylogeny, give the most satisfactory

results. Such genera do not lend themselves well to placement in

analytical charts, but this may be an advantage rather than other-

wise. Such genera, however, if properly made, possess the merit

of having definite stratigraphic value and can be used intelligibly in

the discussion of biologic problems. A discussion of the criteria used

in discriminating the genera would be desirable but in itself would

prove to be a work of considerable size. The criteria after all are

essentially those used by critical workers in the past. In the brief

generic diagnosis an attempt is made to present the norm for the

genus, with brief indications of permissible variants in structure.

In the lists of species the dates and authors’ names alone are given

for bibliographic reference, and the complete citations may be found

by referring to the bibliography at the end of the paper. No attempt

is here made to indicate synonymy of species or quote synonymies

hitherto made by authors. Either would be of little value at this time.

I have had access to the types of the majority of the species, or

reasonably authentic specimens identified by Wachsmuth. In the

case of several of the species illustrations are wanting and in others

are of poor quality. The types of some of these species have ap-

bi at

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

parently been lost. Many species have been based on immature in-

dividuals, and these are particularly difficult to place. Horizons and

localities are quoted as given in the original descriptions. Amended

citations of stratigraphic horizons are given in parentheses, where

available and when known to differ from the original text.

The genotypes of five of the six genera discussed in this paper,

Alcimocrinus, Cercidocrinus, Eratocrinus, Zeacrinus, and Linocrinus

are very fully illustrated by Springer (1926). For the illustration of

the genotype of Adinocrinus one must refer to the original description

of Wachsmuth and Springer.

Zeacrinus Troost

Zeaecrimtes, nom. nud., Troost, p. 419, 1849; p. 61, 1850.

Zeacrinus Troost, in Hall, p. 544, 1858.

Genotype.—Zeacrinus magnoliaeformis Troost.

Generic diagnosis.—

Crown. Ovoid.

Dorsal cup. Basin-shaped with deeply invaginated base.

IBB. Small, forming bottom of basal pit, covered by column.

BB. Variable in size and shape but typically elongate, lanceolate, taking

part in the basal pit.

Post B, when in contact with anal x, greatly elongated. |

RR. Radial facet extends full width of R, suture not gaping. Articulating

face at high angle.

Anal plates. Variable in size, shape, and arrangement. Typically three

plates in cup. Anal x in contact with post B, meeting it on a narrow

oblique face. RA penetrates deeply between post B and R post B,

sometimes completely separating them. RA meets post B laterally and

r post B on a very narrow face. In later phylogenetic stages the anal

plates tend to migrate out of the cup. RT sometimes may do so. Anal

x may lose contact with post B, its position being taken by RA, which

in turn separates from post B.

IBr. One or two in anterior radius. One in other rays.

Arms. Endotomous. Rami laterally appressed, stout, with slightly convex

backs. Br quadrangular.

Ventral sac. Pyramidal, with broad base.

Characteristic species of the genus.—

Zeacrinus magnoliaeformis Troost

Zeaecrinites magnoluformis, nom. nud., Troost, p. 419, 1849.

Zeaecrinites magnoliaeformis, nom. nud., Troost, p. 61, 1850.

Zeacrinus magnoliaeformis Troost, in Hall, p. 544, 1858.

Zeacrinus magnoliaeformis Springer, p. 81, pl. 22, figs. 4-11, 1926.

Geologic and geographic distribution.—Zeacrinus as known is widely dis-

tributed in rocks of upper Mississippian age. In the United States it is one

of the most characteristic crinoids of the Chester group. In Europe typical —

species of the genus are known in beds of equivalent age in England and

Scotland.

Apr. 15, 1938 KIRK: CRINOIDEA INADUNATA 161

Relationships.—I conceive the ancestor of Zeacrinus to be an undescribed

genus, the earliest known species of which is found in the Keokuk. The genus

carries on in the Borden of Indiana, the Warsaw of the Mississippi Valley,

and the St. Louis of the same region. The early history of Zeacrinus proper

seems to lie in the gap between the St. Louis and Chester. Forms referable

to Zeacrinus may be expected in the Pennsylvanian as the genetic line con-

tinued to the Permian, Parabursacrinus of this age differing little from

Zeacrinus other than in the structure of the posterior interradius.

Adinocrinus, n. gen.

Genotype.—Zeacrinus nodosus Wachsmuth and Springer.

Generic diagnosis.—

Crown. Expanding slightly to level of II A x, then more rapidly to level of

III A x, then curving inward.

Dorsal cup. Depressed basin-shaped, small in comparison with the size of

the crown, sharply pentagonal in outline.

IBB. In bottom of central depression, covered by column or slightly pro-

jecting beyond it.

BB. Relatively very small, typically showing as triangles separated by the

RR, which in such case contact with the IBB. Post B larger than the

others. In one specimen (young?) three of the BB meet laterally, but by

very narrow faces.

RR. Proportionally very large. Radial facet extends full width of R. Suture

gaping. Articulating face at high angle and very deep.

Anal plates. RA long and narrow, sometimes touching, sometimes not

touching r post B; meeting post B on long lateral face. Anal x usually

high in cup, separated from post B and lying in line with RA, on which

it rests. RT resting on sloping upper right shoulder of anal x and either

on the truncated upper face of RA or a narrow facet on upper left

shoulder of post R.

IBr. Five in anterior radius in the three specimens seen. One in all other

radi. IBr, of ant. R very high with oblique upper face.

Arms. Isotomous, with two divisions above the main dichotom. The rami

are very stout, with rounded backs and composed for the most part of

quadrangular Br. Below the finials many of the Br show a pronounced

taper, but in all cases the Br extend the full width of the ramus. All

axillaries are nodose, and the proximal Br of each series is larger than

the succeeding Br and is strongly convex to nodose. This applies to all

three species of which the arms are known. Below the III A x there are

processes on the lateral margins of the Br which interlock with similar

processes of the Br of the juxtaposed ramus.

Ventral sac. Unknown.

Characteristic species of the genus.—

Adinocrinus compactilis (Worthen) n. comb.

Zeacrinus compactilis Worthen, in Meek and Worthen, p. 536, pl. 21, figs. 5a,

b, 1873. “Lower Carboniferous, Cumberland County, Kentucky.”

(Figured on plate labeled ‘‘Chester Beds.’’); Wachsmuth and Springer,

p. 128 (351), 1880; Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 248 (167), 1886.

162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 4

Adinocrinus nodosus (Wachsmuth and Springer), n. comb.

Zeacrinus nodosus Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 243 (167), pl. 6, fig. 9; pl. 9,

fig. 3, 1886. ‘‘Keokuk limestone.’? Whites Creek Springs, near Nash-

ville, Tenn., (New Providence equivalent).

Geologic and geographic distribution—The genus Adinocrinus is known

only from the New Providence formation, lower Mississippian, of Kentucky

and an approximately equivalent horizon at Whites Creek Springs, near

Nashville, Tenn.

Relationships.—With a dorsal cup resembling Zeacrinus near the end of its

line, and with arms of such extraordinary character, one is at a loss to in-

dicate relationships or point out any genus which might serve as an antece-

dent type. I do not think Adinocrinus should be placed in the same family

as Zeacrinus. The pentagonal cup and the narrow posterior interradius were

probably induced by the unusually heavy arms. The narrow posterior inter-

radius combined with the upward migration of anal plates, a tendency com-

mon to many Inadunate lines, has given us a cup strikingly like Zeacrinus

of the later type. There all resemblance to Zeacrinus and its allies ceases.

If we lack an antecedent type there is a later type that has some of the out-

standing peculiarities of Adinocrinus. Protencrinus Jaekel (1918) from rocks

of Pennsylvanian age in Russia has similar small subtriangular BB separated

by the RR, which extend down to the IBB. Very heavy arms with cuneate

nodose Br also favor the relationship. In Protencrinus the arms remain

simple above the first dichotom, but this is permissible, as a reduction in

the number of rami can be demonstrated in other crinoid lines. In Pro-

tencrinus the anal plates have passed entirely out of the cup, which would

be expected in a descendant of Adinocrinus. A dorsal cup from the Permian

of Timor has been referred to Protencrinus by Wanner (1924), and a dorsal

cup from the Viséan of Germany has been identified as Protencrinus by

Schmidt (1930).

Alcimocrinus, n. gen.

Genotype.—Zeacrinus girtyz Springer.

Generic diagnosis.—

Crown. Subcylindrical, slightly spreading distad.

Dorsal cup. Depressed basin-shaped, invaginated at base.

IBB. Small, in central depression, concealed by column.

BB. Subequal, relatively large.

RR. Radial facet extending full width of R, suture not gaping.

Anal plates. RA rests subequally on sloping shoulders of post and r post

BB, not penetrating deeply between them. Anal x rests on the wide,

horizontal distal face of post B.

IBr. Two in all rays, but more might be expected in ant. R.

Arms. Endotomous. The outer portion of the half-ray is essentially an

arm-trunk, very stout and reminding one of certain Camerate types,

such as Ctenocrinus. The rami given off to the inner side of the ray are

more numerous than in any genus of this group and resemble ramules

more than true arm branches. The Br of the main arm-trunks are quad-

rangular in the main but with interspersed cuneate ossicles. The Br of

the side rami are quadrangular.

Apr. 15, 1938 KIRK: CRINOIDEA INADUNATA 163

Ventral sac. The ventral sac is long and club-shaped, extending beyond the

tips of the arms.

Characteristic species of the genus.—

Alcimocrinus girtyi (Springer), n. comb.

Zeacrinus girtyi Springer, p. 84, pl. 23, figs. 9, 9a, 1926. ‘““Morrow formation

of the basal Pennsylvanian; near Crittenden in northeastern Okla-

homa.”’ (Wapanucka limestone fide Ulrich.)

Geological and geographical distribution.—The only known species of the

genus is found in the early Pennsylvanian (Morrow group) of Oklahoma.

Relationships —Alcimocrinus differs from Zeacrinus in important respects.

The dorsal cup, though depressed basin-shaped, has essentially the structure

of the early Mississippian species here referred to Eratocrinus, as pointed out

by Springer (1926, p. 85). The presence of two [Br in the rays other than

ant. R is of importance in a type as late as this. The long club-shaped ven-

tral sac is also reminiscent of Hratocrinus, though considerably longer than

in that genus. The arms of Alczmocrinus, which are in effect arm-trunks with

lateral ramules, differentiate the genus from any other known. Parabursa-

crinus Wanner of the Permian, which Wanner probably with justice derives

from Zeacrinus, is essentially Zeacrinus as to arms and shape of crown. It is

probable that Alcimocrinus lies outside the Zeacrinus line, and the two are

to be derived from a common but fairly remote ancestor.

Cercidocrinus, n. gen.

Genotype.—Poteriocrinus bursaeformis White.

Generic diagnosis.—

Crown. Spreading gradually from base.

Dorsal cup. Turbinate, not invaginated at base.

IBB. Plainly visible in lateral view, relatively large.

BB. Subequal, of nearly same height as breadth.

RR. Radial facet the full breadth of the R, suture not gaping.

Anal plates. Three in cup, RA resting subequally on upper sloping shoul-

ders of post and r post BB, x resting on horizontal wide truncated distal

- face of post B.

IBr. Three to four or more in ant. radius, one or two in other radii. A

single [Br (other than in the ant. R) seems normal for Burlington time,

though exceptions have been seen in single rays. In the Kinderhook one

new species has two in all rays, except the anterior, which has seven.

Arms. Endotomous, long, rounded, sides not flattened, showing that the

rami were not normally closely appressed. Br very low, quadrangular.

Ventral sac. Unknown.

Characteristic species of the genus.—

Cercidocrinus blairi (Miller and Gurley), n. comb.

Poteriocrinus blair Miller and Gurley, p. 61, pl. 4, figs. 1, 2, 1895.

“Burlington group, at Sedalia, Missouri.”’

Cercidocrinus bursaeformis (White), n. comb.

Poteriocrinus bursaeformis White, C. A., p. 10, 1862. ‘Lower division of the

Burlington limestone, Burlington, Iowa.”’

164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

Zeacrinus bursaeformis Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 128 (351), 1880.

Woodocrinus bursaeformis Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 242 (166), 1886.

Woodocrinus? bursaeformis Springer, p. 147, 1911.

N. Gen. bursaeformis Springer, p. 148, 1911.

Zeacrinus bursaeformis Springer, p. 79, pl. 21, fig. 1, 1926.

Cercidocrinis cirrifer (Laudon), n. comb.

Pachylocrinus cirrifer Laudon, p. 63, pl. 6, figs. 3, 4, 1938. ‘‘“Gilmore City

formation, Gilmore City, Iowa.”

Cercidocrinus fimbria (Laudon), n. comb.

Pachylocrinus fimbria Laudon, p. 64, pl. 5, figs. 2, 3, 1933. “Gilmore City

formation, Gilmore City, Iowa.”

Cercidocrinus infrequens (Laudon and Beane), n. comb.

Zeacrinus infrequens Laudon and Beane, p. 257, pl. 17, figs. 11, 12, 19387.

‘‘Hampton formation, Le Grand, Iowa.”’

Cercidocrinus? sampsoni (Miller and Gurley), n. comb.

Poteriocrinus sampsoni Miller and Gurley, p. 65, pl. 4, figs. 9, 10, 1895.

“‘Chouteau limestone at Sedalia, Missouri.’’ (Dorsal cup only.)

Geological and geographic distribution.—Cercidocrinus is known only from

the Kinderhook, Chouteau (?), and Burlington formations of Iowa and

Missouri. It reached its maximum size in the lower Burlington, and this

seems to have been its latest appearance. The maximum number of species

has been found in the Kinderhook. In addition to those listed there are at

least two additional new species from that horizon.

Relationships.—It is difficult to draw conclusions in regard to the inter-

relationships of Cercidocrinus. Lacking knowledge of its ontogeny or its

Upper Devonian antecedents we can only attempt a placement according

to our knowledge of the behavior of similar crinoid stocks. Its relationships

seem to be nearest to forms commonly referred to Pachylocrinus.

In arm structure Cercidocrinus most nearly resembles Eratocrinus from

which in its known characters its most notable difference is the turbinate

dorsal cup and the prominent infrabasals. The crown has a different habit,

spreading gradually distad, and the rami were not tightly appressed, as

against the pyriform crown of Eratocrinus with its normally tightly packed

rami. In the form of its dorsal cup Cercidocrinus approaches the British

genus Woodocrinus, from which it chiefly differs in the structure of the arms,

In Woodocrinus the arms are relatively short, stout, tapering rapidly distad.

and isotomous in their division. Coeliocrinus differs chiefly from Cercido-

crinus in its cuneate brachials, approaching a biserial condition. The ventral

sac of Cercidocrinus being unknown, comparisons with that of Coelzocrinus

are out of the question. The stress laid on the character of the distal portion

of the ventral sac in classification among the Carboniferous Inadunata has

been greatly overdone. Such structures should be made subsidiary and

considered only as accessory features in evaluating a genus.

Apr. 15, 1938 KIRK: CRINOIDEA INADUNATA 165

Eratocrinus, n. gen.

Genotype.—Zeacrinus elegans Hall.

Generic diagnosis.—

Crown. Elongate, usually with closely appressed arms, typically inverted

pyriform in shape.

IBB. Small, concealed in basal pit.

BB. Of medium size, helping form the basal depression.

RR. Radial facet full width of radial, suture not gaping.

IBr. Two to five in the anterior radius, invariably one in other rays in all

known species. [The two IBr in the r post R of fig. 2a, pl. 21 (Springer,

1926) are incorrect. |

Arms. Endotomous with slightly convex to rounded backs, composed of

unusually low, quadrangular Br. Rami laterally appressed. Early spe-

cies of Hratocrinus or young specimens may be expected to show isot-

omous arm divisions, with but one division above the main dichotom.

Such structures are to be found in the lower Burlington Eratocrinus

pikensis (Worthen) and Eratocrinus scoparius (Hall). In E. scoparius

the arms usually bifurcate but once above the dichotom and are

isotomous. Rays are to be found, however, where there is a second di-

vision above the dichotom, producing an endotomous structure. Judg-

ing from the figure of EL. prkensis, a similar condition obtains in that

species. It seems reasonably certain that the evolutionary stage preceding

endotomy is isotomy, with a single division above the primary dichotom.

Anal plates. Three in cup. RA not penetrating deeply between post and r.

post BB. Anal x resting on wide horizontal distal face of post. B.

Ventral sac. Moderately long, typically not reaching to tips of arms, club-

shaped.

Column. Pentagonal with rounded angles, to round. Long, relatively stout

cirri borne in whorls to within a short distance of the crown.

Characteristic species of the genus.—

Eratocrinus commaticus (Miller), n. comb.

Zeacrinus commaticus Miller, p. 36, pl. 5, figs. 10, 11, 1891. ‘‘Keokuk group,

at Booneville, Cooper County, Missouri.”’ (Warsaw).—Springer, p. 80,

pl. 22, figs. 1-8a, 1926.

Eratocrinus coxanus (Worthen), n. comb.

Zeacrinus coxanus Worthen, p. 27, 1882.—Worthen, p. 302, pl. 28, fig. 1,

1883. “Upper beds of the Keokuk limestone, Hamilton, Illinois.”’

Woodocrinus coxanus Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 302 (226), 1886.

Eratocrinus elegans (Hall), n. comb.

Zeacrinus elegans Hall, p. 547, pl. 9, figs. 1, 2, 1858. ‘‘Burlington limestone,

Burlington, Iowa.”—Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 128 (351), 1880.

Woodocrinus elegans Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 242 (166), 1886.

Woodocrinus? elegans Springer, p. 147, 1911.

N. Gen. elegans Springer, p. 148, 1911.

Zeacrinus elegans Springer, p. 80, pl. 21, figs. 2-4, 1926.

Eratocrinus faggi (Rowley and Hare), n. comb.

Zeacrinus faggi Rowley and Hare, p. 103, pl. 2, fig. 20, 1891. ‘Upper Bur-

lington limestone in Spencer Creek, 2 miles north of Curryville, Mis-

souri.”’

166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO, 4

Eratocrinus orbicularis (Hall), n. comb.

Scaphiocrinus orbicularis Hall, p. 311, 1861.—Hall, p. 7, 186la. “Keokuk

limestone, Keokuk, Iowa.’’—Hall, pl. 5, figs. 7-9, 1872.

Eupachycrinus? orbicularis Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 138 (361), 1880.

Eupachycrinus orbicularis Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 249 (173), 1886.

Zeacrinus orbicularis Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 334 (Index), 1886.—

Worthen, p. 97, pl. 14, figs. 2, 2a, 1890.

Eratocrinus pikensis (Worthen), n. comb.

Zeacrinus pikensis Worthen, p. 29, 1882.—Worthen, p. 304, pl. 30, fig. 3,

1883. ‘“‘Lower part of the Burlington limestone, Montezuma, Pike

County, Illinois.”

Scaphiocrinus pikensis Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 237 (161), 1886.

Eratocrinus ramosus (Hall), n. comb.

Zeacrinus ramosus Hall, p. 548, pl. 9, fig. 3, 1858. ““Burlington limestone,

Burlington, Iowa.”’ (Upper Burlington).—Wachsmuth and Springer,

p. 129, 1880.

Woodocrinus ramosus Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 242 (166), 1886.—

Springer, p. 147, 1911.

Eratocrinus raymondi (Laudon and Beane), n. comb.

Pachylocrinus raymond: Laudon and Beane, p. 255, pl. 18, fig. 4, 1937.

“Hampton formation, Timber Creek quarry, 2 miles west of Le Grand,

Iowa.”

Eratocrinus sacculus (White), n. comb.

Zeacrinus sacculus White, p. 12, 1862.

Zeacrinus sacculus var. concinnus White, p. 13, 1862. “Upper division of the

Burlington limestone, Burlington, Iowa.”

Eratocrinus salemensis (Miller and Gurley), n. comb.

Zeacrinus salemensis Miller and Gurley, p. 37, pl. 3, fig. 17, 1894. ‘““Keokuk

group at Salem, Indiana.”’

Eratocrinus scoparius (Hall), n. comb.

Zeacrinus scoparius Hall, p. 305, 1861.—Hall, p. 8, 1861a. ‘Burlington lime-

stone, Burlington, Iowa.” (Probably lower Burlington.)

Eratocrinus serratus (Meek and Worthen), n. comb.

Zeacrinus serratus Meek and Worthen, p. 151, 1869.—Meek and Worthen,

p. 428, pl. 1, fig. 6, 1873. “Burlington group at Burlington, Iowa.”

(Upper Burlington) —Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 129 (352), 1880.

Woodocrinus serratus Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 242 (166), 1886.

Woodocrinus? serratus Springer, p. 147, 1911.

N. Gen. serratus Springer, p. 148, 1911.

Eratocrinus troostanus (Meek and Worthen), n. comb.

Zeacrinus troostanus Meek and Worthen, p. 390, 1861.—Meek and Worthen,

p. 186, pl. 16, fig. 2, 1866. ‘Burlington limestone, Cedar Creek, Warren

County, Illinois.”—Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 129 (352), 1880.

Woodocrinus troostanus Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 242 (166), 1886.

Apr. 15, 1938 KIRK: CRINOIDEA INADUNATA 167

Woodocrinus? troostanus Springer, p. 147, 1911.

N. Gen. troostanus Springer, p. 148, 1911.

Geographic and geologic ranges.—Eratocrinus as known has a geologic range

in the lower Mississippian from the Kinderhook to the Warsaw inclusive.

It is doubtful if this geologic range will be extended greatly by future finds.

Geographically the genus is widely distributed in the upper Mississippi and

Ohio Valleys, having been found in Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Tennessee, and

Indiana. As represented in the collections and based on field experience,

the genus was most prolific, both as to number of species and individuals,

in the Burlington. As reflected in the specific separations, this was likewise

the time of maximum variability. Maximum size was reached in Keokuk

time.

Besides the species here listed there are interesting new forms from

horizons of approximately Keokuk age in Tennessee and Indiana. From

Whites Creek Springs, near Nashville, Tennessee, there is a set of typical

arms, as well as several dorsal cups. The largest of these cups has an approxi-

mate diameter of 25 mm. From the Borden group of Indiana, near New

Ross, is a complete crown some 80 mm. in height and with a dorsal cup 25

mm. in diameter. In the upper Borden of Indian Creek, Montgomery County,

Indiana, is a new species referable to Eratocrinus.

Relationships.—Eratocrinus resembles Zeacrinus superficially in the shape

of the dorsal cup and in the possession of endotomous arm structures. The

erown of Hratocrinus is elongate inverted pyriform, as against the ovate

shape of Zeacrinus. The cup of Eratocrinus is relatively deeper than in

Zeacrinus, being bowl-shaped rather than depressed basin-shaped. The arm

facets in EHratocrinus are shallower than in Zeacrinus and are nearly hori-

zontal as against the high-angled facets of Zeacrinus. The BB of Zeacrinus

are typically elongate, the post B being disproportionally so. RA in Zea-

crinus penetrates deeply between post and R post BB, meeting post B ona

very narrow face, if at all. RA in Eratocrinus rests subequally on the upper

sloping shoulders of post and r post BB. Anal x in Eratocrinus rests on the

broad horizontal truncated distal face of post B. In Zeacrinus x either does

not contact with post B, or when it does it usually rests on a very narrow

oblique face. The arms of Eratocrinus are proportionally longer and more

slender than in Zeacrinus. The ventral sac of Hratocrinus is elongate club-

shaped as against broad-based pyramidal sac of Zeacrinus. Aside from formal

differences a casual glance will serve to separate the dorsal cups, or sets of

arms of the two genera.

I do not believe that Eratocrinus and Zeacrinus are nearly related. I con-

ceive the ancestor of Zeacrinus to be an undescribed genus, the earliest

known species of which is found in the Keokuk, and which is more unlike

Eratocrinus than is Zeacrinus. Very young specimens of Eratocrinus elegans

in general habit resemble Zeacrinus more than do the adults, though, of

course, such details as the relative positions and shapes of the plates of the

dorsal cup are quite unlike Zeacrinus.

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

Linocrinus, n. gen.

Genoty pe.—Linocrinus wachsmutht, n. sp.

Generic diagnosis.—

Crown. Expanding gradually, then incurving distad.

Dorsal cup. Bowl-shaped, flattened and slightly invaginated at base.

Plates typically rugose in adult stages.

IBB. Small, in central depression, concealed by column.

BB. Subequal, taking part in the flattened basal area, then flexing upward

to help form the sides of the cup.

RR. Radial facet extending full width of R, suture gaping.

Anal plates. Three in cup. RA rests subequally on sloping shoulders of

post and r post BB. Anal x rests on horizontal distal face of post B.

IBr. Three to five in ant. R, one in all others. The IBr, is sharply keeled.

Arms. Endotomous, except in anterior radius, which is isotomous as seen.

Rami relatively stout, frequently with median longitudinal keels or

nodose Br. In some species the Br of juxtaposed rami tend to interlock

by lateral processes. Br quadrangular, but somewhat cuneate.

Ventral sac. In the type species extending to near the tips of the arms and

turned back on itself in the distal portion.

Characteristic species of the genus.—

Linocrinus arboreus (Worthen), n. comb.

Zeacrinus arboreus Worthen, p. 534, pl. 20, fig. 5, 1875. “‘St. Louis lime-

stone? near Huntsville, Alabama.” (Probably Gasper formation of the

Chester group, Monte Sano, east of Huntsville, Alabama.)

Poteriocrinus (Pachylocrinus) arboreus Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 116

(339), 1880.

Woodocrinus arboreus Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 242 (166), 1886.

Linocrinus asper (Meek and Worthen), n. comb.

Zeacrinus asper Meek and Worthen, p. 150, 1869.—Meek and Worthen,

p. 430, pl. 1, fig. 7, 1873. “Upper division of Burlington group, Burling-

ton, lowa.”’ (Lower Burlington)

Pachylocrinus asper Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 116, 1880.

Zeacrinus asper Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 128, 1880.

W oodocrinus asper Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 242, 1886.

Linocrinus cariniferous (Worthen), n. comb.

Zeacrinus cariniferous Worthen, p. 535, pl. 20, fig. 4, 1873, “St. Louis lime-

stone? near Huntsville, Alabama.” (Probably Gasper formation of

the Chester group, Monte Sano, east of Huntsville, Alabama.)

Coeliocrinus cariniferous Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 133 (358), 1880.

Linocrinus compactus (Laudon), n. comb.

Zeacrinus compactus Laudon, p. 66, pl. 5, figs. 4, 5, 1933. “Gilmore City

formation, Gilmore City, Iowa.”

Linocrinus lautus (Miller and Gurley), n. comb.

Poteriocrinus lautus Miller and Gurley, p. 30, pl. 2, figs. 18, 19, 1896.

‘Keokuk group, at Booneville, Missouri.’’ (Warsaw)

Apr. 15, 1938 KIRK: CRINOIDEA INADUNATA 169

Linocrinus penicillus (Meek and Worthen), n. comb.

Scaphiocrinus penicillus Meek and Worthen, p. 142, 1869.—Meek and

Worthen, p. 414, pl. 2, fig. 7, 1873. “Upper division of the Burlington

group, at Burlington, lowa.’”’—Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 113 (336),

1880.

Linocrinus perangulatus (White), n. comb.

Zeacrinus perangulatus White, p. 11, 1862. “Upper division of the Burling-

ton limestone, Burlington, Iowa.”

Pachylocrinus perangulatus Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 116 (339), 1880.

Woodocrinus perangulatus Wachsmuth and Springer, p. B42 (166), 1886.

Linocrinus praemorsus (Miller and Gurley), n. comb.

Scaphiocrinus praemorsus Miller and Gurley, p. 48, pl. 8, fig. 11, 1890.

“Keokuk group, in Washington County, Indiana.”’

Linocrinus scobina (Meek and Worthen), n. comb.

Zeacrinus scobina Meek and Worthen, p. 149, 1869.—Meek and Worthen,

p. 426, pl. 1, fig. 2, 1873. “Upper division of the Burlington group, Bur-

lington, Ilowa.”—Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 129 (352), 1880.

Woodocrinus scobina Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 242 (166), 1886.

Woodocrinus? scobina Springer, p. 147, 1911.

N. Gen. scobina, Springer, p. 148, 1911.

Linocrinus spinuliferus (Worthen), n. comb.

Poteriocrinus spinuliferus Worthen, p. 27, 1884.—Worthen, p. 86, pl. 14,

fig. 3; p. 90, pl. 17, figs. 1, 1a, 1890. ‘“‘Chester limestone near Columbia,

Monroe County, Llinois.”’

Linocrinus wachsmuthi, n. sp.

Ste. Genevieve formation of the Chester group, about 7 miles south of

Huntsville, Alabama.

Geologic and geographic distribution.—The genus Linocrinus as recognized

at present extends from the Kinderhook to the Chester and has a geographic

distribution coextensive with the Mississippian deposits. It seems to be one

of the most ubiquitous of the Inadunate genera.

Relationships.—The norm for the genus is a line of small species that has

a remarkable similarity of structure, form, and ornamentation from the

earliest appearance of the genus to the end. The interrelationships of

Linocrinus seem to be with Decadocrinus and Pachylocrinus. Decadocrinus

with its rugose plates, keeled Br, and gaping suture seems to come nearest

to Linocrinus. An endotomous Decadocrinus with a few minor changes would

give Linocrinus, just as a Decadocrinus with two isotomous divisions above

the main dichotom is essentially Pachylocrinus. From Eratocrinus, Lino-

crinus differs in the rugosity of the cup plates, its keeled Br, and its well-

marked gaping suture between the R and IBr,.

Linocrinus wachsmuthi, n. sp.

Types.—As types of the species I have chosen part of the specimens

figured by Springer (1926) as illustrating ‘‘Zeacrinus arboreus Worthen.”

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

As holotype I have chosen the specimen illustrated as figure 5, plate 16,

and as paratypes the specimens illustrated as figures 4 and 6 on the same

plate. The types are in the Springer collection in the United States National

Museum. The genotype is dedictated to Charles Wachsmuth, to whose

tireless efforts in the field and study we owe a great part of our knowledge

of American crinoids. The specimens chosen as types were collected by him

and his wife.

Description.—The species has a small, compact crown expanding some-

what distad. The dorsal cup is basin-shaped with a flattened base. The

plates of the cup are rugose, the surface ridges falling into definite but

interrupted patterns. Ridges extend from center to center of the BB and

from the centers of the BB across on the RR. There is usually a well-defined

median, vertical ridge on each radial.

The IBB are small and concealed by the column. The BB are large, taking

part in the flattened basal area, and flexing upward to form part of the

sides of the cup. The RR are large with a straight articulating facet extend-

ing the full width of the radial. The suture with the IBr is broadly gaping.

There are from 4 to 5 [Br in the ant. R, the first primibrach being very

large. In the other rays there is but one [Br to the ray. The first primibrach

is traversed by a median vertical keel. The arms are relatively short, stout,

and endotomous. Two divisions above the main dichotom are usual. The

Br to the second division are usually traversed by a longitudinal keel. The

Br are quadrangular, with a slight taper in the lower portions of the arm.

Distad the Br are cuneate. Laterally there may be spinous processes that

tend to interlock with similar processes on juxtaposed rami.

The ventral sac is somewhat shorter than the arms, reflexed in the distal

portion, and with three rather prominent, median rows of plates that tend

to be spinous.

Horizon and locality—The main locality for Linocrinus wachsmuthi is

about seven miles south of Huntsville, Alabama, near the foot of the ridge

east of the road. They occur in the Ste. Genevieve formation of the Chester

group. Having been at the type locality with Mrs. Wachsmuth I am able to

give a locality somewhat better than the stereotyped ““Huntsville, Alabama.”

Relationships—From Linocrinus cariniferous (Worthen) and Linecrinus

arboreus (Worthen) from stratigraphically higher beds of the same region,

Linocrinus wachsmutht can be distinguished most readily by the greater

rugosity of the cup-plates, the plates of the later species being tumid with

depressions at the angles, or with obscure, rounded ridges. Worthen’s type

of Linocrinus arboreus is either a young specimen or a small species. There

are no marked juvenile characters in the specimen, judging from casts of the

type, but it may well be the young of L. cariniferous. The arms of L. arboreus

are relatively stouter than in L. wachsmuthi, and the Br are almost rectangu-

lar in outline, despite the original figure. The dorsal cup of L. arboreus is

relatively much higher than in L. wachsmuthi.

Apr. 15, 1938 KIRK: CRINOIDEA INADUNATA Ural

LITERATURE CITED

Hau, James. Paleontology. Jowa Geol. Survey Rept., vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 473-724,

pls. 1-29. 1858.

Hau, JAMES. Descriptions of new species of Crinoidea from the Carboniferous rocks of

the Mississippi Valley. Boston Soc. Nat. History Jour., vol. 7, pp. 261-328.

January 1861.

Hau, JAMES. Descriptions of new species of Crinoidea; from investigations of the Iowa

Geological Survey. Preliminary notice (privately issued, Albany, N. Y.), pp. 1-12,

February 14, 1861. Complete paper, pp. 1-18, February 25, 1861a.

Hau, James. Photographic plates. Plates 1-7. Privately issued. Plates distributed

in covers with reprints of James Hall, January 1861. Plates bear printed title,

“State Mus. N. H. Bul. 1”? (New York). 1872.

JAEKEL, O. Phylogenie und System der Pelmatozoen. Paleont. Zeitschr., Band 3,

Heft 1, pp. 1-128. 1918.

Laupon, L. R. The stratigraphy and paleontology of the Gilmore City formation of Towa.

Iowa Univ. Studies, vol. 15, no. 2, new ser., no. 256. August 1, 1933.

Laupon, L. R., and Beane, B. H. The crinoid fauna of the Hampton formation at Le

Bend, Iowa. Iowa Univ. Studies, vol. 17, no. 6, new ser., no. 345. December 1,

1937.

Meek, F. B., and WortHEN, A. H. Descriptions of new species of Crinoidea and

Echinoidea from the Carboniferous rocks of Illinois and other Western States. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Proc. 1860, pp. 379-397. 1861.

Meek, F. B.,and WortHEN, A. H. Descriptions of invertebrates from the Carboniferous

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Mobex, F. B., and WortTHEN, A. H. Descriptions of new Carboniferous fossils from the

Western States. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Proc. 1869, pp. 187-172. July

1869.

Meek, F. B., and WortHEN, A. H. Descriptions of invertebrates from Carboniferous

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BOTAN Y.—Raouliopsis (Asteraceae), a new genus of ‘“‘vegetable

sheep’ from the high pdramos of Colombia.! 8S. F. Buaks,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

The “vegetable sheep” of New Zealand—species of Haastia and

Raoulia, genera belonging to two different tribes of Asteraceae—are

among the oddities of the vegetable kingdom. The repeatedly

branched stems, only a few inches or sometimes a couple of feet high

and about as thick as the finger with their dense covering of linear to

cuneate, densely pilose, many-ranked, long-persistent leaves, are

compacted into convex or flattish, rounded or amorphous, brownish

or greenish cushions, sometimes as big as an ordinary sofa and so

dense that the point of a pencil or ‘‘even of a pin’”’ cannot be thrust

between the branches.? The small or medium flower heads, in both

genera lacking rays but provided with filiform pistillate florets, are

borne singly’ at the tips of the branches, sunken among the leaves

and almost hidden by them. The extreme compactness of the plants

and their dense covering of hairs are obviously correlated with their

habitat, bare rocky hill slopes at about 40° S. latitude, where the hot

dry winds of summer and the winter’s snows, low temperatures, and

violent gales expose them to a perpetual alternation of desert and

arctic conditions. These extreme modifications of structure, however,

are specific rather than generic, and are shown by only about 9

! Received January 6, 1938.

2 According to BK. Low, Trans. N. Z. Inst. 32: 151. 1899, in her account of the vege-

tative organs of Haastia pulvinaris.

s Or, in a single variety (Raoulia grandiflora var. fasciculata (J. Buch.) Cheesem.),

in 3’s. |

Apr. 15, 1938 BLAKE: RAOULIOPSIS 173

species‘ of the two genera. The remaining species (3 in Haastza, 14 in

Raoulia), although revealing in their low stature, small, often leathery

leaves, and usually dense hairy covering the result of response to

similar but less extreme environments, are by no means as out-

standing in appearance in their groups.

It now appears that the high paramos of the Sierra Nevada de

Santa Marta in northeastern Colombia harbor two species so closely

similar to the Raoulza eximia group not only in habit but also in most

technical characters that if they were found in New Zealand they

might readily be placed in that genus, although as somewhat aberrant

members. Differences in the pappus (in the only species in which the

flowers are known) of some taxonomic importance, reinforced by the

occurrence of these species in a region so remote as Colombia, quite

without phytogeographical alliances with New Zealand, make it

advisable to place them in a separate genus and to regard their

resemblance in habit to the Raoulia eximia group, a resemblance so

close that it amounts to virtual identity, as the result of the action of

similarly extreme habitats on two old branches of the Gnaphalium

stock rather than as an indication of very close genetic relationship.

Raouliopsis Blake, gen. nov.

Celaena Wedd. Chlor. And. 1: 231. 1857, nomen provisorium.

Fruticuli densissime caespitosi, pulvinos fulvescentes efformantes; caules

Vv. rami numerosissimi densissime compacti suberecti foliis dense obtecti

5-12 mm crassi apice mammiformes; folia alterna densissime conferta

multifaria linearia v. oblonga sessilia 1-3-nervia integerrima patentia infra

submembranacea apice subcoriacea subtus in margine et intus infra apicem

glabra alibique densissime fulvopilosa, pilis comam cuneiformem effor-

mantibus; capitula apice ramorum solitaria v. plura parva sessilia inter

folia immersa. Capitula heterogama disciformia ca. 26-flora, floribus fem.

quam flor. hermaph. verisim. fertilibus paullo pluribus; involucri ca. 3-seri-

ati paullum gradati phyllaria linearia acuta subchartacea lutescenti-albida,

apice scarioso lutescenti-albido v. albo erectiusculo non conspicuo; recep-

taculum parvum nudum planum; flores fem. 15, corolla filiformi breviter

inaequaliterque 5-dentata, stylo exserto, achenio oblongo obscure angulato

4—5-nervio glabro, pappi setis 1-seriatis 12-15 subcapillaribus apice non

incrassatis hispidulis prope basim nudis basi ima connatis; flores hermaph.

11 fertiles?, corolla anguste cylindrico-infundibuliformi 5-dentata, achenio

oblongo 4-nervio glabro, pappi setis 1-seriatis ca. 13-15 anguste linearibus

_Manifeste complanatis quam eis fl. fem. subtriplo latioribus acutis v. acumi-

natis hispidulis prope apicem hispidulo-subciliatis apice non incrassatis basi

_* Haastia pulvinaris Hook. f. (tribe Astereae); Raoulia eximia Hook. f., R. mam-

millaris Hook. f., R. goyent T. Kirk, R. rubra J. Buch., R. buchanani T. Kirk, (?)

R. loganit (J. Buch.) Cheesem., (?) R. bryoides Hook. f., R. haastii Hook. f. (tribe

Gnaphalieae). These species are listed primarily on the basis of the descriptions in

Cheeseman’s Manual of the New Zealand Flora, ed. 2; I have examined only H. pul-

vinaris and R. eximia.

174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 4

per ¢—3 longit. inaequaliter connatis; styli rami fl. hermaph. oblongi erecti

truncati dorso et apice minute papillosi; stamina 5 appendicibus triangular-

ibus acutis v. acuminatis donata, basi alte sagittato-auriculata auriculis

angustis acuminatis liberis.—Species typica R. seifriziz, sp. nov.

This genus is closely allied to Raoulia Hook. f., of New Zealand, the more

compact species of which genus it very closely simulates in habit. The ma-

terial available is unfortunately very scanty. The description of the floral

characters given above is based on the dissection of the single head contain-

ing flowers found on the type sheet of R. sezfrizi7; all the other heads on this

sheet have lost their flowers. The floral characters of R. pachymorpha are

unknown except for those furnished by a few achenes of pistillate flowers

from which the corollas have fallen. The principal distinctive characters

separating it from Raoulza are furnished by the pappus. In Raouliopsis the

pappus of the pistillate and hermaphrodite flowers differs decidedly, that

Fig. 1.—a-j, Raoultopsis serfrizii, from the type; a, head with surrounding leaves

somewhat separated, X2; 0), pistillate flower, <7; c, disk achene with pappus, <7;

d, disk corolla, X7; e,stamen, X15; f, style of disk flower, X15; g, leaf, upper side,

x24; h, leaf, lower side, X23; 7, leaf, upper side, the hairs removed to show vena-

tion, X23; 7, tip of leaf with hairs removed, 5; k-m, Raouliopsis pachymorpha,

from Schlim 1002; _ k, leaf, upper side, X23; J, leaf, lower side, X23; m, leaf with

hairs removed, X23.

of the pistillate flowers being composed of about 12-15 subcapillary hairs,

shortly connate at base and deciduous in a ring, that of the hermaphrodite

flowers of about the same number of distinctly flattened bristles, about three

times as wide as those of the pistillate flowers, hispidulous-subciliate at apex

and connate for about ~ to 4 their length. In Raoulia two groups are recog-

nized based on the structure of the pappus. In the subgenus Psychrophyton

Beauverd (section Imbricaria Benth. & Hook.) the pappus bristles are 15—25,

l-seriate, decidedly flattened, free and naked at base, toward apex thickened

and clavate-papillose. In the subgenus Huraoulia Beauverd (section Lepto-

pappus Benth. & Hook.) the pappus hairs are much more numerous (about

50-150), several-seriate, very slender, subfasciculate, naked below, above

hispidulous and at apex loosely barbellate. In both groups the pappus in the

female and hermaphrodite flowers is similar.

Heads solitary at tips of branches; leaves linear, 1-nerved below, rounded ~

and not widened at apex; branches including leaves about 5-8 mm

thick. 1. R. serfrizi.

Apr. 15, 1938 BLAKE: RAOULIOPSIS 175

Heads clustered at tips of branches; leaves oblong, 3-nerved below, sub-

truncate or broadly rounded and slightly widened at apex; branches in-

cluding leaves 7-12 mm thick. 2. R. pachymorpha.

Raouliopsis seifrizii Blake, sp. nov.

Fruticulus pulvinos fulvos rotundatos in specimibus visis 8 cm diam. et

ca. 1.5 em altos efformans, ramis inter folia densissime conferta longe

pilosis; folia linearia apice rotundata sessilia basi non angustata plana

6-6.5 mm longa 1—1.2 mm lata, per 2 longit. submembranacea in margine

seariosa lutescenti-albida l-nervia, in dorso margine glabro excepto dense

pilosa in ventre glabra, apice viridia subcoriaceo-herbacea 3-plinervia supra

dense subtus densissime pilosa, pilis ca. 2 mm longis rectis sice. tortilibus

comam cuneiformem efformantibus; capitula apicibus ramorum solitaria

sessilia inter folia immersa oblongo-campanulata ca. 5.5 mm alta 2.8 mm

crassa; involucri flores subaequantis phyllaria lanceolata acuminata ca.

0.5 mm lata chartacea lutescenti-albida supra in margine et in apice an-

guste scariosa erecta, exteriora basi longe pilosa interiora glabra; corollae

fl. fem. ut videtur pallide brunneae glabrae 1.8 mm longae, dentibus inae-

qualibus triangularibus acutis apice in pilum brevem desinentibus; corollae

fl. hermaph. ut videtur pallide brunneae subcylindricae sursum parum am-

pliatae glabrae 2.9 mm longae, dentibus 5 triangularibus acutis; achaenia

fl. fem. anguste oblonga obscure angulata ad apicem paullum contracta

4—5-nervia glabra 0.7 mm longa, pappi setis ca. 12-15 subcapillaribus his-

pidulis basi nudis subaequalibus 3 mm longis, paucis brevioribus exceptis;

achaenia fl. hermaph. oblonga sub-4-angulata 4-nervia glabra 0.6 mm longa,

pappi setis ca. 13-15 anguste paleiformibus linearibus 3.2 mm longis ¢a.

0.1 mm latis manifeste complanatis quam eis fl. fem. triplo latioribus his-

pidulis in apice non dilatato hispidulo-subciliatis per §-4 longit. connatis

flavescenti-albidis; styli rami (fl. hermaph.) oblongis erectis 0.4 mm longis.

CotomBiA: Paramos of the Sierra Nevada de Sante Marta, about 30

miles inland from Dibulla, Dept. Magdalena, alt. ca. 4875 m (16,000 ft.),

July 1932, William Sezfriz 516 (type no. 1,572,506, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Raouliopsis pachymorpha (Wedd.) Blake

Oligandra pachymorpha Wedd. Chlor. And. 1: 230. 1857.

Celaena pachymorpha Wedd. Chlor. And. 1: 230. 1857, as syn.

CoLomBtia: Sierra Nevada, ‘Prov. of Rio Hacha,’” alt. 4115 m (‘13,500

it.”), March, 1846-52, L. Schlim 1002 (type coll.; U. S. Nat. Herb., no.

1,628,290).

The rather ample material of R. pachymorpha in the U. 8. National Her-

barium, obtained in exchange from the Brussels Botanical Garden, is for the

most part broken up into separate branches or small groups of branches, but

enough remains to show that the plant must have had essentially the same

habit as R. sevfrizii. The longest piece, consisting of a main branch continued

by a subterminal erect lateral branch, is 5 cm long. Weddell described the

plant as “‘jaune obscur,” so that it was no doubt originally of essentially the

* Rio Hacha is a town on the coast of Colombia about 40 miles east of Dibulla.

The locality where Schlim’s specimens of R. pachymorpha were collected must have

been in the same general region as that where Seifriz found R. seifrizit.

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 4

Fig. 2.—A, Raoultopsis seifrizii (two specimens), type; B, Raoulia eximia Hook.

f., the upper figure from Cockayne 7048, the lower from A. W. Anderson 241, both from

New Zealand and in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum;

morpha (three specimens), type collection. All natural size.

C, Raouliopsis pachy-

| Apr. 15, 1938 BLAKE: RAOULIOPSIS 177

same fulvous color as R. sezfrzziz, but with the lapse of more than eighty

years the pubescence has become deep brown or even in places blackish.

Many of the branches bear clusters of heads at their apices, the barely ex-

posed tips of the phyllaries being in some cases narrow, whitish, and scarious,

in others (where weathered ?) brown and more chartaceous, but, like Wed-

dell, I have been unable to discover any corollas. The few achenes examined,

either from the heads or caught in the pubescence, are evidently from the

pistillate flowers. The achenes are glabrous, slender, 0.9 mm long, and the

pappus consists of about 16 slender whitish bristles about 2.2 mm long,

moderately hispidulous except toward the essentially naked base, not thick-

ened at apex, connate at base into a ring about 0.1 mm long, and deciduous

as a whole.

This species was published by Weddell as Oligandra pachymorpha under

the heading “‘Oligandrae species dubia,” with the synonym “Celaena pachy-

morpha Wedd., mscr.”’ Weddell was unable to find any flowers on the speci-

mens, but did find some achenes which he ascribed to the pistillate flowers.

He described the achenes as glabrous and the pappus bristles as a little

thickened above and fasciculate-connate at base. His failure to discover any

trace of staminate or hermaphrodite flowers led him to suspect that the

plant might be dioecious. At the close of his discussion, he remarked: ‘‘A

vrai dire, cette plante est presque intermédiaire entre les genres Oligandra

et Merope, et si,.plus tard, on juge utile d’en faire le type d’un groupe dis-

tinct, on pourra, si l’on veut, donner 4 celui-ci, le nom d’une autre pléiade,

et lappeler Celaena.”’

Although the close similarity in habit between this species and R. sezfrizi

leaves little doubt of the propriety of referring both to the same genus, the

adoption of the generic name suggested by Weddell has not seemed either

necessary or desirable. Weddell’s name is not supported by a generic de-

scription, and comes in the category of “‘provisional’’ names especially indi-

cated as invalid in the amendments to the International Rules of Botanical

Nomenclature adopted at Amsterdam in 1935. As the floral characters on

which the genus rests are drawn solely from R. sezfrizii, that species must

be taken as type of the new genus, and it would be unwise to resuscitate for

this a lapsed generic name originally based on another species which might

later, when its floral characters become known, prove to belong to a gen-

erically different group.

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

BOTAN Y.—The Carpet grasses. AGNES CHASE,! Bureau of Plant

Industry.

Carpet grass, Axonopus compressus (Swartz) Beauv., has always

been a puzzling complex. The type from Jamaica, collected by

Swartz and described by him as Miliwm compressum has not been

located but the original description (Prodr. 24. 1788) and the later

amplified description (FI. Ind. Occ. 1: 183. 1797) leave no doubt that

the name applies to the broad-leaved form with glume and sterile

lemma pointed beyond the fruit, common in the West Indies and

Brazil. In the herbarium of the Ko6nigliches Botanisches Museum at

Munich is a specimen labeled, but not [?] in Swartz’s script, ““Malzwm

compressum Sw., Jamaica, O. Swartz.’’ This, which is probably part

of the type collection, is the typical West Indian form with broad

blades and spikelets with glume and sterile lemma extending well

beyond the fruit.

Of the 17 names referred as synonyms to Axonopus compressus in

Hitchcock’s Manual of Grasses of the United States (page 804) the

type specimen has been examined of all but two, Milzum compressum

Swartz and Paspalum lateculmum Spreng., the first from Jamaica. A

specimen from Jamaica collected by Swartz was examined in the

herbarium at Munich. Sprengel’s description of P. lateculmum points

to Axonopus compressus, and he cites Miliwm compressum Swartz as

a synonym. All the types are the typical form of the American tropics

with broad blades often slightly plicate, broad-leaved coarse stolons,

and spikelets 2.2 to 3mm long, the glume and sterile lemma extending

beyond the fruit. In the United States this form is known only from

Florida and Louisiana. The narrow-leaved form with glume and

sterile lemma not or scarcely pointed beyond the fruit, common in

the Southern States, rare in Western Cuba and southern Mexico, and

infrequent in Central America, has not been described as a distinct

species.

The difference from true Axonopus compressus is slight and there

are intergrades, but on the whole specimens may be segregated with

relatively few intermediates. The late Professor C. V. Piper was at —

one time positive that the narrow-leaved form was distinct, at first

declaring it was not stoloniferous. But the writer showed him short

arching stolons on some of the specimens he collected. As a whole this

form is less commonly stoloniferous than is true A. compressus, but

sometimes develops extensive stolons. Field notes by the writer on

1 Received January 21, 1938.

Apr. 15, 1938 CHASE: CARPET GRASSES 179

narrow-leaved plants in the vicinity of Lake Charles, Louisiana, state

that sterile plants form a carpet in woods of pine, oak, Liquidamber,

and hickory, the flowering culms being relatively few. The specimens

from this colony are tufted, with short rhizomes but no stolons.

The two forms have been recognized as distinct by various authors,

the broad-leaved one generally under the name Paspalum platycaulon

Poir. or Anastrophus platycaulis (Poir.) Nash, the narrow-leaved

under the name Paspalum compressum (Swartz) Rasp. But Swartz’s

species is undoubtedly the same broad-leaved form as Poiret’s type

from Puerto Rico.

Carpet grass is esteemed as a good pasture grass from the southern

Coastal Plain to Texas. In a paper on Carpet Grass by C. V. Piper

and Lyman Carrier (Farmers’ Bulletin 1130, U. S. Dept. Agr.

pp. 1-12. 1920) it is said to be introduced into this country. The map

(page 3), showing distribution from North Carolina to Texas, in-

dicates that both forms of carpet grass are included, since the broad-

leaved is known only from Florida and Louisiana. The illustration

(page 5) represents the narrow-leaved form. This form is undoubtedly

native, the center of distribution apparently being the Gulf Coast

from Florida to Louisiana. It, like the wide-leaved form, is introduced

in the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and Australia.

The broad-leaved form is the only one known from the West Indies,

except from western Cuba. It may possibly have been introduced into

the Gulf States but more probably it is native though less widespread

than the narrow-leaved form in the United States. It is the common

form of carpet grass from Mexico to Paraguay.

No distinction in forage value seems to be made between the two

forms in this country, but Dr. J. N. Whittet, agrostologist of the

Department of Agriculture, Sydney, New South Wales, on a recent

visit to the Office of Grass Investigations, stated that in Australia the

narrow-leaved form is regarded as a pest, invading pastures of

Paspalum dilatatum Poir. and taking possession of them, since the

animals graze the paspalum and leave the carpet grass to go to seed.

It is not, as might be supposed, a case of mistaken identity, because

specimens of both forms from Australia are in the National Her-

barium and Dr. Whittet readily recognized them. Australia produces

seed of carpet grass for export, shipping it even to the United States,

but, Dr. Whittet says, this is the only country that does not object

to the intermixture of seed of the narrow-leaved form. The Economic

Index kept by the Office of Grass Investigations contains numerous

notes on carpet grass from various tropical and subtropical regions,

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

most of them favorable, such as ‘“‘valuable, especially on poor lands,”

and ‘‘one of the best pasture grasses for the tropics.’”’ But in the Agri-

cultural Gazette, New South Wales (47: 555. 1936), is a note on “‘nar-

row-leaved carpet grass’’ to the effect that it is spreading rapidly,

grows well in poor soil, but tends “‘to invade Paspalum dilatatum

pastures on better soil,’ and in the Queensland Agricultural Journal

(43: 503. 1935) a note states that it “invades paspalum pasture and

if it gets a good hold may ruin the pasture.”’ It seems probable that

the narrow-leaved carpet grass may be only less palatable than

Paspalum dilatatum, that in regions where the paspalum is wanting

or scarce, animals readily graze the narrow-leaved as well as the

broad-leaved carpet grass.

Mr. Mason A. Hein, Agronomist of the Division of Forage Crops

and Diseases, kindly sent inquiries as to palatability of the two forms

of carpet grass to field men in the Division, and their replies confirm

this opinion.

Since Axonopus compressus in this country is only found in Florida

and southern Louisiana and is the common form in the tropics, where-

as the narrow-leaved form ranges from North Carolina to Arkansas,

it would appear that the latter is more winter hardy than is A.

compressus. All factors considered, it seems better to recognize the

narrow-leaved form as a distinct species.

Axonopus affinis sp. nov.

Ab Axonopo compresso differt: culmis et stolonibus gracilioribus, laminis

angustioribus; spiculis brevioribus, 2 mm longis, obtusis vel subacutis.

Plants more tufted than in A. compressus, sometimes forming dense mats

with short rhizomes, the flowering culms in such colonies relatively few;

stolons slender, apparently mostly developing after the flowering of the

primary culms, at first arching, sometimes creeping as much as 30 cm, the

internodes short, and the blades not, as in A. compressus, conspicuously

shorter than the culm blades; culms erect to geniculate-ascending, on the

average more slender than in A. compressus, commonly 25 to 35 cm tall,

rarely to 75 cm, the nodes glabrous (often bearded in A. compressus);

sheaths compressed, on the average narrower than in A. compressus; blades

flat or folded in drying, 2 to 4, rarely to 5 or 6 mm wide, mostly 5 to 15 em

long, rarely to 28 cm long, the apex sometimes splitting; peduncles very

slender, 1 to 3 from the uppermost sheath, finally elongate; racemes 2 to 4, |

ascending, 2 to 10 (mostly 3 to 7) em long; spikelets oblong-elliptic, rather

more plump than in A. compressus, sometimes purple-tinged, 2 mm long,

0.8-0.9 mm wide, blunt or abruptly subacute, the glume and sterile lemma

equal, covering the fruit or slightly pointed beyond it, 4-nerved, the mid-

nerves suppressed, very sparsely silky-pilose at base and summit and some

times in a line along the nerves; fruit pale, 1.7 to 1.8 mm long, blunt. |

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 928710, collected ‘in low

moist ground, Waynesboro, Mississippi, October 2, 1896, by Thos. H.

Kearney, Jr. Much grazed by cattle.”

Apr. 15, 1938 CHASE: CARPET GRASSES 181

Intermediate specimens are found with blades to 7 mm wide and spike-

lets 2.2 to 2.3 mm long, slightly pointed (Combs 414 and Curtiss 5879 in

part, both from Quincy, Florida). Others with the habit of A. compressus,

with pubescent nodes and short broad stolon blades, have spikelets 2 to

2.2 mm long but with the glume and sterile lemma pointed beyond the

exceptionally short fruit (Combs 1324, Bradenton, and Curtiss 6638, Mabel,

both Florida).

Low commonly moist, often sandy meadows, open woods, old fields,

pastures and waste places, sometimes forming a turf, North Carolina to

Florida and west to Arkansas and Texas. ‘‘Forms bulk of native pastures

in open woods of Red River valley, Louisiana” C. R. Ball (no. 115). Also

in western Cuba, southern Mexico.

The following specimens are in the U. S. National Herbarium:

NortH Carouina: Wilmington, Hitchcock in 1905.

Geroreia: Union, Harper 1086. Savannah, Kearney 197.

Fig. 1.—Azonopus compressus. Two Fig. 2.—Azonopus affinis. Two views

views of spikelet, and fruit, X10. (Type of spikelet, and fruit, X10. (Type.)

of Paspalum tristachyon Lam.)

Fioripa: Avondale, Combs 494; Pensacola, Combs 517; Apalachicola,

Kearney 111; Tallahassee, Combs 362, 363; Kearney 87; Madison, Combs

265, 244; Jefferson County, Hitchcock 2462, 2468; Monticello, Combs

313; De Funiak Springs, Combs 450; Baldwin, Combs 51; Jackson-

ville, Combs 1; Curtiss 3565, 4023, 5077, 5589, Hztchcock in 1900 and 1903;

Duval County, Fredholm 5255; Quincy, Curtiss 5879; Chipley, Combs

544; Suwannee County, Hitchcock 2518; Lake City, Combs 78; Combs &

Rolfs 109, 135, 155, 176, 181; Hitchcock 2461; Rolfs 981; Gainesville,

Combs 733; Waldo, Combs 694; Ellzey, Combs 830; Titusville, Chase

3969; Sanford, Hitchcock 783; Eustis, Nash 1219; Hillsborough County,

Fredholm 6379; Fort Meade, McFarlin 3724; Winter Haven, McFarlin

5760; Lakeland, Hitchcock 831; Bartow, Combs 12438; Bradenton,

Combs 1332; Myers, Hitchcock 502, 503; Palmetto, Tracy 7047; Im-

mokalee, Swallen 5313; Alva, Hitchcock in 1900.

ALABAMA: Tuskegee, Carver 37; Selma, Kearney 6; Spring Hill, Bush

201, 203; Tuscaloosa, Mohr 17.

Mississippi: Nicholson, Kearney 356; Biloxi, Chase 4333; Ricker 862;

Swallen 1937; Tracy 3862; Ocean Springs, Seymour 18; Tracy 72, 6506.

ARKANSAS: Texarkana, Hggert 138; Letterman in 1894; Arkansas County,

Adair 3368.

Lovuts1ana: Royville, Ball 11. Coushatta, Ball 115; Shreveport, Hitch-

cock in 1903; Calhoun, Ball 55; Oberlin, Ball 224; Lake Charles, Chase

6100, 6109; Hitchcock 1121; Baton Rouge, Billings 18; Covington,

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 4

Arséne 11257, 11278, 12223; Pointe-a-la-Hache, Langlois 24, 149;

Houma, Wurzlow in 1913, Avery Island, Hitchcock 19835.

Texas: Houston, Bebb 1247, 1264; Hall 813; Ravenel in 1869; Waller,

Hitchcock 1218; Columbia, Bush 285; Beaumont, Plank 23, 28; Gon-

zales County, Bogusch 1302; Bay City, Silveus 901; Tom Green Co.,

Tweedy in 1880.

Mexico: Jalapa, Hitchcock 6588; Minatitlan, J. G. Smith 574.

GUATEMALA: Coban, Tiirckherm 1258.

Eu Satvapor: La Union, Hitchcock 878334.

CuBA: Habana, Léon 298; Herradura, HKkman 10786; Hitchcock 486;

Without locality, Wright 3850.

Hawaltl: Kona (Oahu), Hitchcock 19699.

Asta: Malay Peninsula, Singapore Botanic Garden, Furtado 25877.

AusTrRALia: “North Coast districts, naturalized and common in New

South Wales,’’ Whittet B in 1930.

This species forms much the greater part of the “carpet grass’’ of the

Southeastern States where it is esteemed as a good pasture grass, and where

it may be established “‘in open forests, or cut-over land, without going to the

expense of clearing.... Under close grazing most of the native bunch

grasses will be killed by the end of the first season and carpet grass will

occupy the land.” (Piper & Carrier, U. 8. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bull. 1130: 8.

1920).

Paspalum conjugatum Berg., a common but worthless grass of the

tropics and subtropics, has sometimes been confused with Axonopus

compressus, which it resembles. Reports of forage value of Paspalum

conjugatum (under several local names including “‘sour grass” in the

British West Indies, ‘“‘Mission grass’ in Queensland) are almost cer-

tainly based on mistaking A. compressus for P. conjugatum. The two

have much the same habit and often grow together. In Matto Grosso,

Brazil, the writer examined native pasture of A. compressus and P.

conjugatum where cattle were grazing. The Axonopus was closely

grazed while the Paspalum growing with it was left untouched.

Apr. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 183

ZOOLOGY.—WNorth American monogenetic trematodes. II. The

familes Monocotylidae, Muicrobothridae, Acanthocotylidae and

Udonellidae (Capsaloidea).1 Emmitt W. Pricz. U. 8. Bureau

of Animal Industry.

Family MICROBOTHRIIDAE Price, 1936

Synonyms.—Dermophagidae MacCallum, 1926; Labontidae MacCallum,

1927. ,

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors present or absent; when present, in form

of sucker-like structures. Posterior haptor small, without septa or hooks.

Eyes usually absent. Intestinal tract consisting of 2 branches, with or

without lateral diverticula. Genital apertures close together or opening

into a common genital sinus. Cirrus cuticularized, or muscular with a heavily

cuticularized ejaculatory duct. Vagina single or double.

Type genus.—Microbothrium Olsson, 1869.

The family names Dermophagidae MacCallum (1926) and Labontidae

MacCallum (1927) are unavailable, since the genus Dermophagus MacCal-

lum was preoccupied, and the genus Labontes MacCallum, which was pro-

posed to replace Dermophagus, is shown later on in this paper to be a

synonym of Microbothrium Olsson.

KEY TO SUBFAMILIES OF MICROBOTHRIIDAE

MPEMIRTNNGESECS. 6... ek ew ct cee he ate MICROBOTHRIINAE Price

DMEMEGHISTCSUCS. we cc ce cc we cues PSEUDOCOTYLINAE Monticelli

Subfamily MICROBOTHRIINAE, new name

Synonyms.—Anoplodiscinae Tagliani, 1912; Dermophaginae MacCallum,

ae Labontinae MacCallum, 1927; Paracotylinae Southwell and Kirshner,

1937.

Diagnosis—Anterior haptor in form of an oral sucker or of adoral pseudo-

suckers. Eyes present or absent. One or two testes. Vagina usually single

(double in Leptobothrium).

Type genus.—Microbothrium Olsson, 1869.

KEY TO GENERA OF MICROBOTHRIINAE

0 UCSC Dermophthirius MacCallum

(| LE ESTES So. 675, RARER ROAD ee 0k tree een ey ne eran Seto er 2

EOP ES, TOROS SIT Fa ea ae we en ee Anoplodiscus Sonsino

“ES SNDIS@ IID vate eae Sota ie a NO lea eet Sree nananed ATU eRe ne 3

3. Intestinal branches without lateral dendritic diverticula..............

. ee ee eee ne eeentoconse wtomticelli

Mecinnal branches with lateral diverticula.........:.....5-..+---- 4

TOMES Co as Case rss Soho Palo eN Gewese b oeee Microbothrium Olsson

+ 2.5255), CIOL S FSH eae ah eel i ven aan een ee Leptobothrium Gallien

Genus MicRoBoTHRIUM Olsson, 1869

Synonyms.—Dermophagus MacCallum, 1926, not Dejean, 1833; La-

bontes MacCallum, 1927; Philura MacCallum, 1926.

‘ Continued from Vol. 28, No. 3. Tu1s JournaL. Received February 12, 1938.

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of 2 bothria-like structures open-

ing into oral cavity; posterior haptor an elliptical, heavily cuticularized

groove. Oral aperture subterminal, groove-like; intestinal branches with

lateral, dendritic diverticula. Genital aperture median. Cirrus long, muscu-

lar, with heavily cuticularized ejaculatory duct. Testis single, equatorial.

Vagina single, not opening into genital atrium.

Type species —Microbothrium apiculatum Olsson, 1869.

This genus at present contains only the type species. Olsson (1869) ques-

tionably assigned to this genus a form from the dorsum of ‘‘Rajae Batidis,”

which he named Microbothrium (?) fragile. This form is now generally be-

lieved to be a parasitic triclad turbellarian, possibly identical with Mzcro-

pharynx parasitica Jagerskidld.

Microbothrium apiculatum Olsson, 1869 Figs. 1-2

Synonyms.—Pseudocotyle apiculatum (Olsson, 1869) Braun, 1890; Philura

orata MacCallum, 1926; Dermophagus squalt MacCallum, 1926.

Description.—Body elliptical, 1.7 to 3.2 mm long by 700u to 1.6 mm wide,

convex dorsally, flattened or slightly concave ventrally. Cephalic glands

present. Anterior haptors in form of 2 sucker-like organs opening into

mouth cavity; posterior haptor an elliptical opening, 150 to 225u long, at

posterior end of body, unarmed, its cavity lined with thick cuticle. Oral

aperture slit-like, subterminal; prepharynx relatively long; pharynx ovoid

to piriform, 190 to 300u long by 200 to 266u wide; esophagus very short;

intestinal tract consisting of 2 relatively slender branches with a number of

lateral, more or less dendritic diverticula. Nervous system not observed.

Genital aperture median, about one-third of body length from anterior end.

Cirrus long, muscular, lying in a rather spacious genital sinus; the ejacula-

tory duct, which passes through the center of the cirrus, strongly cuticular-

ized and expanded proximally to form a more or less globular ejaculatory

bulb. Vas deferens relatively large and expanded distally; seminal. vesicle

globular, about 80 to 170u in diameter, at level of ovary. Testis circular in

outline, with smooth or indented margins, 340 to 510u in diameter, in

equatorial zone. Ovary globular, 85 to 170u in diameter, immediately pre-

testicular, to right of median line. Vitellaria extending from level of pharynx

to within about 5004 from posterior end of body, meeting in median line

posterior to testis. Vagina strongly muscular, convoluted, its proximal end

expanded and forming a seminal receptacle, 40 to 115u in diameter, between

ovary and seminal vesicle; vaginal opening at level of genital aperture near

left intestinal branch. Ootype piriform, about 190u wide, surrounded by

unicellular glands. Egg oval, about 130u long by 80u wide, with relatively

short polar process.

Hosts —Squalus acanthias Linn., and Carcharias commersonii (Blainville).

Location.—Skin.

Distribution.—United States (Woods Hole, Mass.) and Canada.

Specumens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35684 (cotypes of Dermophagus

squalz), 35685 (cotypes of Philura orata) and 35686.

Microbothrium apiculatum was first described by Olsson (1869) from speci-

mens collected from the dorsum of ‘‘Acanthiae vulgaris’’ taken in the Skag-

errak. The description was not very complete as to details of the genital

systems; these details were supplied later by Saint-Remy (1891). The first

Apr. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 185

report of this species in North America is that by Stafford (1904) who listed

Pseudocotyle apiculatum (= Microbothrium apiculatum) from Squalus acan-

thias, the specimens having been collected at the Canadian Marine Biologi-

cal Station. MacCallum (1926) described as Philura orata n. g., n. sp., an

ectoparasitic fluke from the skin of ‘Carcharhinus commersoniv’’ collected at

Woods Hole, Mass., and later in the same year (1926) he described as

Dermophagus squali, n. g., n. sp., a somewhat similar fluke from Squalus

acanthias also collected at Woods Hole, Mass. A study of these forms reveals

Or O°,

Qi AN

KX A\

SOAR OR

KES

esisiG)

ONO

saan

xo)

WW |

Figs. 1—2.— Microbothrium apiculatum. 1, complete worm, ventral view; 2, egg.

Figs. 3-5.—Dermophthrius carcharhini. 3, complete worm, ventral view; 4, cirrus

spines; 5, egg.

that both Philura orata and Dermophagus squali are identical with Micro-

bothrium apiculatum Olsson. The specimens are not so large as the maximum

size given by Olsson, Stafford or MacCallum, but aside from this they check

in every essential with the description as given by Olsson and by Saint-

Remy.

Genus LEPTOBOTHRIUM Gallien, 1937

Synonym.—Pseudobothrium Gallien, 1937, nec Guiart, 1935.

Diagnosis.—Oral aperture subterminal, surrounded by a pseudosucker.

Posterior haptor small, unarmed. Intestine with lateral non-dendritic di-

verticula, not uniting posteriorly. Eyes absent. Testis single; cirrus simple.

Ovary small, pretesticular. Vagina present, bifurcating to form 2 branches

both opening into genital atrium. Other characters similar to those of

Microbothrium.

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 4

Type species.—Leptobothrium pristiuri (Gallien, 1937) Gallien, 1937.

The type and only species of this genus was described by Gallien (1937),

from specimens collected from the skin of Pristiurus melanostomus taken in

European waters.

Genus LeptrocoTyLE Monticelli, 1905

Synonym.—Paracotyle Johnstone, 1911.

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptor in form of a weakly developed oral sucker.

Intestinal branches without lateral dendritic diverticula. Other characters

similar to those of Microbothrium.

Type species.—Leptocotyle minor (Monticelli, 1888) Gallien, 1937.

Leptocotyle was proposed by Monticelli (1905) as a subgenus of Pseudo-

cotyle to contain Pseudocotyle minor, a species named by Monticelli (1888)

but not described until 1890. Johnstone (1911) described a form which seems

to be identical with P. minor Monticelli, naming the species Paracotyle

caniculae. Tagliani (1912) raised the subgenus Leptocotyle to the rank of a

genus but failed to include in it the species for which the subgenus was origi-

nally proposed; he did, however, recognize the identity of Paracotyle and

Leptocotyle. Recently Jones (1933) redescribed Johnstone’s Paracotyle ca-

niculae and considered it congeneric with Microbothrium apiculatum Olsson;

he apparently did not know of Pseudocotyle minor Monticelli, as no mention

of it was made. In comparing the descriptions and figures of P. minor

Monticelli with those of Paracotyle caniculae Johnstone, there appear to be

no essential differences and it is the writer’s opinion that the two forms are

identical; this conclusion supports that of Gallien (1937).

Genus DermMopHTuHirius MacCallum, 1926

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of 2 bothria opening into oral

cavity; posterior haptor consisting of 2 clamp-like cuticular jaws resembling

the valves of a clam shell, unarmed. Oral aperture slightly subterminal;

intestinal branches similar to but more conspicuous than those of Micro-

bothrium. Genita] aperture sinistral. Cirrus muscular, armed with a group

of 2 overlapping rows of stave-like spines in the thicker ventral wall and a

single row of short simple spines in the thinner dorsal wall. Two testes, side

by side, postequatorial. Vagina single.

Type species.—Dermophthirius carcharhint MacCallum, 1926.

Dermophthirius carcharhint MacCallum, 1926 Figs. 3-5

Description—Body elongate, ovoid, 1.9 to 2.9 mm long by 850y to 1.5

mm wide at level of pharynx. Anterior haptor in form of bothria opening

into oral cavity; posterior haptor clam shell-like, about 340yu long, strongly

cuticular, its inner surface roughened but without hooks. The exact shape

and function of this haptor could not be ascertained in the specimens

available owing to the large amount of detritus caught in its jaws. Oral

aperture slightly subterminal; prepharynx moderately long and spacious;

pharynx piriform, widest anteriorly, 190 to 245u long by 95 to 228u wide,

projecting into a widened prepharynx; esophagus absent; intestinal branches

with long lateral and shorter median dendritic diverticula. Nervous system

not ascertainable; eyes absent. Excretory apertures dorsal, at level of

pharynx. Genital aperture to left of median line and about midway between

base of pharynx and anterior margin of ovary. Genital sinus spacious. Cirrus

muscular and of peculiar shape; ventral wall greatly thickened and bearing

Apr. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 187

on its inner surface 2 rows of stave-like spines, the innermost row of about

25 spines 19 to 40u long and outermost row of about 25 spines 25 to 70u

long; dorsal wall thinner and bearing a single row of about 28 straight spines

having a maximum length of about 20u. Vas deferens convoluted proxi-

mally, widening and forming a seminal vesicle slightly anterior to level of

cirrus, then passing into a long, conspicuous, convoluted prostatic portion

lying immediately anterior to cirrus; prostatic portion lined with high

columnar epithelium. Testes round, 150 to 285yu in diameter, side by side,

immediately postovarial. Ovary elongate transversely, 90 to 190u long by

230 to 455u wide, median, slightly postequatorial. Vitellaria consisting of

relatively large follicles occupying greater part of body, except that oc-

cupied by genital organs, extending from anterior end of body to posterior

limits of intestinal diverticula. Vagina slender, opening near genital aper-

ture. Ootype median, surrounded at its base by unicellular glands; metra-

term short and thin walled. Egg tripolar, about 76u long (excluding polar

prolongations).

Host.—Carcharias commersonii (Blainville).

Location.—Olfactory organs and skin of back.

Distribution.—United States (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35687 (cotypes), 35688, and

36644.

This species has been described very accurately by MacCallum (1926)

except for a few details. The common genital aperture is not median but

somewhat sinistral; the vaginal aperture is also somewhat sinistral. The pos-

terior haptor is not in the form of a shallow groove, as originally figured and

described, but consists of a pair of jaw-like cuticularized structures which

have somewhat the appearance of the valves of a clam shell. In most of the

specimens the posterior haptor has been torn off and the description of the

posterior sucker or haptor as given by MacCallum was obviously from one

of these mutilated specimens. The exact detail of the haptor could not be

made out because of the mass of detritus clamped between the jaws; it must

possess enormous powers of attachment as it had been torn from all but 3

of about 20 specimens examined.

Genus ANOPLODISCUS Sonsino, 1890

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of a pair of pseudosuckers situated

at anterior end of body. Posterior haptor cup-like, unarmed. Eyes present.

Cirrus cuticularized, with accessory piece. Testis single, preequatorial.

Ovary pretesticular. Vagina present.

Type species.—Anoplodiscus richiardi Sonsino, 1890.

The type species of Anoplodiscus, A. richiardii, was originally described by

Sonsino (1890) from the gills of Pagrus orphus from the Mediterranean, and

was subsequently redescribed by Monticelli (1905); neither description is

adequate. The only other species so far included in this genus is A. australis

which was described by Johnston (1930) from specimens collected from the

fin of Sparus australis taken at Sydney Harbour, Australia.

The systematic position of the genus Anoplodiscus is not well established.

Monticelli placed it in the Anisocotylinae Monticelli, 1903—a subfamily

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

without a corresponding genus and consequently invalid—and later Tagliani

(1912) erected for it the subfamily Anoplodiscinae, elevating Monticelli’s

invalid Anisocotylinae to the status of an invalid family Anisocotylidae.

Johnston and Tiegs (1922) consider Anoplodiscus as possibly belonging to

the Calceostomidae, subfamily Dionchinae, while Fuhrmann (1928) and

Gallien (1937) place it in the Pseudocotylinae. The present writer has, with-

out prejudice, included Anoplodiscus in the Microbothrinae, mainly because

the general organization and the lack of haptoral hooks suggest relationship

with such genera as Microbothrium, Leptocotyle and Leptobothrium. On the

other hand, the presence in Anoplodiscus of eyes and a cirrus with accessory

piece suggests affinities with genera of the Gyrodactyloidea. It is possible that

a restudy of the species of Anoplodiscus may show the haptor to be armed

with minute hooks in which case it should be transferred to the family

Calceostomatidae (Gyrodactyloidea).

Subfamily PSEUDOCOTYLINAE Monticelli, 1903

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors absent; posterior haptor small, suckerlike,

unarmed. Eyes absent. Genital apertures close together, median. Testes

numerous. Vagina double, not opening into genital atrium.

Type genus.—Pseudocotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1865.

Genus PsrEupDocoTYLE Beneden and Hesse, 1865

Diagnosis.—With characters of subfamily.

Type species.—Pseudocotyle squatinae Beneden and Hesse, 1865.

The genus Pseudocotyle contains only the type species; it has not been

reported from North America.

Family ACANTHOCOTYLIDAE Price, 1936

Synonym.—Anisocotylidae Tagliani, 1912, in part.

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of retractile suckers or of weakly

developed suckers surrounded by openings of cephalic gland ducts. Posterior

haptor small, bearing usually 1 pair of centrally placed hooks and 14 margin-

al hooklets; sometimes with large disc-like pseudo-haptor bearing rows of

spines, or with radial septa. Genital apertures separate; male aperture me-

dian or sublateral; female aperture lateral and marginal. Vagina (?). Testis

single or multiple.

Type genus.—Acanthocotyle Monticelli, 1888.

The family Acanthocotylidae is erected to include 3 genera, viz., Acan-

thocotyle Monticelli, Lophocotyle Braun and Enoplocotyle Tagliani. The first

two of these genera are included in the subfamily Acanthocotylinae Monti-

celli and the third in the subfamily Enoplocotylinae Tagliani.

Recent writers, including Johnston and Tiegs (1922) and Fuhrmann

(1928), are not in agreement as to the affinities of these genera. Johnston and

Tiegs place the genera Acanthocotyle and Lophocotyle in the Acanthocotylinae

which they append to the superfamily Gyrodactyloidea; they do not men-

tion the genus Enoplocotyle. Fuhrmann apparently does not recognize either

the subfamily Acanthocotylinae or Enoplocotylinae, placing Acanthocotyle,

Lophocotyle and Enoplocotyle in the family Monocotylidae.

Apr. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 189

The present writer regards the affinities of Acanthocotyle, Lophocotyle and

Enoplocotyle such as to warrant the erection for them of a family separate

from the Monocotylidae. In these genera the male and female genital aper-

tures are relatively far removed, while in the Monocotylidae the male and

female apertures are close together. Furthermore, in both Acanthocotyle and

Enoplocotyle, and possibly also in Lophocotyle, the cephalic gland ducts open

around the margins of the anterior sucker-like haptors; this is not the case

in the Monocotylidae.

KEY TO SUBFAMILIES OF ACANTHOCOTYLIDAE

Posterior haptor very small, situated at margin of large disc-like pseudo-

haptor bearing radial rows of spines, or with muscular septa. .

a SA le loti a wy oe ACANTHOCOTYLINAE Monticelli

Posterior haptor relatively large, without pseudohaptor.................

ER i ee tee ie al oh! Fle ea Senn ENOPLOCOTYLINAE Tagliani

Subfamily ACANTHOCOTYLINAE Monticelli, 1903

Diagnosis —Anterior haptors in form of 2 retractile suckers, or of corre-

sponding concentrations of cephalic gland ducts. Posterior haptor very

small, at margin of large disc-like pseudohaptor. Testes numerous.

Type genus.—Acanthocotyle Monticelli, 1888.

The posterior adhesive organs in members of the Acanthocotylinae differ

from those occurring in other representatives of the Capsaloidea in consist-

ing of a large sucker-like structure provided with a small armed disc situ-

ated at its posterior margin. The large sucker bears on its ventral surface

either radial ridges (Lophocotyle) or radial rows of spines (Acanthocotyle) ;

this structure has been termed a pseudohaptor (Price, 1937). The small dise

is the true haptor and is undoubtedly homologous with the haptor of

gyrodactylids, dactylogyrids, monocotylids and capsalids, since it is armed

with hooks which are distributed as in the above forms. The spines of the

pseudohaptor have usually been referred to as hooks, but since they are not

provided with muscular attachments they can not be regarded as hooks in

the same sense as those of the true haptor. In the present paper, as well as

in others by the writer, the term hook is reserved for those cuticularized or

chitinized structures which are freely movable due to muscular action, and

the term spine is used for similar structures not provided with muscles;

we may have, therefore, spine-like hooks as well as hook-like spines.

KEY TO GENERA OF ACANTHOCOTYLINAE

Pseudohaptor with radial rows of spines......... Acanthocotyle Monticelli

Pseudohaptor without radial rows of spines............Lophocotyle Braun

Genus ACANTHOCOTYLE Monticelli, 1888

Diagnosis—Anterior haptors in form of 2 retractile suckers; cephalic

glands present, opening around margins of suckers. Pseudohaptor large,

bearing radiating rows of irregularly shaped spines. Intestinal branches with-

out lateral diverticula.

Type species,—Acanthocotyle lobtancht Monticelli, 1888.

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 4

The genus Acanthocotyle contains at present 9 apparently valid species as

follows: A. branchialis Willem (1906), A. elegans Monticelli (1890), A.

lobiancht Monticelli (1888), A. monticelliz? Scott (1902), A. oligoterus Monti-

celli (1899), A. pacifica Guberlet (1937), A. pugetensis Guberlet (1937), A.

verrillt Goto (1899), and A. williams, n. sp.; all except the last four of these

species occur on European rays and are not known to occur on North Ameri-

ean hosts.

Acanthocotyle williamsi, n. sp. Fig. 6-9

Description.—Body linguiform, flat, 3.7 to 4.4 mm long by 1.3 to 1.6 mm

wide. Anterior sucker-like haptors 150u long by 110u wide, retracted into

groove-like depressions. Cephalic glands present, opening around margins

of haptors as in other species of the genus. Pseudohaptor disc-like, 1.2 to

1.3 mm in diameter, its ventral surface provided with 20 rows (21 rows in 1

specimen) of strong spines, the 2 most posterior rows with 3 to 6 spines

each and the other rows with 6 to 10 each; outermost spines longest, trun-

cate at tips. Posterior haptor 55 to 65y in diameter, situated at distal mar-

gin of pseudohaptor, armed with 16 hooks, 2 centrals and 14 marginals,

each about 18 to 20u long. Oral aperture ventral, median, about 240u from

anterior end of body. Pharynx globular, 320 to 400u in diameter. Esophagus

very short; intestinal branches simple, without diverticula. Brain antero-

dorsal of oral aperture; no eyes; one pair of sensory papillae near anterior

margin, immediately median to haptors. Excretory vesicles anterior to

vitellaria, opening dorsally near lateral margins of body. Male genital

aperture median or slightly submedian, immediately posterior to base of

pharynx. Cirrus pouch relatively large, curved, containing an internal

seminal vesicle and a relatively short cirrus; vas deferens enlarged and

constricted to form 2 external seminal vesicles, the most posterior being

rosette-shaped. Paired prostatic vesicles present, one on each side of cirrus

pouch, extending from level of middle of anterior seminal vesicle to genital

aperture; these lie entirely outside the cirrus pouch and are often volumi-

nous. Testes 32 to 57 in number, in intercecal field posterior to ovary.

Ovary globular, 270 to 320u in diameter, median, about one-third of body

length from anterior end. Vitellaria extracecal, consisting of large elongate

follicles, extending from level of ovary to near posterior end of body proper.

Seminal receptacle present, postero-dorsal of ovary; vagina absent. Ootype

elongate, in median field, uniting with uterus by means of a short slender

duct; uterus cylindrical, relatively short, opening into relatively large club-

shaped muscular metraterm. Female aperture dextral, dorsal, at level of

anterior part of pharynx. Egg 275 long, exclusive of filament, by 68u wide.

Host.—*Skate.”’

Location.—Skin.

Distribution.—Aleutian Islands (Salt Island).

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. No. 9033 cotypes; collected July 7,

1936, by C. 8. Williams, for whom the species is named.

This species appears to resemble more closely A. branchialis Willem than

any of the other species of Acanthocotyle. The two species differ mainly in

the number of pseudohaptoral spines, there being 7 to 8 spines in the most

2 Acanthocotyle concinna Scott, 1902, appears to be a lapsus for A. monticelliz; the

name is mentioned only once and then in connection with a comparison of A. monti-

cella with other species of the genus.

Apr. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 191

posterior rows and 9 to 14 in the others in A. branchialis, and 3 to 6 in the

most posterior rows and 6 to 10 in the others in A. williamsz.

A study of specimens of this and some other species of Acanthocotyle has

convinced the writer that Monticelli (1899) was in error in interpreting

parts of the male and female genital systems in species of this genus. Accord-

ing to Monticelli’s descriptions and very elaborate figures of these systems

Figs. 6-9.—Acanthocotyle wiliamsi. 6, complete worm, ventral view; 7, male and

female genital complex; 8, haptoral hook; 9, egg. Figs. 10—11.—Acanthocotyle

verrillt. 10, complete worm, ventral view; 11, egg.

in the species described by him, there is a large cirrus sac containing a cirrus,

internal seminal vesicle and a prostatic vesicle. He also described and figured

a vagina extending from the seminal receptacle and opening near the male

aperture. According to the present writer’s observations on serial sections and

toto mounts of several specimens of A. williamsz, as well as observations on

specimens of A. verrilli and two species kindly supplied by Kelsaw Bonham,

University of Washington, Seattle, Wash., the cirrus pouch is very delicate

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

and encloses only a small cirrus and a large internal seminal vesicle; the

prostatic vesicles are two in number, both lying free in the parenchyma, one

on each side of the cirrus pouch, and opening opposite each other in a shallow

genital atrium. There is no trace of either a vaginal aperture or a vagina in

any of the species studied, and it appears that what was regarded as a vagina

by Monticelli was one of the prostatic vesicles. The conclusion that a vagina

is absent in species of Acanthocotyle is supported by Willem (1906) who

stated that he was unable to demonstrate this structure in specimens of

A. branchialis.

Acanthocotyle verrillt Goto, 1899 Figs. 10-11

Description.—Body linguiform, almost rectangular, flat, 3.5 to 3.89 mm

long by 1.2 to 1.3 mm wide, slightly constricted at level of pharynx. An-

terior haptors in form of a pair of suckers, each about 114u wide, retracted

into groove-like depressions. Cephalic glands present, their ducts opening

at margins of anterior haptors. Pseudohaptor disc-like, 1.28 to 1.86 mm in

diameter, slightly concave, with 30 radial rows of irregularly shaped spines,

4 to 15 in each row, outermost spines longer than others and with truncate

tips; posterior haptor about 130y in diameter, at posterior margin of pseudo-

haptor, armed with 16 hooks, 2 centrals and 14 marginals, each about 30yu

long. Oral opening ventral, about 340 to 425u from anterior end of body.

Pharynx piriform, 190 to 285u long by 247 to 293u wide; esophagus ex-

tremely short; intestinal branches with slight median diverticula, terminat-

ing near posterior end of body proper. Nervous system not completely as-

certainable; brain immediately anterior to oral aperture; eyes absent; 1

pair of sensory papillae situated at anterior margin of body, | papilla median

to each haptor. Excretory vesicles immediately anterior to vitellaria, open-

ing dorsally near lateral margins of body. Male genital aperture submedian,

about 570u from anterior end of body; cirrus relatively short; vas deferens

dilated and constricted to form 2 seminal vesicles. Paired prostate vesicles

present, one opening on each side of male genital aperture. Testes about 57

in number, in interintestinal field posterior to ovary. Ovary globular, 210

to 228u in diameter, submedian, pretesticular. Vitellaria extracecal, con-

sisting of large follicles and extending from ovarial zone to posterior end of

body proper. Vagina absent. Ootype relatively wide, extending anteriad in

median line, joined by slender duct to the relatively long uterus; metraterm

relatively wide. Egg 259u long, exclusive of filament, by 80u wide.

Hosts.—Raja erinacea Mitchill, R. radiata Donovan, and “‘blue fish.’

Location.—Skin.

Distribution — United States (North Atlantic). Reported fom Cape Cod,

Mass., by Goto (1899); from Canada by Stafford (1904); and from off the

coast of Maine by Manter (1926).

Speciumens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. No. 7175.

The description given here is based on 2 specimens from a “blue fish,”

collector unknown, which were found in the U. 8. National Museum.

This species appears to be somewhat variable, as considerable difference

was noted between the specimens studied by the writer and those described

by Goto (1899) and by Manter (1926) ; these differences, however, were more

or less minor, being in the number of testes and in the number of rows of

spines on the pseudohaptor. Goto reported the number of testes as 37 and

Apr. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 193

Manter as 52, while in the writer’s specimens there were at least 57. The

number of rows of spines on the pseudohaptor was given as 34 by Goto and

32 by Manter; in the writer’s specimens there were 30 rows. In spite of these

differences there seems to be no reason for regarding the specimens from the

3 collections as representing different species.

Acanthocotyle pacifica Guberlet, 1937

This species was reported by Guberlet (1937) as occurring on the skin and

only rarely on the gills of Raja binoculata Girard, R. stellulata Jordan and

Gilbert and FR. rhina Jordan and Gilbert from the Pacific Coast. The only

character given for this species was that the pseudohaptor bears 32 or more

rows of spines.

Acanthocotyle pugetensis Guberlet, 1937

This species was reported as occurring principally on the gills of the same

hosts as A. pacifica. The pseudohaptor bears 20 rows of spines.

Genus LopHocoTYLE Braun, 1896

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of 2 groups of cephalic gland duct

openings. Pseudohaptor similar to that of Acanthocotyle but with muscular

radii instead of rows of spines. Intestinal branches with lateral diverticula.

Male and female genital apertures apparently not so widely separated as in

Acanthocotyle; testes numerous.

Type species.—Lophocotyle cyclophora Braun (1896).

The type and only species of this genus was based on 2 specimens, col-

lected at Puerto Toro by the Hamburg Magellan-Expedition ‘‘wahrschein-

lich von der Haut eines Fisches der Gattung Notothenia.”’ The specimens ap-

parently were not in good condition as certain features of the worm were not

well described. The general appearance, however, indicates a very close rela-

tionship with members of the genus Acanthocotyle.

Subfamily ENOPLOCOTYLINAE Tagliani, 1912

Diagnosis —Anterior haptors in form of 2 very weakly developed suckers,

with ducts of cephalic glands opening around them. Posterior haptor rela-

tively large, with 1 pair of centrally placed hooks and 14 marginal hooklets,

each of the latter located in center of an oval sucker-like depression. Testis

single, immediately postovarial.

Type genus.—Enoplocotyle Tagliani, 1912.

Genus ENopLocoTyLeE Tagliani, 1912

Diagnosis.—Characters of subfamily.

Type species—Enoplocotyle minima Tagliani, 1912.

This genus contains only the type species; it is not known to occur in

North American hosts.

Family UDONELLIDAE Taschenberg, 1879

Diagnosis.—Body elongate, cylindrical or subcylindrical; cuticula with

distinct or indistinct annulations. Anterior haptors present or absent, when

present, in form of 2 small suckers or sucker-like structures; cephalic glands

present. Posterior haptor sucker-like, without radii, unarmed. Pharynx

194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

well developed, protrusible. Intestine simple, sac-like, unbranched, some-

times fenestrate in testicular and ovarian zones. Genital aperture median or

submarginal; cirrus absent; testis single. Ovary pretesticular, median. Egg

oval or elongate piriform, with long filament at one pole.

Type genus.—Udonella Johnston, 1835.

Genus UponEuua Johnston, 1835

Synonyms.—Lintonia Monticelli, 1904; Calinella Monticelli, 1910.

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of 2 small suckers or sucker-like

structures; posterior haptor terminal, sucker-like, unarmed. Pharynx with-

out hooks or spines; intestine simple, sac-like, sometimes fenestrate in

ovarian and testicular zone.

Type species —Udonella caligorum Johnston, 1835.

The genera Lintonia Monticelli (1904) and Calinella Monticelli (1910) are

regarded as synonyms of Udonella Johnston, as the characters given for these

genera are of no more than specific value. The type of Lintonia, L. papzillosa

(Linton), is shown further on in this paper to be the same as Udonella

socialis Linton, and both are apparently identical with U. caligorum John-

ston. Calinella craneola Monticelli shows a fenestration of the simple sac-like

intestinal cecum but otherwise appears to be very similar to U. caligorum;

this single character is not regarded as generic.

The genus Udonella contains at the present time the following species:

U. caligorum Johnston, U. craneola (Monticelli), U. lupi Beneden and Hesse,

U. merlucit Beneden and Hesse, U. pollachiz Beneden and Hesse, U. sciaenae

Beneden and Hesse, and U. triglae Beneden and Hesse. Of these species only

the first two, U. caligorum and U. craneola, appear to be distinguishable; the

remaining species are imperfectly described and probably not all congeneric.

Udonella caligorum Johnston, 1835 Figs. 12-17

Synonyms.—Nutzschia papillosa Linton, 1898; Lintonia papillosa (Linton,

1898) Monticelli, 1904; Udonella socialis Linton, 1910; Calinella myliobate

Guberlet, 1936.

Description.—Body elongate, 1.1 to 1.86 mm long by 255yu wide at ovary,

subcylindrical; cuticula of anterior end of body in mature specimens showing

pseudoannulations. Anterior haptors sucker-like, retractile, about 42 to 57u

wide; cephalic glands present, their ducts leading apparently to anterior

haptors. Posterior haptor sucker-like, 187 to 210u in diameter, without septa

or hooks. Caudal glands present, arranged in 2 submarginal groups near

posterior end of body proper. Oral aperture subterminal, median. Pharynx

oval, 150 to 152u long by 85 to 95u wide, apparently partially protrusible.

Intestine simple, sac-like, unbranched, extending to near posterior end of

body proper. Nervous system not observed; eyes absent; one pair of con-

spicuous sensory papillae present at anterior end of body. Excretory vesicles

submarginal, at or slightly posterior to level of base of pharynx, conspicu-

ous in small specimens. Genital aperture sinistral, submarginal, slightly an-

terior to level of posterior end of pharynx. Cirrus apparently absent;

ejaculatory duct slender and leading from an oval seminal vesicle lying to

right of anterior end of ootype. Testis single, median, 76 to 95y in diameter,

equatorial. Ovary globular, 133y in diameter, median, pretesticular. Vitel-

Apr. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 195

WWIO

‘WA GS'O

Figs. 12-17.—Udonella caligorum. 12,egg; 13and14,egg hatching; 15and 16,

young forms showing different degrees of maturity; 17, adult worm.

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 4

laria consisting of few relatively large follicles, extending from slightly pos-

terior to pharynx to a short distance anterior to posterior end of body.

Vagina absent. Ootype large, vesicular, its base surrounded by unicellular

glands; metraterm very short. Egg from balsam mounts elongate piriform,

133u long by 42u wide, with long slender filament expanded at tip to form

an adhesive disc; the eggs were all considerably contracted and wrinkled and

the measurements given are no doubt much less than would be those of un-

preserved eggs.

Infe history —Immature forms in all stages of growth from escape of the

larva from the egg to the fully mature adult were observed on the slide

mount of Udonella socialis. These various growth stages showed very little

of special significance. At the time of escape from the egg the worm appears

to be virtually mature except for size; the smallest individual observed was

210u long by 57y wide. The most noticeable change during growth appears

to be in the relative sizes of the ovary and testis; in immature stages the

Ovary is always distinctly smaller than the testis, while in fully grown adults

the reverse is true. The life history of this species, so far as represented in

the available material, is essentially the same as that given by Beneden

(1858).

Hosts.—‘‘Argulus sp.’’ in mouth of Neomaenis griseus; Caligus sp., on

Gadus callarias Linnaeus; and Trebius latiturcatus, parasite on Myliobatis

calufornicus Gill.

Location.—Body and appendages of copepod.

Distribution.—United States (Woods Hole, Mass., Tortugas, Fla., and

Monterey Bay, Calif.) and (?) Canada.

Specumens.—U.8.N.M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 4874 (cotypes of Nitzeschia papil-

losa) and 8537 (cotypes of Udonella socialis).

)

Udonella caligorum was first reported from this country by Linton (1898)

as Niteschia papillosa, the description being based upon specimens collected

by the late Vinal N. Edwards at Woods Hole, Mass., December 15, 1885,

from the (?) gills of Gadus callarias. The description was very incomplete and

the illustrations inadequate. Owing to the incompleteness of the description

and figures, Monticelli (1904) secured the cotype specimens and redescribed

the species as Lintonia papillosa, placing his newly created genus Lintonia

in the family Monocotylidae. Later, Linton (1910) described as a new spe-

cies, Udonella socialis, a form which he found on “‘Argulus sp.” from the

mouth of Neomaents griseus at Tortugas, Fla. More recently Guberlet (1936)

described Calinella myliobati from specimens found on a copepod, Trebius

latefurcatus, parasitic on Myliobatis californicus from Monterey Bay, Cali-

fornia. A comparison of the type specimens of N. papillosa (=L. papillosa),

U. socialis and C. myliobati has shown that these species are apparently

identical with the European Udonella caligorum Johnston (1835) from

Caligus sp. parasitic on the halibut, Hippoglossus vulgaris. U. caligorum

has also been reported by Stafford (1904) from Caligus sp. on Gadus callarias

from Canada; none of the latter species was available for study.

U. caligorum seems to be quite variable as regards size, the variation in

length ranging from ‘‘about 4 lines,” according to Johnston (5 to 6 mm ac-

cording to Beneden (1858); 4 mm according to Stafford (1905)), to less

Apr. 15, 1938 PRICE: TREMATODES 197

than 2 mm in specimens available to the writer. The specimen of U. cali-

gorum from England reported by Baylis and Jones (1933) were made avail-

able for comparison through the courtesy of Doctor Baylis, and a study of

these specimens showed no essential differences, either in size or in other

respects, between them and the specimens from the United States.

Genera inquirenda

Genus EcHINELLA Beneden and Hesse, 1863

Diagnosis.—Body elongate, cylindrical, annulated. Posterior haptor rela-

tively large, sucker-like. Pharynx with 2 chitinous hooks; intestine (?).

Type species.—Echinella hirundinis Beneden and Hesse, 1863.

Genus PTERONELLA Beneden and Hesse, 1863

Diagnosis—Body elongate, annulated when young. Anterior end with

ciliated aliform membrane. Posterior haptor relatively large, sucker-like.

Pharynx armed with a large number of chitinous stylets; intestine (?).

Type species—Pteronella molvae Beneden and Hesse, 1863.

No representatives of these very inadequately characterized genera have

been reported from North America.

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Apr. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 199

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

4AOTH ANNUAL MEETING

The 40th Annual Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was

held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, January 20, 1938 with 50

members present. President CHARLES THom called the meeting to order at

215 PYM.

The minutes of the 39th Annual Meeting were presented and approved.

The Corresponding Secretary, NATHAN R. Situ, submitted the following

report on the membership and activities of the Academy:

Membership: During 1937, 38 were elected to resident and 1 to non-resi-

dent active membership. Of these, 28 have qualified for resident membership

to date. Six were elected in recognition of their work in Chemistry; 4 in

Electricity and Radio; 4 in Zoology; 3 in Geology; 3 in Bacteriology; 3 in

Entomology; 3 in Medicine; 2 in Soil Science; 2 in Phytopathology; 2 in

Biology; 2 in Forestry; 2 in Physics; and 1 each in Plant Physiology, Engi-

neering and Meteorology. There were 4 resignations (1 resident and 3 non-

resident), and 12 deaths. Twenty-one were dropped for non-payment of

dues (12 resident and 9 non-resident). The net loss in membership was,

therefore, 9.

The following deaths were reported:

CLARENCE B. Moors, Philadelphia, Pa., 1936

F. V. Covitu“e, Washington, D. C., January 9, 1937.

Wo. M. Braman, Washington, D. C., March 2, 1937.

Wm. A. White, Washington, D. C., March 7, 1937.

Evinu THomson, Lynn, Mass., March 13, 1937.

C. H. Smytu, Jr., Princeton, N. J., April 4, 1937.

Wo. M. WHEELER, Cambridge, Mass., April 19, 1937.

O. P. Hoop, Washington, D. C., April 22, 1937.

Paut V. Rounpy, Washington, D. C., June 21, 1937.

A. B. Cuawson, Washington, D. C., June 30, 1937.

J. N. B. Hewitt, Washington D. C., October 14, 1937.

Lorp RuTHERFORD (Honorary Member), Cambridge, England, Oct.

19, 1937.

On January 1, 1938, the membership consisted of 13 honorary members,

3 patrons and 515 active members, one of which was a life member. Of the

active members, 388 were classed as resident and 127 as non-resident. Since

the By-Laws limit the number of active members to 400 resident and 200

non-resident, but do not include retired active members of which there are

22 resident and 6 non-resident, there were, therefore, 34 vacancies in the

resident and 79 vacancies in the non-resident membership.

The Board of Managers held five meetings during the year, with an aver-

age attendance of 17.

The Recording Secretary presented the following report:

The 40th year of the Academy began with the 276th meeting and ended

tonight with the 283rd meeting.

The 267th meeting was a joint meeting with the Washington Section,

American Institute of Electrical Engineers; the Washington Section, Ameri-

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 4

can Society of Mechanical Engineers; the Washington Post of the Society of

American Military Engineers and the Washington Society of Engineers.

The meeting was held on February 18, 1937 in the Department of Commerce

Auditorium with about 450 in attendance. The address was to be given by

VLADIMIR KARAPETOFF, Professor of Electrical Engineering, Cornell Uni-

versity. On account of illness Professor KARAPETOFF was forced to cancel

the engagement at the last minute. As a substitute, an address was given

by GroRGE OTIs SanrorpD of the Bureau of Reclamation on the Grand

Coulee and Boulder Dam Projects illustrated with moving pictures.

The 277th meeting was a joint meeting with the Philosophical Society of

Washington and the Washington Section of the Institute of Radio Engi-

neers. The meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on

March 18, 1937 with about 250 in attendance. The address was given by

Rospert R. McMatu, Director of the McMath-Hulbert Observatory of the

University of Michigan. The subject of the address was Solar Phenomena in

Motion Pictures and A Motion Picture Journey to the Moon.

The 278th meeting, a joint meeting with the Biological Society, was held

on April 8, 1937 in the Auditorium of the National Museum with about 347

in attendance. The address was given by ARTHUR A. ALLEN, Professor of

Ornithology, Cornell University on American Ornithology, Past and Present.

The address was illustrated with sound moving pictures reproducing the

songs of various birds.

The 279th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on

April 29, 1937 with about 200 in attendance. An illustrated address was

given by I’. Simon, Oxford University, England, on the subject, The Produc-

tion and Measurement of Extremely Low Temperatures.

The 280th meeting was held on October 21, 1937 in the Assembly Hall of

the Cosmos Club with about 50 in attendance. The address was given by

Stuart A. Rick, Chairman of the Central Statistical Board on the subject,

The Census of Partial Employment, Unemployment and Occupation.

The 28lst meeting was held on November 18, 1937 in the Auditorium of

the National Museum with about 120 in attendance. The illustrated address

of the evening was given by C. W. Giimors, Curator, Division of Vertebrate

Paleontology, National Museum. After the lecture those in attendance were

taken through the exhibition halls and laboratory rooms of the division of

vertebrate paleontology to view the exhibits under the leadership of the

speaker.

The 282nd meeting on December 16, 1937 was held in the Assembly Hall

of the Cosmos Club with about 60 in attendance. An illustrated address

was given by R. R. Wiuuiams, Chemical Director, Bell Telephone Labora-

tories, on the subject, The Quest for Vitamin By.

The 283rd meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club on January 20, 1938 with 60 persons present. An illustrated

address was given by F. R. Movuuton, Permanent Secretary of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science on the subject, Celestial Sczence.

The report of the Treasurer, H. G. AvreRs, was read by Howarp §&.

RAPPLEYE:

Apr. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 201

CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS

RECEIPTS

BERR E EAC SPUR) 18 te ee Ex esi We eis ws $ 125.00

em aector lool. 8 ON ee en gare! 2365 .00

eer ines for 1936-0 20 ob ee 15.00

Beam oubseripiions for 1937 ...... 2. $. 2.2... 875 .80

Pasi Subseriptions for 1958... ..... 6.2... e. 312-70

Mearmaisaies Of Journals... 7.4... eee kk 124 .29

Bramiebayments for reprints. ............5..- 306 .50

Rrom-ozle of halftone plater............-.... 6.10

From Sales of Directory for 1987............. 38 .00

Beam inierest on Deposits.................-. A7 .95

From Interest on Investments............... 1064 .50

From Sale of Bond of Potomac El. Power Co.. 999 .35

From Sale of Bond of Amer. Tel. & Tel. Co... 2199.00

From Sale of Bond of So. Bell Tel. & Tel.Co.. 1049.25

pee SCID IS! 650s ede ene, St: $9528 .44

Wash Balance January 1, 1937........... ieee 24059105

eRe ESCe OUTCOME OF A Pe $14,164 .07

DISBURSEMENTS

Heriseeretary s Office, 1936................-. » 3/.99

Maescerctary’s Office, 1937. -... 2... 525....-. 276.23

Meerereacurer’s Office... .......-2.. 200.0455 179.11

mesecowrmal Prints, J936........-..-.-.--- 336.11

Hecelourial Printing, 1937. ........... 4.5... 243235929

Banournal Reprints, 1936:.. .:..0 22.026... 139 .20

Heqeeucnial heprinis, 1937.................- 440.85

Mememiwchracions, 1937...) .. 2.2.62. ee ee. 309 .09

For Meetings Committee, 1936............... 41.21

For Meetings Committee, 19387......... ee: Ske) DS,

Healrnine of Directory... ..... 22.66. oe 685 .21

Bemreneneriton lens... 2. 6 oh ek ek 98 .70

For Dues of Retired members returned........ 45 .00

Bank Debit Memos, as follows :—

Me ee NG Doe $0 .35

Semcenipimons. 8. ela a oo. i 46

Wasi Dishursements...8 0s . $5356.96

Cash Balance December 31, 1987............ 8807.11

Ee fee = Se Se

See eee ae ee et Cem NS LRAT Me, $14,164 .07

The investments listed amounted to $16,046.37.

The Auditing Committee, ARTHUR A. Baker, WiLLIAM A. Dayton and

Gorpon M. Kunz reported:

“The Treasurer’s records of receipts and expenditures as shown in his

account books and included in his report have been examined and found cor-

rect. All vouchers have been examined and found to be correct and properly

approved. The balance sheet’s Submitted by the bank and the securities

listed in the Treasurer’s report have been examined. The statement of the

202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 4

assets of the Academy was found correct. No coupons not yet due were miss-

ing from any of the securities bearing coupons. The records of the Treasur-

er’s office have been carefully and systematically kept, thus greatly facili-

tating the work of the auditing committee.”

The Board of Editors, R. W. Brown, E. H. Toous and F. D. Rossini

submitted the following report covering the publication of Volume 27 of the

Journal for the year 1937:

“Volume 27 consisted of 12 issues amounting to 548 pages, 6 pages less

than Volume 26. It contained 69 original papers, 7 less than in 1936. Of

these papers, 41 were by members of the Academy, and 28 were communi-

cated; 56 came from contributors residing in or near the District of Colum-

bia, 13 from outside sources. Five contributors of communicated papers in

this or preceding volumes of the Journal were elected to membership in the

Academy during the past year. Original papers were illustrated by 54 line

cuts and 17 half-tones. In several instances contributors either furnished

engravings or paid for those in excess of the normal number allowed by the

Journal. Space in Volume 27 was distributed as follows:

Papers Pages Percent of space

Anthropology 2 12.9

Botany 15 93 .2 a

Chemistry a 45.6 8

Entomology 9 59 .5 11

Geology iE 68 .3 13

Mathematics 1 4.3 1

Ornithology 3 13 .0 2

Paleontology ilk 46.8 9

Physics 2 S200 6

Zoology 15 118.0 22

Obituaries Le dl 2 2

Proceedings 30.2 6

Index 8 .0 1

“The total cost of printing and distributing the Journal was $3,046.83, or

$5.56 per page. This is 46 cents per page higher than in 1936, a rise due to

increased costs of paper, illustrations, and printing.”

The tellers, L. V. Jupson, S. F. Buaxe and J. H. Rok reported the elec-

tion of the following officers: President, PauL E. Hows; Non-resident Vice

Presidents, JAMES FRaNcK and W. T. THom, JR.; Corresponding Secretary,

NatTHAN R. SmitH; Recording Secretary, Oscar 8. ADAMs; Treasurer; H. G.

AVERS; Board of Managers, F. G. CoTTrEeLL and N. M. Jupp.

The Corresponding Secretary read the list of nominations for vice-presi-

dents submitted by the affiliated societies as follows:

Philosophical Society—N. H. Hrcx

Anthropological Society—Hrnry B. Couns, JR.

Biological Society—H. C. FuLLER

Chemical Society—F. C. Kracrx

Entomological Society—C. F. W. MursEBEcK

National Geographic—A. WETMORE

Geological Society—R. C. WELLS

Medical Society—F RED O. Cor

Historical Society—ALLEN C, CLARK

Apr. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 203

Botanical Society—W. A. Dayton

Archaeological Society—ALES HRDLICKA

Foresters—G. F. GRavatTrT

Washington Engineers—Pauvuu C. WHITNEY

Electrical Engineers—H. L. Curtis

Mechanical Engineers—H. N. Eaton

Helminthological Society—E. W. Pricr

Bacteriological Society—L. A. RoGrrs

Military Engineers—C. H. BrrpsEYE

Radio Engineers—H. G. Dorsry

By vote of the Academy, the Recording Secretary was instuctd to cast

one vote for the list as read and the vice-presidents were declared elected.

President THom appointed Past Presidents MEINzER and TUCKERMAN to

escort President-elect Howk to the chair. President How® took over the

gavel and addressed the Academy briefly.

Adjournment followed at 10:10 P.M.

Oscar 8. Apams, Recording Secretary

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

278TH MEETING

The 278th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club, January 5, 1937, President Gzorcr M. Darrow presiding; attendance

LEO:

Program.—T. K. PavuycHEenko: Root systems of certain forage crops in

relation of management of agricultural soils (lantern). Root studies were re-

ported on three grasses: Bromus inermis, Agropyron tenerum, and A. crista-

tum, in relation to their efficiency in controlling weeds and binding soil.

Complete root systems were carefully studied and measured. Special meth-

ods for excavating, washing and studying the roots were described and illus-

trated. A. cristatum excelled in ability to combat weeds and bind soil. Bro-

mus vnermis and A. tenerum ranked second and third respectively.

A special meeting of the Botanical Society was held in the assembly hall

of the Cosmos Club, January 19, 1937; attendance 137. Governor George

D. Aiken of Vermont gave an illustrated lecture on Pioneering with Wild

Flowers.

279TH MEETING

The 279th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club February 2, 1937, President Grorce M. Darrow presiding; atten-

dance 110. L. W. Boryuz and Nem Wapsk Stuart were elected to member-

ship.

Program.—MERLE T. JENKINS: Recent advances in the use of hybrid vigor

in corn production. Hybrid corn has been developed as a result of the

inbreeding investigations of G. H. Shull and E. M. East which began in

1905. The publication of Shull’s suggestions in 1908 and 1909 for the devel-

opment of inbred lines of corn and their utilization in hybrids marked the

204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

beginning of a new era in corn breeding. These suggestions are still the

underlying procedures of the present hybrid corn program. However, there

has been considerable progress in the methods and techniques connected

with their application, in the isolation of better inbred lines, in the testing

of these lines in hybrid combinations and in the kinds of hybrids in use.

The first hybrid seed corn was sold in 1921, only 16 years ago. It is estimated

that 3.5 million acres will be planted to hybrid corn in 1937.

H. L. Westover: Plant exploration in Turkey. The speaker, accom-

panied by Frederick L. Wellman of the Division of Horticultural Crops and

Diseases, spent seven months in Turkey in 1936, searching for new plants,

particularly drouth resistant grasses and legumes, and disease resistant

vegetables. Approximately 3500 lots of seed, bulbs, etc., were collected on

this expedition.

| 280TH MEETING

The annual banquet and 280th regular meeting of the Botanical Society

was held in the ball room of the Kennedy-Warren Hotel March 9, 1937;

attendance 157.

Program.—Homgmr L. SHANTz gave a lecture on the vegetation of Arizona,

which was illustrated with lantern slides, many of which were colored.

A special meeting was held March 23, 1937, in the auditorium of the De-

partment of Agriculture.

The Department of Agriculture kindly presented four interesting motion

picture films dealing with several phases of plant investigation, culture and

exploration, entitled: Explorations in Ceylon, Sumatra and Java; Bam-

boos—The giant grasses of the Orient; Persimmon harvesting and storage in

China; and Life of plants.

281ST MEETING

The 281st regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club April 6, 1937, President Grorcr M. Darrow presiding; attendance

53. H. H. THornperry, Lena Artz and Louisa Amis were elected to mem-

bership.

Program.—Pauvu Concer: The Diatom, an economic plant. Probably few

people have thought of the diatom specifically in such terms, yet diatoms

satisfy all qualifications of the definition of an economic plant. They grow

so prolifically, wide spread, and abundantly in practically all waters of the

earth, as to produce inestimable quantities of substance. This substance is

indirectly important to man, in serving as a primary food supply of fish,

oysters, and innumerable other organisms on which they feed, just as eco-

nomic grasses support farm animals. In certain places, as the oyster beds of

France, their propagation is even encouraged by artificial culture. More

directly diatoms are useful to man in producing a material, their silica shells,

which, in quantity, comprise diatomaceous earth, a substance essential to

many industrial processes or products, for purposes of insulation, filtration,

as a filler, an absorbent, an abrasive and many other industrial uses. The

high oil content of the diatom cell has probably also contributed to the oil

reserves, of great economic importance to man. Though much time may

have elapsed since the life of the plant and the availability of the material

produced, it is none the less economic.

Diatoms, though generally useful, may not always be beneficial to man.

They may, at times, interfere with ‘fish life, and city filtration or sanitary

systems, or give unpleasant odor to drinking water. Thus in the sense that

harmful insects largely make up the work of economic entomology, diatoms

Apr. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 205

may again be considered economic plants affecting adversely the economy

of man.

In the broader and philosophical sense everything is economic, in that all

contribute to the smooth and rhythmic functioning of a unified, balanced

and orderly world. In this sense diatoms play a most significant role in the

broader cycles of nature. Our sense of relative economic importance should

extend beyond the more obvious and direct, to the ecological importance as

well.

H. D. Barxer: Some observations on useful and wild plants in Harte.

282ND MEETING

The 282nd regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club, May 4, 1987, President Grorar M. Darrow presiding; attendance

109.

Program.—RoBeErt F. Griaes: Timberlines in the northern Rocky Moun-

tains. ‘The demonstration previously made that the forest is invading the

tundra in Alaska raises the question of the extent of the migration. Much

evidence indicates that in the southwest vegetation is static. In Greenland,

excavation of the Old Norse Colony indicates great deterioration of climate

within the last thousand years. In the northern Rocky Mountains, many

timberlines are advancing as at Kodiak. All trees are young and without

dead wood or other evidence of climatic control, but all cases examined were

secondary advances repossessing ground deforested by fire or grazing.

Except for local retreats in some sections, alpine timberlines from Wyoming

to Jasper are stable, showing therefore that the climatic improvement indi-

cated in Alaska does not extend into the Canadian Rockies.

W. T. Swinewe: Plant relationships, how determined and for what use,

especially in plant breeding.

283RD MEETING

The 288rd regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club October 5, 1937, President GzrorcE M. Darrow presiding; attendance

70. RussELL G. Brown, Marx W. Woops, Epaar P. WALLS, CORNELIUS

B. SHear and C. L. LEFEBVvRE were elected to membership.

Notes and Reviews —W. W. Dizut brought to the attention of the meeting

an interesting case of a fungus attacking the inside of a wooden apple made

in Japan and sold to merchants in Winchester, Virginia, to be used as an

apple-candy container.

Program.—R. KEntT BEatrin: A new disease threatening the future of the

persimmon. ‘The American persimmon tree is important in preventing soil

erosion and in furnishing food for wild life. It supplies high grade wood for

the making of gold stick heads.

Recently a serious wilt disease has been found in Tennessee southeast of

Nashville. This disease kills the trees rapidly. It has proved to be due to a

species of Cephalosporium. The fungus forms spores very abundantly under

the bark when it loosens after the death of the tree and in crevices of trees

killed by the disease. No remedies are known. Susceptibility and resistance

in other persimmon species have not yet been determined.

W. R. Cuapuine: Ecology in the restoration of the western range. Restora-

tion of depleted ranges is of vital concern to the social and economic welfare

of the western United States. The range resource and its use affecting 728

million acres, nearly two-fifths of the continental United States, presents a

biological problem of first magnitude. It concerns the production of native

206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 4

forage crops and their utilization in livestock and wildlife production; and

management of the land and its forage cover to obtain erosion control and

water delivery for irrigation agriculture, power, and municipal use.

Past use has failed to maintain the resource, resulting in serious and prac-

tically universal range and soil depletion with its related social and economic

losses. Ecological research makes possible a better understanding of man’s

destructive forces on range lands. Likewise it aids in pointing the way to

remedial measures that will stop depletion and restore and maintain the

range under continued use, essential features in the formulation of policies

and programs for range restoration and management.

284TH MEETING

The 284th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club, November 2, 1937, President GEorcE M. Darrow presiding; attend-

ance 147. Epwarp H. GraHam. ALTON A. LinpsEy, VERA E. MILusaps,

L. P. McCann and ALBERT H. TILLson were elected to membership.

Notes and Reviews.—Cuas. THoM gave a brief resume of the work of

A. F, Bhak&suiE with colchicine used to double the number of chromosomes

in several species of plants.

Program.—S. L. EMSwELurr: Cytology and flower breeding. An intro-

ductory discussion of the field of general cytology was presented, which in-

cluded the historical background which has led up to the modern conception.

There were also presented some generalizations as to chromosome pairing

in normal balanced species as compared to species hybrids. The manner in

which cytology can aid in explaining problems of sterility and failure to

secure crosses was discussed. It was pointed out that doubling the chromo-

some number of a hybrid in which there is complete failure of pairing will

ordinarily give rise to an amphi-diploid. Such a new condition will not result

in crossovers and recombinations between the two unrelated genoms.

J. W. McKay: Cytology and nut breeding. The results of breeding work

with plants are determined by the number and behavior of chromosomes

that are distributed to the germ cells. In many genera, such as Rubus and

Triticum, there is a series of chromosome numbers that are multiples of a

common base number, and the products of species hybridization are de-

pendent upon the behavior and distribution of the chromosomes in the

hybrid individuals.

Among nut-producing plants the genus Hicoria offers the only case of a

polyploid series, one group of species exhibiting 32 and another group 64

somatic chromosomes. The following somatic chromosome numbers are

found in nut species: walnuts, 32; hazelnuts and filberts, 28; chestnuts, 24;

almonds, 16.

The embryo of the seed is the edible portion of the fruit in all of the nut

species. The embryo develops only after a viable zygote has been produced

by fertilization of the egg by a sperm nucleus. Thus, in order that nut trees

be productive, it is necessary that the reproductive processes in the flowers

function in a normal manner. A study of the chromosomes in the cells which

produce the pollen and eggs may disclose irregularities that help to explain

why many varieties and species are unproductive.

A. EK. CLarKeE: Cytology and potato and onion breeding. A serious problem

facing the potato breeder is the difficulty in obtaining seeds. Solanum tubero-

sum is either tetraploid or octoploid in origin and, during meiosis, there is

considerable secondary association between different pairs of chromosomes,

resulting in chromosomal irregularities and pollen sterility. Environmental

Apr. 15, 1938 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 207

factors, such as length of day, temperature and humidity, are important

because they influence flower production and the abscission of buds before

pollination. Cytological studies are being carried on to show whether these

environmental influences also affect pollen fertility. By providing optimum

conditions it may be possible to secure some viable pollen from varieties

ordinarily sterile. Wild species form a polyploid series. The cytologist can

assist in analyzing and interpreting the results obtained from interspecific

hybridization.

Cytological examination of a sterile onion, which is also mildew resistant,

has so far failed to disclose any chromosomal irregularities. Commercial

varieties of garlic never produce seed. Further cytological studies may solve

these sterility problems.

H. Drrmen: Cytology and fruit breeding. Methods have been devised to

facilitate quick determination of the cytological constitution of plants dealt

with at the United States Horticultural Station at Beltsville, Maryland.

Recently induction of polyploidy by artificial means has indicated interest-

ing possibilities of creating new forms, some of which may be of great value

commercially. Some factors found to influence polyploidy include tempera-

ture changes, genetic factors, narcotics and chemicals, diseases or insects,

osmotic changes, treatment with X-ray or ultra-violet light, chromosomal

incompatibility in species hybrids, mechanical disturbance by centrifuging,

physiological disturbance by breaking the rest period. Some possible ad-

vantages of polyploids are large size of the plant as a whole, increased vigor,

wider distribution, resistance to disease and to cold. Some annuals are

changed to perennials, and sterile hybrids may be changed to fertile ones.

285TH MEETING

The 285th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club, December 7, 1937, Vice-president G. F. Gravatt presiding; attend-

ance 60. Earnest A. WALKER was elected to membership.

Program.—ErstTon V. MILLER: Plant pigments with special reference to

citrus fruits. The pigments responsible for the great array of color in the

higher plants may be grouped as follows: (1) the water-soluble and (2) the

ether-soluble or plastic pigments. In the first group are the anthocyanins

(red, blue and purple) and the flavone and flavonol pigments (yellow). In

the second group are the chlorophylls (green) and the carotenoids (yellow).

Though it is customary to think of the carotenoids of green leaves as consist-

ing of carotene and xanthophyll, it is now known that there might be two

or three isomeric carotenes and as many as twelve xanthophylls present,

and the whole list of carotenoids that have been isolated from different

plants is so great now that only a specialist can keep this list up to date.

Carotenoid pigments have been found in the rinds of mature green limes,

lemons and grapefruit, but these pigments diminish in quantity as the fruit

degreens. This is true whether the fruit is degreened with ethylene or is

permitted to degreen on the tree. Oranges, on the other hand, show an in-

crease in carotenoid content of the rind as they attain full color on the tree.

37TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 37th annual meeting was held immediately following adjournment

of the 285th regular meeting, Vice-president G. F. Gravatt presiding;

attendance 44.

208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 4

M. B. Warts, H. L. Westover and Wm. A. Dayton made brief remarks

on the lives and works of FrepERIcK V. CoviLLE, Harry N. VINALL and

ARTHUR B. Cuawson, respectively.

O. F. Coox, G. G. Hepecock and S. L. Joprp1 were elected to honorary

membership. |

The following officers were elected for 1938: President, G. F. Gravatt;

Vice-President, H. H. McKinney; Recording Secretary, ALice M. ANDER-

SEN; Corresponding Secretary, Erston V. MiLumr; Treasurer, NELLIE W.

Nance.!

Nominated for Vice-President Washington Academy of Sciences, Wm. A.

DAYTON.

H. H. McKinney, Recording Secretary.

1 Resigned. KeEnnNEeTH B. Raper appointed by the Executive Committee.

> SMlotocew Aes. Micrcbotiridoe. Asati, u. ne :

bs (Capsloites). Emmett W. ‘PRICE... pals pataule a

Vou. 28 May 15, 1938 No. 5

JOURNAL © «

OF THE

_ WASHINGTON ACADEMY

| OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Espen H. Tooter FrepericK D. Rossini C. Lewis Gazin

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Raymonp J. SEEGER C. F. W. Murseseck

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOOIETY

H. H. T. Jackson Grorce TUNELL

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Jason R, SwaLLen Henry B. Cottins, Jr.

BOTANICAL SOOIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Frank C, Kracek

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 28 May 15, 1938 No.5

CHEMISTRY.—Five hundred meetings of the Chemical Society of

Washington.| FRANK C. KracrEK, Geophysical Laboratory,

Carnegie Institution.

As Dr. Browne has clearly brought out in his two papers in this

issue of the JOURNAL, the Chemical Society of Washington was

founded by men who believed in the liberty of opinion and action of

the individual. Several of them had been influential in the original

organization of the American Chemical Society in 1876 in New York,

but they later broke away, feeling out of sympathy with the spirit

and procedures of that Society, which at that time was in effect a

purely local group of chemists confined to New York City and its

environs.

On January 31, 1884 these men held a formal meeting at which a

constitution was adopted, and officers elected to serve during the en-

suing year. The officers elected were: Thomas Antisell, President;

Wm. Mew and F. W. Clarke, Vice-Presidents; H. W. Wiley, Secre-

tary; W. H. Seaman, Treasurer; E. T. Fristoe, Thos. M. Chatard,

J. H. Kidder and A. C. Peale, Members of the Executive Committee.

The object of the Society ‘‘shall be the cultivation of chemical science,

pure and applied.”” The membership of the Society consisted of 33,

of whom 3 were connected with educational institutions, 7 were of

private status, and the rest were in the service of the Government.

As was to be expected, the early meetings were devoted to papers

dealing with the professional activities of the members. No presiden-

tial address was delivered at the end of the first year; however, at

the end of the second year, F. W. Clarke, the second president, de-

livered an address on the “Relation of the Government to Chemis-

try,’ and the custom thus started has been continued to the present

day.

On December 10, 1893, at its seventieth meeting, the Society be-

came affliated with the re-organized American Chemical Society,

+ This and the following two papers are published in commemoration of the 500th

meeting of the Chemical Society of Washington, held on April 14, 1938. Received

March 29, 1938.

210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

as its “‘Local Section.” It retained the management of its internal

affairs and its name, although in the records of the national society

it appears to be referred to as the ‘‘Washington Section.’’ The events

leading up to this step are recorded in detail by Dr. Browne. How-

ever, as part of the record, it is worth repeating here that F. W. Clarke

and H. W. Wiley were primarily responsible in the re-organization

of the American Chemical Society, and hence, the affiliation of the

Chemical Society of Washington with the latter organization was a

logical part of their larger plan.

To facilitate the administration of its affairs the Society was incor-

porated in the District of Columbia on March 25, 1926, formal action

of the Society having been taken at its 376th meeting held at the

Cosmos Club on March 11, 1926.

An event of great importance to the Society took place in the fall

of 1924, when the executive committee first discussed the question

of offering a prize for a ‘‘worthy contribution” by a member of the

Society. The idea was adopted on an annual basis at the February

1925 meeting of the Executive Committee, and was made a perma-

nent institution of the Society on February 9, 1928, at the 398th meet-

ing. On June 6, 1933, the income from One Thousand Dollars was set

aside to finance the Prize. This became known as the Hillebrand

Prize Award, named in honor of W. F. Hillebrand, for many years an

outstanding member of the Society.? The prize has unquestionably

stimulated interest in the more outstanding contributions to chem-

istry by members of the Society, and has served to emphasize the

fact that important advances in the science are being made within

the Society in spite of the somewhat circumscribed sphere of research

peculiar to the professional connections of the great majority of the

members.

In its early days the Society published a “Bulletin” of which 9

volumes were published covering the years 1884-1895. Publication

was resumed again in 1919, but lapsed after that year. In 1898 the

Joint Commission of Scientific Societies of Washington was re-organ-

ized as the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Chemical Society,

a member of the Joint Commission from its inception, became one

of the seven founder societies of the Academy. When the Academy

established its JouRNAL in 1911, the Chemical Society published its

Proceedings in the JouRNAL up to and including the 300th meeting.

2 The list of awards given to 1937 will be found in the ‘‘Proceedings,”’ J. Wash.

Acad. 28, 131 (1938). The award for 1937 was to Sterling B. Hendricks on the ‘“‘Relation

of Crystal Optics to Crystal Structure’? and on the ‘‘Determination of Molecular

Structures by X-Ray and Electron Diffraction.”

May 15, 19388 KRACEK: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 211

Recently publication was resumed beginning with the 494th meeting.

In the preceding 54 years of its existence the Society has held 496

meetings, an average of 9.2 per year. There are 8 regular meetings

per year, the odd figure above being accounted for by special meet-

ings. Until quite recently the regular meetings were devoted to com-

munications by members of the Society, outside speakers being

heard at special meetings. In the more recent years this custom has

500 50

400 40

(S)

2 =

<< S&S

%300 30 =

Q -

s 2

= 2

200 20 @.

1890 i900 I910 1920 1930 1940

Date in Years

Fig. 1.—Chart of membership and percentage attendance of the Chemical Society

of Washington from 1884 to 1937. Filled circles denote membership, open circles, per-

centage attendance. The horizontal dot and dash line represents average attendance

for 54 years.

been losing ground, somewhat to the detriment of the members being

afforded opportunities to present their original results before the

Society. This, however, has been partially compensated for by hold-

ing one or two divisional meetings each year, with usually 9 or more

papers being read by members in different sections. This procedure

affords the Society an opportunity to listen to outstanding chemists

from elsewhere in the United States and from abroad at many of its

regular meetings. An expression of opinion from the membership

212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

would be valuable in this connection. At present the responsibility

for the type of meetings held rests with the Committee on Communi-

cations who can not be expected to be clairvoyant, but who make

every effort to arrange programs that will be of interest to a large

proportion of the membership.

The question arises whether the attendance is influenced by factors

other than the obvious ones, such as the weather conditions and the

type of program being presented. Proceeding on the assumption that

precisely these factors will tend to average out over any one year,

leaving factors of less obvious but deeper significance operative, the

writer has calculated from the minutes of the Society the data pre-

sented in the accompanying diagram. We plot here the membership

and the average percentage attendance along the ordinate, as a func-

tion of the years along the abscissa. It will be noted that over the

entire period of years there has been a more or less steady increase

in the membership, with no indication that the saturation point is

being approached. There are some significant dips in the curve. These

will be considered later. The irregularity in the curve of membership

in the years just preceding the world war is not functional, being

caused by the separation of the Maryland and the Virginia sections

of the A. C. 8. from the jurisdiction of the Washington Section.

Similarly, the great increase in membership during the war years is

abnormal, being the result of the location of chemists with military

duties in the various government departments in Washington. Im-

mediately after the conclusion of the war most of these wartime

chemists returned to their usual spheres of activities; nevertheless, it

was not until 1920 that the membership resumed its normal propor-

tions. Significant arrests in the trend of the normal growth of the

Society occur over the periods 1894—96, 1899-1900, 1908-10, 1922-25,

1925-27 and 1933-35. }

The average percentage attendance over the 54 years is 27.1. The

yearly average curve shows wide fluctuations. The years before 1890

were abnormal in the sense that the early enthusiasm connected with

the founding of the Society had not had time to subside. From 1890

to 1894 attendance was normal, but in 1895 to 1897 attendance rose

to the record proportions 41 percent over the three years, never

even approached at any time since. It is significant that this did not

occur immediately after affiliation with the national society. Sub-

sequent to this period, there are attendance peaks at 1900, 1904,

1908-09, 1915, 1924 and 19382. The troughs are at 1898, 1901, 1906,

1913, 1922 and 19384. The data for the years 1927 to 1930 are in-

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: THOMAS ANTISELL 213

sufficient in detail, unfortunately, to be recorded other than a bare

estimate. There is an interesting lag between the periods of economic

depression and the peaks and the valleys in the attendance curve.

Of particular interest are: the trough of subnormal attendance cover-

ing the period of the golden twenties, and the recent limited but sharp

recession in 1934. In both cases, both the membership and attendance

appear to have decreased and advanced simultaneously. The question

of what happened to the government chemist during these two periods

can be posed, to be answered by a competent sociologist. On the other

hand, there is another question which the chemists can best answer

themselves: Are the chemists only 27.1 percent alive, and if so, why?

This brief review of the activities of the Society must not be allowed

to end without some mention of the commendable attitude adopted

by it on questions involving the relation of chemistry and public wel-

fare. Whenever such questions have arisen, from the early days when

a sanitary water supply in most of our cities was a thing of the future,

to as late as the present year, when the question of advocating ade-

quate safeguards against the indiscriminate sale of possibly dangerous

drugs, such as the “elixir of sulphanilamide”’ arose, the Society has

always upheld the interests of the public. It is to be hoped that this

will always be so in the future.

CHEMISTRY.—Dr. Thomas Antisell and his associates in the found-

ing of the Chemical Society of Washington. C. A. BROWNE,

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

The Chemical Society of Washington owes its existence to the

marked stimulus that was given to the chemical activities of the

various Governmental Departments in the early eighteen eighties.

The Government began to employ chemists a half century before

this date but for the most part they were non-residents of Washing-

ton. Benjamin Silliman, Sr., Professor of Chemistry at Yale Univer-

sity, for example, was authorized by the Treasury Department in

1832 to make a chemical study of the cane sugar industry of the

United States and his report on this subject, published in Washington

in 1838, was the first chemical publication to be financed by the

United States. With the coming of Prof. A. D. Bache to Washington

in 1844, as Superintendent of Weights and Measures in the Coast

Survey Office, another chemical research was assigned to Richard 8.

1 Delivered before the Chemical Society of Washington on April 14, 1938. Received

March 29, 1938.

214. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

McCulloh, formerly professor of chemistry in Jefferson College,

Penn., and later melter and refiner in the United States Mint in

Philadelphia. His four reports on ‘‘Sugar and Hydrometers’’ were

published in 1848 under the authorization of the Treasury Depart-

ment as a Senate Document of 653 pages. It is a classic work which

even now can be consulted with profit.

With the rapid growth of the work of the Patent Office, which was

established in Washington in 1836, the services of resident chemists

became necessary in order to examine the increasing number of patent

claims relating to chemical subjects. One of these early chemical em-

ployees of the Patent Office was Dr. Thomas Antisell.

Dr. Antisell, like another famous American physician and chemist,

Dr. William Macneven, was a native of Ireland. He was born of

French Huguenot ancestry in Dublin on January 16, 1817, and was

educated at Trinity College of that city. He then studied at the Dub-

lin School of Medicine and the Irish Apothecary’s Hall where he ob-

tained his first chemical instruction under the well-known chemist,

Sir Robert Kane. Antisell’s medical education was completed at the

Royal College of Surgeons in London from which he obtained his

medical degree in November 1839. After a semester in the chemical

laboratory of Pelouze in Paris he became assistant to his former

teacher Kane with whom he remained three years. In 1844 he con-

tinued his chemical studies on the continent under such eminent

teachers as Pelouze, Biot, Dumas and Berzelius. He then began the

practice of medicine in Dublin, but, becoming involved in the political

activities of the ‘‘Young Ireland Party,’ was sentenced to exile and

imprisonment. He avoided this penalty, however, by escaping to

America as surgeon on an outgoing vessel. His career as traveling

student, doctor, chemist, Irish political agitator, exile to America and

patriotic citizen of the United States tallied exactly with that of his

fellow countryman Macneven of a generation before.

When Antisell sailed from Ireland in 1848, this young physician

of 31 left behind him a considerable record of accomplishment in

several branches of science. He had very early taken a deep interest

In agriculture and in 1845 published a ‘‘Manual of Agricultural Chem-

istry with its Application to the Soils of Ireland.” This was followed

in 1847 by his “Outlines of Irish Geology”’ and his “‘Sanitary improve-

ment of the City of Dublin.”

Antisell landed in New York on November 22, 1848, and practiced

medicine in that city for the next six years with occasional intermis-

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: THOMAS ANTISELL 215

sions when he lectured on chemistry at the Berkshire Medical Insti-

tution in Pittsfield, Mass., and at the Medical College of Woodstock,

Vt. He became quickly identified with the civic affairs of his new

home and during the twenty-second annual fair of American Insti-

tutes at Castle Garden in October 1849 delivered a series of addresses

on ‘“‘The Philosophy of Manufactures.’’ He compiled also in 1852 a

“Cyclopedia of the Useful Arts,” a convenient 690-page illustrated

handbook of progress and invention in different branches of applied

science. It was a work requiring wide knowledge and great labor.

Wanderlust was a malady from which Antisell always suffered and

in 1854 he dropped his medical practice to become geologist under

Lieut. J. G. Parke in command of the Pacific Railroad survey. Anti-

sell’s geological reconnaisance of Southern California and the Arizona

Territory was published in 1856 in volume seven of ‘“‘United States

Explorations and Surveys”’ of which a review is given in the 1904

Report of the Smithsonian Institution (pp. 453-5). After terminating

this geological expedition Antisell came to Washington where on June

1, 1856, he was appointed first assistant examiner in the Patent Office.

In connection with his duties as examiner he operated a small chemi-

cal laboratory in the basement of the old Patent Office building. The

position, which paid a salary of $1,500, was apparently not wholly

congenial to Antisell’s versatile tastes as we may infer from the fol-

lowing letter which he wrote in 1857 to his friend, Dr. C. M. Wetherill:

‘“Washington

Patent Office

Nov. 15, 1857

My dear Wetherill:

‘“‘Let me refresh your memory by recalling your attention to my existence:

which for the last few months has pursued the even tenor of its way without

disturbance either by elevation or dismissal which has made moves abun-

dant around me. I believe I told you in a former letter that I was an assistant

Examiner here in the Chem. Department in the office: a place not very suit-

able to me but which has kept the wolf from the door until in Micawber

phrase something better turns up. We have connected with this (Chemical)

room a small laboratory where we can keep in our fingers in old ways—and

it is in connection with it that I chiefly now write to you: Our gas arrange-

ments for ignition purposes are very incomplete and Mr. Schaffer and self

thought if we could get your apparatus as described in the Franklin Journal

it would be a great matter to us and I have written to you to know could

we order a Tilgenaus burner, & a Burner holder such as you have described

with a Burner for distilling purposes or Sand bath as found on pp. 274, 275

& 276 of Vol. 28 of F. Journal, from any one in Philadelphia or could you

recommend us to a man who would do them for us & to let us know what

216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

sum probable would cover the expense of same: we have to get a sum allowed

by the Commissioner for that purpose. Could you also tell us the cost of a

Duffys Balance for coarse purposes—to weigh from | lb. downwards to a

dram. We have already two fine balances but not one coarse one.

‘‘Situated as we are in a city where nothing out of the common run is to

be had we have to depend on our friends for assistance. You will therefore

excuse this trouble, & if I can be of any use to you here call upon me. May

I enquire after your wife and ask whether she is a disciple of Malthus or not?

Believe me

Sincerely yours,

Thomas Antisell

C. M. Wetherill, M.D.,

or &e.

Philadelphia.”

We know from this letter of Antisell and from other contemporary

notices that there was not at this time a well equipped chemical

laboratory in the whole city of Washington.

Between the years 1842 and 1862 the Patent Office in addition to

its regular activities discharged the agricultural functions of the

Government, and Antisell, in the midst of his other duties, devoted

a part of his time to the chemical examination of soils and other agri-

cultural products. His opinions on agricultural chemical research are

well expressed in an address which he gave before the U. 8. Agricul-

tural Society in 1858 “On the Application of Chemical Science to

Agriculture’ from which the following quotations are made:

‘‘Occupied as the writer has been since 1840, with analyses of soils, the

value of which was then brought prominently forward by Liebig, and having

made from that period to the present time nearly 2,000 analyses (certainly

above 1,800) of various soils, both of this country and of Europe, he is glad

on the present occasion, after an experience of nearly 20 years, to state his

conviction of the value of the present relation of chemistry to agriculture.

‘“‘In 1840, an ardent believer in the value of analyses of soils, every year’s

experience has tended to shake his conviction in its utility as carried on, and

confirmed him in the belief, that it was both incomplete in its object, and

deceptive in its result. That ardent belief has merged into sober caution,

and has ended in positive distrust, that a mere chemical analysis of the soil

can be of any, even the smallest use to the farmer, for he has come to under-

stand that the constitution of a soil is not that simple matter formerly

believed: so complex is it, that no analytic formula properly expresses it,

and as usually performed, the analysis is of no value, either to science or

to practice’ (pp. 1-2).

‘‘Manuring is still too much carried on as if it were to benefit the soil—

instead of the plant—and the farmer enriches his soil with elements in

manure, which he does not know whether his crop requires at all, or requires

at the time when it is added”’ (p. 2).

‘‘The question then arises: Do we know sufficient of the mineral constitu-

tion of plants, so as to state what that constitution precisely is in each

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: THOMAS ANTISELL 20

species? We must in truth say we do not fully know the exact mineral for-

mula of any plant: and yet as far as we do know, it would seem that a species

differs somewhat from every other species, in either the quality or the quan-

tity of its ash. :

“Tf we do not know these constituents of a plant, how can we safely recom-

mend special manures? Thus, the practice and the prosperity of the art of

agriculture depends so far on the knowledge which chemistry has yet to

impart to the farmer” (pp. 2-3).

“There is as much difference between the flour of Massachusetts and

Alabama as between the wheat flour of Scotland and Egypt. This is attrib-

uted to climate, but what does climate effect? How is it that climate pro-

duces more gluten? Does it also increase the phosphates? Or, can the phos-

phates applied in liberal amount, replace the influence of climate? In other

words, can the use of special manures in the northern states replace the

latitudinal effects and solar influences of the south? Chemical analysis, as

conducted at present, gives us no data from which any conclusion on so

important a subject could be drawn”’ (p. 8).

“The majority of analyses found in our text books are derived, as stated,

either from soils or plants of European countries, and as the ash bears a

certain relation to the soil, that relation is lost for want of reference to the

soils of this country. The knowledge of the constituents of the ash of a crop

is but a portion of the knowledge derivable therefrom, when unaccompanied

by the constitution of the soil” (p. 8).

‘“‘We want experiments which shall go to determine what are the mineral

elements of a plant which are found in connexion with and which go to build

up the various food and respiration elements in the plant. What salts assist

in putting up gluten; what aid in sugar, starch, &c.? Or, stating the question

in general terms, what are the mutual relations between the organic and the

inorganic parts of plants?

“Tt is too much to ask the agriculturist in the field, or the chemist in the

laboratory, to devote, unaided, both time and skill to elucidate this complex

problem, involving a large number of experiments of growth and of chemical

analysis. This would be the experiments suitable for a State agricultural

farm and a State chemist. The function of the latter officer should not be

confined to making analyses of soils or testing manures, to be conducted at

cheaper rates than private men of science can perform such analyses for,

and which only result in the benefit of a few individuals, and are of no bene-

fit beyond that of the moment. But the business of a State chemist should

be that of elucidating and philosophizing upon the various circumstances

which combine to augment the growth and the produce of our food plants.

The office of State or model farms should be, by well devised experiments

upon the growth of plants, to raise agriculture from its present position of

an empirical art,.to the condition of a sczence’’ (p. 9).

“It is believed that a portion of the grant so generously bestowed by the

federal government, for the benefit of agriculture, could not be better em-

ployed than by devoting some portion of it for this end”’ (p. 9).

All this is the soundest kind of agricultural chemical doctrine. The

passages quoted illustrate the clarity of Antisell’s views with regard

to the true field of agricultural chemistry—views that might well be

adopted as a statement of purpose at the present time.

Antisell, whether working as chemist or geologist or patent exam-

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

iner, could never forget that he was first of all a physician and very

soon after his arrival in Washington he began lecturing to the medical

students of Georgetown College on chemistry, toxicology and physi-

ology of which subjects he was for many years a professor. On several

occasions he gave valedictory addresses to the graduating medical

students of Georgetown who were so impressed by their excellence

that they printed them each year in small pamphlet form as tributes

of affection to their teacher. As an additional evidence of Antisell’s

industry and versatility it should be mentioned that he published

in 1859 a book on the ‘‘Manufacture of Photogenic and Hydrocarbon

Oils from Coal.’

The outbreak of the Civil War had a very depressing effect on

chemical research in the United States from which it did not fully

recover for twenty years. The activities of chemists, both North and

South, were diverted to military purposes. Antisell, although pro-

moted on May 3, 1861, to the position of principal examiner in the

Patent Office, resigned on September 30th of this year to devote all

his energies as physician and surgeon to the care of sick and wounded

soldiers. He entered the army as brigade surgeon of volunteers, with

the rank of major. Dr. W. H. Seaman, President of the Chemical

Society of Washington in 1894, has left this record of Dr. Antisell’s

military service :?

‘“‘He served first with Banks’ division and the Fifth army corps, then

became successively medical director of the Department of the Shenandoah,

Second corps, Army of Virginia, and Twelfth army corps; in October, 1862,

was in Harewood hospital, Washington, D. C., and in 1863 president of a

medical examining board, and post surgeon to August, 1865. He was bre-

vetted lieutenant colonel, United States volunteers, March 13, and honor-

ably mustered out of service October 7, 1865. In the service he was noted

for his reckless disregard of personal danger for himself or his assistant

surgeons when the wounded required attention in the rear of the line of

battle, and probably saved the life of many a poor fellow by the prompt

and skillful aid he rendered.”’

In connection with his military duties as medical officer, Antisell

presented several reports in 1864 to the Medical Society of the Dis-

trict on the sanitary condition of Washington.

It is somewhat remarkable that the Department of Agriculture

should have had its birth in 1862 during the turmoil of a bitter war.

The first scientist appointed to this new organization was Dr. Anti-

sell’s friend, Dr. Charles M. Wetherill, a distinguished chemist, who

had studied under Liebig at Giessen, and was eminently qualified to

2 Bul. of the Philosophical Society of Washington, Vol. 13, p. 368, 1895-1899.

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: THOMAS ANTISELL 219

fill the position of Department Chemist. He equipped a laboratory

in the basement of the old Patent Office building but had scarcely

entered upon his new duties when he was detailed by President

Lincoln to make experiments for the War Department on a new type

of ammunition. The furlough was longer than at first intended and

when Wetherill returned to his old post he was curtly informed by

Commissioner Newton that his salary with the Department of Agri-

culture had ceased with his detail to the War Department and that

his services were no longer needed. President Lincoln tried to inter-

cede for Wetherill but Newton was stubborn and Wetherill to avoid

the stigma of a dishonorable dismissal appealed to Congress. Congress

completely exonerated Wetherill and, as a rebuke to Newton, directed

the Secretary of the Treasury to pay Wetherill ‘‘the sum of seven

hundred and fifty dollars in full for his services as chemist of the

Agricultural Department.’’ The case aroused much indignation in

scientific circles. Wetherill’s unhappy experience was typical of many

other later cases where Government scientists have been made the

victims of autocratic injustice.

Wetherill was succeeded as Chemist of the Department of Agri-

culture by Dr. Henry Erni, later one of the founders of the Chemical

Society of Washington, who after two years of faithful service re-

signed his position. Dr. Antisell, who had just been mustered out of

military service, was then appointed by Commissioner Newton to

the office of Department Chemist and, more fortunate than his

predecessors, remained for five years in this position for which he

was splendidly qualified by past training and experience. He was a

skilled analyst; well versed in geology, medicine, botany and physiol-

ogy; and the author of numerous books and articles relating to agri-

cultural subjects.

If sufficient time were available I could speak to you at some length

about Dr. Antisell’s work as Department Chemist. I have brought

with me one of his laboratory notebooks, written in beautiful script,

with a full record of his analytical reports between January 2, 1868,

and his resignation on June 30, 1871. In this three and one-half year

period there was an interruption between July and November 1868

when the Department moved its quarters from the Patent Office to

the new brick building on the Mall. In conformity with custom the

laboratory in the new building as in the old was consigned to the base-

ment and there it remained for over twenty years. A long hard battle

with ancient prejudice had to be won before chemists were permitted

to ascend from darkness to higher levels.

220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

Antisell describes in this notebook the analysis of 189 samples of

which only 117 can be called agricultural. Sixty samples or about

one-third of the total number were minerals, such as pyrites, ores of

metals, etc., sent in for the most part by Congressmen to satisfy the

curiosity of over-credulous constituents. For many years Government

chemists had their time frittered away with such trivialities, ‘to the

detriment of science and the benefit of nobody,” as Dr. Clarke, one

of our early presidents, once caustically remarked. Antisell called

attention to this evil in his first report for 1866 in which he made the

following very pertinent suggestion:

‘‘The propriety of any department of the government authorizing work

to be done for the benefit of private enterprise is questionable, and as there

are at all times abundant sources of employment for chemical science in

connection with agriculture ... the work in the laboratory should be con-

fined within its proper sphere of limitation.”

This is sound doctrine but several decades had to elapse before the

principle here announced was put into effect.

Of the agricultural samples in this notebook that were analyzed

by Antisell, 26 were marls, 24 soils, 16 fertilizers, 12 wines and musts,

12 waters, 5 tanning materials, 5 medicinal plants and a long list

consisting of sugar beets, fruits, Indian plants, sugars, peat and other

miscellaneous products. Antisell did also much service work for other

departments, such as investigations of cancelling inks for the Post

Office and of building stone for the Treasury Department.

In May 1869 Antisell wrote a long interesting report to Commis-

sioner Capron on the fertilizing value of the mud from the bottom

of the old canal which once transported produce from the Potomac

along what is now Constitution Avenue to the city market. This canal

received much sewage and its muddy deposits were supposed by

many to have great fertilizing value. Antisell showed that the wet

mud, at the very highest estimate for its content of lime, phosphoric

acid, potash, ammonia and other ingredients, had a manurial value

of only 98 cents per ton which would not pay the farmer for hauling

it away. Antisell condemned the canal as a menace to the health of

the city because of its highly offensive emanations, which he regarded,

in accordance with the old theory of miasms, as “potent causes of

disease.”’

Antisell’s reports as Department Chemist are included in the an-

nual reports of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the years 1866

to 1870 inclusive. In the 1866 report he published a special article

on “Cultivation of the Cinchona in the United States” which contains

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: THOMAS ANTISELL 221

suggestions that were afterwards tried but have not been realized

largely because of economic reasons. Antisell’s 1867 report is a chemi-

cal plea for the establishment of a domestic beet sugar industry. His

arguments were sound and undoubtedly had an influence in after

years in promoting this enterprise. Antisell was mistaken, however,

in his view that the culture of the sugar cane in the south was soon

destined to disappear.

In addition to his chemical duties at the Department of Agriculture

Antisell continued his practice of giving lectures before the medical

students of Georgetown College which signified its appreciation of

his learning by conferring upon him the honorary degree of Doctor

of Philosophy. In 1869-70 he also taught chemistry at the Maryland

Agricultural College.

Commissioner Newton died in 1867 and was succeeded by General

Horace Capron under whom Antisell served during the whole period

of his office. In 1871 Capron resigned to accept a call by the Japanese

Government to head a commission for improving agricultural condi-

tions in that nation and Antisell accompanied him on this expedition

as technologist. He was decorated by the Emperor of Japan with the

Order of the Rising Sun and received other honors in recognition of

his services. The climate of Japan, however, was injurious to the

health of Mrs. Antisell, so he returned after six years to Washington

where on May 10, 1877, he was reappointed to the place in the Patent

Office that he had resigned in 1861. He remained in this position until

ill health obliged him to retire in 1891. In his last years of sickness

he was tenderly cared for by his daughters. He died on June 14, 1893,

in his seventy-seventh year and was buried in the Congressional

Cemetery.

It will be seen from this brief sketch that Dr. Antisell was a man

of deep learning, wide experience and great industry. According to

his friend, Dr. Seaman, who was associated with him for many years

in the Patent Office, Antisell in official life ‘‘had the reputation of

being reserved and even somewhat brusque, but among his friends

he was cordial and even warmhearted, with an abundant supply of

the wit and humor for which the Irish race has been always noted.”’

Chemists, who in point of numbers now excel the other scientists

of Washington, were few and far between in the decade following the

Civil War. Dr. F. W. Clarke, in his presidential address before our

local Society in 1885, relates that when he first came to Washington

in 1873, chemistry had gained but a precarious foothold. In the vari-

ous Governmental institutions there were probably at that time not

222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

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May 15, 1938 BROWNE: THOMAS ANTISELL 223

a dozen men who could qualify to the title of chemist. But about the

time of Dr. Antisell’s return to Washington, in the late seventies

there was a marked increase in the chemical activities of the various

Federal departments.

There were probably at least fifty chemists who could have quali-

fied as foundation members of the Chemical Society of Washington.

The need of an organization had been felt for several years but noth-

ing was done until January 12, 1884, when a meeting was called in

the office of Dr. Wm. Mew in the Army Medical Museum and the

following resolution was adopted: |

‘“‘Resolved, That it is desirable to organize a Chemical Society in the Dis-

trict of Columbia; said Society to have for its object the cultivation of

chemical science, pure and applied.”

A committee was appointed to arrange the time and place of an

organization meeting, to notify interested chemists and to draw up a

constitution.

At the organization meeting which took place on January 31, 1884,

thirty-three chemists of the District took part. Of these founders of

our local Society, 6 belonged to the Patent Office, 5 to the Department

of Agriculture, 4 to the Geological Survey, and 4 to the National

Museum. The Treasury Department, Columbian University, Howard

University, the Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Education, City

High School, Museum of Hygiene and Army Medical Museum were

represented with one member each. There were also six founders of a

private status. Other chemists were admitted at subsequent dates

until at the 32nd meeting of the Society, which took place on April

12, 1888, just 50 years ago last Tuesday night, there was a member-

ship of 45 resident and 10 non-resident chemists.

It was most fitting when the Chemical Society of Washington was

organized that Dr. Antisell should have been elected its first presi-

dent. He does not seem, however, to have taken an active part in the

Society’s meetings. He presented no papers and there is no record of

his having given a presidential address. The foundation members of

our local Society were mostly young men in their early thirties and

Dr. Antisell, as a staid veteran of 67, may have felt somewhat abashed

in the presence of such a group of exuberant youngsters. As an old

time chemist of the eighteen thirties and forties he was perhaps also

a little unsympathetic with the new movements in chemistry when

atomic weights and formulas were being drastically revised. I remem-

ber how my father, a self-taught chemist, was shocked when I came

home one day in 1889 from college and told him that the formula for

water was not HO, as he had led me to believe, but H.O.

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 5

Professor E. T. Fristoe, who preceded Dr. Charles E. Munroe as

Professor of Chemistry at Columbian University, and was president

of our local society in 1887, was proud of asserting that he was one

of the earliest American chemists to adopt the new reforms by which

the formula of water and the atomic weight of oxygen were changed.

Dr. Wiley, who preceded Fristoe as president, tried to humble his

pride, however, by proving from holy scripture that the formula HO

was correct. He quoted from the beginning of the 55th Chapter of

Isaiah, “‘HO, everyone that thirsteth, come ye to the waters,” in

which not only the formula but the name and use of the aqueous fluid

are mentioned. This was said ‘‘off the record’’ for no mention of it

is found in the minutes or discussions of the Society.

Next to Antisell, Professor Fristoe was one of the oldest chemists

among the founders of our Society. He was born in Rappahannock

County, Va., in 1827 and was educated at the Virginia Military Insti-

tute and the University of Virginia from which he received the A.M.

degree in 1855. In 1862 he entered the Confederate Army where he

served with distinction as colonel of cavalry until the close of the

war. In 1865 he was elected to the chair of chemistry in the Columbian

College in Washington and in 1871 was appointed professor of chem-

istry in the Medical Department of Columbian University—a, posi-

tion which he held until his death in 1892.

Fristoe taught chemistry in the old Columbian University labora-

tory on the site of the present Woodward Building, in the auditorium

of which the early presidents of our local Society gave their annual

addresses. Several of Fristoe’s pupils (among whom are K. P. McEl-

roy, E. G. Runyan and Geo. Steiger of Washington, and H. O. Chute

of New York) tell interesting stories of his methods of instruction.

Fristoe was progressive not only in adopting the new chemical nota-

tion but in emphasizing the importance of chemistry in the college

curriculum. In his presidential address on ‘“‘Chemistry as Factor in

Education” he announced that we “live, move, and have our being

by the grace of Chemistry” and advocated, on practical, cultural,

and even religious grounds, that the old trivium of Latin, Greek and

mathematics should give way to the newer claims of chemistry.

H. W. Wiley of the Department of Agriculture and F. W. Clarke

of the Geological Survey were the chief moving spirits and most ac-

tive members of our early organization. In the first five years of its

history Wiley presented twelve papers and Clarke nine. W. H. Seaman

of the Patent Office followed a close third with eight papers. All of

these men were presidents, Clarke succeeding Antisell in 1885, Wiley

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: THOMAS ANTISELL 225

succeeding Clarke in 1886 and Seaman coming later in 1894. Clarke’s

presidential address on ‘‘The Relations of the Government to Chem-

istry’? contains an eloquent plea for the consolidation of the Govern-

ment’s scattered chemical activities into a single well-equipped and

thoroughly organized National Laboratory whose chemists should be

free from political interference or caprice and independent of fear or

favor. Wiley was also at this time a great believer in a centralized

national Laboratory but the rapid growth of specialization in the

scientific work of the different Departments prevented the realization

of this ambitious scheme.

Wiley’s presidential address on “‘Our Sugar Supply” related to a

subject in which at that time he was very actively interested, as he

had experiments under way upon the production of sugar from the

sugar cane, the sugar beet and the sorghum in different states of the

country. In this era of Governmental regional laboratories it is well

‘to remember that Wiley was the first to inaugurate technological

field investigations of this kind. His address is typically Wileyesque.

He quotes apt phrases from the Latin, Greek and German and refers

to his much censured sugar undertakings by remarking:

“‘On this billowy sea, and amid these dangerous rocks, like a saccharine

Ulysses, with taffy-occluded ears, I have tried to steer the frail bark of

scientific investigation.”’

Clarke and Wiley were great wits and the hilarity which they im-

parted to the early meetings of our local Society had a contagious

quality. Like Kidder, Chatard, Richardson, Munroe, Diller and sev-

eral other Washington chemists of a half century ago they were Har-

vard graduates and, like members of a well trained crew, these men

always pulled together. The effective work of Clarke and Wiley in

completely reorganizing the American Chemical Society was told in

my address of four years ago.

Next to Clarke and Wiley the most influential member among the

founders of our local chemical society was William Henry Seaman.

For many years he was professor of chemistry at Howard University

and an examiner in the Patent Office. He was a member of the com-

mittee for revising the U. 8S. Pharmacopaeia of 1880-90 and was an

active participant in the work of many local scientific societies. His

papers before this organization cover a wide class of subjects ranging

from models of molecular structure to the Sloper gas machine.

Seaman was a great stickler on the proper spelling of chemical

terms. According to Patent Attorney K. P. McElroy “ Doctor Seaman

was the chemist who took the ph out of sulphur and induced the

226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

American Chemical Society to like it that way.’’ The spelling of sulfur

and all its derivatives with an f is a thorn in the flesh of the Govern-

ment Printing Office as it is to all our British chemical friends. I have

always wondered who the miscreant was that first put the ph in

sulfur where it had no business, either scientific or etymological, of

belonging. Hats off to Doctor Seaman who made us move in the right

direction.

Another picturesque figure in the Patent Office group of founders,

to which Antisell and Seaman belonged, was Dr. D. B. Kelley. He

was an Irishman and has been described as a rather portly man with

florid countenance, very loquacious and somewhat of an epicure in

his choice of foods. His fondness for mushrooms nearly cost him his

life as it did that of his friend, the Italian Count Achilles de Vecchi.

They mistook the poisonous fly amanita toad-stool for the edible

kind: de Vecchi died but Kelley was saved by the liberal use of atro-

pine. In the delirium produced by the poisonous mushroom alkaloid

muscarine Kelley thought he had actually died and gone to heaven

but St. Peter sent him back with the remark that his time had not

yet come. This was a famous case and an account of it by Kelley

and his attendant physician was given before our Washington Chemi-

cal Society in the late eighteen nineties.

A somewhat similar alkaloidal story concerns another founder—

Dr. William M. Mew of the Army Medical Museum in whose office

the preliminary organization meeting of the Washington Chemical

Society was held. Mew who was an Englishman was exceedingly fond

of smoking and found that he could immunize himself against the

effects of overindulgence in the weed by taking strychnine. On one

of these occasions he took an overdose of strychnine. He felt coming

on the characteristic constriction of the facial muscles produced by

this alkaloid and then rapidly reasoned that if strychnine is an anti-

dote for nicotine then conversely nicotine should be an antidote for

strychnine. He therefore began puffing a strong cigar and forthwith

the effects of the strychnine passed away. A deduction of this kind,

which reminds one of a back titration in volumetric analysis, could

have been conceived only by a person with strong chemical imagina-

tion. Mew was greatly interested in the chemistry of alkaloids and

in the old laboratory notebook of the Department of Agriculture’s

chemical division, which I have brought with me, is a letter of his to

Dr. William McMurtrie, chemist of the Department from 1872 to

1877, wherein he describes a method for determining morphine.

The fifth president of the Chemical Society of Washington was Dr.

May 15, 19388 BROWNE: THOMAS ANTISELL 227

Jerome Henry Kidder of the Smithsonian Institution. He was born

in Baltimore and graduated from Harvard in the class of 1862. He

served as Medical Cadet in the Union Army during the Civil War

and obtained his medical degree from the University of Maryland in

1866. Like Antisell and other founders of our Society he was inter-

ested in many branches of science. He wrote on big game shooting

in Alaska and prepared two articles on the natural history of Kergue-

len Island in connection with the American Transit-of-Venus expedi-

tion of 1874—5 of which he was a member. He served for many years

as a surgeon in the U. 8. Navy but resigned in 1884 to accept an

appointment as chemist to the Fish Commission. He was a very ac-

tive member of our early Society and his papers related to such sub-

jects as the nesslerizing of air washings, the Bower-Barff rustless iron

process and the gilding of glass. His presidential address in February

1889 upon Air was illustrated by many photo-micrographs of sus-

pended air impurities such as dust, pollen, spores, bacteria and crys-

tals. Kidder died from pneumonia two months after the delivery of

this address and his passing was lamented by a host of friends.

The sixth president of the Society, Edgar Richards, and the seventh

president, Dr. Charles A. Crampton, were members of the Chemical

Division of the Department of Agriculture. Richards was a native

of New York City and a graduate of the Columbia School of Mines.

He was assistant chemist of the Department of Agriculture from 1882

to 1887 and chemist of the Bureau of Internal Revenue in the Treas-

ury Department from 1887 to 1892 when he returned to New York

to practice as a consultant. His papers before our early Chemical So-

ciety related to milk analysis, oleomargarine and methylated alco-

hol. His presidential address in 1890 on ‘“‘Some Food Substitutes

and Adulterants” is a reflex of the campaign which Dr. Wiley

and his staff were then conducting against deceptions in the sale of

food.

Dr. Crampton, whom many of this audience remember, followed

Richards from the Department of Agriculture to the Treasury De-

partment and‘ was chief of its Division of Chemistry from 1893 until

his death in 1915. His early papers before the Society were partly

collaborative with Dr. Wiley and T. C. Trescot and related to such

food products as starch, sugar, malt liquors and fats and oils. Cramp-

ton’s presidential address, on ‘Food Preservation and Food Preserva-

tives” in January 1891, covered a subject that provoked immense

agitation fifteen years later when Dr. Wiley began to enforce his new

Pure Food Law. Crampton in his address took the position long held

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

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May 15, 1938 BROWNE: THOMAS ANTISELL 229

by Wiley that “the world and its food supply would be better off

today if the use of antiseptics as food preservatives had never been

discovered.”

Crampton, Wiley and other early colleagues of this Society should

be remembered also for their having founded and laid out with streets

and trees the present suburb of Somerset, which was started primarily

as a place of residence for Government chemists. It was there that

Crampton erected a beautiful home and even now several of our

members reside in this pleasant community.

It would be a serious omission in discussing the early founders of

our Society if I failed to refer in this anniversary lecture to its ninth

president, Dr. Thomas M. Chatard. He was born at Baltimore, gradu-

ated from Harvard in 1871 in the same class with his life long friend,

Dr. Charles E. Munroe, and obtained his Ph. D. degree from Heidel-

berg in 1876. Chatard then served as assistant chemist in the Torpedo

- Corps of the U.S. Navy from 1870 to 1872 and as instructor in Chem-

istry at Pennsylvania from 1872 to 1874. After working as mine and

mill manager from 1877 to 1883 he served as chemist of the U. S.

Geological Survey from 1883 to 1892 when he resigned to take up

the practice of consulting chemist. In 1900 he became a special agent

of the Census Bureau. The report of Munroe and Chatard upon

“Chemicals” in Volume X, Part 4, of the Twelfth Census (pp. 525-—

679) is a classic and will long be referred to. Chatard’s papers before

our early Society relate to silicate analysis, the manufacture of salt

and western alkali deposits. His presidential address in January 1893

on “The Abuse of Explosives with Suggestions for Preventive Laws’’

deals with a subject of perennial importance and can still be read

with profit.

A half century ago there was a group of younger assistant chemists

in Washington who made their first attempts in authorship at the

early meetings of our Society. Reference will be made to only two of

these—Dr. Guilford L. Spencer, a foundation member, and Augustus

EK. Knorr who joined the Society at its third meeting. Spencer fol-

lowed Dr. Wiley from Purdue to Washington in 1883 and for the

next twenty years, as assistant chemist and Chief of the Sugar Lab-

oratory of the Bureau of Chemistry, conducted field experiments in

sugar technology that were of world wide importance. He designed

the sucrose pipette and many other time-saving pieces of apparatus

and was the author of a Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufactures

that is still the leading work of its kind. Spencer spent the last twenty

years of his life as supervisor of sugar manufacture for several large

230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

estates in Cuba. It was in discharging the duties of this position that

he died suddenly in harness on March 28, 1925. His papers before the

early Society relate to the estimation of phosphoric acid, the extrac-

tion of sugar from molasses, the fibre of Louisiana sugar cane and the

estimation of theine in tea.

Augustus Knorr, who was a member of the Chemical Division of

the Department of Agriculture from 1884 to 1892, was an interesting

combination of the chemist and glass blower. He designed many novel

pieces of apparatus which were much used in their day. His papers

before the early Society describe various pieces of laboratory equip-

ment which he devised such as a gas regulator and an extraction

apparatus without corks or stopper. The latter utensil, known as

Knorr’s extractor, was described with other pieces of his apparatus

in the Proceedings of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists

for 1890.

At the fourth meeting of our Society on April 24, 1884, two chem-

ists joined who afterwards won great distinction as non-resident mem-

bers in their respective fields. These were Dr. William Frear, then

assistant chemist in the Department of Agriculture, and later Pro-

fessor of Agricultural Chemistry at the Pennsylvania State College,

and Dr. Frank Gooch, then chemist of the U. 8. Geological Survey

and afterwards Professor of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry at

Yale. Frear became known for his work on food standards while

Gooch is best remembered for his invention of the crucible that bears

his name. Frear presented a paper at our ninth meeting on the de-

termination of gluten and Gooch read a paper at our tenth meeting

on filtration by means of easily soluble and easily volatile filters.

Frear and Gooch remained on our roster as non-resident members

many years after their retirement from Washington.

There were also among our early members several scientists who

could hardly be classified as chemists. Among these was Dr. W J

McGee best known for his work in geology, archeology, ethnology

and anthropology. He prided himself upon being a member of all

the scientific societies of Washington and it was probably for this

reason, and not for any particular love of chemistry, that he joined

our Society at its fifteenth meeting. McGee was wrong, however, in

stating that he was a member of all the scientific societies of Washing-

ton. There was one organization to which his entrance was eternally

barred; it was ‘“The Women’s Anthropological Society.’”’ McGee was

generally known by his nickname “No Stop” for the reason that he

permitted no periods to be inserted after the letters W J, which he

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: THOMAS ANTISELL 231

insisted were not initials but his actual name. Wherever the name

W J McGee was signed, or attached, or indexed you will find no

stop or period to interfere with its continuity. It is rumored, however,

that his full name was actually William John McGee.

The Chemical Society of Washington at its foundation meeting had

an enrollment of 33 members. This number had increased at the end of

the year to 40. In the following years there was an average annual

increase of about 8 members, including non-residents, until by the

year 1893, at the time of the amalgamation with the American Chemi-

cal Society, the membership of the Local Society reached a total of 97,

of whom 70 were resident and 27 non-resident. In this period of inde-

pendent existence the Society held about seven meetings a year, the

number of papers presented at each meeting varying from 0 to 5.

With its small membership, of whom only about one third were con-

tributors of papers, it was not always easy to arrange a program and

hurry calls were often sent out a few days before a meeting for a

scratch contribution. But after all one main object of a scientific

meeting, then as now, was to bring the men together for personal

contacts. We often derive more benefit from the random exchange

of ideas in the interlude of a meeting, or at a society dinner, than

from the papers of a prearranged program.

The attendance at the early meetings of our Society was small.

The average of those present including guests during the first five

years of its history was only eighteen. It fell at some meetings as

low as nine and was never more than twenty-five. These numbers

were vastly exceeded, however, at the annual meetings when the

President gave his retiring address. On these occasions which were

first held in December and after 1888 in January or February, mem-

bers of the Philosophical Society, Anthropological Society, Biological

Society, Entomological Society, Microscopical Society and the Ccs-

mos Club with ladies and guests were invited to be present and the

capacity of the hall was then sometimes filled to overflowing. The

monthly gatherings of the early Society were usually held in what is

now the east end of the main reception room of the Cosmos Club,

this meeting place being separated from the rest of the room by a

folding door. For the larger annual meetings the entire reception room

was sometimes thrown open, but the capacity of this was too small

to seat the combined membership of all the scientific bodies of Wash-

ington and their guests. When a very large attendance was expected

the meetings were usually held in the auditorium of Columbian Uni-

versity.

232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

The records of the early meetings of our Society with its programs,

results of elections, resolutions, reports of committees, presidential

addresses, constitution, by-laws, lists of members, etc., were published

as an annual bulletin. This appeared for nine years until May 1895

when further issues were suspended. It is greatly to be regretted that

this publication came to an end. A continuous run of these bulletins

for 54 years would have now a decided historic value. The discon-

tinuance of the bulletin was of course a result of the amalgamation

of our early organization with the American Chemical Society. The

Journal of the latter took the place of the bulletin. It is one of the costs

of any kind of consolidation that the individual surrenders a part of

his identity and this inevitable loss is proportionate to the magnitude

of the unification. This law applies not only to scientific societies but

to trusts, to Government bureaus and to totalitarian states. After a

lapse of twenty-four years the reconstituted Chemical Society of

Washington recognized this loss and attempted in February 1919 to

recover a part of its lost identity by bringing out a new issue of its

old bulletin but somehow the heart of the membership was not in it

and the revived publication soon perished from lack of support.

This closes my attempt to picture for you a few of the individuali-

ties, the scientific attainments, the witticisms, the eccentricities, and

the foibles of some of the early founders of the Chemical Society of

Washington. Lack of time has prevented me from including some-

thing about Dewey, Diller, Hitchcock, Israel, Kalusowski, Lawver,

Littlewood, MacLean, Merrill, Packard, Peale, Read, Robinson,

Taylor, White and Yeates, all worthy members about whom much

could be said. In this group of men were representatives from Eng-

land, Scotland, Ireland, the Continent of Europe and from many

states of the Union;—men who had fought on opposite sides in the

Civil War but who now united were all anxious to do their part in

the upbuilding of a restored nation.

Our early organization was a small Society but what was lacking

in numbers was made up in enthusiasm and good fellowship. It was

a collection of the choicest spirits. The great Harvard trio, Frank

Clarke, Harvey Wiley and Charles Munroe, was alone sufficient to

keep any society agoing. Only a few of our founders are now left but

those disconsolate words ‘‘Pulvis et Umbra’”’ are not to be inscribed

upon their monuments. The inspiration of their personalities and the

influence of their work will always continue.

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 233

CHEMISTRY.—The Chemical Society of Washington and its part in

the reorganization of the American Chemical Society. C. A.

Browne, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

The year 1934, which is the semi-centennial of the founding of the

Chemical Society of Washington, is distinguished for a large number

of chemical anniversaries. It is also the semi-centennial of the found-

ing of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. It is the

hundredth anniversary of the birth of Mendeleeff, Schorlemmer and

Sprengel among European chemists and of G. C. Caldwell, a former

President of the American Chemical Society, among American Chem-

ists. It is also the hundredth anniversary of the publication of Prout’s

“Bridgewater Treatise on Chemistry”? a famous work which exer-

cised a great influence at the time both upon chemical and religious

thought. This year is also the two hundredth anniversary of the birth

of the famous English chemist, Thomas Henry, and of the death of

Stahl, the founder of the doctrine of Phlogiston.

But it is not about these men that I have been requested to speak

this evening but about a few of the founders of the Chemical Society

of Washington and their relations to some of the chemical develop-

ments in the United States of a half century ago. The decade between

1880 and 1890 in which this chemical society came into existence was

one of the several transition periods that seem to appear in the history

of American chemistry at approximately 50-year intervals. There was

a similar transition period in the decade between 1830 and 1840 and

we are passing through another of these very disquieting epochs in the

present decade of 1930 and 1940. These periods of readjustment come

inevitably after a time of severe business depression when the stability

of industries and institutions is threatened. They are usually the

aftermath of some great war, such as the War of 1812, or the Civil

War, or the recent World War.

The changes that took place in the transition period of 1880-1890

were manifested not only in industry but were evident also in the

fields of education and scientific organizations. The attempt to merge

the loosely organized local lyceums and other scientific organizations

of fifty years ago into large national groups of chemists, biologists,

engineers, etc. was rendered extremely difficult by a spirit of strong

individualism and independent freedom of action. The leading found-

ers of the local Chemical Society of Washington—men such as Clarke

and Wiley, to name only two of those whom I knew so long personally

5h ee before the Washington Chemical Society, April 26, 1934. Received March

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

—were strong individualists. They belonged to the old school which

believed in liberty of opinion and action, and their strong spirit of

individualism gave these men a rugged picturesque type of personal-

ity that is lacking in the present generation. The clash between these

opposing tendencies of individual and unified action can be exempli-

fied in no better way than by observing what took place in the early

history of the American Chemical Society and the Chemical Society

of Washington. The details of this movement, which were narrated

to me by various members of the opposing factions who have now

nearly all passed away, are not generally known and they deserve to

be recorded as an interesting phase in the annals of American Chem-

istry.

The American Chemical Society, as at present constituted, is the

composite result of various streams of influence acting from both

within and without over a long period of time. Indeed, the consecu-

tive steps in organizing a national society of chemists in the United

States might almost be called an experimental method of trial and

rejection and many years had to elapse before events could finally

develop into the type of organization with which we are now familiar.

American chemists seem to have been interested more at first in the

establishment of journals than in the organization of a society. The

Journal of Applied Chemistry, the Boston Journal of Chemistry and

The American Chemist all began publication before the first move-

ment was made to organize a national chemical society.

The first steps towards effecting a national organization of Ameri-

can chemists were taken on August 25, 1873, at the meeting of the

American Association for the Advancement of Science in Portiand,

Maine, when a subsection upon chemistry was formed. Of the chem-

ists present on that occasion it may be noted that seven of them—

G. F. Barker, F. W. Clarke, T. 8. Hunt, 8. W. Johnson, William

MeMurtrie, C. E. Munroe and H. W. Wiley—afterwards became

presidents of the American Chemical Society. The formation of this

chemical subsection of the American Association is important be-

cause of the influence which it afterwards had upon the organization

of a national chemical society. Of the charter members of this sub-

section (which became Section C in 1882) it is interesting to note

that four of them—Clarke, Munroe, Warder and Wiley—were after-

wards presidents of the Chemical Society of Washington.

The next important event that led to the formation of a national

chemical society occurred on July 31 and August 1, 1874, when a

group of some seventy leading American chemists met at the old

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 235

home of Dr. Joseph Priestley in Northumberland, Pennsylvania, to

celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of Priestley’s discovery of

oxygen. Every chemist who attended that meeting felt the stimulat-

ing influence of his contact with colleagues from all parts of the coun-

try and the wish was generally expressed that the members there gath-

ered might form the nucleus of a national society of chemists. A plan

for such an organization was soon formulated and after much pre-

liminary discussion the American Chemical Society was founded on

the evening of April 6, 1876, in the Lecture Room of the College of

Pharmacy in the old building of New York University on Washington

Square of New York City. The new Society started out under favor-

able auspices and soon could count in its membership many of the

leading chemists of the United States.

Unfortunately the Directors of the American Chemical Society at

the time of its inception made the fatal mistake of attempting to

centralize everything locally within New York City where the major-

ity of its members were living. There was then among this New York

group a certain obstinate clique, wholly unsympathetic with Ameri-

can traditions, which for a long time blocked every effort to make the

Chemical Society a truly representative national organization. The

result was that, almost as soon as formed, the Society began to dis-

integrate into its original units. On January 4, 1877, F. W. Clarke

submitted his resignation within two months after his election.

Clarke’s resignation was followed by those of G. F. Barker, William

MecMurtrie, W. F. Hillebrand, Edgar Smith, H. W. Wiley and Ira

Remsen. In other words, within five years after the Society’s organi-

zation seven of its future presidents, four of them Washingtonians

withdrew from the membership. In this group of malcontents who

either resigned or were suspended for the nonpayment of dues must

also be counted Edward Hart, who was editor of the Journal of the

American Chemical Society from 1893 to 1901, 8. P. Sadtler, W. D.

Mason and numerous other chemists of national prominence. Evi-

dently things were not going well in this first effort to establish a

national chemical society.

The primary cause of the spirit of disunion which threatened the

existence of our chemical society in the first decade of its existence

was the fact that its board of directors were all residents of New York,

that its monthly meetings were all held in New York and that chem-

ists who lived at great distances from this metropolis were unable to

take part in the Society’s activities. Chemists outside of New York,

therefore, looked upon the Society as a purely local organization and

236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

were unable to see that conditions for them were any better than

before its foundation. In order to dispell the belief that the Society

was only a local affair, the policy was adopted of selecting its presi-

dents from chemists who lived outside of the Metropolitan area. This

palliative measure, however, was wholly ineffective in promoting an

increase in the members of the Society. The total membership of the

American Chemical Society in 1881 was only 248, of whom 119 re-

sided in the Metropolitan district of New York and 124 in the regions

beyond. Six of the latter lived here in the City of Washington, of whom

four, E. T. Fristoe, B. 8. Hedrick, W. P. Lawver and W. M. Mew,

were among the founders of the Chemical Society of Washington.

Another cause of discontent was the very meager size of the Journal

of the Society. As compared with its predecessor, ‘The American

Chemist,’’ which it superseded, the new Journal was an inferior pub-

lication as regards both quality and quantity of contributions.

It seems to us at the present time rather strange that the New York

City group of chemists did not recognize sooner the futility of at-

tempting to conduct a national society upon the basis of the status

quo as it existed in 1880 and that they did not come sooner to the cor-

rect solution of the problem of securing cohesion between widely

scattered independent groups of chemists within a national organiza-

tion. The local independent group development, already existent in

the old lyceums, took a more definite form with the foundation of the

Cincinnati Chemical Society in the early eighties and of the Chemical

Society of Washington on January 31, 1884.

The moving spirits in the organization of this local Washington

Society were F. W. Clarke, H. W. Wiley and other malcontents who

had seceded from the American Chemical Society with headquarters

in New York City. Twenty-seven chemists belonging to different

Government and local organizations, and six chemists of private

status constituted the charter members of the Washington Society.

This was a good representation of the various local organizations at

a time when chemistry was just beginning to play a part in Govern-

ment Research.

It is interesting now to inquire as to the effect of the organization

of the Chemical Society of Washington upon the American Chemical

Society. One result was a gradual transfer of the allegiance of the local

chemists who were still members of the American Chemical Society

to the new Washington Society. The policy of these men at first

seems to have been one of watchful waiting. At the end of 1886, three

years after the founding of the Chemical Society of Washington, only

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 237

’ two of the local group of four who at first belonged to both societies

continued as members of the American Chemical Society, Dr. Hed-

rick having died and Dr. Mew having resigned. Dr. Friscoe and Dr.

Lawver dropped out in 1887 and for the next three years the Ameri-

can Chemical Society was without a member in the City of Washing-

ton.

Meantime the membership of the American Chemical Society, so-

called, had been steadily declining. The enrollment of 243 members

in 1881 had declined to 167 in 1889 of whom only 76 lived beyond the

New York district. The Journal of the Society appeared at only ir-

regular intervals and for the year 1889 numbered only 158 pages.

At this time when the affairs of the American Chemical Society

were at their lowest ebb, Dr. F. W. Clarke of the Chemical Society

of Washington and also a most active member of Section C of the

American Association for the Advancement of Science, was taking

active steps towards organizing a National or Continental Chemical

Society. A committee of Section C was appointed with Clarke as

Chairman to confer with various chemical societies upon the best

plan of accomplishing such an organization. In this work Clarke was

ably supported by Dr. H. W. Wiley who at the Sixth annual Conven-

tion of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists in Washing-

ton on September 11, 1889, strongly recommended the organization

of a national chemical society. Wiley mentioned that this plan had

aroused some opposition, one objection being the existence of a society

which claimed to be the American Chemical Society. He had once

been a member of that society but the only benefit which he received

from the connection was a receipt for his annual dues. He had, there-

fore, after paying his dues, resigned. It was now time, Wiley stated,

for the chemists of the country to form a national association strictly

and purely American in its character. It was intended not to confine

it to the United States but to include the chemists of Mexico and

Canada and in fact the whole continent of North America.

Following Dr. Wiley’s remarks at this meeting of the Association

of Official Agricultural Chemists, Dr. Clarke made a statement which

is interesting because it is one of the earliest forecasts of the type of

organization which the American Chemical Society was soon destined

to assume. As a result of Clarke’s canvass of chemists, which he made

as Chairman of the Committee of Section C of the American Associa-

tion for the Advancement of Science, ‘‘the general consensus of opin-

ion seemed to be that in order to avoid the danger of localizing the

society it would be necessary to follow to some extent the example of

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

the Society of Chemical Industry in Great Britain, which has a num-

ber of sections in different parts of the Kingdom. There was a London

section, a Liverpool section, sections at Manchester, Birmingham,

Newcastle, Glasgow, and other points, the several sections all coop-

erating through one journal. Probably the same plan would be fea-

sible in this country, where there were already a goodly number of

centers of chemical industry.”

In conformity with the plan thus outlined Clarke and Wiley issued

in 1889 a circular letter to the chemists of America which had for its

purpose: ‘‘To organize a Continental Chemical Society, representa-

tive of all North America, by affiliating together as far as possible

existing local organizations. The society as a whole to hold an annual

meeting at such time and place as may be agreed upon from year

to year; while local sections, like the sections of the British Society

for Chemical Industry, shall have their regular frequent gatherings

in as many scientific centers as possible, all publishing their work in

one official journal.’’ (Proceedings, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1890,

p. 141-2.)

Obviously this movement of Clarke and Wiley to establish a chemi-

cal society that would be truly American could not be without some

influence upon the officials of the American Chemical Society so-

called. Certain of its own members had long foreseen the need of

reform. Among these was Prof. C. E. Munroe, then of Newport,

R. I., who, thoroughly aroused at the spirit of indifference which was

hampering the initiation of necessary reforms within the society, at-

tempted to bring about from the inside what Clarke and Wiley were

endeavoring to accomplish from without. His views upon the holding

of general meetings and the establishment of local sections were ex-

pressed in a letter which was read at a meeting of the American Chem-

ical Society in New York on November 1, 1889. This letter seems to

have been instrumental in securing action, for at the next meeting on

December 6 plans of reorganization were fully discussed, in which

connection President Chandler expressed the hope that this might

be effected upon the plan of the Society of Chemical Industry. The

good influence of these efforts was reflected in a very optimistic edi-

torial in the first issue of the Journal for 1890 regarding the reorgani-

zation of the Society so as to make it truly national and also in an

announcement upon the revision of the Society’s Constitution in

which suggestions were invited by the Committee from the different

members. A revised constitution was thereupon prepared and adopted

by a majority vote of the Society at its meeting in New York on June

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 239

6, 1890. The new constitution provided for the establishment of local

sections of the Society but the New York group continued to assert

its claim of leadership by maintaining that the headquarters of the

Society should be the City of New York and that the annual meeting

for the election of officers and committees should be held at the head-

quarters.

Another article of the new constitution was the provision for hold-

ing general meetings of the American Chemical Society in localities

outside of New York. In view of the fact that this reform had been

suggested by Prof. Munroe, the duty of demonstrating its success

was now put squarely up to him and accordingly the Directors voted

to hold the first general meeting of the Society at Munroe’s home

city of Newport on August 6 and 7, 1890, and nominated him the

chairman of the local committee of arrangements. This meeting was

a great success, there being present a representative gathering of

forty chemists from different parts of the United States. On the

second day of this meeting there was a general consideration of the

question of organizing the chemists of America and Dr. Clarke opened

the discussion by sketching a brief history of the new movement for

a “‘Continental” society. As a result of this discussion a committee of

the American Chemical Society was appointed to confer with repre-

sentatives of other societies and organizations of chemists as to a

plan of consolidation.

In reply to the arguments of Clarke and Wiley to establish an en-

tirely new national chemical society, the representatives of the Ameri-

can Chemical Society urged in behalf of their own title to national

standing that it had had a continued existence for fourteen years,

that it published a journal and had built up a library. They showed

also from the lists of its presidents that there had been no discrimina-

tion in favor of New York against chemists of other localities. In a

subsequent report by F. W. Clarke, H. C. Bolton and Edward Hart

for the Committee of Section C of the American Association upon a

national chemical society (Proceedings, Indianapolis meeting, 1890,

p. 139-140) it was said of the American Chemical Society: ‘‘It has

surely been national in spirit though local by force of circumstances.

Towards the movement which we have initiated it is in no wise hos-

tile, and it seems quite clear that by means of mutual concessions of a

wholly minor sort a union with it can be effected.” This is the first

indication of a possible healing of the breach which had so long existed

between New York and Washington. A new spirit of conciliation

seems to have prevailed as soon as the old American Chemical Society

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

manifested a willingness to meet with its critics and to consider their

suggestions in the organization of a national chemical society.

At a second general meeting of the American Chemical Society,

held in Philadelphia on the 30th and 31st of December 1890, at which

seventy-five chemists were in attendance, the conference committees

of the different chemical societies were announced who were to con-

sider the plans for a national organization of chemists. These com-

mittees represented seven different organizations of chemists—the

American Chemical Society, the Chemical Section of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science with Dr. F. W. Clarke

as Committee Chairman, the Association of Official Agricultural Chem-

ists with Dr. H. W. Wiley as Committee Chairman, the Washington

Chemical Society with Prof. W. H. Seaman as Committee Chairman,

the Chemical Section of the Franklin Institute, the Chemical Section

of the Brooklyn Institute and the Manufacturing Chemists’ Associa-

tion of the United States.

Meanwhile, without waiting for the completion of these plans for

organizing a national society, the chemists of Rhode Island under

the leadership of Professors C. E. Munroe and J. H. Appleton had re-

solved to form a local section of the American Chemical Society in

accordance with Article X of the revised constitution adopted by the

New York chemists. A petition was accordingly submitted to the

directors of the Society (all thirteen of whom were New York chem-

ists) on December 31, 1890, for the establishment of a Rhode Island

Section of the American Chemical Society and this petition was

granted on January 21, 1891. Thus was created the first local section

of the American Chemical Society. The point of special significance

in this connection is that the Rhode Island group, most of whom were

then members of the American Chemical Society, chose to work out

the problems of reorganization within the Society itself. Their peti-

tion, however, was a tacit recognition of a New York directorship in

the management of the Society’s affairs, which was the very thing

that Washington secessionists under the leadership of Drs. Clarke and

Wiley desired to abolish.

As a result of the invitation of Dr. Clarke the third general meeting

of the American Chemical Society was held in Washington on August

17 and 18, 1891, in conjunction with the meeting of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science. At this meeting members

of conference committees of ten different chemical societies met on

August 17 to draw up plans for a general organization of chemists.

These societies in the order of membership were the American Chemi-

May 15, 1988 BROWNE: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 241

cal Society with 290 members, the Chemical Section of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science with 200 members, the

Association of Official Agricultural Chemists with 75 members, the

Chemical Section of the Brooklyn Institute with 75 members, the

Washington Chemical Society with 70 members, the Chemical Sec-

tion of the Franklin Institute with 70 members, the Chemical Society

of the University of Michigan with 60 members, the Louisiana Sugar

Chemists’ Association with 52 members, the Cincinnati Chemical So-

ciety with 29 members and the Manufacturing Chemists’ Association

of the United States of unknown membership. The committees of

these different organizations, representing approximately 1000 Ameri-

can chemists, passed by unanimous vote the following resolution:

Resolved, That it is the opinion of this conference, Ist, That the American

Chemical Society be so extended as to include the members of all local

societies in its membership; 2nd, That the New York members of the Ameri-

can Chemical Society be requested to organize a local section of the Ameri-

can Chemical Society in New York.

This resolution was the determining factor which solved the pre-

liminary difficulties of organizing a national chemical society in the

United States. The New York group was placated by the retention

of the old name, American Chemical Society, but was deprived of all

claims of priority or leadership by being requested to reorganize

upon the basis of a local section. Except in name the proposed reor-

ganization was an entirely new chemical society.

The immediate result of this resolution was its acceptance by all

the interested chemical organizations. As a first indication of the re-

establishment of harmonious relations the two Washington leaders

of the secession movement, F. W. Clarke and H. W. Wiley, were re-

elected members of the American Chemical Society on October 2,

1891. The hatchet was not altogether buried, however, for there were

still certain objectionable features in the existing constitution and

charter of the American Chemical Society that required correction

before Clarke and Wiley would consent to bringing the chemists of

the societies which they represented into the fold of the reorganized

American Chemical Society. It should be noted, however, that with

the resumption of their old membership in the American Chemical

Society by Clarke and Wiley, the remaining reforms which they

strove to accomplish were worked out within the Society itself.

The revised constitution, which the local American Chemical So-

ciety had accepted on June 6, 1890, had first to be revamped in order

to meet the acceptance of the new National organization. At the

242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

fourth general meeting of the Society held in New York on December

29 and 30, 1891, a committee was accordingly appointed on the revi-

sion of the constitution, the draft of which was presented by Dr.

Wiley at the Fifth General Meeting which was held at Rochester on

August 16 and 17, 1892. Dr. Wiley also moved at this meeting that

a committee of three be appointed to amend the old charter of the

American Chemical Society so as to remove the objectionable section

requiring that a majority of the Board of Directors shall be residents

of New York.

The revised constitution of the American Chemical Society, which

was finally adopted, removed practically the last semblance of con-

trol of the Society’s affairs by the old local group of New York chem-

ists.

The final consummation of all the plans for the reorganization of

the American Chemical Society was achieved with the election of Dr.

Wiley as President at the Sixth General meeting in Pittsburgh on

December 28 and 29, 1892, when an entirely new arrangement of

affairs came into existence. A considerable amount of politics, of the

old horse-trading type, characterized the election of Dr. Wiley at this

critical juncture of the American Chemical Society’s affairs. The New

York chemists, realizing again the necessity of selecting a non-resi-

dent of their city as the next president, favored the nomination of a

candidate from the newly established Rhode Island Section whose

members although not wholly satisfied had remained loyal to the

then existing organization. Professor Munroe and Professor Appleton

were mentioned as candidates in this connection but it was soon

realized that if the strong rebellious Washington faction was to be

fully placated it would be the best policy to put in a Washingtonian

as the next president. After considerable canvassing and maneuvering

it was decided that the election of Dr. Wiley would probably help

most towards welding the various local groups of American chemists

into a unified national organization. Dr. Wiley was accordingly

elected and the wisdom of his selection was shown both by the rapid

increase in the membership of the American Chemical Society and

by the great quickening of interest in chemistry in all parts of the

country that took place during the two years of his administration.

The first important indication of these new developments was the

transference of the entire membership of the Washington Chemical

Society to the rolls of the American Chemical Society. The advisa-

bility of making this change in the status of the Chemical Society of

Washington was debated among the individual members both with-

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 243

out and within the meetings of the Society. The topic of discussion

at the sixty-third meeting of the Society on December 8, 1892, with

President T. M. Chatard in the chair, was ‘‘National Chemical So-

ciety Plans.’’ Some opposition was expressed at this meeting against

the plan of incorporating the local Washington society as a section

of the American Chemical Society. Professor Munroe, who had re-

cently transferred his residence from Newport to Washington, spoke

at this meeting upon the advantages of such an incorporation and

because of the leading part which he played in the formation of the

first local section of the American Chemical Society in Rhode Island

early in the previous year, his remarks were no doubt instrumental

in winning many adherents to the plan.

According to the abstracts of the Proceedings of the Chemical So-

ciety of Washington for its sixty-seventh meeting on April 13, 1893

with President Dewey in the chair (Bulletin of the Society, No. 9,

p. 65), “‘the question of becoming a local section of the American

Chemical Society was ordered to be submitted by the Secretary to

the members of the Society individually, their action to be reported

at the May meeting.”’ This action, however, seems to have been only

a delayed effort to secure official confirmation of an agreement which

had been formed two months previously, for in the Minutes of the

Council of the American Chemical Society for February 26, 1893

(Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 15 (1893), p. 296) we read that a petition had

already been submitted to the Board of Directors ‘‘to incorporate the

Washington Chemical Society as a local section of the American

Chemical Society’? with the signatures of H. W. Wiley, E. A. de

Schweinitz, F. W. Clarke, Geo. Steiger, Charles E. Munroe, W. M.

Mew, Robt. B. Warder, Wm. H. Seaman, Jas. H. Griffin and Claude

A. O. Rosell.

At this point an interesting complication arose for the petition re-

quested the incorporation of the Washington Chemical Society as a

local section of the American Chemical Society whereas the consti-

tution of the latter did not provide for incorporating any other organ-

ization as a local section but merely for the formation of a local section

“by the Board of Directors on the receipt of a written request to that

effect, signed by ten members of the society and endorsed by a ma-

jority of the Council.’’ The signers of the petition were accordingly

requested to make out a new petition in conformity with the require-

ments of the constitution to the Board of Directors who thereupon

issued to the ten signatories under date of May 10, 1893, a charter

for the formation of a local section of the American Chemical Society

244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

in the city of Washington. The members of the new Washington sec-

tion for their own local purposes retained the name of their old organ-

ization, “‘The Chemical Society of Washington,” but added thereto

in parentheses from this time on (Local Section of the American

Chemical Society).

Meanwhile, acting apparently individually but unquestionably in

conformity with a concerted plan, fifty-seven members of the Chemi-

cal Society of Washington had already been duly elected members of

the American Chemical Society on March 13, 1893 (Minutes of the

Council, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 15 (1893), pp. 58-59) which it will be

noted is two months earlier than the granting of the charter and also

two months earlier than the official report of the secretary of the

Chemical Society of Washington at its sixty-eighth meeting on May

11, 1893 (Bulletin 9, p. 66) that “sixty members of the Society had

reported in favor of becoming a section of the American Chemical

Society.’’ The local society as an official body was evidently slow in

keeping up with the activities of its own members.

The final act in this reorganization of the Chemical Society of

Washington was the appointment by President Dewey at this same

meeting of May 11, 1893, of a committee consisting of Messrs. Wiley,

Chatard and Peale to revise its Constitution and By-Laws in accord-

ance with the action of the Society. The Constitution, as revised by

this Committee, was adopted on December 14, 1898.

The incorporation of the Chemical Society of Washington as a

section of the American Chemical Society was a dramatic event for

it marked definitely the healing of the old breach between New York

and Washington which began with the resignation of F. W. Clarke

from the American Chemical Society over sixteen years before.

Another important event during Dr. Wiley’s presidency, coincident

with the changes just mentioned, was the transfer in the management

of the Society’s Journal. Until 1893 the publication of the Journal

of the American Chemical Society had remained entirely in the hands

of a New York editorial committee whose chairman was the late

Professor A. A. Breneman—an able man who for many years had

rendered most faithful service in helping to keep the Society going

until a national organization could be perfected. Under the new

scheme of ruthlessly eliminating all New York affiliations the old

editorial committee was now abolished and on April 12, 1893, Pro-

fessor Edward Hart of Easton, Pa., was elected Editor, who, with

Professor Edgar F. Smith of Pennsylvania and Professor J. H. Long of

Chicago, constituted the new Committee on Papers and Publications.

May 15, 1938 BROWNE: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 245

As an ex-member and past chairman of the New York Section of

the American Chemical Society I wish to commend the willing spirit

of the fine old group of New York Chemists to submit without pro-

test to these severe acts of discrimination. Many of these men were

my closest friends and now that they have all gone to their final

reward I wish to state that their feelings were decidedly hurt. They

did not resign, however, but continued to show their loyalty to the

reorganized Society by working always for its best interests. I have

always felt that it would have been a kind and magnanimous act to

have retained Professor Breneman, at least for a time, upon the edi-

torial board of the reorganized Journal. Society politics of the period

seems, however, to have dictated the slogan that no good could come

out of Gotham.

Professor Hart, the new Editor of the Journal, was also the head

of the Chemical Publishing Company and the owner of the Journal of

Analytical and Applied Chemistry. Under the new arrangement Hart

became not only the Editor but also the publisher of the Journal of

the American Chemical Society. He agreed at the same time to sus-

pend the publication of his own Journal with the issue for June, 1 893

sending to his subscribers for the rest of the year the numbers of the

Journal of the American Chemical Society. This act of consolidation

proved to be very beneficial to the Society.

A third chief event of Dr. Wiley’s presidency of the American

Chemical Society was the International Congress on Chemistry held

at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago August 21-26, 1893. Eighty-

three members of the American Chemical Society attended this

Congress of which Dr. Wiley was chairman of the Joint Committee.

In welcoming the members of the Congress, at which were many

distinguished foreign chemists, Dr. Wiley thus referred to conditions

existing in the United States:

‘‘In this country our chemical workers have been widely scattered. Our

friends from abroad must not, therefore, be surprised to find less esprit du

corps among us than in their own countries. We have been whirled hither

and thither in the wild molecular melange of a rapidly growing country.

But now there are many centers of crystallization forming, and soon you

will find among us more unity of action, more mutual helpfulness. One of

the organizations which I have the good fortune to represent at this time is

bringing into intimate relations large numbers of our American chemists

and cementing them into a body which gives promise of lasting good in the

future. Already more than half a thousand American chemists have joined

hands, and it is their united hand, big, brawny, and right honest in its grasp,

which is extended to you today.”’

It is interesting also to record that at this meeting Dr. Wiley sug-

246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, No. 5

gested the establishment of a Triennial International Congress on

Chemistry to meet in different countries. This recommendation led

ultimately to the establishment of the International Congresses of

Pure and Applied Chemistry which were held at triennial periods

until the outbreak of the World War and are now being revived in

1934 with the present meeting in Madrid.

Dr. Wiley was reelected president of the American Chemical So-

ciety for the year 1894. As an evidence of the new vigor which was

infused into the American Chemical Society during the two years

of his presidency it should be noted that the membership of the

organization more than doubled during this period having increased

from 351 to 722 and that the size of the Journal also more than

doubled having increased from 402 pages in 1892 to 891 pages in

1894. His administration may, therefore, be considered to mark the

turning point in the affairs of the American Chemical Society and

the beginning of its present phenomenal growth.

Such in brief is the story of the movement which led to the founding

of the Chemical Society of Washington and to its subsequent incor-

poration as a section of the American Chemical Society.

The question might be asked in conclusion whether the problem of

reorganization could not have been worked out more amicably within

the Society according to the plans advocated and followed by Pro-

fessor C. E. Munroe without the disagreeable secession movement

which was initiated and fostered by Dr. Clarke. This is a hard ques-

tion to answer but my opinion is that a secession of some kind was

inevitable and necessary in order to enforce upon the minds of certain

obstinate members of the old society the lesson that a national scien-

tific society cannot be organized except upon a basis of the strictest

local sectional equality. |

It is to be hoped that the need for such a movement may never

again arise in the history of our American Chemical Society. But if

it should arise let us hope that the work of reform may be conducted

as worthily and as effectively as it was carried out by two of the

founders and early presidents of this Chemical Society of Washing-

ton—those doughty champions of the right of individual freedom of

opinion and action—Frank W. Clarke and Harvey W. Wiley.

May 15, 1938 HENDRICKS: HILLEBRAND PRIZE 247

CHEMISTRY.—Response to the award of the Hillebrand Prize for

1937... SteruiInc B. HENpRicks, Bureau of Chemistry and

Soils. (Communicated by FrepERIcK D. Rossini.)

One appreciates the Hillebrand award not so much for the personal

recognition as for recognition of a particular field of work. In this

case it is the determination of geometrical arrangements of atoms in

crystals and in molecules. Diffraction, most conveniently of x-rays

and electrons, is the only general method for doing this. Spectroscopic

methods are applicable to gases of simple molecular structure and

while they are very useful they will not further concern us.

Before discussing a few points connected with this particular award

I should like to acknowledge my indebtedness to a number of people.

An adequately equipped laboratory for diffraction work with x-rays

and electrons represents considerable investment and requires con-

stant mechanical service and improvement. Splendid facilities in this

respect have been made available in the Fertilizer Division of the

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. Dr. Knight and Dr. Kunsman as

directors have not been insistent that all of the work be of an applied

nature and by this attitude they have permitted me and my asso-

ciates to stay abreast with rapidly advancing fields. It has been my

good fortune to be associated with Dr. Maxwell, Mr. Mosley and

Mr. Jefferson in this work. Some of the work closely connected with

this award was carried out with Dr. Deming who has always been

ready with mathematical advice. It has also been my pleasure to

have had stimulating contacts with the personnel of many other

organizations in Washington, especially with the Geophysical Labora-

tory, the National Museum, and the Geological Survey in work on

minerals.

When waves fall upon a repeated network a diffraction pattern is

obtained and some knowledge of the network can be gained from

study of positions and intensities of the interference maxima in this

pattern. Crystals are formed by regular repetition of units containing

a small number of atoms and x-rays having wavelengths of the order

of magnitude of the interatomic distances are available. These are

the ideal conditions underlying studies of crystal structures.

The geometry of a crystal diffraction pattern and the absence of

certain maxima immediately give the dimensions and symmetry of

the small unit, the repetition of which builds up the macroscopic

1 Address delivered before the Chemical Society of Washington on March 10, 1938

on the occasion of the award of the Hillebrand Prize for 1937. Received March 25, 1938.

248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 28, NO. 5

crystal. This usually contains only a small number of molecules, or

of atoms if molecules are not present as in ionic substances, and it

can be determined for any crystal. The symmetry of this unit and

the number of molecules that it contains immediately gives some

knowledge of the minimum molecular symmetry. In this way we

find that oxalic acid in its two anhydrous crystalline forms and in

its hydrate has a center of symmetry, that is all the oxygen atoms

and probably the carbon atoms are in one plane. Similarly it is found

that the oxalate ion in the sodium, potassium, and rubidium acid

‘salts and in the potassium and rubidium normal salts does not neces-

sarily have an element of symmetry. In ammonium oxalate mono-

hydrate it has at least a two-fold axis which, too, does not require a

plane group. The question is one of possible rotation about a bond

that organic chemists consider to be single.

Structure analysis goes further and from intensities of the diffrac-

tion maxima attempts to find positions of all atoms in the small unit.

In principle this can be done for any crystal but in practice it is 1m-

possibly difficult for many. One not only has to find atomic positions

within the molecules but simultaneously find the relationship of the

molecules to each other. Only the former of these is of much interest

to the chemist.

Any assistance external to the diffraction itself for simplifying the

structure analysis is permissible since in the end a correct structure

can be checked with absolute accuracy. The simplest assumption is

that of chemical composition, a more complex one is of approximate

molecular shapes and sizes. Molecules have properties that vary with

direction and the amount of this variation can often be estimated

from knowledge of simpler compounds and structural formulas. Some

of these properties are magnetic susceptibility, optical polarization,

absorption spectra, and optical activity. If they are not modified too

seriously by the proximity of other molecules they can be used to

gain some knowledge of molecular orientation in the crystal.

In order to test the use of optical polarization complete structure

determinations were carried out for a number of oxalates and their

indices of refraction and optic orientations were measured. It was

found that the oxalate ion was closely planar in many oxalates and

that the orientation of the ion could accurately be determined from

the crystal optics. This showed that interaction between the mole-

cules did not strongly affect their polarizabilities, which was the

question at issue. Mr. Jefferson and I further demonstrated this by

showing that the mean molecular refractivity of highly anisotropic

May 15, 1938 HENDRICKS: HILLEBRAND PRIZE 249

molecules is approximately the same in crystals where they have

definite orientations and in their melts where positions are ran-

dom.

At the present time crystal structure workers are chiefly engaged

in the study of those molecular compounds that have some simplify-

ing property such as a plane benzene ring of known shape and size,

or a compound having an approximately plane group of atoms with

the planes of the groups parallel in its crystals. Knowledge of re-

fractive indices for a number of such compounds permits choice of

those whose structure might be determined most easily and speeds

a determination on its way.

The objective in the study of the oxalates was to determine the

relationship between crystal structure and crystal optics. However,

it also involved us in some questions about the structures of the

oxalate and carboxyl groups. Robertson? carried out a careful analysis

of the structure of oxalic acid dihydrate, which has a plane group.

He found that the carbon to carbon distance is 1.43A which is much

shorter than 1.54A as generally found between carbon atoms joined

with a single bond. It is in fact somewhat closer to 1.34A, the charac-

teristic double bond distance. According to theories developed chiefly

by Pauling’ and his associates, this would indicate contribution of

several possible structures to the stable state of the group, that is

resonance, one of which involves a double bond. Robertson indicated

that a partial double bond character not only accounted for the small

distance but also for the plane group.

Mr. Jefferson and I carried out an equally careful analysis of the

structure of ammonium oxalate monohydrate. The separation of the

carbon atoms in the oxalate ion of this salt proved to be 1.58A which

is not significantly greater than 1.54A, the usual single bond distance.

Moreover, the ion is not planar but the two —CO,. ends are turned

28° with respect to one another. This last fact even more strongly

than the first rules out the possibility of resonance involving a partial

double bond character. Such a result is not unexpected since the acid

and its ion are two entirely different groups. In the acid, too, the

connection through hydrogen with other groups in the system must

profoundly affect the group itself.

The two oxygen atoms of a carboxyl part of an oxalate ion are

sensibly alike in their atomic separations and this is in entire harmony

with the resonance theory. Carbon oxygen bond distances, moreover,

2 ROBERTSON. J. Chem. Soc. 1936: 1817.

3 PAULING et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 57: 2705. 1935.

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

are smaller than expected single bond values. Pauling,* however, has

shown that a carboxylic acid, partially, and its ester, entirely, have

normal carbonyl oxygen atoms. There is, therefore, less expected

resonance in oxalic acid hydrate than in its salts.

A correct explanation for the shortened carbon to carbon distance

in oxalic acid dihydrate is probably to be found in the work of Penney

and Kynch.’® They have shown that a single bond distance is short-

ened by the proximity of a double or triple bond in the case of di-

benzyl, stilbene, and tolane. Thus it would appear that conjugation

of the carbonyl groups in oxalic acid is really responsible for the

shortened carbon to carbon distances, the plane group, and the un-

usual chemical properties.

I have discussed these subjects since they were in part the object

of this particular award. They illustrate to some extent the type of

problems studied by x-ray diffraction. There is no magic in any of

this work and the confusing detail of a particular paper should never

obscure the firm basis of physical theory behind it and the exactness

of the final answer.

4GiumaNn, H. ‘Organic Chemistry,” Vol. II, p. 1871, New York (1938).

5 Punney and Kyncu. Proc. Roy. Soe. A164: 409. 1938.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

498TH MEETING

The 498th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, February 10, 1938, with President Drakz in the chair. After the

reading of the minutes it was announced that the Hillebrand Prize Award

for 1937 was to be presented at the March meeting to STERLING B. HEND-

RICKS for his work in the field of crystal and molecular structure.

The Society was addressed by J. E. Mayer of the Johns Hopkins Uni-

versity who spoke on peculiarities in the critical region. It was pointed out

that the long accepted view of the liquid-vapor critical phenomena is subject

to reexamination in the light of recent developments both from the stand-

point of experiment and of theory. Recently measured values of the densi-

ties of the coexisting liquid and vapor do not favor the view that the vapor

acquires the same density as the liquid at the temperature at which the

meniscus vanishes. This temperature is the point at which the interfacial

tension becomes zero. Theoretical arguments speak for the existence of a

range of temperature above this point, within which the pressure is not de-

pendent upon the volume, over a limited range of volumes. This paper was

discussed by Morey, BRICKWEDDE, KRACEK and STIMSON.

A colored motion picture entitled “Scientific Tank Farming”’ was shown

through the courtesy of the Plant Culture League of San Pedro, Calif., and

the cooperation of F. G. CoTTRELL.

May 15, 19388 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 251

499TH MEETING

The 499th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, March 10, 1938, President Drake presiding. The meeting was

held in conjunction with the annual dinner of the Society.

The Past President, B. H. Nico.rt, reviewed the history and the signifi-

eance of the Hillebrand Prize. President Draks then presented the 1937

Award to Stpriine B. Henpricks for his contributions on the relation of

crystal optics to crystal structure and on the determination of molecular struc-

tures by X-ray and electron diffraction. The recipient responded with an ad-

dress which is published in this number of the JouRNAL (p. 247). Professor

EDWARD TELLER of the George Washington University then gave an address

of which the following is an abstract:

EDWARD TELLER: Crystals illuminated by waves and waves illuminated by

crystals. The interaction of waves and crystals, which is the main field of Dr.

Hendricks’ work, presents a double interest. For the physicist it opens up the

possibility of studying the nature of waves; and to the chemist it gives a tool

to inquire into the molecular structure of ‘crystals. Thus the interaction of

light and crystals attracted the attention of Huyghens whose discovery of

double refraction seemed to contradict his wave theory of light. (In those

early days waves meant longitudinal waves.) In the meantime the idea of

transversal light waves and Maxwell’s theory not only explained Huyghens’

experiments, but it made it also possible to study molecular polarizabilities

and molecular form. For instance, Dr. Hendricks determined with the tool

of double refraction the orientation of oxalate molecules and nitrate ions in

crystals. In the case of nitrates he found the interesting phenomenon of free

rotation. The accuracy of our knowledge of crystals was greatly increased

by the X-ray diffraction discovered by v. Laue. Questions such as the one

about the ionic nature of the alkali halides became settled and whole new

territories such as the chemistry of silicates were disclosed. Dr. Hend-

ricks participated in this work by his investigation of kaolins. The electron-

diffraction demonstrated by Davisson and Germer had a revolutionary effect

on physics. It made possible the understanding of the physical laws in the

inside of atoms and all but abolished the boundary between physics and

chemistry. In direct chemical research electron beams proved useful for in-

vestigating molecules in the gaseous state. The reason for this is that the

electrons are scattered much more strongly than X-rays; therefore, on the

one hand, they cannot penetrate easily into the interior of crystals but, on the

other hand, they give sufficiently strong scattering in gases. Drs. Hendricks

and Maxwell used these properties to determine interatomic distances in

alkali halides and in the S2 molecule. They also investigated the interesting

structures of molecules like Asu, Ps, PaOg and P,Oi0. It is hoped that these

experiments will be continued. Thus the diffraction of neutrons (which prob-

lem has been already attacked by various investigators) promises to be of

great interest in nuclear physics and may make it possible for the chemist to

learn the position of a particle which has eluded both X-ray and electron

bombardment, namely, the position of the hydrogen atom. There are great

difficulties to be overcome. The present neutron sources are weak, and since

no absorber exists which stops neutrons of all velocities, a great amount of

background neutrons are present. Further complications may be caused by

inelastic collisions with the crystal-lattice. But the use of focusing methods

and rough mosaic crystals, as well as strongly cooled neutrons, may make

we experiments (which Dr. Hendricks is planning) successful in the near

uture.

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 5

500TH MEETING

The 500th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, April 14, 1938, with President Drake in the chair. The meeting

was preceded by a buffet supper which was also served in the Auditorium.

The Secretary read the minutes of the Ist, 50th, 100th, 200th, 300th and

400th meetings of the Society, partly because they represented milestones

in the Society’s existence, and partly because of the points of special interest

contained in them. President P. E. Hows of the Washington Academy of

Sciences then read a memorial from the Academy, felicitating the Chemical

Society on this historic occasion.

The Society was addressed by C. A. BRowNE who read a paper on. Doctor

Thomas Antisell and his associates in the founding of the Chemical Society of

Washington, which is published in this issue of the JouRNAL (p. 213). The

paper was illustrated by early photographs cf groups of chemists and of

chemical laboratories, as they existed in the Department of Agriculture and

in the Geological Survey in the period between 1870 and 1890 approximately.

These were of very great historical interest, and were received with en-

thusiasm by the Society. Particularly valuable were the photographs of

ANTISELL, F. W. CuarkKE, H. W. Winy, and their associates.

The 500th meeting was then adjourned, and after a period of darkness,

the 1000th meeting was opened. Peculiarly, in a way, from our present point

of view, President Drake still occupied the chair. This he explained, re-

calling the 500th meeting, was the result of the great progress made in the

biochemical sciences, which made it possible to arrest the normal aging

processes. J. F. Coucu, also well preserved, then read the minutes of the

999th meeting, which was devoted to the great advances made in the new

science of Farm Chemurgy, creating great surpluses of power alcohol, and

to the very ingenious ways of dealing with this problem. Madjur A. Shirt

(B. H. Nico.zr) reported on the photopolymer method of making practi-

cally indestructible clothing for the masses. This paper was discussed by

H. C. Futur, who in his present capacity of a shade, having lived too early

to avail himself of the benefits of present scientific advances, was somewhat

handicapped in making the audience see the points he raised. General Always

Ponder (L. W. Butz) discussed a paper of great importance on the social

aspects of his discoveries of atheletone and esthetone, two vital agents in the

problem of proper division of labor between the male and the female sex.

The meeting was concluded by a report on the remains of famous chemists

whose bodies had been willed to science, by Dr. M. Wrench (8. B. HENp-

RICKS), who explained the results in the light of the new keyhole theory of

proteins. :

FRANK C. KRracek, Secretary

CONTENTS

CHEMISTRY.—Five hundred meetings of the Chemical Society of

Washington. /Fran« C. KRacek.. (0520.22.50)

CHEMISTRY.—Dr. Thomas Antisell and his associates in the founding

of the Chemical Society of Washington. C. A. BROWNE.......

CHEMISTRY.—The Chemical Society of Washington and its part in the

reorganization of the American Chemical Society. C. A. BROWNE

CHEMISTRY.—Response to the award of the Hillebrand Prize for 1937.

STeRLING B. HENDRICKS, .. oes Oo Co ee

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

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