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JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY

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VOLUME 29, 1939

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Page 142, line 23: For ‘“‘dm”’ read ‘‘m.”’

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eck PNT OPO I

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vw 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM

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JOURNAL

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VoL. 29 JANUARY 15, 1939 No. 1

ICHTHYOLOGY .—Salmon psychology.: HmNry B. Warp, Univer-

sity of Illinois. (Communicated by CHARLES E. CHAMBLISS.)

Many years ago I became interested in the salmon and its remark-

able life history. Good fortune brought me in personal contact with

that great student of American fishes, David Starr Jordan, whose

work on the Pacific salmon is well known. His discussions further

stimulated my interest and I was able to enter on a series of field

studies which has extended over more than 25 years. This work has

been intensive rather than extensive and has taken a different direc-

tion from that of most of those who have been active in this field

hitherto. From the start it has been rather strictly limited in that it

was confined primarily to a single species of Pacific salmon, the sock-

eye or red salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka), and to that part of its life

cycle spent in fresh water. I have been able to carry on this study at

several widely separated places and incidentally to accumulate also

scattered information concerning related species and genera which

has afforded a valuable check on my own more extended observations

of the red salmon.

Desiring to secure the most intimate contact possible with the

species, I have spent the summer months following the adults from

river mouth to spawning ground, endeavoring to determine just what

they did and why under varying conditions of stream, climate, and

weather. The tales and interpretations of tourists, natives, fishermen,

and Indians were welcomed and subjected to impartial scrutiny in the

task of sifting some truth from the mass of error and fancy that al-

ways pervades popular accounts of animal life. This combination of

personal observations with explanations of others has in the course of

time given an intimate knowledge of the fish in its environment suffi-

cient to justify calling this address a study of salmon psychology. It

is presented with full recognition of its incompleteness and imper-

fections, as a basis for directing attention to a somewhat neglected

aspect of the study of the salmon.

1 Address delivered before the Washington Academy of Sciences, December 17,

1936. Received November 29, 1938.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

Extensive studies on various types of animals have shown the exist-

ence of internal or functional influences and also of external or en-

vironmental influences as controlling or directing factors in animal

activities. Internal influences are undoubtedly as real and as powerful

in fish as in other types of animal life. They are however not discussed

here. The purpose of my early studies has been to ascertain how far

and in what way the activities of the Pacific salmon in fresh water are

determined or modified by external factors. To do this it was neces-

sary to collect by careful and extended study a considerable volume of

facts and then to seek to correlate those facts with environmental

conditions and the life of the fish. It seems probable that some inter-

nal or functional urge impels the adult salmon to start on its migration

to the distant spawning grounds, but its exact course will be deter-

mined by series of environmental influences which at successive points

condition its movements and thus determine its path. Unfortunately

past observations on the fish have often been discontinuous or unre-

lated, and interpretations too largely anthropocentric.

The interpretation of animal activities from the standpoint of hu-

man procedure leads into serious misunderstandings. These are most

apparent as one departs widely from those types of animal life which

most clearly resemble man in structure and development. Nowhere

is the error more frequent and more serious than in the treatment of

the activities of fish. Even at the first laboratory studies on the struc-

ture of fish every student is confronted with the special development

of the central nervous machinery, with the absence of the cerebrum,

or fore brain, and the magnitude of the olfactory lobes. The student

is impressed by the radical difference between the set-up of this sys-

tem and that of man and the higher vertebrates. From it one may

rightly infer that these differences indicate a basis for behavior of sig-

nificantly different type. A correct knowledge of their habits also and

of the underlying basis for their action in particular cases is of primary

importance not only in seeking to explain the biological problems in

the life history but equally in determining laws for the protection of

the fish and proper methods of fish culture to increase numbers and

provide against an excessive draft on the fish population in man’s

search for sport and food.

The study of responses to external stimuli must be made with defi-

nite precautions always in mind. First the environment is complex

and one may find on analysis that the observed reaction may be due

to any one of several stimuli. By extended observation or by experi-

ment these stimuli may be separated or their particular influence

JAN. 15, 1939 WARD! SALMON PSYCHOLOGY 3

be measured. Second, different species or varieties of animals even

though closely related act differently under some apparently identical

conditions. Accordingly the first step towards the solution of the

problem must be taken along the path of determining how one sort

of salmon reacts under given conditions. It is not difficult to see in

certain cases how confusion has arisen because of failure to observe

these precautions.

In the interpretation of salmon activities, a multitude of influences

may appear in a particular choice. One must not expect to find a

single factor determining what may appear to be superficially a single

choice, and the determination of the route chosen by a salmon may

depend at one point upon one and at a second place upon another en-

vironmental condition. In general, the salmon running in a given

stream and at a set time all make the same choice, following a route

in the river system often apparently erratic and without evident

reason for the preferences shown. However, the path taken by a salm-

on run is consistently uniform year after year and spawning grounds

In a given river system are limited in number and location.

The number of elements which might possibly be involved in the

choice of the route is large enough to make the basis for the series of

choices difficult to determine, and some earlier observers have felt

themselves forced to adopt a mystical explanation. However difficult

it may be to solve the problem, the scientist is not justified in accept-

ing this solution. All the experiments with these fish under controlled

conditions and all observations of fish in nature show a definiteness

of choice which may reasonably be considered to have afactual basis.

The problem of the student is to determine this basis in individual

cases and by extended observations to ascertain how widely similar

conditions determine the same reaction.

The salmon ranks rightly as the most famous of all fish. Its life

story manifests a complexity by virtue of its migration from the sea,

which is the home in the active growing life period, to fresh water for

the discharge of its reproductive functions. Some confusion has been

introduced into the story of the salmon as told by different narrators

through the combination of features from the life histories of differ-

ent species of this fish. In this address attention will be directed chiefly

to a single species of Pacific salmon, the sockeye or red salmon, in the

effort to analyze and determine accurately the response of that fish

to the stimuli acting upon it in the changing environments encoun-

tered. The life in the ocean is for the most part unknown. The full

grown fish appear regularly at the surface of the sea near some river

a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

mouth at a given season, enter fresh water streams, ascend to spawn-

ing grounds in the higher reaches, and, after discharging this function,

all die. The eggs spend a winter in the gravel and the young which

hatch in the spring descend gradually to the sea and there disappear,

to return after a period as full-grown adults. The young sockeye does

not start its journey down stream usually until the second or rarely

the third spring.

Following the activities of an adult salmon in this migratory period

of existence, one notes first that from the moment of entering the

stream it is consistently fighting the current, always moving upward

toward its goal. This response to the current stimulus contrasts posi-

tively with that of the young on the way to the sea; not swimming

actively but drifting, feeding and playing, they float somewhat lei-

surely down the stream to salt water. While most young salmon start

promptly down stream, the sockeye regularly does delay one year

or more in a lake.

The adult salmon insistently pursue their course upstream, striving

at rapids and falls to surmount these difficulties, and, despite unsuc-

cessful attempts, persist in their efforts until they make their way

into the higher levels or are exhausted and die. The erection of a bar-

rier across the stream holds them at such a point, striving day and

night to find a way upstream, but never turning back to seek a path-

way in some other waters. When exhausted in their efforts to pass the

barrier, they may drop back into a quiet, deep pool to rest before

renewing their efforts. This may carry them back some distance, per-

haps past a fork in the stream. Foerster records that on the Vedder

River sockeye once started up the wrong stream at the fork when

returning from such a rest. However, they proceeded only a short

distance and finally returned to the fork whereupon they turned into

the right branch, ascending to the barrier and resumed their efforts to

find a way past it.

Incidentally, observations on salmon at barriers and in their efforts

to ascend rapids or jump the falls, demonstrate very clearly that their

course is not determined by sight, but by definite response to the

movements of the water. They may even, when caught in a whirlpool,

jump directly away from the fall. They may attempt to surmount

the obstacle at some point where no passage is available, but by per-

sistent effort or delaying at times for changes of water level, they suc-

ceed at places where, to the observer, success appears Impossible on

account of the height of the fall or the scanty flow of the stream.

On only one occasion have I seen sockeye during an upstream mi-

JAN. 15, 1939 WARD: SALMON PSYCHOLOGY 5

gration turn about and definitely swim down stream. In this instance

closing the gates at a dam higher up on the stream brought about a

sudden drop in water level. Then the salmon caught in a rapids be-

came visibly alarmed by the change in water level, turned about and

darted down stream until they reached a deep pool. Once in deeper

water their excitement subsided; they began to mill around and when

an adequate current was found started once more on the upstream

journey.

When a stream is swollen to an unusual extent the movement of an

upstream migration may be temporarily suspended. Thus extreme

fluctuations of water level either up or down, modify mechanically

the response to the current stimulus but even before the normal water

level is fully restored the adult salmon start again the active dash

upstream.

When the current proves too powerful to be conquered, the salmon

do not go back to try another tributary and seek a new spawning

ground or find an easier approach to the headwaters. They fight the

stream until they perish and the run is destroyed. This was the story

of the sockeye at Hell’s Gate on the Fraser River.

If by drought or some human interference the river flow is cut off,

they linger in pools waiting for the water to come again. If it does,

they start up once more. If it does not, they perish from disease. But

they never turn back!

As the adult sockeye, struggling vigorously and constantly against

the current, swims up stream toward some spawning grounds, its

route is so definitely limited that it has only two occasions for exer-

cising a choice that will determine its pathway and its ultimate des-

tination. First, whenever it reaches a junction, it might follow either

water route offered. Second, it must sometime bring its journey to

an end and choose a spawning ground.

The pattern of a stream system is complex, even though it be only

a system of moderate size like that of the Skagit River in the State of

Washington. Of the numerous possible tributaries into which the

sockeye might conceivably go and of the many lakes and spawning

grounds which might be selected, only a very few are actually visited.

Furthermore the selection is the same year after year, which some

observers have explained on the ground of an instinct; let us consider

briefly the result of studies at such stream junctions. Earlier investi-

gators spent some time in testing physical conditions at many junc-

tions. They found that the sockeye did not choose consistently the

larger stream, the more rapid current, the clearer water, or the re-

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

verse. In other words the choice was not determined by volume, veloc-

ity, turbidity or any other physical factor which they observed.

After having repeated these older observations without securing

any different results, I noticed that in the earlier records statements

regarding temperatures were vague, being entered in the record as

“water warmer,” or even only “‘warmer.”’ Previous studies on fresh

water bodies had involved careful serial observations on temperature

and I was aware of the frequent contrast between conditions in air

and in water. I began to take temperature records of lakes and stream

during the sockeye migrations. Records were made of frequent ob-

servations at stream junctions and in spawning areas. Data were se-

cured under all conditions of season, sunshine, wind, light, cloud,

stream velocity and volume, melting snow and ice, and other factors

that might possibly determine locally in any degree the relative con-

dition of the aquatic environment during, before and after the sockeye

run in certain streams.

Before proceeding to discuss examples of temperature influence, let

me emphasize the fact that temperature limits are not absolute, nor

can they be expressed in figures. There is nothing mathematical in

the situation. It is however a very genuine relation. As in many other

animals the sockeye recognizes a preferred zone of temperature and

doubtless senses optimum, maximum and minimum levels although

studies have not progressed far enough to assign even general numeri-

cal values to these levels. Furthermore the sockeye in one river do

not react favorably to the same temperatures as those which are

found in some other river. In general the sockeye in Alaskan rivers

are acclimatized to a set of lower temperature levels than those in a

Washington State river. Too few rivers have been studied to establish

the conditions in many salmon streams or to justify attempts at

generalization. Only brief reference can be made here to instances

which with others are fully discussed elsewhere. |

My own observations have shown definitely that in a considerable

series of cases where the branches of a stream differ in water tempera-

ture, the salmon universally chooses the one which has the lower

temperature. This is in keeping with a long accepted general belief

that not only the salmon, but other fish belonging to the same family,

are fond of the colder waters. In some cases the migrating salmon

show equal definiteness of choice at junctions where no appreciable

or constant difference in the temperature of the two streams could be

demonstrated. Such a choice is evidently conditioned by some yet

undetermined factor. Thus far no instance has been found in which

JAN. 15, 1939 WARD: SALMON PSYCHOLOGY i

the migrating salmon at a stream junction have chosen the branch

exhibiting at the time of choice a higher temperature than the branch

which was not followed; but this statement itself is conditioned by

another factor, namely, the quality of the water in question.

Migrating salmon have been observed to pass by without hesitation

a tributary, branch, or side stream in which the character of the water

was well indicated by its name of Sulphur Creek. A change in the

course of the headwaters of Sulphur Creek which eliminated the ob-

jectionable feature and left the water clear and cold resulted in divert-

ing salmon from the ancient course into the modified waters of this

creek, as it was now pure and lower in temperature than the stream

the salmon left. Undoubtedly, other factors than water quality do

determine the precise choice of migrating fish at stream intersections.

The second opportunity for choice in the fresh water life of the

salmon is afforded at the end of this journey upstream. For the sock-

eye this upstream journey usually stops in a lake in or near which

are the spawning grounds. In the deeper water of the lake they rest,

it may be for some weeks, until they are ripe and the time for spawn-

ing is reached. To reach this point the sockeye sometimes without

stopping pass through a lake in the course of the stream. I have not

been able to study conditions in such lakes. The lake in which they

finally come to rest offers cool deep water as a resting place during the

ripening of the fish. When the sex cells are close to maturity the fish

rise out of the deep water and find gravel beds for spawning. These

are at points along the lake shore, in the inflowing stream just above

the lake or in the outflowing stream near the outlet. Here, again, it

is sometimes evident at least, that a selection is made of areas in

which the seepage of ground water or the inflow from a colder tribu-

tary affords an attractive temperature and at the same time the type

of gravel bottom selected for the nest of the fish. In northern latitudes

this is an interesting and important choice, since by it the salmon

nests are made in seepage waters which do not entirely freeze during

the winter, but are kept open by the flow of the ground water. When

the fish restrained by an artificial barrier in the stream are prevented

from reaching spawning grounds and forced through advancing ripen-

Ing to release eggs and milt in unsuitable areas, these consistently

perish in the long cold winter of extreme northern locations, but eggs

of the same fish, normally deposited in higher reaches of the same

stream not less subject to adverse atmospheric conditions, survive

and yield a new brood in the spring.

The definiteness with which the salmon responds to the temperature

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

stimulus in finding spawning places is strikingly illustrated in ob-

servations I made in Clear Creek, a tributary of the Copper River

in Alaska. The fish under observation were red salmon which, as

Jordan, Gilbert, and others state of this species, “always spawn in a

lake.” These observations I have recorded in full in an earlier paper.

At the time of my visit salmon were found entering the stream from

the Copper River, scooping out nests and spawning along the banks ~

of the creek. Clear Creek does not now have any lake at any place in

its course, nor has it any indication of having had a lake at any earlier

period. At its junction with the river Clear Creek at the time of my

visit was two degrees Fahrenheit lower than the river. The salmon

turned into it promptly; the region in which they were spawning was

much colder than the stream further up; it was also an area in which

a good supply of cold ground water was welling up into the stream

through a sand and gravel bottom. No salmon were going upstream

beyond this point; neither salmon nor evidence of previous spawning

was found beyond that point. The fish fail here to spawn in a lake,

the general habit of the species, but they conform definitely in the

response to the temperature stimulus given elsewhere.

But other environmental conditions probably aid the salmon in

finding its way to the spawning grounds. The sockeye were found to

be sensitive in some instances to the quality of the water, as in the

case of Sulphur Creek previously mentioned. At another place they

refused to enter a trap built of new green boards, though indifferent

to a similar adjacent trap of seasoned concrete. Other observations

also serve to show the existence of ability to discriminate on the basis

of chemical sense (taste, smell).

Sight plays a secondary role, in general, in the activities of fish.

The eye is conspicuously rounded and myopic. While this is partial

compensation for the density of the medium in which fish live, the

eyes are not accurate in interpreting objects. The lures of the fisher-

man when effectively handled lead the fish to grasp at them or jump

for them on the basis of position on the surface, movement, form, or

color of a character known in other more desirable objects. The lure

creates a transient impression by some feature that produces a par-

ticular effect and not by its actual resemblance to the object sought by

the fish.

In the choice of the migration route and in the success of the sock-

eye’s journey, sight plays an exceedingly minor part. At a rapids

where the salmon seeks by jumping to attain a higher level, it often

jumps into a closed pool, onto a bare rock surface, or into a tangle of

JAN. 15, 1939 WARD: SALMON PSYCHOLOGY 9

shore plants from which it may extricate itself by aimless floundering

about, or where it may become trapped and perish. It will jump end-

lessly at a fence erected to barricade the stream or swim back and

forth incessantly seeking an opening large enough for its exit when no

jump can top the fence and no search can find an opening.

The migration route cannot even be generally directed by memory

or persistence of past images. To be sure in many cases, perhaps in

most, the adult fish ascends the same stream which in early life it de-

scended to the sea. But as already noted the young fish going down-

stream plays along near the shore; the adult swims strenuously in

deeper water on its way up the same river. The two pathways are

separated by a distance greater than the range of sight. Even if floods

have not intervened and produced radical alterations, the river chan-

nel and banks have changed every season and with that all the fea-

tures with which the young fish had come in contact. Whatever aids

sense perception gives in determining the way upstream, they are

not furnished by the organs of sight.

The influence of light on migration movements of the sockeye is

important to consider. In my observations the adults were not found

to continue the upstream migration during hours of complete dark-

ness but to rest in deeper holes or in eddies. With the coming of dawn

they began to move upstream and in a brief time were vigorously

combatting the current and jumping at falls. Later in the morning

this activity diminished and ceased on sunlit days, though in cloudy

weather it was manifested intermittently during the midday hours.

As the sun declined the sockeye again became active and continued

through the twilight hours. The period of activity seemed to be

limited to the time of diffused illumination and to terminate when the

direct rays of the sun were no longer totally reflected from the surface

of the water. When in the late afternoon conditions were changed

again, then the fish were once more active until the twilight period

came to an end.

Some situations are difficult to analyze. Thus, the effect of a heavy

rain is seen clearly and very promptly and has been witnessed and

recorded by many observers, both on the Atlantic and on the Pacific

coast. During a spell of dry weather, which usually is also warm

weather, salmon which are at the mouth of a river or have started up,

loiter about in deeper pools and appear to have lost the desire to

fight the stream. Even a moderate rise in the stream as the result

of rain promptly arouses the activity of the fish and they shoot ahead

vigorously. Here the stimulation may be due to volume, temperature,

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

or quality of the water. The first-named cause seems least likely be-

cause salmon in nature frequently leave a stream of large volume to

continue the migration in one much smaller. But salmon like cooler

waters such as one finds in streams after a rainstorm; then also they

have fresher waters and changed relations of O2. and CO, tension.

This situation is only apparently modified in Alaska where warm

sunny weather means rapid melting of ice and snow on nearby moun-

tains. Thereupon the streams carry promptly a daily flood of cold

water and the sockeye go up eagerly. This evidences that they also

are keen at this period of life to follow the taste of fresh river water.

Perhaps both stimuli here favor rapid action. In the complex environ-

ment of nature many other factors still remain to be investigated be-

fore it is possible to complete the list of the responses which the adult

salmon makes to the conditions met during the migration to the

spawning grounds.

Concerning the young salmon on its way to the sea, little need be

said. There is no choice except to go or not to go, and the movements

of the young fish in the downstream direction are slow and apparently

hesitating. Young sockeye do not leave the lake in or near which they

were hatched until the second spring or even later. As they proceed

downstream they feed and play in the small eddies along the shore,

dropping occasionally from one level to another as if disinclined to

make the venture. But they go over the spillway of a dam involving a

descent of 240 feet in just the same way that they drop down a 6-inch

step in the rapids. Their vacillating movements contrast sharply with

the vigorous striving of the adult to make the ascent of the river. In

lakes or reservoirs met on the journey the young keep near the shore;

when affected by rising temperature of surface waters they descend

into deeper water to find a cooler environment and become trapped

by the surface stratum of warmer water which blankets the lake and

cuts off access to the outflowing stream. Here in the lake or reservoir

they remain “‘land-locked,” cut off from further downstream migra-

tion since that can only be carried out if they desert the cool, deeper

water levels to enter a warmer current. And that they will not do.

So here again is seen the response of the salmon to a temperature

stimulus. Those young sockeye which find their way open and reach

the sea, disappear in the deeper waters, and thereby pass out of the

freshwater region to which this account was to be limited.

These observations show only imperfectly the influences which

direct the migration of the adult salmon in the period of its freshwater

existence. Further determination of factors or of the extent to which

JAN. 15, 1939 WARD: SALMON PSYCHOLOGY 11

those illustrated are operative, must await further studies, but from

these one may conclude that at least one current belief is not tenable.

The fisherman stoutly avers that the adult salmon returns to the

very gravels in which it was spawned and hatched, and this view,

designated as the ‘‘parent stream theory,” is widely held by others.

But after all, this is no explanation in any sense; it is at most only

a convenient expression to conceal lack of knowledge concerning the

real situation. At best it assumes the inheritance of a vague, indeter-

minable influence which does just the right thing at just the correct

time to enable the young salmon to find their way from the river

mouth to some suitable feeding grounds in the ocean and when the

time of maturity is near at hand to retrace their steps to a place

known to be fitting for spawning because these particular fish were

spawned and started life at that point. A view so indefinite, so

loaded with assumptions and so mystical in character, can hardly

serve the purposes of scientific investigation however convenient and

appealing it may be.

Some of the difficulties in accepting this view deserve at least brief

mention here. The correctness of the assumption that the salmon re-

turn to a parent stream is at least still open to question. Time does

not permit an extended discussion here of the proofs thus far offered.

It is my intention to present at a later date a fuller analysis of the

various observations and experiments which have been put on record.

In my opinion they are not conclusive. While they show that some

salmon do conform to the assumption, it is equally certain I think,

that all do not. The positive evidence secured has been unduly em-

phasized and the defects in the proof overlooked. The number of sal-

mon that have been marked or tagged in numerous experiments is

very large; the percentage of such that have been recaptured is too

small to justify the claim that the record is “‘conclusive evidence.”

Let me illustrate what I mean.

A serious-minded student stands at the entrance of a great indus-

trial plant and watches 10,000 employees pour out and swarm down

the road which leads to the city. By skill he marks 500 of these and

his assistant located at the entrance to an amusement resort on the

other side of the metropolis recognizes 10 of the marked men and wo-

men entering the resort some hours later. He thinks there were more

who passed unnoticed in the crush at the gates he was watching. No

one else has noticed any of the marked workers going anywhere else.

What conclusion may be reached properly from such data? In their

major factors the two cases are strikingly similar and also equally

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

alike in proving nothing about the habits of fish or men. The same

misuse of results from a type of random sampling led a prominent

news service into ludicrous and serious error in a political campaign

not many years ago.

Apparently no one has yet given attention to the non-conforming

element. It is hardly satisfactory to dismiss the case with the state-

ment that sometimes an erratic or abnormal salmon may turn up in

the wrong place. The number of such strays is too large to be thus

summarily discarded and given no further consideration. Certainly an

answer must be sought to some questions which suggest themselves.

How large is the part which does not return? Where does this fraction

go? What influences that fraction, be it large or small, to go to a new

spawning ground and do violence to the inborn, mystical compulsion

which the parent stream theory assumes? These questions are diff-

cult to answer. I have felt that some light might be thrown upon the

situation by study of the fish in a simple environment, and that is

during the part of the life cycle spent in fresh water.

From evidence already published and also outlined in this paper,

I feel that there is more reason to believe that in its progress upstream

the adult follows a highway through the waters which is marked out

from point to point by signs as definite as those which determine for

us our course along a road. The highway signs that mark the way

through the waters are indicated by temperature, quality of the

water, or other physical and chemical features that yield responses

as definite as those which we find the fish manifesting under controlled

conditions in experimental tanks. The stream which the salmon as-

cends is not necessarily a home stream, nor is the course of the fish

determined by previous knowledge of these waters. The adult seeking

the spawning grounds goes upward by constraint along a fixed route

and the young wander downstream following necessarily the same

course to reach inevitably the waters of the ocean, in which they find

conditions for life and growth to maturity.

No assumed mystical impulse makes them go back to a specific

place because of their relation to that at the start of their existence.

They do, perhaps usually, return to that place because like their an-

cestors they react in a specific way to the stimuli they encounter on

the journey. But they do this only so long as the conditions they meet

on the journey remain unchanged. To characterize the situation as

due to a parent stream theory is to adopt an empyrical conclusion

with all the errors and limitations of empyrical findings. It is to aban-

don the search for a scientific basis and to lose the greater power over

JAN. 15, 1939 WARD: SALMON PSYCHOLOGY 13

changing conditions which knowledge of controlling influences will

give. If the salmon have been shifted to a new environment or if by

any disturbing influences the environmental conditions of the old

route have been changed, they go to some other place, a new goal de-

termined by the newly created conditions which they meet. To those

new conditions they react in the manner determined by their nerve

pattern and not by the ancestral relation to any geographic locality.

No one should lose sight of the fact that even in our rivers and on

our coasts natural conditions are changing and these changes give

opportunity for distribution of a species into new areas as well as

for the origin of possible new species. Some efforts have been made

already to explain on such a basis the origin of the Pacific salmon and

their wide distribution along the coastal areas of the northern Pacific.

A recent species, geologically speaking, its origin may be associated

with the period of continental glaciation when it spawned along the

shore at the foot of the glaciers. As these ice fields slowly receded it

followed up the resulting water courses to find its spawning grounds

near the source of the stimulating cold freshwater run-off from the

glaciers.

Different species of Pacific salmon do not respond in the same

manner to the same stimuli. One conspicuous instance of this has

been mentioned: the sockeye young usually tarry over one winter in

a lake. Other species of Pacific salmon go more or less promptly down

the river from the place they were hatched into salt water and disap-

pear. In variable periods the different species reappear as full grown

fish and start upon the freshwater period of their existence. It would

be interesting to follow the precise story of these other species of

Pacific and Atlantic salmon on the coasts and in the streams of North

America. Accounts by older and more recent students of the problem

give many details of these stories. The accounts manifest general

similarity though differing in details just as the structure of all these

forms exhibits a general likeness despite the particular differences also

recorded. In both series are to be found evidences of the past that

deserve closer attention.

_ Finally, to make the story complete, the record of the sockeye’s

life in the ocean must be studied from the same point of view as that

taken in the account of its freshwater existence which has just been

reviewed. One can hardly doubt that similar environmental stimuli

affect it; namely, current, temperature, quality of water, etc. But

how does it react? Where do these controlling influences lead it and

what brings it, after a period of active growth, back to the shore?

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

What leads it to enter some river and seek a spawning ground? Surely,

not a blind instinct or some inscrutable impulse. In the sea environ-

mental conditions are more variable and change violently and sud-

denly. Periodically storms modify currents; schools of fish are broken

up and scattered widely. Even under generally favorable conditions

only 20 or rarely 40% of tagged fish have made the short journey to

the places where keen-eyed watchers were waiting for them. Why did

this marvelous instinct fail them? Is it not more reasonable to suppose

that in shifting waters some were brought into new environmental

conditions. In these they responded naturally to the same stimuli that

had led their ancestors for unnumbered generations. But those stim-

uli under the changed conditions lead them to a new goal. Complex

as the ocean is, one finds there the same environmental stimuli, me-

chanical, physical, or chemical, that are in fresh water, and these

guide the salmon to some suitable stream for the last phase in its

life cycle.

The address was illustrated by a series of lantern slides and figures made

from photographs of conditions in nature taken in the course of studies in

the field, and by maps of the regions covered. Some further detailed ex-

planations were presented in connection with slides and maps as shown.

PALEONTOLOGY.—A fossil catfish (Felichthys stauroforus) from

the Maryland Miocene. W. GARDNER Lynn and A. M. MEL-

LAND, Johns Hopkins University. (Communicated by C. Lewis

GAZIN.)

A well-preserved skull taken from Zone 12 of the Calvert Formation

of the Miocene about three miles south of Plum Point, Maryland,

proves to be that of a marine catfish congeneric with the Recent

gaff-topsail fish, Felichthys felis. This specimen provides the first

record of a siluroid from these deposits and indeed appears to be the

only complete skull of a fossil marine catfish yet known from North

America.

The catfishes (Order Nematognathi) fall into some twenty-five

families, most of the members of which inhabit freshwater streams

and lakes. However, one large family, the Ariidae, contains about

forty-five estuarine and marine genera, which are widely distributed

in tropical and sub-tropical regions. The Nematognathi are repre-

sented but scantily in fossil records for, although a considerable num-

ber of fossil species have been described, the remains upon which most

of them are based are too fragmentary to permit of any accurate de-

1 Received November 18, 1938.

JAN. 15, 1939 LYNN AND MELLAND: FOSSIL CATFISH 15

termination of their relations. The greater number of the fossil forms

are known from the otoliths alone; others are represented by isolated

fin spines or vertebrae; only a few well-preserved crania have ever

been found.

In Europe, fossil members of the Nematognathi are known from

deposits ranging from Lower Eocene to Pliocene and have been re-

corded from England, France, Belgium, Germany, Hungary, and

Italy. Fossil catfishes have also been reported from the Middle Eocene

of Sumatra, from the Miocene of Brazil, and from the Miocene of

India. The literature pertaining to these records is to be found in

Woodward’s ‘‘Catalogue of the Fossil Fishes in the British Museum’’

(1901) and has been adequately reviewed by Leriche (1901). It

therefore need not be discussed at length here.

In North America, the group is very poorly represented. Hay

(1929) lists only twelve species of catfishes which have been described

from deposits of the North American continent. Five of these have

been assigned to the Recent genus Ameiurus, a freshwater group

belonging to the family Ameiuridae. Since these freshwater forms

differ rather widely from the marine catfishes it is not necessary to

discuss them in connection with the present specimen. The other

seven species were all described by E. D. Cope who erected for them

a new genus, Rhineastes. The remains upon which these species are

based are extremely fragmentary, consisting of small portions of skull

plates, isolated fin-spines and otoliths. Nevertheless, they are suff-

ciently complete to indicate clearly that the genus belongs among the

sea-catfishes so it has been assigned to the family Ariidae by Jordan

(1923). Pertinent information is given in the following list:

RK. arcuatus Cope 1873. Mid. Eoc. (Bridger) Wyo. Type, U.S.N.M. No.

3985. Spine and fragments.

k. caluus Cope 1873. Mid. Eoc. (Bridger) Wyo. Type, U.S.N.M. No.

30980. Fragments of cranium, dorsal spine.

R. pectinatus Cope 1874. Mioc. (Florissant) Colo. Type, U.S.N.M. No.

4086. Head and anterior part of skeleton.

R. peltatus Cope 1872. Mid. Eoc. (Bridger) Wyo. Type, U.S.N.M. No.

3984. Occipital-parietal bone and dorsal spine.

R. radulus Cope 1873. Mid. Eoc. (Bridger) Wyo. Type, U.S.N.M. No.

— 4099. Fragments of skull.

R. rhaeas Cope 1891. Oligoc. (Assiniboia) Canada. Abdominal vertebra.

R. smithii Cope 1872. Mid. Eoc. (Bridger) Wyo. Type, U.S.N.M. No.

3977. Basi-occipital, vertebrae, pectoral spine and articular of mandible.

The type specimens of R. rhaeas are figured by Cope (1891) and

those of all the other species have been figured by Cope (1884). Ex-

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. I

amination of these figures and of the types themselves reveals the

reason for the great difficulty which has been encountered in attempt-

ing properly to diagnose the genus and as Eastman (1917) remarks,

‘How closely Rhineastes, from the Green River Eocene, agrees struc-

turally with modern species of siluroids cannot be determined, as it is

known only by fragmentary remains.’ In any case, as will be shown,

the present specimen shows such well-marked affinities with the mod-

ern genus Felichthys, that we have no hesitation in referring it thereto.

BAe

Fig. 1.—Felichthys stauroforus, n. sp. Skull, type specimen, U.S.N.M. No.

15746. a, ventral aspect. 6, dorsal aspect. c, lateral aspect. All views X@.

Felichthys stauroforus, sp. nov.

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 15746. A nearly complete skull and the left utricu-

lar otolith from the same specimen.

JAN. 15, 1939 LYNN AND MELLAND: FOSSIL CATFISH 7

Type locality —Zone 12, Calvert formation of the Miocene, three miles

south of Plum Point, Maryland.

Description of skull. —As may be seen from the figures (la, 1b) the most

important deficiency in this specimen is the absence of the most anterior

skull bones; the ethmoid, prefrontals, premaxillae and vomer. The right

post-temporal and the posterior portion of the supraoccipital have also been

lost. All the other bones are practically intact and have suffered no notice-

sa ‘tie

--74-pterotic

supra occipital-—- = Ay

peel ae phencti ra

F ental ---f-.--

: scale bone Se

Mw pew v

Fig. 2.—Felichthys stauroforus, n. sp. Dorsal aspect of skull

showing outlines of bones. X#.

able distortion. The sutures of the dorsal surface are well-marked and reveal

the outlines of the various plates to be as shown in figure 2. The frontals,

which form the anterior part of the specimen as preserved, narrow pos-

teriorly and are separated at their hinder extremities by the narrow anterior

projection of the supraoccipital. Two frontal fontanelles are present; the

anterior, elongate one measuring 32 mm. The sphenotics which contact the

posterior lateral borders of the frontal are rather large and take part in the

formation of the lateral edge of the skull. They are in relation with the

frontals, the supraoccipital and the pterotics. Their lower surfaces bear

prominent arched ridges bordering deep depressions, the points of attach-

ment for the hyomandibular. The pterotics, which lie behind the sphenotics,

articulate medially with the supraoccipital and posteriorly with paired bones

which apparently represent the ‘‘scale bones’’ figured by Gregory (1933) in

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

Chrysichthys. Laterally the pterotic forms a part of the lateral border of the

skull but, at its posterior lateral end, articulates by a blunt process with an

anterior process of the post-temporal. Since the scale bone which lies behind

the pterotic articulates similarly with a posterior process of the post-tem-

poral, a foramen bordered by the pterotic, scale bone and post-temporal is

formed in the posterior lateral portion of the skull. This foramen measures

9mm by 5 mm. In the under side of the skull the post-temporal articulates

by a long bar of bone with the basioccipital. The supraoccipital, which con-

tacts all the bones above described except the post-temporal, has a thin

anterior projection between the two frontals and its lateral margins are in-

dented by a series of curves where the plate is united with the frontals,

a Gs Cc

Fig. 3.—Felichthys stauroforus, n. sp. Left utricular otolith. a, inner

surface. b, outer surface. c, diagrammatic section.

sphenotics, pterotics and scale bones. The hinder portion of the supra-

occipital is missing but the bone evidently narrowed posteriorly. There is

a prominent crest in the mid-line of the posterior half of this bone, but an-

terior to this is the beginning of the deep median depression in which lie the

frontal fontanelles.

The dorsal surfaces of all the skull bones are ornamented with rounded

projections which are arranged in definite rows, the individual projections

in each row being connected by a low ridge. These rows of projections tend

to radiate from the centers of the bones toward the edges. Crossing the scale

bone, the pterotic and the sphenotic are rather ill-defined grooves which

may indicate the courses of the lateral line canals.

On the under surface of the skull the sutures are ill-defined and slight

crushing of the otic region on the left side makes exact description of the

bones of this region difficult. The cruciform structure formed by the basi-

occipital and parasphenoid and the ventral processes of the post-temporals,

which is a distinctive characteristic of the skull of the Ariidae and which

has been most interestingly discussed and figured by Gudger (1925), is a

striking feature in this specimen and suggests the specific name stauroforus

(cross bearing). At the posterior end of the skull a portion of the mass of

bone formed by coalescence of the centra of the anterior vertebrae is pre-

served. This is fused anteriorly with the basioccipital, the point of fusion

being marked by a large, rounded ventral projection. Immediately anterior

to this is a foramen leading into the centra of these vertebrae. The ventral

process of the post-temporal articulates with the basioccipital just anterior

to this foramen. Only that of the left side is preserved. The otic capsules,

which house the large otoliths, lie laterally in this region. The deep de-

pressions in the ventral sides of the sphenotics for attachment of the hyo-

mandibular lie anteriorly to the otic capsules. In front of these the skull

broadens to a fan-shaped mass, made up of the parasphenoid and the under

sides of the frontals.

JAN. 15, 1939 LYNN AND MELLAND: FOSSIL CATFISH 19

The skull, as preserved, has a maximum length of 1389 mm and a maxi-

mum width of 84 mm. Since figure 2 is drawn to scale it is unnecessary to

give complete measurements of the individual bones.

Description of otolith.—Since the otoliths of the fishes frequently furnish

reliable diagnostic characters it seemed advisable to attempt to recover the

otoliths in this specimen. A narrow break already present in the right wall

of the cranium made it possible to clear away some of the matrix inside the

brain case without injury to the skull. Fortunately the otoliths were found

to be present and the left one was removed practically intact. The right

otolith has been left within the skull.

In studying this otolith extensive use has been made of Frost’s (1925)

excellent descriptions and figures. The specimen is of large size (14 mm long

and 12 mm high) and agrees with Frost’s description of the utricular otoliths

of the Ariidae in being conchoidal and biconvex. The inner surface (figure

3a) is rugose with a number of concentric ridges. A posterior process with a

slight indentation is present but it has been damaged. The anterior process

is rounded. The dorsal rim of otolith is rounded while the ventral rim is

truncated posteriorly and indented slightly just behind one of the strong,

radiating ridges. The outer surface (figure 3b) has a roughened band along

the entire ventral rim with a broad, recurved projection just behind the

middle. The rest of this surface represents the smooth sulcal area. The

outer surface (figure 3c) is much less convex than the inner. Comparison of

this otolith with Frost’s figures for members of various families of the

Nematognathi immediately confirms the identification of the present speci-

men as belonging to the Ariidae, for the otoliths in this family are easily

distinguishable from those of other siluroids by their large size, their form

and the shape and location of the sulcal area. Moreover, among the species

considered by Frost the otoliths of Felichthys marinus are definitely closest

to the present specimen.

The association of this fossil with the genus Felichthys on the basis of skull

characters is thus confirmed by the structure of the otolith.

As has been pointed out, only a very few well-preserved skulls of fossil

catfishes have ever been reported. One of these, however, that of Buck-

landium diluvit, is especially noteworthy as being the earliest true siluroid

known. This specimen from the London Clay (Lower Eocene) of Sheppey,

was first figured by Konig (1825) who regarded it as representing a lizard.

Morris (1843) later recognized its piscine nature, but it was not until 1889

that Woodward assigned it to the siluroids. Jordan (1923) places the genus

Bucklandium in the family Bagridae. A skull from the Upper Eocene of

Barton has been described and figured by Newton (1889) who refers it to

the fossil species Arius crassus, a form previously known only from the

otoliths. This specimen is sufficiently complete to be comparable with the

_ skull described in this paper, from which it differs in the absence of the

posterior frontal fontanelle, the absence of the post-temporal vacuity and

the shape of the supraoccipital.

Ameiurus primaevus, described by Eastman (1917) is perhaps the best

known of all the fossil catfishes, since it is represented by a nearly complete

skeleton. The origin of this specimen is unknown, though the nature of the

matrix indicates that it came from the Green River Eocene of Wyoming.

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

It is unfortunate that the relations of Felichthys stauroforus with the only

other known fossil Ariidae from North America, those of the genus Rhine-

astes, cannot be ascertained. However, the fact that in Rhzneastes the frontal

fontanelle is completely closed, may be taken to indicate that the relation-

ship is not close.

The present-day members of the genus Felzchthys are predominantly sub-

tropical in distribution. Felichthys felis, according to Gudger (1916) “ranges

as far north as Cape Cod, but is especially common along the South Atlantic

and Gulf coasts where it is abundant in brackish waters, for which it seems

to have a predilection.”’ Eigenmann and EKigenmann (1890) state that it is

found along the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Rio de Janeiro. Maryland

is thus included in the present range of the genus, but it appears to be most

common further south. In view of this distribution of the modern repre-

sentatives of the group, this record of Felichthys from the Maryland Miocene

may be an addition to the gradually accumulating evidence, which has been

recently discussed by Collins and Lynn (1936), that the temperatures in

Maryland during the Miocene were somewhat higher than they are today.

LITERATURE CITED

Couutns, R. L. and Lynn, W.G. Fossil turtles from Maryland. Proc. Amer. Philos.

Soc. 76: 151-174. 1936.

Corr, E. D. Notices of new Vertebrata from the upper waters of Bitter Creek, Wyoming

territory. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 12: 483-486. 1872.

—— Qn the extinct Vertebrata of the Eocene of Wyoming, observed by the expedition of

1872, with notes on the geology. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr. for 1872, 6th Ann. Rept.,

545-649. 1873.

Supplementary notices of fishes from the freshwater Tertvaries of the Rocky Moun-

tains. Bull. U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. of the Terrs. 1: 49-51. 1874.

—— The Vertebrata of the Tertiary formations of the West. Book I. Rept. U.S. Geol.

Surv. of the Terrs. 3: 1-1009. 1884.

—— On Vertebrata from the Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks of the Northwest Territory.

I. The species from the Oligocene or Lower Miocene beds of the Cypress Hills. Geol.

Surv. Canada, Contr. to Canadian Pal. 3: 1-25. 1891.

Eastman, C. R. Fossil fishes in the collection of the United States National Museum.

Proc. U.S.N.M. 52: 235-304. 1917.

E1cEnMANN, C. H. and Ergenmann, R.S. A revision of the South American Nematog-

nathi or catfishes. Occ. Papers, Cal. Acad. of Sci. 1: 1-508. 1890.

Frost, G. A. A comparative study of the otoliths of the Neopterygian Fishes (con-

tinued) [II B Ostariophyst]. Ann. & Mag. of Nat. Hist. (9) 16: 433-446. 1925.

Grecory, W. K. Fish skulls, a study of the evolution of natural mechanisms. ‘Trans.

Amer. Philos. Soc., n.s. 23: 75-481. 1933.

Gupcsr, E. W. The gaff-topsail (Felichthys felis), a sea catfish that carries its eggs in

its mouth. Zoologica, N. Y. Zool. Soc. 2: 125-158. 1916.

The crucifix in the catfish skull. Nat. Hist. 25: 371-380. 1925.

Hay, O. P. Second bibliography and catalogue of the fossil vertebrates of North America

Carnegie Inst. Wash., publ. no. 390, 1: 1-916. 1929.

Jorpan, D.S. A classification of fishes, including families and genera as far as known.

Stan. Univ. Publ. Univ. Serv. Biol. Sci. 3: 79- 248. 1928.

Konia, C. Icones Fossilium Sectiles. Fol. London. 1825.

LericHEe, M. Contribution a4 Vétude des siluridés fossilies. Ann. Soc. Géol. Nord 30:

165-175. 1901.

Morris, J. A catalogue of British fossils. London. 1843.

Newton, E. T. A contribution to the history of Eocene siluroid fishes. Proce. Zool.

Soc., London, 1889, 201-207. 1889.

Woopwarp, A. 8. Note on Bucklandium diluvii, Koenig, a siluroid fish from the Lon-

don Clay of Sheppy. Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1889, 208-210. 1889.

—— Catalogue of the fossil fishes in the British Museum of Natural History. 4. 1901.

JAN. 15, 1939 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS GASTROPODS 21

PALEONTOLOGY .—Certain pleurotomarud gastropods from the

Carboniferous of New Mexico and Texas.1 GrorcEe H. Grirry,

U. 8. Geological Survey.

I. TAOSIA, A NEW GENUS OF HIGH-SPIRED PLEUROTOMARIAS

WITH COMMENTS ON TAOSIA COPEI WHITE

The genus TJ'aosza is based on Murchisonia coper White of which

the original specimens were found near Taos, New Mexico, hence the

new name.

Taosia possesses a combination of characters not found in any pleu-

rotomarioid shell known to me. Indeed, my ever-helpful and erudite

friend, J. Brookes Knight, tells me that he had independently marked

down Murchisonia copet as typifying a new genus though he has

generously yielded me the privilege of describing it. The following

characters should be noted:

The long, slender shape; the large number of volutions (possibly as many

as 15); the shape of the whorl, which is angulated about midway so that the

external surface is sharply differentiated into two zones; the overlap of the

whorls to a line well below the carina so that the spire is flanged like a screw;

the position of the slitband, midway in the upper zone instead of on the

carina; the wide slitband and short slit; the shell composed of two layers;

the solid axis without even a false umbilicus; the very tenuous inner lip; the

all but complete absence of sculpture. This last statement contemplates a

distinction between sculpture and configuration. The carina would come

under the head of configuration; the two raised lines which form the boun-

daries of the slitband would be structural; the delicate lines of growth are

not in any true sense sculpture, and the only feature under that head would

be the single revolving line on the lower surface.

Taosia is very similar to Goniasma in configuration (for example figures

15 to 19), but aside from numerous less significant differences it is distin-

guished by the position of the slitband which in Taosia is situated above the

carina midway on the upper surface of the volution, but in Gonzasma is

situated just below the carina on the lower surface. From Lophospira also

Taosia is distinguished by the position of the slitband which is situated not

on the carina but above it and it is likewise distinguished by its imperforate

axis, by the absence of revolving lirae (on the type species at least) and by

other characters.

Taosia copet, though it has never been cited since its original description

in 1881, at least in descriptive literature, is not by any means a rare species.

I have collected it myself at Taos where it was originally found; it is fairly

common in the McCoy formation in Colorado from which specimens were

sent to me by I. A. Keyte and it is rather abundant in rocks identified as

the Magdalena limestone and exposed in the western foothills of the Frank-

1 Published by permission of the Director, Geological Survey, U. S. Department of

the Interior. Received August 29, 1938.

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

lin Mountains north of El Paso. The specimens from the Franklin Mountains

are not only abundant but in a better state of preservation than those that

I have seen from the other localities. I have figured several of them to illus-

trate the genus and have based the subjoined comments on Taosia copei

upon them. The rocks at Taos from which T’. copez was described are, I

believe, regarded as Magdalena limestone.

Toasia copei White Figs. 1-7

White’s description which accurately covers the salient characters

of Taosia cope: may advantageously be quoted at this point, espe-

cially as the species has never appeared in descriptive literature since

it was established in 1881.? |

‘Shell slender, apical angle 20° to 25°; full number of volutions apparently

about fifteen, all strongly angulated, the angle being more or less distinctly

carinated; carina not crenulate; angle situated nearer to the proximal than

the distal border of the volutions; spiral band occupying the middle of the

outer flattened side of the volutions, of moderate width, inconspicuous, and

bordered on each of its sides by a raised line; the remainder of the outer

surface of the volutions marked only by fine lines of growth; the proximal

side of the last volution marked by one distinct revolving raised line near

the carina.”

“Length of adult shells from 25 to 30 millimeters.”

T. copei is very abundant in my collections from the Franklin Mountains

and many of the specimens are in an excellent state of preservation, though

none has been observed that is not broken at the apical end and also at the

aperture. Observations based on this material enable me to add some charac-

ters to those noted by White. His description allows the apical angle a varia-

tion of from 20 to 25 degrees; this is true of the common run of specimens

but would hardly cover the extremes. The species attains a size considerably

greater than that of the types. The final volution may have a diameter as

great as 15 mm and an individual of that size is estimated to have been

as long as 40 mm.

If specimens the size of the types consist of about 15 volutions, these

larger specimens should probably be credited with about two more. The

number given in the original description, however, seems to be excessive.

The larger of the two types apparently comprises not more than 6 volutions;

it is hardly conceivable that 9 volutions are lacking from the broken spire,

and only a few volutions can be added at the proximal end if the length of

a mature specimen is but 30 mm. Specimens in the present collection, for

instance the one represented by figure 2, support the doubt expressed above.

This specimen is very similar to the larger type, but is slightly less incom-

plete. Not more than half a volution is missing at the aperture where the

shell has a diameter of 10 mm. The diameter at the broken apex is 2 mm

and the actual length 24 mm. The number of volutions is 7. With an allow-

ance for breakage the original length may be reckoned as 30 mm and with

an allowance for the broken aperture the number of volutions except for

2 WuitsE, C. A. U.S. Geol. Survey West of the 100th Merid. 3 (suppl., Appendix):

XXXI, pl. 3, figs. 10a, b. 1881.

JAN. 15, 1939 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS GASTROPODS 23

those missing in the spire, may be reckoned as 8. It does not seem likely

that 7 volutions are missing from the spire, or in other words that the shell,

at a diameter of 2 mm, had accomplished 7 volutions.

The most conspicuous surface feature is of course the carina which on the

final volution is situated somewhat below the middle but on the turns of the

spire much below the middle. The screw-like shape of the spire is a notable

feature of most specimens but the flange of the screw is unsymmetrical,

short and strongly oblique on the lower side, long and more gently oblique

on the upper. Some variation in shape is occasioned by variation in the

direction and in the width of the narrow zone below the carina.

The upper part of the volution, from the carina to the suture above, is

essentially flat or faintly concave; rarely faintly convex. It is traversed by

two slender raised lines which divide it into three zones of approximately

equal width though the upper zone is commonly somewhat wider than the

others. The middle zone, which is of course the slit band, varies considerably

in width and this entails a variation in the relative widths of all three zones.

A third raised line occurs on the lower surface of the volutions. The zone

contained between this line and the carina is about equal in width to the

zones that occur on the upper surface, being about as wide as the upper one

and somewhat wider than the two lower ones, but where the lowest of the

three is especially wide, the two zones, one above and the other below the

carina, are of equal width. This raised line or slender ridge on the lower side

of the volution is apt to be a little stronger than the two that define the

slitband, and it is unsymmetrical in shape, much more sharply defined on

the side facing the carina than on the side facing the axis. The volutions

embrace up to this ridge more or less precisely, so that it is inconspicuous

in the spire; an ensuing volution is more apt to project a trifle beyond it

than to fail in reaching it. Both conditions are sometimes found in the same

specimen.

The surface is practically without sculpture and marked by growth lines

alone but these though fine are very distinct. They are, however, slightly

less distinct on the slit band than anywhere else. Except for the slitband

they show a certain periodicity, for at fairly regular intervals an incised line

or stria is somewhat stronger than the rest. They are slightly arched (convex

side toward the aperture) and rather strongly oblique fom the suture back-

ward; in the slitband itself, with a sharp change in direction, they form fine

regular concave arcs; below the slitband they again abruptly change direc-

tion, becoming for a distance gently convex with a slant somewhat forward,

though subsequently they straighten out and pass directly to the axis. It is

impossible to give the locus at which this change in shape and direction

takes place, for the change is at the same time gradual and slight, but in

general terms the growth lines are curved and have an appreciable forward

obliquity as far as the carina, and are straight and direct from the ridge

below the carina to the axis.

The axis is solid; the peristome appears to be folded back upon itself in

_the axial region without creating an excavation or even an obscure false

umbilicus. An inner lip seems to be developed, though commonly it is little

in evidence. As a rule the inner lip merely dims or obscures the growth lines

within the aperture; on an occasional specimen it makes a more substantial

coating. The slit was probably very short. None of my specimens is complete

at the aperture, but several appear to be but slightly broken, and even on

these the slit is missing; the slit-band can be traced to the broken edge

of the peristome.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

The shell consists of two distinct layers, a fact which is very conspicuous

in many of the specimens from the Franklin Mountains. In these specimens

the outer layer has a polished look and a brownish color which, upon closer

examination, is found to be a mottling of light brown and black. The growth

lines also, though fine, are very clear. Where this outer layer is removed

as it is entirely on some specimens and over parts of others, the inner and

thicker layer is seen to be lusterless and almost black; it fails to retain or

retains but faintly the lines of growth so that on specimens of this sort and

on many specimens from other areas, it would be difficult to recognize the

slitband as such and consequently the relation of these shells as belonging

to the Pleurotomariidae. The type specimens together with other specimens

that I have seen from Taos and also the specimens from Colorado are black

and show the growth lines less clearly than those from the Franklin Moun-

tains. I have not been able to satisfy myself whether they have lost the

superficial layer or are merely not quite so well preserved. The latter ex-

planation seems the more probable one.

Horizon and localhity—Magdalena limestone: Taos, New Mexico (station

6687); McCoy, Colorado (station 8606); 8 miles southwest of Vinton, Texas

(station 7067) and other localities in the foothills west of the Franklin

Mountains.

II. SOME HIGH-SPIRED PLEUROTOMARIAS FROM

LA LUZ CANYON, NEW MEXICO

Rocks that have been classed as Magdalena limestone in various

parts of New Mexico contain unlike faunas and may not have been

deposited contemporaneously. In the first instance we have the typi-

cal Magdalena in the district of that name; in passing up the Rio

Grande valley faunas of a different facies are found at Santa Fe and

still more different ones at Taos; to the southeast rocks called Mag-

dalena occur in the Sacramento Mountains and others still farther

south in the Franklin and Hueco Mountains of Texas. Some of the

faunal differences encountered in these different areas will probably

prove to be provincial and due to selective environment, but I believe

that age differences are also indicated.

In the Sacramento Mountains in La Luz canyon there is a consid-

erable thickness of limestone and shale which seems loosely to have

been classed as Magdalena but which contains a fauna different from

the typical Magdalena and which is, if I am not mistaken, younger.

The fauna in question is dominated by the gastropoda and appears

to be related to some of the Cisco faunas of central Texas. It is re-

markable for the number and variety of high-spired pleurotomarias

such as were formerly classed in the genus Murchisonia. These shells

came within the purview of collateral studies undertaken in connec-

tion with the new genus Taosia. I do not recall ever having seen these

elongated pleurotomarias in such abundance and was interested, in

view of the general similarity of their appearance, to find that they

JAN. 15, 1939 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS GASTROPODS 25

belong to three distinct genera, Gonzasma, Phymatopleura and Taosia.

The facts seem of sufficient general interest to be made a matter of

record.

Before leaving this subject I may mention that the shale near

Tularosa which furnished the cephalopods described by Boese* and

later by Miller* belong to this same series of rocks. Both writers be-

lieve, and in my opinion quite rightly, that the cephalopods indicate a

Pennsylvanian age. Boese, for some reason, thought that the beds

at Tularosa represented the Abo sandstone and on that ground chal-

lenged the Permian age of the Abo. The Permian age of the Abo was

never too secure and the formation may prove to be Pennsylvanian,

but not on the evidence advanced by Boese. So far as I am aware, the

typical fauna of the Abo (at the entrance to Abo Canyon) does not

contain a single species in common with the fauna of the shale at

Tularosa and especially contains none of the cephalopods on which the

Pennsylvanian age of the Abo was predicated; and it seems strange

to set up a claim that the Abo was Pennsylvanian instead of Permian

on the evidence of fossils that did not come from any recognized out-

crop of the Abo but were found in rocks at a remote locality and asso-

ciated with a fauna quite different from the Abo fauna. It is probable

that Boese did not know about the difference of faunal association

in one sense, but he must have known that none of the species which

led him to think that the Abo was Pennsylvanian in age had been

identified in an Abo fauna.

Taosia percostata n. sp. Figs. 12-14

Shell of moderate size, very long and tapering, composed of a large number

of angulated volutions. Spire much constricted at the suture to which the

surfaces of the volutions converge from the angulation. Specimens are not

rare, although owing doubtless to their slender shape, all of those examined

are fragmentary. The largest seen does not have a diameter at the aperture

as great as 10 millimeters. The length, the number of volutions, and other

characters which are to be ascertained only from complete specimens, cannot

be given.

In the final volution the angulation is situated at about the mid-height

and it is reinforced, as of course it is in all the other volutions, by a carina

which may be stout and rounded or more slender and angular. The surface

between the suture and the carina is slightly concave with a steep descent

from above. The surface below the carina is rounded and it has a fairly

strong inward slope to its union with the solid columella. In the spire the

carina is situated well below the middle of the exposed portion of the volu-

tions, the long slope above having a steep descent and the short slope below

passing more strongly inward. The almost flat upper surface of the volution

is divided by two revolving lirae into 3 zones which are of about equal size

3 Borsze, Emit. Am. Jour. Sci. (4) 49: 51-60. 1920.

2 MILLER, A. K. Jour. Pal. 6: 59-93. 1982.

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

though the median one is apt to be somewhat the widest and the one below

the suture somewhat the narrowest. The upper of the two lirae may be

poorly developed or possibly even undeveloped, especially on some of the

earlier volutions. The lower one, on the contrary, is regularly present. The

lower surface of the last volution is rather coarsely and strongly striated,

being marked by 5 or 6 stout revolving costae, separated by deep and some-

what wider grooves or striae. The volutions embrace to the second spiral

costa below the carina, the top of which can be distinguished in many speci-

mens as a slight projection above the suture. Transversely the surface is

marked by fine growth lines which tend to form slender fascicles, although

these are inconspicuous except on the lower surface where they may be

sufficiently strong to produce nodes in places on the revolving costae. _

The slitband is, with little doubt, the lowest of the 3 zones on the upper

surface, that which is just above the carina. The growth lines descending

from the suture have a backward slant and also a backward curve as they

near the spiral lira that forms the upper boundary of this zone. Similarly

on the lower surface of the last volution the growth lines are gently convex

toward the aperture, and have a rather strong backward obliquity to, and

apparently onto, the carina. The growth lines, which everywhere else are

rather distinct, become fainter near the boundaries of this zone which itself

rarely shows any markings at all. The inference is fairly strong from the

deflection of the growth lines above and below it, that this zone is, in fact,

the slitband, and the inference is strengthened by very rare occurrences

there of growth lines that are distinguishable and that make characteristic

concave arcs. The upper boundary of the slitband, then, is formed by the

first revolving lira above the carina. The slitband does not, on the other

side, extend to the edge of the carina but it is there as if abruptly depressed

below a narrow elevated rim.

The upper surface of the volutions in this species shows a most deceptive

resemblance to that of T’aosza copez, but in 7’. copez the slitband occupies the

median of the 3 zones into which the upper surface is divided, whereas in

T. percostata it occupies the lowest zone. I am not sure that this should not

constitute a subgeneric difference. In other respects, too, the species show

marked differences. 7’. percostata has 5 or more spiral costae on the surface

below the carina, whereas 7’. cope: has but one. It also exposes a broader

surface below the carina in the volutions of the spire, and that surface is

divided by a stout revolving costa, whereas the corresponding part of T.

copez is not only narrow but smooth. These differences contribute to make

the shape of the shell as a whole markedly different in the two species, the

present one being conspicuous for the depth of the spiral constriction at the

bottom of which lies the suture. In shape 7’. percostata much more closely

resembles the associated species 7’. crenulata and Goniasma lasallensis, but

all three have such marked peculiarities in one or more details that with

identifiable specimens there is no danger of confusion.

Horizon and locality— Magdalena limestone (?); La Luz canyon, east of

La Luz, N. M. (station 6686).

Taosia crenulata n. sp. Figs. 8-11

Shell rather large, very elongate, strongly turreted. Volutions probably

10 or more, though complete specimens are unknown. Spire perhaps twice

as high as the final volution. Spiral angle variable, some specimens being

very long and slender. Volutions strongly angulated, giving the shell a con-

spicuously helicoid shape. The angular periphery of the volutions forms a

JAN. 15, 1939 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS GASTROPODS 27

crenulated carina which may be very prominent and in the final volution

is situated at about the mid-height but in the spire divides the visible part

of the volutions very unequally—the lower part being much narrower than

the upper.

The upper surface of the final volution is essentially planate and descends

more or less steeply from the suture. It is traversed by two raised spiral lines

defining the slitband. The three zones created in this way are of nearly the

same width though the upper zone is apt to be a little wider than the slit-

band and the lower zone a little narrower. It is commonly somewhat con-

cave spreading out to the carina.

The lower surface of the final volution is about equally divided between

an upper part which is flat, depressed, and smooth and a lower part which

is gently convex and coarsely costate, both parts descending with about the

same inward obliquity until the lower one joins the solid columella. The

costate part of the lower surface bears about five rather widely spaced

revolving costae, of which the highest is especially large and strong and the

lowest small and weak. The upper smooth part of the lower surface appears

depressed because of its position between the prominent carina above and

the first strong revolving costa below. The volutions overlap to the lower

margin of the flat depressed zone, and the prominent costa below it is rarely

distinguishable in the spire.

The surface, aside from the two raised lines on the upper surface that

contain the slitband and the costae on the lower part of the lower surface

(not visible on the spire), is practically devoid of spiral markings. Some

specimens, however, develop an inconspicuous spiral line or faint angulation

between the slitband and the suture. This feature may make its appearance

on the later whorls without being distinguishable on the earlier ones of the

same specimen. Sporadically, also, for it has been observed on only one

specimen, a few fine irregular spiral lirae may be developed on the upper or

sunken part of the lower surface and visible thus on the spire.

Transversely the surface markings consist of incremental lines which have

at first a gentle convexity and a strong backward slant. They are rarely

distinguishable in the slitband but where they can be made out they have

the usual shape of short concave arcs. From the slitband to the carina they

are again slightly convex and have a forward direction from above. On this

zone the growth lines are more or less strongly and regularly fasciculate.

The fasciculation is but slight at the slitband but near the carina it rapidly

becomes very strong, producing the nodes or coarse strong crenulations

above described. Below the carina the fasciculation is again greatly reduced,

the fascicles being regular but weak.

It hardly seems necessary to specify the distinctive characters of 7’. crenu-

lata. The nodose character of the carina distinguishes it at once from T.

cope: and from T’.. percostata; in addition, the costate lower surface of the

volutions distinguishes it from T. copez and the position of the slitband from

T. percostata. T. crenulata like T. percostata developed costae on the lower

meee e the volutions but apparently the development differed materially

in detail.

Horizon and locality —Magdalena limestone (?); La Luz canyon, east of

La Luz, New Mexico (station 6686).

Genus Goniasma Tomlin

When I propose the generic name Gondospira in 1915 the facilities for

ascertaining names that were not available through preoccupation were not

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

20a,

Figs. 1-7.—Taosia copet White. Figs. 1-5. Five specimens from the Magdalena

limestone (?) of the Franklin Mountains. These specimens show the growth lines very

clearly. The photographs have been retouched but this character in figs. 1 and 2 has

not been exaggerated. The original of fig. 2 has proportions similar to the larger of the

two cotypes. Figs. 3, 4 and 5 show the basal surface of the final volution and the im-

perforate columella. Fig. 5 shows well the revolving lira on the lower surface of the

final volution; it can also be seen in figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 2 appears to have a second lira,

but the lower one is merely the broken edge of a volution that has been lost. The

original of fig. 3 shows the inner lip more clearly than most specimens. It is thin but

sufficient to conceal the growth lines along a very distinct line; the deposit is darker

than the superficial layer and of the same tint as the inner layer of the shell. If the

JAN. 15, 1939 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS GASTROPODS 29

what they are today. It seems that Goniospira had been used by Cossman

in 1895 and by Donald in 1902 so that availing himself of this fact Tomlin

in 1929 proposed Goniasma as a substitute. The following species, Murchi-

sonia lasallensis Worthen, which was made the genotype of Goniospira re-

mains the genotype of Goniasma.

5 TomLin, J. R. LEB. Malac. Soc. London, Proc. 19: 22-24. 1929.

basal part of the specimen is regarded as a circle, the inner lip occupies about one-sixth

of the circumference from the line of matrix. This character is not brought out in the

illustration. Figs. 6,7. Unretouched photographs of the two cotypes from Taos, N. M.,

made by J. Brookes Knight, who sent me the prints here published. The cotypes have

apparently lost the epidermal layer or at all events do not show the lines of growth

at all clearly.

Figs. 8-11.—Taosia crenulata, n. sp. Four specimens from La Luz Canyon, N. M.

The slitband is situated between the two spiral ridges on the upper surface of the

whorls of the spire, the surface lying between the suture above and the nodose carina

below. The growth lines slope backward to this zone from above and from below but

the concave lines on the slitband are obscure or not visible at all. These features are

shown by the originals of figs. 8 and 10. The original of fig. 8 has a faint auxiliary lira

a short distance below the slitband and at least 2 fine and faint lirae on the surface

between the carina and the suture below. Fig. 11 shows the lower surface of the final

volution with its solid columella and spiral lirae. The large spiral lira may be compared

to the one similarly placed on Taosia copet.

Figs. 12-14.—Taosia percostata, n. sp. Three specimens from La Luz Canyon,

N. M. These specimens have only one regular revolving lira on the whorls of the spire

between the suture above and the carina below and on the original of fig. 13 the

carina is not much the larger of the two. This specimen has a faint auxiliary lira which

is not well shown by the figure a short distance below the suture. In fig. 14 a cor-

responding lira is shown, but the regular lira forming the upper boundary of the slit-

band is hardly visible due to the prominence of the carina and the foreshortening of

the surface immediately above it. The growth lines slope backward to the regular

revolving lira which marks the upper limit of the slitband; the lower limit is indistinct

but is on or just above the top of the carina. The slitband here is above the carina as

it is in T’aosza copez but instead of being situated about midway in the upper surface

it occupies the lower third. Fig. 14 shows the strong spiral costae on the basal part

of the final volution.

Figs. 15-19.—Goniasma lasallensis Worthen. Five specimens from La Luz Can-

yon, N. M. In this species and genus the slitband has a position corresponding to that

of T'aosia percostata, except that it is just below instead of just above the carina. The

growth lines slope backward from below (well shown by the originals of figs. 15 and 16)

and apparently come to an end at the spiral costa below the carina which forms the

lower limit of the slitband. Its upper limit is indistinct but is situated upon the crest

or just below the crest of the carina. The growth lines on the upper surface of the

volution bend backward near the carina and can be traced to its crest. The lower

surface of the final volution has a prominent angulation or lira somewhat as in Taosia

copet. Fig. 17 should be more strongly angulated.

Figs. 20-21a.—Phymatopleura brazoensis Shumard. Figs. 20-20b. Three figures

of a specimen from the Wayland shale, near Graham, Texas (station 7442). This

specimen has about 13 spiral lirae on the lateral surface with about 3 additional ones

on the nodose ridge below the suture. This is only one of numerous varieties that can

be found in a large collection. Fig. 20b shows how the “‘inner lip” is really a resorbed

area. The sculpture at the left comes to an end abruptly along a well defined line at

or near the aperture while the smooth area to the right stands at a lower level. Figs.

21-21a. Two views of a specimen from the upper part of the Graham shale at Graham,

Texas. In this specimen the nodes are farther apart and the slitband has an auxiliary

lira below the median one so that the lower half of the slitband, in that degree, appears

to be a part of the under surface.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 1

Goniasma lasallensis Worthen

Murchisonia lasallensis. Worthen, Illinois Geol. Survey, Rept. 8: 141, pl.

25, figs. 7, 72. 1890. Upper Coal Measures: LaSalle, Ill.

Worthenia? lasallensis? Girty, U. 8S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 16: 457.

1903. Hermosa formation: San Juan region, Colo.

Gonwospira lasallensis. Girty, Missouri Bureau Geol. & Mines (2) 13: 356,

pl. 30, figs. 7-8a. 1915. Lansing formation: Kenmoor, St. Joseph,

Weston, Leavenworth, Lansing, Jatan and Smithville, Mo.

It was perhaps somewhat rash to correct Worthen’s description on the

strength of my specimens without having seen his, but his description is

evidently deficient in details that are apparently shown by his figures as

well as being self-contradictory. The corrections which I ventured to make

concern the features described in these terms. ‘‘On the last volution there

is a flattened band below the carina which is bounded below by a slight

elevation.”’ The form from Missouri that I referred to G. lasallensis and

consequently the one on which the genus Gonzospira was in the final analysis

based answers to this description except that in my form both the carina

and the elevation below it are double. That is, the carina has a revolving

lira a short distance below it and the “slight elevation’’ is formed by two

revolving lirae separated by a narrow groove. In Worthen’s schematic

figure each of these features is represented by a double line. This suggests

that each line represents the top of a ridge and as such an interpretation

agrees with the character of my form, it seems to be the correct one. Each

pair of lines, however, may be intended to outline a single ridge. One 1m-

portant omission in Worthen’s description is his failure to specify the loca-

tion of the slitband. As the slitband so commonly occupies the carina in the

Pleurotomariids, perhaps such a position is implied. The slitband in my

form does indeed occur there but it is not situated on the carina which is

angular but just below it, its lower boundary being formed by the revolving

lira that accompanies it. Worthen’s reference to a “flattened band” in the

passage quoted above and his failure to mention the slitband in any other

way led me to believe that that expression was intended to designate the

slitband. This probably was a misconception. Worthen also says, ‘‘Neither

the flattened band nor the elevation below it extend to the other volutions.”

This is certainly not true of my specimens and it obviously is not true of

Worthen’s for it is contradicted by his figures and by another part of his

description in which he says that the volutions “‘are separated by a profound

suture.”’ The expression just quoted agrees with his figures which represent

the shell as being screw-like in shape, the lower side of each angulated whorl

of the spire being nothing else than the aforesaid “flattened band.” If the

flattened band did not show in the volutions of the spire the volutions would

embrace to the carina, and the spire would have smooth sides instead of being

made sinuous by a deep constriction. In the form on which the genus Gonio-

spira was based the volutions embrace to the paired lirae on the lower

surface.

A species which can be identified with Goniasma lasallensis is very abun-

dant at one locality in La Luz Canyon but as the specimens are considerably

broken up their abundance is somewhat exaggerated. I have been unable to

find any constant difference between the specimens from New Mexico and

those from Missouri which I described in 1915. As compared with Worthen’s

figures of the type, some of them appear to be more slender and many appear

to have the constriction in which the suture is situated considerably deeper

JAN. 15, 1939 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS GASTROPODS ol

so that the sides of the spire are correspondingly more uneven. A few of

these specimens developed a spiral thread on the lower surface of the volu-

tions, midway between the slitband and the paired lirae below, on Worthen’s

‘flattened band,”’ that is.

In examining these specimens from New Mexico especial attention was

directed to the slitband which is somewhat peculiar in not being as sharply

defined as the slitband of most pleurotomarias and in lacking these lunettes

or regularly spaced, concavely arched transverse lamellose lines by which

the slitband is so commonly distinguished. The slitband is of course dis-

tinctly defined on its lower side but not on its upper, except by the angular

or, in many specimens, rounded edge of the carina. Its identity, however, is

shown by the deflection of the growth lines. As they descend from the suture,

the growth lines are essentially straight and have a slight backward slant

which, however, increases near the carina, giving them a curved appearance.

They are apt to be faintly fasciculate in the upper part and to become some-

what less distinct below though on many specimens they can be seen running

out onto the upper surface of the carina. Coming up from the suture below,

the growth lines are also distinct to the revolving lira below the carina, but

not beyond. They are nearly straight and commonly have a very pronounced

backward slope toward the carina. Thus, it will be seen that the slitband

as represented by the narrow channel between the carina and the lira below

it, often fails to show even growth lines, though where they can be dis-

tinguished they have the characteristic shape of concave ares. As stated -

above, while the slitband is not bounded on its upper side in the same way

as on its lower, and to some extent does not appear to have a sharp boundary

at all, many specimens show an incised line on the carina either following

the crest of the carina or more commonly following a line just above the

crest. Where most distinct this incised line on the carina is similar in appear-

ance to the suture at the bottom of the constriction above, but on a smaller

scale. The backwardly-curved ends of the growth-lines can sometimes be

traced to this boundary at which they appear to terminate. This feature

has been observed on so many specimens that I am inclined to believe it

to be a constant one, with this qualification; it is most commonly observed

where the carina is thick and rounded as the carina is apt to be on the

larger whorls, and it is doubtfully to be observed where the carina is thin

and sharp as the carina commonly is in the smaller ones. Accordingly, it

would be a character that developed toward maturity. I am also inclined

to believe that this incised line marks the real boundary of the slitband.

The inference may possibly be drawn that as the shell increased in age the

deposits at the slit, which create the slitband, became thickened, but thick-

ened unequally, with the greatest accumulation in the upper part and that

the size of the carina was increased by this accumulation.

Locality and horizon.—Magdalena limestone (?); La Luz canyon, east of

La Luz, New Mexico (station 6686).

Ill. PHYMATOPLEURA, NEW GENERIC NAME, WITH COMMENTS

ON P. BRAZOENSIS (SHUMARD)

When I proposed the generic term Orestes in 1911° for certain

Pleurotomarioid shells, my investigations into nomenclature, which

6 Girty, G. H. New York Acad. Sci., Annals 21: 136. 1911; also U. S. Geol.

Survey, Bull. 544: 155. 1915.

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

were sincere but not comprehensive, indicated that the name was not

preoccupied and the unusual character of the name itself, which was

meant to commemorate the work of Orestes St. John, seemed a cer-

tain guarantee that it was not. My good friend J. Brookes Knight

warned me some time ago that Orestes was preoccupied as a generic

name and in fact I find that it had been used by Blackiston and Pryer,

as long ago as 1880 and again by Redtenbacher in 1906. I take this

opportunity, therefore, to propose Phymatopleura as a substitute with

of course the same species, Orestes nodosus as the genotype. |

I did not at the time know of, nor have since then come upon, any

other species that could certainly’ be grouped with Orestes nodosus

except a little known species from Texas described by Shumard as

Pleurotomaria brazoensis. It seems appropriate in this place to give a

supplementary account of Phymatopleura brazoensis which was poorly

described without illustrations.

In establishing Orestes nodosus as a new species, I compared it with

Pleurotomaria brazoensis, using not only Shumard’s description of

that species but specimens from the Cisco formation that seemed

to. belong to it. The species from the Cisco that was employed in

those comparisons is clearly the one that Plummer and Moore later

figured as Orestes brazoensis; and not only is it certain that we are deal-

ing with the same species, but it is almost equally certain that we are

dealing with the species which Shumard described and which has

lain for so long unrecognized.

With specimens from the original locality and horizon the species

can be identified with reasonable certainty but not otherwise. Conse-

quently we find Meek in 1866 and Keyes in 1888 referring to P.

brazoensis forms which were not only distinct from that species but

distinct from each other. Meek’s form is now known as Pleurotomaria

untertexta; that of Keyes, so far as I am aware, is without a name.

The figures given by Plummer and Moore show the general character

of P. brazoensis but they are too small to show the sculpture in detail.

Their figures were unaccompanied by a description just as Shumard’s

description was unaccompanied by figures and as Shumard’s descrip-

tion is hard to come by (the work in which it was published being now

rare) and as Plummer and Moore’s figures are somewhat inadequate,

it will be helpful to supply what seems to be lacking in each. Shu-

7 It is not improbable that the Pleurotomaria brazoensis of Meek now known as

Pleurotomaria intertexta, less probably the Pleurotomaria brazoensis of Keyes also

belong under Phymatopleura. I have not, however, examined specimens of either

species. Even if congeneric, however, both of them seem to be distinct from either

P. nodosa or authentic P. brazoensis.

JAN. 15, 1939 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS GASTROPODS B33)

mard’s description will be found below and the synonymy which pre-

cedes it comprises all the legitimate citations of the species.

Phymatopleura brazoensis (Shumard)

Pleurotomaria brazoensis. Shumard, St. Louis Acad. Sci. 1: 624. 1860.

Coal Measures: Young Co., Texas, near Indian Reserve.

Orestes brazoensis. Girty, U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 544:158. 1915.

Orestes brazoensis. University of Texas, Bull. 2132: 151, pl. 22, fig. 16,

16a. 1921. Graham formation (Wayland shale); South of Gunsight

(loc. 80.2), Texas.

Shell small, conical, height a little greater than the width; spiral angle

67°; volutions about seven, flat or slightly concave, marked at base with two

revolving carinae, between which occurs the band of the sinus; lower carina

the larger and rounded; under surface of last volution somewhat tumid in

the umbilical region, and flattened towards the periphery; suture depressed,

linear; aperture subquadrate; columellar lip deflected above and partially

closing in the umbilicus, which is very small; surface of volutions orna-

mented with from thirteen to fourteen rather strong, filiform striae, which

are crossed by sharp transverse striae, giving to the surface a handsome,

crenulated appearance; upper margin marked with a row of rather promi-

nent lengthened tubercles; band of sinus moderately broad, excavated,

having a single revolving line, and numerous arched transverse striae, cor-

responding in size to those above the band.

Length, 0.32; width, 0.29.

Formation and locality— Young County, near the Indian Reserve. Found

in bluish-gray marl, associated with Myalina subquadrata, Chonetes mesoloba,

Straparollus catilloides, Fusulina, and other characteristic fossils of the Coal

Measures. Texas State collection.

Shumard, I suspect, intended to write “‘cancellated’’ instead of ‘‘crenu-

lated” in the above description (see also a comment by Meek) and he leaves

the reader in doubt whether the ‘‘thirteen to fourteen”’ striae represents the

total number on both the lateral and lower surfaces or the number on only

one surface—if so, which? As he says that these striae are to be seen on the

surface of the volutions (note the plural) and as only the lateral surface is

to be seen on any volution but the last, it seems probable that he was

ascribing 13 or 14 striae to that surface alone. This also agrees with his

description of the surface as cancellated (if that was actually what he in-

tended to say) for that term is very descriptive of the lateral surface but is

much less applicable to the lower surface. Aside from this his description is

quite accurate though, as it proved, hardly specific enough to prevent mis-

interpretation for neither Meek’s form nor Keyes’ closely resembles true

P. brazoensis. The description is unsatisfactory chiefly in what is omitted in

the way of detail and of the range of variation, for a good suite of specimens

such as can be obtained with little difficulty (the species seems to be not

uncommon in the general region and at the general horizon from which it

was described) discloses that specimens which must be included in the

species can differ rather widely. My own observations, which are sum-

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

marized in the following paragraphs, are based upon about 100 specimens

of all sorts.

In the final volution the slitband is broad, oblique, and situated on the

periphery which is at about the mid-height. The surface above is oblique

and more or less concave, spreading outward near the slitband and ending

in a knife-edged ridge which forms the upper boundary of the slitband. The

surface, coming up from below, rounds inward slightly to inclose the slit-

band on its lower side; the slitband thus does not appear to be bounded

below by a sharp ridge or lamella as on the upper side. In such specimens

the most prominent part of the volution occurs just below the slitband.

Sometimes, however, the surface just below the slitband, instead of being

sharply rounded and prominent, retreats almost immediately and then the

slitband appears to be bounded by a knife-edged ridge below as well as

above. The volutions embrace almost to the slitband so that the suture has

above it a very narrow and slight prominence, the peripheral region of the

preceding volution, and below it a wider and more prominent ridge formed

by the. upper part of the volution following.

The feature last mentioned varies almost from specimen to specimen. In

its most intensified form it is a well marked, broad, rounded ridge with

additional elevations at short and regular intervals. In its least development

both ridge and nodes are almost, if not entirely, obsolete. This, however,

seems to be a condition of old age and it has been observed only on the final

volution of a few specimens whose earlier volutions are marked in the

normal manner.

The swollen zone below the suture may be broad or narrow and high or

so low as to be hardly signalized at all except by the nodes that rise from it.

The nodes may be rounded and hemispherical but more commonly they are

somewhat elongated and compressed so as to be subangular on top. At the

opposite extreme they are very thin and high, as if formed by one of the

transverse lirae which, at a definite point below the suture, abruptly becomes

thick and prominent. The nodes vary not only in shape but in strength and

in spacing. They may be close together or much farther apart, and very

conspicuous or very subdued, though always a feature sufficiently pro-

nounced to attract the eye.

The side of the volution between the nodiferous zone and the slitband

is marked by fine, regular transverse and revolving lirae of nearly equal

strength and spacing, which make a regular reticulate ornamentation. On

some specimens the intersection of these cancellating lines is marked by fine

raised points, like short spinules, and probably this is a regular feature,

though one not commonly preserved.

Three or four of the spiral lirae occupy the swollen or nodose zone below

the suture and these are commonly somewhat coarser than the rest; indeed,

they may be much coarser. On the remainder of the lateral surface the num-

ber of spiral lirae may vary from about 10 to almost 20. Where the number

is exceptionally large it may be attributed to the introduction of interstitial

lirae, the character of which is occasionally suggested by their smaller size;

this tends to create a sort of irregular alternation, though any pronounced

alternation in size is exceptional. The difference in scale between the coarsely

and finely striated shells is so marked that if extreme examples of each were

found without intermediate forms and especially if found at different locali-

ties, they would undoubtedly be regarded as belonging to different species.

The spiral lirae are commonly slender and rounded, but may be appreciably

JAN. 15, 1939 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS GASTROPODS 30

stouter with a corresponding difference in spacing in which, of course, num-

ber also plays a part. The transverse lirae are thinner than the spiral ones,

much like low, vertical lamellae. They may be spaced at the same intervals

but may be much more closely arranged. Normally, however, the spiral lirae

are numerous and essentially uniform in size, the transverse lirae slightly

thinner and spaced at the same intervals, and the result a very regular and

very fine cancellation.

Typically the slitband contains a single revolving lira, which may be

very slender or relatively stout. Not uncommonly a second smaller lira is

developed above or below the median one (as in figure 21a) and in a few

specimens an additional lira is developed on both sides of it. The three lirae

may be equal in size but more commonly the median one is the largest.

Transversely the slitband is crossed at regular intervals by short slender

raised lines in concave ares, which in crossing the spiral lira (or lirae) create

very small nodes. The transverse lirae in the slitband are rather commonly

spaced at appreciably wider intervals than those on the lateral surface. On

some specimens they are irregular in size and spacing, as if by intercalation,

and where this occurs they may be more closely arranged than the transverse

lirae above.

The basal surface is marked in much the same way as the lateral surface,

only more coarsely, especially as regards the spiral lirae. These are on the

whole thicker than the revolving lirae of the upper surface and are subject

to greater inequality in size. Some of the large ones may be very large and

some of the small ones very small and sometimes a more or less regular as

well as a strong alternation in size can be observed. In number the revolving

lirae may reach 20 or more. Although the lower surface is somewhat broader

than the lateral surface and although it may not have many more revolving

lirae, it appears more coarsely as well as more irregularly lirate because the

lirae are thicker, and, where especially thick, they are rather crowded. A few

lirae (4 more or less) on the sharply curving surface below the slit band are

generally subequal in size and not so large as the larger ones on the rest of

the lower surface while a few near the false umbilicus may attain a relatively

enormous size.

The transverse lirae are thin and lamellose like those of the lateral surface

and on the same specimen they have about the same spacing on both. A com-

parison in this item is difficult, however, because the transverse lirae above

the shtband have to contract much less in passing upward to the suture than

those below the slitband do in passing inward to the axis. Just below the

slitband they may be larger and more widely spaced than they are just

above it (or on the other hand, essentially the same in both respects), but

shortly are reduced to or remain at parity. In crossing the lower surface to

i they not only become finer but draw together with a tendency to

coalesce.

As they converge toward the axis they become more or less strongly

fasciculate and give rise to correspondingly large strong nodes on the ex-

ceptionally large spiral lirae that occur there.

The characters not touched upon are chiefly generic. The axis seems to

be imperforate, though the inner lip is thickened and reflexed to form a small

false umbilicus. Instead of an inner lip the surface markings are resorbed

so that the surface within the aperture is smooth and slightly depressed

below the sculptured surface outside of it.

It was probably this species which I cited as Plewrotomaria Brazoensis in

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

listing the collections made in Missouri by Hinds and Greene.’ The speci-

mens so identified are fairly numerous but most of them are so incrusted that

their characters are imperfectly shown. These and other similar specimens

from Oklahoma which I have seen at first appear to be distinct from P.

Brazoensis by reason of their finer sculpture but they are also of a cor-

respondingly smaller size. The general features appear to be about the same.

Specimens from Texas vary so much in their sculpture that some do not

differ materially from those from Missouri, and the specimens from Missouri

differ from each other in this feature or in that. If the Missouri form is re-

garded as specifically distinct from the Texas forms there are differences in

the content of each which are apparently equal in significance to the differ-

ences between them.

PALEOBOTANY.—The fruit of Trapa? microphylla Lesquereuz.'

RouLaNnD W. Brown and Epcar HouLpswortuH.

The complete four-parted rosettes of floating, compound leaves as

well as the detached leaflets of plants purporting to be a species of

water chestnut or caltrop called Trapa? microphylla Lesquereux, have

long been known from Cretaceous and Eocene strata of the western

interior of North America.” The surfaces of some slabs of rock, not-

ably those from the Fort Union formation (Eocene) at Burns Ranch,

30 miles down the Yellowstone River from Glendive, Mont., are cov-

ered with them. Although much leaf material has been collected from

this and numerous other localities in Wyoming, Montana, and Can-

ada, none, until recently, was found with fruit attached. The speci-

mens displaying fruit that are reported here were found in 1936 by

Mr. Edgar Houldsworth of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, in the

Ravenscrag formation (Eocene) cropping out in sec. 4, T. 2, R. 22

west of the 2nd meridian, in the Big Muddy Valley region of southern

Saskatchewan.

The finding of these specimens with fruit attached establishes the

affinity of numerous detached fruits that were found in previous col-

lections but whose identity remained a mystery. Some of these have

been figured and described as Carpolithus, Viburnum, Nyssa, ete. It is,

however, not our purpose to give a synonymy of these species at this

time.

The fruit of Trapa? microphylla averages 1 cm in length, is ovoid,

the apex being slightly elongate and emarginate or cut at the end

8 Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines (2) 13: 305. 1915.

1 Published by permission of the Director, Geological Survey, Department of the

Interior. Received November 21, 1938.

2}. W. Berry has recently summarized the history and knowledge of this species

in Geol. Survey Canada Mem. 182: 61-64, pl. 19, figs. 1-11. 1935.

JAN. 15, 19389 BROWN AND HOULDSWORTH: FOSSIL FRUIT — Oo”

as shown in the better preserved specimens, Figs. 4, 5, 8. The surface

displays several prominent, longitudinal bulges and depressions which

appear to have been folds that either were present in the living fruit

or were initiated at the beginning of fossilization. These fruits were

attached by short, stout peduncles to the stem beneath the rosette

of floating leaves, somewhat in the same manner as the nuts of living

species of water chestnut, Trapa. Fig. 1 shows one attached fruit

partly overlain by another that is not fully uncovered but presumably

belongs to the same plant. It seems probable therefore that T.? micro-

phylla produced more than one fruit on a single plant. Nothing is

known about the seed or seeds borne in these fruits.

Inasmuch as the fruit here shown to be part of the species T'rapa?

microphylla is without the horns so characteristic of the living species

of Trapa, and because the leaves of this species are compound, not

simple as in living species of Trapa, the propriety of the question

mark used by Lesquereux becomes doubly apparent. However, these

divergences do not necessarily preclude a possible relationship, not

too distant, with living Trapa, for diversities of foliage and fruit just

as great can be matched in many other families of flowering plants.

It may be noted that Dawson® reports horned nuts called T'rapa

borealis Heer from the same strata on the Red Deer River and Rose-

_ bud Creek in Alberta, Canada, that also yield “‘leaves not distinguish-

able from those [7’.? microphylla] described and figured by Lesque-

reux.”’ Despite this association it is clear now that the horned nuts

must have been produced on a different plant, the foliage of which

has not yet been found or has not been recognized as that of Trapa.

Thus far, although several fossil species of Trapa fruit have been re-

ported from strata in North America,‘ no foliage positively assignable

to Trapa has yet been identified.

Some of the Houldsworth specimens, not figured here, yield addi-

tional information, not hitherto reported in regard to Trapa? micro-

phylla. The quartered rosette of compound leaves that is most com-

monly the portion found, has for some time been suspected of being

the floating part of the plant that appeared on the surface of the

water. One of the Houldsworth specimens, and more clearly, a speci-

men (Fig. 3) from Wyoming shows fimbriated and filiform submerged

leaves beneath the rosette of floating leaves. Other specimens indicate

3 Dawson, J. W. On fossil plants from the Laramie formation of Canada. Roy.

Soc. Canada, "Trans. 4 (sec. 4): 31, pl. 2, fig. 19. 1886.

4 Brown, Rouanp W. Miocene leaves, fruits, and seeds from Idaho, Oregon, and

Washington. Jour. Paleont. 9: 581, pl. 67, fig. 17. 1935.—Additions to some fossil

ea pee United States. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 186: 183, pl. 55,

gs 1937

JOURNAL

OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

Figs. 1-9.—For explanation see opposite page.

Jan. 15, 1939 RILEY: BIRDS FROM BORNEO 39

indefinite lengths of slender, tubular, perhaps noded, stem to which

the rosette and fruits were attached. If the broken enlargement at

the end of one of these stems was a root or holdfast, the stem could

not have been more than 8 cm long, but complete specimens must be

had to confirm this point. At any rate these additional facts affirm

the inference that T.? microphylla was a hydrophyte with morphology

and habits comparable to those of Trapa natans today.

ORNITHOLOGY.—A genus and three new forms of birds from

Borneo J. H. Ritgy, U. 8. National Museum. (Communi-

cated by H. Friedmann.)

In identifying material collected by Doctor W. L. Abbott and

H. C. Raven in Borneo, the following genus and three forms of birds

are believed to be unnamed. They may be known from the following

descriptions:

Elocincla aenigma gen. et sp. nov.

Type.—Adult male, U. 8. National Museum, No. 181562, Klumpang

Bay, Southeast Borneo, March 5, 1908. Collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott.

Similar to Malacocincla Blyth, but tail shorter than the tarsus, instead

of much longer.

The type and only species may be described as follows:

Similar to Malacocincla rufiventris Salvadori, but bill and tail shorter.

Description.—Pileum deep neutral gray washed with olive brown; back

and outward surface of the wings cinnamon brown, becoming slightly more

reddish on the upper tail-coverts; tail mars brown; lores and cheeks deep

mouse gray, the auriculars washed lightly with olive brown; throat and

jugulum white, the latter with obsolete dusky streaks; chest, sides, belly,

and crissum cinnamon; middle of the breast buffy white. Wing, 71; tail,

25.5; culmen, 16; tarsus, 27; middle toe and claw, 22. |

Remarks.—The present species is founded upon four specimens, as follows:

the type; one male and one female, Kapuas River, West Borneo; and one

female, Ritan River, East Borneo. There is some little variation in the four

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived November 15, 1938.

Fig. 1—Trapa? microphylla Lesquereux with two fruits, one of which is attached

beneath the center of the rosette of floating surface leaves. Ravenscrag formation

(Eocene), sec. 4, T. 2, R. 22 west of the 2nd meridian, Saskatchewan, Canada. Collected

by Edgar Houldsworth. Fig. 2.—Specimen showing one misshapen attached fruit.

Ravenscrag formation. Fig. 3.—Specimen showing fimbriated submerged leaves be-

neath the rosette of surface leaves. Meeteetse formation (Cretaceous), SE } sec. 10,

T. 46 N., R. 98 W., Wyo. Collected by D. F. Hewett. Figs. 4-6, 8.—Detached fruits.

Fort Union formation (Eocene), left bank of the Yellowstone River at Burns Ranch,

30 miles northeast of Glendive, Mont. Collected by Lester F. Ward. Fig. 7.—Sketch

of leaflet showing venation. After Lesquereux, The Tertiary flora, U. S. Geol. Survey

of Terr., vol. 7, pl. 61, fig. 16, 1887. Fig. 9.—Small rosette. Meeteetse formation,

NE sec. 2, T. 45 N., R. 98 W., Wyo. Collected by D. F. Hewett. All figured speci-

mens are in the U. S. National Museum.

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

specimens. In one female there is little white on the breast and the dusky

streaks extend forward onto the throat. In two of the specimens the pileum

is deep neutral gray without any olive brown wash. The four birds have

been compared with five skins of Malacocincla rufiventris from Dutch East

Borneo and they are remarkably alike in plumage. The latter on the average

is a more reddish brown above and the pileum is more heavily washed with

brown, sometimes entirely brown. It is remarkable how close the two species

resemble each other in plumage and for this reason Elocincla aenigma has

been overlooked, but the latter can always be distinguished by its shorter

tail and bill; it is also somewhat smaller.

The four specimens of Elocincla aenigma measure: wing, 66.5-75 (70);

tail, 23-25.5 (24.7); culmen, 15-16 (15.5).

The five specimens of Malacocincla rufiventris measure: wing, 71.5—-75

(73.9); tail, 40—46.5 (48.3); culmen, 17-18 (17.2).

In my opinion Malacocincla sepiaria and Malacocincla rufiventris belong

to two distinct form groups. |

Ptilopyga Sharpe? (type Malacocincla rufiventris Salvadori) is a synonym

of Malacocincla Blyth.

Iole olivacea perplexa subsp. nov.

Type.—Female, U. S. National Museum, No. 182491, Labuan Klambu,

East Borneo, June 28, 1913, collected by H. C. Raven (original No. 909).

Similar to Jole olivacea charlottae Finsch, but smaller, the tail a more

reddish brown above, the greater wing-coverts and inner remiges edged

outwardly with hazel instead of light brownish olive; under tail-coverts

ochraceous-tawny rather than ochraceous-buff or colonial-buff. Wing, 78;

tail, 72; culmen, 16.

Remarks.—Raven took two females at the type locality on the same day.

It may be the hazel edging to the wing-coverts and inner remiges denotes

that the specimens are not fully adult, but they are about full grown and it

seems hardly likely that there would be any great increment in size. The

other female measures: wing, 78; tail, 73; culmen, 16.

Two males of Jole olivacea charlottae measure: wing, 88—91; tail, 72-73;

culmen, 18—20.5; two females: wing, 82.5—90; tail, 72.5-74; culmen, 18.5—-19.

Arachnothera affinis pars subsp. nov.

Type.—Adult male, U. 8. National Museum, No. 182150, Birang River,

Dutch East Borneo, October 9, 1912. Collected by H. C. Raven (original

No. 276).

Similar to Arachnothera affinis modesta of the Malay Peninsula, but the

lower parts lighter and less greenish yellow; the throat and breast more

heavily streaked with dusky; above there is not much difference between

the two forms; the Bornean race is on the average more greenish, less yellow-

ish on the upper parts; wing, 89; tail, 55; culmen, 40.

Remarks.—The above race is founded upon three males and two females

from Dutch East Borneo. These have been compared with a large series

from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra and they stand right out as de-

scribed above. A single male of Arachnothera affinis everettc from Mount

Kina Balu has been examined and A. affinis pars resembles it in color but

is not so dark below or so greenish above; in size the Kina Balu specimen

is somewhat larger; it measures: wing, 95; tail, 61; culmen, 42.5. Seven males

2 Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 7: 507. 585. 1888.

JAN. 15, 1939 REDDY: CRABS AS FOOD | 41

and seven females from the Malay Peninsula (the type locality of modesta

is Malacca) measure: wing, 70-86 (78.2); tail, 39.5-52 (45.5); culmen, 33-40

(35.7). Three males and two females from East Borneo measure: wing,

76-89.5 (82.4); tail, 44.5-57 (49.6); culmen, 35-40 (87.3). Sumatran speci-

mens are slightly more yellowish green above than Malay Peninsula birds

and appear to be a little smaller. Three males and three females from Su-

matra measure: wing, 72-83 (77.7); tail, 39-50 (44); culmen, 31-35 (32.8).

Arachnothera affinis affinis of Java is much more yellowish above than the

Bornean series and below is darker, more grayish; it is rather heavily

streaked below like the Bornean form, however. Two males and one female

from Java measure: wing, 78-91 (84); tail, 47-59 (52.2); culmen, 33.5-36

(34.5).

Whether Arachnothera affinis pars is confined to. Dutch East Borneo or

not is not known at present, but it seems incredible that such a well-marked

form should have escaped naming so long, if it was more generally dis-

tributed upon the island.

ZOOLOGY .—Crabs as food in India A. RAMAKRISHNA REDDY,

Annamalai University, 8. India. (Communicated by Waupo L.

SCHMITT. )

Crabs are used extensively for food in India, particularly in all

provinces that border on the sea. In Bengal the crabs fished are

Scylla serrata (Forskal), Neptunus pelagicus (Linn.), and Charybdis

crucifera (Fabr.). Scylla is the most important and is very much rel-

ished by the Bengalese. The other two only occasionally are brought

to market. In Bengal the freshwater Parathelphusa spinigera (Wood-

Mason) and the esturine Varuna litterata (Fabr.) are taken for domes-

tic use by the poorer classes.

Along the coast of Bombay and Sind, S. serrata, Neptunus sanguino-

lentus (Herbst), and C. crucifera are most frequently caught. The

Parathelphusa fished in this region is P. jacquimontit (Rathbun).

In Madras, N. pelagicus, N. sanguinolentus, S. serrata, Matuta

victor (Fabr.), and C. cruczfera, listed in the order of their importance,

form a large scale fishery. Here the freshwater species consumed

locally are Parathelphusa hydrodromus (Herbst) and P. bowvieri

(Rathbun).

Scylla reaches a large size, 8 to 12 inches in width. In Chilka Lake

it may attain a width of a foot and a half! Charybdis also grows to a

large size, but Neptunus not over 8 inches in width. Parathelphusa

ranges from 2 to 5 inches, while Varwna never exceeds 2. Matuta

grows slightly larger than Varuna.

1 Prepared in response to an inquiry from Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, of the United

States National Museum. I am indebted to Dr. B. N. Chopra, of the Indian Zoological

Survey, Calcutta, for assistance in the preparation of this article and also to the Direc-

tor of Fisheries, Government of Madras, the Director of Industries, Government of

Bombay, and the Fisheries Expert with the Government of Bengal. Received De-

cember 22, 1938.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

In taking Scylla commercially? a stout bamboo pole is firmly

planted on one bank of a creek where the crabs are found. One end

of a strong line is attached to this pole. The other is rowed to the

opposite bank. From it are suspended a number of smaller lines bear-

ing baits secured to slip nooses. In their efforts to carry off the bait,

the crabs are caught in the nooses. Then the line is slowly pulled in

and the crabs removed to the hold of the boat, where they may be

kept alive for many days. Scylla is captured on a small scale by means

of an iron hook affixed to a bamboo pole which is used to pull the

crab out of its burrow. For the more active swimming crabs, Charybdis

and Neptunus, sieve-nets are used.

In Bengal, large numbers of Varuna are obtained for domestic use

with circular dipnets like those used for the capture of the soft-

shelled blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, in America. The Parathelphusa

fishery of Madras also employs dipnets. In and around Bombay this

crab is caught in large numbers in light traps similar to those used

in America for hard-shelled Callinectes sapidus.*? Parathelphusa is also

secured by means of a long stick ending in a swollen knob and pro-

vided with a bamboo sleeve which may be slipped down against the

knob. This implement is inserted into the crab’s burrow. When the

crab takes hold of the knob, the bamboo sleeve slips down over its

claw, clamping it so tightly that the crab may be successfully pulled

out.

In Madras crabbing is an important occupation. A ‘hook and line”’

like that employed for catching fish is used. Hippa is the common

bait. In back waters, floating crab traps are used. Crabs on the west

coast are caught in small quantities mainly in cast nets, but also in

seines and trawl nets along with fish. In the Gulf of Manaar and

Palk Bay wicker traps are common.

Crabs are usually fried or served as soup. From Scylla and Nep-

tunus only fried dishes are prepared, as follows:

Break the shells of 10 of these crabs so that the animals may be immersed

in water, discarding the carapace, gills, and legs. Boil for 15 minutes, after

which add 2 tablespoons of chili powder, } teaspoon of cinnamon bark, 2

tablespoons of coriander powder, and 4 teaspoon of salt. Boil for about 5

minutes more. Meanwhile, fry 4 teaspoons of onion chips and one teaspoon

of peeled garlic in ghee, gingilee oil, or cocoanut oil until the ingredients

turn yellow; also fry separately 6 cloves and 4 pods of cardamon. Add all

the fried ingredients to the boiling crabs and continue boiling for 2 or 3

minutes more.

2 Hora, 8. L. Crab fishing at Uttarbhag, Lower Bengal. Current Science, 3 (11):

543. 1935.

3 Mercaur, Z. P. A Text-book of Economic Zoology, p. 188. 1930.

wane 15,1939 ~——- REDDY: CRABS AS FOOD 43

Fried dishes like the foregoing are also prepared from Parathel-

phusa, but in this case the quantities of ingredients will do for as

many as 30 of these smaller crabs.

Soup is generally made from Parathelphusa as follows:

Crush 10 adult crabs without discarding either shell or gills. Boil for 15

minutes, after which add 2 teaspoons of pepper, 3 teaspoon of cumin, 1 tea-

spoon of peeled garlic, and 1 teaspoon of salt, and continue boiling for 20

to 30 minutes longer.

These crab dishes are considered of great medicinal value. Those

of Scylla and Neptunus are used for convalescing malaria patients,

also by asthma sufferers. The crab dish seems to act as a specific

tonic. Parathelphusa soup is used for colds. The extensive use of

crabs in such cases cannot be without some justification. In Indian

medicine* crab curries are recommended for chronic fevers. There

may be some mineral salts of medicinal value in the digestive glands

of these animals or vitamins which are not destroyed in the cooking

process. An investigation of the medicinal value of crabs as food ap-

pears to be indicated.

As our Indian crab fisheries have never been properly developed,

there is great room for future expansion. The crustaceans fished

throughout India perhaps outweigh both in quantity and value the

yield of all other fisheries. Prawns rank first, with the crabs a good

second. In 1928, crabs and prawns worth Rs. 135,056-14-0 ($33,764 + ) —

were sold in Madras.® The fishery statistics available for the west

coast of the Presidency of Madras show that on an average about

500 maunds® of crabs worth Rs. 8,000 ($2,000 + ) are landed annually

on the Malabar and South Kanara coast alone. In Bombay annually

80,000 crabs are caught and sold for Rs. 10,000 ($2,500 + ). In Bom-

bay and Sind together, 500,000 crabs are caught and sold for ap-

proximately Rs. 30,000 ($7,500+) every year. In one year prawns

and crabs fished along the Bombay coast sold for Rs. 2,500,000

($625,000+). For Sind the figures are Rs. 1,500,000 ($375,000 +).

Large quantities are caught elsewhere in India, notably in Bengal.

If modern methods were employed and the crab and prawn fisheries

properly developed, the industry would flourish. Only the Govern-

ment of Madras has a modern department of fisheries which is giving

some attention to the crab and prawn fisheries, but less than their

importance warrants. The crabs are of such economic importance

* Vastugunadipika. A Telugu Publication, 1914.

®> Moszs, 8. T. Bull. Madras Fisheries, 15 (6): 139. 1923.

_ ® The maund, as generally used throughout India equals 82.284 pounds; in Madras,

it sometimes may equal only about 25 pounds.

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 1

that Dr. B. N. Chopra’s suggestions of the formation of an All-India

Central Co-ordinating Organization for the Study of the scientific

problems connected with our vast inland and coastal fisheries should

recelve earnest consideration by the Government.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

RECENTLY ELECTED TO RESIDENT MEMBERSHIP

IN THE ACADEMY

Harry 8S. BERNTON, practicing physician and professor of hygiene and

preventive medicine, Georgetown University, in Heo gO of contributions

in the field of protein sensitization.

GERARD DIKMANS, parasitologist, Bureau of Animal Industry, in recog-

nition of his contributions to parasitology, especially helminth parasites

of ruminants.

Irvine T. Hata, principal silviculturist, U. 8. Forest Service, in recog-

nition of his contributions to forest research, particularly on the growth,

yield, and natural reproduction of the Western White Pine of the Northwest.

Eimer Hicains, chief, Division of Scientific Inquiry, U. 8. Bureau of

Fisheries, in recognition of his contributions to marine biology as related

to the fisheries.

Huau Curtis McPumr, chief, Division of Animal Husbandry, Bureau

of Animal Industry, in recognition of his contributions in the field of genetics

of plants and animals.

Ex_mer Martin NeEtson, principal chemist, Food and Drug Administra-

tion, in recognition of his researches in the field of nutrition and vitamins.

WaLTeR RamMBERG, physicist, National Bureau of Standards, in recog-

nition of his contributions to mechanics, in particular his researches in the

mechanics of structures.

SANFORD Morris ROSENTHAL, senior pharmacologist, National Institute

of Health, in recognition of his researches on the test for liver function, the

pharmacology of arsphenamines and mercury, and the chemotherapy of

sulfanilamide.

Harry WALTNER TiTUus, senior biological chemist, Bureau of Animal In-

dustry, in recognition of his contributions to the physiology and chemistry

of nutrition, in particular the nutrition of poultry.

EVERETT EtmMerR WeuR, associate zoologist, Bureau of Animal Industry,

in recognition of his contributions to helminthology, particularly nematode

parasites of birds.

CONTENTS

IcHTHYOLOGY.—Salmon psychology. Henry B. WarD............

PaLEonTOLOGY.—A fossil catfish (Felichthys stauroforus) from the

Maryland Miocene. W. GARDNER Lynn and A. M. MELLAND

PALEONTOLOGY.—Certain pleurotomariid gastropods from the Car-

boniferous of New Mexico and Texas. Grorcr H. Girty.....

PALEOBOTANY.—The fruit of Trapa? microphylla Lesquereux. Ro-

LAND W. Brown and EpGaR HOULDSWORTH................--

ORNITHOLOGY.—A genus and three new forms of birds from Borneo.

OS FRAIL Ge ci at ee

ZooLoGy.—Crabs as food in India. A. RAMAKRISHNA REDDY......

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY) 0 on ie Oe eee

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Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 29 FEeBruARY 15, 1939 No. 2

GEOLOGY.—Note on unreported Oligocene in Citrus County, Florida.

W. C. MANSFIELD, Geological Survey.

Mossom? in 1925 assigned to the Ocala limestone (upper Eocene)

the entire thickness of about 115 feet exposed in the vertical face of

the Crystal River Rock Company’s quarry located five miles south-

east of Crystal River, Citrus County, Florida. In 1929, Cooke and

Mossom’ also assigned to the Ocala limestone the entire thickness of

the exposure, then about 121 feet. In 1937, the locality was visited

by the writer and C. W. Mumm, and a collection of fossils was ob-

tained from all parts of the opening (U. 8. Geol. Survey station

14141). When studied later, this collection was found to contain a

mixture of Oligocene and Eocene fossils. The quarry was visited in

1938 by the writer and F. 8. MacNeil, and at this time a collection

was obtained from the upper part of the face (station 14336). This

collection contains definitely Oligocene fossils and supplies evidence

for assignment of the upper part of the exposure to the Suwannee

limestone.

Much of the wall of the quarry consists of limestone, but an un-

dulating and somewhat indurated clayey band, one foot in thickness,

runs irregularly across the upper part of the face, its position esti-

mated to be in places 70 feet above the floor of the quarry. It clearly

cuts across the horizontal beds of the underlying rock. The approxi-

mate lower boundary of this clay band is indicated by the dotted

line on the accompanying photograph (Fig. 1), though on account of

the nearly vertical exposure and concealment in places by rubble the

exact position of the contact is not everywhere clear. This band is

interpreted as the unconformable contact between the Ocala lime-

stone (upper Eocene) and the overlying Suwannee limestone (Oli-

gocene). The thickness of Oligocene strata may be as much as 30

feet.

1 Published with the permission of the Director, Geological Survey, United States

Department of the Interior. Received Nov. 14, 1938.

2 Mossom, Stuart. A preliminary report on the limestones and marls of Florida.

Florida State Geol. Survey 16th Ann. Rept. pp. 124, 125. 1925.

3 Cooke, C. W., and Mossom, Sruarr. Geology of Florida. Florida Geol.

Survey 20th Ann. Rept. p. 56. 1929.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 2

Fig. 1.—Face of Crystal River Rock Company’s quarry, 5 miles southeast of

Crystal River, Citrus County, Florida. Dotted line indicates unconformity separating

Eocene and Oligocene beds.

Most of the fossils in the later collection (14336) came from a posi-

tion above the undulating, horizontal band, and a few from rock

believed to have fallen from the upper part of the quarry. The matrix

in which the Oligocene fossils occur consists mainly of an indurated,

semi-crystalline limestone. The following species were collected:

MOoLLUSCA

Tubulostium sp. Two specimens were collected. This genus occurs in

the Eocene. It also is living’

Pyrula sp., internal mold.

Cypraea sp., sculpture corroded.

Ampullina? sp.

Glycymeris? sp., internal mold.

Ostrea sp., apparently not an Eocene species.

Pecten brooksvillensis Mansfield?

Chione sp., similar to specimens in the Suwannee limestone (Oligocene)

and in the lower bed at Ellaville, Florida (Oligocene).

Teredo? incrassata Gabb.

ECHINODERMATA

Rhyncolampus gouldii (Bouvé), quite common. This species is abundant

in the Suwannee limestone (Oligocene).

FORAMINIFERA

The Foraminifera were examined by Dr. T. W. Vaughan who reports

one determinable species. Lepidocyclina suwpera (Conrad), and con-

cludes that the geologic horizon is Oligocene.

He. 15, 1939 CASH: DISCOMYCETES 47

BOTANY.—Some Georgia Discomycetes1 EpitH K. Casu, Bureau

of Plant Industry. (Communicated by JoHN A. STEVENSON.)

The specimens here discussed were collected in Georgia in the

spring of 1938 by Dr. Julian H. Miller. All except one are incon-

spicuous fungi growing on overwintered leaves. It is probable that

some of these foliicolous species have a far wider distribution than is

now known, but have hitherto escaped notice because of their small

size. Specimens are in the herbarium of the University of Georgia, at

Athens, and in the Mycological Collections of the Bureau of Plant

Industry at Washington, and type material of the three species de-

scribed as new has also been deposited in the Farlow Herbarium of

Harvard University, and herbaria of the New York Botanical Garden

and the University of Michigan.

1. Lachnum corni n. sp. (fig. 1.)

Apothecia stipitate, sparse, hypophyllous, soft fleshy, pilose, cupulate,

avellaneous to wood brown (Ridgway),? 0.3-0.8 mm diam., hymenium whitish

to pale olive buff, margin inrolled when dry, often folded triangularly; stem

cylindrical, pilose, 0.5 X0.1—0.2 mm; asci narrow-cylindrical, 8-spored, nar-

Fig. 1—Lachnum corni on Cornus amomum (X6). Fig. 2.—Lachnum halesiae

on Halesia carolina (X10). Photo. by M. L. F. Foubert.

rowed at the apex and gradually attenuated toward the base, 33-37.5 X3-

3.0; Spores acicular, biseriate, hyaline, unicellular, 4-6 X0.5-1u; paraphyses

lanceolate, extending beyond the asci, 50-55 X3-3.5u; exciple hyaline, pro-

1 Received November 14, 1938.

* Color terminology is that of Ripaway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature,

Washington, D.C., 1912.

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

senchymatous, covered, particularly at the margin, with brown, non-

septate, finely echinulate hairs, which are slightly swollen and paler at the

apex, 50-65 X 2.5—-3.5y.

Apotheciis stipitatis, hypophyllis, molle carnosis, cupulatis, brunneo-

pilosis, 0.3-0.8 mm diam.; hymenio albido-luteo; stipite cylindrico, 0.5 X0.1—

0.2 mm; ascis cylindricis, 33-37.5 X3-3.5y; ascosporis acicularibus, biseriatis,

unicellularibus, hyalinis, 4-6 X0.5—-1y; paraphysibus lanceolatis, 50-55 X3-

3.5u; pilis brunneis, echinulatis, 50-65 X 2.5-3.5u.

On leaves of Cornus amomum, Epps Bridge, Clarke Co., Ga., Apr. 24,

1938, J. H. Miller.

Lachnum crataegi var. aristatum, described by Velenovsky (7, p. 249) on

branches of Cornus in Bohemia, has larger apothecia and longer asci and

paraphyses. Dasypezis corni-maris v. Hoehn. (4, p. 4), which occurs on

Cornus fruits in Europe, appears from the description to be a Dasyscypha in

the strict sense, with filiform paraphyses; it differs from L. corni also in

color and other characters.

2. Lachnum halesiae n. sp. (fig. 2.)

Apothecia scattered over the lower leaf surface, sessile or substipitate,

soft fleshy, subglobose with the margin inrolled and the hymenium hidden,

then expanded and patelliform, white tomentose, 0.2-0.6 mm diam.; hy-

menium translucent apricot-yellow (Ridgway), drying Capucine yellow;

asci broad-cylindrical, short stipitate, broadly rounded at the apex, 8-spored,

47.5-50 X7.5-8u; spores obliquely uniseriate, hyaline, fusoid, guttulate,

12-15 X1.5—2u; paraphyses exceeding the asci, slender, lanceolate, septate,

65-80 X 2.5—4u; hairs echinulate, hyaline, septate, not swollen at the apex,

90-130 X 3-4u; exciple hyaline, prosenchymatous.

Apotheciis hypophyllis, sessilibus, molle carnosis, subglobosis dein patel-

laribus, albo-tomentosis, 0.2—0.6 mm diam.; hymenio flavo; ascis cylindricis,

octosporis, 47.5-55 X7.5-8.5u; sporis hyalinis, fusoideis, 12-15 1.5-2.5y;

paraphysibus anguste lanceolatis, 65-80 X 2.5—4y; pilis echinulatis, hyalinis,

90-130 X3-4u.

On leaves of Halesia carolina, west side of Mitchell Bridge, Athens, Ga.,

Mar. 20, 1938, J. H. Miller.

So far as is known, no species of Lachnum has been recorded on Halesza

or on the other genera of the Styracaceae, and the fungus appears to be

hitherto undescribed.

3. Lachnum pollinarium (Cke.) n. comb.

Peziza pollinaria Cke. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci. 2: 292. 1875.

Trichopeziza pollinaria (Cke.) Sace. Syll. Fung. 8: 416. 1889.

On leaves of Quercus montana, Athens, Ga., Mar. 28, 1938, J. H. Miller.

The type specimen of Peziza pollinaria on oak leaves, New Jersey, Ellis

2158, was not available for study, but several specimens from the Ellis

Herbarium, collected at Newfield, N. J., between 1875 and 1882, and labeled

by Ellis as P. pollinaria, also Ellis, N. Am. Fungi 138 and de Thiimen, Myc.

Univ. 414, have been examined. The lanceolate paraphyses indicate that

this species belongs to the genus Lachnum. Cooke (1, p. 292) described the

hairs as white, but under the microscope they are pale brown.

Frs. 15, 1939 CASH: DISCOMYCETES 49

4. Dasyscypha acerina (Cke. & Ell.) n. comb.

Peziza (Dasyscypha) acerina Cke. & Ell., Grev. 7: 40. 1878.

Trichopeziza acerina (Cke. & Ell.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8: 417. 1889.

On leaves of Acer rubrum, Lakemont, Ga., Apr. 23, 1938, J. H. Miller.

This agrees with the exsiccati specimen of Ellis, N. Am. Fungi 666, on

leaves of Acer sp., Newfield, N. J.

5. DREPANOPEZIZA POPULI-ALBAE (Kleb.) Nannf.

On leaves of Populus alba, Agr. Campus, Athens, Ga., Mar. 30, 1938,

J. H. Miller.

Although the conidial stage, Marsonia castagnet (Desm. & Mont.) Magn..,

has frequently been collected in the United States, the ascus stage has

rarely been reported.

6. PYRENOPEZIZA FOLIICOLA (Karst.) Sacc.

On leaves of Alnus rugosa, Agr. Campus, Athens, Ga., Mar. 31, 1938,

J. H. Miller.

No specimens of this species have been available for examination, and it

has not been reported from North America, so far as is known, but since

this Georgia specimen agrees with descriptions of P. foldicola, it is tenta-

tively so named.

7. Pyrenopeziza leucodermis n. sp.

Apothecia hypophyllous, subepidermal, then superficial, sessile, scattered

thickly over the leaf, at first nearly globose, then patellate, membranous-

fleshy, pale brown, 150—250u in diameter, 40—50u deep; exterior furfuraceous,

margin even or slightly fimbriate, inrolled when dry; hymenium subhyaline;

asci clavate to narrow ellipsoid, 8-spored, narrowed at the apex and base,

28.6-35.2 X 5—6u; spores obliquely uniseriate to biseriate, straight, cylindrical

to clavate, hyaline, unicellular, guttulate, 5-7 X0.7-1u; paraphyses hyaline,

filiform, unbranched, slightly enlarged and recurved at the tips, frequently

indistinct and united in a hyaline mass; hypothecium hyaline, thin; cortex

of thin-walled, pale brown cells, pseudoparenchymatous at the base,

elongated at the margin and united in pointed clusters to form the fimbriate

margin.

Apotheciis hypophyllis, sessilibus, subglobosis, dein patellatis, mem-

branaceo-carnosis, pallide brunneis, furfuraceis, 150—250y diam., 40—50z altis;

hymenio subhyalino; ascis clavatis, octosporis, 28.6-35.2 5-6; sporis

cylindricis vel clavatis, hyalinis, unicellularibus, guttulatis, 5-7 0.7-ly;

paraphysibus hyalinis, filiformibus, apice recurvatis; hypothecio tenul,

hyalino; excipulo pseudoparenchymatico, cellulis marginem versus elongatis.

On leaves of Acer leucoderme, Bobbin Mill, Athens, Ga., Apr. 27, 1938,

J. H. Miller (type); of Acer floridanum, Savannah River, Elbert Co., Ga.,

May 2, 1938, J. H. Miller.

Pyrenopeziza aceris Nannf., which occurs on petioles of Acer in Europe,

is a different fungus, with a clypeus-like covering and opening by a slit. A

Specimen of Desm. Pl. Crypt. Fr. 1423, issued as Stictis atrata Desm., and

cited by Nannfeldt, (5, p. 141) has been studied.

50 #JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 2

Superficially this fungus on Acer leucoderme resembles an exsiccati speci-

men of Jaap, Fungi selecti exs. 556, issued as Drepanopeziza campestris

(Rehm) Jaap, but differs in smaller asci and spores. It is possible that the

Georgia fungus may belong to the genus Drepanopeziza. The two most

essential characters of that genus, however, according to v. Hoehnel (3,

p. 332) are the Gloeosporium conidial stage and the obconie (‘‘kreiselformig’’)

form of the apothecia, which have a narrow stem-like base deeply embedded

in the tissues of the leaf. Since no Gloeosporium stage has so far been found

in association with this discomycete, and the apothecia, even when young,

are consistently subglobose, none showing the obconic or top-shaped form

characteristic of Drepanopeziza, it is provisionally placed in Pyrenopeziza,

8. Ionomidotis fulvo-tingens (B. & C.) n. comb.

Cenangium fulvo-tingens B. & C., Grev. 4:4. 1875.

On wood of Quercus alba, Hulme Farm, Winterville, Ga., Mar. 26, 1938,

J. H. Miller and G. Thompson.

The description of Cenangium fulvo-tingens B. & C. was based on a col-

lection made by Michener in Pennsylvania, on dry wood of an unidentified

host. One of the two specimens in the Michener Collection in Washington is

labeled as on Cornus, in the other the host is not recorded. Both were col-

lected in Chester Co., Pa., presumably by Michener, and a portion of at

least one was examined by Curtis. A specimen of the same fungus, collected

on bark of dead maple in Pennsylvania and examined by the writer, has

recently been described by Overholts (6, p. 274). Both this Pennsylvania

collection and that from Georgia appear to be specifically identical with the

authentic specimens in the Michener Collection.

All of the species of Durand’s genus Jonomidotis (2) are described as

having a violet color reaction with KOH. Since the KOH reaction in all of

the specimens of Cenangium fulvo-tingens examined is tawny or russet

(Ridgway) rather than violet, a reference to this fungus to Durand’s genus

was at first not considered possible, in spite of its similarity in many respects

to that genus. However examination of two species of Tonomidotis indicates

that the violet color reaction with KOH is not constant. An authentic speci-

men of Jonomidotis olivascens Durand from the type locality, received

through the courtesy of Dr. D. H. Linder, of the Farlow Herbarium, was

found to show the same reddish brown color as Cenangium fulvo-tingens,

when a portion of the apothecium was macerated in a solution of KOH,

although Durand (2, p. 12) described it as ‘‘deep violet.”’ Two specimens of

Ionomidotis irregularis (Schw.) Durand were also tested in the same strength

KOH solution. In a dried specimen from Bass Lake, Michigan, July 21,

1937, A. H. Smith 7636, received from the University of Michigan Her-

barium, the color was deep violet, as described by Durand. A fresh collection

from Port Republic, Md., K.D. Doak, Sept. 1938, gave a reddish brown

reaction, although a microscopic mount in KOH showed a slight violet

tinge. This variation in color reaction can not therefore be attributed to the

Frs. 15, 1939 GINSBURG: NEW GOBIES ol

length of time material has been kept, and further study will be required for

its explanation.

Since Cenangium fulvo-tingens B. & C. shows the same reddish brown

KOH reaction as some species of Jonomidotis and also agrees in its other

essential characters, it may be considered to belong to that genus, if the

generic concept is broadened to include species having a reddish-brown as

well as a violet KOH reaction. Of the species listed by Durand, it is closest

to I. olivascens, but differs from the latter in the smaller spores. The apothe-

cia are described by Berkeley and Curtis as externally brownish-pulveru-

lent; the specimens in the Michener Collection fail to show this character,

which is most noticeable in the Pennsylvania collection made by Dr.

Overholts.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Cooxzr, M. C. Synopsis of the Discomycetous fungi of the United States. Part 1.

Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci. 2: 285-300. 1875.

2. Duranp, E. J. The genera Midotis, Ionomidotis and Cordierites. Proc. Amer.

Acad. Arts & Sci. 59: 1-18, 2 pl. 1923.

3. HoEHNEL, F. von. Mycologische Fragmente 143. Ueber die Gattung Trochila Fries.

Ann. Myc. 15: 330-334. 1917.

4 (Edit. J. Weese). Mykologische Beitrdge, Mitt. 3, no. 26. Mitt. Bot. Inst.

Techn. Hochsch. Wien 8: 4-5. 19381.

5. NANNFELDT, J. A. Studien tiber die Morphologie und Systematik der nichtlichenisier-

ten tnoperculaten Discomyceten, 368 p., 20 pl., 47 text-fig. Nova Acta Soc. Sci.

Upsal. IV, 8(2). 1932.

. OverHO.LTS, L. O. Mycological notes for 1934-85. Mycologia 30: 269-279, 1 fig.

1938.

7. VELENOVSKY, J. Monographia Discomycetum Bohemiae, 436 p., 31 pl. 1934.

op)

ICHTHYOLOGY .—Twenty one new American gobies.1 Isaac GINS-

BuRG, U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries. (Communicated by ELMER

HIGGINS. )

New species of gobiid fishes discovered as a result of an investiga-

tion of the American members of this difficult family carried out by

me for the last few years, on and off, are here described. The following

accounts consist chiefly of brief preliminary diagnoses. However, I

revised the genera to which they belong, in manuscript, and the

diagnoses state their most essential or key characters which are

sufficient to distinguish the species; but of course, they are not ade-

quate for a full understanding of their relationship to all the species

within their respective genera. Especially important characters left

out of these preliminary accounts refer to the lateral line organs.

These structures have hitherto been neglected in accounts of Ameri-

can gobies; but they are of unusual scientific interest, and of great

importance in the classification of gobies, especially in the delimita-

tion of the genera and subgenera. However, it would perhaps be more

1 Published by permission of the U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries. Received

December 9, 1938.

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

confusing than illuminating to describe these structures in frag-

mentary form and without illustrations. They will be considered later

at some length and in systematic manner for all American gobies.

Fuller accounts and a discussion of the relationship of the species

will also be given in the generic revisions.

Special mention is made here of two very valuable collections

which contributed the majority of the newly discovered species. One

is a small but very important collection obtained by the Pawnee, of

the Bingham Oceanographic Foundation, during 1925 and 1926, and

submitted to me for study through the generosity of Professor Albert

EK. Parr. This collection, from the Atlantic and Pacific, contained

eight new species, three of which I (1938, pp. 114, 119 and 120) have

already described, while the other five are described here.

The other one is that obtained by Dr. Samuel F. Hildebrand in

Panama as a result of and in connection with his study of the fauna

of the locks of the Panama Canal during 1935 and 1937, at the time

the locks were drained. This collection which Doctor Hildebrand

very generously turned over to me for study, included seven unde-

scribed species, one of which I (1938, p. 112) already described, and

the other six are included here. This collection shows two things: first,

the wealth of the gobiid fauna of the Isthmus of Panama, a region

that has been comparatively well worked before, both in the num-

ber of species and their abundance; second, the industry, persever-

ance and ingenuity of Doctor Hildebrand in obtaining such an un-

usual collection. A large part of his success was due to the assiduous

salvage of representative fishes left after the locks were drained,

having obtained five new species then. However, the value of the col-

lection is not to be gauged only by the new species discovered. The

material obtained enabled me also to distinguish more accurately

and draw up more adequate accounts of previously established species

in my revisions of their genera. Doctor Hildebrand permits me to

state that an important factor in his marked success was the use of

poison in proper places in tide pools, chiefly those having a muddy or

partly muddy bottom. »

The numerical value of a given measurement is always expressed

as a percentage of the standard length. The length of a specimen re-

corded refers to the total length, including the caudal fin, unless

otherwise specified.

Lophogobius cristulatus, n. sp.

Nuchal crest low. Anterior boundary of scaled area on antedorsal extent

in a nearly straight transverse line only a little behind eye. Depth 29,

Fes. 15, 1939 GINSBURG: NEW GOBIES 53

caudal 27.5, ventral 27, pectoral 25. D.10, A. 9, P.19, C. 15 (branched rays).

Holotype-—U. S. N. M. 107294. Pacific coast of Panama; 8. F. Hilde-

brand. Male 74 mm. The original label was lost. It was probably collected

on Farfan Beach near Balboa.

This appears to be the first record of a Lophogobius from the Pacific coast

of America. The specimen examined represents a species distinct from the

common L. cyprinoides of the Atlantic, differing in having the nuchal crest

strikingly lower, and the antedorsal distance completely covered with scales,

except for a narrow transverse area behind the eye. The proportions of the

depth and fins of the single specimen examined have lower numerical values

than specimens of cyprinoides of similar size. The caudal has 15 branched

rays, while in 55 specimens of cyprinoides counted, only 2 had 15 rays, the

preponderant majority having 14.

Lythrypnus heterochroma, n. sp.

D. 10, A. 9, P. 15. Scales very large, 22, the anterior most ones situated

on a vertical through base of third dorsal spine. Six transverse bands under

first dorsal, two longitudinal bands on posterior part of body.

Holotype.—Bingham Oceanographic Collection 375. Glover Reef, off the

coast of Yucatan, Mexico. Male 22 mm.

Of all the known American gobies this species is structurally nearest to

(Gobius) Lythrypnus mowbrayi (Bean), but the two species are probably of

comparatively remote relationship, their divergence being of at least sub-

generic magnitude. This question will be considered at some future time.

It will suffice to state here that heterochroma differs from mowbrayz in having

larger scales. It further differs from mowbray1, as well as from all known

American gobies, in having a fairly well marked diphasic color pattern,

transversely banded anteriorly, longitudinally banded posteriorly.

Lythrypnus dalli (Gilbert)

Restriction of the name dallimHaving revised the genus Lythrypnus it be-

came apparent that the gobies hitherto designated as dallz in the literature,

including Gilbert’s original material, belong to at least two species. Gilbert

did not designate a holotype, and it becomes necessary to definitely restrict

the application of the name dalli in order to supply both species with names.

I examined five specimens of what appears to be Gilbert’s original ma-

terial, two in the Bureau of Fisheries and three in the National Museum,

labeled Gobius dalli. All five specimens are in bad condition. They are faded

and the fins are broken, while the color and the relative length of the spines

and rays are, in general, of importance in properly distinguishing the species

of Lythrypnus. They are thus poorly adapted for study in distinguishing

species; but our final decision regarding the status of the name dalli must

be based on their study, and the pertinent characters that may be deciphered

are stated.

The two specimens in the Bureau of Fisheries, from Albatross station 3001,

are in worst condition. They are entirely faded and the fin rays cannot be

counted with assurance. As near as I can determine, the counts are D. 16,

A. 13. They apparently belong to dalli as here restricted.

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 2

The three specimens in the National Museum are in two jars, having

different museum numbers, but both bearing the red type label. Jar 48255

contains two specimens, from Albatross station 3001 in the Gulf of Cali-

fornia, 14 and 17 mm in standard length, having D. 16, A. 13, P. 18, and D.

18, A. 14, P. 18, respectively. Traces left of the cross bands are of approxi-

mately the same width as in 18 other specimens examined, in good condition,

also from the Gulf of California, that will be described in a revision of the

genus. These two specimens are apparently conspecific with the other 18,

and the smaller one is here formally designated as the lectotype.

Jar 41974 contains one specimen, from Catalina Island, 27 mm in standard

length, having D. 18, A. 15, P. 19. In the fin ray counts it more nearly

agrees with the following species, latifascia. Traces left of the bands are

appreciably narrower than in the two more recently preserved specimens of

latiufascia examined, and are more nearly like in dallz as here restricted, but

their narrow appearance is probably due to fading. Very probably this speci-

men is an example of latzfascza, unless still another closely related species

exists at Catalina Island.

Lectotype —U. 8S. N.M. 107287. Gulf of California, Abacos station 3001,

lat. 24° 55’ 15’, long. 110° 39’; 33 fathoms; March 16, 1889; 14 mm in stand-

ard length.

Lythrypnus latifascia, n. sp.

D. 18, A. 14-15, P. 18-19. Tip of longest dorsal spine reaching base of

sixth dorsal ray in female. Dark cross bands wide.

Holotype —U.8. N. M. 107282. Fishermen’s Cove, Catalina Island, Cali-

fornia; Vernon Brock; June 25, 1935; female 22 mm in standard length.

This species differs from dalli, as restricted above, in having strikingly

wider cross bands. Color differences in the genus Lythrypnus, in general,

are so striking and fairly constant, that they must be considered as of specific

importance, on a par with structural differences in other genera, as I will

discuss fully in the revision of the genus. Judged by the two specimens ex-

amined, latifascia has average higher counts of the fin rays, and the spines

in the female at least, are longer than in dallz.

Lythrypnus crinitus, n. sp.

D. 17, A. 13, P. 19. Longest dorsal spine reaching end of second dorsal

in male. Cross bands on body obsolescent, only very feeble traces of such

bands discernible.

Holotype.—U. 8S. N. M. 107281. Albemarle Island, Galapagos Archi-

pelago; 32 fathoms; W. L. Schmitt; January 25, 1934; male 30 mm.

This species fairly well agrees in its important structural characters with

dalli; the differences in the specimens examined are of a minor nature. It

differs from dalli chiefly in color, lacking the striking cross bands present in

that species. It is a markedly pale species, unlike all its congeners which have

the color pattern strikingly developed and beautiful.

Microgobius emblematicus (Jordan and Gilbert)

Restriction of the name emblematicus.—Before the following species may

be supplied with a name, it becomes necessary to definitely restrict the use

Fes. 15, 1939 GINSBURG: NEW GOBIES 55

of the older name emblematicus. The types on which that name has been

based appear to have been lost, while the original description is more or

less applicable to three distinct species that occur in the type locality. It is

very probable that the authors of emblematicus had a mixture of the three

species, since all three are common and they failed to take proper account

of their distinguishing characters.

The paper in which emblematicus was established (Jordan and Gilbert,

1882, p. 330) consists of descriptions of the new species contained in a collec-

tion made for the National Museum, and the types presumably should

have been deposited in that museum. However, they are not present on the

shelves and no record was found in the register or card catalog of the museum

to indicate that the types ever reached there. Furthermore, in the paper

referred to, the authors give museum numbers for all the other species de-

scribed there, with the sole exception of emblematicus. It seems apparent,

therefore, that the types were lost, and failed to reach the museum. They are

probably not now in existence, and we must rely entirely on the authors’

account to determine the status of the name emblematicus.

Outside of the description of life colors which I have no means of checking

at present, the only pertinent statements in the original description that

may throw some light on the question as to which species the authors had,

are as follows: ‘‘Dorsal spines very slender and weak, some of the middle

ones usually prolonged, sometimes nearly reaching to base of caudal, some-

times little elevated ... D. VII-16; A. 17.” The words ‘‘sometimes reaching

nearly to base of caudal” shows that the authors had some specimens at

least of that species to which the name emblematicus is here restricted; the

rest of the above quoted statement refers to females of the same species and

equally as well to the species described below as brevispinis or to M. tabo-

gensis Meek and Hildebrand (1928, p. 873). The count of the second dorsal

refers only to emblematicus, as here restricted, according to my determination

of the frequency distributions of the three species. The anal count refers

to the same species and to tabogensis as well, but not to brevispinis. However,

the differences between the predominant numbers of the two counts among

the three species is only one ray, and hence the counts are not of decisive

importance in this connection. It may be concluded then that the original

account was based certainly on some specimens of emblematicus as restricted

below, and quite probably also on specimens of one or both the other species.

The question now is whether later authors restricted the use of the name

emblematicus.

That name was used in connection with actual specimens in two later

works. Gilbert and Starks (1904, p. 174) had specimens of at least two of

the species which they recorded under the one name, emblematicus. I ex-

amined a lot of only 5 of their specimens and found it to consist of a mixture

of two species. Consequently, they cannot be said to have restricted the use

of that name. The next authors who treated of the species concerned are

Meek and Hildebrand (1928, pp. 871-874). They definitely distinguished

tabogensis. Furthermore, I examined part of their material which they in-

cluded under their account of emblematicus, the part deposited in the Na-

tional Museum, and find that all those specimens belong to that species

here described as breivspinis. Nevertheless, it cannot be said that these

authors thus restricted the use of the name emblematicus to that species.

They did not state so definitely and they apparently did not suspect that

the name emblematicus was possibly based on more than one species.

Since this was not done by previous authors, the name emblematicus is

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 2

herewith restricted by the formal designation of a neotype. As here re-

stricted, emblematicus differs from brevispinis chiefly in the extent of the

squamation, the number of fin rays, and the relative length of the dorsal

spines and ventral fin of the male. M. tabogensis differs from both chiefly

in having a patch of modified, ctenoid scales at some distance behind the

base of the pectoral fin. The restriction as made seems to be best on a con-

sideration of all the points involved. It saves Meek and Hildebrand’s tabo-

gensis as a valid name, and we know for certain that the original authors —

had some specimens of the species to which the name is restricted. The name

emblematicus itself applies to the species restricted more than to the other

two.

Neotype.—Stanford University Collection 33208. Panama Bay; C. H.

Gilbert; male 39 mm in standard length.

Microgobius brevispinis, n. sp.

Mouth oblique, end of maxillary falling under middle of eye to under pos-

terior margin of pupil. Scales 62—72, all cycloid; bare area on back under

first dorsal comparatively restricted. Predorsal fold moderate. Tip of longest

spine reaching base of second to fourth ray in male, a little short of origin

of second dorsal in female. D. 17-18, A. 18-19, P. 22-23. Ventral approxi-

mately reaching origin of anal in male, falling considerably short in female.

A spot or band below first dorsal absent or very faint.

Holotype.—U. 8. N. M. 81842. Balboa, Panama; in tide pools; Meek and

Hildebrand; February 7, 1912; male 42 mm in standard length.

This species is nearest to emblematicus as restricted above where their

distinguishing characters are indicated.

Microgobius curtus, n. sp.

Mouth moderately oblique, end of maxillary under middle of eye or a little

short of that point. Scales 62-70, cycloid, except a small patch of rather

weakly spinuliferous scales at middle of body under first dorsal; bare area

on back under first dorsal moderate. Predorsal fold very low to nearly

obsolescent. Tip of longest spine reaching base of eighth to fifteenth ray. D.

GAL 6. Pe 2-22:

Holotype —U. 8. N. M. 107292. Salada, Guayaquil, Ecuador; in man-

grove swamp; October 1-2, 1926; W. L. Schmitt; male 30 mm in standard

length.

Structurally this species is nearest to M. tabogensis Meek and Hilde-

brand. It differs in having smaller scales, fewer fin rays, and longer spines

in the female especially.

Parrella macropteryx, n. sp.

Scales about 28-29, present on antedorsal distance. Maxillary rather long,

its posterior end on a vertical at some distance behind eye in large male.

Tip of longest spine reaching base of tenth ray. D. 13, A. 12. P. 16-18.

Pectoral unusually long, its tip reaching to under base of seventh or eighth

dorsal ray. Head subterete, interorbital narrow. Pectoral 44-45, caudal 60,

depth 18.5-19.5, depth of caudal peduncle 11—11.5, maxillary in male 15.5-

17. A series of five diffuse blotches on body.

Holotype.—Bingham Oceanographic Collection 1688. Siguanea Bay, Isle

of Pines, Cuba; taken by the Pawnee with a trawl; April 6, 1925; male 55mm.

Frs. 15, 1939 GINSBURG: NEW GOBIES 57

This species differs from Parrella maxillaris, the only other known species

of its genus, in having scales on the antedorsal area, a shorter maxillary,

more numerous rays in dorsal and anal, fewer pectoral rays, a longer pec-

toral and caudal, longer dorsal spines, and having the body not as slender.

It may be distinguished from all known American gobies by its extremely

long pectoral.

Parrella spilopteryx, n. sp.

Scales 34, present on antedorsal distance. End of maxillary under middle

of eye in male. Tip of longest dorsal spine falling short of origin of second

dorsal. D. 12, A. 12, P. 21. Pectoral of moderate length reaching a vertical

through base of third dorsal ray. Head somewhat depressed; interorbital

wide. Pectoral 31.5, caudal 42.5, depth 21.5, depth of caudal peduncle 10.5,

maxillary 12. Body with four, diffuse, rather wide cross bands; a black spot

on base of pectoral near its upper margin.

Holotype.—U. 8. N. M. 107293. Miraflores Locks, Panama Canal; upper

chamber, east side; S. F. Hildebrand; April 28, 19387; male 74 mm, the only

specimen examined.

This species is evidently widely divergent from both P. mazillaris and

P. macropteryx. It differs from both in having a notably shorter maxillary,

depressed head and wide interorbital.

Parrella fusca, n. sp.

Scales about 38, present on antedorsal distance. Maxillary ending under

middle of eye. Tip of longest dorsal spine failing to reach origin of second

dorsal. D. 138, A. 138. P. 20. Head depressed, interorbital rather wide.

Caudal 38.5, depth 20, depth of caudal peduncle 8, maxillary 10. Color nearly

uniform, dark brown, shaded with lighter color.

Holotype—U. 8. N. M. 107295. Miraflores Locks, Panama Canal, lower

chamber; 8S. F. Hildebrand; March, 1937; female 42 mm, the only specimen

examined.

This species is nearest structurally to spilopteryx, but is evidently widely

divergent from it. They diverge chiefly in the lateral line organs. Without

considering the lateral line organs for the present, the two species are sepa-

rable by their color, and by fusea having a more slender caudal peduncle and

more numerous dorsal and anal rays.

The three new species of Parrella here described, together with the

hitherto only known genotype, constitute a rather heterogeneous group.

However, although the four species are rather widely divergent, they are

apparently nearer to one another than any one of them is to other gobies,

and they are properly grouped in one genus. Furthermore, the genus Parr-

ella as now constituted bridges the gap, in some important respects, be-

tween Microgobius and Bollmannia. A full discussion of the proper boun-

daries of these three genera, and their relationship, involves a consideration

of the relationship of the contained species, respectively, and would take

up too much space. This discussion is reserved for a later paper.

08 $$ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

Bollmannia chlamydes Jordan

Restriction of the name chlamydes.—It is necessary to definitely restrict the

application of the name chlamydes, because Jordan’s account is based on at

least two species, possibly more. Most of Jordan’s specimens, judged by the

material now preserved in the National Museum, belonged to chlamydes, as

restricted below. The number of fin rays given in the original description

refers to this species; but the color description is undoubtedly based in part

on the following species, wmbrosa, and at least one of the six specimens

on which I base that species have been separated from presumably Jordan’s

original material. These two species are very markedly distinct, and a study

of their lateral line organs shows that the divergence between them is of

subgeneric magnitude. In spite of their wide divergence, specimens of both

species were included in the original description of chlamydes. Jordan also

states: “‘Middle caudal rays very long, somewhat more than half length of

body.” This statement agrees and nearly agrees with the two species

here described as longipinnis and pawneea, respectively. The caudal in the

specimens examined of chlamydes, as here restricted, is broken. In one speci-

men in which it appears to be nearly entire, it is about one-third the stand-

ard length. Since the caudal length is of specific importance among the

species of Bollmannia, it is very possible that one or two still other species

were included in the original account of chlamydes.

The question now comes up, did Jordan restrict his species by designating

a particular specimen as the type? Seemingly he did so, since the original

description states the type to be U. S. N. M. 41158, and its length is given

as 42 inches. However, the type specimen cannot now be identified with

certainty, as follows.

U. S. N. M. 41158, presumably the type, is entered on the register as

having been obtained at Albatross station 2804, whereas only two stations

are mentioned in the original description, 2800 and 2805. Furthermore, jar

41158 now contains two specimens (belonging to two distinct species), while

Jordan definitely designated a single specimen as the type and stated its

length in the original description. To add further to the tangle it is to be

noted that numbers 41142, 41234, 41461 and 41489 were also entered in

the museum register as being the ‘‘type’”’ of the species. Number 41158 now

bears the red type label but it was probably attached at some later time,

since numbers 41142 and 41489 containing a single specimen each, formerly

bore red labels which are now placed within the jars. It is apparent, there-

fore, that some error has been committed. Either the museum number or

the Albatross station numbers as given in the original description are er-

roneous. It is also possible that the type specimen after having been studied

was never set aside definitely or that it was later mixed with other specimens.

In view of these uncertainties and the necessity of definitely restricting

the name chlamydes, one out of three specimens in U.S. N. M. 41234, from

Albatross station 2800, is hereby designated as the lectotype. The lot of

three specimens was originally entered on the register as “‘types.’’ Of the

two specimens in 41158, the larger one, a female 82 mm in standard length,

also belongs to this species (the smaller one now designated as U.S. N. M.

107288 is an uwmbrosa). Consequently the present restriction of chlamydes

will stand even if we assume that 41158 is the true type.

Lectotype.—U. S. N. M. 93825. Panama Bay; Albatross station 2800, lat.

8° 51’, long. 79° 31’ 30”; 7 fathoms; March 30, 1888; male 75 mm in standard

length.

Fes. 15, 1939 GINSBURG: NEW GOBIES 59

Bollmannia umbrosa, n. sp.

Dorsal and anal rays usually 13 and 14, respectively, sometimes 12 and

13, respectively. Pectoral rays 24-26. A lengthwise row of large scales at

lower margin of cheek in addition to other scales; approximately upper

third of opercle covered with 3 or 4 rather large scales. Tip of longest dorsal

spine reaching base of third to fifth ray in large females. Head 30-32, eye

8.5-9, depth of caudal peduncle 10-11. Body with 8—-10 faint cross bands;

first dorsal with a black blotch; upper lip with a black marginal band.

Holotype.—U. 8S. N. M. 107290. Panama Bay; Albatross station 2804, lat.

8° 16’ 30’, long. 79° 37’ 45”; 47 fathoms; March 30, 1888; male 70 mm in

standard length. Removed from U.S. N. M. 41395, containing in addition

4 specimens of B. chlamydes as restricted above.

This species is closely related to B. macropoma Gilbert, differing in having

a smaller eye, somewhat deeper caudal peduncle, somewhat longer dorsal

spines, and more numerous cross bars on the body.

Bollmannia marginalis, n. sp.

D. 14-15, A. 14-15, P. 24-25. Row of scales at lower margin of cheek

absent; upper third of opercle covered with large scales. Tip of longest

dorsal spine in male reaching to middle of second dorsal base and as far as

middle of caudal peduncle. Head 27.5—28.5, caudal 36.5-39, eye 8.5—9.5,

depth of caudal peduncle 9.5-11. Body with a median row of five black

blotches; first dorsal with a black spot at its margin; no black band on upper

lip.

Holotype.-—U. 8. N. M. 107284. Solango Island, Ecuador; 12 fathoms;

W. L. Schmitt; January 18, 1935; male 56 mm.

Judged by the lateral line organs this species is nearest to B. litura from

the Atlantic, differing strikingly in having more numerous fin rays, a shorter

head and caudal, a smaller eye, and a more slender caudal peduncle. The

combination of a short caudal and long dorsal spines is distinctive. It differs

from all its congeners in having the dorsal spot located at the margin of the

rae Bollmannia ocellata Gilbert

Restriction of the name ocellata.—The National Museum does not have

any specimen or a jar of specimens of ocellata, which is labeled as the type,

and there is no record of such a type ever having been present. Apparently

no type of this species has ever been set aside. From Gilbert’s original de-

scription one gathers that most of his specimens had comparatively long

spines while some had rather short ones. In my revision of the genus I have

distinguished in manuscript three closely related species from the Gulf of

California, which differ, in part, according to the length of the spines, and

it seems possible that Gilbert included two or all three of these species under

_his account of ocellata. At any rate, the original account applies to a mixture

of these three species. It therefore becomes necessary, in order to supply all

three species with names, to restrict the name ocellata to one of these species

and designate a lectotype. The original description was based on ‘‘numerous

specimens”’ from Albatross stations 3031 and 3035. The National Museum

now has but three lots of specimens labeled ‘‘Bollmannia ocellata,’’ only one

of the lots, U. 8. N. M. 46695, from the type localities, from station 3031.

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

No other specimens from the two original stations are present in either the

Bureau of Fisheries or the National Museum. I am, therefore, constrained

to restrict ocellata to this lot and designate one of the specimens as the lecto-

type, although the specimens are not in good condition and most of Gilbert’s

specimens possibly did not belong to this species. Strictly speaking the speci-

men selected may not be a lectotype, since it is not certain that the lot of

specimens under consideration were examined by Gilbert when he estab-

lished his ocellata. If this lot was not included in Gilbert’s original material,

such material may not be in existence now, and the specimen here selected

is properly a neotype. Whatever the type is to be called, the name ocellata

is herewith formally restricted to the species represented by the type selected.

Lectotype.—U. 8. N. M. 107286. Off Bay Adair, Gulf of California; Alba-

tross station 3031; lat. 31° 6’ 45’, long. 114° 28’ 15”’; 33 fathoms; March

27, 1889; female 76 mm. Removed from U. 8. N. M. 46695 containing 7

other specimens of the same species.

Bollmannia pawneea, n. sp.

Dorsal and anal rays usually 14, sometimes 13. Pectoral rays 23-25. Row

of scales at lower margin of cheek absent; opercle with 4 or 5 large scales

almost entirely covering upper half. Tip of longest dorsal spines in male

reaching a point between base of twelfth ray and middle of caudal peduncle.

Head 29-32, caudal 37-48, depth of caudal peduncle 11-13. First dorsal

with a black spot, no other distinctive color marks on head and body.

Holotype-—Bingham Oceanographic Collection 1689. Perlas Islands,

Panama Bay, lat. 8° 29’ 40’, long. 78° 52’ 30’; 19-24 fathoms; collected by

the Pawnee; March 31, 1926; female 93 mm.

Specimens of this species were also examined from the Gulf of California.

This species is apparently near to ocellata as restricted above, differing in

having longer dorsal spines and a deeper caudal peduncle. This species is

especially characterized by a great profusion of cutaneous papillae.

Bollmannia longipinnis, n. sp.

D. 14, A. 14, P. 22-23. Row of scales at lower margin of cheek absent;

opercle with 2 or 3 scales of moderate size at upper anterior corner. Tip of

longest dorsal spine in male reaching beyond base of caudal, somewhat

shorter in female. Head 29-30, caudal 50-68, depth of caudal peduncle 11.5—

12.5. First dorsal with a black spot, no other distinctive color marks on

head and body.

Holotype.—Bingham Oceanographic Collection 1690. Angeles Bay, Gulf

of California; collected by the Pawnee; May 13, 1926; male 127 mm.

This is a well marked species, and is saliently characterized by the com-

bination of excessively long spines, a long caudal, and a reduced squama-

tion on the opercle. Its nearest relatives seem to be pawneea and ocellata.

Risor mirus, n. sp.

D. 11, A. 9, P. 17. Ventral attaining origin of anal or slightly beyond.

Maxillary ending under anterior margin of pupil.

Holotype-—Bingham Oceanographic Collection 1691. Siguanea Bay, Isle

of Pines, Cuba; trawl; collected by the Pawnee; April 6, 1925; male 22 mm.

Frs. 15, 1939 GINSBURG: NEW GOBIES 61

This species differs from the two known species of its genus, R. binghami

(Parr) and R. ruber (Rosen), by a combination of three characters, namely,

having one or two rays less in the dorsal, a longer ventral and a shorter

maxillary. It further differs from binghamz in having two mucous pores,

instead of one, on the interorbital space.

The peculiar and unusual structure of the head and especially that of

the lips and dentition were originally used by me in establishing Risor

(1933, p. 56). At the time of its establishment I had only one specimen for

study and Risor was therefore placed as a subgenus of Garmannia to which

the species were assigned by previous authors, pending the study of more

specimens in order to gain some knowledge in regard to the variability of

these characters. I have now studied 6 more specimens. The striking char-

acters on the basis of which Risor was originally established prove to be

fairly constant and peculiar to the three species examined. These char-

acters indicate a very high degree of divergence, and Risor is, therefore,

recognized as a distinct genus.

Enypnias aceras, n. sp.

Scales 41-46, not embedded, those on posterior part of body and caudal

peduncle ctenoid. No flaps on top of snout. Dorsal rays 14. Body with a

cross-banded color pattern well or fairly marked; no well marked spot at

base of pectoral.

Holotype-—U. 8S. N. M. 107298. Miraflores Locks, Panama Canal, lower

chamber; 8S. F. Hildebrand; March 1937; male 41 mm.

It is an easy matter to distinguish this species from FE. seminudus (Giin-

ther), the only other known species of its genus, by the larger, non-em-

bedded, ctenoid scales, the absence of flaps on snout, and the banded color

pattern.

_Garmannia hildebrandi, n. sp.

Scales 25-30, extending forward to a vertical approximately through origin

of first dorsal; anterior bare area at dorsal and ventral profile extensive;

usually 4 scales in caudal row, sometimes 5 or 6. First dorsal spine pro-

longed in male. D. 11, A. 10-11, P. 16-18. Head subterete. Maxillary ending

under posterior margin of pupil in male, slightly short of that in female.

Depth of caudal peduncle 13-15. Diffusely cross-banded color pattern.

Holotype.—U. 8. N. M. 107297. Gatun Locks, Panama Canal, upper

chamber; 8. F. Hildebrand; February 21, 1935; male 35 mm.

Doctor Hildebrand obtained 25 other specimens with the type, and it is

evidently a common species. This species is of much interest from the point

of view of geographic distribution. In 1937 Doctor Hildebrand also obtained

4 specimens in the Pedro Miguel Locks. This is the only gobiid that has been

found so far on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of the Isthmus of Panama.

But whether it existed on both sides before the canal was opened remains

unknown.

This species is near structurally to (Gobius) Garmannia chiquita (Jenkins

and Evermann), differing in the subterete head and in having the anterior

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

bare areas at the dorsal and ventral profiles more extensive. The scales in

the caudal row are usually 4, instead of 6, and the number of pectoral rays is

less, but there is a certain degree of intergradation in these characters. The

most striking difference between them is found in the lateral line organs.

I take pleasure in naming this common and interesting species after my

colleague in the Bureau of Fisheries and its efficient collector, Dr. Samuel F.

Hildebrand.

Garmannia spilota, n. sp.

Scales 29, extending to a vertical a little in front of origin of first dorsal,

anterior bare area at dorsal and ventral profile moderate; 4 scales in caudal

row. First spine not prolonged. D. 11, A. 10, P. 19. Head depressed. Maxil-

lary ending under posterior margin of pupil. Depth of caudal peduncle 16.5.

Body not banded, nearly uniformly colored, with a longitudinal median

row of spots.

Holotype.—U. S. N. M. 81828. Colon, Panama; in tide pools; Meek and

Hildebrand; March 12, 1912; male 24 mm.

This species is nearest to hildebrandi; differing in having a deeper caudal

peduncle, more numerous pectoral rays, the bare areas in front less exten-

sive and in color. |

Garmannia spes, n. sp.

Scales extending forward to a point under base of second to fourth dorsal

ray; two isolated, large, ctenoid scales, one behind the other, at a short

distance behind base of pectoral, near midline. D. 11-12, A. 10, P. 16. Head

depressed. Maxillary ending under middle of eye. Depth of caudal peduncle

12. Body diffusely and very irregularly cross-banded.

Holotype.—U. 8S. N. M. 107299. Drydock, Mt. Hope, Canal Zone; J. B.

Shropshire; February 18, 1937; female 20 mm.

This species seems to be most nearly related to G. paradoxa (Ginther),

apparently being the Atlantic coast counterpart of that Pacific coast species.

The extent of squamation is the same as in paradozxa and it has the two

isolated scales behind the pectoral which is characteristic of that species. It

differs in having fewer pectoral rays.

Garmannia homochroma, n. sp.

Scales 28-31, anteriormost scales on a vertical near base of pectoral;

anterior bare areas moderate; usually 4 scales in caudal row, sometimes 5

or 6. First dorsal spine in male not prolonged. D. 11-12. A. 10, P. 18—20.

A small barbule below anterior nostril. Head markedly depressed. Maxillary

notably long, extending to a vertical behind eye in male. Depth of caudal

peduncle 12.5-16. Body nearly uniformly and very moderately dusky, only

very faint traces of cross bands when viewed from dorsal aspect.

Holotype.—U. 8. N. M. 107296. Pedro Miguel Locks, Panama Canal; 8.

I’. Hildebrand; February 20, 1937; male 25.5 mm in standard length.

In addition to well marked differences in the lateral line organs, this

species differs from all its other congeners, by the following combination of

characters: the presence of a barbule, a very long maxillary, a notably de-

Fra. 15, 1939 | PRICE: TREMATODES 63

pressed head. On account of the very distinctive combination of all char-

acters, its immediate relationship is not patent. Its nearest relatives are

possibly spilota or chiquita, but the divergence is wide.

Garmannia pallens, n. sp.

Scales 9-12, extending forward to a point under bases of sixth to eighth

dorsal rays; 4 scales in caudal row. First spine of male prolonged. D. 11,

A. 9, P. 15-16. Head compressed. End of maxillary in male reaching a point

under posterior margin of eye. Light yellowish, crossed by 13-14 narrow,

dark bands.

Holotype.—U. 8. N. M. 107327. Barahona Harbor, Santo Domingo; in

2-4 feet; rocky bottom; John C. Armstrong; July 9, 1933; male 15 mm.

This species is nearest to G. macrodon (Beebe and Tee-Van), differing in

a notably greater extent of squamation, fewer fin rays, and a paler color.

Gobulus myersi, n. sp.

D.11,A. 10, P. 15. Head 30.5, depth of head 14, depth 18, depth of caudal

peduncle 10.5. Ventral aspect darker than dorsal aspect.

Holotype.—U.S. N. M. 107288. Gulf of Mexico, off Cape Sable; Albatross

station 2374, lat. 29° 11’ 30”, long, 85° 29’; 26 fathoms; February 7, 1885;

male 27 mm.

This is the first species of its genus now to be made known from the east

coast. It is evidently nearest to G. crescentalis (Gilbert), from the Gulf of

California, differing in having a deeper body and head, and one or two fewer

rays in the pectoral.

It is a pleasure to name this species after Bialneann George 8. Myers of

Stanford University, who discovered and salvaged the type from a lot of

neglected, unidentified, miscellaneous material while he was in charge of the

Division of Fishes in the National Museum.

LITERATURE CITED

GILBERT, CHARLES H. and Epwin C. Starks. The fishes of Panama Bay. Mem.

California Acad. Sci. 4. 1904.

GINSBURG, Isaac. A revision of the genus Ganiosis (family Gobiidae), with an ac-

count ‘of the genus Garmannia. Bull. Bingham Ocean. Coll. 4(5). 1933.

—— Hight new spectes of gobiord fishes from the American Pacific coast. Univ. South.

California Pub., Hancock Pacific Exp. 2: 109-121. 1938.

JORDAN, Davip StTarR and CHARLES H. GILBERT. Descriptions of nineteen new

species of fishes from the Bay of Panama. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 1: 306-335.

1882.

Merk, SetuH E. and SAMUEL F. HILDEBRAND. The marine fishes of Panama. Publ.

Field Mus. Nat. Hist. 15(3). 1928.

~ZOOLOGY.—WNorth American monogenetic trematodes. III. The fam-

ily Capsalidae (Capsaloidea).| Emmurtr W. Price, U.S. Bureau

of Animal Industry.

This paper is the third of a series on the North American mono-

1 Received November 19, 1938.

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 2

genetic trematodes and deals only with the family Capsalidae; it

also completes the general consideration of the suborder Monopistho-

cotylea Odhner. The organization and purpose of this paper are the

same as for parts I and II (Price 1937, 1938).

Family CAPSALIDAE Baird, 1853

Synonyms.—Phyllinidae Johnston, 1846; Tristomidae Cobbold, 1877;

Tristomatidae Gamble, 1896; Encotyllabidae Monticelli, 1888.

Diagnosis.—Body elliptical, oval or cordate, flattened. Cuticula smooth

or provided with papilliform projections, sometimes with spines along

lateral margins of dorsal surface. Anterior portion of body constricted,

forming a cephalic lobe. Anterior haptors in form of a pair of suckers, or of

glandular areas, or both. Posterior haptor disc-like or sucker-like, armed with

1 to 3 pairs of large hooks and 14 marginal hooklets. Oral aperture ventral,

never surrounded by an oral sucker; pharynx well developed; intestine

usually with median and lateral dendritic diverticula. Special sense organs

consisting of a pair of papillae at anterior margin of cephalic lobe and of 2

pairs of eyes. Excretory apertures dorso-lateral, at or near level of pharynx.

Male and female genital apertures separate, or opening into a common

genital atrium, usually lateral. Testes 2 or more. Ovary median, pre-

testicular. Vagina present or absent.

Type genus.—Capsala Bosc, 1811.

KEY TO SUBFAMILIES OF CAPSALIDAE

1. Posterior haptor with septa: ....0°..4.7...... 9 2

Posterior haptor without septa...............2.... .. 3

DRE WO sLESUCS Cri ccrcsn ta doe a ee ai Ee ein Ops Sete ne ne Trochopinae Price

INU EKOUSSEESEES Sci ere ee ee ee Capsalinae Johnston

BS EWiO' UOSEC Sis cu. tes eo te toe eein re eee ara ny Danae am Benedeniinae Johnston

INUUMETOUS TEStes cs co bac ee en ea Nitzschiinae Johnston

Subfamily BENEDENIINAE Johnston, 1931

Synonyms.—Encotyllabinae Monticelli, 1892; Ancyrocotylinae Monti-

eelli, 1903.

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of suckers or glandular areas, or

both; posterior haptor sucker-like, subsessile or pedunculated, without

septa, armed with 2 to 3 pairs of hooks and 14 marginal hooklets. Testes 2

or, rarely, 1. Ovary entire. Vagina present or absent.

Type genus.—Benedenia Diesing, 1858.

KEY TO GENERA OF BENEDENIINAE

1. Lateral margins of body inrolled ventrally......... Encotyllabe Diesing

Lateral margins of body not inrolled ventrally: ..23 35 eee 2

2. Intestinal tract consisting of simple unbranched ceca.................

BN ae EDN co. cee pe eR OR ets gee Ancyrocotyle Parona and Monticelli

Intestinal tract consisting of ceca with dendritic lateral and median

branches.) ete. 6 ee aus 6 Sooke, biseouee = = chsce eee eee

3. Anterior haptors consisting of glandular areas only. Hntobdella Blainville

Fes. 15, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES 65

Anterior haptors consisting of suckers, or of both glandular areas and

SOC) TES x SSS Sh Sie Sp acre ics SOA eR ne ae a een ee a 4

4. Anterior haptors consisting of suckers.............. Benedenia Diesing

Anterior haptors consisting of both suckers and glandular areas..... ‘

eB oR ean Je ee of avivecd aie Pseudobenedenia Johnston

Genus BENEDENIA Diesing, 1858

Synonyms.—Epibdella Beneden, 1856, in part; Phylline Oken, 1815, not

Abildgaard, 1790, in part; Trzstoma Cuvier, 1817, in part.

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of suckers or sucker-like discs; pos-

terior haptor sucker-like, without septa, armed with 3 pairs of dissimilar

hooks and 14 marginal hooklets. Testes 2, with zones coinciding and fields

separate or touching. Vas deferens usually not forming preovarial loop.

Ovary immediately pretesticular, not separated from testes by wide band

of vitelline follicles. Vagina present or absent.

Type species —Benedenia elegans Diesing, 1858 (=Epibdella sciaenae

Beneden, 1856, renamed).

Johnston (1929) proposed a division of the genus Benedenia into 3 sub-

genera, Benedenia, Parabenedenia and Benedeniella, but since ‘‘the position

of the vaginal aperture in relation to the common genital duct”’ is the only

character given on which these subgenera are based, the writer feels that this

division is unwarranted.

The genus Benedenia contains the following species: Benedenia adenea

Meserve, 1938 (syn. B. anadenea Meserve, 1938), from Mycteroperca sp.;

B. convoluta (Yamaguti, 1937), n. comb., from Hpinephelus akaara; B.

derzhavini (Layman, 1930), from Sebastodes schlegeli1; B. epinephelt (Yama-

guti, 1937), from Epinephelus akaara; B. hendorffii (Linstow, 1889), from

Coryphaena hippurus; B. ishikawae (Goto, 1894), from Lethrinus sp.; B.

isabellae Meserve, 1938, from “‘grouper-like fish” ; B. macrocolpa (Lihe, 1906),

from Rhinoptera javanica; B. madai (Ishii and Sawada, 1938), n. comb.,

from Pagrosomus major; B. mellent (MacCallum, 1927), from Spherozdes

annulatus, etc.; B. muellert (Meserve, 1938), n. comb., from Cratinus agassi-

zit; B. monticellia (Parona and Perugia, 1895),? from Mugil auratus; B.

ovata (Goto, 1894), from Anthias schlegeliz; B. pacifica (Guberlet, 1936), n.

comb., from Aetobatus californicus; B. pagrosomi (Ishii and Sawada, 1938),

n. comb., from Pagrosomus major; B. sciaenae (Beneden, 1856), from Sciaena

aquilla; B. sebastodis (Yamaguti, 1934), from Sebastodes inermis; B. seriolae

(Yamaguti, 1934), from Sebastodes aureovittata; and B. sekiz (Yamaguti,

1937), from Pagrosomus unicolor. Of these species, only B. adenea, B. hen-

mo B. isabellae, B. melleni, and B. pacifica are known from North

merica.

Benedenia adenea Meserve, 1938

Synonym.—Benedenia anadenea Meserve, 1938.

This species was described by Meserve (1938) from specimens collected

* Benedenita monticellit, as described by Parona and Perugia (1895), is unrecogniz-

able; the description is little more than generic and the measurements, especially

those of the organs and hooks, obviously erroneous. These authors stated that only two

pairs of haptoral hooks were present, but if this be true, it is very exceptional as all

other species of this group have three pairs of hooks. The size of the large hooks was

given as 0.016 mm and of the smaller hooks as 0.011 mm; these probably should have

been 0.16 and 0.11 mm, respectively.

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

by H. W. Manter from the gills of Mycteroperca sp. taken at Socorro Island,

Mexico. The description and figures are adequate and a redescription will

not be given here. A figure of the haptoral hooks (Fig. 10) is given for com-

parison with others of this genus from North America. Meserve has also

described as a distinct species, B. anadenea, a form from the same host and

locality as B. adenea. The principal difference given for the separation of the

two species was the absence of the “glands of Goto” in the former. A study

of the type specimen of B. anadenea (U. 8. N. M. No. 9179) and of three

paratypes kindly loaned by Dr. Manter has shown that these glands are

present in both species. B. anadenea is, therefore, dropped as a synonym of

B. adenea.

Benedenia isabellae Meserve, 1938

This species was described by Meserve (1938) from specimens collected

from the gills of an unidentified ‘‘spotted, grouper-like fish”’ taken by H. W.

Manter at Isabel Island, Mexico. The description is very complete and little

ean be added beyond the fact that marginal haptoral hooklets (larval hooks)

are present; they are 14 in number and distributed as in other members of

the family Capsalidae. A figure of the haptoral hooks (Fig. 11) is included,

however, since it is on the basis of the hooks that this form can best be

distinguished from closely related species.

Benedenia pacifica (Guberlet, 1936), n. comb.

Synonym.—Epibdella pacifica Guberlet, 1936.

This species was adequately described and figured by Guberlet (19386).

However, this author failed to locate the smaller pair of haptoral hooks and

their apparent absence was used as one of the differential characters. A

study of the type specimens, kindly loaned by Prof. Guberlet, revealed the

presence of the small hooks as well as the marginal hooklets which were not

mentioned in the original description. This study also revealed that the

species had been misallocated and must on the basis of the anterior haptors

be assigned to the genus Benedenia instead of Epibdella (= Entobdella).

B. pacifica is quite distinct from all other members of the genus in that

the hooks of the first pair (Fig. 12) are extremely small as compared with

those of related species. The hooks of the second pair have blunt tips in-

stead of the usual pointed recurved tips. The hooks of the third pair are

smaller than in most species, being only 37u long; they are situated near the

margin of the haptor and removed a considerable distance from the tips of

the second pair, the usual location. This species also appears to be unique

in being devoid of eyes.

Benedenia melleni (MacCallum, 1927) Johnston, 1929

Benedenia melleni has been so adequately described by MacCallum (1927)

and by Jahn and Kuhn (1932) that a redescription need not be given here.

However, a figure of the haptoral hooks (Fig. 13) is included for comparison

with those of related species.

Fes. 15, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES 67

B. melleni differs from most species of the genus in lacking a vagina.

There are, however, three other species, B. adenea Meserve, B. isabellae

Meserve and B. muelleri (Meserve)* that also appear to lack vaginae. In

addition to the absence of vaginae, the haptoral hooks of these four species

are so similar that these two characters taken together may ultimately be

found adequate for the erection of a separate genus to contain them.

B. melleni is the least host specific of any monogenetic trematode so far

described, at least 57 species of fishes representing 17 families being reported

as hosts. As a rule monogenetic flukes show a high degree of host specificity,

usually only one or at least only a few closely related species being susceptible

to infestation. In view of the observations at the New York aquarium of

Jahn and Kuhn, as well as those of Nigrelli and Breder (1934) specificity

in this species is either lacking to a large extent or more apparent than real.

The large variety of susceptible fish hosts suggests that infestation is per-

haps a matter of opportunity, the type of circulation in the tanks where the

observations were made being such as to afford a greater chance for infes-

tation than would be possible under natural conditions.

Benedenia hendorffii (Linstow, 1889) Stiles and Hassall, 1908

Benedenia hendorffii was originally described by Linstow (1889) from

specimens collected from the skin of Coryphaena hippurus taken at ‘‘Caleta

buena, Chile.’”’ Recently the writer (Price, 1938) redescribed and reillus-

trated what is regarded as this species from a specimen collected by E. E.

Wehr from an undetermined species of fish at Spokane, Washington. The

haptoral hooks (Fig. 15) are quite different from those of other species of

Benedenia, and these alone are sufficient to permit an identification of the

species.

Genus PSEUDOBENEDENIA Johnston, 1931

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors consisting of a pair of suckers in addition

to well defined anterior glandular areas. Vagina extremely short. Other

characters as in E’ntobdella and Benedenia.

Type species.—Pseudobenedenia nototheniae Johnston, 1931.

The type and only species was described by Johnston (1931), the speci-

mens being collected from the skin of Notothenia macrocephala from New

Zealand.

Genus ENTOBDELLA Blainville in Lamarck, 1818

Synonyms.—Epibdella Blainville, 1828; Ertopdella Rathke, 1848; Phylline

Oken, 1815, not Abildgaard, 1790; Phyllonella Beneden and Hesse, 1863.

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of elongate, slightly depressed,

glandular areas at anterior margin of cephalic lobe; posterior haptor sucker-

’ Benedenia muellert was described by Meserve (1938) as Entobdella muellert, the

species being based on a single specimen from the gills of Cratinus agassizii collected

at Tagus Cove, Albemarle Island, Galapagos Islands. An examination of the type

specimen shows that the anterior haptors are of the Benedenia type rather than of the

Eutobdella type, and the species is, therefore, transferred to Benedenia. B. muelleri

appears on the basis of the haptoral hooks (Fig. 14), to be quite distinct from all

others of the genus.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 2

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like, armed with hooks as in Benedenia. Ovary usually separated from testes

by a relatively wide band of vitelline follicles. Vas deferens forming a pre-

ovarial loop. Other characters as in Benedenia.

Type species.—Entobdella hippoglosst (O. F. Miller, 1776) Johnston, 1856.

This genus is better known in the literature as E'pibdella, but Johnston

(1929) has shown that this name is antedated by Entobdella Blainville, in

Lamarck, 1818. Entobdella Blainville on the other hand is antedated by

Phylline Oken, 1815, but as the latter name had been previously used by

Abildgaard (1790) for a tapeworm, Entobdella is the oldest available name for

the genus. As Johnston has pointed out, the correct date for E'ntobdella has

been difficult to establish, and the following quotation from Lamarck’s

(1818) discussion of “PHYLLINE (Phylline)”’ is given, since it is on the

basis of this statement that Entobdella is regarded as the correct name of the

genus: “‘Ce genre est établi par M. Ochen, sous le nom que nous lui conser-

vons; et néanmoins M. de Blainville, que l’avait déj& reconnu, lui assigna

celui de Entobdella, dans ses manuscrits.”’

Johnston (1929) has proposed a division of the genus into 2 sub-genera,

Entobdella and Parepibdella. Aside from the fact that the genus is so smal]

that a subdivision seems unnecessary, the proposed subdivision is illogical

since the species #. diadema and E. bumpusii, which bear such a close

resemblance to each other that they require extremely careful study in order

to find characters upon which to separate them, are placed in different

subgenera.

The genus Entobdella contains the following species: Entobdella bumpusit

(Linton, 1900), from Pastinachus centrourus; E. diadema (Monticelli, 1902),

frour Trygon violacea; E. hippogloss: (O. F. Miller, 1776), from Hippo-

glossus hippoglossus; EH. soleae (Beneden and Hesse, 1863), syn. E. producta

(Linstow, 1903), from Solea vulgaris; E. squamula (Heath, 1902), from

Paralichthys californicus; and E. steingrévert (Cohn, 1916), from an unde-

termined fish. Three of these species, EH. bumpusii, E. hippoglossi and E.

squamula, occur on North American hosts.

Entobdella hippoglossi (O. F. Miiller, 1776) Johnston, 1856 _—‘ Figs. 1, 7

Synonyms.—Hirudo hippogloss: O. F. Miller, 1776; Phylline hippoglossi

(O. F. Miller, 1776) Oken, 1815; Epibdella hippoglossi (O. F. Miller, 1776)

Blainville, 1828; Tristoma hamatum Rathke, 1848; Nitzschia hippoglossi

(O. F. Miller, 1776) Taschenberg, 1878; Phyllonella hippoglossi (O. F.

Miiller, 1776) Goto, 1899; Epzbdella bumpusit of Canavan, 1934.

Description.—Body elliptical, 13 to 18 mm long by 3.6 to 4.8 mm wide (up

to 24 mm long and up to 11 mm wide, according to various authors);

cephalic lobe set off from rest of body by slight marginal constrictions.

Anterior haptors in form of 2 elongate, slightly depressed, glandular areas,

1 on each side of median line near anterior margin of cephalic lobe. Posterior

haptor sucker-like, 3.6 to 4.8 mm in diameter, surrounded by marginal mem-

brane about 170u wide; ventral surface concave, the posterior half covered

with radiating rows of more or less prominent papillae, and armed with 3

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

Figs. 7-18.—Haptoral hooks of: 7, Entobdella hippogloss1; 8, EH. squamula;

9, HZ. bumpusii; 10, Benedenia adenea; 11, B. isabellae; 12, B. pacifica; 138, B.

melleni; 14, B. muelleri; 15, B. hendorffit; 16, Encotyllabe lintonit; 17, Niteschia

superba; 18, Megalocotyle marginata. (A—hook of first pair; B—hook of second pair;

C—hook of third pair.)

Frs. 15, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES (fil

pairs of large hooks and 14 marginal hooklets. Hooks of first pair spearhead-

shaped, median margin slightly curved, 510 to 640 long; hooks of second

pair slender, 815 to 935y long, tips recurved; hooks of third pair 95 to 122u

long, tips slender and recurved; marginal hooklets about 20y long. Oral

aperture ventral, at level of lateral constrictions of body. Pharynx 680 to

850u long by 850u to 1.1 mm wide. Intestine as in species of Benedenza.

Common genital aperture at left marginal constriction. Cirrus pouch club-

shaped, its base to right of median line and about midway between base of

pharynx and anterior margin of ovary. Testes globular, 1.7 to 2 mm in

diameter, equatorial. Ovary transversely oval, 595 to 695u long by 850y to

1 mm wide, pretesticular, separated from anterior margins of testes by wide

band of vitelline follicles. Vitelline follicles cccupying almost entire body

from level of oral aperture to posterior end of body proper. Vagina slender,

opening postero-median of common genital aperture. Ootype oval, lying in

median line posterior to cirrus pouch; metraterm slender. Egg tetrahedral,

about 228u wide, with long, slender filament.

Host.—Hippoglossus hippoglossus (Linn.).

Location.—Skin.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass., Swans Island, Me.),

Alaska, Canada (Nova Scotia) and Greenland.

Specimens.—U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 6883, 6884, 6974, 7151, 7177,

7181, 7188, 7627, and 25051.

The specimens available to the writer correspond in all essentials with

those described by earlier writers. It is the best known and most widely

distributed of all species of the genus, and further comment appears un-

necessary.

Canavan (1934) reported Epibdella bumpusii (Linton) from a member of

the family Gadidae. However, an examination of the specimen by the writer

showed it to be EF. hippoglossi and not E. bumpusi.

Entobdella squamula (Heath, 1902) Johnston, 1929 Figs. 2, 8

‘Synonyms.—Epidella squamula Heath 1902; Phylline squamula (Heath,

1902) Linstow, 1903; Hpzbdella (Phylline) squamula (Heath, 1902) Monti-

celli, 1905; Entobdella (Entobdella) squamula (Heath, 1902) Johnston, 1929.

Description.—Body more or less elliptical, 5 to 12 mm long by 3 to 6 mm

wide (3.6 to 18 mm long by 1.5 to 10 mm wide, according to Heath (1902)).

Anterior haptors in form of 2 elliptical, slightly depressed, glandular areas

near anterior margin of cephalic lobe. Posterior haptor sucker-like, 1.5 to 2.9

mm long by 1.4 to 2.9 mm wide, surrounded by delicate marginal membrane

170 to 240u wide; posterior two-thirds of ventral surface covered with radi-

ating rows of small papillae similar to those in E. hippoglossi and E. stein-

grovert, and armed with 3 pairs of large hooks and 14 marginal hooklets.

Hooks of first pair spearhead-shaped, 197 to 274u long; hooks of second

pair slender, 595 to 986u long, tips recurved; hooks of third pair 121 to 163u

long, tips slender and recurved; marginal hooklets about 15y long. Oral

aperture median, slightly posterior to marginal constrictions of body.

Pharynx with slight constriction, 304 to 756u long by 342 to 850u wide;

esophagus absent; intestinal limbs slender, uniting posteriorly, each limb

with about 9 lateral and fewer median diverticula. Common genital aper-

ture at left lateral constriction; cirrus pouch club-shaped, its base to right

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

of median line about midway between base of pharynx and anterior margin

of ovary. Testes usually spherical, 510u to 1.1 mm in diameter, equatorial.

Ovary ovoid, 230 to 800u long by 510u to 1 mm wide, pretesticular and

separated from testes by wide band of vitelline follicles. Vitelline follicles

occupying greater part of body from level of oral aperture to posterior end

of body proper. Vagina long and slender, opening at level of base of pharynx

about midway between median line and left margin of body. Ootype rela-

tively large, its base median and immediately posterior to cirrus pouch;

metraterm relatively long. Egg triangular, about 1504 wide, with long,

slender apical filament.

Host.—Paralichthys californicus (Ayres).

Location.—Under surface of body, rarely gill chambers.

Distribution.— United States (Monterey Bay, Calif., and Gulf of Mexico).

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 6973 (paratypes), 39579 and

39581.

This description is based on specimens collected by Prof. Harold Heath

and donated to the U. 8. National Museum, as well as on specimens donated

to the writer by E. E. Wehr, which had been collected by Ralph A. Coombs

from an undetermined fish presumably from the Gulf of Mexico.

Entobdella squamula resembles E. hippoglosst and E. stezngréveri more

closely than any of the other species of the genus. These species show radiat-

ing rows of papillae on the posterior haptor and, except for size, agree closely

in other respects. EH. sgquamula may be distinguished from both E. hippoglossi

and E. stezngrévert by the haptoral hooks, those of the first pair of H. squa-

mula being much shorter as compared with those of the second pair than in

the other two species.

Entobdella bumpusii (Linton, 1900) Johnston, 1929 Figs. 3, 9

Synonyms.—E pibdella bumpusii Linton, 1900; Phylline bumpusii (Linton,

1900) Linstow, 1908; Entobdella (Parepibdella) bumpusiz (Linton, 1900)

Johnston, 1929.

Description.—Body ovoid, 8.5 to 9 mm long by 5 to 5.5 mm wide (living

specimen 12.5 mm long by 8.85 mm wide, according to Linton (1900)).

Anterior haptors in form of 2 glandular areas at anterior end of cephalic

lobe, each haptor crossed antero-posteriorly by about 20 relatively deep

grooves. Posterior haptor sucker-like, 2.4 to 3 mm in diameter, surrounded

by a delicate marginal membrane; ventral surface without papillae, armed

with 3 pairs of large hooks and 14 marginal hooklets. Hooks of first pair

robust, 646 to 795u long, slightly curved, gradually attenuated anteriorly;

hooks of second pair slender, 731 to 765yu long, tips recurved; hooks of third

pair about 76yu long, tips slender and recurved; marginal hooklets 15yu long.

Oral aperture median, at level of lateral constrictions of body. Pharynx

somewhat beaker-shaped, 680u long by 850u wide; intestinal tract as in

E. squamula. Common genital aperture sinistral, at level of oral aperture.

Cirrus pouch club-shaped, its base to right of median line and separated

from ovary by a loop of the vas deferens. Testes globular or transversely

oval, 595 to 765u long by 765 to 850u wide. Ovary median, 595yu long by 680u

wide, pretesticular and separated from testes by wide band of vitelline

follicles. Vitelline follicles occupying almost entire body width from level

of oral aperture to posterior end of body proper. Vagina long, muscular,

Fars. 15, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES 73

opening at side of common genital aperture. Ootype elliptical, median;

metraterm slender, opening into genital atrium near common genital aper-

ture. Eggs not observed; tetrahedral, with long, slender filament, according

to Linton.

Host.—Pastinachus centrourus (Mitchill).

Location.—Skin and gills.

Distribution.—United States (Woods Hole, Mass.) and Canada (Lab-

rador).

Specimen.—U.8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 6509.

This species is closely related to Entobdella diadema (Monticelli) but is

easily separated from that species by the relation of the ovary to the testes;

in L. bumpusii the ovary is separated from the testes by a wide band of vitel-

line follicles, while in H. diadema the ovary is situated immediately in front

of, and in contact with, the testes. Both species resemble each other in

having the anterior haptors crossed antero-posteriorly by about 20 grooves,

a condition not known to occur in any of the other species.

Genus ENCOTYLLABE Diesing, 1850

Synonym.—Cheloniella Beneden and Hesse, 1863.

Diagnosis.—Body with lateral margins turned ventrally. Anterior haptors

muscular, sucker-like, elliptical, surrounded by a wide, more or less pleated

membrane. Posterior haptor campanulate, without radial septa, armed with

2 pairs of large hooks (1 pair massive) and a number (?14) of marginal hook-

lets, situated on a relatively long pedicel attached to the ventral surface of

body. Genital aperture submedian to lateral; genital organs arranged as in

Trochopus.

Type species—Encotyllabe nordmanni Diesing, 1850.

The genus Encotyllabe contains seven species as follows: Encotyllabe

lintonit Monticelli, 1909, from Calamus calamus; E. masu Ishii and Sawada,

1938, from Oncorhynchus masou; E. nordmanni Diesing, 1850, from Brama

mediterranea, B. ravi, and Heliastes chromis; E. pagell1 Beneden and Hesse,

1863, from Pagellus centrodontus; EH. pagrosomta MacCallum, 1917, from

Pagrosomus auratus; E. paronae Monticelli, 1907, from Crenilabrus pavo; E.

spart Yamaguti, 1934, from Sparus macrocephalus, Plectorhynchus pictus,

and Epinephelus akaara; and £. vallex Monticelli, 1907, from Chrysophrys

aurata. Only one of these species, EL. lintonzz, is known from a North Ameri-

can host.

Encotyllabe lintonii Monticelli, 1909 Figs. 4, 16

Synonym.—Encotyllabe sp. Linton, 1907.

Description.—Body ellipsoidal, 2 mm long by 765 wide disregarding in-

folded margins, or about 1.2 mm wide if spread out. Margins of body in-

folded ventrally forming a spacious groove. Anterior haptors sucker-like, 76u

long by 84 wide, incompletely surrounded by a pleated membrane about

306u across. Posterior haptor pedunculated, bell-shaped, about 340 long,

and surrounded by a delicate marginal membrane; large hooks robust, 274u

long, small hooks 30yu long; marginal hooklets 10u long, number not ascer-

4 Perrier (1897) in a discussion of the shape of eggs of tristomes mentioned the name

Encotyllabe fragile, but so far as the writer has been able to ascertain no such species

has ever been described. F. fragile, therefore, must be regarded as a nomen nudum and

without nomenclatural status.

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

tainable; pedicel 380u long by 237» wide. Pharynx almost rectangular, 152u

long by 190u wide. Genital aperture at side of pharynx, a short distance pos-

terior to left anterior haptor. Cirrus pouch robust, its base lying posterior to

pharynx and to right of median line. Right testis oval, 228u long by 190u

wide; left testis missing, its location marked by a small scar-like mass of

tissue. Ovary 114y long by 190u wide, median, pretesticular. Vitelline follicles

occupying almost entire body width from level of pharynx to posterior end

of body proper. Vaginal aperture preovarial and slightly sinistral. Ootype

indistinct, immediately posterior to, and partly overlying, cirrus pouch. No

eggs present.

Host.—Calamus calamus (Cuvier and Valenciennes).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution —Bermuda.

Specimen.—Collection of Prof. Edwin Linton, University of Pennsylvania,

Philadelphia, Pa. (type).

This species is represented by a single, somewhat immature specimen col-

lected by Prof. Edwin Linton, July 16, 1903, at the Bermuda Biological

Station for Research, Flatts, Bermuda. As Linton’s description of this form

was incomplete in certain details, Monticelli (1908) secured the specimen

and redescribed it, naming the species for the collector. Monticelli’s deserip-

tion was brief and inaccurate as the writer has found on studying the speci-

men kindly loaned him by Prof. Linton; the inaccuracies are as follows: The

figure given by Monticelli, labelled ventral view, is actually a dorsal view

and shows 2 testes situated side by side, while the specimen, being anoma-

lous, has only 1 testis, a small scar-like mass representing the other testis;

the ovary is much larger than Monticelli’s description would indicate; the

genital aperture is at the left side of the pharynx and not posterior to it as

Monticelli stated; and the ratio of the hook lengths is 1:9 instead of 1:8.

Both Monticelli and Linton overlooked the small marginal haptoral hook-

lets. These hooklets have previously been reported as present on only one

species of the genus, EL. pagrosomi MacCallum (Price, 1937), but in view of

the fact that they are now known to occur on two of the seven species it

may be assumed that they are present on all.

Yamaguti (1934) has described a species, E’ncotyllabe spari, from Japa-

nese fishes, which appears to be very close to, if not actually the same as,

E. lintonii. The measurements given for E. spari are slightly in excess of

those of EH. lintonii but these slight differences may not be significant, es-

pecially since the latter species is known from only a single anomalous speci-

men. However, since our knowledge of EF. lintonii is inadequate, the writer

prefers to retain Yamaguti’s species until more specimens of E. lintonii are

available, or until a more adequate description based on new material has

been given.

Genus ANCYROCOTYLE Parona and Monticelli, 1903

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of 2 muscular suckers, each situated

on a fleshy pad. Posterior haptor sucker-like, with marginal membrane, bear-

ing 3 pairs of large hooks and 14 marginal hooklets; hooks of third pair

Fess. 15, 1939 . PRICE: TREMATODES 75

lateral to those of second pair. Intestinal tract consisting of 2 ceca, without

lateral or median branches and not united posteriorly. Testes 2, postovarial,

or (?) 1, preovarial. Vagina present.

Type species.—Ancyrocotyle valle: (Parona and Perugia, 1895) Parona and

Monticelli, 1903.

Only one species. Ancyrocotyle bartschi, in addition to the genotype, has

been allocated to this genus. This species was described by the writer (Price,

1934) from two immature specimens collected from the gills of Naucrates

ductor taken in West Indian Waters. The original description is regarded as

adequate for the purpose of identification and further consideration of A.

bartschz will not be given in this paper. |

Subfamily NITZSCHIINAE Johnston, 1931

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of 2 sucker-like grooves, 1 on each

side of median line of cephalic lobe. Posterior haptor sucker-like, surrounded

by well developed marginal membrane; ventral surface strongly concave,

without papillae or septa, and armed with 3 pairs of hooks and 14 marginal

hooklets. Genital aperture postpharyngeal, median or sinistral. Testes

numerous (up to 27 or more), in interintestinal field. Ovary entire. Vagina

present.

Type genus.—Nitzschia Baer, 1826.

Genus Nitzscuia Baer, 1826

Diagnosis.—Characters of subfamily.

aie species.—Nitzschia elegans Baer, 1826 (=N. sturionis (Abildgaard,

1794).

Up to the present time only two species have been included in the genus

Nitzschia, namely, Nitzschia sturionis (Abildgaard, 1794), from Acipenser

sturio, and N. superba MacCallum, 1921, from A. brevirostris. In addition

to these two species, a third, N. monticelliz, n. sp.,> is here proposed for the

“forma giovane”’ of N. elongata (Nitzsch) (=N. sturionis described from

Europe by Monticelli (1909)).

Nitzschia superba MacCallum, 1921 Figs. 5-6, 17

Description.—Body elongated, 8 to 15 mm long by 2.1 to 3.5 mm wide»

somewhat constricted in region of pharynx. Anterior haptors in form of

elongated grooves, 1.6 to 1.8 mm long, 1 on each side of median line and

lying along margins of cephalic’ lobe. Posterior haptor sucker-like, sur-

rounded by well developed marginal membrane 170u wide; ventral surface

strongly concave, without radial septa or papillae, armed with 3 pairs of

hooks and 14 marginal hooklets. Hooks of first pair straight, somewhat

fusiform, 85 to 120u long; hooks of second and third pairs equal, 106 to

167u long, those of second pair with slender recurved tips and those of third

pair with relatively thick, blunt tips, not recurved; marginal hooklets 20u

long. Oral aperture median, at level of posterior ends of anterior haptors.

Pharynx subglobular, 765u to 1 mm long by 765yu to 1.2 mm wide. Genital

> N. monticelli is regarded as new on the basis of inequality of the lengths of the

haptoral hooks on Monticelli’s ‘‘forma giovane”’ of N. elongata (=N. sturionis). The

haptoral hooks of N. sturionis are equal in length, or nearly so, and as it has been the

writer’s experience that the hooks of monogenetic trematodes do not exhibit material

variation due to age, it seems reasonably certain that two species were represented in

Monticelli’s material.

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 2

aperture sinistral, 340 to 510u posterior to base of pharynx. Cirrus pouch

short and thick, directed transversely; testes 26 to 27 in number, in median

field, postovarial. Ovary oval to somewhat reniform, 346 to 595u long by

680 to 800u wide, median, preequatorial. Vitelline follicles very numerous,

occupying entire body width from anterior end of cephalic lobe to posterior

end of body proper. Vaginal aperture median, near base of ootype; vagina

short and relatively wide, connected with a large, globular seminal receptacle

lying antero-lateral of vitelline reservoir. Ootype piriform, its base lying in

median line posterior to cirrus pouch; metraterm very short. Egg triangular

in outline, 171u wide, with moderately long, slender filament.

Hosts.—Acipenser brevirostris Le Sueur, A. sturio Linnaeus, and A.

oxyrhynchus Mitchill. ,

Location.—Gills.

Localities—United States (New York Aquarium, Woods Hole, Mass.,

and Block Island) and Canada (Gulf of St. Lawrence).

Specimens.—U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 48738, 7153, 7742, 35639,

35640 (cotypes) and 35641. |

Nitzschia superba was described by MacCallum (1921) from specimens

collected at the New York Aquarium from a short-nosed sturgeon taken

along the Atlantic Coast. MacCallum did not give any very clear differences

between this species and the other species of the genus except for the char-

acter of the vitellaria which he stated “‘was very different from that of other

members of the genus, inasmuch as instead of being a mass of more or less

circular glands, they are here in the form of tubes with only at short dis-

tances a circular gland here and there.’”’ A study of the specimens on which

MacCallum’s description of NV. superba was based shows that the character

of the vitellaria is not different from that of other species, since the tubes

he mentioned were the small collecting ducts and not the vitelline follicles.

The principal difference between N. superba and the European species lies

in the morphology of the hooks of the posterior haptor.

So far as the writer has been able to ascertain N. swperba is the only

species known from American hosts. Specimens (U. 8. N. M. No. 4873) col-

lected by Linton, as well as specimens collected by MacCallum, and labelled

N. elegans were found on examination to be N. superba. One additional

specimen (U.S. N. M. No. 7153), the host of which was not given, proved to

be also N. superba. In view of the fact that all of the specimens so far ex-

amined have proved to be N. superba, it seems reasonable to assume that

the records of N. elegans by Verrill (1875) from Acipenser oxyrhynchus, by

Linton (1898 and 1901) and by Stafford (1904) from A. sturto are probably

those of NV. superba also. |

Subfamily TROCHOPINAE Price, 1936

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of suckers or glandular areas; pos-

terior haptor sucker-like, subsessile, its ventral surface divided into central

and marginal areas by ridges or septa. Other characters as in Benedeniinae.

Type genus.—Trochopus Diesing, 1850.

Fes. 15, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES aN

KEY TO GENERA OF TROCHOPINAE

1. Anterior haptors in form of glandular areas..... Macrophyllida Johnston

Emienor haptors in’ the form of suckers. .-....../....4. o5........ 2

seeocheror haptor with l0rays...................6. Trochopus Diesing

mesvenor haptor with Oto 7 Tays......4.....2.2. Megalocotyle Folda

Genus TRocuopus Diesing, 1850

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors disc-like; medium-sized, subsessile, varying

in form and appearance. Posterior haptor disc-like, subsessile, with marginal

membrane; ventral surface divided into cavities by 10 ridges or septa,

armed with 2 to 3 pairs of large hooks and 14 marginal hooklets. Genital

aperture at level of posterior margin of left anterior haptor; genital atrium

long; cirrus pouch curved, its base usually to right of median line; testes 2,

oval, with zones coinciding and with fields abutting or separate, usually

equatorial or preequatorial. Ovary globular, pretesticular. Vagina slender,

opening immediately posterior to common genital aperture.

Type species —Trochopus longipes Diesing, 1850 (= Tristoma tubiporum

Diesing, 1836, renamed).

There are at present 10 species in the genus T'rochopus as follows: Tro-

chopus brauni Mola, 1912, from Cottus gobio; T. differens Sonsino, 1891, from

Cantharus lineatus; T. diplacanthus Massa, 1903, from Trigla hirundo; T.

gatllimhe Little, 1929, from Trigla hirundo or T. lucerna; T. heterachanthus

Massa, 1903, from Trigla corax; T. lineatus Scott, 1901, from Trigla lineata;

T. micrachanthus Massa, 1903, from Trigla hirundo; T. onchacanthus Massa,

1906, from undetermined fish host; T. ponz (Beneden and Hesse, 1863), from

Trigla pint, T. hirundo and T. corax; and T. tubiporus (Diesing, 1835), from

Trigla hirundo. No member of this genus has been reported from North

America.

Genus MEGALOCOTYLE Folda, 1928

Diagnosis.—Posterior haptor with (?) 6 to 7 septa. Other characters as in

Trochopus.

Type species.—Megalocotyle marginata Folda, 1928.

The present writer (Price, 1936) has previously stated that Megalocotyle

Folda was a synonym of Trochopus Diesing. This position would not be

difficult to maintain, but since Trochopus (sensu lato) can be separated on

the basis of the haptoral rays into two distinct groups of species it now seems

desirable, at least for convenience, to regard Megalocotyle as valid.

Five species may be included in the genus Megalocotyle: M. hexacanthus

(Parona and Perugia, 1889), n. comb., from Serranus gigas; M. marginata

Folda, 1928, from Sebastodes nebulosis; M. rhombi (Beneden and Hesse,

1863), n. comb., from Rhombus maximus; M. squatinae (MacCallum, 1921)

n. comb., from Squatina squatina; and M. zschokker (Mola, 1912), n. comb.,

from Cottus gobio. Of these species only M. marginata is known from North

America. Megalocotyle marginata Folda, 1928

This species has been adequately described by Folda (1928) and a rede-

scription need not be given here. A study of some of the paratype specimens

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

(U.S. N. M. No. 39580) kindly donated by Prof. J. E. Guberlet, University

of Washington, Seattle, Wash., however, shows that Folda apparently erred

in describing and figuring the first pair of haptoral hooks. These were shown

to have posteriorly directed projections at or near the middle of the hooks,

but these projections are apparently wrinkles of the cuticula at the opening

of the hook sheath and not a part of the hook proper (Fig. 18).

Genus MacropHyLuipA Johnston, 1929

Synonym.—Macrophylla Hughes, 1928, not Hope, 1837.

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors in form of fan-like glandular areas. Posterior

haptor similar to that of Trochopus. Testes 2, preequatorial, one slightly

anterior to other.

Type species.—Macrophyllida antarctica (Hughes, 1928) Johnston, 1929.

The type and only species of this genus was des ubed by Hughes ’(1928)

from Mustelus antarcticus in Australia.

Subfamily CAPSALINAE Johnston, 1929

Synonyms.—Tristominae Braun 1893; Tristomatinae Gamble, 1896.

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors sucker-like. Posterior haptor sucker-like,

subsessile, its ventral surface divided by septa into a central polygonal area

and 7 marginal, more or less triangular areas, usually armed with 1 pair of

large spine-like hooks and 14 marginal hooklets. Testes numerous, confined

to interintestinal field or extending into extraintestinal fields. Ovary lobulate.

Type genus.—Capsala Bosc, 1811.

KEY TO GENERA OF CAPSALINAE

1. Pharynx with constriction; testes usually, if not always, extending into

extraintestinal fields... 22:,..4.405. 0. =. oe Capsala Bose

Pharynx without constriction; testes confined to interintestinal field. .2

2. Posterior rays of haptor bifid distally; haptoral hooks with claw-like tips;

dorsal marginal spines crown-shaped, in single longitudinal row.

ee enn ee re EN RS S55 5 Capsaloides Brice

Posterior rays of haptor not bifid distally; haptoral hooks without claw-

like tips; dorsal marginal spines, when present, not crown-like, in —

numerous short transverse rows................ Tristoma Cuvier

Genus CapsaLa Bosc, 1811

Synonym.—Tristoma Cuvier, 1817, in part.

Diagnosis.—Dorsal marginal spines present or absent. Posterior rays of

haptor not bifid distally; hooks, when present, simple, without claw-like

tips. Pharynx with a definite constriction at or posterior to middle. Testes

numerous, usually, if not always, extending into extraintestinal fields.

Type species.—Capsala martiniert Bosc, 1811.

The following species may be included in the genus Capsala; Capsala

brparasitica (Goto, 1894), from carapace of a copepod, probably Parapetalus

sp., parasitic on the gills of Thynnus albacora; C. foliacea (Goto, 1894), from

undetermined Japanese fish; C. interrupta (Monticelli, 1891), from Thynnus

brachypterus; C. katsuwona (Ishii, 1936), from Katsuwonus vagans; C. laevis

FEB. 1, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES 79

(Verrill, 1875), from Tetrapturus imperator, T. brevirostris and Coryphaena

hippurus; C. lintoni, n. sp., from Gymnosarda pelamis; C. maccallumi, n. sp.,

from Huthynnus alletteratus; C. magrona (Ishii, 1936), from Thynnus

orientalis; C. martiniert (Bosc, 1811), from Mola mola; C. megacotyle (Lin-

stow, 1906), from Histiophorus sp.; C. nozawae (Goto, 1894), from Thynnus

sibi; C. onchidiocotyle (Setti, 1899), from Thynnus thynnus; C. ovale (Goto,

1894), from Aistiophorus orientalis, Histiophorus sp., and (?) Cybium sp.;

C. pelamydis (Taschenberg, 1878), from Pelamys sarda; C. poeyz (Vigueras,

1935), from Makaira ampla; and possibly C. squali (E. Blanchard, 1847), at

present unrecognizable, from Squalus sp.

Capsala martiniert, C. laevis, C. lintoni, C. maccallumi and C. poeyi are the

North American representatives of this genus.

Capsala martinieri Bosc, 1811 Figs. 19-21

Synonyms.—Phylline diodontis Oken, 1815, P. coccinea of Schweigger,

1820; Tristoma maculatum Rudolphi, 1819; T. coccinewm of Rudolphi, 1819;

T. coccineum of Bremser, 1824; T. coccineum of Diesing, 1836; 7. cephala

Risso, 1826; 7. molae E. Blanchard, 1847; T. rudolphianum Diesing, 1850;

Capsala maculata (Rudolphi, 1819) Nordmann, in Lamarck, 1840; C.

rudolphiana (Diesing, 1850) Johnston, 1865; C. sanguinea Diesing, 1850; C.

cephala (Risso, 1826) Johnston, 1929; C. molae (EK. Blanchard, 1847) John-

ston, 1929.

Description.—Body cordate to almost circular, 15 to 21 mm long by 16 to

21 mm wide, posterior end deeply notched; dorsal surface convex, smooth

except near margins, the margins with a relatively wide longitudinal band

of irregularly placed spines, the majority of spines 4-cuspid; ventral surface

concave, covered with minute papilliform projections. Anterior haptors

sucker-like, circular or slightly oval, 1.4 to 1.8 mm in diameter. Posterior

haptor circular, 8 to 10 mm in diameter, surrounded by pleated marginal

membrane 500u wide; ventral surface covered with minute papilliform pro-

jections; central area an irregular heptagon with 7 ridges or septa radiating

from it; no hooks present; marginal hooklets present, small. Oral aperture

median, at level of posterior margins of anterior haptors. Pharynx 2 to 2.1

mm long by 1 to 1.8 mm wide, with distinct constriction. Intestine as in

other capsalids. Genital aperture sinistral, at level of equator of pharynx.

Cirrus pouch club-shaped, its base lying in median line posterior to pharynx.

Testes very numerous, occupying greater part of central area of body and

extending laterally to within about 1.5 mm of body margins and anteriorly

to about level of base of pharynx. Ovary lobulate, 1.5 to 2.1mm long by 2 to

3.2 mm wide, median, about 1.5 to 2 mm posterior to base of pharynx.

Vitelline follicles occupying greater part of body and extending into

cephalic lobe. Vagina slender, opening 400 to 450u posterolateral of genital

mere. Ootype oval, immediately posterior to cirrus pouch. No eggs ob-

served.

Host.—Mola mola (Linnaeus).

§ Through the courtesy of Prof. Ishii the writer has been permitted to examine the

type specimens of both C. magrona and C. katsuwona. The figures and descriptions

of these forms by Ishii (1936) and the redescriptions by Ishii and Sawada (1938) are

quite complete except in the case of C. magrona. In neither of the papers referred to is

there any mention of the presence of dorsal marginal spines or of haptoral papillae

in this species. These spines are small, unicuspid, and distributed in much the same

manner as in C. martiniert. The haptoral papillae are relatively large, not numerous,

and irregularly distributed in the depressions between the haptoral radii.

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

Location.—Skin.

Distribution.— United States (Atlantic and Pacific Coasts).

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 3989, 4879, 7164, 7186, 7187,

7338, 7741, 35266, 35332, 35642 and 35643.

La Martiniére (1787) described an ectoparasitic fluke, which he did not

name, from a fish of the genus Diodon. The complete account of this worm

is as follows:

L’insecte suivant (fig. 4 et 5) a & peu prés la forme d’un verre de montre

qui serait échancré dans un point de sa circonférence; son corps est d’une

consistance cartilagineuse, d’une couleur blanche un peu terne; sa partie

supérieure (fig. 4 [A]) est couverte par de petites taches ovales, de couleur

de lie de vin. La fig. & [B] le représente vu par-dessous, ot |’on apercoit trois

élévations en forme de godets, deux vers la trompe de l’animal, et une

troisigme beaucoup plus grande, vers la partie échancrée de son corps; ce

dernier est divisé par sept petites cdtes blanchatres; le centre fait un peu

saille. C’est 4 la faveur de ces différens godets qu’il se fixe d’une maniére

trés-forte sur le corps de différens poissons ou animaux marins; vraisem-

blablement c’est en faisant le vide, et non avec une humeur glutineuse et

tenace qu’on pourrait lui supposer. Peut-étre est-ce par cette méme cause

que les lépas et les moules se fixent si fortement aux rochers. Sa trompe,

qui est située entre ses deux petits godets supérieurs, a son extrémité su-

périeure hérissée de pointes, qui doivent étre autant de pouches par ou cet

animal suce le sang des poissons sur lesquels il est fixé. On voit, au-dessous,

a4 travers sa substance, plusieurs circonvolutions d’intestins qui aboutissent

a un petit réservoir de forme presque carrée. Quoique cet animal soit sans

jambes, il jouit d’un mouvement progressif 4 la faveur de ses trois espéces

de godets, qu’il fixe alternativement. Il peut aussi aller au fond de leau,

quoique sa forme paraisse devoir s’y opposer; et voici de quelle maniére il

Vexécute: il se roule en papillote, et se maintient dans cette situation, en

fixant ses deux godets supérieurs sur la partie postérieure et supérieure de

son corps; alors, présentant moins de surface, il descend au fond par son

propre poids. Je l’ai trouvé fixé sur le corps d’un poisson du genre des

diodons de Linné, que nous avons rencontré assez souvent depuis Nootka

jusqu’a Monterey en Californie.

Bosc (1811) on the basis of La Martiniére’s description proposed for this

species the name Capsala martiniert. Later Oken (1815) renamed this worm

Phylline diodontis, and still later Rudolphi (1819) renamed it Tristoma

maculatum. The descriptions given by Oken and by Rudolphi were taken

apparently from that of La Martiniére’s as nothing in their descriptions

indicated that they had ever seen the parasite. Bosc gave the size of the

worm as 3 cm. but this measurement was evidently taken from La Mar-

tiniére’s illustration. Dujardin (1845) and Saint-Remy (1891) gave the size

as 22.5 mm long by 18 mm wide, but just how they arrived at this is not

given.

As will be noted from the original description, no details are given by

which the species can be recognized. However, on the basis of circumstantial

evidence the writer feels convinced that the species is identical with that

commonly known as T'ristoma molae; the evidence that led him to this con-

Fes. 15, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES 81

clusion is briefly this: The general body form, relative size of the haptors

and body proportions are the same as those for 7’. molae; the only fish occur-

ring in Monterey Bay and northward that would fit the diagnosis of the

genus Diodon as given in the literature of that time, according to Dr. G. 8.

Myers formerly of the U. 8. National Museum, would be Diodon mola

(= Mola mola); the only tristome definitely known to occur on Mola mola

is the species commonly known as T'ristoma molae; the ‘‘spots” referred to

in La Martiniére’s description probably were mottling commonly present in

specimens and due to the contrast between the darker intestinal ramifica-

tions and the lighter body tissue; and finally, the “‘trompe, que est situé

entre ses deux petits godets supérieurs, a son extrémité supérieure hérissé

de pointes” was probably the pharynx which was protruded through the

oral aperture, a condition which the writer has observed in a few specimens

of T. molae. :

The most outstanding characters which differentiate this species from

others in the genus are the absence of large hooks on the posterior haptor

and the arrangement of the spines occurring dorsally along the margins of

the body. These spines have a haphazard arrangement and do not occur in

either longitudinal or transverse rows. Parona and Perugia (1889) state that.

these spines occur in a regular series (‘“‘Invece questa armatura chitinosa e

disposta regularmente a serie sul margini dell’animale .. . ’’), but the writer

has not observed such an arrangement in any of the specimens available to

him.

Capsala maccallumi, n. sp. Figs. 22—23

Description.—Body oblong, 2.6 mm long by 1 mm wide; dorsal and ventral

surfaces smooth. Anterior haptors about 350u in diameter. Posterior haptor

about 900u in diameter, with pleated marginal membrane about 120u wide;

ventral surface covered with prominent conical papillae; central area of

haptor an irregular heptagon; hooks 95y long, their free ends slender and

hooked; marginal hooklets 14 in number, about 22u long. Oral aperture at

level of posterior margins of anterior haptors; pharynx constricted, about

300u long by 266y wide; intestinal tract as in other species of genus. Com-

mon genital aperture lateral; testes apparently extending beyond confines

of intestinal tract; remainder of genitalia not developed sufficiently to be

made out with certainty.

Host.—Euthynnus alletteratus (Rafinesque).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Type specomen.—U.8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 35644.

This species is represented by a single immature specimen collected by

G. A. MacCallum, July 20, 1915, at Woods Hole, Mass., from “Thunnus

thynnus—Horse mackerel.”’ The species is regarded as new on the basis of

the large haptoral hooks, the free tips being hooked instead of straight or

slightly curved as in the other species. The papillate condition of the ventral

surface of the haptor suggests a relationship with C. onchidiocotyle, described

by Setti (1899) from a “‘tonno”’ in Italy, and it is possible that the two spe-

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

Figs. 19-21.—Capsala martiniert. 19, complete worm (A—dorsal view, B—

ventral view) after La Martiniére (1797?); 20, ventral view, original; 21, diagram

showing distribution of dorsal marginal spines; Figs. 22—23.—C. maccallumi. 22,

complete worm, ventral view; 23, haptoral hooks (A—large hook, B—marginal

hooklet); Figs. 24-25.—C. lintoni. 24, complete worm, ventral view; 25, large

haptoral hook; Figs. 26—-28.—C. laevis. 26, complete worm, after Verrill, 1885;

27, ventral view of type specimen, original; 28, large haptoral hook.

Fes. 15, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES 83

cies may be identical; however, since Setti’s description is lacking in essential

details, it appears necessary to regard the two forms as distinct until a re-

study of C. onchidiocotyle is possible.

Capsala lintoni, n. sp. Figs. 24-25

Synonym.—Tristoma laeve Verrill of Linton, 1898.

Description.—Body outline almost circular, 3.7 mm long by 3.5 mm wide,

deeply notched posteriorly; dorsal and ventral surfaces without papillae.

Anterior haptors circular, about 600u in diameter; posterior haptor about

1.6 mm in diameter, surrounded by a more or less pleated membrane 85yu

wide. Central area of posterior haptor an irregular heptagon with 7 ridges

or septa radiating from it as in other species of genus; ventral surface of

haptor covered with papillae. Hooks blade-like, slightly sinuous, about 115yu

long; marginal hooklets present, about 20u long. Oral aperture median,

slightly anterior to level of posterior margins of anterior haptors; pharynx

constricted, 510u long by 595u wide; intestinal tract as in other species of

genus. Genital aperture at level of middle of pharynx and a short distance

from posterior margin of left anterior haptor. Cirrus pouch club-shaped, its

base in contact with posterior end of pharynx. Testes numerous, occupying

interintestinal field and extending for a short distance into extraintestinal

fields. Ovary lobulated, about 340u long by 510u wide, median, about 510u-

posterior to base of pharynx. Vitelline follicles extending to near margins of

body and into cephalic lobe and anterior haptors. Vagina muscular, its

aperture postero-median of genital aperture. Ootype immediately posterior

to base of cirrus pouch. Eggs not observed.

Host.—Gymnosarda pelamis (Linnaeus).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Atlantic Ocean, south of Martha’s Vine-

yard, Mass.). 7

Specomen.—U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 4878 (type).

This species is based on a single, somewhat immature specimen described

by Linton (1898) as probably Tristoma laeve Verrill. The specimen was not

in the best possible condition for study, being very dark and contracted.

However, enough detail could be made out to show that it is distinct from

C. laevis (syn., T. laeve), although closely related to that species. The chief

differences between the two species are absence of dorsal marginal spines,

and of papillae from the ventral surface of body, in C. lintoni. There is also

a difference in the proportional sizes of the haptors; in C. laevis the ratio of

the diameter of the anterior haptors to that of the posterior haptor is about

1:1.5, while in C. lintoni the ratio is about 1:2.6.

Capsala laevis (Verrill, 1875) Johnston, 1929

This species as originally described by Verrill (1875) was unrecognizable;

it was later figured by Verrill (1885) but no specific details were shown. A

redescription of this form has recently been given by the writer (Price, 1938),

the redescription being based on specimens collected by Fr. Gunther in Sao

Paulo, Brazil. The Brazilian specimens were compared with the type

(U.S. N. M. No. 7179) and found to agree in all essentials; a further con-

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

sideration of this species, therefore, appears unnecessary. However, figures

(Figs. 26-28) of the type specimen are included for comparison with other

American species.

Genus TRistoma Cuvier, 1817

Synonym.—Capsala Bose, 1811; in part.

Diagnosis.—Dorsal marginal spines present or absent; when present, in

numerous short transverse rows of similar or dissimilar spines. Posterior

septa of haptor not bifid distally; large hooks when present, without claw-

like tips. Pharynx globular or subglobular, never with constriction. Testes

numerous, confined to interintestinal fields.

Type species.—Tristoma coccineum Cuvier, 1817.

The genus as present constituted contains four species as follows: T’ris-

toma coccineum Cuvier, 1817, from Xiphias gladius and Sphyrna zygaena

(new host); 7’. integrum Diesing, 1850, from X. gladius; T. levinsenta Monti-

celli, 1891, from Thynnus sp.; and T. unconatum Monticelli, 1889, from

?Pleuronectes sp. The first two of these species occur on North American

hosts and descriptions of them are included in this paper.

Tristoma coccineum Cuvier, 1817 Figs. 29-32

Synonyms.—Tristoma papillosum Diesing, 1836; Capsala papillosa (Dies-

ing, 1836) Nordmann, in Lamarck, 1840.

Description.—Body bluntly oval, 10 to 12 mm long by 7 to 9.5 mm

wide, convex dorsally and concave ventrally. Dorsal surface, especially of

postovarial region, covered with prominent papillae, and with 43 to 54

rows of marginal spines, each containing from 2 to 4 spines; innermost

spine 1-cuspid, second and third spines 2- to 7-cuspid, and outermost spine

comb-like. Anterior haptors more or less circular, sucker-like, 1.27 to 1.69

mm in diameter. Posterior haptor disc-like, 1.8 to 2.38 mm in diameter,

provided with marginal membrane 170 to 365yu wide, posterior margin not

reaching posterior end of body; central area of haptor a complete heptagon

with 7 septa radiating from it as in related species; large hooks straight,

133 to 152u long; marginal hooklets 15u long. Oral aperture median,

slightly prepharyngeal, at or slightly anterior to level of posterior margins

of anterior haptors. Pharynx almost globular, 1 to 1.3 mm long by 1.1 to

1.5 mm wide; intestine as in related species. Genital aperture slightly pos-

terior to left anterior haptor. Cirrus pouch club-shaped, its base lying to

left of median line posterior to pharynx. Testes numerous, confined to

interintestinal field. Ovary lobulate, 680 to 795u long by 1.1 to 1.59 mm

wide, median, about 500 to 700u posterior to pharynx. Vitelline follicles

largely in extraintestinal fields except for relatively few follicles along course

of median intestinal diverticula. Vagina slender, its proximal end expanded

to form a seminal receptacle; vaginal aperture about 1 mm _ posterior to

genital aperture. Ootype ovoid, to left of median line; metraterm slender.

Eggs 114u long by 95u wide, more or less triangular and with 4 prolonga-

tions.

Hosts.—Xtphias gladius Linnaeus and Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.—United States (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Specomens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 4877, 7168, 35124, 35645,

35646 and 35647.

Fes. 15, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES 85

In attempting to trace the synonymy of Trzstoma coccineum, a complica-

tion has arisen which appears to necessitate questioning the validity of the

species generally regarded as 7’. coccineum and T. papillosum. The situation

is briefly as follows:

Cuvier (1817) erected the genus Tristoma for certain ectoparasitic flukes

occurring on Mola mola and Xiphias gladius, and in this description he

named one species, 7’. coccineum; the description was illustrated by a rather

diagrammatic figure. This description is as follows:

“TRISTOME. (TRISTOMA. CUV.)”

Leur corps est un disque large et plat; 4 sa face inférieure est en avant un

grand sucoir cartilagineux, que ne tient au corps par un court pédicule, et

sous son bord postérieur s’en trouvent deux petits. Dans le parenchyme du

corps rampe un vaisseau circulaire ramifié dont la nature est difficile 4

déterminer.

Une espéce d’un pouce et plus de largeur, colorée en rouge vif (érzstoma

coccineum. Cuv.), s’attache aux branchies de plusieurs poissons de la

Méditerranée, tels que la méle, le xiphias, etc.

In this description the anterior end of the body was mistaken for the pos-

terior end but this error was corrected in a later description (Cuvier, 1847).

From our present knowledge of the tristomes it is clear that at least 2

species were confused under the name 7’. coccinewm, one from Mola mola,

later described as T. molae by E. Blanchard (1847), and the other from

Xiphias gladius, which was either the JT. coccinewm of authors or the species

later described by Diesing (1836) as T. papillosum. Unfortunately, however,

Cuvier’s description is so general that it is of little value and the identity

of his 7’. coccineum rests mainly upon the figure which accompanies it. This

figure shows that the form which he selected could not have been from

Mola mola but was one of the species from the sword fish, since the form from

Mola mola is more or less cordate in shape and the posterior haptor relatively

large as compared with the length of the body; the posterior end of the

body of the species from M. mola also shows a deep notch. In the species

figured by Cuvier the body was longer than wide, the posterior haptor rela-

tively small as compared with the length of the body and no posterior notch

was shown. These details eliminate E. Blanchard’s T. molae from further

consideration.

In 1826, Risso added to the description of T. coccinewm as given by Cuvier

the following: ‘‘Aux caractéres donnés par M. Cuvier j’ajouterai que la

partie supérieure de ce tristome est munie de petits tubercules blancs, con-

tractiles su gré de l’animal, et que son sucoir est blanchatre.”’

Later, Diesing (1836) described as T. papillosum a species from Xiphias

gladius, which was provided with tubercles or papillae on its dorsal surface,

a condition which corresponded to Risso’s (1826) observation of the form

which he regarded as T. coccineuwm. Previous to describing T. papillosum,

Diesing (1836) redescribed T. coccineum, but the species he had was the one

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

from Mola mola, and very clearly the species which E. Blanchard described

as T’. molae.

The most complete accounts of the two species from Xiphias gladius are

those given by Taschenberg (1879) who described as JT’. coccineum a form

almost circular in shape and bearing on its dorsal surface, along the lateral

margins numerous, short, closely approximated, transverse rows of similar

spines, while 7’. papillosum was described as a form longer than wide, with

the dorsal marginal spines in less numerous rows, each row composed of dis-

similar spines. Subsequent writers have adhered to the descriptions of these

species as given by Taschenberg. |

From the above review of the pertinent facts bearing on the identity of

T. coccineum, it appears that in view of the illustration given by Cuvier and

the addition to the description given by Risso, both in agreement with the

form now generally known as 7. papillosum Diesing, T'.. papillosum must fall

as a synonym of 7’. coccineum Cuvier, and the species described by Taschen-

berg as 7’. coccineum must be regarded as a separate species and take the

oldest available synonym which is T'ristoma integrum Diesing.

Tristoma coccineum (syn. T. papillosum of authors) is the most abundant

species occurring on the sword fish. It is apparently quite host specific and

probably occurs rarely on hosts other than X7phias gladius. All of the speci-

mens‘of this species in the United States National Museum Collections,

with the exception of 1 specimen in the MacCallum collection from the ham-

mer-head shark, Sphyrna zygaena, are from Xziphias gladius. The fact that

this parasite occurs so rarely on hosts other than the sword fish makes the

reported occurrences of this species from Mola mola doubtful.

Tristoma integrum Diesing, 1850 Figs. 33-35

Synonyms.—Tristoma coccineum Cuvier, 1817, in part; T. cocconeum

Cuvier, of Taschenberg, 1879 and of subsequent authors; 7’. rotundum Goto,

1894.

Description.—Body more or less circular, 575u to 7 mm long by 6 to 6.5

mm wide. Dorsal surface convex, without papillae, with numerous transverse

rows (more than 300 in one specimen) of spines along lateral margins, usually

6 spines to each row, the number per row diminishing towards the anterior

and posterior ends of body. Spines similar, 3- to 5-, usually 4-cuspid, about

20 to 26u long by 1lyu wide at base. Ventral surface concave, smooth. An-

terior haptors somewhat elliptical, 850 to 935u long by 765-to 850u wide.

Posterior haptor disc-like, 1.4 to 1.6 mm in diameter, surrounded by a

pleated membrane about 300u wide; ventral surface without papillae; cen-

tral area a regular heptagon with 7 septa radiating from it as in related

species; large hooks blade-like, 110 to 133u long, marginal hooklets 1l5yu

long. Oral aperture median, slightly anterior to level of posterior margins

of anterior haptors. Pharynx more or less globular, without constriction,

about 510u in diameter. Intestine as in other species of genus; anterior

branches not extending into anterior haptors. Male genital aperture im-

mediately posterior to margin of left anterior haptor. Cirrus pouch club-

shaped, its base lying posterior to pharynx and slightly to left of median

line. Testes numerous, confined to interintestinal field. Ovary lobulate, 255

Bee. 15, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES 87

SoS.

‘0

200,

Figs. 29-32.—Tristoma coccineum. 29, complete worm, after Cuvier, 1817;

30, ventral view, original; 31, dorsal marginal spines; 32, large haptoral hook;

Figs. 33-35.—T. integrum. . 33, ventral view; 34, dorsal marginal spines; 35, large

haptoral hook; Figs. 36-39.—Capsaloides cornutum. 36, complete worm, after Verrill,

1885; 37, ventral view, original; 38, dorsal marginal spines; 39, large haptoral

hooks; Figs. 40-43.—Capsaloides magnaspinosus. 40, ventral view; 41, dorsal view;

42, dorsal marginal spine; 48, large haptoral hook.

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 2

to 370u long by 680 to 765u wide, median, about 400p posterior to pharynx.

Vitelline follicles largely in extraintestinal fields except for few follicles along

course of median intestinal branches, extending into cephalic lobe but not

into anterior haptors. Vagina slender, opening postero-median of genital

apertures. Ootype immediately posterior to cirrus punch; metraterm slender,

opening, according to Taschenberg (1879) and Goto (1894), immediately

posterior to male aperture; opening not observed by the present writer.

Egg more or less triangular, 90u wide, with 4 prolongations.

Host.—Xiphias gladius Linnaeus.

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Specimens.—U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 35299.

This species apparently is quite rare on the sword fish, Xiphias gladius,

from American waters, as only 2 specimens were found in the collections of

the United States National Museum, in spite of the fact that a number of

lots of specimens of 7’. coccineum (syn. T. papillosum) were available from

that host. Both of these specimens of T. integrum were collected July 9, 1913,

by G. A. MacCallum at Woods Hole, Mass.; the above description is based

on these specimens. This description corresponds in general to that given

by Taschenberg (1879) and by Goto (1894), except that the specimens avail-

able were considerably smaller than those described by Taschenberg and by

Goto, the size given by the former being 17 mm long by 19 mm wide and

that by the latter 11.5 mm long by 13 mm wide.

The most outstanding differences between 7’. zntegrum and T’. coccineum

are in the number of rows of dorsal marginal spines, and in the morphology

of these spines. The rows of spines on 7’. zntegrum are very numerous (more

than 300 on each side of the body in one specimen) and the spines in each

row are similar in form. There are fewer rows of spines on 7’. cocconeum

(43 to 54 in the specimens examined) and the spines are dissimilar; the most

median spines have only 1 cusp, the outermost spine has 10 or more cusps,

and the others have from 2 to 7 cusps.

Genus CAPSALOIDES Price 1938

Synonyms.—Capsala Bosc, 1811, in part; Tristoma Cuvier, 1817, in part;

Calsaloides Price, 1936 (printer’ S error).

Diagnosis. —Dorsal marginal spines present, crown-like, in a single longi-

tudinal row. Posterior septa of posterior haptor bifid distally: large hooks

with claw-like tips. Pharynx globular or subglobular, never with constric-

tion. Testes numerous, forming a W-like pattern, confined to interintestinal

field.

Type species —Capsaloides cornutum (Verrill, 1875), Price, 1938.

Four species are included in the genus Capsaloides as follows: Capsalozdes

cornutum (Verrill, 1875), from Tetrapturus imperator; C. magnaspinosus,

n. sp., from 7’. zmperator; C. sinuatum (Goto, 1894), from Histrophorus sp.;

and C. perugiai (Setti, 1898), from Tetrapturus belone. Only first two of these

are from North America.

Frs. 15, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES 89

Capsaloides cornutum (Verrill, 1875) Price, 19388 Figs. 36-39

Synonyms.—Tristoma cornutum Verrill, 1875; Capsala cornuta (Verrill,

1875) Johnston, 1929.

Description.—Body elongate oval, 5.3 to 8 mm long by 3.8 to 6 mm wide,

dorsal and ventral surfaces covered with minute papillae, margins entire or

slightly sinuate. Dorsal marginal spines crown-shaped, 38 to 76u wide,

arranged in a single row of 21 spines on right side and 26 on left; anterior

spines on left side smaller than others, in a group of 4 to 6, and separated

from larger spines by a relatively wide space at level of genital aperture.

Anterior haptors sucker-like, 595 to 850u in diameter. Posterior haptor

disc-like, 1.19 mm in diameter, surrounded by a festooned marginal mem-

brane about 85y wide, sometimes projecting slightly beyond posterior margin

of body. Central area of posterior haptor an irregular heptagon with 7 ridges

or septa radiating from it; each of the posterior septa bifurcating distally

and enclosing a small triangular lacuna. Large hooks 133 to 178yu long, tips

claw-like and slightly curved; marginal hooklets 14 in number, 15y long.

Oral aperture median, slightly anterior to level of posterior margins of

anterior haptors. Pharynx more or less globular, 4384 to 510u long by 510u

to 595u wide; intestine as in related species. Common genital aperture

slightly posterior to margin or left anterior haptor, about midway between

body margin and pharynx. Cirrus pouch club-shaped, its base lying to left

of median line at posterior margin of pharynx. Testes numerous, in inter-

intestinal field, forming a pattern suggestive of the letter W. Ovary lobu-

lated, 340u long by 680u wide, median, pretesticular. Vitelline follicles

largely in extraintestinal fields. Vagina slender, opening at level of ootype

and ventral to left intestinal branch. Ootype large, oval, postero-median of

base of cirrus pouch; metraterm slender. No eggs observed.

Host.—Tetrapturus imperator (Bloch and Schneider).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.—United States (Block Island, and Woods Hole, Mass.).

Specomens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 7178 (type) and 35136.

In 1875, Verrill described an ectoparasitic trematode which he named

Tristoma cornutum as follows:

Body thin, broad elliptical, or oblong emarginate posteriorly; anterior

end narrowed, produced, and with a short, tapering, tentacle-like process at

each angle; upper surface with minute rounded granules and small scale-

like wrinkles; smooth beneath. Posterior sucker small, less than one fourth

breadth of the body, its border divided into much fewer and larger teeth

than in the preceding species [7’. laeve]; anterior suckers two thirds as broad

as the posterior, nearly two diameters apart.

Color light red or flesh color.

Neither the host name nor an illustration of the species accompanied the

description. Later Verrill (1885) gave a rather diagrammatic figure of the spe-

cies and stated that the host was Teirapturus albidus (= T. imperator). Owing

to the incompleteness of the description and figure the species has not been

identifiable, and up to the present time no additional reports of its occur-

rence have been made.

In going over the monogenetic trematodes in the Helminthological Collec-

tion of the U. 8. National Museum, 1 specimen (U.S. N. M. 7176) labelled

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 2

“Tristoma cornutum Verrill, type, gill of bill fish, Block Island’’ was found,

and in the MacCallum collection there were several specimens (U.S. N. M.

35136) labelled ““Tristomum coccineum, gills, Spear fish—Tetrapturus im-

perator,’ which proved to be the same species as that described by Verrill

as T’. cornutum. The type specimen was not in good condition, but sufficient

detail could be made out to show that the specimens collected by Mac-

Callum were 7. cornutum. The above description is based largely on the

specimens collected by MacCallum.

There are several characters which Tristoma cornutum shares with certain

other members of the family; these seem to be constant and for that reason

the genus Capsaloides was proposed to include Tristoma sinuatum Goto,

T. perugiat Setti, and T. cornutum, the latter being designated as type; to

this genus is also added C. magnaspinosus, n. sp. The species described as

T. papillosum Diesing by Kdélliker (1849) also belongs in this genus, but

whether it represents a distinct species or is identical with one of the other

species included in the genus Capsalozdes cannot be determined from the

original description; it bears considerable resemblance to C. cornutum, but

may possibly be identical with C. perugiaz which was described from the

same host as Kolliker’s T. papillosum.

Capsaloides magnaspinosus n. sp. Figs. 40-43

Description.—Body oval to piriform in outline, 5.4 to 6.6 mm long by 4.6

to 5.8 mm wide. Dorsal surface covered with relatively large, wart-like

papillae about 85u in diameter; ventral surface smooth. Margins of body

serrate, each projection bearing dorsally a crown-shaped spine 95 to 125u

wide; about 30 spines on each side, each spine set in a depression bearing a

number of small papillae on its margins. Anterior haptors sucker-like, oval,

425u by 595 to 680u. Posterior haptor 2.1 to 2.88 mm in diameter, sur-

rounded by a festooned marginal membrane about 510u wide; posterior

margin of haptor not reaching posterior end of body. Central area of haptor

an irregular heptagon with 7 septa radiating from it as in other tristomes;

each of the posterior septa bifurcates distally and encloses a small triangular

lacuna. Large hooks 161 to 311yu long, tips claw-like and curved; marginal

hooklets (?)14 in number, about 15yu long. Oral aperture median, near level

of posterior margins of anterior haptors. Pharynx globular, 510u to 1 mm

long by 730u to 1.19 mm. wide. Intestine as in other tristomes. Common

genital aperture near posterior margin of left anterior haptor. Cirrus pouch

club-shaped, its base at median line posterior to pharynx. Testes numerous,

in 2 lateral groups connected medially, forming a W-shaped pattern, con-

fined to interintestinal field. Ovary lobulate, median, 510 to 850u long by

680u to 1.02 mm wide, about midway between posterior end of pharynx and

connecting band of testes. Vitelline follicles occupying greater part of body

except for portions occupied by other organs. Vagina slender, opening some

distance posterior to genital aperture. Ootype oval, posterior to base of

cirrus pouch; metraterm slender. Eggs not observed.

Host.—Tetrapturus imperator (Bloch and Schneider).

Location.—‘‘Nares.”’

Distribution.—United States (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Specimens.—U. S. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 35648 (type and paratypes).

Fes. 15, 1939 PRICE: TREMATODES 91

This description is based on 3 specimens collected ‘‘ex nares’’ of Tetra-

pturus imperator, by G. A. MacCallum, July 25, 1924, at Woods Hole, Mass.

Capsaloides magnaspinosus is easily distinguished from all other species by

the relatively large posterior haptor and by the size of the dorsal marginal

spines, which are very large as compared with those on other species of the

genus. The dorsal papillae are quite prominent and much larger than those

of C. cornutum (Verrill).

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‘Groxoey. —Note on ‘unreported Oligocene i in Citr iS

7 a, 1S MANSFIELD.......... :

- Borany. —Some Georgia Discomycetes. Evita

IcnTsyo.ocy.— —Twenty: one new American mae

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 29 Marca 15, 1939 No. 3

GEOLOGY.—Our petroleum supply.1. Hucu D. Missr, U. 8. Geo-

logical Survey.

The petroleum supply of the United States is of great importance,

whether we express the volume and value of the annual output in

barrels or dollars, or measure the service of petroleum in terms of

human welfare and progress.

Petroleum is produced in many countries, and its products are used

in factories, on highways, and in homes in all lands. Although the

petroleum industry thus encircles the earth, it is outstandingly an

American industry. The drilling of wells for oil in the United States

began in 1859. Our country leads in the development of the industry,

and it produces and consumes three-fifths of the world’s annual out-

put. Also, the United States possesses about half of the world’s known

reserves of petroleum.

PRESENT PRODUCTION AND USES OF PETROLEUM IN UNITED STATES

Our domestic petroleum production is obtained from about 360,000

wells in 22 States; only a small part—about 5 per cent—of our do-

mestic consumption is imported from other countries.

The value of our petroleum output for 1937 measured in dollars is

one-fourth the value of the entire annual mineral production of the

United States. It exceeds the total value of all the metallic mineral

products combined for that year. The next mineral product in point

of value is coal, the next is iron, and then follows natural gas.

Chief among the many uses of petroleum is the production of pow-

er. Such power drives our 30,000,000 motor vehicles on the land, our

Navy on the ocean, and our planes in the air. Altogether, one-third

the mechanical energy produced in the United States comes from pe-

troleum and its companion mineral product, natural gas.

Our domestic production through 1937 totals 19,972,000,000 bar-

rels. Texas stands first, having produced 5,127,000,000 barrels, a

_ 1 Address of the retiring president of the Geological Society of Washington, de-

livered December 14, 1938. Published by permission of the Director, Geological Sur-

vey, United States Department of the Interior. Received December 15, 1938.

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

quarter of all the Nation’s output of oil. California has produced

4,872,000,000 barrels, 24 per cent, and Oklahoma 4,341,000,000 bar-

rels, 21 per cent. The output of no other State has equaled the do-

mestic demand of petroleum products for the year 1937—namely,

1,169,000,000 barrels.

Altogether, Texas, California, and Oklahoma have contributed 72

per cent of all the oil output of the United States. The total produc-

tion of each of these States is greater than that of the U.S.8S.R.—

3,/71,000,000 barrels through 1937—which ranks next to the United

States in point of cumulative production. Mexico ranks third in total

world output, with 1,863,000,000 barrels, and Venezuela fourth, with

1,491,000,000 barrels. No other oil-producing country has produced

as mich as one billion barrels.

The principal petroleum products and rat uses form long lists

whose presentation time does not now permit. A general grouping of

the refined products includes gasoline, kerosene, fuel oils, lubricants,

paraffin wax, petroleum coke, asphalt, road oil, petrolatum, absorp-

tion oil and medicinal oil.

Kerosene, the first petroleum product to be utilized in important

quantities, is still extensively used for lighting. In addition, it is uti-

lized in increasing volumes to provide power and heat.

The domestic demand for gasoline in 1937 was 519,000,000 barrels,

for use chiefly in our motor vehicles. The automobile depends heavily

on the petroleum industry; it consumes 89 per cent of our gasoline, 40

per cent of our lubricants, and requires natural gas derived carbon

black which lengthens 23 to 3 times the lifetime of our tires. The do-

mestic demand for gasoline is directly related to the number of motor

vehicles, which average one to about every five persons. The volume

of consumed gasoline, since the introduction of the first American

automobile in 1892, parallels the increasing numbers of motor cars.

In late years the slight departure from parallelism is due to the greater

volume of gasoline used by each car and to the increased use of gaso-

line in airplanes, tractors, motor boats, and stationary engines. Sec-

ond only to gasoline were the requirements for fuel oil—442,000,000

barrels in 1937—which is used by railroads, steamships, gas and elec-

tric power plants, mines, smelters, manufacturing plants, 011 compa-

nies, and U.S. Navy, and for domestic heating. The development of

our machine age has depended on a plentiful supply of lubricants

made from petroleum. The great volume of demand—23,323,000 bar-

rels in 1937—can be met only by obtaining it from petroleum.

Our petroleum output, as thus briefly described, is provided by one

Mar. 15, 1939 MISER: PETROLEUM 95

of the Nation’s most important industries. The investment in the

United States in the five divisions—the producing, natural gasoline,

transportation, refining, and marketing divisions—of the petroleum

industry totals about $14,000,000,000.

EARLY DEVELOPMENT AND USES OF PETROLEUM

Before 1859 petroleum and its associated hydrocarbons had been

used by the peoples of many lands for at least several thousand years

before the Christian era. Seepages and hand-dug pits and shafts pro-

vided the entire supply of these materials, except in India and China

where oil was obtained from drilled wells. The Chinese, by sinking

wells to depths of 1,500 to 2,000 feet for brine, oil, and gas, were

recognized as the ancient world’s most accomplished well drillers.

The early uses for petroleum and its products were many, as will be

noted below.

Asphaltic pitch was used to waterproof the ark of Noah, the cradle

of Moses, and the cisterns and silos of ancient Egypt and Mesopo-

tamia. Also, it was used by the Egyptians in the process of mummi-

fication. Asphalt was used as a mortar in the construction of Nineveh

and Babylon and also in the buried cities of Ur, as early as 4000 B.c.

Oil from Sicily was used by the Romans to light the temple of Jupiter,

and many centuries later flame throwers fed by naphtha were em-

ployed against the Crusaders when they stormed the walls of Con-

stantinople. Petroleum was distilled into products of commerce at

Baku as early as the 18th century; oil was there used in lamps and also

was utilized for cooking in 1723. In Rumania the exploitation of oil

by shafts dates as far back as the second half of the 16th century. To

Rumania is ascribed the first recorded volume of output of crude pe-

troleum. In 1857 that country produced 1,977 barrels and since then

it has an unbroken record of production.

The early American Indians were familiar with natural petroleum

seepages. They set their mosaics in asphaltum; they used it as an ad-

hesive substance; they lined their baskets with it; and they had great

faith in petroleum for performing all manner of cures.

Oil and gas were known and used before 1859 in many other coun-

tries. A search and study of the literature concerning their recovery,

transportation, treatment, and utilization before that date reveals a

fascinating story of the progress of human civilization.

At the beginning of the 19th century, when the supply of whale oil

for lighting needs was dwindling, the world was faced with the neces-

sity of finding a reasonably priced substitute for it. This necessity

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

stimulated the research—already being conducted—in the distilla-

tion of oil from coal and shale. Paraffin was extracted from both bi-

tuminous shale and crude petroleum in France in 18380. Burning oil

in commercial quantity was first produced from shale in France in

1838. The refining of oil at the Riddings Colliery in Derbyshire was

begun in 1848 by James Young and he later obtained oil from coal

and bituminous shales. He founded in 1851 the Scotch industry for

the extraction of oil and paraffin from boghead coal. His process for

obtaining illuminating oil was rewarded with commercial success, and

during the next 10 years its use expanded rapidly in Great Britain

and was introduced into the United States. American coals were

treated in plants in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, and

Ohio. This rising industry was soon replaced by the petroleum in-

dustry.

During the first half of the 19th century increasing quantities of

crude petroleum, known as rock oil, were obtained from seepages and

from wells drilled for salt brines in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky,

and West Virginia, but very little of it was marketed. Between 1850

and 1855 petroleum from a salt well at Tarentum, Pa., was refined in

Pittsburgh and sold for lamp use. Also by 1850 some oil from the lo-

cality was bottled and sold by druggists; and about 1855 the oil was

refined by methods used for the recovery of oil from coal.

The salt wells in Pennsylvania and the nearby States had been

drilled with equipment designed for the purpose. This equipment,

which embodied the fundamental features of the modern standard

cable drill rig, was developed in 1806-1808 in the Kanawha Valley,

West Virginia. Accordingly, salt well drillers and their equipment

were employed for the drilling in 1859 of the Drake well near Titus-

ville, Pa., in which it was hoped that there would be obtained a larger

supply of oil than that afforded by the oil springs of the locality. The

Drake well, on reaching a depth of 694 feet, discovered oil and its

initial daily output was 25 barrels. This was America’s first commer-

cial oil well. :

RELATION OF GEOLOGY TO PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The phenomenal growth of the petroleum industry in the United

States has been aided greatly by engineering and science. In the words

of W. C. Teagle, formerly President of the Standard Oil Co. of New

Jersey, ““The operation of the world’s oil industry is now very largely

in the hands of technical experts, geologists, physicists, chemists, and

Mar. 15, 1939 MISER: PETROLEUM 97

engineers. This change in the complexion of the responsible operating

personnel has occurred more rapidly, perhaps, than in any other field

of comparable importance (17).”’ On the same subject Lord Cadman,

head of many British petroleum companies and past president of the

Institution of Petroleum Technologists, comments, ‘“‘In no branch of

human endeavor has the application of exact knowledge been so ap-

parent as in the exploring, winning, refining, transport, distribution,

and utilization of mineral oil. At every point in the long road that

leads from the oil well to the consumer investigation and research have

been employed with almost spectacular results (2).” |

The recognition of the value of the geologists’ contribution to the

industry finds concrete expression in the fact that most of the com-

panies have geological departments. Oil companies, however, have

employed great numbers of geologists only in the last 25 years.

The general acceptance of geology in the search for oil took place

about 1915, more than 50 years after the completion of the Drake

well. This acceptance was not so much a whole-hearted welcome as it

was a necessity, for the oil companies were being pressed to meet the

rapidly increasing demands for gasoline required for the growing num-

bers of motor vehicles.

Although geology was utilized only to a limited extent in the selec-

tion of drilling sites during the first half century of the petroleum in-

dustry, geologic observations concerning the occurrence of petroleum

date back to 1842. In that year William Logan observed the occur-

rence of oil on anticlines near Gaspé. In 1860 H. D. Rogers noted that

the newly discovered fields in Pennsylvania were located on anti-

chines. In the following year T. Sterry Hunt outlined the first clear

statement of the anticlinal theory of the accumulation of petroleum

but during the next 25 years Hunt and the other geologists who ac-

cepted the anticlinal theory made little application’of it in reporting

on the oil possibilities of certain areas in the United States and Can-

ada. In the early eighties I. C. White made practical application of

the principles of the theory in the location of new oil and gas fields,

but still the industry in general continued to ignore geology. From

1900 to 1915 the significance of the relation of petroleum to anticlinal

structure was clearly demonstrated for many areas by the investiga-

tions and publications of the Federal Geological Survey.

The number of geologists now serving the industry in the United

States, in the employ of companies and in the employ of Govern-

mental, State, and other institutions, appears to exceed 3,000—a num-

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

ber somewhat larger than the number of geologists in the United

States who are members of the American Association of Petroleum

Geologists. Altogether, 2,354 geologists living in the United States

were members of this organization on March 1, 19388.

It is noteworthy that the States having the greatest oil production

are the ones that have most oil geologists, as indicated by the mem-

bership of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists as of

March 1, 1938.

Texas, ranking first in production—510,318,000 barrels of oil in 1937

Was eh cl ee 868 geologists

California, standing second—238,521,000 barrels of oil in 1987—

WS eye ie a en ee ea a 314 geologists

Oklahoma, standing third—228,839,000 barrels of oil in 1937—has

ee em er er Meat RRO BEE Wb oo ao 430 geologists

Louisiana, standing fourth—90,924,000 barrels of oil in 1937—has

Sh ES RE ee oc vase Oe 124 geologists

Kansas, standing fifth—70,761,000 barrels of oil in 1937/—has

Sn ia ease Sie ae SCAN et Sea a 134 geologists

In these five States there is one geologist for every 600,000 barrels

of oil produced in 1937.

METHODS EMPLOYED BY THE PETROLEUM GEOLOGIST

The oil geologist, in the application of his science to the recovery of

petroleum, has a wide field of opportunity before him and he makes

use of facts and conclusions from many phases of geology, including

structure, stratigraphy, paleontology, sedimentary petrology, sedi-

mentation, geomorphology, and metamorphism. In his search for,

and his location of, oil deposits he has from time to time abandoned or

modified old methods and has adopted new methods of exploration.

The available time will not permit the presentation of a full list of

these methods; it will permit no more than brief mention of some ma-

jor developments during the present century. Important developments

during the early years of the century were the adoption of the struc-

ture contour to portray the structural features of prospective or pro-

ducing oil and gas areas and also the application of the plane table

and alidade as instruments for determining accurately the altitudes

of the ‘‘key beds” that were contoured.

Aeroplane photography, first employed during the World War, was

utilized about 1920 by the oil geologist. Subsequently its utilization

by Governmental agencies and by oil and other companies has in-

creased rapidly, and at present about half the area of the United

Mar. 15, 1939 MISER: PETROLEUM 99

States has been covered by aerial photographs. To the geologist such

photographs record a wealth of essential details of geologic features

that are not obtainable by any other method of mapping. As the

years pass, he relies more and more on such pictures and employs

fewer and fewer plane table maps.

Surface structural mapping reached its peak npplieation between

1920 and 1925, and it has thus for many years occupied a place of de-

creasing importance in the search for new oil fields. This decline is

attributable to the gradual decrease in number of favorable structural

features that can be recognized by surface geologic mapping.

Core drilling for the determination of structure was introduced in

the United States in 1919 and was employed on an extensive scale

for many years in portions of the Mid-Continent region.

The microscopic examination of well cuttings was begun on a large

scale in 1917 and since that time it has reached a place of fundamental

importance. To it the oil geologist now gives about half of his effort.

The practice of obtaining cores of oil sands and other important beds

in order that their character may be accurately noted is used in all

producing areas. The microscopic study of insoluble residues ob-

tained by dissolving in hydrochloric acid well cuttings of limestones

and dolomites was begun in 1924 by H. 8S. McQueen (9). It has been

successfully utilized by the oil industry in the Mid-Continent region

—from Ohio and Tennessee on the east to Kansas and New Mexico

on the west—for the determination of underground stratigraphy and

structure.

Micropaleontology, first introduced in universities and also by

companies to a limited extent as early as 1919, became an Dee

part of the oil business in the United States in 1924.

Geophysical methods, magnetic, gravimetric, electrical, and seis-

mic, are widely used in the United States by the oil industry as a

means for locating and mapping buried structural features. The

adoption of the seismograph followed the discovery of its applicability

during the World War for locating long range guns. In its use by the

oil industry the long range guns are replaced by explosive charges in

prospective oil localities. The first applications of gravimetric methods

in the detection of anticlinal structure in this country were made in

1917 and 1919 by the Coast and Geodetic Survey when stations on

Damon Mound, Texas, and Paleozoic folds in Maryland were occu-

pied at the request of David White of the Geological Survey (21). In

1924 oil companies located three salt domes by geophysical methods,

the Nash dome by means of the torsion balance, the Orchard dome

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

by the seismograph, and the Long Point dome by both the torsion

balance and the seismograph. Since 1924 a total of about 100 salt

domes in the Gulf Coastal Plain and many other structural features

from New York to California have been found by means of geo-

physical methods.

A type of well record or log, known as an electrical log, was devel-

oped in 1928. This type of well record is a great aid in exploratory

drilling and the exploitation of oil fields. It shows the electrical re-

sistivity and the relative porosity of the beds passed through by the

drill. It permits the identification of oil- and water-bearing sands and

gives useful information concerning the character of the beds. This

information, in many areas, is more accurate than that provided by

sets of cuttings.

PROGRESS OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

The progress of the science of petroleum geology is revealed in

many publications, particularly those of the Federal and State Geo-

logical Surveys and the American Association of Petroleum Geolo-

gists. This Association was organized in Tulsa, Okla., in 1917 with a

membership of 94 and now (December, 1938) has a domestic and

foreign membership of about 3,000—a number greater than that of

any other geological society in the world. The Association issues a

monthly bulletin containing about 150 pages in each number, and ih

addition it has issued twelve special volumes. The reports of the Fed-

eral and State Geological Surveys dealing especially with petroleum

geology are numerous and constitute a major portion of the literature

on the subject.

An important factor in the development and progress of petroleum

geology has been the mounting store of geologic data supplied by wells

that have constantly increased both in number and depth. The num-

ber of wells that have been drilled for oil and gas in the United States

exceeds 900,000. The world’s deepest well, completed this year in the

southern San Joaquin Valley, California, reached a depth of 15,004

feet. This well is nearly 9,000 feet deeper than the mine workings

(shghtly more than 6,150 feet) of the Quincy Mining Co., Hancock,

Mich., and is about 6,500 feet greater than the 8,530-foot workings

of one of the Crown Mines on the Rand. The producing zone of this

deep California well is from 13,092 to 13,175 feet, but a more recently

completed well of the Fohs Oil Co. in Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana,

is producing from a slightly greater depth—namely, 13,254 to 138,266

feet.

Mar. 15, 1939 MISER: PETROLEUM 101

CONTRIBUTIONS OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGY TO GENERAL

SCIENCE OF GEOLOGY

Petroleum geology, because of its wide field of opportunity for the

investigation of geologic conditions on the surface and also geologic

conditions to the depths penetrated by wells—15,004 feet—and to the

depths reached by geophysical methods—more than 30,000 feet—has

made notable contributions to the general science of geology. Some of

the more important contributions will be mentioned briefly.

Anticlines, as already noted, were first sought as favorable struc-

tural features on which to locate drilling sites for oil; but, with further

drilling and the consequently increased knowledge of the occurrence

of petroleum, it was learned that oil occurs not only on simple anti-

clines but also on many other types of structural features which in-

clude terraces, anticlinal noses, faults, unconformities, salt domes,

lenticular sands, and buried hills.

Buried hills and the superposition of surface anticlines over them

were brought to the attention of geologists by Sidney Powers (12) fol-

lowing the discovery of granite hills underneath the Eldorado line of

folding in Kansas and of hills of Ordovician rocks underneath the

Pennsylvanian sand production at Healdton, Okla.

Our knowledge of the geology of the salt domes in Louisiana and

Texas has been revolutionized in the last quarter of a century. Now

the domes are generally regarded as intrusive plugs of salt that moved

upward from bedded salt of probable late Jurassic or early Cretaceous

age. The salt is believed to have moved upward as much as 30,000

feet in the coastal portions of Louisiana and Texas. Formerly the

salt masses were believed to have been formed as a result of volcanic

activity, gas uplift, or the crystallization of the salt along zones of

weakness in the rock strata.

The Gulf Coastal Plain may be cited as an example of an area

whose tectonic map has undergone great transformation as the result

of oil exploration. To the tectonic map of the Gulf Coastal Plain such

structural trends as the Mexia fault zone, the buried course of the

Ouachita belt of Paleozoic rocks, and the Gulf Coast geosyncline,

have been added.

From the determination of the effect of regional structural defor-

mation and the attendant metamorphism on deposits of petroleum

and coal in the eastern United States David White drew, in 1915, a

“deadline” beyond which oil may not be expected in the Appalachian

and Ouachita regions (22). This oil ‘‘deadline,’”’ or extinction zone,

102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 3

lies between the 60- and 65-isocarbs, lines connecting points where

the coals have 60 to 65 per cent of feed carbon.

Also, the composition of the hydrocarbon gases in the northern

Appalachian region bears a close relation to the structure and the de-

gree of metamorphism of the associated strata. This has been pointed

out recently by 8. H. Hamilton (6), Charles R. Fettke (4), Paul H.

Price (13), and A. J. W. Headlee (13).

From the measurements of the temperatures of deep wells be Van

Orstrand (20) and others in the United States it has been shown that

relatively high temperatures are generally associated with faults,

salt domes, sand lenses, and anticlines of both large and small closure.

It appears that both the local and regional variations of earth tem-

peratures of the sedimentary strata thus penetrated by wells are re-

lated to thermal conductivity and to the depth to the underlying

crystalline basement. Differential uplift on either a large or a small

scale would tend to elevate the isotherms irregularly.

Stratigraphy, of a refined character, has received impetus in conse-

quence of the requirements of the oil industry for exact information

concerning the thickness and character of the rock strata of prospec-

tive oil regions and of areas under development. This type of infor-

mation is required for an interpretation of geologic history and for

the preparation of precise structure maps. The geologic history has a

bearing on the origin and migration of oil and the structure maps

may reveal favorable places for its accumulation.

Time will permit mention of only three interesting types of strati-

graphic work. One of these is to be found in western Kansas where

petroleum geologists have matched the intervals between bentonite

beds in the Niobrara chalk in a way suggestive of the matching of

tree rings by archaeologists in dating ancient pueblos in New Mexico

and Arizona. In this way the geologists obtain extremely accurate

data for mapping structure on the surface and in core drilling.

An investigation by N. W. Bass (1) and his coworkers of the shoe-

string sand bodies that yield much petroleum in Greenwood and But-

ler Counties, Kansas, and Osage County, Oklahoma, has shown that

these elongated lenticular sand bodies represent sand bars along an-

cient shore lines during the Pennsylvanian epoch. A study of 22,000

well logs in and near the oil fields supplemented by an investigation

of nearly the full length of the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts has made

possible the mapping of land features and shore lines of the ancient

seas as they existed in Kansas and Oklahoma 250 million years ago.

Mar. 15, 1939 MISER: PETROLEUM 103

The recognition and determination of changes in facies of sediments

occupy the attention of all stratigraphic geologists. Many such changes

may be noted in the exposed rock strata, as in the Permian section of

Utah and in the Cretaceous section of the Book Cliffs of Colorado and

Utah. The most striking and best known example of such facies

changes in this country is offered by the Permian rocks of the Dela-

ware Basin of New Mexico and Texas. The basin was surrounded by

a reef zone, and this in turn by a back reef zone. Each of these—the

basin and the two zones—is characterized by different kinds of de-

posits. These relations are exceptionally well displayed in the Glass

and Guadalupe Mountains and also by the records of thousands of

oil wells in the plains east of the mountains.

Stratigraphic information and also areal geologic maps have been

contributed generously by oil companies to State and Federal Geo-

logical Surveys for use in connection with official investigations in the

petroleum-producing States. The publication of such modern State

geologic maps as those of Oklahoma (10), Kansas (11), and Texas (3)

was greatly facilitated through the active interest and support of the

petroleum geologists and companies in those States. The great stock

of information acquired by oil companies in California has been drawn

upon in large measure in the preparation of two recently issued vol-

umes—one entitled Geology of California, by R. D. Reed (14) and the

other Structural evolution of California, by R. D. Reed and J. 8.

Hollister (15).

The stratigraphic information supplied by the wells drilled for oil

and gas enables the geologist to draw geologic maps of the past. Such

maps are areal geologic maps and they thus differ from paleogeo-

graphic maps which show the distribution of land and water. An

early, and perhaps the first, areal geologic map based almost entirely

on well data was one for northeastern Oklahoma compiled by Luther

H. White. It was published in 1926 by the Oil and Gas Journal (23)

and also by the Oklahoma Geological Survey (23). More recently,

such maps of Kansas (8), Oklahoma (8), Texas (16), and a large por-

tion of the United States (7) have been published. The deep drilling

for oil and gas provides not alone stratigraphic information but also

structural data that permit the preparation of subsurface structure

maps, both local and regional in character. In the words of R. A.

Daly at the banquet of the Geological Society of America in Tulsa,

Okla., on December 30, 1931, the petroleum industry has contributed

the third dimension to geology.

104. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

DEEP DRILLING AND SEARCH FOR PETROLEUM DISCOVER

OTHER MINERAL PRODUCTS

The petroleum industry, in its addition of this new dimension to

geology, has had an unusual opportunity to discover mineral products

that lie deep below the surface. Commercially important deposits of

five mineral products thus discovered with the advent of deep drilling

and search for petroleum are natural gas, helium, natural carbon

dioxide, potash in New Mexico, and sulphur in the coastal areas of

Louisiana and Texas. The five industries centering around these may

thus be regarded as quintuplets of mother petroleum in the household

of the mineral industry. A few vital and other statistics of interest

about each of the quintuplets will be mentioned. .

The commercial utilization of natural gas, one of our principal

sources of light and power, dates back as early as 1821 when gas from

a shallow well at Fredonia, New York, was used in homes in that vil-

lage. Our present marketed output of natural gas, amounting in 1937

to 2,370 million cubic feet, comes from 24 States and is transported

through 85,000 miles of trunk lines to consumers in 35 States. The

known reserves of this convenient and efficient source of heat and

energy are, according to R. W. Richards,? at least of the order of 100

trillion cubic feet.

Gas wells suitable for producing solid carbon dioxide, known gen-

erally as dry ice, have been drilled in Montana, Colorado, Utah, New

Mexico, and California; and plants for the manufacture of dry ice

from gas supplied by such wells have been constructed in recent years

at Wellington, Utah, Witt and Bueyeros, N. Mex., and Niland, Calif.

Dry ice is a convenient refrigerant and is being produced in increasing

quantities, due in part to the growing demand for it by transconti-

nental and transoceanic shippers.

Sulphur was discovered on a salt dome at Sulphur, La., in 1865 by

the Louisiana Petroleum & Coal Co. while prospecting for oil. Sulphur

production was begun in Louisiana in 1903. To January 1, 19388,

41,163,000 long tons of sulphur valued at over three-quarters of a

billion dollars has been produced from the cap rock of salt domes on

the Gulf Coast of Louisiana and Texas. Before the development of

the Louisiana and Texas deposits 95 per cent of the world’s supply of

sulphur came from Sicily. At present these two States supply the

greater part of the world’s sulphur and more than 99 per cent of the

domestic output.

2 Personal communication.

Mar. 15, 1939 MISER: PETROLEUM 105

The United States possesses the only known natural gas fields in

the world that yield gas sufficiently rich in helium to warrant the ex-

traction of this element on a commercial scale. The richest helium-

bearing gases, those containing 1 to 8 per cent, are found in southeast-

ern Kansas, southeastern Colorado, eastern Utah, and in the Texas

Panhandle. The production of helium on a large scale was born of the

necessity to find during the World War a non-inflammable substitute

for the extremely inflammable hydrogen gas in balloons and dirigibles.

The operation of experimental plants in Texas and Canada, beginning

in 1918, led to the erection in 1919 of a production plant at Fort

Worth, Texas, and later other plants, one by the Helium Company

at Dexter, Kans., in 1927, and the other by the Bureau of Mines near

Amarillo, Texas, in 1928.

American potash, like our helium, was first produced during the

World War and it now supplies a major portion of our domestic re-

quirements. An energetic search for possible sources of potash in this

country began in 1911. One of the possible sources thus investigated

was the Permian salt of Texas and New Mexico. Information about

the extent and character of the potash deposits in these States ac-

quired from oil company wells and from Government and private core

tests revealed commercial deposits of potash in New Mexico. Ship-

ments began in 1931 and they totaled 700,000 tons of crude potash

salts in 1937.

PETROLEUM RESERVES OF UNITED STATES

Our petroleum reserves, because of the nature of the occurrence of

petroleum, are imperfectly known. Petroleum is a liquid contained in

the rocks deep below the surface in many small widely scattered areas.

It is discovered by the driller who is aided in his search by the accu-

mulated knowledge about oil and its occurrence.

A number of estimates of the total petroleum resources of the

United States were prepared between 1909 and 1921. During this pe-

riod, however, it became evident that the unproved reserves in un-

known fields awaiting future discovery could not be estimated with

any degree of accuracy whereas the quantity of oil in the proved re-

serves, recoverable by then current methods of production, could be

estimated with reasonable accuracy on the basis of the past produc-

tion experience of depleted fields. The first estimate in which the

proved reserves were separated from estimates of undiscovered fields

was made in 1921 by the Geological Survey with the cooperation of

the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. In this estimate

106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

5 billion barrels were classified as oil “‘in sight” on January 1, 1922,

and 4 billion barrels additional as ‘‘prospective and possible’ and re-

coverable by current methods of production (18). A number of esti-

mates have been prepared since 1921.

The individual estimates of the petroleum reserves that have been

made in 1921 and subsequent years differ somewhat but they all pos-

sess a similar order of magnitude. Since 1930 the estimates of proved

reserves have ranged from 10 to 15.8 billion barrels. )

The proved reserves in the ground, like the stocks of petroleum held

above ground, are constantly changing in quantity. They are depleted

by the output of producing wells and increased by the discovery of

new fields and deeper pools. During the period 1922 to 1938 for which

figures of proved reserves are available many large fields were dis-

covered so that, notwithstanding the consequent greatly augmented

production, the proved reserves have increased.

FUTURE PETROLEUM SUPPLY OF UNITED STATES

The continued discovery of new fields and deeper oil-bearing zones

is required to meet future demands, just as it has since the beginning

of the industry in the United States. The extent to which new sources

of supply are discovered and produced depends upon the payment of

such prices by the consumer as will permit the industry to carry the

heavy and increasing expense of new exploration and maintain prof-

its.

Much oil remains to be discovered in new fields and in deeper pools,

but the exact location of these fields and the quantity of petroleum

they will yield are not known; they will not be known in advance of

drilling. Nevertheless, their number, whatever it may be, is definitely

limited and each newly-found field leaves one less to be discovered.

The answer to the question ‘‘When will the day of petroleum short-

age in the United States be reached?”’ lies not alone in the supply of

oil remaining in the ground. It rests also with the geologist to con-

tinue to aid in the increasingly difficult problem of discovery, with

the engineer to improve drilling technique and to increase recoveries,

and with the chemist to continue improvements in refining practice.

In part, it rests on the price that the public can pay in the future for

oil products, and that in turn depends in part on increased efficiency

in use. In a large measure it rests on conservation and efficiency in the

discovery, development, and production of our future oil fields.

The future undoubtedly will see continued advances in science and

technology affecting the discovery, recovery, refining, and utilization

Mar. 15, 1939 MISER: PETROLEUM 107

of petroleum. Thus far, these advances have enabled us to keep sup-

plies ahead of needs, but they afford us no assurance that the same

record can be maintained indefinitely.

In this connection it is of interest to call attention to some of the

concrete accomplishments of recent years. The recovery of gasoline

from a barrel of oil has more than trebled in the last 40 years—from

about 54 gallons in 1899 to about 183 gallons in 1937. In the 15-year

period from 1922 to the end of 1936 the geologist and the petroleum

engineer have aided the driller in the addition of 10.8 billion barrels

to our petroleum reserves, despite the production of 12.8 billion bar-

rels during that period. Also, from 1920 to the end of 1936 the chemist

by the introduction and improvement of cracking processes, has con-

served 8.5 billion barrels of crude oil (19). The petroleum engineer is

meeting energetically the challenge to recover the 65 to 85 per cent of

oil remaining in the ground after a field no longer yields oil by the old-

er methods of production. Each year witnesses the improvement and

extension of recovery methods, such as acid treatment and repressur-

ing by the introduction of gas, air, and water into the oil-bearing

zones. The increased adoption and refinement of such methods in

areas where geologic and other conditions permit their use will lead to

the recovery in places of 50 per cent or more of the total oil content of

the producing zone. ,

Moreover, when a shortage of domestic crude petroleum arrives

and there is a consequent rise in prices of petroleum products, substi-

tutes will be drawn upon just as they are now drawn upon to some

extent in some countries that are supplied with little or no oil re-

sources. Some of these substitutes are oil products from coal and oil

shale, alcohol from farm products, and gases from wood. Our future

resources of coal and oil shale have been so determined by geologic -

evidence and exploration that we know their approximate extent and

quantity. According to Dean E. Winchester (24), the oil shale de-

posits of the United States will yield 92,144,935,000 barrels of oil, if

and when the price of oil permits. Should coal be called upon to sup-

ply the demands now met by oil and gas, the coal reserves of the

United States would, according to independent estimates by T. A.

Hendricks? and Arno C. Fieldner (5), last about 2,000 years. These

two estimates are based on the assumption that the consumption of

energy from mineral fuels will equal the maximum rate of consump-

tion in the past (approximately 23,400 trillion B.t.u. in 1929) and

3 Personal communication.

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

also are based on the assumption of a 30 per cent loss of coal in mining.

Concerning the cost of motor fuel substitutes, Doctor Fieldner (5)

comments as follows:

Reliable information on the cost of making gasoline from coal in British

and German plants is not available, but it is believed that it is three or four

times the present cost of producing gasoline from petroleum in the United

States. These costs will be reduced by further research, but no other liquid

motor fuel, whether it be from coal, oil shale, or vegetable matter, can hope

to be as cheap as our present petroleum fuels.

The following significant statement on this subject is contained in

a recent press memorandum of the Department of the Interior rela-

tive to the work of the Bureau of Mines (Oct. 24, 1988):

By the time that depletion of our petroleum resources reaches the point

when a motorized Nation must begin to look to other sources for some of its

fuel, it is hoped that motor fuel can be supplied from coal so efficiently and

cheaply that the transfer can be made from the old fuel to the new without

drastic adjustments.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Bass, N. W. Origin of Bartlesville shoestring sands, Greenwood and Butler Counties,

Kansas. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 18(10): 13138-1345. Oc-

tober, 1934.

— Origin of the shoestring sands of Greenwood and Butler Counties, Kansas.

State Geol. Survey of Kansas Bull. 23. 1936.

—— ConstTaNcE LEATHEROCK, W. REESE DILLARD and LuTHER E. KENNEDY.

Origin and distribution of Bartlesville and Burbank shoestring oil sands in parts

of Oklahoma and Kansas. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 21(1):

30-66. January, 1937. —

2. CADMAN OF SILVERDALE, THE Rr. Hon. Lorp. Foreword, The sczence of pe-

troleum. 1. Oxford University Press. 1938.

3. Darton, N. H., L. W. SrepHenson, and JutiA GARDNER. Geologic map of

Texas. U.S.Geol. Survey. 1937.

4. FETTKE, CHARLES R. Oriskany as a source of gas and oil in Pennsylvania and

adjacent areas. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 22(3): 241-266.

March, 1938.

. FIELDNER, ARNO C. Fuels of today and tomorrow. Am. Soc. for Testing Ma-

terials, Proc. 37(1). 1937.

Hamitton, 8. H. Oriskany explorations in Pennsylvania and New York. Am.

Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 21(12): 1582-1591. December, 1937.

Levorsen, A. I. Studies in Paleogeology. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists

Bull. 17(9): 1107-1132. September, 1933.

McCieLuAN, HucH W. Subsurface distribution of pre-Mississtippian rocks of

Kansas and Oklahoma. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 14(12): 1535-

1556. December, 1930.

9. McQurren, H.S. Jnsoluble residues as a guide in stratigraphic studies. Missouri

Bureau of Geology and Mines 56th Biennial Report, Appendix I. 1981.

10. Miser, H. D. Geologic map of Oklahoma. U.S. Geol. Survey. 1926.

11. Moorz, Raymonp C. and KENNETH K. LANDES. Geologic map of Kansas. State

Geol. Survey of Kansas. 1937.

12. Powers, SIDNEY. Granitein Kansas. Am. Jour. Science. 44(4): 146-150. 1917.

The Healdton oil field, Oklahoma. Economic Geology. 12: 594-606. 1917.

— Reflected buried hills and their tmportance in petroleum geology. Economic

Geology. 17: 233-259. 1922.

— Reflected buried hills in the oil fields of Persia, Egypt, and Mexico. Am. Assoc.

Petroleum Geologists Bull. 10(4): 422-442. April, 1926.

13. Price, Paut H. and A. J. W. Heapurn. Regional variations in composition of

natural gas in Appalachian province. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull.

22(9): 11538-11838. September, 1938.

co NO

Mar. 15, 1939 EATON: HYOMANDIBULAR 109

14. Reep, RaueH D. Geology of California. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists.

Tulsa, Oklahoma. 1933.

and J. §S. Howuuister. Structural evolution of southern California. Am.

Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Okla. 1936.

16. SELLARDS, E. H. Maps showing distribution of Upper Cambrian, Lower, Middle,

and Upper Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian in Texas. Advance prints from

Geology of Texas, IV. Petroleum Resources. Univ. of Texas, Bureau of Eco-

nomic Geology. April, 1938.

17. TEactz, W. C. Foreword, The science of petroleum. 1. Oxford University Press.

1938.

18. UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. The oil supply Ane ie United States. Amer.

Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 6(1): 42-46.

19. Van Covern, Frep. Status and outlook of Ree a eat, demand, and stocks.

Am. Petroleum Inst. Quart. 7(2): 9. April, 1937.

20. Van ORSTRAND, C. E. Some possible applications of geothermics to geology. Am.

Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 18(1): 13-38. January, 1934.

—— Temperature gradients. In Problems of Petroleum Geology. Pp. 989-1021,

Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Okla. 1934.

21. Wuitrr, Davip. Gravity observations from the standpoint of the local geology. Geol.

Soc. of America Bull. 35(2): 207-277. June 30, 1924.

22. —— Some relations in origin between coal and petroleum. This JouRNAL 5: 189-

212. March 19, 1915.

— Metamorphism of organic sediments and derived oils. Am. Assoc. Petroleum

Geologists Bull. 19(5): 589-617. May, 1935.

23. Wuitr, LutHer H. Oklahoma’s deep horizons correlated. Oil and Gas Jour.

24(45). April 1, 1926.

—— Oil and gas in Oklahoma: subsurface distribution and correlation of the pre-

Chattanooga (‘‘Wilcox”’ sand) series of northeastern Oklahoma. Oklahoma

Geol. Survey Bull. 40-B. 1926.

24. WINCHESTER, Dean EK. The oil possibilities of the oil shales of the United States.

Report II of the Federal Oil Conservation Board to the President of the

United States, pp. 13-14. 1928.

15.

PALEONTOLOGY .—The crossopterygian hyomandibular and the tet-

rapod stapes.. THEODORE H. Eaton, Jr., Union College, Sche-

nectady, New York. (Communicated by C. Lewis Gazin.)

Romer’s description, in 1937, of the braincase of Megalichthys, a

Permo-Carboniferous crossopterygian fish, showed that the hyoman-

_dibular bone articulated with the otic region by two heads, one dorsal

and one ventral to the jugular vein. This arrangement, elsewhere un-

known in vertebrates, had been anticipated in part by Schmalhausen,

DeBeer and Watson. They could not, however, attribute the two-

headed hyomandibular to any particular fish, and their hypotheses

differed greatly in details. The views of Schmalhausen and DeBeer

were summarized by Goodrich (1930) in his Studies on the structure

and development of vertebrates, and those of DeBeer again by Romer

(1937). Watson’s related suggestion is in his paper on the origin of

Amphibia (1926).

In the summer of 1937 I had the privilege of studying the Mega-

lichthys material with Dr. Romer and attempting to restore some of

1 Presented before the Vertebrate Section of the Paleontological Society on De-

cember 29, 1938. Received December 29, 1938.

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

the soft anatomy. This paper presents two suggestions: (1) That the

articulations of the hyomandibular are carried over essentially un-

changed, and may be identified, in the connections of the stapes with

other skeletal parts in most tetrapods, and (2) that the stapedial mus- |

cle is not limited to mammals but probably came up in their ancestry

from the anterior edge of the levator hyoidei of fishes. Most of the

data are from published sources, but I have added to them a series of

simple reconstructions and two or three new observations.

Figure | is a diagrammatic reconstruction of the hyomandibular of

Megalichthys and its relations to other parts. The attachments to

skeletal parts are numbered arbitrarily: 1 the dorsal process, to the

parotic region of the cranium above the jugular canal, 2 the ventral

or otic process, below the jugular canal, 3 the connection with the

ceratohyal, 4 that with the quadrate, and 5 with the operculum. The

latter two connections are not represented by distinct processes, but

were undoubtedly present as close attachments in all generalized

hyostylic operculate fishes. Above the groove for the jugular vein, on

the posterior part of the otic region, is a smooth muscle scar, which

could only be for the levator hyoidei, likewise present in generalized

hyostylic fishes. Whether this muscle extended as far down as the

mandible is not determined, so that its restoration is conservative.

In Amphibia, however, the levator hyoidei is largely converted into

the depressor mandibulae by shifting its insertion to the posterior end

of the lower jaw.

Three brief comparisons with the arrangement in other fishes will

show that this type of hyomandibular occupies, probably, a fairly

central, primitive position in the evolutionary scheme. Figure 2 in-

dicates the corresponding structures in a dissection of Squalus, a

shark. The articulation with the cranium is single and ventral to the

jugular vein. Probably it is equivalent to no. 2, and no. 1 is either

primitively or secondarily absent. No. 5 probably never existed, as

there is no evidence that sharks ever had a bony operculum.

In the advanced fishes, Actinopteri, the hyomandibular articulates

with the braincase above the jugular vein instead of below, and pre-

sumably articulation 2 has been lost, on the assumption that the

double-headed hyomandibular is ancestral for these fishes. Numbers

3, 4 and 5 are, of course, regularly present.

The Dipnoi, lungfishes, make a more difficult problem, as the hyo-

mandibular is so far reduced as to be almost unrecognizable in the

adult, and has lost practically all its primitive connections. But even

here, in the embryo of Neoceratodus (Fig. 3), we may possibly see a

Mar. 15, 1939 EATON: HYOMANDIBULAR 111

remnant of a double cranial attachment with the jugular vein be-

tween, and also one to the quadrate and another for the ceratohyal.

If this be the correct interpretation, the only one of our five connec-

tions actually missing is that for the operculum. In modern Dipnoi,

at least, the operculum is greatly reduced and depends primarily upon

its extensive muscle sheet for support.

Enough has been said to show that Romer’s discovery may be the

Jugular EE

cana TN SF

i; ~Levator hyoidei

Auditory capsule

Vena capitis

lateralis

facial nerve,

hyomandibu lar

branch.

Fig. 1.—Crossopterygii: Megalichthys. (Adapted after Romer, 1937.) Left lateral

view. Fig. 2.—Elasmobranchii: Squalus. Left lateral view. Fig. 3.—Dipnoi: Neo-

ceratodus, embryo, 18.5 mm. (Modified after Goodrich, 1930.) Posterior view, right

ule a 4.—Embolomeri: Orthosaurus. (Based on Watson, 1926.) Posterior view,

eft side.

means of settling the long dispute over homologies of the hyomandib-

ular and its cranial articulations in fishes. Turning back to Mega-

lichthys again, the prevailing opinion for some years has been that

Crossopterygii stand very close to the ancestry of tetrapods, and it

should be profitable to make as detailed a comparison as possible be-

tween the hyomandibular and the amphibian stapes.

Figure 4 is a composite reconstruction of the stapes in the embolom-

erous Stegocephalia, based partly on Watson’s figures and partly

on his descriptions (1926). On the lower portion of the otic capsule

the foot of the stapes rested in a pit, which, however, did not pene-

112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

trate the capsule wall. He calls it the pseudofenestra ovalis. It is

clearly an early stage in the evolution of a complete fenestra into the

otic cavity, but presumably sound could already be transmitted by

way of the stapes. Watson says he believes a dorsal process to have

been present in Embolomeri, and also one to the quadrate, both of

them doubtless cartilaginous. There is a small pit on the quadrate,

sometimes at the point where the squamosal, pterygoid and quadrate

meet (Orthosaurus), facing towards the otic capsule, and showing the

location of the process from stapes to quadrate. Above the pseudo-

fenestra ovalis there is a concavity along the side of the braincase

which is the probable location of the jugular vein. In modern Am-

phibia and Reptiles this vein is above the fenestra ovalis and the foot

of the stapes. It would seem, then, that the foot of the stapes, trans-

mitting sound to the ear cavity, can be nothing but the ventral cra-

nial articulation, no. 2, of the fish hyomandibular; that the dorsal proc-

ess to the parotic region of the cranium is no. 1; that the quadrate

connection, no. 4, is present as a cartilage rod in some cases. No doubt

during ontogeny the hyoid attachment, no. 3, is temporarily present;

whether it continued through life in a ligamentous form is, of course,

impossible to say. But we still have one end unaccounted for. In

Stegocephalia this end extended outwards in the otic notch to the

level of the skin, that is, to the ear drum. Connection no. 5, to the

operculum in Crossopterygii, was located on the outer face of the

hyomandibular, therefore certainly nearest to the skin, as the opercu-

lum was a superficial, dermal bone. When the operculum disappeared,

with the transition to land life, this part of the hyomandibular might

most readily have been left attached to the integument and have

served to receive sound vibrations from outside, while that area of the

integument became the ear drum. Watson remarks that the bony

stapes of Emboiomeri seems to lie at right angles to that of, for in-

stance, Osteolepis, the Crossopterygian which he used for comparison.

We can see that this is not so much a shifting of position of the bone

as the development of a new axis, namely from the fenestra ovalis to

the otic notch instead of from the parotic process to the ceratohyal.

The bulk of the levator hyoidei muscle of Crossopterygii had, with

the reduction of the hyomandibular, changed its insertion to the

mandible, being known from now on as the depressor mandibulae.

But there can be little question, on the basis of evidence from certain

reptiles and from mammals, that in early Stegocephalia a slip of this

muscle continued to insert on the stapes, its origin being somewhere

close to the parotic process and its course being external to the jugu-

Mar. 15, 1939 EATON: HYOMANDIBULAR 113

Vena capitis

lateralis

Ye Vena capitis

lateralis

[= Otic

“; Capsule

J: ° §

Extrastape e

_ Fig. 5—Anura: Rana catesbeiana. Left lateral view. Fig 6.—Cotylosauria: Cap-

torhinus. (Adapted after Price, 1935.) Left lateral view. Fig. 7.—Chelonia: Chrysemys

marginata. (Just hatched, C. L. 25 mm.) Left otic capsule, transverse section. Fig. 8.

—Lacertilia. Generalized diagram. Posterior view, left side. Fig. 9.—Theriodonta:

Kannemeyeria. (Adapted from Pearson, 1924.) Posterior view left side. Fig. 10.—

Marsupial embryo. Generalized diagram. Left lateral view.

114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

lar vein. This is the ancestral stapedial muscle, which does not seem

to be limited strictly to mammals, and which receives a branch of the

facial nerve, as it should according to this scheme.

Among modern Amphibia the stapes of the adult contributes little

to knowledge of the auditory region of any other types. In Caecilia

and Urodela it is much reduced and even the ear drum itself is sec-

ondarily lost, while in some Urodela a substitute apparatus develops

to transmit sound to the ear by way of the shoulder girdle. In Anura,

however, something more like the primitive condition exists (Fig. 5).

The bony stapes fits into the fenestra ovalis beneath the jugular vein.

Laterally, reaching to the ear drum, is a cartilaginous extrastapes,

which may be considered a modification of the distal end of the stapes

itself. This, near the point where the bony part begins, connects with

the parotic crest dorsal to the tympanic cavity and jugular vein (no.

1). Temporarily, during development, strands of procartilage reach

to the quadrate and the ceratohyal, but the latter presently fuses to

the cranium, as shown. There is no stapedial muscle in the modern

Amphibia, and their auditory structure is definitely off the line which

led to higher forms. But we can see that the five points of attachment

already described persist in the Anura, three of them in the adult.

One of the oldest reptiles on which any information about the

stapes has been obtained is the Cotylosaur Captorhinus (Fig. 6). The

braincase was described and carefully figured by Price (1935). The

stapes, a relatively large one, was perforated by a canal for the sta-

pedial artery. The expanded foot (no. 2) fitted the fenestra ovalis be-

neath the jugular canal, and a slender dorsal process (no. 1) articu-

lated with the prootic. Judging from other Cotylosaur material (e.g.,

Labidosaurus, Williston, 1910), the distal end of the stapes reached

the corner of the quadrate at the junction of the latter with the

pterygoid, or connected with it by a cartilage process. Evidently

there was a cartilaginous extrastapes, for otherwise the stapes, as

shown, could not have served for sound transmission. On the anterior

face of the dorsal process (no. 1) Price found in Captorhinus “‘indica-

tions of a strong ligamentous or muscular attachment.’”’ Whether

ligamentous or muscular, this structure was probably the stapedial

muscle or its vestige, and I have shown its possible position in this

figure.

An interesting bit of evidence on the stapedial muscle occurs in

embryo turtles, for example in Chelydra and in Chrysemys (Fig. 7). A

section made through the tympanic region of the latter at the time

of hatching shows the anterior edge of the depressor mandibulae mus-

Mar. 15, 1939 EATON: HYOMANDIBULAR 115

cle attached directly to the end of the extrastapes, but at the same

time continuing down to the lower jaw. This connection, which I

would interpret as a passing remnant of the attachment of a separate

muscle to the stapes, disappears shortly, but is represented in adult

turtles by a short ligamentous connection of the depressor muscle to

the cartilage rim of the ear drum cavity. |

The condition in some lizards closely resembles our reconstructed

Stegocephalian and Cotylosaur ear, and all five of the primitive at-

tachments of the stapes occur during ontogeny (Fig. 8). No. 1, the

dorsal process, develops in temporary connection with the body of

the stapes, lies externally to the jugular vein, and finally separates

as an “‘intercalary”’ cartilage. An opposite process (no. 4) goes to the

quadrate and usually persists through life. Temporarily the stapes

is connected with the ceratohyal (no. 3). No. 2 and no. 5 are present

as the functional inner and outer ends of the stapes, just as in Em-

bolomeri, but no. 5 is cartilaginous (an extrastapes). :

Before considering the somewhat more difficult problem of the

mammalian ear it is necessary to try restoring the complete stapes of

a Theriodont, if possible, from the work of Broom, Watson and oth-

ers. Since very few of the known mammal-like reptiles have much of

the auditory apparatus remaining in the fossils, we must select one

which happens to show it most clearly, without regard for the par-

ticular line which may lead to mammals.

A diagram of an occipital view of the ear region in the Anomodont

Kannemeyeria (based on Pearson, 1924) will suggest two or three im-

portant changes which took place as the mammalian ear evolved

(Fig. 9). The stapes was a short, bony rod reaching from the fenestra

ovalis to the inner edge of the quadrate, where its distal end rested

in a groove. There was undoubtedly, as in other reptiles, a cartilagi-.

nous extrastapes, although it need not have been long, for the ear drum

may have been slightly sunken into a canal already. The quadrate

itself was in the process of reduction and formed only the inner por-

tion of the jaw articulating surface. The fenestra ovalis, and therefore

the foot of the stapes, was ventral to a deep notch in which it is safe

to say the jugular vein passed. The whole auditory apparatus had

come farther ventrad and mediad than in amphibians or other rep-

tiles. There is a distinct parotic process on the border between the

squamosal and opisthotic. Lateral to this, on the squamosal, was a

broad trough providing an origin for the depressor mandibulae. Con-

sidering that the parotic process in earlier types receives articulation

no. 1 (the dorsal process) from the stapes, and that it is external to

116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

the jugular notch, I think that we may look for a homologous struc-

ture to attach to the same place in some of the mammal-like reptiles,

that is, a dorsal process from the stapes or its equivalent. We may

also suspect that the stapedial muscle originated on the face of the

opisthotic just inward from the parotic process.

If the interpretation is correct so far it should not be too great a

jump to the stapes of a primitive mammal in an embryonic stage (Fig.

10). The dorsal end of the hyoid arch becomes attached very early

to the parotic crest dorso-laterally from the stapes proper, and ex-

ternally to the jugular vein. This end of the hyoid is then called

laterohyal or stylohyal. Goodrich (1930) noted its similarity to the

dorsal process of reptiles. I suggest that this dorsal process of the rep-

tilian stapes has detached itself, during the early evolution of mam-

mals, from the remaining portion of the stapes, and associated with

the hyoid alone (connection no. 3). It is possible, then, that in Kan-

nemeyeria and its relatives the dorsal process was already becoming

a so-called “‘stylohyal”’ and supported the ceratohyal directly, while

the inner part of the stapes, with its extrastapedial, was more com-

pletely freed for auditory transmission. The stapes of mammals has

lost the extrastapedial because the quadrate and articular moved into

the ear cavity and took its place. The stapedial muscle, becoming al-

most microscopically small, is still associated in mammals with the

auditory stapes proper.

The associations of parts, then, in the mammalian ear, are new, but

the old morphological features of reptiles, amphibians and even fishes

are still there and may be recognized, according to this theory. It may

be that with the evolution of a mammalian larynx, and mobile mus-

cular tongue, along with chewing movements of the lower jaw, there

was reason for a more sturdy attachment of the hyoid arch to the

cranium, and the most convenient method of obtaining it was by

annexing the dorsal process of the stapes. At the same time the re-

mainder of the stapes came to depend on the quadrate, while the lat-

ter was still in the upper jaw, for a more complete support than it

had in amphibians or most reptiles, and thus drew closer the original

attachment no. 4. At some time, as Broom pointed out (1912), there

must have been a double articulation between the mandible and the

upper jaw, consisting not only of the old joint between the quadrate

and articular but of a new one between squamosal and dentary. In

time the latter survived, while the quadrate and articular, being very

close against the ear drum, were drawn into the auditory complex and

replaced the old cartilaginous extrastapes.

Mar. 15, 1939 EATON: HYOMANDIBULAR 117

Summary.—The crossopterygian hyomandibular bone, evolving in-

to the tetrapod stapes, retains its original morphological relations

largely unchanged, even to mammals. New functions and new loca-

tions of parts appear, but the connections, I suggest, remain essen-

tially as follows: 1. The dorsal cranial head of the hyomandibular be-

comes the dorsal process of the stapes, and, in mammals, the so-called

stylohyal. 2. The ventral head of the hyomandibular, below the

jugular vein, becomes the foot of the stapes and occupies the fenestra

ovalis. 3. The connection of the hyomandibular with the ceratohyal

generally does not persist beyond early developmental stages in te-

trapods, but apparently in the line leading to mammals the ceratohyal

was still able to link itself to the cranium through the dorsal process

of the stapes. 4. In many types the attachment to the quadrate dis-

appears except in early development, but it was shown to be present

in early Stegocephalians, Cotylosaurs, lizards and the mammal-like

reptiles, while in mammals it becomes the joint between the stapes

and the incus. 5. The attachment of the hyomandibular to the oper-

culum in fishes seems to furnish a convenient point for that between

the stapes and ear drum in early tetrapods. Later this end of the stapes

became cartilaginous and was finally atrophied in the transition from

reptiles to mammals.

The levator hyoidei muscle became split, in Amphibia, into a large

depressor mandibulae and a small stapedial muscle, the latter prob-

ably being limited to certain Stegocephalia. Traces of the stapedial

appear in some primitive reptiles, and in mammals it is regularly pres-

ent, while the depressor mandibulae serves the Amphibia, reptiles and

birds, but in mammals is replaced by the digastric.

LITERATURE CITED

Broom, R. On the structure of the internal ear and the relations of the basicranial nerves

im Dieynodon, and on the homology of the mammalian auditory ossicles. Proc.

Zool. Soc. London, 1912, 419-426, 1 pl., 1 text-fig.

—— The mammal-like reptiles of South Africa and the origin of mammals. Witherby,

London. 1932. -

Goopricn, E.8. Studies on the structure and development of vertebrates. Macmillan,

London. 1930.

Pearson, H.S. The skull of the Dicynodont reptile Kannemeyeria. Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, 1924, 793-826, 18 figs.

Price, L.1. Notes on the braincase of Captorhinus. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 40:

_ 377-886, pl. 6-9. 1935.

Romer, A.S. The braincase of the Carboniferous crossopterygian Megalichthys nitidus.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 82(1): 1-73, 16 figs. 1937.

Watson, D. M.S. The evolution and origin of Amphibia. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.

214(B): 189-257, 39 figs. 1926.

een oN, SW. The skull of Labidosaurus. Amer. Jour. Anat. 10: 69-84, pls.

i-iii. :

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

EVOLUTION.—The course of evolution... Rosrerr F. Griacas,

George Washington University.

To evince an interest in orthogenesis or even to recognize that it is

entitled to serious consideration by a scientific society is perhaps a

somewhat dangerous admission. For many biologists consider ortho-

genesis a relic of the mystical childhood of evolutionary doctrine quite

of a piece with the transmission of acquired characters and scarcely

to be mentioned in a respectable Society. One authority expresses the

feeling of many when he bluntly calls orthogenesis an ‘“‘anachronism.”’

Altenburg holds that ‘“‘The theory of orthogenesis depends for its ac-

ceptance not so much on our knowledge of certain facts as it does on

our ignorance of them.’”?

Yet the officers of the Paleontological Society ask me to open a dis-

cussion of the subject; because, in the words of their invitation, ‘“The

consideration of orthogenesis by the Society several years ago did not

clarify the subject.”

This statement again is an admission, at least that the subject is

difficult to clarify. What chance is there of reaching a clearer under-

standing this time than on the previous occasion?

IS ORTHOGENESIS ESSENTIALLY MYSTICAL?

The zoologists’ objections to orthogenesis so cogently set forth dur-

ing the earlier discussion by Dr. Friedmann boil down, I believe, to

the supposition that orthogenesis is essentially a mystical interpreta-

tion of evolution which calls into play not only unknown but un-

knowable agencies which are beyond the reach of scientific inquiry,

that orthogenesis is really a Doctrine of Faith rather than a Law of

Science. In so far as this is correct, the subject is certainly out of

reach of scientific discussion; and if this be the whole truth, we can

no more hope to reach a decision on orthogenesis than we could on

one of the questions debated by the old Scholastics.

But if orthogenesis were, wholly outside the realm of evidence, it

would in these modern days no longer constitute any problem at all.

Its difficulty les exactly in the fact that both natural and supernat-

ural considerations have entered into its discussion. The problem is

then to disentangle these elements. Needless to say, I shall not at-

tempt to consider the mystical elements—not because I disbelieve in

a theistic universe but because as I have said, that is a matter for

1 Presented before the Paleontological Society of Washington at a symposium on

orthogenesis, November 16, 1938. Received December 14, 1938.

2 ALTENBURG, EDGAR. How we inherit. P. 120. 1928,

Mar. 15, 1939 GRIGGS: EVOLUTION 119

faith and is not susceptible of proof or disproof by scientific methods.

Asin any controverted subject, we may well begin with a definition.

Is it correct to state that the essential feature of orthogenesis is that

it holds that evolution proceeds in definite directions rather than at

random—that the course of evolution follows definite trends? And

further it is usually held, I believe, that the tendency to fall into such

definitie lines of evolution is characteristic of the nature of proto-

plasm itself. Other elements which have entered into the conception

are, I think, mostly concerned with external causes of the trends and

are, in the absence of any real understanding of such causes, mystical,

or, to say the least, highly speculative.

Observers are not wanting, however, who strike at the very idea of

evolutionary trends quite apart from any considerations as to cause.

Altenburg says flatly that orthogenesis “‘contradicts all that we know

about mutations, especially as shown by the careful studies made on

the insect Drosophila,’ and again, ‘““The mutation theory also makes

untenable the theory of orthogenesis, according to which changes

take place along predetermined lines and not in all directions as de-

manded by the mutation theory.”’

Here we have clearly set down the divergence in philosophy that

has arrayed biologists in two hostile camps, the one dominated by the

zoologists and the other by the paleontologists.

Is evolution haphazard, produced by mutations which occur in a

miraculous manner, essentially supernatural in that they are caused

by circumstances entirely outside of the ordinary run of nature? In

this view, the only means by which the orderly relationships which

we observe throughout nature could be produced is by natural selec-

tion. The adherents of such a theory account for the steady progress

of the Equidae from a primitive five-toed ancestry down to the single-

hoofed horses of today by the natural selection of random mutations

alone. This theory would seem to me to put its adherents under a

serious disadvantage at the start by imposing on them the necessity

of proving that at every step in the evolution of the horse each slight

decrease in the size of the lateral toes was an advantage great enough

to favor in the struggle for existence those individuals which possessed

it over those which did not.

Not all the geneticists, even though they have no use for ortho-

genesis, adopt this extreme view. Newman® states a very much

stronger and I believe more generally held position when he writes,

“Tt should be said that definitely directed evolution is now believed

3 Newman, H.N. Readingsin Evolution. 3rd ed., p. 36.

120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

to be one of the laws of organic evolution but we have no clear ideas

as yet as to what are its underlying causes. Therefore orthogenesis is

not a causo-mechanical theory of evolution at all.’’ (Italics in original.)

Having thus delivered themselves, the geneticists smugly withdraw to

their milk bottles to nurse their Drosophila and the paleontologists

may throw as many of their figured stones at them as they please

without in the least disturbing their self-satisfied self-sufficiency.

If the attitude of the unorthogenetic brethren were entirely snob-

bery, it would not last long and we would not need to concern our-

selves with it. The truth is, however, that they have opened up a

serious weakness in the orthogenetic position. In the minds of many

men, the theory of orthogenesis shares with the so-called theory of

special creation the onus of being merely a pseudo-explanation of the

facts with which it deals. They hold that it substitutes a name for an

explanation and really carries its adherents not one step closer to an

understanding of the facts. Worse than that, they feel that instead of

clarifying and stimulating thought, it puts it to sleep.

In so far as this has been true, orthogenesis deserves all the con-

tempt with which it is held in some quarters. Certainly the paleon-

tologists want to be very careful to purge themselves of every vestige

of this sort of loose thinking before they take up the cudgels in its

defence.

But on the other side, are the geneticists, having admitted the

reality of orthogenesis, justified in dismissing it from further consid-

eration because we do not understand its causes? If this is a proper

attitude we should also drop all consideration of evolution itself for

assuredly we know very little about its causes either.

If we agree that we have no comprehension of the causal factors at

work there yet remains the very large task of mapping the evolution-

ary trends which are observed. And since some disbelieve in the very

existence of orthogenetic trends, it may be advisable to reassemble

the evidence which appears so convincing to the adherents of the

theory. Yet it would seem that the old masters like Cope have done

that well enough and that it would be better to refer to the literature.

In any case, I shall not undertake this task but will concern myself

merely with another side of the question. True or not, is the study

of orthogenesis worth while?

It is an axiom that the value of a scientific theory depends not so

much on its truth as upon its usefulness. The reason lies of course

partly in the difficulty of ascertaining absolute truth and partly in

that our problem is to master our environment. The question really

Mar. 15, 1939 GRIGGS: EVOLUTION 121

before us is then, I believe, not is orthogenesis true but is it of any

good to us? Can we make orthogenesis bring forth useful results?

It is to that question then that after this preliminary clearing of the

ground I would address myself.

Very definitely I believe that due consideration of the conclusions

which orthogenesis demands would greatly strengthen taxonomy if

indeed it did not give us a whole new outlook upon the plant and ani-

mal kingdoms. For I believe it can be demonstrated not only that

evolution proceeded orthogenetically but that the orthogenetic lines

in many groups of organisms, both animals and plants, have pursued

similar trends, in other words that evolution runs a definite course

and that the course has followed the same paths in entirely unrelated

phyla.

For that reason I have entitled my discussion The course of evolu-

tion.

I. AGGREGATION AND MULTIPLICATION

The first stage in evolution, after the living units themselves have

been produced, is aggregation or multiplication. This occurs at many

levels all along the line from the lowest to the highest. (1) Dividing

cells, failing to separate, form colonies and multicellular animals. (2)

In the fern-allies, the sporophylls become aggregated into cones which

are the starting point for all the complex evolution of the flower. (3)

In the lower invertebrates, segmentation into a series of similar so-

mites, as in the annelid, lays the foundation for most of the evolution

of the animal body.

(4) In corals and jellyfishes, where asexual reproduction by bud-

ding plays a large role, the daughters often fail to separate and make

possible complex polyzoid individuals closely resembling the colonial

vorticellas except that the bells are multicellular individuals instead

of single cells.

(5) The single meristems of lower ferns and cycads multiply in

higher types until a freely branching plant body is produced. Ex-

actly similar branching bodies with many terminal branches are pro-

duced in a number of unrelated groups of sedentary animals such as

ascidians, sponges, bryozoans, and in at least one crustacean, T’homp-

sonia.

(6) In the highest flowering plants the flowers, originally solitary,

become aggregated into clusters with reduction of the subtending

leaves to bracts and the clusters take on an individuality of their own,

and become the well-known composite heads of the aster family.

122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

Here special leaves simulate sepals, special flowers, petals, etc. This

achieved, the composite clusters start out on an independent evolu-

tion of their own, repeating many of the steps earlier taken in the

evolution of the solitary flower.

(7) Again in the grass family, we find the individual flowers, re-

duced to their lowest terms, associated first in loose panicles, then

brought close together until, in all but the very lowest bamboos, the

ageregate becomes a new unit, the spikelet, which again goes through

a complete cycle of evolution on its own level. (8) Then clusters of

spikelets go through another parallel cycle of evolution on a higher

level, until finally such a complex unit as the ear of maize appears

on a still higher level.

In short, wherever you find organisms or organs tied together in

permanent association, you may expect to find the development of a

new unity and the beginning of a new cycle of evolution.

(9) Even where the units are not stationary, something of the same

nature occurs as, for example, in the social insects where assuredly

the organic unit is the colony like the hive of bees and not an indi-

vidual such as the worker. The queen bee has become essentially only

an organ of the colony—its ovary. True, she retains her eyes, legs,

wings, and other organs but so, in the multicellular body, does every

cell retain the fundamental structures and functions of the original

free-living protozoon.

I need hardly add in these troublous times that most of the prob-

lems of human society spring from the fact that we have not yet

learned how to associate in larger units and that, if we do not exter-

minate ourselves in the process, evolution will surely carry us into

some form of collective unity. Already this industrial age has made

impossible any such individual independence as that of our pioneer

grandfathers who settled this continent in isolated self-sufficient

groups.

In studying the evolution of any one of these aggregates, we see

that in some way living units in close proximity inevitably influence

each other’s development, and here we approach an understanding of

the cause of orthogenesis. We may return to seek explanatinos later,

but now we must go on with the process itself.

As has appeared from the mere catalog of various types of aggre-

gates, aggregation is the foundation on which later evolutionary

processes are built. Once the aggregate—colony, tree, flower cluster,

or society—has been established, evolution follows a rather definite

course.

Mar. 15, 1939 GRIGGS: EVOLUTION 123

II. REDUCTION

A. Reduction 1n number of sumilar parts

The next stage after the preliminary aggregation has been com-

pleted is a reduction in the number of similar parts.

Flower parts-—The lowest flowers, both monocot and dicot, like

magnolias, buttercups, sagittarias, anonas, potentillas, and water-

lilies, have large numbers of flower parts: 50-100 sepals, petals,

stamens, and/or carpels as the case may be. That these are really the

most primitive of the flowering plants is evidenced by the fact that

in these types, and in no others, monocots and dicots come close

together. The flowers of the dicot buttercup and the monocot sagit-

tarva are practically indistinguishable. All of the higher types have the

parts reduced to smaller numbers: 6-5-4-3. In many cases there are

vestiges of the larger numbers formerly present.

There is, further, good evidence that various types of both dicots

and monocots have radiated from a common type similar to the poly-

merous buttercups and Sagittarias.

Gill arches.—A similar reduction in the number of gill arches occurs

in the lowest chordates. Amphioxus has 100 or more. In the cyclo-

stomes, Bdellostoma has 15 to 10, other cyclostomes 9 or 8. In the

elasmobranch sharks, Heptanchus has 9, Chamaeselachus 8, but the

usual number is 7; while in ordinary fishes it is reduced from 6 in the

embryo to 4 in the adult, but some fishes have lost one or two of these,

leaving 3 or 2.

Segments.—In a general way, the phylogenetic order of several

classes of invertebrates corresponds with the number of their somites.

Annelids have more segments than millepedes and, of course, are far

more primitive. Millepedes have more than centipedes; centipedes

more than scorpions; scorpions more than insects.

Among crustaceans, branchiopods like Apus, with forty to sixty-

three pairs of trunk limbs, are nearer the aboriginal type than Mala-

costraca like the crayfish with fourteen trunk appendages, and they

in turn are more primitive than hermit crabs and true crabs which

have lost or nearly lost their abdominal appendages.

Vertebrae.—The lamprey may have 400 vertebrae. Among the

elasmobranchs, Alopias may have more than 200 in the tail alone,

Raja about 150, while Heptanchus has only a few more than 100. The

cod has 52, man 33.

Teeth—The sharks have several hundred teeth. Teeth are still

very numerous in the teleosts and may be present on all the bones of

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

the mouth. In the Amphibia, there is in general a considerable dimi-

nution in the number of teeth as compared with the fishes, but they

still occur regularly on vomer and palatine in addition to maxilla and

premaxilla and sometimes develop on the parasphenoid as well.

In reptiles the teeth are still numerous and widely distributed on

several oral bones.

Up to the mammals, there is generally an indefinite succession of

teeth throughout life, so that any loss is promptly replaced. The

European viper, for instance, has as many as nine poison fangs in

reserve which come into play successively as their predecessors may

be torn out.

In the mammals, succession is reduced to the familiar two sets of

teeth, and there is a plain tendency both further to reduce the num-

ber and do away with the division into two sets. The opossum has

fifty teeth, but the ideal placental would have only forty-eight, and

on account of losses here or there none exceeds forty-four except some

of the whales whose teeth constitute a special problem. To be more

specific, the dental formula of the dog is =42, but in the cat

Ralewell

the teeth are reduced to

= 30. The lynx is made a separate ge-

nus because it has lost the first premolar of the upper jaw, and brought

3-1-2-1

the dentition down to = 28.

3-1-2-1

The losses of specific teeth among the mammals, however, are ob-

viously of a different character from the general reduction in number

met in the lower classes and bring us to the consideration of the next

type of orthogenetic trend.

Before going on, however, a caution should be noted.

Nobody should suppose that in any of these cases, we are attempt-

ing to cite actual lines of descent. The evidence indicates, rather, and

I think most students would agree, that the actual ancestors of the

higher forms listed passed through stages where the organs in ques-

tion (not necessarily the whole organisms) corresponded with the

earlier stages given.

Nor could it be maintained that recognition of the sequence in

such cases as have been given could be of much use to taxonomy. In

most of these cases everybody recognizes the more primitive types

Mar. 15, 1939 GRIGGS: EVOLUTION 125

from other criteria. Useful applications of this and the other principles

to be given are to be had in working out the status of smaller groups

which are made up of species much more closely related. For illus-

trations of this sort, I must turn back to the plants which I know

better.

Take the tribe of grasses known as Festuceae. In Eragrostis major,

there are 40 to 10 similar flowers; in Eragrostis minor, 20 to 8; in the

related blue grass, Poa pratensis, 5 to 3. In Cynosurus, the fertile

spikelets are 3- to 2-flowered. Lamarckia has numerous vestigial

flowers in the sterile spikelet, and in the fertile, one perfect flower

with vestiges of a second.

In the Chlorideae, Leptochloa has 12 to 3 flowers; Eleusine 7 to 3;

Gymnopogon rarely 3 or 2 but normally only 1; Bouteloa several

flowers, all but one vestigial; and Cynodon is constantly one-flowered.

In the Hordeae, Agropyron Smitha has 13 to 7 flowers; Agropyron

repens about 5, Agropyron pauciflorum 2, barley and all the highest

most specialized genera are reduced to one flower.

In the higher tribes of grasses, the spikelets are uniformly one-flow-

ered, but vestiges of a second flower are usually present. These are,

however, in different relations to the fertile flower, thus indicating

independent but parallel reduction from different ancestors.

B. Fixation in the number of parts

The third of the orthogenetic trends I shall mention is inextricably

associated with the preceding. Not only are the numbers of parts

reduced but the number is fixed. In the earliest stages, the numbers

are large and indefinite. They become smaller and definite.

Not only do mammals have less teeth than the lower groups, but

the number of teeth is nearly always constant, and even varies com-

paratively little even in the large groups. Not only are the petals of

ordinary flowers reduced to 6-5-4 or 3; they are, with only minor aber-

rations, fixed at 6 or 5 or 4 or 3, and as all of you know, these numbers

are characteristic of whole families or even orders.

The same trend occurs in the higher level of the flower cluster of

the aster family. In most composites, the number of disc flowers,

ray flowers, and bracts is large and indefinite; but here and there the

head has been reduced to a definite organization. Thus, in Cosmos

and related genera, there are 16 bracts in the involucre in two sets of

8 each and 8 ray flowers, each set alternating in position with the one

outside it. In our common Chrysogonum, the involucre is made up of

10 bracts in two sets of 5 each, the inner of which wrap around the

SS eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeEeEOeeeeeeeeeeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeEeEeEeeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeE=EeEeEeeE___ee_E___ ee

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

ovaries of the 5 fertile flowers. Other flowers are present but vestigial.

So on down the list in each of the illustrations cited above and

throughout nature generally, the numbers of parts become fixed and

standardized at a relatively early stage in evolution; and thereafter

the reductions which occur are, like the loss of the vestigial premolars

in the lynx, very minor compared with the wholesale reduction that

occurs earlier.

C. Consolidation

At a third stage in the reduction process, other tendencies begin

to creep in which later become manifest in the development of new

units. Primitive types are loosely knit. During the course of evolution

they become more and more compact.

In plants, consolidation expresses itself especially in the organiza-

tion of flowers and flower clusters. Primitive flowers were solitary.

Next they began to aggregate into loose clusters, the stems of these

shortened produce simple racemes; further shortening of branches

gives rise to unbranched spikes; the main axis then shortened, draw-

ing all the flowers down into a compact head.

Similarly the axis of the individual flower is shortened from the

primitive condition of a pine cone seen in Magnolia to the stage of

most flowers where the parts, instead of spiralling up an elongated

axis as in the cone, are in circles one above another.

Although this completely-eliminated axis might seem to represent

the theoretical limit, stoppage of axial elongation goes much further

in many families where the axial growth is inhibited before lateral

growth is complete, with the result that the lower parts pile up

around the center and the flower turns itself inside out, so to speak.

Thus, an epigynous flower is produced in which the parts originally

basal—sepals, petals, and stamens—are carried up around the ovary.

In some cases, as in four-o’clocks, roses, and lythrums, the tube

grown up around the ovary remains free from it but in a large major-

ity of such flowers, the elevated parts grow fast to the ovary as in

apples, melons, blueberries, and gooseberries.

This orthogenetic trend is so characteristic and prevalent that it

appears independently in many unrelated orders. To those mentioned

we might add honeysuckles, composites, lobelias, cacti, begonias,

aralias, carrots, and hydrangeas.

The mouth parts of arthropods, originally the segmental append-

ages of the somites in the oral region are in all but the lowest forms

brought into close contact and fitted together around the mouth. As

MAR. 15, 1939 GRIGGS: EVOLUTION 127

in the flower clusters there is remarkably little tendency toward fusion

of the separate appendages.

Our own skull is as notable an example of this sort of thing as any.

The skull of primitive vertebrates consisted of a loose basket-like

ageregation of separate bones in which the mandibular, the auditory,

the ocular, and even the olfactory regions were distinct units hung

around the cranium but by no means a part of it. Here again al-

though complete unity has been achieved by closely interlocking

sutures,*there is remarkably little fusion of bones.

The same tendency toward consolidation of loosely arranged struc-

tures is manifest in the nervous system of arthropods. The primitive

groups have a double chain of ganglia strung along the length of the

body. But the commissures between these have shortened up in all

higher forms. Here, as in the development of inferior ovaries in flow-

ers, the consolidation of the parts carries us much further, into an-

other type of reduction which is the next step.

D. Coalescence of free parts

The fusion of parts originally separate is carried out even more

conspicuously in flowers by horizontal fusions than by the vertical

concrescence around the ovary described in the development of flow-

ers with inferior ovaries. 3

The recognized distinction between lower and higher dicots is in

the fusion of the separate petals, such as we find in pansies, into

united corollas, as in petunias. Traces of the originally separate petals

remain as ribs of the united corolla as in morning-glories or as project-

ing lobes as in phloxes. While all of the highest dicots thus have sym-

petalous corollas, there is abundant evidence that fusion really

occurred and/or perhaps is still occurring over and over again inde-

pendently in scores of families, as for instance in the Leguminosae

where the flowers are certainly polypetalous but show varying de-

grees of fusion in many different genera. In the heath family, Labra-

dor tea has separate petals but in most of the genera they are fused

as in Azalia and Mountain laurel. In the olive family, the petals of

fringe-tree and forsythia have barely united at the base, but those of

lilac are joined half-way up.

All the other flower parts show the same tendency, and there is

every evidence that fusion has occurred independently in many un-

related families. Thus we have united sepals in the calyx of a carna-

tion, united carpels in innumerable fruits like orange, apple, banana.

melons, ete. ete.

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3.

The trend toward fusion frequently reappears in clusters of flowers.

Thus, a mulberry (Morus) resembles a blackberry, but while the

blackberry is produced by the partial coalescence of the carpels of

one flower, the mulberry is due to the fusion of many flowers, each

one of which becomes a lobe of the fruit; and this tendency, mani-

fested in various ways, is characteristic of the whole family Moraceae,

e.g., bread-fruit and fig. |

A pineapple is a similar aggregate. The fruit which we eat includes

the bracts as well as the ovaries of the many flowers as can be readily

demonstrated by inspection of the fruit or more clearly yet, of the

numerous showy blossoms at flowering time.

Fusion of parts originally free is equally marked in animal organs.

Everyone who eats chicken notes that the backbone in which the

vertebrae, which may still be readily counted, is united into two

units, one supporting the wings and the other the legs. That this con-

solidation has developed in the class Aves is shown by a glance at

Archaeopteryx where there is little more fusion of vertebrae than in

reptiles.

The segments of the originally simple arthropod body have been

consolidated, as everybody knows, into the most highly differentiated

cephalothoracic regions of insects, crustaceans, and spiders until deci-

sion as to the exact number of segments of the aboriginal ancestor

has become as difficult as in the vertebrate skull.

The brain of arthropods and apparently that of vertebrates also

originated in similar fashion.

K. Elimination of some organs

After large and indefinite series of organs have been reduced to

small and definite numbers, the next step in the reduction process is

the complete elimination of some sets.

Among flowers, the loss of petals or sepals or stamens or carpels is

exceedingly common. Very often elimination has not been quite com-

plete and tell-tale vestiges of the lost organs remain.

Elimination of floral organs has occurred, so to speak, both whole-

sale and retail. There are whole regions of the Angiosperms where the

flowers have been reduced almost to their lowest terms such as the

grasses, sedges, willows, hickories, oaks, birches, and spurges. Many

individual genera or even single species in families with complete

flowers have also suffered similar losses, as for example Jsnardia in

Onagraceae, Aruncus in Rosaceae, some species of ash in Oleaceae.

Great confusion has resulted among botanists from failure to

Mar. 15, 1939 GRIGGS: EVOLUTION 129

understand that these flowers are reductions. It used to be supposed

that such rudimentary flowers as willows and poplars were primitive

and that evolution had proceeded by the addition and division of

parts until finally the complete polymerous flowers of buttercups

were achieved. There is no occasion here to go into the merits of this

old controversy. Suffice it to say that if the terminal reduced twigs

of the phylogenetic tree are regarded as relics of former main trunks,

it is as difficult to find the connections with the roots as it would be

if a similar attempt were made with an oak tree. Worse yet, each

separate twig would require a different root and the family tree would

become polyphyletic with a vengeance!

One of the most fundamental eliminations of organs is in the sex

organs of the vertebrate. The male and female sexes start develop-

ment alike, clearly pointing back to a primitive hermaphroditic con-

dition. The embryo lays down two urinogenital outlets on each side,

the Wolffian and the Muellerian ducts. In the male, the Wolffian

duct becomes the seminal duct and the Muellerian atrophies. In the

female, the Muellerian duct becomes the Fallopian tube and the

Wolffian atrophies.

Eliminations in animals are so numerous and generally recognized

that there is hardly need to point them out. Snakes have lost all

their limbs, and some boas retain vestiges to prove it. Whales and sea

cows have lost their hind limbs. Dinornis has only the slightest

vestiges to show that it ever had wings, and other flightless birds

like cassowaries, apteryx, and the ostriches show various stages in the

loss of their wings.

III. DIFFERENTIATION

A. Differentiation of parts originally similar

Soon after the number of parts is fixed, differentiation sets in.

Parts originally similar become specialized to subserve diverse func-

tions. Similar spike teeth segregate into incisors, canines, and molars.

The vertebrae, all alike in the fishes, diversify until each one takes on

peculiarities of its own.

In flowers, the regular radiate blossom with petals all alike becomes

a very irregular lipped flower like an orchid, a pea, or a snapdragon.

All stages of the process may be seen in many unrelated families. The

lowest member of the figwort family is the familiar mullein with al-

most regular flowers still retaining the primitive 5 stamens. From

this there is a complete series to the most irregular flowers like snap-

dragons and louseworts in which the stamens are reduced to 4 or 2

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

and twisted out of all semblance to the straight and regular organs

of the ancestral flower.

In the Leguminosae, all transitions from regular flowers like M7-

mosa through Cassia down to the highly one-sided peas are familiar.

No such series occurs in the orchids, all members of the family hav-

ing very highly one-sided flowers, but botanists place orchids at the

summit of the monocots for exactly this reason. That is, though the

stages in their differentiation are gone, we recognize the applicability

of the rule in assigning them this position.

B. Progressive sterilization

The original and most fundamental differentiation was the sterili-

zation of most of the cells in the body. In the original unicellular or-

ganisms all cells were of course reproductive. The most primitive

colonies are in the same condition. But very early reproductive func-

tions were restricted to special cells. From that time on, a large part

of the course of evolution has centered around a continuously pro-

gressive sterilization of reproductive tissues with accompanying dif-

ferentiation of the sterilized elements into vegetative organs.

This is hardly the place to call attention to the fact that the so-

called “‘race suicide” of the cultured classes, which bothers us so

much, is a homologous biological phenomenon. How serious it may

become we cannot guess, but we may remark that there was probably

no occasion to worry over the “‘suicide’’ of the first brain cells.

But this aspect of progressive sterilization, followed by differen-

tiation, brings us to another well-known characteristic of living

organisms.

IV. SUBSTITUTION OF ONE FUNCTION FOR ANOTHER

All of you are familiar with the fact that almost every new organ

of animals and plants consists of an old one made over to serve a new

function. .

Stamens and carpels are clearly ‘‘made-over”’ leaves. This is not

manifest from inspection but is clearly demonstrable by study of

comparative anatomy.

Similarly, petals and sepals are as definitely sterilized stamens made

over into new functions. While the original differentiation of sepals

and petals occurred in the unknown ancestry of the Angiosperms,

the orthogenetic tendency in that direction continues in many

families.

The flower of canna has its full complement of both sepals and

Mar. 15, 1939 GRIGGS: EVOLUTION 131

petals, but those are not what you see when you look at a canna

flower. The conspicuous part of this flower consists of sterilized sta-

mens enlarged and made petaloid. Only one-half of one stamen re-

mains functional, riding like an appendage apparently out of place

on the big staminode to which the rest of it has been transformed.

The tendency to make stamens over into petaloid structures is

pronounced throughout the higher monocot families, viz., in bananas,

gingers, arrowroots, and orchids as well as in cannas.

But the same tendency is latent in many families of flowering

plants, dicots as well as monocots, even though it does not normally

come to expression. Many of the ‘‘double”’ varieties, which occur in

almost all types of ornamental plants, are produced simply by the

conversion of stamens into petals, as you may see by comparing

wild roses with our hybrid tea types.

The metamorphoses of fins of fish to legs, of the forelegs to flippers

in whale, to wings in bats and birds, are too familiar to be mentioned.

The seales on the top of the fish’s head became part of the bony skull.

It is so obvious that there is no need of saying it that a species with

metamorphosed structure has been derived from one unchanged. The

point for us here is that such metamorphoses take a long time, that

there are many stages in the process which therefore constitutes an

orthogenetic trend.

V. ANNEXATION OF ACCESSORY PARTS

The tendency toward consolidation often goes far beyond the or-

gans immediately concerned. It seems as though a definite principle

of organization grips all living structures which come close enough

_ together to establish interrelations.

Many familiar examples will occur to you. The scales of the winter

bud which protect the head of dogwood flowers expand at flowering

time into the large white petaloid structures which make the dogwood

so beautiful. The topmost leaves of the poinsettia take on the bright

red which makes them desirable for Christmas decorations. The leaves

below the head in the composites are brought into the organization

and become analogous to sepals. The bracts subtending the flowers

of grasses, becoming glumes, carry on the subsequent evolution of the

group. In some grasses, where the spikelets are brought down close

to bracts of a second order, these in turn are taken into the organiza-

tion and become functionally comparable to glumes, as in the husk

of maize or the hull of a sand burr.

Again when in composites the heads with their bracts are brought

132. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

close together in the axils of lower leaves, these may become to

all intents and purposes involucral bracts, and the compound head

starts on a new line of evolution as in our common Elephantopus

where the marginal ray flowers radiate, not from each head, but from

the center of the cluster of heads, making the cluster analogous to a

single flower.

In the pineapple, pulpefaction spreads from the ovaries through

the bracts, and in some tropical varieties when fully ripened, to the

main axis of the flower cluster as well.

The fact that our unified vertebrate head was achieved by the

addition of gill arches and other organs originally separate entities

has already been alluded to.

VI. THE NARROWING POSSIBILITIES OF EVOLUTION

As the evolution in any group proceeds the possibilities of diversi-

fication continually contract.

In the beginning, unrestrained by heredity, variations had free

rein. The differences among unicellular organisms are more funda-

mental than those between the most diverse of the higher organisms.

Blue-green algae, diatoms, ciliates, rhizopods, slime molds, and bac-

teria differ far more among themselves than do higher plants from

higher animals. Among the bacteria, for instance, we have one group

which has built its metabolism around the oxidation of sulfur, and

another which oxidizes iron as a source of energy, while the proto-

plasm of all higher organisms is built on carbon chemistry.

The cytology, nuclear behavior, and consequently the heredity of

all higher organisms, both plants and animals, is essentially the same.

Otherwise, Mendel’s law could not hold in guinea-pigs as in peas.

But among unicellulars there are several entirely different types of

cell organization the mechanism of which would preclude Mendelian

inheritance.

Like most other laws of evolution, this narrowing path of progress

finds a perfect analogy in human artifacts. Take the automobile.

Those of you who can remember the early days of ‘‘horseless car-

riages”’ will recall the fundamental diversity of the early types. Beside

gas buggies, there were steam and electric carriages. They were high-

wheeled and low-wheeled with cushion tires, as well as pneumatic.

Among the gas engines, some had one cylinder, some two, as well as

others with four. A fundamentally different type of transmission sur-

vived for many years in the old Model-T Ford.

The history of the automobile gives a clear answer to the cause of

Mar. 15, 1939 GRIGGS: EVOLUTION 133

the phenomenon. The diverse early types were eliminated by what

amounts to natural selection. As the better types were proven out in

use, it became impossible to sell the others until today all cars have

approached so closely to a common standard of excellence that there

is little to choose among them and the manufacturers fearing to adopt

radical departures such as putting the motor in the rear have begun

to waste their energies on inconsequential gadgets.

This is exactly the situation among organisms. In the early stages,

protoplasm can go off into all sorts of experiments but as the type

becomes fixed, heredity restricts variations to minor features and in

the end we get mere diversity without any real difference. Many

authors have called these later stages “‘speciation”’ and have empha-

sized the differences between speciation, evolution with a small e and

Evolution of the larger characters, Evolution with a big E.

Dollo’s well-known “‘law of the irreversibility of Evolution” is, of

course, only a special case of the broader law of the narrowing possi-

bility of variation.

Only two examples of the fundamental diversification which occurs

in primitive groups may be given. Among primitive Notoungulata,

a fossil order of hoofed mammals peculiar to South America, Simpson‘

found in the animals in a single quarry, 1.e., those living together as

one species in one time and at one place, characters upon which had

been based seventeen species, seven genera, and three families.

The important consideration for us is: the criteria by which these

families, genera, and species had been founded constitute valid dis-

tinctions for separating such groups among the later, more advanced

-_ members of this same order.

Among plants, the primitive family Anonaceae has more different

kinds of floral structures than are to be found in any other one family,

some of them not duplicated anywhere else among flowering plants.

Yet indubitably all are closely related and properly placed in a single

family. ,

This narrowing of the path of evolution seems to me to refute the

claim of the geneticists that mutations are purely at random. You

might as well argue about the random aberrations of a canal boat

swinging on its tow-rope as compared with the course of a ship on the

Open sea, as to conclude that the random mutations of Drosophila

tell us much about the evolution of insects.

I am not trying to minimize the importance of the mutations of

Drosophila. They have been the key to wonderful advances in our

* Simpson, G. G. Supra-specific variation. Am. Nat. 71: 247. 1937.

1384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

understanding of inheritance. But their relation to the evolution of

insects has yet to be made known.

Those inclined to believe that changes significant for evolution

occur at random would do well to ponder the implications of a paper

by one of the greatest of geneticists, N. I. Vavilof, entitled, Homolo-

gous variation.® Assembling all the species and varieties of cultivated

plants and their relatives in his experimental gardens, Vavilof ob-

served that related types repeat over and over again the same series

of characters, 1.e., that homologous mutations had occurred in related

types.

For instance, there are three groups of wheats. In the first group,

Triticum compactum and T’. spelta are closely allied to 7’. vulgare and

repeat all the varieties of it. |

The second group repeats the varieties of the first, e.g., there are

varieties with white, red, and black ears; smooth and hairy ears; with

white and red grains; winter and spring wheats; only beardless varie-

ties are unknown.

The third group repeats the varieties of the second.

The similarity of the characters of the varieties of the three species

of pumpkins, Cucurbita maxima, C’. pepo and C.. moschata interested

Darwin who thought it accidental. Vavilof brings it under the reign

of his law of Homologous variation. He shows further that the species

of related genera show the same homology in their variation. Thus

Cucurbita (pumpkin), Cucumis (cucumber), and C2trullus (water-

melon), all have types with fruits round, oblong, flat and segmented;

white, green, yellow, brown, black; monochrome, streaked, or

spotted; each has both sweet and bitter varieties; and all show

homologous variations in color and hairiness of petals.

He lists 34 homologous variations that have occurred in both wheat

(Triticum) and Rye (Secale) and shows that the related genera Agro-

pyrum and Aegilops though studied in less detail repeat in general

the same series.

Following up his belief in homologous variation Vavilof sent out

expeditions to search for varieties with characters known only in

related types and was successful in finding them, very much as the

chemists have filled the gaps in the periodic table of the elements.

The very homology in the mutations responsible for these charac-

ters by itself disposes of any supposition that they occurred at ran-

dom. The same force must have acted independently in each of these

parallel mutations.

> Journ. Genetics 12: 47-89. 1922.

Mar. 15, 1939 GRIGGS: EVOLUTION 135

While much of the convergence observed in plants and animals is

clearly adaptive like the streamlined bodies of fishes, whales, seals,

and manatees, most of the homologous characters dealt with by

Vavilof are of no conceivable use to the organism and furnish no

handle for natural selection to take hold of.

If they were useful their adaptiveness would necessarily be alterna-

tive. That is, natural selection would have preserved the more useful,

for example, say leaves without ligules, and eliminated the others,

leaves with ligules.

APPLICATION OF ORTHOGENESIS TO RESEARCH

I have listed some of the orthogenetic trends characteristic of or-

ganisms, and I have given data enough, I think, to prove their reality.

Certainly more could be supplied to the extent that time and space

permitted. Our further task is to apply such information to the

problems of taxonomy.

One illustration of the use of those considerations, which occurred

right here in our midst, was Hitchcock’s treatment of the grasses.

When he wrote the Gramineae for Gray’s Manual in 1908, he used

the old conventional system which put maize at the beginning, but

in his Genera of grasses 1920, he adopted a system in accord with the

orthogenetic trends here listed.

The difference in the mind of a student is very much the same as the

enlightenment which suddenly dawned on all biologists when they

first looked at organisms from the point of view of evolution. Like

the theory of evolution itself it gave meaning and coherence to a mass

of heterogeneous detail which before had been merely a burden on

the memory.

If it be granted that every group of plants should be set into such

an orthogenetic order and that the same should be done for animals,

it must be recognized that the accomplishment of such an undertak-

ing is a task not only of large magnitude but of considerable difficulty

as well.

It might seem that, given the guiding principles, any child could

make the applications. But it is not so. Although these orthogenetic

trends are general characteristics of organisms, they are not organ-

ismal.

Each trend pursues its own course independent of all the other

trends to which the organism is subject. One genus may have gone

far in reducing the numbers of its parts but have made no progress in

differentiation or in the fusion of parts. Another genus in the same

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

family will show much differentiation but retain a primitive number

of parts. That is, most close-knit groups of organisms can be arranged

in various ways, depending on which of the orthogenetic trends pres-

ent is used as the basis of classification. The problem of the taxono-

mist is to decide which of the trends present is most significant in the

case in hand.

COMPETITION A POSSIBLE EXPLANATION OF ORTHOGENESIS

Before closing it will be well to take up the question of the cause of

orthogenesis which I sidestepped at the beginning. I repeat that

whether we understand it or not, orthogenesis must be accepted as

the way of evolution. Yet we will never be satisfied until we penetrate

the mystery and reveal the cause. It is unnecessary to say that I am

not prepared to discuss this question with any degree of assurance

or of specification, but there are some simple and well-known biologi-

cal principles which may have a large bearing on the problem.

Why should there be a reduction in numbers of parts? Remember-

ing that in the beginning of aggregation of cells—and to a consider-

able extent ever since—each individual cell maintains its own funda-

mental entity, we may ask why some should be eliminated. The

answer comes to our lips almost automatically: It is the fittest, or

more accurately, it is the most favorably placed, that survive.

In marvelling at coordination characteristic of multicellular

plants and animals, we are apt to forget that their individual cells

and organs are still in competition with each other. But we see ex-

amples of this fact every day in the buds of a tree which are laid down

in numbers far beyond the possibilities of development. If some are

removed, others which could never have developed in the presence

of more favored competitors begin growth. It has been proven that

the dormant buds are suppressed by the growth of the dominant ones.

There is a metabolic gradient from the dominant leader backward

and inhibiting hormones are sent back from the leader which prevent

the growth of subordinate buds.

Similar metabolic gradients are characteristic of the animal body.

They have been studied extensively by C. M. Child. He found that

the orientation of the body is definitely controlled by these metabolic

gradients. In simple planarians he was able experimentally to alter

the metabolic gradients. By doing so, he was able to shift the head of

the animal around almost at will.

No one has attempted to see how far metabolic gradients could be

instrumental in directing the evolution of the race as they certainly

Mar. 15, 1939 GRIGGS: EVOLUTION 137

do determine the development of the individual. In view of the simi-

larity of the two cases there is no more occasion for assigning mystical

agencies as the cause of orthogenesis than there is for bringing them

into the explanation of the development of the individual.

Again a geneticist would say that the variations reported by Vavilof

are homologous because the genetic constitution of related types is

homologous. Given the closely similar gene complexes, closely similar

mutations would be expected. This again is, however, only a restate-

ment of the Law of the narrewing possibility of evolution.

Finally, it should be pointed out that these orthogenetic trends are

largely unadaptive. In a few cases,such as the differentiation of the

teeth, advantages to the organism may be made out. But generally,

nothing of the sort can be imagined. For the most part, the adaptive

sequences in evolution are superposed on the great orthogenetic

trends but are entirely independent of them.

In the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, for example, there is an or-

thogenetic series in the reduction from fairly typical flowers down to

vestiges which could never be recognized as flowers if we did not have

a complete series of integrating transitional forms. But no one could

pretend that this change is advantageous. Alongside this, and en-

tirely unrelated to it, is a modification of the plant body from that

with typical leafy shoots into a series of leafless desert plants so simi-

lar to the cacti that they can be told apart only by technical charac-

ters. The independence of orthogenesis from environmental stimuli

has been pointed out by many writers and there is no time to elabo-

rate or further to illustrate here.

Our concern with the lack of adaptiveness in the main trends of

evolution is its relation to the claims of the geneticists. In their belief,

the orderliness of nature has been brought about entirely by the elimi-

nation of unfit mutations through natural selection.

Thus their case is entirely dependent on a demonstration that all

trends observed in the evolution of all groups are adaptive, 1.e., so

useful to the organism that natural selection can take hold of them.

It appears to me, as it has to others, that it is fairly easy to show that

many of these trends are not so related.

I have alluded to a few instances of this but there is no time to-

night to take up the evidence in detail.

So here I must rest my case.

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 3

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

502ND MEETING

The 502nd meeting was held in Corcoran Hall, George Washington Uni-

versity, on Thursday, October 13, 1938, with President DRaAkz in the chair.

After the reading of the minutes, the President thanked the authorities of

the University for the use of the meeting rooms. He next outlined to the

membership the newly adopted plan of informal meetings to be sponsored by

the Society. These meetings are to be held at irregular intervals, the object

being the promotion of a fuller discussion of topics of considerable interest,

particularly in connection with recent advances in chemistry, and to further

the interests of special groups of chemists within the Society. The presenta-

tion of the subject matter at these meetings is to be informal, with an ample

opportunity for a full and free discussion.

The following program was presented in three sections:

Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry, G. E. F. LUNDELL presiding:

Bourbon F. Scrispner: The operation of a spectrographic laboratory.—

Both prism and grating spectrographs applicable to analytical work are com-

mercially available. The prism types are of the Cornu or Littrow designs and

the grating spectrographs of the Abney and Eagle mountings. The equip-

ment for a laboratory should consist of a spectrograph costing $1,000 to

$3,000 and accessory apparatus for excitation of spectra and examination of

plates, costing from $300 to $1,000. In addition, a dark room for photographic

processing and chemical facilities for preparation of samples are required.

The laboratory at the National Bureau of Standards is equipped with a

large stigmatic grating spectrograph with a dispersion of 5 Angstrom units

per mm. and a large quartz Littrow spectrograph with accessories. The analy-

ses made are (1) qualitative examination of samples for 55 to 70 elements,

using a micrometer comparator; (2) rough quantitative analysis to +10 per

cent of the amount present, by direct comparison of the spectra of the un-

known and a series of standards; and (3) refined quantitative analysis to

+3 per cent of the amount present using a densitometer and plate calibra-

tion.

The qualitative analysis, in which the concentrations of the elements

present are estimated to a factor of 10, is applied to tests of purity, surveys

preliminary to chemical analysis, identification of precipitates and concen-

trates, and comparison of museum specimens. Quantitative analyses in the

range of concentrations below 10 per cent are made of tin and iron and of

various constituents in steel, zinc, gold, refractories and water residues.

(Author's Abstract.) |

C. J. RoppEn: Some observations on the chemistry of the rare earths.—The

abundance and sources of the rare earths with the general methods of

separation were described with comments on the newer methods of isolating

the rare earth elements. The physical and chemical properties were described

showing the characteristic absorption spectra which were taken using but

0.3 to 0.5 ml. of solution. The use of the physical properties was indicated in

the separation of the elements. The analytical chemistry up to the present

was commented on with emphasis on the lack of methods for determining the

separate elements. A survey of the general uses of these elements and their

Mar. 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 139

salts showed that the uses up to the present are meager. (Author’s Abstract.)

W. D. Urry: [Isolation and measurement of small quantities of helium from

radioactive decay.—No abstract received.

Organic chemistry, S. N. WRENN presiding:

R. P. Jacosson: Structure of Sarsa-Sapogenin.—From a study of a num-

ber of transformation products of sarsa-sapogenoic acid it is concluded that

this substance contains in the side chain a y-keto acid grouping attached to

a substituted tetrahydrofurane ring. The side chain characteristic of the

steroid sapogenins probably contains two tetrahydrofurane rings corre-

sponding to the formulation first proposed by Tschesche and Hagedorn.

(Author's Abstract.)

J. R. Spres: Chemical study of some constituents of the croton bean (C. tig-

lium L.).—The author’s work on the fish-poisoning and vesicant principle of

the croton bean (C. tiglium L.) was reviewed. The aglycone fragment of the

croton bean nucleoside (2-oxy-6-amino-purine-d-riboside) could not be

deaminated with nitrous acid. The isogaunine from this nucleoside was

deaminated, however, by refluxing with constant boiling hydrochloric acid.

The xanthine so obtained was identified by analysis and by its transforma-

tion into bromocaffeine and ethoxycaffeine. Isoguanine crystallizes in

rosettes as a hydrate containing one and one-half molecules of water of

crystallization (C;H;ON;-14H.O). Isoguanine was cited as an unusual com-

pound which apparently cannot be deaminated with nitrous acid but can be

deaminated by refluxing with constant boiling hydrochloric acid. 2-oxy-6-8-

diamino-purine was obtained from isoguanine by coupling it with 2-4-

dichlorodiazonium chloride and reducing the red coupling compound. The

sulfate, hydrochloride, acetate, carbonate, and picrate of 2-oxy-6-8-diamino-

purine have been prepared and the formulas of these salts were determined.

All of these salts are crystalline and exhibit birefringence when viewed with

a polarizing microscope. Unlike isoguanine, 2-oxy-6-8-diamino-purine forms

stable salts with both acetic acid and carbon dioxide. (Author’s Abstract.)

Horace 8. IsBpetu: The nomenclature of the sugars and their derivatives.—

The various proposals which have been made for renaming the sugars show

the need for the adoption of a definite policy for naming the higher sugars

and their derivatives. E. Votocek (Collection Czechoslov. Chem. Communi-

cations 10: 264, 1938) has suggested substituting d or / for Fisher’s a and 8

or Elsner’s a or 6 (Tollens-Elsner Handbuch der Kohlenhydrate, 4th Edi-

tion, page 391). Thus d-a-glucoheptose or d-gluco-a-heptose becomes d-

gluco-d-heptose. In the latter name the first d refers to the configuration of

the terminal asymmetric carbon, while the other d symbol refers to carbon

2. Hudson (J. Am. Chem: Soc. 60, 1537, 1938) has suggested calling the

same product D-gluco-D-gulo-heptose. In this name the first d or 1 symbol

refers to the configuration of the terminal asymmetric carbon, while the

second refers to the configuration of the fifth carbon. Obviously if both

proposals are used for naming new sugars, much confusion will result. The

suggestion made by C. D. Hurd (Symposium on the nomenclature of the

sugars, American Chemical Society, Milwaukee, Wis., September 8, 1938)

to drop the first term in Hudson’s proposed name and to substitute a series

of letters to represent the configurations of the higher carbons would offer

a good compromise provided the customary d and / nomenclature was main-

tained by using as the first letter a d or 1 symbol. For example, d-a-gluco-

heptose could be called d-d-guloheptose. In this name the first symbol repre-

sents the configuration of carbon 6, while the term d-gulo represents the con-

figuration of carbons 2, 3, 4, and 5. If the names for the higher sugars are

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 3

to be based on the structurally related hexoses, the analogy should include

the glycosidic carbon so that the alpha modifications of the heptoses will

correspond to the alpha modifications of the structurally related hexoses...

A classification of this character results by calling substances having like

configurations for the glycosidic and ring-forming carbons alpha, and calling

substances having unlike configurations from the glycosidic and ring-

forming carbons beta. (Author’s Abstract.)

Physical Chemistry, B. D. VAN Evera presiding:

JACINTO STEINHARDT: Solubility anomalies in crystalline proteins —The

speaker reported on work performed in the Department of Physical Chem-

istry, Harvard Medical School, to be published in the Proceedings of the

Symposium on Proteins held at Cold Spring Harbor in July 1938 in part,

and also in the Journal of Biological Chemistry. No abstract was received.

GrorGce W. Morny and Joun 8. Burtew: A filter autolcave for solubility

measurements at elevated temperatures and atmospheric pressure.—A new type

of autoclave has been designed for the purpose of making precise solubility

measurements in alkaline solutions at elevated temperatures and atmos-

pheric pressure. With it a mixture of solid and liquid at a constant tempera-

ture can be stirred in a silver vessel and then filtered through a platinum

felt, after which the filtrate is cooled and analyzed. The technique of such

measurements is illustrated by data concerning part of the system NaOH —

Na2CO3— H2O between 60 and 70° C. (A detailed description of this research

appears in Am. J. Sci., 35A: 285 (1938).) (Authors’ Abstract.)

J. Lesuize Jones: Kinetics of the thermal tsomerization of cis-dichloro-

ethylene.—The kinetics of the gaseous thermal isomerization of czs-dichloro-

ethylene into the trans form has been investigated over the temperature

range 560-620° K. The change in the percentage composition of the gas

phase was followed by condensing the product after a period of time and

measuring the condensation vapor pressure of 0° C. A large scale calibration

curve was employed to determine the percentage isomerization. The iso-

merization was found to be practically homogeneous after properly treating

the reaction vessel. The rates of the forward and reverse reactions were

found to be given by the unimolecular rate constants

k = 2.5 x 10§e—27 100/kT

and

k= 2.1 X10 e- 26000 ke

respectively.

The simple theory of Hinshelwood is inadequate to account for such small

values of the temperature independent factor, which is smaller than the

usual value by a factor of 10°. A theory is proposed to account for this ab-

normally slow reaction. It involved the loosening of one bond in the double

bond, a relative rotation through 180° by one of the carbon atoms accom-

panying an inversion of one carbon atom and closure of the double bond.

(Author’s Abstract.)

FRANK C. Kracek, Secretary

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CONTENTS

Page

GroLocy.—Our petroleum supply. Hucs D. Mismr.............. ih 308

PALEONTOLOGY.—The crossopterygian hyomandibular and the tetra-

pod stapes. THEODORE H: HATON, JR... 2.5.40..02 3 ee 109

Evo.tution.—The course of evolution. Rosprrt F. Gricags......... 118

PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY............ coe 3 wd $e ca\seeie aie ae eae

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

‘

Vou. 29 Aprit 15, 1939 No. 4

rea

toto

- | OF THE

| WASHINGTON ACADEMY

4 OF SCIENCES .

BOARD OF EDITORS

-FreperRick D. Rossini C. Lewis Gazin JAMES H. Kempton

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 8S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Lewis V. JUDSON Austin H. CuarK

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

H. H. T. Jackson Groras TUNELL

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIBTY

Jason R. SwALLEN Hunry B. Couuins, Jr.

BOTANICAL SOCIBTY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY

FRANK C, KRACEK

CHEMICAL SOCIBTY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 29 APRIL 15, 1939 No. 4

PALEONTOLOGY .—Setigerites nom. nov. a subgenus of Productus.?

GrorGE H. Girry, U. 8. Geological Survey.

By a regrettable oversight, the writer, in the October number of this

Journal, published the name Setzgerella as a subgenus of Productus,

overlooking the fact, which has been recently called to his attention,

that Setigerella had been used by Ehrenberg as long ago as 1872.

Setigerella Girty is herewith replaced by Setigerites Girty, with the

same connotation.

BOTANY.—A New palm from Costa Rica, Astrocaryum alatum.?

H. F. Loomis, U.S. Plant Introduction Garden, Coconut Grove,

Florida. (Communicated by 8S. F. BLAKE.)

Botanists or others interested in the individual elements of the

tropical forests through which passes the railroad leading from Puerto

Limon to San Jose, Costa Rica, must have observed at frequent in-

tervals in traversing the lowlands of the Province of Limon, a rather

large palm with many graceful pinnate leaves, dark green above but

pearl grayish-green on the underside. The trunk itself of the palm

may be hidden completely by a varied growth of vines, aroids, ferns,

and other small plants which find foothold in the accumulations of

humus in the axils of the spiny leaf-bases which remain attached to

the trunk long after the leaves have fallen. From the crown of leaves

several densely packed clusters of large, spiny fruits droop on

viciously spiny stems. Closer inspection reveals other details which

show that the palm belongs to the genus Astrocaryum, represented in

South America by many species but with only two species thus far

recognized in Central America, A. standleyanum Bailey in Panama

and A. confertum Wendl. in Costa Rica. Another species, found in »

Honduras, British Honduras, Guatemala and southern Mexico and

long known as A. mexicanum Liebm., recently has been removed from

Astrocaryum and made the type of the genus Hexopetion, and may be

excluded from consideration here.

1 Received January 3, 1939.

2 Received January 6, 1939.

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 4

Attempts to identify the Limon Province palm with any of the

recognized species of Astrocaryum have failed, and the conclusion is ~

forced that, in spite of its abundance and long accessability to col-

lectors, it has remained undescribed. Hence, a technical account of

the characters is presented and the specific name alatwm is proposed

in reference to the peculiar winged spines on the under side of the

rachis of the leaves. A. alatum differs further from both A. standleya-

num and confertum in having female flowers and fruits borne directly

on the central spadix instead of on its lateral branches, these having

the male flowers continuous from the base to or almost to the apex.

The large, spiny, laterally compressed fruits also are distinctive.

In the neighborhood of Cairo, a few miles west of Siquirres, this

palm is known only by the Spanish name “Coquito,” this name being

credited in Dahlgren’s Index of American Palms, Field Mus. Nat.

Hist., Bot. ser., 14, 1936, to the American oil palm, Corozo olezfera,

in Costa Rica. The names ‘‘Zurubre,” ‘‘Coyolillo,” and ‘‘Coyolito,”

listed in the Index as applied to Astrocaryuwm confertum, were not

recognized by the natives at Cairo as connected with any palm, hence

it may be inferred that the range of confertum does not approach very

close to Cairo.

Astrocaryum alatum Loomis, sp. nov.

Caudex solitarius 3-6 m altus 12-15 cm crassus non spinosus, basibus

foliorum spinosis persistentibus; folia usque ad 6 dm longa, segmentis ir-

regulariter contiguis, petiolo subtus spinoso spinis baseos applanatis usque

ad 16 cm longis, rachi subtus spinosa spinis brevioribus lateraliter alatis;

rami spadicis plusquam 40 omnino stamineti; flores femineae in rachi spadicis

inter ramos; fructus magnus spinosus apice subrostratus et inermis, in

racemo compresso; semen obovatum apice rotundatum basi acutum extus

fibrosum fibris complanatis ad foramina vergentibus.

Trunk solitary, 12 to 18 feet high and 5 to 6 inches in diameter, lacking

spines but with spiny leaf-bases of the old leaves persistent to the ground;

leaves numerous, 30 or more on mature palms, moderately arching, 18 to

20 feet long, the petiole accounting for half to a third of this length; pinnae

seldom solitary, commonly in clusters of 2 to 15 segments. completely

joined, infrequently separated for a short distance above the base, the clus-

ters of pinnae closely placed on the rachis, usually not over 2 inches apart;

terminal 6 to 15 pinnae joined into a quadrangular group: one leaf-blade

11.5 feet long has 96 pinnae on the right side grouped in clusters as follows

beginning at the base: 6—5—5-7—2—2-6—2-10-7-1—4—4-5-6—2-6-3-13; the 92

pinnae on the left side: 9-10—-3-3-—4-2-4—4—4—1-7-6-5—4—-2-10-1-13; on this

leaf the left basal pinna is 30 inches long, a pinna at middle of blade is 37.7

inches long, and the left terminal pinna is 8.2 inches long; individual pin-

nae, whether solitary or joined in groups, not over 1.2 inches wide; tips of

pinnae obliquely erose-truncate; free lateral margins of pinnae with a few

tiny brown terete spines; dorsal surface of pinnae dark green, glabrous,

Apr. 15, 1939 LOOMIS: A NEW PALM 143

TGR :

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COM

aj : i

Fig. 1.—Astrocaryum alatum, n. sp. A, forest palm in fruit, the leaf-bases persist-

ent tothe ground. _B, section of inflorescence of type specimen, natural size. C, type

inflorescence, less than a third natural size. (A by H. F. Loomis, B and C by O. F.

Cook & C. B. Doyle.)

144. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 4

Fig. 2.—Astrocaryum alatum, n. sp. A, flowering inflorescence in spathe on a

section of leaf, greatly reduced. B, close view of part of same inflorescence, less than

half natural size. C, fruit cut to show seed, natural size. D, fruit cluster with some

fruit removed to show arrangement and form of fruit, basal cups and spadix, less than

half natural size. (A and B by H. Pittier, C by O. F. Cook & C. B. Doyle, D by H. F.

Loomis.)

Apr. 15, 1939 LOOMIS: A NEW PALM 145

ventral surface silvery gray-green, densely scurfy and with minute erect

spinules or glandular hairs scarcely visible without magnification but ap-

parent to the touch; on young unexpanded leaves the tips of the pinnae on

each side of the blade are joined or protected by a continuous strap-like

element which separates from the tips when the leaf unfolds and hangs from

the apex of the basal pinna, one such unbroken appendage which was col-

lected is 8 feet 5 inches long and about a quarter of an inch wide, the outer

end suddenly somewhat thickened and ending in a sheath-like hook with

the surface and the outer margin of the strap below it beset with short,

brown, ciliaceous spinules; leaf petioles from 6 to 10 feet long, smooth above

and concave nearly to the blade, moderately spiny below at base which

remains attached to the trunk long after the remainder of the leaf falls, the

spines decreasing in number and size above, the basal ones black, simple,

attaining 6.5 inches in length and a quarter of an inch across, in cross sec-

tion lenticular, semi-circular or triangular; further out on the petiole, and

especially on the rachis, the spines are flatter and develop a thin supple-

mentary wing-like expansion on the basal half each side, its apical portion

often acute and free from the spine, the outer margin sometimes slightly

laciniate; spines deep brown, the lateral wings lighter, most spines somewhat

reflexed, rising from the proximal side of a pulvinate swelling; rachis with a

strong median rib above, ventral basal spines 1 to 1.5 inches long, outwardly

decreasing in size and number and not present on the last foot or two of the

rachis; spathe densely beset with suberect spines up to an inch long, the

spathe splitting along the outer or lower side at flowering and afterward

persisting and usually partly covering the fruit cluster; peduncle of inflo-

rescence oval in cross section, less than 2 feet long and up to an inch broad,

more densely spiny than any other part of the palm, the spines directed

toward the inflorescence, less than half an inch long, flattened, the apical

half often bent or even slightly undulate, the basal half densely woolly with

lateral margins occasionally moderately winged, surface of peduncle be-

tween the spines also densely woolly; inflorescence short and thick, with

over 40 simple branches attaining 7 inches in length and borne on a spadix

8 inches or more long; spadix and branches densely woolly between the

flowers; branches completely occupied, except occasionally for a half inch

at apex, by the male flowers which are closely crowded and in no consistent

arrangement, basal or outer envelope of flowers small, chartaceous, with

broadly triangular lobes reaching less than half way to the apex of the bud,

open flowers not seen but in a detailed photograph taken many years ago

the lobes of the inner envelope are not curved outward in the slightest, the

elongate anthers borne on filaments twice as long; female flowers sessile,

borne directly on the spadix among the simple branches but appearing to

have no fixed relation to them, calyx and corolla distally provided with

closely applied, ascending spinules, those on the calyx usually more strongly

developed; on mature fruits the two basal envelopes are irregular produced

at apex but are smaller and lacking the distinctly angular lobes of A.

standelyanum; fruit clusters several to 8 or 9, infrequently suberect but

usually drooping, composed of 25 to 50 large fruits attaining 3 inches in

length and so tightly packed that their shape, and that of the enclosed seeds,

is affected by mutual compression during growth and several flattened faces

are produced on the basal portion of each fruit, distally the fruits are

rounded, the surface rusty brownish-green with many erect, curved or

straight spines not extending onto the produced, broadly conic tip; flesh of

fruit white, firm, an eighth of an inch thick; seeds sometimes exceeding 2

146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 4

inches in length, strongly oboval, sharply pointed at base, covered with

coarse, very closely applied, irregularly ascending, branching fibers converg-

ing radially at the three pores; shell an eighth to a quarter of an inch thick,

very hard; albumen white, hollow at center.

The foregoing description is based on material gathered in the forest and

on palms examined there. In clearings where this palm has been allowed to

remain, its aspect is quite different from that of the shade form, as it appears

much more compact because the petioles and blades of the leaves are

shorter, the latter with the groups of pinnae more closely placed on the

rachis. Young palms of this species show a characteristic development of

the leaves in that the pinnae almost never are separated; leaf-blades as much

as four or five feet long remaining entire or at most with but one or two divi-

sions on each side.

The type specimens deposited in the U. 8. National Herbarium under

numbers 474451—474457, were collected in the forest at Rio Hondo, Plains

of Santa Clara, Costa Rica, altitude 100 meters, May 7, 1903, by O. F.

Cook and C. B. Doyle under their number 584. Specimen 474452 is an

inflorescence with flowers not quite old enough to open, the other specimens

apparently are portions of a single leaf. Photographs of this species, made

by O. F. Cook and C. B. Doyle in 1903 and H. Pittier in 1906, have been

studied, parts of several of these being herein reproduced, and in addition

the writer collected fruiting and leaf material at Cairo, Costa Rica, in 1937

and 1938 and sent it and seed to the Division of Plant Exploration and In-

troduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Washington, D. C. Plants from these seeds were distributed to plant experi-

menters in Florida in 1938 under P. I. number 123380 with the tentative

name Astrocaryum polystachyum, a name which appeared in the Biologia

Centrali-Americana in 1885 without description and which has not yet been

thus supported.

Although it is too soon to be certain that this handsome tropical wood-

land palm will survive and become a part of Florida’s subtropical horti- —

culture the growth of these seedlings has been more rapid than with other

species of the genus tested at the U. 8. Plant Introduction Garden, near

Miami, and promises well for the future.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY.—Hydrocyanic acid content of sorghum

varieties.| JAMES F. CoucH, REINHOLD R. Brigss, and J. H.

Martin, Bureaus of Animal and Plant Industry, Washington,

DEC.

Sorghum? has long been known to be poisonous to animals under

certain conditions. The quantity of cyanogenetic glucoside in this -

plant is one of the factors that determine its toxicity. A large number

of sorghum varieties are grown in the United States for feeding to

livestock, any one of which may be eaten by animals while in a con-

1 Cooperative investigation between the Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal

Industry, and the Division of Cereal Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry,

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Received November 18, 1938.

2 (Sorghum vulgare, Pers.)

Apr. 15, 1939 COUCH, BRIESE AND MARTIN: SORGHUM 147

dition to produce poisoning. It is of interest to know to what extent

the content of glucoside and, consequently the quantity of hydro-

cyanic acid, that may be liberated under appropriate conditions, is

determined by the variety grown, and whether the differences ob-

served are inherent in the variety or are due to responses to fluctuat-

ing environment.

Previous studies (8) have shown that the HCN content of a sor-

ghum variety depends upon the part of the plant analyzed, the age of

the tissues, and the growing conditions. Consequently, the relative

HCN content of different varieties cannot be determined accurately

with only a few samples grown at one point.

It seemed desirable to analyze sufficient samples of a considerable

number of varieties grown at several places in the United States to

overcome, insofar as possible, some of the discrepancies due to ac-

cidental or environmental factors that might affect determinations

made from single collections and to determine the effect of certain

environmental factors on the relative HCN content of the varieties.

Samples were collected in two years, 1936 and 1937, and the analyses

are summarized in this paper.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Other workers have reported data concerning the relative hydro-

cyanic acid content of different varieties of sorghum. Briinnich

(2) reported 2 to 2.5 times as much HCN in ‘‘Imphee”’ as in Early

Amber sorgo. Schréder and Damman (10), in the Argentine, found

sorgo slightly higher in HCN than Johnson grass and nearly twice

as high asin broomcorn (varieties not stated). Furlong (6) determined

~the HCN content of sorghum (Guinea corn) and millet at various

stages of growth and found the former higher than the latter in ratios

varying between 1.5 to 1 and 2.44 to 1. Francis (5) found less HCN in

normal mature kafir leaves than in second-growth Sudan grass or in

Sudan grass that was 10 inches high. The plants were, however, not

of the same age or height and therefore not comparable. Willaman

and West (12) published figures indicating that feterita produced

considerably more HCN than Orange sorgo. Later (13) they reported

figures showing that, except for plants 33 days old, Early Amber

sorgo yielded slightly less HCN than “Southern Cane’’ under Min-

nesota conditions. Swanson (11) found the following quantities of

HCN in the varieties stated: Kafir 36, sorgo 21, and Sudan grass 16

mg per 100 g of green tissue. With special treatment Red Amber

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

yielded 59.5 and sorgo 48 mg of HCN. Collison (3) published an ex-

tensive comparison of the HCN content of different varieties. He

analyzed plants 12 to 24 inches high of 17 varieties and two samples

of mature hegari and feterita, all grown in Florida. The highest HCN

content found was 3.8 mg per 100 g in mature hegari, which is ex-

tremely low. Mature feterita gave 3.6 mg. Of the 12 to 24-inch

samples, hegari yielded the highest, 3.7 mg, Blackhull kafir was second

with 3.3, feterita third with 3.2, and Brown kaoliang fourth with 3.1.

Amber sorgo, Japanese Cane, and Napier grass yielded no HCN.

Orange sorghum and a milo hybrid were low with 0.75 and 0.2 mg.

respectively. Other varieties ranged from 1.6 to 2.6 mg. Piedallu (9)

found Early Minnesota Amber sorgo and broomcorn richer in HCN

than “‘S. douro” and Johnson grass. Finnemore and Cox (4), working

in Australia, made a number of analyses of sorghum varieties, Sudan

grass, and sorghum-Sudan grass hybrids, taking specimens of each

at intervals during the growing period. Comparison of the figures for

the green plants 64 days old shows the following order of HCN con-

tent: Feterita 75, Gooseneck sorgo 69, White African sorgo 45, Sumac

sorgo 35, milo 33, Cowper sorgo 25, Collier sorgo 19, Saccaline sorgo

11, and Sudan grass 12 mg per 100 g green weight. The sorghum-

Sudan hybrids gave 7 to 27 mg of HCN.

PRESENT INVESTIGATIONS

Environmental Conditions Sorghum samples were collected from

six stations in the southern Great Plains in 1936 and 1937. The fol-

lowing representatives of the Bureau of Plant Industry grew the

sorghums and collected the samples for analysis: for the Division of —

Cereal Crops and Diseases: J. J. Curtis at Akron, Colo., A. F. Swan-

son at Hays, Kans.; J. B. Sieglinger at Woodward, Okla.; J. C.

Stephens at Chillicothe, Tex.; for the Division of Dry Land Agricul-

ture: B. F. Barnes at Dalhart, Tex.; D. R. Burnham at Tucumcari,

N. Mex. The sorghums were grown by the Division of Cereal Crops

and Diseases in cooperation with the Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico,

and ‘Texas agricultural experiment stations and with the Division of

Dry Land Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry. The seed used was

from previous crops at the station, nearly all from self-pollinated

(bagged) heads. Named varieties grown at different stations ap-

parently were identical in type and origin, except for three varieties

noted below, although some unconscious selection may have occurred

in obtaining seed heads. The feterita samples were of the common

Apr. 15, 1939 COUCH, BRIESE AND MARTIN: SORGHUM 149

type (C. I.3 182) at Hays, Woodward, and Tucumcari, and of the Spur

variety at Chillicothe. The Spur variety is later and more leafy than

common feterita. All of the hegari were identical in appearance, but

the lot grown at Woodward (C. I. 750) was from a later introduction

from the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan than the lot (C. I. 620) grown at the

other stations. The Dwarf Yellow milo grown at Chillicothe (F. P. I.4

18684) appears to be identical with that grown at the other stations

(C. I. 332) but the origin may be different. Three kafirs, Western

Blackhull, Texas Blackhull, and Sharon are indistinguishable in

growth habit or appearance but they were selected from farmers’

fields of rather impure kafir in three different States. The wide dif-

ferences in the rank for HCN content shown later for these three

otherwise similar strains may indicate some inherent differences.

However, they were not sampled under comparable conditions.

Altitudes.—The altitude in feet at the stations is as follows: Akron,

Colo., 4,560; Hays, Kans., 2,000; Woodward, Okla., 2,002; Dalhart,

Tex., 3,978; Chillicothe, Tex., 1,406; and Tucumcari, N. Mex., 4,158.

Soils.—The soil at Akron, Colo., is a dark-brown sandy loam under-

lain with clay at depths of 2 feet or more in most places. At Hays,

Kans., the soil is a dark-gray to black loam of the Hays series under-

lain with a slightly lighter-colored clay loam and clay and is a typical

chernozem soil. The soil at Woodward, Okla., is a sandy loam varying

in thickness from 1 to 4 feet overlying a reddish clay subsoil and is

classed as Amarillo sand. At Dalhart, Tex., the soil is a grayish sandy

loam overlying a dark reddish-brown loam or clay loam of the

Springer series and has been subjected to considerable dust blowing.

The soil at Tucumceari, N. Mex., is a loose reddish-brown sandy loam

of the Otero series that blows readily when unprotected by vegetation.

The soil on Texas Substation No. 12, Chillicothe, Tex., is mostly a

dark reddish-brown clay loam of the Vernon series.

Weather—The mean monthly temperatures at the six stations for

1936 and 1937, compared with long-time averages for the five months,

May to September, inclusive, are shown in Table 1. The precipitation

for the same months is presented in Table 2. Temperatures were above

average in 1936 and 1937 at all six stations, July and August being

especially hot during the growing season. Precipitation for the five

months was materially below average in both years at Hays, Kans.,

Dalhart, Tex., and Woodward, Okla., and in 1987 at Akron, Colo.,

3C. I. refers to accession number of the Division of Cereal Crops and Diseases,

formerly Office of Cereal Investigations.

4F. P. I. refers to accession number of the Division of Plant Exploration and

Introduction, formerly Office of Foreign Plant Introduction.

150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

TABLE 1.—M®EAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE IN °F, DURING THE GROWING SEASON IN

1936 AND 1937, AND THE AVERAGE MONTHLY TEMPERATURE AT SIX STATIONS

May June July August September Average

1936

Akron, Colo. 60 70 19 74 63 69

Hays, Kans. 66 76 85 84 71 76

Dalhart, Tex. 65 75 79 79 67 73

Tucumari, N. Mex. 68 a 79 80 68 74

Woodward, Okla. 69 80 87 88 (2, 79

Chillicothe, Tex. 74 84 86 88 76 82

1937

Akron, Colo. 59 66 U5) 77 65 68

Hays, Kans. 67 75 82 84 70 76

Dalhart, Tex. 66 73 79 80 70 74

Tucumcari, N. Mex. 68 74 80 82 72 6)

Woodward, Okla. Wil Wa 86 86 13 79

Chillicothe, Tex. 5 80 86 86 tie 81

Average

Akron, Colo. (1912-1937) 56 67 74 71 62 66

Hays, Kans. (1893-1937) 62 12 79 78 69 72

Dalhart, Tex. (1906-1937) 62 72 78 76 68 el

Tucumcari, N. Mex. (1915-1937) 65 MS 79 aa 70 73

Woodward, Okla. (1914-1937) 67 7 82 81 73 76

Chillicothe, Tex. el 80 84 83 UE 79

and Chillicothe, Tex. The months of June, July, and August were

very dry at Chillicothe in 19386. The precipitation at Tucumeari,

N. Mex., was slightly above average both years.

The season of 19386 in the Great Plains was characterized by ex-

TABLE 2.—MOoONTHLY AND SEASONAL PRECIPITATION DURING THE GROWING SEASON

IN 1936 AND 1937 AND AVERAGE MONTHLY PRECIPITATION

May June July August September Total

1936

Akron, Colo. Sol, ee e3rO4 LS Deales 3.03 13.60

Hays, Kans. 5.40 60 . 60 1.89 Si 10.36

Dalhart, Tex. 3) Of 2 2EA4 1.49 20 Mes UG) 9.04

Tucumcari, N. Mex. tae 2201 4.40 2.02 1.42 11.59

Woodward, Okla. Dele n e2 Eo .23 54 3.53 11.88

Chillicothe, Tex. DELO aw altro 2 .46 0 13.67 17.94

1937

Akron, Colo. 12205 240 2.38 1.13 1.65 8.82

Hays, Kans. Me Teele OS 4.28 2.58 a fl 12.28

Dalhart, Tex. DAS) alae 1.68 Parl Mh PAT 1st

Tucumcari, N. Mex. Oi eae e2, .87 .86 2.09 11.96

Woodward, Okla. DTH OS sol 2.28 3.91 10.75

Chillicothe, Tex. 1 S0h 203 Iecill 2791 .99 9.84

Average (24 or more years)

Akron, Colo. (1908-1937) Darcey) PS AKO) Zo 279 1.46 11.47

Hays, Kans. (1906-1937) SRO te momd Ds A 2295 2.02 14.52

Dalhart, Tex. (1908-1937) ZO OOS 2.30 2.58 1.43 12.21

Tucumcari, N. Mex. (1905-19387) 2.21 2.02 2.40 2.91 1.38 10.92

Woodward, Okla. (1914-1937) 3.47 2.96 1.84 2.44 2.75 13.46

Chillicothe, Tex. (1906-1937) 3207) ornlG 2:30 237 2.97 14.00

Apr. 15, 1939 COUCH, BRIESE AND MARTIN: SORGHUM 151

treme drought and high temperatures. Rains during May were ample

for securing stands and maintaining early growth of sorghums. In

general, the rains ceased about the first of June and sorghums having

exhausted the available soil moisture, began showing the effect early

in July at several stations. Showers at Akron, Colo., about July 11

and also prior to August 8 at Hays, Kans., prior to August 3 at Dal-

hart, Tex., and at Tucumcari, N. Mex., between August 25 and Sep-

tember 1, maintained or revived the plants somewhat. Plants were

suffering from a shortage of moisture at Akron, Colo., on July 25; at

Chillicothe, Tex., on July 14; at Tucumcari, N. Mex., on August 5;

at Dalhart, Tex., after August 12; at Hays, Kans., on August 20; and

at Woodward, Okla., on August 5. Later in the season, in September,

ample rains fell at Chillicothe, Woodward, and Akron, but this

moisture came too late to produce normal crop development, particu-

larly in view of the early frosts. The crop at all stations thus suffered

severely from drought.

In 1937, heavy rains occurred during the latter part of May at

Dalhart and Tucumcari, but May rainfall was below average at the

other four stations. Sufficient moisture was available for germination

and fair early growth of the sorghums at all stations, but drought

beginning after the middle of June at most of the stations affected

the growth and development of the plants. Rainfall in July was below

average at all stations except Hays and in August at all stations

except Chillicothe. The crop was greatly retarded and stunted by

drought at Dalhart, Tucumcari, and Hays, and growth was delayed

at Woodward until rains came in September.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

Samples were collected at-intervals during the growing season

from most of the varieties studied. In some cases the number of col-

lections was limited by a scarcity of material or by the condition of

the crop but, wherever possible, samples were taken at intervals from

the time the plants were 6 to 10 inches high until growth was stopped

by frost.

During 1936 whole plants were sliced into small sections, the ma-

terial intimately mixed, and duplicate 100 g samples weighed into

pint preserving jars, covered with preservative, and shipped to the

laboratory at Washington, D. C., where they were analyzed as soon

as possible, 0 to 12 days, after arrival. After some experimenting

with preservatives, 15 percent alcohol was used, and all figures ob-

tained by the use of other preservatives in 1936 were discarded as

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

inaccurate. It is now known that 15 percent alcohol is not an ideal

preservative and that data obtained from samples preserved in it for

longer than 7 to 10 days may be quite inaccurate. However, the data

have a certain value for comparative purposes and indicate the rela-

tive proportions of HCN yielded by the different varieties.

In 1937, some important changes in collection and preservation

were made with the result that the figures obtained from these col-

lections are regarded as much more accurate than those for 1936. The

plants were minced through a food chopper, mixed thoroughly, and

the weighed samples preserved in mercuric chloride solution (1) in

the proportion of 1 g of mercuric chloride to 100 g of fresh plant

material. Experience with this preservative indicates that, in this

strength, excellent preservation may be obtained for as long as six

months. The samples were shipped to the laboratory and were

analyzed four to six weeks after collection. The technique of analysis

is described elsewhere (1).

In 1936 no moisture determinations were made on the collected

samples and the figures obtained refer to the HCN content of green

plant only. In 1937 moisture determinations were made on all samples

except at Akron where the samples were only air-dried. For that year

figures are available for the HCN content of fresh tissue and calcula-

tions are recorded on a moisture-free basis at all stations except

Akron, where the air-dry basis was used.

VARIETAL DIFFERENCES

The average HCN content of all samples of the varieties collected

in 1936 at each of the six stations is shown in Table 3. The figures are

averages of eight collections made at Chillicothe, Tex., eight at Hays,

Kans., four at Tucumcari, N. Mex., two each at Woodward, Okla.,

and Akron, Colo., and in part at Dalhart, Tex. Data from Akron are

shown for two separate plantings, one on fallow land and the other

on land in which moisture was very deficient, because Sudan grass

had been grown the previous year. At Dalhart, samples were taken

from two plantings made on June 4 and June 15. Five collections were

made from the former and two from the latter planting.

The weighted average for each variety was calculated from the

samples taken at the same time as were samples of Sumac sorgo.

Since some samples were lost by breakage during transit and a few

were discarded for insufficient preservation the figures for the cor-

responding Sumac sorgo samples were excluded from the averages.

The varieties are listed in the order of comparative percentages. The

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154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

number of samples of some varieties was limited and the reliability

of the average HCN contents shown for these varieties is question-

able. Comparable averages based upon 10 to 16 or more samples,

however, should indicate the relative HCN content of the varieties

with considerable dependability. The data from Woodward, Okla.,

are based on only two collections made on August 17 and 29 at a

time when the HCN content of the plants was at a high seasonal

level. At the other stations, with the exception of Akron, the data

include those from collections made in September and October when -

the HCN content normally is low. 3

A considerable difference in the HCN producing capacity of the

varieties is indicated in Table 3. Varieties like feterita, Chiltex, and

hegari tended to produce relatively large quantities, and Leoti sorgo,

Early Red kafir, Dawn kafir, and Acme broomcorn produced one-

quarter to one-third as much. If the lethal level of HCN in fresh

sorghum for sheep be assumed as about 20 mg per 100 g, in accordance

with the suggestion of Hindmarsh (7), which in the main agrees with

some unpublished results of the Bureau of Animal Industry, then the

average sample of 20 of the 31 varieties would be likely to produce

poisoning if livestock gained access to the growing plants. However,

since the figures are averages, and include data from mature plants

that normally contain little HCN, it should be emphasized that any

and all of the varieties listed may be highly dangerous at certain

stages of growth, and none is to be regarded as always nontoxic.

The quantities of HCN in the varieties do not show the same re-

lations when the varieties are grown at different stations. At Chilli-

cothe, Honey sorgo was a tenth higher than Sumac sorgo, a fourth

lower at Tucumceari, and a third lower at Dalhart. Feterita was only

slightly lower in HCN than Sumac sorgo at Tucumcari but was dis-

tinctly higher at Chillicothe, Woodward, and Hays. HCN in Atlas

was two-thirds to four-fifths that of Sumac sorgo except at Hays,

where it was 13 percent higher. Darso was a little higher than Sumac

sorgo at Woodward and Tucumcari but only half as high in the June

4th planting at Dalhart.

The ranking of varieties in order of HCN content in Table 3 is not

in general agreement with opinions based upon casual reports of

sorghum poisoning on farms. Most cases of sorghum poisoning appear

to occur in fields of kafir and sorgo. The Black Amber variety is the

leading sorgo in the northern half of the United States, including

South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, and northern Kansas, sections

where poisoning seems to be of frequent occurrence. Analyses of

Apr. 15, 1939 COUCH, BRIESE AND MARTIN: SORGHUM — 155

Black Amber from Akron show it to be relatively low in HCN. This,

however, may be a result of a more advanced stage due to the rela-

tively early maturity of the variety. Reports of poisoning in animals

from eating hegari are rare but this may be due to the fact that very

little hegari is grown north of Oklahoma. Milo and broomcorn usually

are headed from standing stalks which are left in the field. The fields

of these sorghums often are pastured after harvest, and reports of

poisoning on milo and broomcorn are extremely rare, although analy-

ses indicate that both contain toxic quantities of HCN at times. It

is probable that sufficient seed and mature leaves and stalks are con-

sumed along with the young second growth leaves so that dangerous

quantities of the latter are avoided.

TABLE 4.—HCN CONTENT IN MG PER 100 G OF DRIED LEAVES AND GREEN PLANTS OF

SORGHUM VARIETIES COLLECTED AT CHILLICOTHE, TEX., Supt. 11, 1936

Moisture HCN content.

i content

Variety ae Dried Whole green plant

leaves leaves Wet basis Dry basis!

percen mg ming mg

Sumac sorgo 9.33 91.6 48.1 192.4

Darso 9.39 86.9 29.1 116.4

Spur feterita 8.94 lial 72.8 291.2

Hegari 9.50 59.1 ile 204.8

Chiltex 8.55 54.8 59.1 236.4

Texas Blackhull kafir 9.69 3 5 36.2 144.8

Kansas Orange sorgo 10.34 43.2 43.1 172.4

Red Amber sorgo Si 40.1 Oo 130.8

Sourless sorgo Sie BSB 35.0 140.0

Dwarf Yellow milo (F.P.I. 18684) 6.64 B31 32 38.3 15S 27

Honey sorgo 6.96 24.9 51.3 PAWS) 374

Quadroon SoZ 20.6 30.0 120.0

1 Calculated on the basis of the assumed approximate average moisture content of

75 percent in the green plants.

Table 4 shows a comparison of the HCN content of fresh green

plants and dried leaves of the same varieties collected at Chillicothe,

Tex., on September 11, 1936. Samples were taken of whole plants and

preserved for analysis and, at the same time, leaves of the same

varieties were selected and dried. The varieties are listed in order of

the HCN content of the dried leaves. Sumac sorgo was highest in

HCN in the dried leaves and fifth in content in the green plants. Spur

feterita was highest on the basis of the green whole plants, but was

third in HCN content of the dried leaves. Darso, which was lowest in

HCN in the green whole plants, was second high on the basis of the

dried leaves. While the fresh plants of hegari and Honey sorgo had

about the same HCN content, the dried hegari was more than twice

156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 4

as high as Honey sorgo. Chiltex was second in the green whole plant

and fifth with respect to the dried leaves. These data suggest not only

that the comparative quantities of HCN differ in the dried leaves as

compared with the whole plant but also that varieties may lose HCN

at different rates or in varying degrees on drying. Thus, hegari and

Chiltex lost a larger percentage than did Sumac sorgo and much less

than did Honey sorgo. Darso lost comparatively little, while Quad-

roon, which was about equal to darso in the green state, lost the

greater part of its HCN when dried. :

The toxicity of the dried samples is of interest. Several of the

varieties were force-fed to sheep. Feterita, hegari, and darso, fed in

doses calculated to contain from 1.5 to 2.5 minimal lethal doses of

HCN, produced serious symptoms of poisoning from which the

animals recovered after treatment. Texas Blackhull kafir produced

symptoms of poisoning when fed forcibly in doses of 0.9 to 1.1 m.].d.

from which the sheep recovered without treatment. It appears that

dried sorghums containing somewhat less than 52.5 mg of HCN per

100 g are potentially dangerous in hay. Of the varieties listed in

Table 4, Dwarf Yellow milo, Honey sorgo, and Quadroon might pos-

sibly be considered only slightly dangerous while the other varieties

contained sufficient HCN to produce more or less serious symptoms,

and several of the varieties were sufficiently high in HCN to cause

very serious effects, if not death, if eaten in the quantities usually

consumed at a single feeding under the conditions of the above

experiment.

During the season of 1937 attention was concentrated on a few

varieties. Feterita, Sumac sorgo, hegari, and Dwarf Yellow milo were

grown at each station. Texas Blackhull kafir was grown at Chillicothe,

Dalhart, and Tucumcari, Western Blackhull kafir was grown at

Hays, Sharon kafir at Woodward, and Dawn kafir at Akron. The first

three varieties of kafir are indistinguishable morphologically and in

time of maturity, although it is possible that they may differ in HCN

content. The data in Table 3 suggest that these three kafirs may

differ in HCN content. Collections of Sudan grass were made at

Akron, Chillicothe, and Woodward. Hegari was sampled as a whole

plant. With the other varieties, the whole plant was sampled until the

flag leaf appeared. After that only the leaves were sampled, as it had

been ascertained that the stalks contain so little HCN that they are

not important in animal poisoning. Collections were continued at

most of the stations until frost occurred. The data are fairly complete

for the different varieties from the seedling to the ripe stages of

Apr. 15, 1939 COUCH, BRIESE AND MARTIN: SORGHUM 157

growth. Comparable collections of feterita and Sharon kafir were also

made from the plots grown by the writers at Arlington Farm, Arling-

ton, Va. Some of these samples were analyzed immediately upon

collection, as well as after preservation in mercuric chloride solution.

The results presented in Table 5 represent the averages for each

variety at each station, with a general average for all of the stations.

Dawn kafir, grown only at Akron, is not included in the averages for

the kafirs. The data are calculated to mg of HCN per 100 g of dried

TABLE 5.—HCN cONTENT OF SORGHUM VARIETIES AT SIX STATIONS IN 1937

HON content of 100 g dry matter

VEG ae : Percentage

Pane mg mg mg | mg | ming = mg mg

Young Whole Plants

Feterita ZOORS a 1bOro set 97) 199 | AOA 15029! 182.6 95. 5°

Sumac sorgo 20520 hale Ss.) 2o9eo | 206.62) 16ds4 | 1s8s42) 17225) 10050

Hegari iSO Oe eZ ZOSEO Sis aS 3 2a) 1422 8 84.4

Dwarf Yellow

milo S22 DIZ AO i elOS onl oon On lt aoa lO. 2oehao 8 PHO

Kafir SS a lel aye eal Oe Gul SSO) 4) hen 7, 88 .42| 112.64| 61.74

Sudan grass Geen al ee — — -— 48.2 | 110.1 58.9

Fully-developed Leaves

Feterita Oe ea orte eOr Or Diletta tye) |e 4 Gs eneeltoes 95.2

Sumac Plas sik |) PAVZ Saye) IVa cf ih Hall) ete’ 80.4 = 117/33 Oot) WOO EO)

Hegari 193.0 | 161.6 —- ZOSe lane 1057 — 168.3 96.9

Dwarf Yellow :

milo 154.9 i226 Cor el Zomt 64.4 --- 98.8 56.9

Kafir 166.6!| 69.7 Ric |) leo se Sie — 86.14) 59). 6

Average of all LO lose4a tae. oi igOco Ios Mi Oa = 14 no =

1 3 collections.

2 6 collections.

3 4 collections.

4 Dawn kafir, not included in averages.

5 Adjusted to comparable samples of Sumac sorgo from Woodward.

plant, air-dried in the case of Akron. These figures also were calcu-

lated to a common basis, taking Sumac sorgo again as a standard and

calculating each station separately.

In general, the results are similar to those obtained in 1936. Feterita

hegari, and Sumac sorgo are high in HCN while milo and the kafirs

are low. The principal change is the change in position of Sumac

sorgo from third place among the varieties grown at more than one

station in 1936 to first in 1937 both for young whole plant and for

leaves. This relationship was maintained at all of the stations except

at Tucumcari, where Sumac was lower than both hegari and feterita

158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 4

both as young whole plant and as leaves, and at Dalhart where, as

leaves, it was below feterita. At all stations milo and the kafirs were

relatively low except Dawn kafir, grown only at Akron, Colo., the

average for which is not strictly comparable with the averages for

other varieties grown at five or six stations.

Selection for low hydrocyanie acid content in Dakota Amber sorgo

by C. J. Franzke, of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment

Station, Brookings, 8S. Dak., has been in progress for some years. Seed

of a strain (No. 39-30-S) having a low HCN content was obtained

from Mr. Franzke and planted at Dalhart, Tex., in comparison with

the unselected Dakota Amber variety. Three collections of the two

TABLE 6.—HyYDROCYANIC ACID CONTENT OF A DakoTA AMBER SORGO SELECTION

39-30-S IN COMPARISON WITH THAT OF UNSELECTED DAKOTA AMBER, FETERITA,

AND SUDAN GRASS GROWN AT DALHART, TEX. IN 1937

HCN content in 100 g of oven-dry tissue

Variety Whole Plants Leaves

August 6 August 13 Senha 0. ‘a

Dakota Amber sorgo (selection 39-30-S) 161.7 61.7 66.8

Dakota Amber sorgo (unselected) PAs I 204.8 181.3

Feterita yey BS PGB 200.6

Sudan grass 77.6 67.5 9.3

strains were analyzed and the results are shown in Table 6 in com-

parison with feterita and Sudan grass collected the same day. The

Sudan grass was older than the sorghum varieties and, consequently,

not strictly comparable.

The first collection was made on August 6, 1937, when the sorghum

plants were about 14 inches and the Sudan grass about 24 inches in

height. The data indicate that the selected strain, which also was

earlier in maturity, is distinctly lower in HCN than unselected

Dakota Amber and, in some cases, may be as low as Sudan grass.

Despite this, the HCN content of the August 6 sample of selection No.

39-30-S (31.7 mg on a green basis) was above the supposedly toxic

limit of 20 mg.

ENVIRONMENTAL DIFFERENCES

The relative standing of the various stations with reference to the

quantities of HCN found in the plants in 1936 was determined by

averaging the determinations shown in Table 3 of Sumac (or Early

Sumac) and Dwarf Yellow milo (or Finney milo) at each station. The

average HCN contents thus determined were as follows: Woodward,

Apr. 15, 1939 COUCH, BRIESE AND MARTIN: SORGHUM 159

60.0; Chillicothe, 32.7; Akron, 30.2; Hays, 26.1; Dalhart, 24.8;

Tucumcari, 14.1. The high values at Woodward are due in part to the

limited number of collections made only in August at a stage when the

HCN content was high. A direct comparison of differences between

TABLE 7.—HYDROCYANIC ACID CONTENT OF WHOLE PLANTS OF HEGARI GROWN AT

DIFFERENT STATIONS IN 1937

Station cee ae ache

Days mg

Tucumcari, N. Mex. 16 34 188.0

Dalhart, Tex. 14 36 roeee

Chillicothe, Tex. 14 35 140.0

Akron, Colo. 16 37 117.0

Woodward, Okla. 16 38 114.4

Average 36 146.8

1 Mg per 100 g dry matter.

stations was obtained in 1937 from collections of whole plants of

hegari made during an eight-week period between July 20 and

September 17. The data are shown in Table 7. On the basis of the

average HCN content of hegari at five stations, Tucumcari and

Dalhart are highest and Woodward and Akron lowest. The compara-

tive ratings for the stations in 1937 show some striking differences

from those for 1936 (Table 8). Tucumcari moved from sixth to first

place, Dalhart from fifth to second, Woodward from first to sixth,

TABLE 8.—RELATIVE RANK OF STATIONS FOR HCN COMPARED WITH PRECIPITATION

AND TEMPERATURE

; Helative rank Precipitation (inches) Mean temperature

: tents: | eerste yaa ene eee rs de

Station “ee 3 of seein eee ee uy, July and August

1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937

Tucumcari,

N. Mex. 4,158 6 1 GAD ale | OR 4 wee el aor | moe)

Dalhart, Tex. 3,978 5 2, eA O bn Ae Sle AS) ar 40)) |) sono

Chillicothe, Tex. 1,406 2 3 OFA Ge A268 Foros. omni oorO

Hays, Kans. 2,000 4 4 DEAOREORSOnlmor U9 ERO wel O44 or imooeO

Akron, Colo. 4,560 3 5 AMO 2s eanoles\a OO | son olee aloo ulEoOnO

Woodward, Okla. 2,002 1 6 SU AN Past) WS Ze Dee. 4h ae Oe)

Chillicothe from second to third, and Akron from third to fifth. While

comparable figures for whole hegari were not available from Hays in

1937 the general result from all varieties shows that Hays was running

slightly above Akron, which would place this station in fourth place,

as in 19386.

These changes may be in part correlated with the rainfall for the

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

months of July and August, the period in which rainfall would be most

likely to affect the averages for HCN in the sorghums. In both years

the two highest-standing stations were relatively low in rainfall, but

otherwise little relationship between rainfall and HCN is evident. It

is possible that, above a critical point, available moisture may lead to

HCN production by stimulating the growth of new tissue. In plants

that have not begun to produce heads, HCN production in excess of

utilization may be correlated with rapid growth of new tissues.

In this connection the results obtained with feterita and Sharon

kafir grown at Arlington, Va. in 1937 are of interest. The crops were

grown on low flat land with a high water table, and the season was un-

usually wet. At no time was the ground dusty and much of the time

the surface was moist to muddy. Under these conditions the average

HCN content for young whole feterita plants was 204 mg per 100 g

of dry matter as compared with the average of 182.6 for the western

stations (Table 5), and for leaves 82.8 mg for Arlington and 165.3 mg

for the western stations. The average HCN content of young whole

Sharon kafir plants was 128.2 mg as compared with 88.4 mg for whole

young plants from Woodward, and 40.1 mg for leaves, against an

average of 86.1 mg for kafirs grown at four western stations. Samples

of leaves of Sharon kafir were not taken at Woodward.

It thus appears that young plants grown on the Atlantic seaboard

under adequate moisture conditions may still produce quantities of

HCN comparable with those grown under drought conditions on the

Great Plains, but the HCN production appeared to fall off more

sharply when the plants began to mature.

No correlation between altitude and HCN content of sorghums

grown at a station could be drawn, and the same is true of the mean

temperatures for July and August of both years.

SUMMARY

Plant and leaf samples of 33 sorghum varieties grown at one or

more of six stations in the Great Plains area in 1936 and 1937 were

analyzed for HCN content at various stages of growth. It appears

that any variety tested may contain sufficient HCN at times to be

toxic to animals. Feterita, hegari, Chiltex, and Sumac sorgo tended

to be high in HCN; milo, darso, Atlas sorgo, and Kansas Orange

sorgo were intermediate; and Leoti sorgo and ‘‘African Millet” sorgo

and a selected strain of Dakota Amber sorgo were rather low in HCN.

Varieties of kafir showed wide variation, some being high and others

low in HCN. The comparative rank among the stations in average

Apr. 15, 1939 CHRISTIE: PREDACEOUS NEMATODES 161

HCN content of the samples was different in the two seasons. The

HCN content of the sorghums showed some tendency to be high

where summer precipitation was lowest but there was no consistent

relation between HCN content of sorghum and differences in tem-

perature. Young feterita plants grown under abundant moisture

conditions at Arlington, Va., contained as much HCN as the average

for the six Great Plains stations where drought was severe.

The HCN content (calculated on a dry matter basis) of dried leaves

of sorghum varieties ranged from about 12 percent to 75 percent of

that of the whole green plant.

LITERATURE CITED

BriEsE, R. R., and Coucn, J. F. Preservation of cyanogenetic plants for chemical

analysis. Jour. Agr. Res. 57: 81-107. 1938.

Briwnnicu, J.C. Hydrocyanicacidin fodder plants. Jour. Chem. Soc. 83: 788-796.

1903.

. Couutson, 8. E. Prussic acid in sorghum. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 155. 1919.

FINNEMORE, H., and Cox, C. B. The amount of hydrocyanic acid in sorghum,

Sudan grass, and some hybrids. Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales 65: 145-152. 1931.

Francis, C. K. The poisoning of livestock while feeding on plants of the sorghum

group. Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. Inf. 38. 1915.

FuRLONG, J. R. The estimation of hydrocyanic acid in feeding-stuffs and its oc-

currence in millet and Guinea corn. Analyst 39: 430-432. 1914.

. HinpMarsH, W. L. The lethal dose of hydrocyanic acid for ruminants. Jour.

Council Sci. and Indus. Res., Australia 3: 12-13. 1930.

. Martin, J. H., Coucnu, James F., and BrigsE, REINHOLD R. Hydrocyanic acid

content of different paris of the sorghum plant. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 30:

725-734. 1938.

9. Prepauuu, A. Le Sorgo. Paris. 390 pp. 1923.

10. Scur6pER, J., and Damman, H. Zur Kenntnis der aus verschiedenen Hisearten

entwickelten Blausduremengen. Chem. Ztg. 35: 1436-1487. 1911.

11. Swanson, C.O. Hydrocyanic acid in Sudan grass.. Jour. Agr. Res., 22: 125-138.

1921.

12. WiuuAMAN,J.J.,and West, R.M. Notes onthe hydrocyanic acid content of sorghum.

Jour. Agr. Res. 4: 179-185. 1915.

and West, R. M. Effect of climatic factors on the hydrocyanic content of

sorghum. Jour. Agr. Res. 6: 261-272. 1916.

CO ND MW PO DO

ZOOLOGY .—Predaceous nematodes of the genus Aphelenchoides from

Hawai. J. R. Curistiz, U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry.

In a recent publication Linford and Oliveira? pointed out that

certain species of the nematode genus A phelenchordes Fischer, 1894 are

predaceous and number among their prey other nemas including the

root-knot nematode, Heterodera marion (Cornu, 1879) Goodey, 1932.

These investigators have been able to rear five species of predaceous

Aphelenchoides on agar cultures where their feeding habits could be

studied. A population of some other nematode was first established

on these cultures to provide food for the predators. Linford and

1 Received February 3, 1939.

2 Science 85: 295-297. 1937.

162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

Oliveira kindly forwarded to the writer cultures of these five A phelen-

choides species and the following descriptions and drawings are based

on a study of the material thus provided. As the bionomics of these

nematodes are being studied by the above mentioned investigators

the present paper deals exclusively with taxonomy and morphology.

The species described herein belong to a group for which “long

tailed’? Aphelenchoides is perhaps an appropriate designation. The

first of this group to be described was Aphelenchoides longicaudatus

(Cobb, 1893) Goodey, 1933. This species is poorly characterized and

probably unrecognizable but in one particular it seems to differ from

all the subsequently described ‘“‘long tailed’’ species including those

described in the present paper: the length of the tail is at least twice

as great as the distance from the vulva to the anus. The other species

that have been added to this group are as follows: A. tenwicaudatus

(de Man, 1895) Goodey, 1933, A. winches (Goodey, 1927) Filipjev,

1934, A. demani (Goodey, 1928) Goodey, 1933, A. elmiraensis van der

Linde, 1938, and A. oswegoensis van der Linde, 1938. |

Linford and Oliveira tentatively identified one of their species as

A. tenuicaudatus. This identification apparently is correct. A second

species is described herein as A. winchesi var. filicaudatus, n. var. The

remaining three species are regarded as new and for these the names

A. linfordi, n. sp., A. oliverrae, n. sp. and A. oahuénsis, n. sp. are pro-

posed.

There is considerable resemblance between females of some of these

predacious Aphelenchoides and the female of Seinura mali Fuchs,

1931. The similarity of the stylet, the esophageal bulb and the tail is

noticeable. Fuchs neither mentions nor figures the esophageal glands.

On the other hand the tail of the male of S. malz differs conspicuously

from that of all the predaceous species of which the male is known.

Precisely what characters serve to differentiate the genus Seznura

from the genus A phelenchordes is not altogether clear to the writer but

on the basis of Fuchs’ description probably the male tail constitutes

the most important differentiating character. If this is true none of

the species described in the present paper belong in the genus Seznura.

As these five species of predaceous Aphelenchoides are quite similar

in structure a few comments on their common morphological char-

acteristics seem pertinent. Beginning at or somewhat anterior to the

anus the body of the female tapers more or less evenly and ends in a

long, pointed, conical tail. The longitudinal, cuticular modifications

that define the so-called lateral fields of A. parietinus and A. fragariae

were not observed. If such cuticular modifications occur they are very

Apr. 15, 1939 CHRISTIE: PREDACEOUS NEMATODES 163

indistinct. The head is more or less distinctly set off and is divided

into six, slightly elevated, lip-like sectors. These lip-like elevations

are slightly more conspicuous on some of the species (i.e. A. tenuz-

caudatus) than on others. The stylet is divided into an anterior, coni-

cal part and a posterior, cylindrical part with the anterior opening on

the ventral side. At the junction of these two parts the stylet is en-

circled by a structure somewhat resembling the so-called guiding ring

of dorylaims. This structure is most conspicuous in A. tenwicaudatus

but is present and more or less distinct in all the species. The esophag-

eal gland mass is exceptionally large. It is composed of a large gland,

presumably the dorsal, constituting the posterior two-thirds or more

of the mass and a pair of smaller glands, presumably the subventrals,

constituting a greater part of the anterior third of the mass. The

nucleus of the largest gland was seen in all the species but the nuclei

of the smaller glands were more difficult to observe in toto prepara-

tions. Secretion from the esophageal glands fills a considerable area

in the anterior part and a lesser area in the posterior part of the bulb

with more or less secretion between these two areas just dorsal to the

wall of the central lumen. The bulb is relatively large and somewhat

elongated but varies considerably in shape, depending on the amount

of secretion contained and the state of muscular contraction. Near

the anterior end of the bulb the wall of the esophageal lumen is dis-

tinctly interrupted by at least one, or perhaps several, minute open-

ings. Although undoubtedly present, phasmids were not observed, as

a special technic necessary to make them visible was not employed.

The outlines of the drawings and all measurements were made on

specimens killed in a 5 per cent solution of commercial formalin

(about 2 per cent formaldehyde) heated to 70°C. Living specimens

were used to determine many of the morphological details.

Aphelenchoides winchesi (Goodey) Filipjev var. filicaudatus, n. var.

Synonymy.—A phelenchus winchesi Goodey. Jour. Helminth. 5(4) :2-7, figs.

1-5. 1927. Aphelenchoides winchesi (Goodey). Filipjev, Harmful and use-

ful nematodes in rural economy. Moskva, Leningrad. p. 236, fig. 203, G-H.

1934.

Measurements.— 2 : Length 800 to 880u; width 23 to 26y; length of esoph-

agus, 80 to 86u; length of tail, 1388 to 187y; a, 31 to 35; 6, 9.7 to 10.6; 7,

4.5 to 6; V, 61 to 66%.

Description —Male unknown. Female (Fig. 1,B) with cuticular striae fine,

moderately obscure. Head region relatively short, only faintly set off. Stylet

18 to 19u, without basal knobs. Excretory pore from opposite middle to

opposite posterior margin of esophageal bulb. Tail tapers more or less

evenly and ends in a long filiform process. Anus very inconspicuous. In-

testinal lumen between vulva and anus often wide and filled with fecal ma-

164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

terial. Vulva relatively inconspicuous; postvulvar uterine sac very short;

ovary outstretched, frequently extending nearly to nerve ring. Eggs 59 to

65u by 19 to 21y.

Habitat.—Soil.

Locality.—Island of Oahu, Territory of Hawaii, U.S.A.

Comparisons and affinities —This variety, based on females only, differs

from the type species in having (a) a longer tail (120 to 130y in type, 138

to 187u in present variety), (b) a shorter stylet (24 to 27y in type, 18 to

19u in present variety) and a somewhat more anteriorly situated excretory

pore (‘‘a short distance behind level of bulb” in type, from about opposite

middle to about opposite posterior margin of bulb in present variety). In

addition the vulva seems to be situated somewhat more anteriorly (at 70

to 75% in type, at 61 to 66% in present variety). As Linford and Oliveira

had cultures of this variety under observation for a considerable period and

neither they nor the present writer observed males, one may conclude that

at least males are very rare. This constitutes another difference between the

type species and the present variety.

Aphelenchoides tenuicaudatus (de Man) Goodey

Synonymy.—A phelenchus tenuicaudatus de Man. Trans. Liverpool Biol.

Soc. 10: 77-81, pl. 3, figs. 1, la, 1b, & 1d, pl. 2, fig. 1c. 1895. Aphelen-

choides tenuicaudatus (de Man). Goodey, Plant parasitic nematodes and the

diseases they cause. London, p. 250, fig. 111. 1933.

Measurements.—o: Length, 650 to 7204; width, 17 to 21u; length of

esophagus, 76 to 87u; length of tail, 45 to 56u; a, 34 to 40; B, 7.8 to 8.7;

vy, 12.5 to 15.5. 2 : Length, 930u to 1 mm; width, 25 to 30y; length of esopha-

gus, 84 to 93yu; length of tail, 92 to 104; a, 31 to 39; B, 10 to 11.2; y, 9 to 10;

V, 70 to 74%.

Description.—Cuticular striae fine, moderately obscure. Head region (Fig.

2,A) set off about asin A. parzetinus, lip-like elevations relatively conspicu-

ous. Stylet 14 to 16u long in males, 16 to 194 long in females; without

basal knobs. Excretory pore opposite posterior end of esophageal bulb. Tail

of female long and slender, tapering more or less evenly. Postvulvar uterine

sac usually extending about one-half distance from vulva to anus but some-

what variable in size and shape. Ovary outstretched and extending past

posterior end of esophageal glands, sometimes nearly to nerve ring. Tail of

male (Fig. 2,B) somewhat similar in shape to that of female but tapering

less abruptly in anterior two-thirds, then narrowing abruptly with posterior

third in the form of a more or less slender terminal spike. Four pairs of

papillae present; one pair about 8 to 10y in front of anus and nearly ventral,

one pair opposite or slightly posterior to anus, and 2 pairs, 4 or 5yu apart,

near middle of tail. Spicule 18 to 20u long with shape as shown in Figure 2,B.

Habitat.—Soil.

Locality.—Islands of Oahu and Maui, Territory of Hawaii, U.S.A.

Comparisons and affinities —The writer’s material agreed fairly closely

with both de Man’s and Goodey’s descriptions. The most conspicuous dif-

ference was the length of the stylet which, in females, measured only 16

to 19 as against 24 to 27u in de Man’s material.

A. elmiraensis resembles A. tenuicaudatus more closely than it resembles

any other described species. It differs in the length of the tail in both sexes

and in the length of the stylet. The stylet is only 10u long and y, in the

female, is about 4.5, while in the male tail of A. elmiraensis the terminal

portion posterior to the papillae is considerably longer than in A. tenwicau-

Apr. 15, 1939 CHRISTIE: PREDACEOUS NEMATODES 165

Fig. 1. A.—Aphelenchoides olivetrae, n.sp., female. B.—A. winches var. filicau-

datus, n. var., female. C.—A. oliveirae, n.sp., tail of male.

datus. In fact the tail of the female of A. elmiraensis approaches in length

that of A. longicaudatus being about 14 times as great as the distance from

vulva to anus. Van der Linde was probably justified in regarding A. elmira-

ensis as a distinct species but as other populations become known its dif-

166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 4

ferentiation may become increasingly difficult. That, of course, is equally

true of some of the species described in the present paper.

Aphelenchoides linfordi, n. sp.

Measurements.— 6: Length, 500 to 600u; width, 20 to 23u; length of

esophagus, 61 to 66u; length of tail, 52 to 64u; a, 24 to 27; B, 8 to 9.3; ¥,

8.3 to 10.9; V, 71 to 75%.

Description.—Male unknown. Female (Fig. 3,B) with conspicuous, trans-

verse cuticular striae forming distinct annules as much as 2u wide near

middle of body. Head region moderately well set off. Stylet 16 to 17u long,

without basal knobs. Excretory pore posterior to base of esophagus a distance

equal to, or slightly less than, the corresponding body diameter. Tail tapers

more or less evenly and ends in a moderately slender terminal portion,

cuticular striae conspicuous for entire length. Postvulvar uterine sac short

but usually rather wide. Ovary outstretched and extending to or slightly

passing posterior end of esophageal glands. Eggs 62 to 68u by 21 to 22y.

Habitat.—Soil.

Locality —Island of Oahu, Territory of Hawaii, U.S.A.

Comparisons and affinities —That Aphelenchoides linfordi belongs to this

group of “long tailed” Aphelenchoides is evidenced by its predacious habit

and by its large and conspicuous esophageal glands. It differs from all other

species of the group in having moderately coarse and conspicuous transverse

striae. In addition females are somewhat shorter than those of any other

related species and the width is relatively greater (a, 24 to 27) than in fe-

males of any other species except A. oliveirae (a, 25 to 32).

Aphelenchoides oliveirae, n. sp.

Measurements.— o': Length, 384 to 484u; width, 13 to 17»; length of

esophagus, 57 to 64u; length of tail, 54 to 61y; a, 28 to 32; B, 6.7 to 7.9; y,

7 to 8.6. 2: Length, 600 to 720u; width, 20 to 27y; length of esophagus,

60 to 67u; length of tail, 82 to 94u; a, 25 to 32; B, 9.2 to 11; y, 6.7 to 8.5;

V, 69 to 73%.

Description.—Cuticular striae fine, moderately inconspicuous. Head

region (Fig. 1,A) comparatively short, only faintly set off. Stylet 14 to 1ldu

long in males, 15 to 16u long in females, with small but distinct basal knobs.

Excretory pore posterior to base of esophagus a distance equal to, or slightly

less than, the corresponding body diameter. Tail of female tapers more or

less evenly and ends in a slender terminal portion. Intestinal lumen be-

tween vulva and anus frequently wide and filled with fecal material. Anus

very minute, indistinguishable in many specimens. Ovary outstretched,

frequently extending nearly to nerve ring; posterior part wide showing

several oécytes in a given cross section. Postvulvar uterine sac virtually

absent. Eggs 70 to 83u by 18 to 19u (based on eggs in relatively advanced

stages of development). Tail of male (Fig. 1,C) similar in shape to that of

female. Two pairs of papillae present, one pair about 8u in front of anus and

one pair about 18u posterior to anus; a pair of adanal papillae probably

present. Spicule about 14u long and shaped as shown in Figure 1,C.

Habitat.—Soil.

Locality.—Island of Maui, Territory of Hawaii, U.S.A.

Comparisons and affinities —This species differs from A. demanz in having

a shorter tail in both sexes. In his original description of A. demant Goodey

Apr. 15, 1939 CHRISTIE: PREDACEOUS NEMATODES 167

Fig. 2. A.—Aphelenchoides tenuicaudatus, female.

B.—-A. tenuicaudatus, tail of male.

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

writes of the vagina as having stout walls while in the present species the

vagina is relatively small and inconspicuous. The exceptionally wide ovary

showing, toward its posterior end, several odcytes in a cross section, may

prove to be another, and a more important, difference. The posterior half

of the male tail does not seem to be quite so clearly differentiated as in that

of A. demanz but the arrangement of the papillae in the two species seems to

be identical. ;

Aphelenchoides oahu€énsis, n. sp.

Measurements.— 9: Length, 760 to 860u; width, 20 to 22u; length of

esophagus, 67 to 76u; length of tail, 55 to 66u; a, 35 to 40; B, 9.6 to 11.9;

vy, 13 to 15; V, 69 to 75%. |

Description.—Male unknown. Female (Fig. 3,B) with cuticular striae fine,

moderately obscure. Head set off about as in A. parietinus. Stylet 14 to 15u

long with small but distinct basal knobs. Excretory pore inconspicuous,

situated posterior to base of esophagus a distance about equal to corre-

sponding body diameter. Tail tapers more or less evenly and ends in a slender

terminal portion usually somewhat constricted near middle region. Post-

vulvar uterine sac usually extending about one-third distance from vulva to

anus. Ovary outstretched, frequently extending nearly to nerve ring. Anus

small and inconspicuous.

Habitat.—Soil.

Locality.—Island of Oahu, Territory of Hawaii, U.S.A.

Comparisons and affinities —This species very closely resembles both A.

demani and A. oliveirae. The female differs from that of A. demani in pos-

sessing a short postvulvar uterine sac and a shorter tail that is slightly con-

stricted. It differs from A. oliveirae in having a postvulvar uterine sac, a

narrower ovary, a longer and thinner walled uterus and a slightly con-

stricted tail. Although probably not a point of taxonomic significance it

may be noted that males were not present on the cultures of this species

whereby it differs from the two other closely related species. The writer

gave careful consideration to the advisability of regarding both the present

species and A. olivetrae as varieties of A. demanz. He finally decided that

A. oliveirae and A. oahuénsis should be regarded as distinct species, the deci-

sion being influenced largely by differences in the female reproductive or-

gans. If this is true, both forms obviously cannot be varieties of A. demani

and the question arose as to which, if either, should be so regarded. In view

of his inability to satisfactorily answer this question the writer decided,

somewhat reluctantly, to regard each as a distinct species.

Apparently A phelenchovdes is a genus in which a great many of the popu-

lations that come to ones attention differ in some minor particular from those

previously studied. This is certainly true for what now passes as A. parieti-

nus and likewise it appears to be true for this group of “long-tailed,” pre-

daceous forms. What the confines of the species should be is a question for

which only time and experience will provide an answer. It appears, however,

that in many cases specific diagnoses must be sufficiently elastic to permit

considerable variation or we will soon find ourselves with a vast number

of species differentiated by minor and exceedingly variable characters.

As males are known for only part of the species the following key is based

on the females. Information regarding the male tail is supplementary and

is included for convenience in the hope that it may, at times, prove useful.

Apr. 15, 1939 CHRISTIE: PREDACEOUS NEMATODES 169

Fig. 3. AA—Aphelenchoides oahuénsis, n. sp. female.

B.—A. linfordi, n. sp., female.

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 4

The separation of A. longicaudatus obviously is unsatisfactory as the rela-

tive length of the female tail is subject to considerable variation. Cobb’s

description does not give precise information regarding the anatomical

features upon which the key is primarily based and the long tail of the female

seems to be the only character that can serve to differentiate this species.

KEY TO SPECIES OF ‘‘LONG-TAILED’’ APHELENCHOIDES

DISCUSSED IN THIS PAPER

1. Length of tail in female at least twice as great as distance from vulva to

BUTS eS): a eS ee ae ne RM a pe longicaudatus

Length of tail in female not over one and one-half times as great as dis-

tance from: vulva to anus... yo. 3. 2

2. Stylet with small but distinct basal swellings or knobs................ 3

Stylet without basal swellings or knobs): .2...-... 3. 5

3. Postvulvar uterine sac well developed often oe nearly one-third

distance from vulva to anus; male unknown............ oahuénsis

Postvulvar uterine sac, if present, very short; both sexes usually en-

countered; male tail with one pair preanal, one pair indistinct adanal

and. one’ pair postanal papillae... ..< =...) 2: 5 ae 4

4. Vagina with stout walls and presumably moderately large and con-

spicuous; excretory pore a short distance behind bulb but in front

of nerve ring; y, in female, usually 5.3 to 6.5; posterior half of male

tale-set Off, oe. i Se ee demant

Vagina small and inconspicuous; excretory pore opposite or slightly be-

hind nerve ring; y, in female, 6.7 to 8.5; posterior half of male tail

only faintly set off | oe ee olivetrae

5.- Body of female with conspicuous and moderately coarse transverse striae

forming distinct annules; male unknown............2.-2% linfordt

Body of female with inconspicuous transverse striae................. 6

6. Postvulvar uterine sac absent or very short; male tail with one pair of

indistinct adanal and one pair of postanal papillae........ winches

Postvulvar uterine sac well developed usually extending at least half

way from. vulva-to.anus 0.6.00... 5) ee 7

7. Stylet short, about 10u long; vulva relatively far anteriad, at about 62%;

tail exceptionally long and slender, y, in female, about 4.5; male

tail with one pair of preanal, one pair of adanal and two pairs of

postanal’ papillae. 3.00. c'a.. ee fs Pee elmiraensis

Stylet 14u long or longer; vulva at 66% or more; y, in female, 7 or more

(UUAY 000) 0 Ree er ce ein ATE een MMR EASA AB NC og OSWEGOENSIS

Lips well developed; tail of female slender and attenuated, y, 7.7 to 11;

male with one pair preanal, one pair indistinct adanal and two

pairssof postanal papillae wage tees eres tenuicaudatus

Apr. 15, 1939 REHDER: A NEW NENIA 171

MALACOLOGY.—A new Nenia from Haiti and some notes on this

genus.|. Haraup A. REHDER, U.S. National Museum. (Com-

municated by Pau BARTSCH.)

Since 1786, when Nenia tridens Schweigger was first figured and

described, albeit rather inadequately, no other member of this genus

has turned up from the West Indian region. The discovery, therefore,

of a species of Nenza from the southern peninsula of Haiti is a matter

of. considerable interest. The characters of this form are such that it

can not be placed in any of the groups hitherto erected within the

subfamily Neniinae, and I am therefore forming a new subgenus of

Nenva for its reception, which I shall eall:

Nenisca, n. subgen.

Shell of medium size, entire, fusiform, with fine, crowded, axial wrinkles

which are irregular and anastomosing. Aperture large, dark inside, with a

broadly expanded peristome. Superior lamella not continuous with the spiral

lamella but widely discontinuous, the spiral lamella revolving peripherad of

the superior lamella, its anterior end curving strongly towards the superior

lamella, which continues for some distance beyond it. Lunella absent.

Type.—Nenia (Nenisca) bartschi, new species.

In the relation of the spiral and superior lamellae, this group approaches

Steerrana Jousseaume, from which it differs greatly in external appearance.

Its anastomosing sculpture is quite distinct.

Nenia (Nenisca) bartschi, n. sp. Figs. 1-5

Shell of medium size, rather solid, fusiform, with an entire and attenuate

apex. Nuclear whorls 2, light red-brown in color, the first 12 whorls smooth,

the last ¢ with rude axial riblets. The 6 postnuclear whorls are chestnut-

brown in color, becoming deep purplish brown behind the aperture, and

are marked by irregular, axial yellowish-ivory-white flammulate patches,

which coalesce towards the top of each whorl; a row of small spots of chest-

nut brown, the ground color, is present just below the suture. The sculpture

consists of fine, crowded, irregular, axial riblets, which anastomose and

divaricate. The last whorl is the broadest, the penultimate whorl only

slightly less in diameter; the whorls moderately convex, with an impressed

suture. The aperture is rather large, ovate, dark chestnut-brown within,

surrounded by a broad, expanded white peristome.

Superior lamella strong, convex on the left side, the lower end of the spiral

lamella peripherad of and curving toward the former, the lamellae overlap-

ping for about 1.5 mm. The inferior lamella stout, the free edge thickened,

continuing as a low lamella on the axis for about one whorl. The principal

palatal fold begins about 1.5 mm in from the peristome on the left side, and

runs parallel with the suture for about 6 mm on the dorsal side. A lunella is

absent. The subcolumellar lamella is typical, ascending, about 3.5 mm long.

The clausilium has a rather long pedicle, and an elongate spatula, the distal

end of which is bluntly pointed.

1? Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived February 28, 1939.

172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

Figs. 1-5.—Nenia (Nenisca) bartschi, n. sp. 1, Clausilium. 2—3,—Shell X2. 4, Detail

of sculpture X15. 5, Detail showing lamellae: a, spiral lamella;*b,"superior lamella; c, in-

ferior lamella. Fig. 6.—Nenia (Paranenia) perarata v. Martens. Shell X3. Fig. 7.—Nenia

(Nenia) tridens Schweigger. Shell X3.

Apr. 15, 1939 BARTSCH: A NEW HOST 173

The type, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 380074, was collected by William J. Eyer-

dam at 1,000 meters altitude on the top of Mt. Rochelle (or Rochelois),

south of Rochelois, Dept. du Sud, Haiti. It has 8 whorls and measures:

Length 22.6 mm; diameter 5 mm; height of aperture 6.3 mm, width of

aperture 4.9 mm.

Four other specimens, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 499244, come from the same

lot.

Two bleached specimens and a few fragments, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 403023,

of what appears to be this species were collected by Charles R. Orcutt on

the estate of the Haitian American Sugar Company, just north of Port-au-

Prince, where they were probably washed down from the mountains south-

east of the city.

I dedicate this interesting species to Dr. Paul Bartsch, who through his

cruises throughout the West Indies, and consequent systematic studies, has

done much to elucidate the terrestrial malacological fauna of the Antillean

region.

The only other West Indian Nenza is, as is well known, the Puerto Rican

Nenia tridens Schweigger, the sole representative of the typical subgenus

Nenia. This group is distinguished by its lack of a lunella, by the thickened

peristome and by the peculiar sculpture and apical character; the embryonic

shell, generally lost, is slender and set at an angle on the succeeding whorl.

(ieae/):

Paranenia, n. subgen.

Shell rather stout, with an entire blunt, rounded apex. Sculpture consist-

ing of strong, oblique, broad, rounded, moderately distant ribs, crossed

obliquely by fine growth lines. A lunella is present.

Type.—Nenia peraraia von Martens.

Nenia perarata von Martens (fig. 6) from Colombia has been placed in

Nenza on account of its rather similar sculpture, but it does not have the

narrower, decollate apex of Nenia tridens Schweigger, and it possesses a

lunella. These important differences, as well as its quite distinct geographic

range, merit its being placed in a separate subgenus.

MALACOLOGY.—A new intermediate host of the Asiatic blood fluke,

Schistosoma japonicum Katsurata.1 Paut Bartscu, U. S.

National Museum.

Dr. Y. T. Yao has sent to the United States National Museum a

large series of Oncomelania for determination, which he collected at

Wang Ling Hsiang, Pingyang Hsien, in the central part of Kwangsi

Province, China, which he found served as intermediate hosts of the

Asiatic Blood Fluke in that region. These proved to be an unde-

scribed species of Oncomelania, which I take pleasure in naming for

its discoverer.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived December 9, 1938.

174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

This find extends the range of the genus Oncomelania considerably

farther south than heretofore known.

Figs. 1-2.—Oncomelania yaoi, n. sp. 1, shell, X10. 2. radula.

Oncomelania yaoi n. sp.

Shell elongate-conic; early whorls pinkish, the rest wax yellow, translu-

cent, shining, with the edge of the peristome tinged with a dusky suffusion.

Nuclear whorls 2, well rounded smooth, excepting microscopic granulations.

Postnuclear whorls slightly rounded, almost flattened; the first smooth, the

second showing in its distal part the beginning of axial ribs, which on the

succeeding turns become very strongly developed. These ribs are rather dis-

tantly spaced, i.e., they are about one-half as wide at their base as the spaces

that separate them. Of these ribs 15 are present on all the turns but the last,

which has 12. On the last whorl there is a very heavy varix a little distance

behind the peristome. The axial ribs and intercostal spaces are marked by

fine wavy hairlike incremental lines. Suture well impressed. Periphery well

rounded. Base short, well rounded, marked by the continuation of the sculp-

ture of the spire, but here the axial ribs become enfeebled and evanesce as

they pass into the narrow umbilicus. Aperture ovate, somewhat oblique

and effuse, and expanded at the junction of the basal and columellar angle,

appressed to the preceding turn at the parietal wall. Operculum thin,

corneous paucispiral, having 2.2 whorls and an excentric nucleus. The

1-1-1

radula has the formula: 5 IASB os

2-2

Apr. 15, 1939 GOLDMAN: NEW POCKET GOPHERS 175

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 469149, has 9.2 whorls and measures: Length, 8.8

mm; greater diameter, 3.8 mm; lesser diameter, 3.3 mm. The rest bear the

number 469150.

Its almost flattened whorls, brilliant translucent wax color with pinkish

early whorls, heavy distantly spaced, axial, ribs and peculiar radula formula

easily distinguish it from all the known species of Oncomelania.

MAMMALOGY.—Two new pocket gophers of the genus Heterogeo-

mys from Mexico E. A. GoLpMAN, Bureau of Biological

Survey.

In connection with a group alignment of the forms of the genus

Heterogeomys by E. W. Nelson and the writer four new subspecies

were described (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 42, pp. 147-152,

March 30, 1929). A more critical examination and further considera-

tion of material available have resulted in the segregation of two

additional forms, as follows:

Heterogeomys hispidus tehuantepecus, subsp. nov.

Tehuantepec Pocket Gopher

Type.—From mountains 12 miles northwest of Santo Domingo and about

60 miles north of Tehuantepec City, Oaxaca, Mexico (altitude 1,600 feet).

No. 73434, o& adult, skin and skull, U. S. National Museum (Biological

Survey collection); collected by Nelson and Goldman, June 18, 1895. Origi-

nal number 8092.

Distribution Known only from the type locality in the mountains near

the top of the continental divide on the southern side of the Isthmus of

Tehuantepec.

General characters.—Most closely resembling Heterogeomys hispidus his-

pidus from near Jalapa, Vera Cruz; size similar, but color lighter, near ‘‘mars

brown” instead of “‘seal brown” (Ridgway, 1912); differing also in cranial

details, including more highly arched rostrum. Similar in general to Hetero-

geomys hispidus isthmicus of Gulf coast plain on northern side of Isthmus of

Tehuantepec, but color somewhat darker, near ‘‘mars brown”’ instead of

“chestnut brown’’; skull differing most notably in less deeply sinuous lamb-

doid crest. Similar in general size to Heterogeomys hispidus chiapensis of high

mountains of central Chiapas, but color light, near ‘“‘mars brown”’ instead

of “seal brown’’; pelage coarser and thinner; skull heavier and quite differ-

ent in detail.

Color.—Type (acquiring fresh pelage): Head and anterior upper parts

“mars brown” in fresh pelage, becoming ‘chestnut brown” in worn pelage

on posterior part of back,flanks, and limbs; under parts thinly haired, ‘‘cin-

namon brown’’; feet scantily covered with brownish hairs; tail nearly naked

near base, becoming entirely bare near tip, the dried skin dark brown.

Skull——Most closely resembling that of hispidus, but nasals more highly

arched, less flattened posteriorly; frontal region less depressed anteriorly;

jugal narrower, more evenly rounded anteriorly at union with maxilla;

auditory bullae less inflated, not usually projecting below plane of lower

1 Received January 27, 1939.

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

surface of basioccipital (usually projecting below this plane in hispidus);

molariform toothrows shorter. Very similar in general form to that of

isthmicus, but lambdoid crest much less deeply sinuous, a slight concavity

representing the abrupt crescentic median deflection forward present in

isthmicus as viewed from above; nasals less flattened, rising more promi-

nently above level of premaxillae; maxillary arm of zygoma lighter, en-

croaching less deeply on premaxillae which are correspondingly broader

posteriorly; dentition about the same. Compared with that of chiapensis

the skull is similar in general size, but heavier in structure; rostrum broader;

interorbital region narrower, the frontal surface less even, more concave

near median line and rising higher anteriorly; maxillary arm of zygoma

encroaching farther on premaxillae which are correspondingly reduced in

width posteriorly; auditory bullae larger; palatopterygoids broader; denti-

tion heavier.

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 332 mm; tail, 102; hind foot, 48. Two

adult female topotypes, respectively: 348, 306; 94, 81; 51, 41. Skull (type

[o] and an adult female topotype, respectively): Occipitonasal length, 61.7,

61.4; zygomatic breadth, 39.2, 40.8; breadth across squamosals (over mas-

toids), 38.2, 39.6; interorbital constriction, 10.7, 10.8; length of nasals, 23.9,

24.2; maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 13, 13.3; width of upper incisors (cutting

edge), 8.5, 8.7.

Remarks.—The resemblance of tehwantepecus to typical hispidus suggests

that there may be some connection between the two through the mountains

of the interior, but intergradation is also probable with the near geographic

neighbor zsthmicus of the Gulf coastal plains. In the genus Heterogeomys, as

in other pocket gophers, the males are usually larger than the females, but

in the present form an adult female slightly exceeds the type, a male of about

the same age.

Specimens examined.—Eight, all from the type locality.

Heterogeomys hispidus teapensis, subsp. nov.

Tabasco Pocket Gopher

Type.—From Teapa, Tabasco, Mexico. No. 100035, Q adult, skin and

skull, U. S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection); collected by

Nelson and Goldman, March 23, 1900. Original number 14056.

Distribution.—Lowiands and lower mountain slopes in southern Tabasco.

General characters.—A large subspecies, similar to Heterogeomys hispidus

chiapensis of high mountains of central Chiapas, but color light, near “‘mars

brown” instead of ‘‘seal brown’’; pelage coarser and thinner; skull more

elongated. Similar to Heterogeomys hispidus isthmicus of coastal plain in

Vera Cruz on north side of Isthmus of Tehuantepec, but color somewhat

darker, the upper parts near ‘“‘mars brown” instead of ‘‘chestnut brown’’;

skull longer, with lambdoid crest less deeply sinuous. Somewhat like Hetero-

geomys hispidus yucatenensis of the Yucatan peninsula, but larger and

slightly darker; skull with more elongated rostrum.

Color.—Type (acquiring fresh pelage): Upper parts in general near “‘mars

brown’; under parts and limbs nearly naked, the scattered hairs light

brownish; tail bare, the dried skin brownish.

Skull.—Similar to that of chiapensis but longer, with narrower zygomata;

rostrum and nasals longer; dentition heavier, the incisors decidedly broader.

Apr. 15, 1939 DEIGNAN: NEW BIRDS IL Pee

Differing from that of yucatenensis in decidedly larger size, greater elonga-

tion of rostrum, and much heavier dentition. Compared with that of zsthm-

cus the skull is longer, the lengthening mainly in rostrum; zygomata actually

as well as relatively narrower; nasals longer; lambdoid crest less deeply

sinuous; dentition similar.

Measurements.—T ype: Total length, 338 mm; tail, 91; hind foot, 48.5. An

adult female topotype: 334; 90; 46. Skull (type [2] and an adult female

topotype, respectively): Occipitonasasl length, 61.3, 59; zygomatic breadth,

36, 37; breadth across squamosals (over mastoids), 36.3, 36; interorbital

constriction, 10.3, 10.8; length of nasals, 24.8, 24; maxillary toothrow (al-

veoli), 15, 138.4; width of upper incisors (cutting edge), 8.5, 8.3.

Remarks.—Specimens from low elevations in Tabasco were referred by

Nelson and the writer (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 42, p. 152, March

30, 1929) to chiapensis of the high mountains of central Chiapas, although

some differences were pointed out. More critical examination seems to war-

rant their segregation as a geographic race.

Specimens examined.—Total number, five, all from Tabasco, as follows:

Montecristo, 2; Teapa (type locality), 3.

ORNITHOLOGY.—Two new races of birds from the Indo-Chinese

sub-region.’ H.G. Drianan, U.S. National Museum. (Com-

municated by H. FRIEDMANN.)

A recent visit by the writer to the American Museum of Natural

History and the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia has

shown that two more Siamese birds must be granted subspecific

recognition. For the loan of their material, thanks are hereby ex-

pressed to the authorities of the institutions named.

Cyanops incognita euroa, subsp. nov.

Type.—Adult male, U. S. National Museum no. 337073; collected at

Khao Sa-bap, Chantabun province, 8.E. Siam, 28 April, 1937, by H. G.

Deignan.

Subspecific characters.—Adults of the new form are readily distinguishable

from adults of typical incognita (Tenasserim) by the greater size of the red

patch on the hind-crown (covering at least twice as large an area as in 7ncog-

nita), and by the paler turquoise-blue of the throat. Seventeen adults of

euroa have been compared with four adults of zncognita.

Range.—South-eastern Siam, Cambodia, Laos, and Tongking.

Napothera crispifrons calcicola, subsp. nov.

Type.—Adult male, U. 8S. National Museum no. 332024; collected at

Hin Lap, East Siam, 8 December, 1931, by Dr. Hugh M. Smith.

Subspecific characters—From N. cr. annamensis, distinguished at once

by complete absence of slaty color, above and below. From typical crzspz-

frons, it may be known by its having the broad shaft-streaks of the throat

1 Published by Permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived February 9, 1939.

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 4

black instead of dark brown, affording a stronger contrast with the white

portion of the feathers; by having a distinct rufous area on each side of the

neck between the white throat and the rufous-washed ear-coverts; by having

the dark edgings of the feathers of crown and mantle obsolete, giving the

upperparts a more uniform aspect and causing the gray shafts to stand out

more boldly. Three specimens of calcicola have been compared with four

specimens of annamensts and seven specimens of crispifrons.

Range.—Eastern Siam.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

AlsT ANNUAL MEETING

The 41st Annual Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was

held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, January 19, 1939, with 55

members present. President Paut Hows called the meeting to order at

9.20 P.M.

The minutes of the 40th Annual Meeting were presented as published in

the Journal and were approved as published.

The Corresponding Secretary, NATHAN R. SmitTH, submitted the following

report on the membership and activities of the Academy:

Membership: during 1938, 41 were elected to resident and 1 to non-

resident active membership. Of these, 40 have qualified for resident mem-

bership. The non-resident member was recently elected and has not replied

to date. Five were elected in recognition of their work in Chemistry, and

also five in Botany; four each in Engineering, Protozoology, and Biology;

three each in Physics, Medicine, Forestry, and Mycology; two in Anthro-

pology; and one each in Geology, Bacteriology, Genetics, and Soil Science.

There were two resignations (1 resident and 1 non-resident) and ten deaths

(7 resident and 3 non-resident). Seven were transferred from resident to

non-resident and one from non-resident to resident membership. Six resi-

dent and one non-resident member retired from professional work during

the year and were retained as active members without the payment of dues.

On January 1, 1939, the membership, therefore, consisted of 11 Honorary

Members, 3 Patrons, and 554 Active Members, of which 2 are Life Members.

Of the 554 active members, 33 do not pay dues because of retirement from

professional work (27 resident and 6 non-resident). There are, therefore,

521 active members who should pay dues, 391 resident and 130 non-

resident. Since the number of resident active members is limited to 400 and

the non-resident to 200, there were 9 vacancies in the resident and 70

vacancies in the non-resident active membership. The status of the resident

active membership as regards number is very satisfactory owing to the

efficiency of the Membership Committee. The non-resident class is still

very unsatisfactory, although slightly better than last year.

The deaths of the following members are reported at this time:

GEORGE BirD GRINNELL, non-resident, April 11, 1938.

Mauricr C. Hatt, resident, May 1, 19388.

FREDERICK I. ALLEN, non-resident, May 17, 1938.

TRuMAN MICHELSON, resident, July 26, 1938.

Karu B. McKINLEY, resident, July 29, 1938.

Apr. 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 179

Guy N. Couuins, resident, August 14, 1938.

Victor K. CuEsnut, resident, August 29, 1938.

Wiuuis R. Grea, resident, September 14, 1938.

GIUSEPPI STEFANINI, honorary, September 15, 1938.

CuHaR Les EF). Monros, honorary, December 7, 1938.

The Board of Managers held seven meetings during the year with an

average attendance of 17. Two special committees were appointed, one on

the format of the Journal and the other on the Financial Status of the

Journal. The report of each committee has been accepted by the Board.

Dr. A. L. Day was appointed a delegate to the dedication of the Franklin

Institute as a Memorial to Benjamin Franklin. The Institute awarded a

Certificate of Appreciation to the Academy for this action.

On motion it was voted to accept the Corresponding Secretary’s report

and to place it on file.

The Recording Secretary presented the following report:

The 41st year of the Academy began with the 284th meeting and ended

tonight with the 289th meeting.

The 284th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on

February 17, 1938. The address was given by Cuaruzes THom, the retiring

President of the Academy, on the subject A Microbiologist Digs in the Soil.

Attendance about 75.

The 285th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on

March 17, 1938. The address was given by A. K. Baus of the Bureau of

Chemistry and Soils on the subject Some Modern Aspects of Enzyme Cataly-

sis. Attendance about 70.

The 286th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the National Museum

on April 21, 1938. The address of the evening was given by Marius Bar-

BEAU, the Dominion Ethnologist of Canada, on the subject How Totem

Poles Originated. The address was illustrated by motion pictures, slides

and by Indian songs with drums. Attendance about 125.

_ The 287th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on

November 17, 1938. The address on the subject Cancer and Cooperative

Research was given by R. R. Spencer, National Cancer Institute of the

National Institute of Health. Attendance about 50.

The 288th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on

December 15, 1938. An illustrated address was given by F. H. H. Roserts,

JR., on the subject The Folsom Problem in American Archeology. Attendance

about 55.

The 289th meeting of the Academy was held on January 19, 1939, in the

Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club with 85 persons present. The address of

the evening was given by Paut E. Howg, the retiring President of the Acad-

emy on the subject Some Problems in Attaining Adequate Nutrition. This

was the final meeting of the 41st year of the Academy.

On motion it was voted to accept the Recording Secretary’s report and

to place it on file.

The report of the Treasurer, H. G. Avers, was read by Howard 8. Rap-

pleye:

CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS

RECEIPTS

Doneack dues sue esc eee i $ 110.00

rome Dues torglOsgst erie Cn ake ls, 2,425.10

From DiessiornelOSO Re as ee ey 30.00

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 4

From Life Membership (L. H. James)........ 72.24

From: Subscriptions for 19388275. 2)... 836.40

Krom Subseriptions for 19395-559ee 337.80

From, sales,of Journals 2) 3) on 167.34

Prom-rayments tom reprints 6 a eee 172.54

Promesales of 1937 Directonye,. 52-4 2.80

Hromelnterest on Depositsr. 0 se) we ee 55.45

From Interest on Investments............... 1,085.10

Total receipts 5 294. 77.

Cash’ Balance January 1 1938-50 ae 8,807.11

Po be accounted for ee

DISBURSEMENTS

For Secretary's Office; 1937. 7.052) 2 ae. $ 97.85

Hor Secretaryes Otice, 1938 a) eee 171.90

For Treasurer's Omice; 2 5 ee 202. 52

For Journals mrintime lO 3ic po seen eae 276.82

Kor Journal Printing hO38e oe ee 2,455.92

Hor Journal heprmts, Osi ees es eee 56.26

Kor vournalsiveprimtsy 1938s 6 see eee 300.71

Hor Journals@ fice O3ii ee. ee ee 50.65

For Journal Otice, M938 7 ee ee 9.60

Kor Journal Thistrations. 245.0.) 9 eee 281.57

For Meetings Committee, 19387.............. 598.35

For Meetings Committee, 19388.............. 223 .60

For Membership Committee, 19387........... 4.00

For Dues of Retired Member returned........ 5.00

Bank Debit Memos, as follows :—

Reprints.) ons Saree ee eee $12.61

| DU et aie clearer Aen nea cho WR os. Kita 10.35

Subscription” swe ee ee a 23.07

Deposited in Savings Account............... 8,314.12

otal-disbursementS +. oss 5 lee cee 12,586.94

Cash Balance December 31, 1938............ 1,514.94

EOD Aisi anc eelhh Roe ee Seas ols ees a ee

RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE

Balance as per Cash Book, December 31, 1938...............

Bank Balance, American Security & Trust Co. as

per statement of December 31, 1938.......... $ 1,696.44

Checks outstanding, not cashed:

sO WO ene een me UReL NORM aurea et. $ 21.50

ING 503 22 Pee ear eee eae 160.00

Oc 62) hae iN EAT Peni ron et A erie Soar a 181.50

Beha ahi! Ses sce

Check No. 170 listed as outstanding, was issued in May, 1934,

but has not been cashed.

$14,101.88

$ 1,514.94

Apr. 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 181

INVESTMENTS

409 Shares stock of Washington Sanitary Improvement Co., par

ACEP UO DEL SMANC. COSts 6 oe ha. ili oh ome ee es $ 4,090.00

20 Shares stock Potomac Electric Power Co., 6% Pref.; cost.... 2,247.50

1 Bond of Interborough Rapid Transit Co. No. 37020, interest at

wa2aue Jan. 1960: par value $1000; cost. >. .-2-......7-2. 995.00

*1 Bond of Chicago Railways Co. No. 1027; interest at 5%; due

1927; par value $1000 less $250; cost.. 713.87

1 Real Estate note of T. Q. Donaldson (No. 6 of 12) dated June

Zoeios{ toro years; imterest ab 09%; COSt........-......... 1,000.00

2 Realestate notes of Yetta Korman et als., dated Oct. 5, 1938

for 3 years; (No. 7 of 37 for $500, and No. 8 of 37 for $500);

PTERE SUM LTO pee COSU ro ee ore ae a ee 1,000.00

3 Real estate notes of Ell & Kay Bldg. & Investment Co. dated

Oct. 15, 1938 for 3 years; (No. 75 of 165 for $2000, No. 83 of

165 for $1000, and No. 101 of 165 for $1000); interest at 5%;

BOISIB oo as bo. B Boe eee ce ame PEN LION AY lee gd PR nate ea ee 4,000.00

Butler notes—Property at 1707 L St., N. W. bought in by note

holders—Academy’s share 4/250ths; Interest amounting to

SZ URecehnedeimllO3S- COSU. = 4 <n. ). ok hoe ee ee ee eS 2,000.00

$16,046.37

Deposited in Savings Account,

PUMMERIC Alig e CUIGV AOC METUS: COl< s)he sien 2 oko toute 8,314.12

ING THE bs eohaelaati ce egret paseo AME Ne el es os, Sr age ge $24 , 360.49

bank aience December 3), L938). 2s. oo 1,514.94

AROUAMENSSCUSt ee en eS osto

ALLOTMENTS

Allotted Receipts Expended

Secretary’s Office....$ 450.00 pamadale OO Gb)

Treasurer’s Office.... 225.00 202.52 (2)

Jounin lS 2,400.00+$1,476.26=$3,876.26 3,102.80 (3)

Meetings Committee. 350.00 223 .60

Membership Commit-

ESO. See 10.00 ana

Executive Committee. 10.00 Se

Bills outstanding, not paid, at end of year:

G@mocerctanys Olices. ten ks Be oS. $105.70

(Q)\wibreasurerms Ofice.. 2.502 eee ee Dy AS)

(SS) OWI OI CH tee ee re bere tate 319.55

* The bond of the Chicago Railways Company was not paid upon maturity due to

the expiration of franchise and failure of the Legislature to enact continuing legisla-

tion; interest has been paid to date under authority of the Courts, and $250 has been

paid on the principal since maturity.

The Auditing Committee, W. A. Dayton, ALBERT R. Merz, and Patt A.

SMITH reported:

We, the undersigned members of the committee appointed to audit the

accounts of the Treasurer of the Washington Academy of Sciences for

the year 1938, desire first to compliment Treasurer H. G. AvEers on the

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

careful and orderly manner in which his records are kept, and to express

our appreciation of the courtesy extended to us by Mr. Avmrs and his

assistant, Mr. Maps. This had greatly facilitated the work of the au-

diting committee.

The Treasurer’s records of receipts and expenditures, as shown in his

account books and included in his report, have been carefully examined

and found correct. All vouchers have been found to be correct and prop-

erly approved.

The balance sheets submitted by the bank and the securities listed in

the Treasurer’s report have been examined. The statement of the assets

of the Academy was found correct.

No coupons not yet due were missing from any of the coupon-bearing

securities.

It was moved to accept the reports of the Treasurer and the Auditing

Committee and to place them on file. By vote it was so ordered.

The Board of Editors, EB—EN H. Toour, FREDERICK D. Rossini and C.

Lewis Gazin submitted the following report:

Volume 28 for 1938 has 556 pages, or 8 pages more than the preceding

volume. This was an average of 464 pages per number. Of the 72 original

contributions, 10 were addresses before the Academy or affiliated societies

and 2 were brief corrections of previous articles in the Journal. Forty papers

discussed biological forms new to science. Of the original papers, 41 were by

members of the Academy and 31 were by non-members. The papers were

illustrated by 22 halftones, and 64 line cuts, occupying 58 pages. Obituaries

appeared of 8 deceased members. In addition to the proceedings of the

Academy, which occupied 7 pages, 4 affiliated societies published their pro-

ceedings in the Journal. The Philosophical Society furnished approximately

25 pages with abstracts of 37 papers presented before that society; the

Chemical Society about 11 pages, with 17 abstracts; the Geological Society

about 10 pages, with 14 abstracts; and the Botanical Society 5 pages, with

12 abstracts. All of the proceedings occupied somewhat more than one

average sized number.

The total net cost to the Academy of issuing the Journal for 1938 was

$3,319.08, compared with $3,216.46 for 1937. The cost of printing was $4.91

per page, which included $0.12 per page for alterations. The comparable

cost per page for printing in 1937 was $4.81. The cost of engravings was ap-

proximately $5.54 per page of illustrations or $0.58 per page, based on num-

ber of pages in the volume. A portion of this cost was paid by authors. The

total cost to the Academy of reprints furnished free to authors was $222.75.

The report of the Board of Editors was accepted and ordered placed on

file.

The Tellers, 8. F. Buaxz, N. R. Eviis and H. 8. ISBELL, reported the elec-

tion of the following officers: President, CHarLES E. CHamBuiss; Non-resi-

dent Vice Presidents, H. S. Graves and R. B. Sosman; Corresponding

Secretary, NatHAN R. SmitH; Recording Secretary, Oscar 8. ADAMS;

Treasurer, H. G. Avers; Board of Managers (to serve 3 years) J. H. HIBBEN

and G. STEINER; (to serve 2 years to fill a vacancy) H. C. FULLER.

The Corresponding Secretary read the list of nominations for Vice-

Presidents submitted by the affiliated societies as follows:

Philosophical Society—F. G. BRICKWEDDE.

Anthropological Society—Hrnry B. Coins, JR.

Biological Society—W. B. BELL.

Chemical Society—B. H. Nicouet.

Apr. 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 183

Entomological Society—AvusTIN H. Cuark.

National Geographic Society—ALEXANDER WETMORE.

Geological Society—H. D. Miszr.

-Medical Society—FReEpD O. Cor.

Historical Society—ALLEN C. CLARK.

Botanical Society—G. F. GRAVATT.

Archeological Society—ALES HRDLICKA.

Foresters—W. A. DayTon.

Washington Society of Engineers—PauL C. WHITNEY.

Electrical Engineers—H. L. Curtis.

_ Mechanical Engineers—H. L. WHITTEMORE.

Helminthological Society—E. W. PrIicE.

Bacteriological Society—L. A. RoGErs.

Military Engineers—WILLIAM Bowl.

Radio Engineers—J. H. DELLINGER.

By vote of the Academy, the Recording Secretary was instructed to cast

one ballot for the list as read. This was done and the Vice-Presidents were

declared duly elected.

President Howe appointed Past Presidents WrTmMorE and TUCKERMAN

to escort President-elect CHAamMBLIss to the chair. President CHAMBLISS

thanked the Academy for the honor conferred upon him and urged upon all

to be mindful! of their duty to the Academy.

Adjournment followed at 10 p.m.

Oscar 8S. ApAms, Recording Secretary

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

503RD MEETING

The 503rd meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, October 27, 1938, with President Drakz in the chair. This was

the first of the newly initiated informal meetings. The society was addressed

as follows: 7

B. J. Mair: The chemical composition of the lubricant fraction of a midcon-

tinent petroleum.—The results of a joint investigation of the Bureau of

Standards and the American Petroleum Institute on the chemical composi-

tion of the lubricant fraction of a midcontinent petroleum were reported.

The lubricant fraction was separated into a ‘“‘wax’’ portion, an “‘asphaltic”’

portion, an “‘extract’’ portion and a “‘water-white”’ oil portion. The water-

white oil portion was first separated by distillation into substantially con-

stant-boiling fractions. Charges of these fractions were prepared and each

charge of about 500g. separated by extraction with acetone in 14m. columns

into 25 to 35 fractions. A number of properties were determined on these

fractions each of which represents 1/40,000 part of the original crude pe-

troleum (Mair and Schicktanz, J. Research NBS 17: 909, 1936). The data

on these fractions was correlated with data available in the literature on

synthetic hydrocarbons, and conclusions drawn as to their constitution

(Mair and Willingham, J. Research NBS 17: 923, 1936).

The extract portion was then investigated in an analogous manner by dis-

tillation followed by extraction of charges with narrow-boiling ranges, except

that in this instance methyl] cyanide was used as the solvent. A large number

of physical properties were determined on these fractions (Mair and Willing-

ham, J. Research NBS 21: 535, 1938).

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 4

To obtain information as to the amount of aromatic hydrocarbons in

these fractions, a selected 15 of them were completely hydrogenated, and

the physical and chemical properties of the hydrogenated fractions deter-

mined (Mair, Willingham and Streiff, J. Research NBS 21: 565, 1938).

The sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen were removed from the fractions, and the

fractions were completely converted to naphthenes by the hydrogenation

process. There was no change in the number of carbon atoms per molecule.

Finally a correlation was made (Mair, Willingham, and Streiff, J. Re-

search NBS 21: 581, 1938) of the data on the extract fractions, the hydro-

genated fractions, the water-white oil fractions, and of the data available

in the literature on synthetic hydrocarbons. The conclusions resulting from

the correlation were that, excluding the ‘‘wax”’ and “‘asphaltic”’ portions, the

oil contains: (1) about 60 per cent of naphthenes with from 1 to 3 naphthenic

rings per molecule (a very small amount of material containing 4 naphthenic

rings per molecule is probably present also) ; (2) about 15 per cent of material

with 1 aromatic ring and with from 1 to 3 naphthenic rings per molecule,

together with a small amount of sulfur and oxygen compounds; (3) about 14

per cent of material with 2 aromatic rings (linked through two common

carbon atoms) and 2 naphthene rings per molecule, together with a small

amount of sulfur and oxygen compounds; and (4) about 11 per cent of ma-

terial with more than 2 aromatic rings per molecule (each probably linked

through 2 common carbon atoms) and 1 or 2 naphthene rings per molecule,

together with some sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen compounds. (Author’s

abstract.)

504TH MEETING

The 504th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, November 10, 1938, with President Drake presiding. The pro-

gram was preceded by the annual election of officers for the ensuing year.

The following were elected: President: FRANK C. KRracrx, Geophysical

Laboratory; Secretary: RayMonp M. Hann, National Institute of Health;

Treasurer: NORMAN BEKKEDAHL, National Bureau of Standards; Councilors:

N. L. Drakes, H. T. Herrick, J. H. Hipsen, G. KE. HivBert, G. E. F. Lun-

DELL, B. H. Nicouet, B. D. Van Evera; Board of Managers: A. H. Buatt,

P. H. Grocearns, H. L. J. Hauser, F. D. Rossini, J. F. Scuarrmr, EH. R.

SmitH. The Society was then addressed as follows:

Louis F. Fizspr, Harvard University: Cancer producing hydrocarbons.—

During the eight years since the discovery that pure 1, 2, 5, 6-dibenzanthra-

cene has the ability to produce malignant growths in test animals, particular

attention among workers in the field has been given to the biological inves-

tigation of this hydrocarbon and of two other polynuclear aromatic hydro-

carbons. 3, 4-Benzpyrene is of special interest because it produces tumors

with great rapidity and because, as it is a constituent of carcinogenic tars,

it undoubtedly has been. responsible for the induction of skin cancer in

humans. Of even more interest is the highly potent carcinogen methylchol-

anthrene, for this bears some structural relationship to sex hormones arising

in the body as products of normal steroid metabolism, and it has been pro-

duced by the chemical degradation of two acids normally present in the bile,

and also from cholesterol.

An analysis of the collected data from biological experiments conducted

in numerous research centers reveals a number of points of interest concern-

ing the actions of these three hydrocarbons. They all produce tumors with

such uniform regularity, when tested under suitable conditions in non-re-

Apr. 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 185

sistant tissues, that the most significant criterion of relative potency is given

by the average time required for the induction of tumors. The average induc-

tion time, for a given tissue, a given technique of administration, and a given

dosage, is a reasonably reproducible and accurately determinable quantity.

Consideration of pertinent data affords significant information on the influ-

ence of the nature, state, and dosage of the hydrocarbon administered, and

on such variable factors associated with the nature of the test animal as the

sex, age, strain, species, and tissue. With this information, it is possible to

correlate a large body of data on a comparable basis and to arrive at criti-

cally weighted average values for the induction periods of the three hydro-

carbons as tested in various tissues of rats and mice. It is concluded that all

three compounds act somewhat more rapidly when injected subcutaneously

into mice than when applied to the skin, and produce a more rapid response

in the subcutaneous tissue of mice than of rats. Methylcholanthrene is per-

haps slightly more potent than 3, 4-benzpyrene, and both substances act

considerably more rapidly than 1, 2, 5, 6-dibenzanthracene.

In seeking to discover the structural features responsible for the marked

cancer producing properties of methylcholanthrene, a number of simpler

substances having various features of its structure have been synthesized

and tested. The closest approach to a simpler model-compound. has been

found in 10-methyl-1,2-benzanthracene, and it has been concluded that the

feature of structure of greatest importance in methylcholanthrene is the

presence of a 1,2-benzanthracene ring system with an alkyl substituent at

the meso position 10. Substitution in the alternate meso position 9 is also

favorable for carcinogenic activity, but to a lesser extent, and there are defi-

nite indications of a reinforcing function of alkyl groups in a meso and an

a-position in the anthracene nucleus. Studies of possible models of 3,4-benz-

pyrene have not progressed as far, but it appears at present that this hydro-

carbon probably has a structure unique unto itself.

Relationships between structure and carcinogenic activity have been

sought in the hope of finding a clue to the nature of the action of the hydro-

carbons in initiating malignancy. Another line of attack has been to search

for some special chemical or physical property of the hydrocarbons which

might be correlated with their biological actions. In recent work a special

chemical property has been discovered. It has been found that methylchol-

anthrene and 3,4-benzpyrene, the most potent of the known carinogenic

hydrocarbons, possess chemical reactivity of a specific kind to a degree not

previously encountered in any known aromatic hydrocarbons. They show a

remarkable susceptibility to substitution reactions, as exemplified in diazo

coupling, oxidation with lead tetraacetate, and condensation with methyl-

formanalide. From such results as have been obtained in the brief period since

the first recognition of this unsuspected property, it appears that there is at

least a rough correlation between the chemical reactivity of the hydrocar-

bons and their carcinogenic activity. Coupled with biological results indicat-

ing that the hydrocarbons undergo rapid chemical reaction in contact with

animal tissue, the observations suggest that the first step in the action of a

carcinogen in the induction of malignant growth consists in a substitution

reaction. It is conceivable that this may consist in a hydroxylation, or in

the introduction of a sulfhydryl group or an amino residue. (Author’s ab-

stract.)

005TH MEETING

The 505th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, December 8, 1938, with President Drax in the chair. The

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES- VOL. 29, NO. 4

President announced with sorrow the passing of CHARLES EpDwaRD MUNROE,

in his 89th year, on December 7, 1937. Professor MUNROE was past president

of both the Chemical Society of Washington, and of the American Chemical

Society. The following resolutions were read into the minutes of the Society:

“In the death of Professor CHARLES EDwaRD MuNROE on the afternoon

of December 7, 1938, at the age of 89 and a half years, the Chemical Society

at Washington has suffered an irreparable loss. During his forty-six years of

residence in Washington, Professor MuNnron’s activities were so closely

interwoven with those of this local society that they constitute an almost

unbroken record of service in one connection or another. Immediately after

his coming to Washington in 1892 as Professor of Chemistry at Columbian

(later George Washington) University, he took an active part in the move-

ment that led to the incorporation of the existing Chemical Society of

Washington as a section of the American Chemical Society. In 1896 he

became the twelfth president of this Society, and, until the time of his re-

tirement as Chief Explosives Chemist of the Bureau of Mines in 1934, main-

tained an active interest in all phases of its work. As a charter and life mem-

ber of the American Chemical Society, and as the oldest of its past presi-

dents, he was regarded not only locally but nationally as the beloved dean

of American Chemistry.

Of the many occasions at which Professor MUNROE appeared upon our

program, the most memorable was at the 400th meeting on March 29, 1928,

when he, Dr. H. W. Witey, and Dr. F. W. Cuarxkg, all former presidents

of the Society and past presidents of the American Chemical Society, were

the speakers and guests of honor. The reminiscences of Professor MUNROE

at this meeting, narrated with the delightful charm of manner that was so

characteristic of all that he did, are still fresh in the minds of all who were

then present.

The great and lasting services of Professor Munrox to American Chem-

istry are too well-known to require mention in the present resolution. Be it,

however,

Resolved that a Committee of the Chemical Society of Washington be

authorized to collaborate with the American Chemical Society in the prep-

aration of a comprehensive review of the contributions of Professor

CHARLES EpwarRpD Munrok to the Science and Art of Chemistry, and be it

also

Resolved that this expression of regret on the death of our fellow member

and past president, Professor CHarLES EpwarpD Munrogs, be recorded in

the minutes of this Society and that a copy thereof be sent with our expres-

sions of sympathy to Mrs. Munroe and the members of her family.”

The meeting was addressed by Professor E. Brru, of the Carnegie Insti-

tute of Technology, who spoke on the practical aspects of cellulose derivatives.

The speaker discussed in detail the preparation, stability, and fabrication

of the many industrially important derivatives of cellulose, particularly

with respect to their use in synthetic yarns and similar products.

FRANK C. KRACEK, Secretary

Apr. 15, 1939 OBITUARY 187

Obituary

GEORGE HERBERT GrIRTY, geologist of the Geological Survey and special-

ist on Carboniferous and Permian formations and faunas, died at his home,

3600 Macomb Street, N.W., Washington, D. C., on Friday, January 27,

of a heart ailment. Doctor Girty was born December 30, 1869, in Cleveland,

Ohio. He was educated in the public schools of Cleveland, and at Yale

University. He received his A.B. from Yale in 1892, and his Ph.D. in 1894.

He joined the staff of the Geological Survey in 1895, and was a valued mem-

ber of that organization continuously from then until his death, a period of

44 years.

Doctor Girty made field investigations of Carboniferous and Permian

rocks in nearly all states and territories in which they occurred, and de-

scribed the invertebrate faunas of the formations studied. More than any

other man, Doctor Girty laid the broad foundations for the present day

interpretations of the Carboniferous geology of the West and Southwest,

as well as for Alaska. He is most widely known for his classical studies of

the Permian faunas of Texas, but nearly all of his papers are used and cited

throughout the world. He was the author or part author of 9 Professional

Papers and 12 Bulletins of the Survey, and of about 50 other articles. His

written opinions and memoranda on Carboniferous problems, most of which

are printed in the reports of his colleagues, must approach a thousand.

Doctor Girty was a member of the American Association for the Ad-

vancement of Science, the Geological Society of America, the Paleontological

Society, the Washington Academy of Science, the Geological Society of

Washington, and Phi Beta Kappa.

A direct, penetrating thinker, a critic who could detect fallacy with un-

erring accuracy, no matter how subtly or elaborately it was camouflaged, a

man with a strong sense of justice and fairplay, frank, honest, faithful,

George H. Girty will be sadly missed in his profession and among his friends.

CHARLES HDwaRD Munrog, dean emeritus of the School of Graduate Stud-

ies of George Washington University, died at his home in Forest Glen, Mary-

land, on the afternoon of December 7, 1938. Dr. Munroe was born at Cam-

bridge, Mass., May 24, 1849. He graduated summa cum laude from Harvard

in 1871, and for the next three years taught chemistry there and established

the first course in chemical technology. He left Harvard in 1874 to accept the

professorship of chemistry at the United States Naval Academy, where he

remained until 1886. He next served as chemist of the United States Naval

Torpedo Station and War College at Newport, R. I. In 1892 he became

Professor of Chemistry and also served as Dean of the Graduate School of

George Washington University until his retirement in 1918.

Dr. Munroe was the inventor of the smokeless powder ‘‘Indurite.’’ He

was engaged in many public services. His copious reports for the censuses

of 1900, 1905, and 1910, as expert agent in charge of chemical industries,

are invaluable for their wealth of historical and statistical information. He

served also at various times as consulting expert for the U. 8. Geological

Survey, the U. S. Forestry Service and the Civil Service Commission, and

was chairman of the advisory committee of the American Railway Associa-

tion for drafting regulations on the safe transportation of explosives. He

was chairman of the Committee on Explosives of the American Society of

Testing Materials and also of the Committee on Explosives Investigations

of the National Research Council. No less extensive were Munroe’s services

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 4

for the numerous scientific societies of which he was a member. In 1873 at

the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in ~

Portland, Maine, he was secretary of a group of distinguished chemists

(among whom were seven future presidents of the American Chemical

Society) who petitioned the Association for the formation of a subsection of

Chemistry. He was also the last surviving charter member of the American

Chemical Society (founded in 1876) which honored him with its presidency

in 1898. His services to this body, of which he was a life member, were of

the highest order. He served continuously as Associate Editor on Explosives

for Chemical Abstracts from the first issue of this Journal in 1907 until

death terminated the activity of his pen.

In addition to the various domestic and foreign chemical societies to

which he belonged, Munroe was a member of the American Association for

the Advancement of Science, the American Philosophical Society, the Ameri-

can Academy of Arts and Sciences, and an honorary member of the Wash-

ington Academy of Science. He was a recipient of numerous honors, among

which were a membership of the Turkish Order of Medjidieh and a decora-

tion of the Order of Leopold from Belgium.

EDMUND CrciIL SHOREY passed away, after a period of illness, on Monday,

January 30, at Emergency Hospital, Washington, D. C. Dr. Shorey was

born in Lanark County, Ontario, on March 5, 1865. He secured both his

undergraduate and graduate education at Queens University, Kingston,

Ontario, with the B.A. degree in 1886, the M.A. in 1887, and the D.Sc. in

1896. This institution also honored him with a gold medal in chemistry and

a silver medal in natural science. For the year following his graduation he

was connected with Queens University as a demonstrator in chemistry.

From 1888 to 1891, he was engaged in private analytical work and assaying.

Dr. Shorey entered the field of industrial chemistry when he became chemist

for the Kohala Sugar Company of Hawaii. In 1899 he was appointed

Chemist of the Territory of Hawaii and served in this capacity until 1903,

when he became Chemist of the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station.

After four years with this institution he was transferred to the Division of

Soil Fertility Investigations, Bureau of Soils, U. 8S. Department of Agricul-

ture. His long association with the Department was only interrupted by a

brief return to commercial research in 1918 to 1921. In the Division of Soil

Fertility Investigations he attained the rank of Senior Biochemist, and,

upon retirement in 1935, remained as a Collaborator.

Dr. Shorey’s chief interest and activity in chemical research was the bio-

chemical aspect of the organic matter of soils as related to plants. This re-

search is covered by numerous papers and bulletins and the results of this

work gained him international recognition. His intense interest in this field

of organic chemistry was maintained until the last, as evidenced by the

publication last March of his work upon the isolation and identification of

allantoin from several soils.

Dr. Shorey was a fellow of the American Institute of Chemists, and a

member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the

American Chemical Society, the Society of Biological Chemists, and’ the

Washington Academy of Sciences.

CONTENTS

PALEONTOLOGY.—Setigerttes nom. nov. a subgenus of Productus.

Gnorce H. Great 3.2 Se ee ee 2S Se eae

Botany.—A new palm from Costa Rica, Asoc alatum. H. F.

LOOMIS... 20 526s ae ee ee

PLANT PHystoLogy.—Hydrocyanic acid content of sorghum varie-

ties. James F. Coucu, REINHOLD R. Brizsz and J. H. Martin.

ZooLocy.—Predaceous nematodes of the genus Aphelenchoides from

Hawa: J: Ri Canister ee

MaLacotocy.—A new Nenia from Haiti and some notes on this

genus. HARALD A, REHDER. 00.0.0 02)

MatacoLoey.—A new intermediate host of the Asiatic blood fluke,

Schistosoma japonicum Katsurata. Paun BARTSCH............

MamMaLoGy.—Two new pocket gophers of the genus Heterogeomys

from Mexico. E.A.GOLDMAN.....00 0.04. 0 os ee

ORNITHOLOGY.—JlIwo new races of birds from the Indo-Chinese sub-

resion; HH. GDRIGNAN :. 26000.

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY................... ce Pe aa a

PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY.............2.. Perare aqme Rt

OBITUARIES: GEORGE HERBERT GIRTY, CHARLES EDWARD Munrog,

EpmMunD Crcit SHOREY............... ey te

Thig Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Page

141

146

161

171

173

Vor. 29 May 15 1939 | No. 5

JOURNAL

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Frepprick D. Rossini C. Lewis Gazin James H. Kempton

NATIONAL BURBAU OF STANDARDS U. 8S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Lewis V. Jupson Austin H. Cuarx.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

H. H. T. Jackson GEORGE TUNELL

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCINTY

FRANK C. KRACEK

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 29 May 15, 1939 No. 5

GEOPHYSICS.—From the center of the earth to the sun N. H.

- Heck, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

It is customary for the retiring president to select a subject related

to his work. When that work deals with the broad phases of both ter-

restrial magnetism and seismology, the logical procedure is to pre-

sent a broad review rather than the results of his individual endeavor.

The theme “‘From the Center of the Earth to the Sun” might be

construed as dealing with the whole field of science, but the subject

of the present paper is narrowly restricted to what can be learned

from observations in seismology and terrestrial magnetism about the

interior of the earth, its atmosphere, and the sun. While the principal

findings have all been announced, appraisal of their validity is needed

in some cases. An opportunity is also afforded to discuss errors of

observation as related to the recently developed need for higher

accuracy.

Since the work in both subjects is highly cooperative, the historical

background, especially in the United States, must be understood. In

the case of terrestrial magnetism, the Coast and Geodetic Survey

(hereinafter referred to as the Coast Survey) has been making obser-

vations for more than 100 years, and for nearly 40 years there has

been an effective program, including the magnetic survey, the repeat

program at 5- to 10-year intervals, and the operation of five widely

separated magnetic observatories. Its great contribution has been in

putting this information into convenient form for use by investi-

gators. 3

Much of the interpretation of this and of other data from all over

the earth has been done by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism

of the Carnegie Institution of Washington (hereinafter referred to

as the Carnegie Institution), whose main purpose is the investigation

of the subject of terrestrial magnetism in relation to other phenomena

and for the earth as a whole. It is well known that its program has

included observations in a number of lands where no magnetic sur-

1 Address of the retiring president of the Philosophical Society of Washington,

delivered January 14, 1939. Received March 27, 1939.

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 5

vey exists, the operation of two well-equipped observatories in for-

eign countries, and, for many years, magnetic observations at sea.

For the earth as a whole many nations engage in both magnetic

observation and interpretation of the results. Among these Great

Britain, Germany, and some of the other nations of northwestern

Europe have been outstanding. There are in all about 80 magnetic

observatories.

The situation in seismology is evidenced by the existence of more

than 400 stations for recording earthquakes scattered over the earth,

but the majority of them and most of the interpretative work have

been in Europe and Japan. Only recently has the United States begun

to take an outstanding place. Contributions to knowledge of the

interior of the earth have come from organized groups in California,

the Mississippi Valley, Washington, D.C., and New England. The

Coast Survey has been engaged in direct and cooperative operation

of observatories, interpretation of their records, location of the places

of origin of earthquakes, and in the measurement of strong earth

motions.

Since the earth sciences necessarily deal with the earth as a whole,

generalization from limited observational data is necessary. In the

case of both terrestrial magnetism and seismology, the necessity of

having continuous observations of high accuracy, aside from all

questions of cost, places a definite limitation on the number and spac-

ing of the places of observation. It is most important that observa-

tions be sufficiently accurate to meet all present and future require-

ments.

ERRORS IN OBSERVATION

Errors in observation will lead to erroneous conclusions, and the

use of statistical methods cannot remedy basic defects. Complete

discussion would be too long, and consideration of time in seismology

and of absolute measurements in terrestrial magnetism will have to

serve to bring out the essential points.

Errors of Time in Seismological Records

In seismology time is related: to earthquake location, both in posi-

tion and depth; to the physical characteristics of the earth’s interior;

and to the verification and location of surfaces of discontinuity. The

source of this information is the travel time curve, in which the time

of wave transmission from place of origin of earthquake to recording

station is plotted against distance, or the equivalent table. The effect

Nicuouas H. Heck

President, Philosophical Society of Washington

1938

May 15, 19389 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 19t

of a given error in time varies in different parts of the curves and tables

and may be very large.

The needed accuracy of time as scaled from the records (0.1 or 1.0

second, as earthquakes are near or distant) may seem readily obtain-

able, but accuracy attained without difficulty under favorable con-

ditions may be almost unattainable, or incapable of being maintained,

at remote stations, because of mechanical and electrical difficulties.

The requirements are that a drum be turned at a uniform rate by

synchronous motor or by clockwork preferably controlled by a suit-

able governor; time marks must be placed at uniform intervals; and

the time must be absolute. Electric current with accurate frequency

control is by no means universal, time-marking chronometers have

varying rates, and the frequent United States Naval Observatory

time signals, indispensable as they are to seismologists, cannot in

themselves provide continuous absolute time. The use of a radio sig-

nal to mark the same instant on all the records of a network of sta-

tions suggests the recording of continuous time signals, but it has

not been found practicable to use the second-by-second signals of

the Dominion Observatory, Ottawa, Canada, or the frequency con-

trol signals of the National Bureau of Standards for this purpose.

Even if suitable minute-by-minute signals were available, provision

would have to be made for failure of radio reception.

In addition to the control errors, there is also the error in selecting .

the exact time of beginning of an activity, a problem common to

both seismological and magnetic records. The identification of the

beginning of an earthquake phase or of a sudden commencement of

a magnetic storm depends in a large measure on the sharpness of the

arrival, that is, the slope (Fig. 1). Very sharp arrivals can be deter-

mined with great accuracy, but emergences with flat slopes or com-

plex arrivals are not easy to measure precisely. In the case of earth-

quakes the presence of microseisms may make phase identification

difficult. Seismological stations have been appraised as having inac-

curate time control when the errors in interpretation were due to

microseisms.

An open time scale is helpful, but it is a fallacy to assume that the

more open the scale the greater necessarily the accuracy. With too

great increase the steep slopes may become relatively flat. The quick

run magnetic recorder of La Cour with a speed of 180 mm per hour

as against the 15 or 20 mm per hour in customary use makes it pos-

sible to determine the time of certain arrivals with great accuracy,

but the records as a whole are difficult to interpret and cannot be

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 5

satisfactorily used in filling gaps in records with the ordinary time

scale.

Each individual seismological record is complete in itself as a source

of seismological data, its limitations depending solely on the quality

of the installation and the standards of operation.

Errors in Conversion from Relative to Absolute Magnetic Values

In the case of terrestrial magnetism, the errors to be discussed are

those related to the conversion from relative to absolute values. Since

IMPETUS EMERGENCE COMPLEX

SEISMIC WAVE ARRIVALS

SUDDEN COMMENCEMENT

CNORMAL)

SUDDEN COMMENCEMENT COMPLEX

(QUICK RUN)

SS J

5 Minutes

| Hour

MAGNETIC STORM ARRIVALS

Fig. 1.—Records of seismic wave arrivals and of magnetic storm arrivals.

no means has been found to make continuous absolute observations

of the magnetic elements, the continuous records are relative and can

afford absolute values only through absolute determinations at suit-

able intervals. Certain investigations in terrestrial magnetism appear

to require only relative values, but full reliance cannot be placed on

their accuracy without control by absolute observations.

The relative values themselves have their own sources of error,

especially instrumental imperfections and uncertainty in the elimi-

nation of temperature effects (in the case of intensity). There is some

attempt at temperature and humidity control at most observatories,

May 15, 1989 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 193

but at remote places laboratory conditions cannot be reproduced.

There are similar errors in the absolute determinations, and there are

other sources of error. In the Gauss method of measuring horizontal .

intensity, which is still in general use in spite of the adoption of elec-

trical apparatus at a limited number of observatories, the observa-

tions require considerable time, during which the element may change

in an irregular manner. Horizontal intensity requires two distinct ob-

servations (oscillations and deflections), and vertical intensity de-

pends on the further measurement of dip. Each has its own source of

error. Furthermore, only one element can be measured at any given

point at the same instant.

The assignment of correct absolute values to the baseline (straight

ooo

b& 30’

SCALES< He__9°”

+ coulis --

“Tana — DAVY, ow aa

eo ae ae FEB. 6

Fig. 2.—Record of magnetic variation. Abscissae represent time in hours; ordinates

represent D, H, and Z, with scales as indicated.

line of reference on the magnetogram, Fig. 2) is affected not only by

the errors of observation but by the comparative infrequency of ab-

solute determinations at most observatories. At Abinger, England,

several determinations are made each day, but such procedure is

rarely feasible. There is always the possibility of a sudden change in

the position of the variometer magnet due to some mechanical change,

which affects the proper assignment of baseline values. Temperature

compensation is not always perfect.

In a different class of error the magnets may not be in the plane

in which they should operate, in which case they measure the change

in the resultant of two elements rather than of a single element. Re-

cent examination with more refined methods shows that many instru-

ments had magnetic parts near the magnet. Good progress is being

made in eliminating these sources of error.

Though the list of possible errors sounds formidable, in practice

the results are good. However, the degree of accuracy attempted—0.1

194. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 5

minute in declination and dip and 1 gamma (10-° gauss) in intensity

—is consistently obtained at few observatories, and there are cases

-of gross error. Eternal vigilance is the price of accuracy.

Standardization

Even if precise data were available from every observatory, errors

sufficient to affect adopted theories might arise from differences in

standards. The Carnegie Institution has adopted an international

standard, which is now maintained at Cheltenham jointly with the

Coast Survey and the National Bureau of Standards. The use of the

sine galvanometer of the Carnegie Institution at Cheltenham to de-

termine horizontal intensity has enhanced the value of the results. A

series of intercomparisons has been going on for years between United

States observatories by the Coast Survey and internationally by the

Carnegie Institution. Recently La Cour, director of the Meteorological

Service of Denmark, has suggested more frequent intercomparisons

by means of instruments developed under his direction, and some

comparisons have been made between Denmark and the United

States and elsewhere.

At places other than observatories in general only absolute obser-

vations are possible, though the Carnegie Institution makes diurnal

variation observations over short periods dnd the Coast Survey is

developing a portable observatory to operate about two weeks at a

site. In most cases correction for magnetic changes must be deduced

from the records of a distant observatory. V. Vacquier, of the Gulf

Research Laboratories, has shown in the case of vertical intensity that

on certain days this practice will lead to erroneous results, because of

local variations which may extend over a distance of 300-500 miles.

Fig. 3 shows changes in vertical intensity on a given day from Chelten-

ham, Md., to Tucson, Ariz., magnetic observatories.

The demand for accurate determination of the magnetic elements,

especially vertical intensity, has grown, since the measurement of

that element has proved to be a useful method of discovering geo-

logical formations associated with oil and minerals. The anomalous

situation exists that differences are more accurate than absolute

values. Such detailed surveys would be more valuable if the values

were absolute. The stress that has been laid on the reduction or elimi-

nation of errors may seem excessive, but it is based on a conviction

that one of the important needs is steady improvement in instruments

and methods by all agencies engaged in magnetic and seismological

work. The Coast Survey is committed to such a program.

May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 195

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH FROM SEISMOLOGY

The principal facts that are needed regarding the interior of the

earth are the viscosity, density, elasticity, temperature, pressure,

liquid or solid condition, gradual or sudden change of physical con-

dition, and especially whether the earth consists of a series of con-

centric shells. For the deep interior the passage of earthquake waves

is the principal and perhaps the only source of detailed information,

though certain facts can be deduced from other sources. The trans-

Hours 90™ Merid. Time June Il, 1935

Fig. 3.—Simultaneous variations in vertical magnetic intensity.

mission of the waves follows definite laws fixed by the condition of

the medium traversed, which it therefore reveals. In some cases seis-

mology merely reduces the number of unknown factors and indicates

a possible solution.

Of the desired facts listed regarding the interior of the earth, seis-

mology gives definite evidence of change of condition, especially

through the location of layers of discontinuity; gives some idea of

elasticity, compressibility, density, and rigidity; tells little about

temperature and pressure; and tells that the earth is solid with the

possible exception of the core, whose solidity remains somewhat

doubtful.

If conditions within the earth were known, travel time curves could

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 5

be computed from theory alone. The approach to the problem is

quite different. Seismological stations in many parts of the earth have

furnished a vast number of records of earthquakes at every possible

distance from the recording station. These records give transmission

times, and by means of suitable mathematical treatment and certain

broad assumptions velocity can be deduced for every part of the

path traversed. This makes possible the accurate location of earth-

quakes whether of normal depth or deep focus, and also knowledge

regarding the interior of the earth, since assumptions regarding it

must fit the observed times. In recent years the process of correlation

and interpretation has been accelerated, and probably the major

portion of the arriving phases have been identified.

There are two methods of attack. One is by studying a single earth-

quake, using records from all parts of the earth, which brings out dif-

ferences in transmission in various regions. The other, an older

method, is to average the results of a large number of determina-

tions from earthquakes recorded at similar distances. Seismologists

have used both methods in preparing various travel time tables,

which are by no means in agreement with one another.

Seismology makes it possible to compute the density of the earth

at different depths, that at the surface and the mean density of the

earth being known in other ways. Values of special interest as given

by Bullen for given depths are as follows: 42 km, 3.32; 2,800 km, 5.50;

~ 3,000 km, 9.82; center of earth 12.17. Mean value for the earth is 5.52;

for core 10.76; and for portion outside of the core, 4.49.

Seismology tells little about the temperature, though it is an im-

portant element in fixing the conditions of earthquake wave transmis-

sion. This lack of information is especially regrettable because the

question whether the temperature continues to increase at the rates

given by measurements in wells down to 15,000 feet is important in

magnetism as well as in seismology.

Laboratory procedure is giving useful information regarding prob-

able conditions in the earth’s crust. Pressures now available (about

50,000 atmospheres) correspond to the depth of about 100 miles,

but only limited application has as yet been made to seismology.

Core

One of the best-established facts in seismology is the existence of a

core with its surface at a depth of 2,900 km (Fig. 4), so that its diam-

eter is a little more than half that of the earth, and it contains one-

sixth of its volume. The core is known both through the determination .

May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 197

of the position of its surface and because the velocities within it are

very different from those outside of it. The velocity, according to

Gutenberg and Richter, changes suddenly at the boundary of the

core from 13.7 to 8 km per second, and within the core it increases to

11.4 km at 5,150 km depth and remains practically unchanged to the

center of the earth. The question whether the core is liquid or solid

is still an open one. Brunner states that he has found no absence of

activity at proper places on the record for arrival of transverse waves

through the core but rather too much activity and none of it out-

standing. The inference is that if these waves traverse the core they

carry little energy.

The question whether the core, like many meteorites, consists of

iron and nickel may be of importance in connection with terrestrial

magnetism. The evidence for such composition has often been given

and seems quite satisfactory. Jeffreys has stated that if the pressure

could be removed the density of the core would be equal to that of

iron at the surface. The discontinuity at the surface of the core seems

fairly sharp. Certainly there are no great irregularities in the transi-

tion.

Mantle

That part of the earth which lies between the core and the bottom

of the crust is known as the mantle. It has no major discontinuity,

but it seems to have several minor ones which probably indicate

sudden change of physical condition in addition to the gradual change

with depth, a characteristic of the mantle. Various discontinuities

have been suggested, those receiving most consideration at present

being at about 1,000 and 400 km (Fig. 4). It is noted that the 400 km

discontinuity, if real, is of less depth than the deeper of the deep-focus

earthquakes, which reach 700 km. However, the layer of discontinuity

is presumed to extend around the earth, while the deeper earthquakes

are confined to areas of limited extent. The general distinction be-

tween the crust and the mantle is that the conditions in the mantle

are nearly the same everywhere at the same distance from the center

of the earth, while the crust is quite variable. Regional anomalies in

transmission of waves through the earth indicate that in some regions

there are differences which may extend into the mantle.

Deep-focus earthquakes are confined to a portion of the rim of the

Pacific Ocean with a few exceptions (Fig. 5). The criteria by which

they are recognized are that their phases do not fit the tables for

normal earthquakes with depths of 50 km while proper assumption of

198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 5

F, 300

6400

Fig. 4.—Concentric layers in earth and atmosphere.

depth gives satisfactory values; and that there is almost complete or

complete lack of surface waves. They often exhibit an unexplained

phenomenon: Waves which have gone from focus to surface and there

been reflected arrive with more energy than the direct waves from the

focus.

May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 199

The deep-focus earthquake seems to conflict with the theory of

isostasy as there should be no possibility of building up of stress below

the depth of compensation, which at most is held to be less than 100

km. However, these earthquakes act like tectonic and not volcanic

or explosive types, so that there must be gradual building up of stress.

Gutenberg has pointed out that while there may be no strength at

such depths there is viscosity, so that a rapidly developing stress

might suddenly overcome the resistance with resultant earthquake.

NORTH

AMERICA

FOCAL DEPTH, KM

+ 50-140

x 150-250

° 260-490

e 500 OR MORE

Fig. 5.—Deep-focus earthquakes. Numbers attached to symbols represent two or

more shocks from nearly the same source. (Courtesy Geological Society of America.)

Crust

The crust of the earth is only a small portion of its volume, but it

is of extreme importance from the human viewpoint, from the fact

that its surface is the platform on which all magnetic and seismologi-

cal observations are made and because it is itself infinitely more varied

in structure than the rest of the earth, the variety in general increas-

ing toward the surface. All except deep-focus earthquakes, which are

a small proportion of the whole number, occur within the crust. The

effects of the severe earthquakes in causing damage and aiding in the

processes that bring about geological change constitute the principal

reason for earthquake observations from which scientific information

regarding them is obtained.

For the region immediately beneath the surface, whether on land

or under the ocean bottom, information has been obtained by the

use of artificial seismic methods based on explosions. Additional in-

formation has been found in regard to the surface layers on land

through the measurement of strong earthquake motions and the use

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 5

of vibrating machines and highly sensitive recording apparatus.. The

Coast Survey has obtained important results in these two fields.

Thickness of the Crust from Isostasy

The thickness of the earth’s crust is uncertain, since it can be deter-

mined only by geophysical methods, and different methods give dif-

ferent results. The theory of isostasy, according to the Pratt hypothe-

sis (Fig. 6), gives a rather uniform thickness of crust except for surface

variations in height, since computations give a depth a little less than

100 km. This is the simplest of all conceptions of the crust. The Airy

hypothesis of isostasy calls for uniform depths over considerable

areas, the greatest depths being beneath the mountain areas. A dif-

ficulty in choosing between the two arises from the fact that an ac-

curate depth of compensation can be computed only for a mountain

and not for a flat area. Byerly has found from seismic evidence that

Fig. 6.—(a) Illustrates Airy or ‘‘roots of mountains” theory;

(b) illustrates Pratt theory.

the Sierra Nevada in southern California have a granite root pro-

jecting perhaps 20 km below the normal depth for granite. The con-

tinental layer is deeper beneath the Alps than the rest of Europe.

This might seem to give indirect evidence in favor of the Airy hy-

pothesis. Macelwane also favors it for seismological reasons.

As to the exactness of the depth of compensation adopted, the com-

putations permit some degree of latitude. Furthermore, while isos-

tasy expresses the view that the crust has a strong tendency to

equilibrium at a certain depth, perfect equilibrium can never be

attained so long as meteorological processes, with their consequent

shift of load on the earth’s crust, continue.

Thickness of Crust from Seismology

The crust derived from seismology is quite different from that just

described. Seismic waves give evidence of its thickness in several

ways, but only one method gives quantitative results—the use of

travel time curves of the several parts of the preliminary waves from

earthquakes within a few hundred kilometers. This method is well

established and is responsible for the determinations of Jeffreys and

May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 201

Mohorovicic in Europe and of Gutenberg in California. Instruments

for recording nearby earthquakes and time correct to 0.1 second are

needed. These conditions are met only in a few regions.

Surface waves in spite of their complexity give some information

regarding the crust. They indicate the great difference in the Pacific

Ocean basin, since the surface waves traversing it have a speed

nearly 20 percent higher than for the continents. They give evidence

of a vertical surface of discontinuity of moderate depth around the

Pacific which corresponds to the major earthquake belt. Other ap-

plications give promise.

Results from various sources are given in Table 1. They are clearly

preliminary and highly generalized. The broad picture includes double

or multiple continental layers aggregating 40-50 km, becoming less

TABLE 1.—THICKNESS OF CONTINENTAL LAYER

(AccoRDING TO GUTENBERG)

Continental crust

Locality (depth in kilometers)

England 20

Southern Germany 45

Eastern Alps 50

Southeastern Europe About 45

Caucasus About 45?

Central Asia (region of 40° N., 70° E.) 40-50

Philippine Islands About 50?

Japan About 50, decreasing toward the Pacific

Southern and central California 30—40

toward the borders; a total depth of 20-25 km for the non-Pacific

type of ocean bottom and no similar layer at all for the Pacific.

Needed detail is lacking at every point.

The complications are well illustrated by an approximately correct

section of the crust in the vicinity of Japan, which, however, omits

the geological details (Fig. 7). The depth of compensation is highly

approximate, since it cannot be determined accurately in such a

varied region with great gravity anomalies.

In regard to the coordination of the two conceptions, it must be

remembered: first, that the depth of compensation is rather indefinite,

with rather wide possible limits; and second, that there seems to be

no reason why there should necessarily be at the depth of compensa-

tion sharp physical changes which would produce a surface of dis-

continuity. Besides, there appears to be no discontinuity beneath the

Pacific.

It seems best for the present to accept the viewpoint that the two

202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 5

conceptions cannot be completely reconciled, but neither isostasists

nor seismologists should abandon hope of a more satisfactory future

conclusion.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND THE EARTH

Although terrestrial magnetism is to serve as a bridge from the

earth to the atmosphere and to the sun, it is largely of the earth. The

MAJOR. EARTHQUAKE pe, »

a DEEP FOCUS

EARTHQUAKES

Fig. 7.—Section of earth’s crust near Japan.

surface magnetic field resembles approximately that of a weakly but

permanently magnetized sphere of the same size as the earth, but it

is not so simple. Bauer has shown that about 94 percent of the earth’s

surface field originates within the earth. If the meaning of this were

fully understood magnetism might become a competitor with seis-

mology in giving facts about the earth’s interior.

May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 203

Since the magnetism is not uniformly distributed and since part

of it comes from outside the earth, it is fortunate that the more or

less rapid changes which add to the complexity also contribute to the

solution of some of the problems.

The part of the earth’s surface field that is not from within the

earth is due to varying and also possibly to constant stationary cur-

rent systems in the earth’s atmosphere, and it is a source of informa-

tion in regard to the atmosphere and the sun. The varying electrical

currents flowing in the atmosphere induce currents within the earth

and therefore contribute to the observed surface field of internal ori-

gin. If this part is removed from the surface field of internal origin,

the remainder is called the earth’s main field; its surface values are

given with all the accuracy needed for most purposes by the magnetic

maps used by navigators and surveyors. Its cause is unknown at pres-

ent and constitutes one of the greatest of the unsolved problems of

physics. 2

The continuous recording at magnetic observatories supplemented

by measurements at selected points at 5- to 10-year intervals gives

a continuous picture of the earth’s surface magnetic field in its en-

tirety. The observatories are badly distributed, with overconcentra-

tion in Europe and sparsity in other parts of the earth, especially in

the Southern Hemisphere and the polar regions. The five observa-

tories of the Coast Survey and two of the Carnegie Institution are in

regions of few observatories. In the case of the polar regions, a tem-

porary network of observatories was operated during the so-called

Polar Years of 1882-83 and 1932-33, and chiefly in the north polar

region.

This uneven distribution of observatories has placed a heavy bur-

den on the repeat work of the magnetic survey. Various governments

including that of the United States have done their share, but since

1905 the magnetic survey of land areas not so taken care of and of

ocean areas has been carried on by the Carnegie Institution. Since

the loss of its nonmagnetic ship Carnegie in 1929, the ocean survey

has stopped, but it is expected to be resumed when the British Gov-

ernment’s nonmagnetic ship Research takes up the ocean work. This

is especially important since any serious lack of continuity not only

- detracts from present knowledge but destroys some of the value of

observations made in the past at great cost. The United States should

have a small nonmagnetic ship to work in waters adjacent to its

coasts.

204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 5

Main Field and Secular Variation

The main field and secular variation have been studied by an ap-

plication of the method of spherical harmonic analysis due to Gauss

and developed by others. A uniformly magnetized sphere of the same

size as the earth gives a good first approximation. Its north pole

Fig. 8—Earth poles and auroral belt.

known as the geomagnetic north pole is near Smiths Sound, Green-

land, about 12° from the geographic north pole (Fig. 8). This is dif-

ferent from the north pole of 90° dip or north magnetic pole, located

on Boothia Peninsula, north Canada. The field, at points in space, is

that of a short magnet or dipole near the center of the earth, and it

varies inversely as the cube of the distance from that point. This is

the regular part, and the more irregular complicated part varies more

_ May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 205

rapidly with distance and is negligible at a few hundred miles above

the earth. At the surface of the ground the contribution of the irregu-

lar portion may be very large and is an important factor in the trac-

ing of isomagnetic lines, which even in slightly disturbed areas can

be drawn only approximately if the survey is not in great detail. In

general, there is merely a distortion of the isomagnetic lines (Fig. 9),

but in some cases there may be a local magnetic pole. In some places

interpretation gives the approximate depth to the basement rock and

other valuable geological information.

_NEVADA__

UTAH

15° at

° é # ‘f

73! CepaR| CITY

Fig. 9.—Area of disturbance in magnetic declination.

Closely allied with the problem of the origin of the main field is

that of its secular variation or change with time. Measured data

giving its characteristics are as yet scanty, since its more noteworthy

changes with time are slow and completed only throughout the course

of centuries. Our records are most complete for the magnetic declina-

tion or the departure of the compass direction from the true north.

In declination, a complete cycle is defined as a return to the original

position after excursions to extreme positions on either side. The dura-

tion of a cycle is, according to data available for western Europe and

for the eastern United States, of the order from 300 to 500 years or

206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 5

more. It would be more desirable to deal with the values of total

magnetic force, thus using both intensity and direction of the field;

this is possible for a period of less than 100 years, and over a much

shorter period of time for the earth as a whole.

As in seismology the difficulty is in the present impossibility of di-

rect observation of physical conditions deep within the earth. If the

regular part of the earth’s magnetism is ascribed to uniform magnet-

ization throughout its volume, the required intensity of magnetiza-

tion is much greater than that of the surface layers. Reasons have

been given for supposing that the earth’s temperature increases pro-

gressively with depth. Since iron loses its magnetism at about 800° C

(Curie point), it appears improbable that ferro-magnetic materials

are magnetic at any but moderate depths. The experiments of Adams

and Green with pressure up to several thousand atmospheres did not

indicate any important change of the Curie point with increasing

pressure. However, laboratory conditions cannot approximate the

unknown conditions at considerable depths. The possibility that the

magnetism of the subatomic structure might afford a possible expla-

nation of the earth’s magnetism has led to extensive experiments by

the Carnegie Institution.

Other efforts have been made to obtain a knowledge of the secular

variation over much longer intervals in the earth’s history, through

the study of igneous and sedimentary rocks. The method of deter-

mining the direction of the magnetism in lava on the assumption that

it took the direction of the earth’s field while cooling involves many

uncertainties. The method is more successful when applied to sedi-

mentary deposits. Sediments are formed usually by small particles

dropping through the water of oceans and lakes, and if these are mag-

netic and not influenced too greatly by currents, they will tend to

align themselves in the direction fixed by the earth’s field at the time.

Piggott’s cores of the ocean bottom and carefully selected lake varves

have given McNish and Johnson, of the Carnegie Institution, an

opportunity to investigate this possibility. The preliminary results

indicate that the method has great possibilities, especially since in

the case of lake varves the time can be identified over many thousand

years. <

The continuous record of secular change at the observatories of the

Coast Survey (Fig. 10) show fluctuations from year to year which are

real. These fluctuations would undoubtedly be useful in determining

the nature of secular change if they could be correlated with other

phenomena.

May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 207

DECLINATION

Fig. 10.—Secular variation at United States observatories. |

Isopors

Fisk, of the Carnegie Institution, was the first to plot isopors (lines

of equal annual change) for the earth as a whole and to prepare world

maps. He did this for all elements for the year 1925, the isopors being

necessarily approximate because of limited data. He found a consider-

able number of isoporic foci or regions of maximum change. Later

observations were made in South Africa, and the change in the posi-

tion of the foci between 1927 and 1937 is shown (Fig. 11). In 1936

(S277 =, 1937

ALTA] 7 AOCGY.

Al ©: ANE

WATS = LQ

Fig. 11.—Isoporie focus in declination at South Africa.

208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 5

Heck plotted the results of the Coast Survey and cooperators in the

United States for a period of 155 years in declination and of 80 years

in horizontal intensity. He found some indications of the movements

of minor foci and also of the major foci outside the region.

It is evident that the greater part of the secular variation is local

and not world-wide. Furthermore, centers of maximum change are

permanent neither in position nor amount, and they may even disap-

pear. Isopors of the different elements may change at different rates.

If total-intensity isopors were drawn in intensity and direction, the

maps would present a different picture, but the relation of isoporic

foci to continents and oceans would not be changed. The important

foci are found in the land or the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and

those in the Pacific are moderate. |

The cause of secular variation is as yet unexplained. The indication

is that marked changes of some kind are going on within the earth,

but the nature of these changes is still a matter for speculation.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND THE ATMOSPHERE

We next consider the rélations between terrestrial magnetism and

the atmosphere. Even though there are extensive data, many of these

relationships are complex and difficult to understand. The inter-

related elements of the problem include: the atmosphere with its

varying complex conditions; radio transmission and the ionosphere;

current-systems in the upper atmosphere; aurora; magnetic storms

of normal or bay form; pulsations; disturbances associated with radio

fade-out ; cosmic rays; and many of these are closely related and af-

fected in an important way by radiations from the sun.

Solar Diurnal Variation

We must first consider the relation of the solar or quiet-day diurnal

variation of the earth’s magnetism to the atmosphere. The most

fruitful results bearing on the problem have been secured through

the study of this quiet-day diurnal variation. On such days the earth’s

varying field shows only relatively small and simple changes. In the

Northern Hemisphere its effect can be most simply described as caus-

ing the compass needle to follow the sun, pointing a maximum east

of magnetic north in the early morning, reaching a mean-of-day

value between 10 and 11 a.m., and pointing a maximum west of north

from 1 to 2 p.m., and then returning to a mean-of-day value during

the night.

The diurnal variation changes with locality (Fig. 12), and Chapman

May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 209

has found from magnetic observatory data that, whatever the cause,

a simple current-system (Fig. 13) will account for the mean daily

variation and its geographical distribution over the earth. The sys-

tem remains fixed with regard to the line earth-sun, and the earth

rotates beneath it. In both Northern and Southern Hemispheres there

are two sunlit current circulations and two considerably weaker cir-

culations mainly in darkness. A total of 10,000 amperes flows between

successive current lines. This current-system corresponds to the an-

Oheri2h 0%. 12% or «12h

LATITUDE INCLINATION

° +74

ae PAWLOWSK

2 +66°

i LEM ee

as eas aes

° ace’

: ey ee

ed ae

eae fl ae

Ua PE ES \ es

tS) * MANILA

+8 . 2

5 TREVANDRUM

ce eg “tr

ee SINGAPORE

-28°

BATAVIA

—29° APIA

SAMOA

-55°

MAURITIUS

-56°

KAPSTADT

LoT: 20

HOBARTON

Fig. 12.—Daily variation of terrestrial magnetic elements at equinox. The incli-

nation gives the magnetic latitude. (After Angenheister.)

nual average of the quiet-day diurnal variation; it therefore only

approximately represents conditions on individual days.

The probable height and cause of this current-system cannot be

uniquely inferred solely from considerations of terrestrial magnetism.

However, further nonmagnetic considerations such as the existence

of the ionosphere and ultraviolet radiation from the sun may afford

a solution. The ionosphere is an electrically conducting portion of

the upper atmosphere with regions of maximum ionization at approxi-

mately 110 km, 200 km, and 300 km above the earth and known as

the E, Fi, and F; regions (Fig. 4). These serve to reflect radio waves

and presumably to conduct electrical currents responsible for the

variations of terrestrial magnetism. Such ionization is due, at least

210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 5

in part, to solar radiations in the far ultraviolet which fail to pene-

trate to the earth’s surface.

A current-system flowing in the earth’s atmosphere is likely do so

in one of the known ionized regions. A dynamo theory was first sug-

gested by Balfour Stewart and later developed quantitatively by

Schuster and Chapman. According to this theory the electric cur-

rents are generated by the horizontal motion of ionized air across the

lines of force of the earth’s permanent magnetic field. The horizontal

component of this motion is produced by atmospheric oscillations |

due to thermal expansion and tidal effects reinforced in part by reso-

Bar

jameen]

(At

HANS

WNfeaee

SUSU

DAREN

FSS

fay

I Phy

Sena

[t+

COA

ALVATHIME Ss

Ma StONGae=

aD,

CIS

| tet PINT 4

NNMSOA)

Sais

[| —|

fetes ae

S.P

Fig. 13.—Atmospheric systems of electric currents which could produce the solar

daily magnetic variation. (After Chapman.)

nance. Other theories advanced include the drift current theory of

Chapman and the diamagnetic theory of Gunn, operative in the long

free path region of the ionosphere. Since the electrical conductivity

of the atmosphere as given by the quiet-day diurnal variation is

much greater than that given by radio echo observations, Appleton

believes that conditions are such that the radio reflections do not

measure all the ionization.

The solar-flare disturbance, the only definite manifestation of a

connection between magnetic changes on the earth and visible mani-

festations on the sun, gives direct indication of the location of the

current-system producing solar diurnal variation. Observations and

studies have been made at the National Bureau of Standards and the

May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN ayia

Carnegie Institution. At Huancayo all phenomena, solar flare, radio

fade-out, and magnetic disturbance, were observed simultaneously on

one occasion, giving proof if any were needed that the phenomena

are simultaneous. The most striking feature is the radio fade-out,

which may last from 15 minutes to 1 hour. It is established that the

solar flare is accompanied by an increase of ultraviolet ray emission

by the sun, causing increased ionization just below the E layer of the

ionosphere. McNish showed that the chief effect is a marked increase

in the intensity of the current-system responsible for the quiet-day

diurnal variation. This favors the view that the current-system is

caused by dynamo action and flows below or at the base of the E

region of the atmosphere.

Lunar Diurnal Variation

The lunar diurnal variation is associated with the motion of the

moon about the earth. It shows some similarities in general type to

the solar variation, but differs in an important respect since it depends

on lunar time. Only the dynamo theory is applicable to the lunar

diurnal variation. Its amplitude is only one-fifteenth of the solar —

diurnal variation, although the tidal effect of the moon is twice as

great as that of the sun. The explanation is that while the tidal

action of the moon is the primary cause of lunar diurnal variation,

the moon has no effect in producing ionization. As in the case of the

quiet-day solar diurnal variation, the electric current system respon-

sible is external to the earth, and likewise gives rise to induced cur-

rents flowing within the earth. Its changes with magnetic activity,

more marked than in the case of the solar diurnal variation, suggest

that its current-system flows at another level in the atmosphere and

possibly in the F region.

MAGNETIC STORMS

Magnetic storms (Fig. 14) are the most striking of all geomagnetic

phenomena. These are characterized by large and complex changes

in the field occurring on a world-wide basis. They are usually most

marked in polar regions and are accompanied by unusual auroral

displays, extending to somewhat lower levels than normal, and by

earth-current disturbances. Associated with them are also marked

ionospheric changes giving rise to widespread interruption of electri-

cal communications. A singularly remarkable feature of the time

variations of the storm field is that these are at times closely paral-

leled by variations in cosmic-ray intensity in low latitudes.

212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 5

Aurora

The close relation between the aurora and the magnetic storm is

held to be due to the fact that the former is the visible manifestation

of streams of particles arriving from the sun and likewise causing

the storm. The electrically charged particles are required by physical

laws to spiral around the lines of force of the earth’s magnetic field.

The particles ionize the molecules by knocking out a negative electron

and energizing the atoms so that they produce the visible radiation

Fig: 14.—Magnetic storm.

seen in aurora. The usual penetration is to within about 110 km

above the earth’s surface, although this penetration varies with the

type of the aurora. The observed upper limit is about 1,000 km in

height. The most commonly observed forms of aurora are the homo-

geneous quiet arcs and the moving curtains or streamers, the latter

types often with considerable coloration being especially related to

magnetic disturbances.

Closed curves of equal auroral frequency, known as isochasms,

drawn on maps of the polar regions show symmetry relative to the

geomagnetic poles. The narrow belts forming the auroral zones,

where aurora occur most frequently and with highest intensity, are

May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 213

about 23° of latitude distant from the poles (Fig. 8). In this region

also the magnetic changes of storms are particularly intense and

highly differentiated locally.

Analysis of Storm Field

Chapman and others have shown that the surface field of storms

may be analyzed into three main parts: (1) a part proceeding accord-

ing to time measured from the commencement of storm, and known

as the storm-time variation; (2) a diurnal variation additional to that

also present on quiet days, but much greater in intensity and mark-

Fig. 15.—Quiet and disturbance daily variation in ‘“‘H.”’

edly different in type, and known as the disturbance diurnal variation

(Fig. 15); and (3) an irregular part, most marked in the polar regions,

depending on latitude and in its average features on local time.

A large number of records of storms from many observatories have

been analyzed. In low and middle latitudes the storm-time part of

horizontal intensity (Fig. 16) rises to a maximum within 1 or 2 hours

of the start, then there is a decrease to a value considerably below

normal, the minimum being reached in 12 to 30 hours after the start.

This is followed by gradual recovery till the normal value is reached.

The greater the storm, the more rapid is the development of the

phases.

Large storms often have sudden commencements, possibly coinci-

_dent in time within a few seconds over the entire earth, though the

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 5

simultaneity has not been proved because of small time scales and

uncertain time control.

The geographical distribution of the storm field is somewhat com-

plicated, and it can best be treated by considering the several parts

separately. The main characteristic of that part accounting for the

storm-time portion is that the electric current flows east-west with

greatest intensity near the auroral zone and at the equator. Fig. 17

gives part of the system according to Vestine and Chapman. For the

part of the storm depending on local time the currents are very intense

in the polar region. In fact, during a great magnetic storm the electric ©

\ Batavia, Porto Rico, Honolulu t Zikawei, SanFernando. Pola,Greenwich Potsdam, —

Cheltenham. Baldwin Paviovsk.

Gltha

Storm ti time, ti i sor ie

32”__ 40" 48" p 32° 40" 48 a 32 48

Fig. 16.—Storm-time magnetic disturbance changes in different latitudes.

currents flowing along the auroral zone may attain the intensity of

about 1,000,000 amperes. It is probable that the height of the current

systems is such that they are within the F layer.

However, a suggestion not warranted by the magnetic data alone

and of doubtful probability seeks to account for the storm-time por-

tion in middle and lower latitudes by a great equatorial ring current

at a distance of several earth radii.

The current-systems indicated are undoubtedly too simple, and

they have marked changes with time, but they provide a means of

representation of the principal magnetic changes in the field during

a magnetic storm. Intensive study of the changes in the storm field,

and especially of the complete data on magnetic and other phenomena

accumulated during the Second Polar Year, gives promise of impor-

tant advances in the knowledge of the position and nature of the cur-

May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 215

rents and of the origin of magnetic storms. The theory of magnetic

storms is in a state of flux at the present time, and no completely

successful theory has been proposed, though both corpuscular and

ultraviolet theories have been advanced. According to Chapman and

Ferraro a magnetic storm is caused by a neutral stream of charged

particles which tend to separate in the earth’s field, giving rise to

the aurora and magnetic storms. The needed current-systems, in-

cluding the intense currents observed in the auroral zone, may be

provided in this way.

Special Forms of Magnetic Disturbance

Magnetic disturbances more moderate in intensity than those of

storms frequently occur. Solar flares and associated magnetic effects

VIEW FROM SUN VIEW TOWARDS NORTH POLE

PO ZLA-VMEPPR 00 EE ———=.-

AS >»

Fig. 17.—Part of current-system accounting for magnetic storms. (Courtesy Journ.

Terr. Magn. and Atmos. Electr.)

have been discussed. In polar regions of the earth especially there are

often simple, large intensifications (or diminutions) of the earth’s

field known as bays and lasting from 1 to 5 hours. These tend to occur

on a world-wide scale and are more marked near the auroral zone.

They may be regarded as due to some distorted and less intense form

of the electric current-system of magnetic storms.

The earth’s field also undergoes at rare intervals highly regular

periodic changes known as pulsations. Micropulsations having periods

of the order of seconds sometimes occur. These seldom extend over

areas of greater extent than a few thousand square kilometers. An-

other interesting type is the giant pulsation having extremely regular

sinusoidal variations with time of period of a few minutes. The causes

of these pulsations are not known. :

216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 5

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND THE SUN

The average amount of magnetic disturbance is closely correlated

with the average physical states of the sun associated with mean

sun-spot numbers. The variation in the annual average of the amount

of the magnetic disturbance on the earth is almost directly propor-

tional to the variation in the mean sun-spot numbers taken for the

corresponding year. The connection between individual magnetic

storms on the earth and isolated or large sun-spots on the sun is some-

what indefinite, but it appears to be greater in the case of notable

magnetic storms than in the case of moderate magnetic storms. Thus,

magnetic storms tend to occur more frequently in years when there

are many large sun-spots than in years when there are few.

At the beginning of a sun-spot cycle the sun’s surface is free from

sun-spots; then a few appear in the middle latitudes on both sides of

the sun’s equator. There is a steady increase in the number; the spots

appear nearer the equator and finally disappear at the lowest attained

latitudes. Record of the number of sun-spots has been maintained

for many years at Zurich, Switzerland, where the final Wolfer num-

bers are prepared on the basis of reports from a world net of astronom-

ical observatories.

The sun-spot cycle has ranged in the past from 8 to 17 years be-

tween maxima. From 1645 to 1715 the scanty records available indi-

cate that there was a long quiet period, which appears to be reflected

also in the tree-ring observations, according to Douglass, of the Uni-

versity of Arizona. Though this has been attributed to the interfer-

ence of two periods of similar amplitude and different length, no

periods have been found through analysis which would serve as a

basis for accurate prediction. From 1878 to 1932 the average length

of the cycle was 11.2 years with 4.6 years from minimum to maximum

and 6.6 from maximum to minimum. There is great variation from

cycle to cycle. :

Most sun-spots occur in latitudes of the sun which have a mean

rotation period of 27.3 days, and therefore a continuing disturbance

on the sun’s surface has approximately the same relation to the earth

at this interval.

The natural inference is that if a corpuscular emission from the

sun occurs it does so in the form of a stream or jet of electrified par-

ticles, this being inferred from the effect of the earth’s magnetic field

on the stream. Magnetic observations indicate that the jet is not

necessarily normal to the sun’s surface, since a storm has been ob-

served two days before a spot reached the central meridian. The aver-

May 15, 1939 HECK: CENTER OF EARTH TO SUN 217

age arrival is 26 hours after the meridian passage of the spot, corre-

sponding to a speed of 1,100 miles per second. There is a wide range

in the time of arrival of the storm after the central meridian passage

of the spot. This could be due to differences in the directions of jets

on leaving the sun, and to the possibility that the place of emission

from the sun is unknown.

Bauer, years ago, pointed out as a result of his analyses that sun-

spot activity is not a whole measure of solar activity and that the

photographic magnetic storm data and variations may intrinsically

afford a better measure of solar activity. Bartels has expressed the

view that there exist on the sun certain restricted regions, usually

but not necessarily in the vicinity of sun-spots, the life of which is

usually longer than that of the sun-spots but ordinarily not more

than one year. These regions may emit corpuscular streams which

cannot be detected by visual, photographic, or spectroheliographic

means. 7

This conception of solar conditions helps to explain the numerous

exceptions to normal occurrence, since sun-spots can occur without

a magnetic disturbance and disturbances can occur on the earth

without a sun-spot being visible. In the former ease it is quite possible

that a jet goes out but misses the earth. Sudden commencements

indicate that the jets have sharply defined boundaries.

Accordingly it may be possible that certain solar problems may

find solution through terrestrial magnetism. It may also be that ef-

fects of solar disturbance on magnetism and on the ionization of the

ionosphere may together form an improved measure of solar activity.

RESUME

We have then the broad picture of an earth and an atmosphere in

which the concentric shell is an outstanding feature (Fig. 4). Seis-

mology shows us that the earth consists primarily of a core, a mantle,

and a crust. The mantle is perhaps subdivided into several layers,

but the surfaces of discontinuity between them are not yet fully de-

fined. The most likely are on the order of 400 and 1,000 km below the

surface.

The crust is a fairly definite conception, but its thickness depends

to some extent on definition and on the geophysical method used in

determining it. From seismology there appear to be several layers

under the continents—layers much less in thickness under the At-

lantic and Indian Oceans and nonexistent under the Pacific Ocean.

Their depths from isostatic considerations have been discussed.

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 5

At least 94 percent of the earth’s total surface-field magnetism is

of internal origin. An accurate knowledge of this field is of great

practical as well as theoretical value. The main field undergoes a

secular variation. There are also periodic and aperiodic variations in

the field appearing in superimposed form. These are caused by electric

currents flowing above the ground and give rise to induced currents

flowing within the earth. The space distributions of these currents

cannot be inferred from magnetic measurements at the earth’s sur-

face, but additional nonmagnetic considerations result in determining -

them with a fair degree of probability. From these variations we

deduce information about the earth’s interior, the atmosphere, and

the sun not forthcoming in any other way.

It is generally accepted that far ultraviolet light is the cause of the

ionization which is responsible for diurnal variation, but that mag-

netic storms are probably associated with slower-traveling emana-

tions from the sun. These are associated with sun-spots, but so indi-

rectly that they appear to rise from disturbed areas on the sun which

may or may not have sun-spots.

These are some of the things that have been accomplished, and all

those who have taken part can feel pride in their share of the accom-

plishment. On the other hand, scarcely a start has been made on some

of the principal problems. Explanations have not been reached for

the magnetic field and its secular change or for the cause of magnetic

storms. The immediate cause of deep focus earthquakes is not known,

and the ultimate cause of all earthquakes is yet to be discovered, as

well as many of the facts about the interior of the earth.

One of the needs is for data at many places, but new observatories

should not be added until the interpretation of their records is pro-

vided for. One of the great problems in the world-wide studies is to

obtain the needed observational data and yet not to do it in such a

way as to restrict the interpretation of the results.

There is, therefore, ample challenge in both fields, and the com-

plexity of the problems need not become a bar to progress if the ad-

vance is made on a sufficiently broad front and is maintained.

May 15, 1939 COUCH AND BRIESE: DESTRUCTION OF HCN 219

CHEMISTRY.—The destruction of hydrocyanic acid by prunase and

the influence of sugars on the reaction.1 James F. CoucH and

REINHOLD R. Brikse, U. 8. Bureau of Animal Industry.

In the course of investigations being conducted in this laboratory

on cyanogenesis in plants, it has become evident that the cyanoge-

netic enzyme is one of the factors that cause loss of freed HCN. In

1889 Tammann? observed that, when dilute solutions of HCN were

treated with emulsin, 5 to 50 percent of the HCN is no longer de-

tectable after 24 hours. This observation seems to have been generally

forgotten. It may, however, explain the fact reported by Auld’ that

when amygdalin and emulsin react the resulting solution contains less

HCN than is equivalent to the dextrose formed during the reaction.

In the analysis of cyanogenetic plants such a loss of HCN may be

very serious, especially if the HCN content of the plant be small and

the enzyme very active.

400 R—

o HoO

+ ENZYME

e ENZYME + SUCROSE

o ENZYME + DEXTROSE

MG HCN /LITER

DAYS

Fig. 1.—Graph of hydrocyanic-acid destruction in water and prunase solutions.

To obtain some quantitative data on this phenomenon a series of

experiments was performed. Three liters of a water solution of HCN

adjusted to contain 400 mg per liter were prepared. Four 750-ce

portions were measured into 1-liter pyrex flasks. One portion was

kept as a control. To the second portion was added 10 g of a crude

1 Received February 21, 1939.

* Zeitschr. physik. Chem. 3: 25-37. 1889.

3 Journ. Chem. Soc. T. 93: 1276-1281. 1908.

220) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 5

prunase preparation obtained from Prunus serotina. The preparation

was made by extracting the cyanogenetic glucoside from fresh leaves

with alcohol and drying the residue at room temperature. The pow-

dered marc so obtained exhibited a strong activity toward crude

prunasin. It gave 4.3 mg per 100 g HCN on analysis. The experi-

mental results were corrected for the enzyme HCN.

Since there is some evidence that carbohydrates affect the rate of

cyanogenesis in plants, a third portion was treated with 10 g of the

enzyme preparation and 5 g of pure dextrose was added. A fourth —

portion was treated with 5 g of sucrose in addition to 10 g of the en-

zyme preparation. The four mixtures were stored in a dark place at

25° +0.5° and 25-ce portions were withdrawn at intervals for analysis.

The mixtures were well shaken several times a day. The results are

plotted in Fig. 1. No attempt was made to adjust the mixtures to an

optimum pH to avoid complication by possibly interfering sub-

stances. After 65 days the HCN content of the several lots was: 1,

151; 2, 129; 8, 155; and 4, 196 mg/liter. The curves show that in the

presence of prunase HCN disappears more rapidly than in dilute

water solution. Dextrose had little effect during the first third of the

experiment but neutralized the effect of the prunase to a large extent

thereafter. For the first fourth of the experiment sucrose likewise

appeared to exert little effect. Then the rate of loss of HCN began to

diminish and after the twenty-seventh day the sucrose mixture

always contained more HCN than any of the other three.

Although the order of the reaction is not settled, it is of interest to

calculate the reaction coefficient. In the absence of definite informa-

tion to the contrary the monomolecular reaction constant was de-

termined for each series and for the entire period of 65 days. These

are stated in the last column of Table 1. The figures indicate the ac-

celeration of the decomposition by prunase, the retardation by sucrose,

and a negligible net effect of dextrose.

TABLE 1.—DESTRUCTION OF HypRocYANIC ACID IN WATER AND PRUNASE- SOLUTIONS

Solution pH at end HCN lost k

Percent

Control 3.16 62.2 452 X1078

Enzyme 4.10 Oval 523

Enzyme plus dextrose 3.80 61.2 445

Enzyme plus sucrose 3.82 51.0 320

It was thought that the retarding action of sucrose beginning only

some 17 days after the start of the experiment might be due to in-

version of the sucrose known to take place in aqueous solutions and

May 15, 1989 coUCH AND BRIESE: DESTRUCTION OF HCN 221

that the levulose as formed was actually the retarding compound.

To test this hypothesis under actual plant conditions, dextrose, su-

crose, and levulose were added to mixtures of ground fresh cyano-

genetic plants with water and mercuric chloride as a preservative,*

which were allowed to macerate for various times at 25°. At the end

of four weeks to six months the stored mixtures were analyzed for

HCN and compared with a control sample to which sugars had not

been added. The latter, however, contained small amounts of their

natural carbohydrates, dextrose in Prunus serotina and both dextrose

and sucrose in the sorghums. The results appear in Table 2. There

TABLE 2.— EFFECT OF SUGAR ADDED TO CYANOGENETIC PLANT MIXTURES

Weich HCN recovered after

Weight| eight adding—

Date Plant of Y HgCl, Besse ie a ea

plant) PeUeae riod | Dex-| Su- |Levu-| Con-

added trose| crose| lose | trol

1938 g g Per | Weeks| mg/ | mg/ | mg/ | mg/

cent 100 g'\100 g'\100 g'\100 g}

May 22 | Prunus serotina 25 5 2 26 101 | 100 102

May 22 | Prunus serotina 25 5 2 4 98 94 99

June 28 | Prunus serotina 25 5 2 4 129 129

July 18 | Sorghum vulgare

var. hegari 50 2.5 2 8 38 38 40 39

July 25 | Sorghum vulgare

var. hegari 50 2.5 2 8 35 37

July 27 | Sorghum vulgare

var. Sharon kafir 50 5 2 8 14 14

July 28 | Sorghum vulgare

var. hegari 50 5 2 8 28 28

Aug. 22 | Sorghum vulgare

var. hegari 50 5 3 4 30 33 36 34

1 mg per 100 g of plant.

are no very significant differences between the figures for the various

sugars and the controls. Levulose appeared to yield slightly higher

results than dextrose or sucrose but did not differ significantly from

the controls. The differences observed between these experiments and

those reported in Table 1 may be ascribed to the presence of mercuric

chloride which combines with the HCN liberated by enzymolysis of

the glucoside and indicate that any direct action that carbohydrates

may exert in cyanogenetic mixtures is on the freed HCN rather than

on the enzymolysis. In the absence of a preservative like mercuric

chloride, prunase is capable of accelerating the decomposition of

HCN in water solution. Dextrose and sucrose neutralize this action

but only after some time has elapsed.

4 Briese, R. R., and Couch, J. F. Journ. Agr. Res. 57: 81-107. 19838.

222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 5

BOTANY.—WNew species of Taphrina on red maple and on silver

maple. ANNA EH. JENKINS, U. 8S. Bureau of Plant Industry.

As a result of an investigation of two species of Taphrina occurring

on North American maples, one on Acer rubrum L. and the other on

A. saccharinum L., the taxonomic history of these two fungi may now

be assembled. ;

THE SPECIES OF TAPHRINA ON RED MAPLE

The species of Taphrina on red maple is considered to be new and is ©

named in honor of Prof. John Dearness, whose collections of the

fungus in Ontario, Canada (1890-98), are basic to the study. The

several specimens gathered in 1898 indicate that the fungus was

abundant and destructive in that year (Fig. 1, A and B). His earliest

specimen (Dearness 1730), of June 1890, is represented by Ellis and

Everhart’s Fungi Columbiani 1272 and by North American Fungi

2596, second series. In the order named, these exemplify the two

separate descriptions of Ramularia lethalis EK. & E. (2, 3), as Dearness

has explained in letters to the writer. The printed label for North

American Fungi 2596, however, bears the date October 1890. Finding

the asci in good condition on this specimen bearing an autumn date,

the writer brought this to the attention of Dearness; he stated that

“October”? was erroneous; for the entire gathering was definitely

made in June. The Taphrina on this material has not hitherto been

identified, and the Ramularia is regarded as an associated and pre-

sumably distinct species, such as the undetermined imperfect that

has been observed by the writer on other specimens of this T’aphrina.

Through the kindness of Professor Bessey, it was possible to

examine from the Herbarium of the Michigan State Agricultural

College a similar specimen bearing the label:

Ex herb. Agricultural College, Mich.

49 Gloeosporium aceris Cooke

On Acer rubrum

N. of College 1890

The name ‘‘Gloeosporium aceris Cooke’”’ (1) is here in the handwriting

1 This account is part of a paper read December 30, 1938, before the Joint Session

of the Mycological Society of America and the American Phytopathological Society

at the 103d meeting of the A.A.A.S., Richmond, Va. During July and August 1938, the

writer was a guest worker at the Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin,

and studied many of the specimens herein discussed. Grateful appreciation is expressed

to the chairman of this department, Prof. EK. M. Gilbert, for privileges and courtesies

extended; to Drs. H. D. House, D. H. Linder, I. E. Melhus, and F. J. Seaver for per-

mission to study material in their charge; and to Profs. E. A. Bessey, G. W. Carver,

J. Dearness, E. B. Mains, H. M. Fitzpatrick, and others for correspondence, contribu-

tion of specimens, and access to certain other specimens. Received February 24, 1939.

May 15, 1939 JENKINS: NEW TAPHRINA ON MAPLE 223

of Beal, according to Bessey. On the large discolorations of the leaves

of this species the writer found a species of T’aphrina identical with

that which Dearness collected in Ontario the same year.

Other early gatherings of this species of Taphrina also available are

as follows: Alabama, Notasulga and Tuskegee, Apr. 29, 1897, G. W.

Carver 154; Michigan, near Lansing, June 2, 1897, C. F. Wheeler;

North Carolina, May 1901, comm. F. Sherman, Jr. Under his generic

determination of ‘““Exoascus?’”’ Carver sent part of the first specimen

just cited to Ellis, who labeled it doubtfully Gloeosporium decolorans

E. & E., a species previously described (4) on red-maple leaves from

Ontario collected by Dearness. The Wheeler specimen from Michigan,

referred to immediately above, consists of about 25 well-preserved

leaves on which the dark discolorations, often along the main veins,

contrast strongly with the remaining green areas (Fig. 1, C). This

specimen, heretofore unidentified, has remained practically lost, the

only available label being what is evidently Wheeler’s field label,

giving only locality (‘‘Woods S. of C. and G. T. R. R.” = Southeast of

Lansing), date, and his initials as collector (Fig. 2, A). The hand-

writing on this label and also on that shown in Fig. 2, B, referred to

later, has been verified by Prof. Bessey as almost certainly Wheeler’s,

except for the initials on the second label, which he states are not

written in the usual manner shown in Fig. 2, B. It is of particular

interest that the third specimen mentioned above was sent by the

North Carolina State Commission for Controlling Crop Pests to the

U. S. Department of Agriculture for identification of the fungus

causing a severe leaf disease (Fig. 1, D, E). The fungus was studied by

Mrs. Flora W. Patterson as a possible species of Taphrina, although

her records indicate that she found no asci.

In 19238, the writer collected a fresh specimen of a destructive fun-

gus on red-maple leaves at Walton, Delaware County, N. Y., and

identified it as belonging to the genus Taphrina. This specimen,

together with that from North Carolina, was subsequently reported

by the writer (5) as a new species of this genus, but without diagnosis

or name. Later gatherings of the fungus in New York and Pennsyl-

vania have been made (Fig. 3, A-G), and these will be cited following

the technical description.

In size the asci of this species (Fig. 4, A) are much smaller than

those of 7. lethifera (Pk.) Sace. on mountain maple (Acer spicatum

Lam.) illustrated elsewhere (6, Fig. 2, A). As compared with the asci

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 5

Fig. 1.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

May 15, 1939 JENKINS: NEW TAPHRINA ON MAPLE 225

tingi. So .

HERBARIUM OF W. P. CARR.

Locality Lr. Ze Lcd, Date 5 y ff].

Dp WG hn Cle.

Fig. 2.—A and B: Wheeler’s original labels accompanying specimens of diseased

red (A) and silver (B) maple leaves he gathered on June 2, 1897. C: In Beal’s hand-

writing, herbarium label for the silver-maple leaves; herbarium number 68545 (Myc.

Coll. B.P.I.) added by the present writer. D: Label for the leaves of this specimen

from the Carr Herbarium. Photographs of original labels by Eugene Herrling.

of T. sacchari Jenkins (Fig. 4, C?), recently described (7) on sugar

maple (A. saccharum Marsh.) the asci of the red-maple species are

generally the larger. The form of the asci of these three species may

be compared in the illustrations cited.

This species, designated as Taphrina dearnessii, is described as

follows:

Taphrina dearnessii n. sp.

Spots located anywhere on the leaf, although often marginal or scattered

along the main veins and more or less delimited by them, sometimes causing

a wrinkling of young leaves, more or less circular or angular, of various sizes,

deciduous, discolorations sometimes covering entire area between main

veins or involving practically entire leaf, on dry specimens often ‘‘bister”’

(9) to “blackish brown’’; at center sometimes “‘cinnamon” and somewhat

translucent; affected samarae discolored entirely or in part; asci numerous,

covering discolored areas on samarae or hypophyllous, rarely epiphyllous,

* In a previous article (8) a citation was made to an unpublished paper (‘‘A Species

of Taphrina on Red Maple’’) containing an illustration (photomicrograph of asci and

ascospores) of Taphrina sacchari. In the present paper, containing part of the data in the

unpublished article, Fig. 4, C is adapted from the unpublished photomicrograph.

Fig. 1.—A-E: Taphrina dearnessii on samarae (A) and leaves of red maple (B—E)

from (A) London, Ontario, June 1898, J. Dearness (E. and E. Fungi Columbiani 1348);

(B) McGillivray, May 31, 1898, J. Dearness; (C) vicinity of Lansing, Mich., June 2,

1897, C. F. Wheeler; (D and E) North Carolina, 1901. F and G: T. carver on silver-

maple leaves from (F) Lansing, Mich., June 2, 1897, C. F. Wheeler, and from (G)

Tuskegee, Ala., Apr. 30, 1897, G. W. Carver. B and D, lower leaf surface, others up-

per leaf surface. All X1. Photographs by Eugene Herrling (A and C) and M. L. F.

Foubert (B and D-G).

226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 5

Fig. 3.—Taphrina dearnessw on red-maple leaves from (A) La Porte, Pa., 1933,

L. O. Overholts; (B-F) Walton, N. Y., June 16, 1929, A. E. Jenkins, type; and (G)

Lewis Co., N. Y., 1927, D. S. Welch and C. H. Cunningham; A and C, upper leaf

surface, others lower surface. H, a, light or cinnamon color of lesion. All X 1. Photo-

graph by Eugene Herrling.

May 15, 1939 JENKINS: NEW TAPHRINA ON MAPLE 227

IO AL

A B C

Fig. 4.—A: Asci of Taphrina dearnessi from type specimen, represented in Fig. 2,

B-F. B: Ascus of T. carvert from type specimen, represented in Fig. 1, F.C: Asci

of T. sacchari from specimens from Wisconsin, June 1904, illustrated elsewhere (8).

cylindrical to slightly clavate, at apex rounded or truncate 17—29u high by

8-13u wide, often 21—29u by 10-11, sometimes sunken in the stalk cell as

much as 3.5u, containing 8 spores at first; stalk cell rounded, flattened or

slightly pointed at base, rarely moderately lobed, resting on the epidermis,

6-12u high by 10-18 wide; spores globose to elliptical, 2.8—5.6u by 3-3.5y,

budding in the ascus. |

Maculas circulas vel angulares efficiens; asci hypophylli, raro epiphylli,

eylindrici usque clavati 17-29u XK 8—-13u plerumque 21-294 X 10-11y;

cellulae basilares 6—-12u X 10—18y; subglobosa vel elliptica, sporidia 2.8-5.6u

XK 2.8-3.5y.

Distribution and specimens examined.—On Acer rubrum L., causing ‘‘leaf

blister of red maple.”’

ALABAMA: Notasulga (about 12 miles from Tuskegee) [NY and W]* and

Tuskegee [C—IS and W], Macon Co., Apr. 29, 1897, G. W. Carver 154.

Micuican: North of College, Lansing, Ingham Co., 1890 (Ex Herbarium

Michigan State Agricultural College 49) [MS]; southeast of Lansing, June 2,

1897, C. F. Wheeler [MS and W] (Fig. 1, C).

New York: Walton (Mountain Home Farm), Delaware Co., Aug. 1,

1923, A. E. Jenkins; July 10, 1924, F. A. Jenkins; July 20, 1924, A. E.

Jenkins; June 20, 1925, LE. J. Hoose; July 22, 1927, and June 16, Type 69297

[W]* (Fig. 3, B—F), and June 17, 1929; Lewis Co., Fisher Tract, Number 4,

June 21, 1927, D. S. Welch and G. H. Cunningham (Fig. 3, G); vicinity of

3 In this paper herbaria in which are filed specimens examined during this study are

indicated as follows:

C-IS Carver Collection, Herbarium of the Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.

D Dearness Herbarium, London, Ontario.

F Farlow Cryptogamic Herbarium, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

MS Herbarium of the Michigan State Agricultural College, Lansing, Mich.

NY New York Botanical Garden.

PR Peck Herbarium, N. Y. State Museum, Albany, N. Y.

UW Herbarium of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

W Baca Collections of the U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington,

Where no symbol is given the specimen is in the Mycological Collections; the sym-

bol ‘““W” is only employed when the specimen cited also exists in another herbarium.

4 The specimens designated as types are chosen because they are thoroughly repre-

sentative of the species, although neither was gathered by the person in whose honor

it is named.

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO.5

Ithaca, Tompkins Co., July 9, 1927, A. HE. Jenkins; June 11, 1937, W. W.

Ray 350 and 351; Oswegatchie, St. Lawrence Co., July 12, 1937, D. S.

Welch and W. L. White.

NortH Carouina: May 1901, comm. F. Sherman, Jr. (Fig. 1, D and BE).

OnTaARIO: June 1890, J. Dearness (Ellis and Everhart Fungi Columbiani

1272 [D> and NY] and North American Fungi 2596, second series [D*® and

W]; May 23 (about 8 miles west of London, Middlesex Co., and May 24,

1898, J. Dearness, both specimens on samarae [D and W]; June 1898,

J. Dearness (Ellis and Everhart Fungi Columbiani 1348, issued as Gloeo-

sporium decolorans EK. and E. and containing samarae (Fig. 1, A) and leaves

[W]); McGillivray, Middlesex Co., May 31, 1898, J. Dearness [D and W].

(Cones, th 183).

PENNSYLVANIA: Shingleton, Centre Co., L. O. Overholts 18149 and W. A.

Campbell, La Porte, Sullivan Co., June 14, 1935, L. O. Overholis 18148

(Fig. 2, A).

THE SPECIES OF TAPHRINA ON SILVER MAPLE

A species of Taphrina on silver maple (Acer saccharinum) (often

called white maple) was collected in Ontario, at Lucan, by Dearness

(Dearness 2144) on July 17, 1893. He sent a specimen to Prof. C. H.

Peck, at Albany, N. Y., where it was first seen by the writer in 1931.

Peck labeled the specimen ‘‘Gloeospor1um maculosum,” but a deserip-

tion was never published. From the fact that Peck intended to de-

scribe the fungus as a Gloeosporium it is clear that he did not realize

that a species of Taphrina was concerned.

Four years after Dearness collected this species in Canada on April

30, 1897, Carver collected it on severely diseased leaves of silver

maple at the Tuskegee Institute (Fig. 1, G). Having discovered the

Taphrina, he sent a specimen (Carver 153) bearing his generic de-

termination to Ellis, but there is no indication that Ellis ever studied

it, and Carver has recently written that he finds no mention of it in

Ellis’s correspondence with him. Dr. Carver has also written (Feb. 20,

1939) that the young trees from which he collected this species of

Taphrina were said to have been sent from a nursery in Jowa.

On June 2, 1897, Wheeler also made an ample collection of diseased

leaves from a tree of silver maple growing on the campus of the

College at Lansing, Mich. (Fig. 1, F). Unfortunately, until the pres-

ent, this specimen has been labeled ‘‘Gloeosporium aceris Cooke?”’

The herbarium label is in the handwriting of Beal (Fig. 2, B), although

Wheeler’s original label, ‘‘On Acer dasycarpum, tree near Chem.

Lab., C.F.W. 2-V1-97” (Fig. 2, C), is-at-hand. Years! later, ‘anter

studying this specimen, the writer (5) reported it as a new species of

Taphrina, although without name or description. The specimen

> The specimen in the Dearness Herbarium is here part of the original gathering

retained by Dearness and not issued as a part of this exsiccatum.

May 15, 1939 JENKINS: NEW TAPHRINA ON MAPLE 229

studied at that time was unfiled in the Mycological Collections of the

Bureau of Plant Industry, but it was later learned that part of the

gathering with the same label by Beal is also in the Herbarium of the

Michigan State Agricultural College. During the summer of 1938 the

writer found in the Herbarium of the University of Wisconsin a

packet containing a few diseased silver-maple leaves, which were

subsequently traced as having come from the original gathering by

Wheeler in the Mycological Collections. Although prepared on the

basis of Beal’s label, the label on the packet at Wisconsin showed

certain misinterpretations. For the ““M.A.C.”’ of Beal’s label, signify-

ing the ‘‘Michigan Agricultural College” at Lansing, was here sub-

stituted for the actual collector as ““M. A. Carleton,’ and “‘Ann

Arbor’”’ was introduced as the place of collection. Nevertheless, upon

finding this specimen labeled as illustrated, the writer was convinced

from the first that it was part of Wheeler’s gathering.

Since Carver appears to have been the first to observe the asci of

this species of T’aphrina (Fig. 4, B), it seems particularly fitting that

it be named in his honor. It is therefore named T. carveri, and is

described as follows:

Taphrina carveri n. sp.

Discolored areas on leaves sometimes somewhat wrinkled, scattered or

occasionally confined to one part of the blade, consisting of circular, elliptical

or irregular spots up to 25 or more on a single leaf and up to 3 by 1 cm in

diameter, or of more elongated areas situated between the main veins and

reaching the leaf margins, on dry herbarium specimens ‘‘sepia’’ above,

‘Ssabella color” and “‘light brownish olive” below, to “blackish brown” on

both surfaces, sometimes upper surface covered with delicate bloom;

asci amphigenous, more commonly hypophyllous, usually cylindrical, at

apex rounded or truncate, 23—35u high by 7.8-16.8u wide, often 26-30u by

9-15u, with spores (apparently 8 at first) and many budded conidia; stalk

cell rounded, flattened or irregular, sometimes slightly pointed at base,

occasionally moderately lobed, resting on the epidermis, 4-15 high by 10—

22u wide; spores subglobose or elliptical 4—7y in diameter; budded conidia

variable, spherical to oblong-elliptical, latter reaching 7 by 3u.

Maculas circulares, ellipticas vel irregulares, usque 3 cm diam. efficiens;

asci amphigeni, saepius hypophylli, plerumque cylindrici, 23-35 X 7.8-16.8y;

cellulae basilares 4—-15u X10—22u; sporae subglobosae vel ellipticae, 4-7 in

diam.; conidia variabilia, spherica usque oblongo-elliptica, usque 7 X3u.

Distribution and specimens examined.—On Acer saccharinum L., causing

“leaf blister of silver maple.”’

Ontario: Lucan, July 17, 1893, J. Dearness 2144 [D, P, and W].

ALABAMA: Tuskegee, Macon Co., Apr. 30, 1897, G. W. Carver 153 [F,

C-IS, and W] (Fig. 1, G).

Micuican: Lansing, Ingham Co., June 2, 1897, C. F. Wheeler [MS, W,

and UW], Type 68545 [W/*. (Fig. 1, F).

230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 5

LITERATURE CITED

. Cooxr, M. C. New American fungi. Grevillea 12: 22-33. 1883-1884.

. Eis, if B., and Evernart, B. M. New species of fungi from various localities.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1891, pp. 76-93. 1892.

New species of North American fungi from various localities. Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sci. Philadelphia, 1893, pp. 128-172. 1894.

New species of fungi. Journ. Myc. 7: 130-135. 1894.

. JENKINS, A. E. Leafspot and blight caused by Taphrina spp. Bur. Plant Ind.

Plant Dis. Rpt. Suppl. 37: 371-373. 1925.

Emendations to the descriptions of Taphrina lethifera and T. aceris on maple

(Acer). Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 28: 350-353. 1938.

A new species of Taphrina on sugar maple and black maple. Journ. Washington

Acad. Sci. 28: 353-358. 19388.

An early occurrence of Taphrina sacchari in Wisconsin. Mycologia 30:

689-691. 1938.

; pears R. Cole standards and color nomenclature. 32 pp., Washington, D. C.

OC OM NO mR © Ne

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

286TH MEETING

The 286th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club, January 4, 1938, President G. F. Gravatt presiding; attendance 88.

ALBINA F’, Musit, Harriet Cuuu, and C. EuGENE LarsEn were elected to

membership.

Notes and Reviews.—C. R. Bau called attention to a new book, Botanical

studies of the Uinta Basin of Utah and Colorado, by Edward H. Graham,

published in the Annals of the Carnegie Museum.

Program.—Reports of the papers presented at the meeting of the Ameri-

can Association for the Advancement of Science at Indianapolis, Ind.,

were given by: A. G. JOHNSON on pathology; E. E. Cuayton on tobacco

diseases; EK. C. JoHNSTON on physiology; Howarp JOHNSON on forage crop

diseases; EUBANKS CARSNER on entomology; GrorcE M. Darrow on small

fruits diseases; J. B. DEMAREE on fruit and vegetable diseases.

287TH MEETING

The 287th meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club,

February 1, 1938, President GravaTT presiding; attendance 125. VERNON T.

STOUTMEYER, EH. A. Hottower i, H. C. Hytanp, RicHarp P. WHITE, and

F. D. Fromme were elected to membership.

Program.—F. D. Ricurny: Collecting corn ornaments.

A. C. Fostrer: The effect of environment on the metabolism and bloseoneend

rot disease in tomato. Extensive data were collected from 8 crops of toma-

toes grown under controlled greenhouse conditions involving differences in

soil moisture, soil nutrition, air temperature, light duration, and the inter-

relation and interaction of these component factors, any one of which may

become a limiting factor to normal plant growth, and metabolic and re-

spiratory activity, and thereby interfere with the normal development of

tomato fruit.

The data suggest that the factors affecting the development of blossom-

end rot are far more complex than is usually recognized: (1) High carbohy-

drate plants had the largest percent of the disease when grown under short

day period; (2) high nitrogen plants were very susceptible to the disease

May 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 231

under long day conditions; (3) soil moisture at 70 percent of saturation was

optimum for vegetative growth and also optimum for the disease; (4) super-

phosphate had a marked effect in reducing the incidence of the disease;

(5) the rate of transpiration or water requirement apparently had no relation

to the disease as it appeared under both extremes when other conditions

were favorable; (6) one component factor of the environmental complex

may become a limiting factor to the normal activity of all others and pro-

mote conditions favorable to causing the disease.

288TH MEETING

The 288th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club, March 1, 1938, President Gravatt presiding; attendance 110. C. W.

EMMONS was elected to membership.

Notes and Reviews.—GrorGE Darrow called attention to the following

articles: Physiological genetics, by Robert Goldsmith, Journal of Heredity,

vol. 20, 1938; Physiologic curve of response by seeds, growing plants, cuttings

and lower plant forms, by N. H. Grace, National Canadian Research Journal,

Nov. 1937; Aneurin and the rooting of cuttings, by Went, Bonner and Warner,

Science, Feb. 18, 1938.

Program.—W. A. ArcHER: Plant exploration in Latin America. It was

pointed out that the chief disadvantages of travel in tropical countries were

the monotonous diet and the numerous insect pests, especially those that

transmit infectious diseases. The more striking of the plant finds were some

giant peanuts from the Matto Grosso as well as the tiny seed of the wild

peanut. Of interest also was the recovery of some long-lost tobacco strains

in Costa Rica from volunteer plants that had sprung up from seed lying

dormant for a generation under the floors of houses. In that country often

when an old house is demolished by the owner or by earthquake the tobacco

seeds germinate and produce plants.

Irvine T. Hata: Szlvicultural history of the western white-pine type. The

creation of the United States Forest Service in 1905 marked the first formal

step toward the practice of silviculture over extensive land areas in the

Western States. The formulation of satisfactory methods of cutting in the

complex and variable forests characterizing the western white-pine type in

the Northern Rocky Mountain region was obviously a task of considerable

difficulty, particularly as at that time little or nothing was known about the

silvical habits or requirements of the associated tree species other than their

names, botanical description, and general occurrence.

As a result of research, plus accumulated experience, the system of cutting

on national forests, starting out with a scattered seed-tree system, swung

through a complete cycle and back to this same system in about one decade,

some five other systems of cutting having been employed. Present trends,

mainly influenced by economic conditions, are toward a crude two-cut

shelterwood system.

289TH MEETING

_ The annual banquet and 289th regular meeting was held in the ballroom

of the Kennedy-Warren Hotel, April 5, 1938; attendance 80. Professor

Whetzel of Cornell University was a guest of honor at the dinner.

Program.—Wa.uTER C. LOWDERMILK gave an illustrated lecture on Soil ©

conservation and the California floods.

SPECIAL MEETING

A special meeting was held in the auditorium of the U. S. Department of

232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE VOL. 29, NO. 5

Agriculture, April 19, 1938, at which Puitip R. Wuirts of the Rockefeller

Institute spoke on Root cultures and root pressure. ‘The history of theory

concerning the mechanism of sap movement, a subject of investigation and

controversy for the past 350 years, was briefly outlined. The ‘‘cohesion

theory” of Dixon and Joly and of Askenazy has in the past 30 years largely

superseded all others. This theory, however, possesses certain weaknesses

and is incapable of explaining water movement under conditions of saturated

atmosphere, as in the rain forests of the tropics.

Experiments with growing excised tomato roots have shown that such

roots regularly maintain a continuous, rhythmic, basipetal flow of water in

quantity and under pressures adequate to satisfy the needs of the tallest

trees under conditions unsuitable for the functioning of the cohesion scheme.

Secretion pressures of at least 6 atm. were recorded. This process is depend-

ent on the activity of living cells. The two processes—secretion flow and

transpiration flow—supplement one another and together seem capable of

providing a complete and adequate explanation of sap movement. Avice M.

ANDERSEN, Secretary.

CONTENTS

CHEMISTRY, —The destruction a of aaron ae pr

A ou

Pe Botany.—New species of Paphrina on red maple and on silver n

Anna E. JENKINS. . See ec cc ae Reng. He OR |

ts ‘

ieee Pal

JUNE 15, 1939

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

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BOARD OF EDITORS

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BURBAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Lewis V. JUDSON

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

H. H. T. Jackson

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Austin H. Ciarx

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 29 JUNE 15, 1939 No. 6

PHYSICS.—Recent advances in the investigation of cosmic rays.}

Tuomas H. JoHnson, Bartol Research Foundation, Swarthmore,

Pa., and research associate of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-

ington. (Communicated by JoHN A. FLEMING.)

Perhaps the greatest heritage we have from the early men of science,

of whom Joseph Henry was an outstanding example, is the faith they

have given us that it is worth while investigating any unknown natural

phenomenon simply because it is unknown. Their experience has proved

that the investigation of the smallest and apparently the least signi-

ficant effects sometimes yields a rich reward. The investigation of the

cosmic radiation began with a humble phenomenon that might have

turned out to be a mere leakage across an insulating plug, and al-

though we are not sure yet just what the rewards of the investigation

in the material sense may be, we may be justly certain that the dis-

coveries will have great human value, even if they result in nothing

more than the filling in of the gaps of ignorance in our more complete

knowledge of the properties of high energy radiations.

The story of the discovery of the cosmic radiation is well known and

need not be repeated in great detail. It will be recalled that in the

years 1900 to 1910 the residual ionization in a gas-filled vessel, that

part left over after all the known radiations had been eliminated, had

proved remarkably stubborn, in spite of all attempts to change or stop

it. If this ionization were caused by radiation originating in the earth,

changes of location and of elevation should have had some effect; but

experiments in which the instruments were taken out over lakes and

up in towers showed that the radiation remained always in about the

same amount, a small amount, to be sure, but one that with improv-

ing technique became more an more certain of existence. Finally, in

1913, Hess improved upon some earlier experiments of Gockel and

| carried an instrument up to about 5,000 meters above sea level in a

free balloon. As he ascended he found a small increase in the ionization

but an increase that now seemed to be quite definite. He interpreted

‘The Ninth Joseph Henry Lecture of the Philosophical Society of Washington,

delivered on March 25, 1939. Received March 25, 1939.

233

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

his results in a statement which I translate from the German as fol-

lows: “The results of these investigations seem most readily to be ex-

plained by the assumption that a radiation of very great penetrating

power falls upon our atmosphere from above, and even in the lower

levels it produces a part of the ionization observed in closed vessels.”’

This was the first definite suggestion based upon experimental find-

ings of the existence of a cosmic penetrating radiation. Subsequent ex-

periments by Kolhorster and Millikan confirmed Hess’s contention,

and the horizon was cleared for the next step in the investigation. -

Were these rays found by Hess being generated in the highest layers

of the atmosphere? Were they coming from the sun or the planets? Or

were they emanating from some more distant part of the cosmos in

remote spiral nebulae or in intergalactic space? In looking for an answer

possible variations of the cosmic-ray intensity with time and with

position on the earth were sought, to find if there were preferential

directions in space from which the intensity was greater or less. To

all these attempts the answer was always the same. The radiation

was extremely constant as if it were proceeding from sources evenly

distributed throughout the universe. Millikan, for example, found no

change of intensity when the Milky Way passed below the horizon,

and a number of experimenters found no variations from night to day

or with the time of the year that they could be sure of with the tech-

nique then in use.

Still others in this early period were concerned with finding the

energy of the cosmic-ray quanta, and for this purpose the absorption

of the radiation in the atmosphere and in various other substances was

studied. Results were interpreted on the assumption that the cosmic

rays were like gamma rays, and absorption laws suitable for X-rays

and gamma rays were extrapolated to the higher energies of the cosmic

radiation. These laws when applied to rays of given energy implied an

exponential variation of intensity with depth, the exponent depending

on the energy, and the observed departures from an exponential law

in the experimental curve were taken to be an indication that several

different energies were present in the cosmic-ray spectrum. To find

these energies the intensity-depth curve was resolved into a number

of exponential curves (Fig. 1), each of which was supposed to repre-

sent one component of the primary radiation. Having found the

energies in this way it was tempting for one to speculate as to what

processes might have produced rays of these energies. Perhaps the

cosmic-ray spectrum could reveal facts about the universe just as the

atomic spectrum had led to a thorough understanding of the structure

JUNE 15, 1939 JOHNSON: COSMIC RAYS 235

of the atom. A most alluring interpretation of the results was sug-

gested by Millikan in his famous atom-building hypothesis, which

drew attention to the agreement between the cosmic-ray energies

deduced from the intensity-depth curve and the energy equivalent of

the mass deficiency of some of the common elements as compared

with the masses of their elemental particles. In the cosmic radiation,

it was suggested, was living evidence of the creation of matter in the

more complex forms from simple hydrogen.

Fig. 1.—The intensity of the cosmic radiation is plotted as a function of depth be-

low the top of the atmosphere expressed in terms of the equivalent number of meters

of water. The resolution of the experimental curve into four exponential curves is also

shown to illustrate how, in the earlier period of the investigation, the energy of the

primary rays was “‘derived’”’ from the experimental data. These exponential curves

corresponded to energies equivalent to the mass deficiencies of the elements indicated.

(From Millikan and Cameron.)

In retrospect this hypothesis was important not so much for its

own sake as for the stimulus it gave to both believers and disbelievers

in the pursuance of other investigations leading to new discoveries,

discoveries that overthrew the original hypothesis and showed that

the cosmic rays were not gamma-ray quanta but were in fact elec-

trically charged particles. Up to that time it had been quite generally

assumed that the primary rays entering the atmosphere from above

_ were absorbed by interaction with electrons of the atoms in the at-

mosphere. The theory of this type of interaction when applied to the

observed curve led to the conclusion that the primary rays had

energies ranging from 30 to 1,000 million volts. The ionization, accord-

ing to this theory, would have been produced by the recoiling electrons,

236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

and these were supposed to be much less penetrating than the primary

gamma radiation. In 1927 Skobelzyn found the tracks of rays in his

cloud chamber whose energies were at least as great as had been

expected from the recoil hypothesis; but in 1929 Bothe and Kolhorster

showed that these corpuscles were themselves as penetrating as the

total cosmic radiation, and it was no longer necessary to consider the

ionizing rays as secondaries to a more penetrating non-ionizing radia-

tion, such as the gamma rays. The ionizing corpuscles might be the

primary cosmic rays themselves. This was a new point of view sug-

gesting new things to look for.

If the primary rays were electrically charged corpuscles, the earth’s

field should prevent those of lower energies from reaching the earth’s

surface at the Equator where the horizontal component of the field is

the strongest. Experiments by Clay had already indicated such an

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Fig. 2.—The intensity of the cosmic radiation in the vertical direction is plotted

against the latitude. The lower intensity near the Equator is due to the exclusion of

the rays of lower energies from the equatorial belt by the earth’s magnetic field.

(From Johnson and Read.)

equatorial deficiency, and the effect was soon confirmed and more

accurately measured during the extensive geographic surveys con-

ducted by Compton, Millikan, and numerous others (Fig. 2).

In producing this equatorial deficiency the earth is acting as a huge

magnetic spectrograph, resolving in effect the primary rays into a

momentum spectrum. From a closer study of the phenomenon it

soon became possible to determine how the primary rays were dis-

tributed in energy. What the earth’s field actually does is to exclude

rays whose energies are less than a certain critical value from an

equatorial zone bounded on the north and south by parallels of equal

magnetic latitude. The mathematical analysis for determining the

critical energies as a function of the latitude had been started many

JUNE 15, 1939 JOHNSON: COSMIC RAYS 237

years ago by Stérmer, but the solutions of the equations could not

be expressed in terms of known functions and his progress was slow.

It remained for Lemaitre and Vallarta, with the help of the Bush

differential analyzer, to complete the work, and now we know the

lowest cosmic-ray energies accessible to each latitude. For example,

rays must have energies in excess of 18 billion volts if they are to

reach the earth at the Equator; 6 billion volts are required for the

latitude of 40°. These energies were from 10 to 1,000 times more than

those considered according to the older point of view.

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Fig. 3.—Combined results of the measurements of east-west asymmetries. Ratio of

east-west intensity difference to average intensity plotted against zenith angle. Sta-

tions arranged in order of their latitudes and elevations. (From Johnson.)

The figures cited apply to the rays that enter from the vertical

direction, but there is also a strong dependence of the low-energy

limit upon the direction at any given latitude. In the case of positive

primary rays, the lowest energies are found near the western horizon,

and negative rays enter with lowest energy from the eastern horizon.

At the Equator positive rays of 10 billion volts have access to the

west, but 75 billion volts are necessary for entry from the eastern

horizon. If more rays are positive than negative, this dependence of

the low-energy limit upon direction should give rise to an east-west

asymmetry of the intensity, since rays of lower energy can contribute

to the intensity on one side of the meridian but not on the other.

Experiments with instruments that measured the intensity from

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

within a narrow cone of directions were made in the lower part of

the atmosphere by the writer and by a number of other observers,

and more intensity was found from the west than from the east at

a corresponding angle from the vertical (Fig. 3). The results lent

additional support to the hypothesis that the primary rays were

electrically charged, and they showed that more of these rays were

positive than negative.

Besides establishing the validity of the corpuscular hypothesis,

the experiments with the directional and latitude effects were able to

determine what the initial energies of the primary rays were before

their entry into the atmosphere, and this was an important aid in

analyzing the processes by which the rays lose energy in traversing

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Fig. 4.—Spectrum analysis of the intensity of the cosmic radiation at sea level with

respect to the energy of the primary rays. The full-lined curve represents the measured

intensities plotted against the low-energy limit. This intensity is contributed by

primary rays of energy greater than that value. The derivative of the full-lined curve

is represented by the dotted curve and it is equal to the intensity contributed by pri-

mary rays within a unit range of energy about the value indicated by the abscissa. The

sudden rise in the dotted curve at 6 billion volts may be explained if rays of greater

than this energy penetrate the atmosphere while rays of less energy do not, or it may

indicate a lower intensity of primary rays of low energy. (From Compton and Turner.)

the atmosphere. The differential intensity between two latitudes or

between two directions could be identified with primary rays of given

energy, and the intensity at any depth could be resolved into a kind

of spectrum analysis with respect to the energy of the primary radia-

tion. An analysis of this type based upon Compton and Turner’s

measurements on the Pacific Ocean is shown in Fig. 4.

From the total amount of the intensity difference between high

and low latitudes we know that at least 15 percent of the sea-level

intensity is produced by electrically charged primary rays whose

JUNE 15, 1939 JOHNSON: COSMIC RAYS 239

energies lie between 6 and 18 billion volts. The earth’s field is not

strong enough to permit the analysis to extend to higher energies,

and the remaining 85 percent of the sea-level intensity may be pro-

duced by electrically charged rays of higher energies or it may be

produced by neutral rays.

The variation of the cosmic-ray intensity with latitude has also

been studied by Bowen, Millikan, and Neher at levels up to within

1 or 2 percent of the top of the atmosphere. Instruments were sent

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Fig. 5.—The intensity-depth curves of the cosmic radiation at different latitudes

obtained from balloon flights. Atmospheric depths are represented in equivalent meters

of water. The peak intensity at the Equator is about 40 per cent of that found in higher

latitudes. The difference is due to the rays of lower energies cut off by the magnetic

field. (From Bowen, Millikan, and Neher.)

up in free balloons, which were recovered after the flight and the

records extracted. The dependence of the intensity upon latitude

which they have found is shown in Fig. 5, where the ionization is

plotted against depth in the atmosphere. From these curves the

total energy brought in in each latitude can be determined by integra-

tion. This quantity divided by the average energy of a primary ray,

determined from the latitude, gives the number of primary rays

incident upon unit area per second at each latitude. The differences

in these numbers from one latitude to another give the numbers of

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

primaries in short ranges of energy, or, in other words, the spectrum

of the primary cosmic radiation. When smoothed out into a continu-

ous curve this spectrum is represented in Fig. 6. This shows the

energy distribution of the cosmic radiation as it would appear to an

observer in interstellar space. Eighty-five percent of the rays have

an energy less than 18 billion volts; the remaining 15 percent may be

charged rays of higher energy or they may be electrically neutral.

NUMBER DISTRIBUTION

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RAY ENERGY - BILLIONS OF VOLTS

Fig. 6.—The spectrum analysis of the primary cosmic rays, based upon the balloon

flight data of Bowen, Millikan, and Neher. In the upper diagram is plotted the curve

showing the number of cosmic rays of different energies and in the lower diagram are

the curves showing the distribution of the energy carried by primary cosmic rays and

the energy carried by rays of energy greater than the value indicated by the abscissa.

The latter curve has been plotted to fit the four points obtained from the experiments.

(From Johnson.)

The above analysis pertains to the primary rays before they enter

the atmosphere. A magnetic analysis based upon similar principles

has also been made of the rays present in the atmosphere at sea level.

In this instance the curvature of the tracks of ionizing rays in the

Wilson cloud chamber has been studied when a strong magnetic

field is applied to the chamber. The smaller dimensions of the cham-

ber with respect to those of the earth are compensated by a stronger.

field and an ability to detect smaller deflections, so that the upper

limit to which this analysis extends is actually a little greater than

JUNE 15, 1939 JOHNSON: COSMIC RAYS 241

that of the geomagnetic analysis. The distribution of the ionizing

rays found by Blackett is shown in Fig. 7, where the numbers of

rays found at sea level within narrow ranges of energy are plotted

against their energy. Here again the accurately measured energies

extend up to about 20 billion volts, but in these experiments other

rays of still higher energies, although undeflected in the strongest

fields, may be recognized as electrically charged corpuscles from the

fact that they produce tracks of ionization.

i UP Ea oe | ae ee

Fig. 7.—The energy distribution of the ionizing rays at sea level determined from

measurements of curvatures of tracks in the cloud chamber with magnetic field. Ac-

curately measured energies extend to 10 billion volts, rough measurements to 20 billion

volts, but above this energy there are other corpuscular rays whose energies are so

high that no curvature can be seen. The loop in the curve at 2.5 billion volts has not

been explained. (From Blackett.)

Beyond the range of the magnetic measurements other techniques

indicate still higher energies of cosmic rays. From studies of the

energy lost by rays in passing through unit thickness of matter it

has been found that a ray loses about 3 million volts per centimeter

of water. V. Wilson and others have detected cosmic rays to a depth

of 1,200 meters of water, from which it may be concluded that some

of the cosmic rays have energies in excess of 10" volts. Still higher

energies are indicated by the study of the bursts of ionization that

occasionally take place in an ionization vessel (Fig. 8). This phenome-

non, discovered by Hoffmann, is now a matter of every-day observa-

tion on the part of those who measure cosmic-ray ionization. The

sudden release of ions within the vessel sometimes observed indicates

that thousands of ionizing rays must have passed through the cham-

242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

ber at one time. If these rays have the same average energy as the

other cosmic rays, the total energy carried by them must exceed 10”

volts. Since they occur simultaneously they must all have come from

a single primary ray. These bursts have also been observed in the

cloud chamber, and examples photographed by Fussell and Street

are shown in Figs. 9 and 10. In Fig. 10 more than 100 rays are seen

entering the chamber from nearly parallel directions, indicating that

this is only a small sample of the burst that must have originated

from some point well above the chamber. Some recent experiments

by Janossy and Lovell, by Auger, and by Swann and Ramsey have

Fig. 8.—An ionization burst recorded automatically in a vessel designed by Millikan

and Neher. The sloping lines indicate the drift of the needle of the electroscope as the

cosmic-ray ionization accumulates for a period of 15 minutes. The sudden break in

one of the records was produced by the sudden release of ions attributed to the simul-

taneous passage of at least 100 rays. (From Korff.)

shown that bursts sometimes cover an area as great as 400 square

meters and have energies up to 10 volts.

These experiments show that at least a good part of the primary

radiation previously characterized as unanalyzable, in the sense that

it was impossible to tell from the geomagnetic effects whether it

consisted of neutral rays or of electrically charged rays, must now

be attributed to the latter. We can not avoid postulating the existence

of the enormous energies required to reach the earth at the Equator

by supposing the equatorial intensity is produced by neutral rays.

The primary rays are electrically charged; but what kind of cor-

puscles are they? Are they protons, electrons, or alpha particles, or

are they some new kind of charged particle not represented in the

familiar family of elementary particles? To answer this question we

JUNE 15, 1939 JOHNSON: COSMIC RAYS 243

may look to the interaction of the rays with matter for more evidence.

Even in the earlier attempts to analyze the ionization-depth curve,

as we have already indicated, there appeared to be several groups of

cosmic rays of different penetrating power. Although these analyses

were based upon the wrong hypothesis as to the nature of the primary

radiation, the resolution of the observed curve into an absorption-

Fig. 9.—A Wilson cloud-chamber photograph of a burst of rays emanating from a

point ina piece of lead. Events such as these also account for the bursts of ionization.

(From Fussell and Street.)

coefficient spectrum (Fig. 11) shows two groups of rays so well de-

fined that their apparent differences could not be attributed to the

wrong method of analysis. The distinction between the two groups,

at first attributed to a difference in energy, must now, in view of the

studies of the latitude effect, be interpreted as a difference in some

other property. Some of the soft rays so easily absorbed by the atmos-

phere that none at all reach to a depth greater than 0.6 atmosphere

are now known to be present at the Equator and to have energies

244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 6

exceeding 18 billion volts. On the other hand, some of the hard rays

capable of passing through the whole atmosphere are excluded from

latitudes below 40° and are known to have energies less than 6 billion

volts. Within this range of energies we find both hard and soft rays,

and it is necessary to seek for some other difference than the energy in

distinguishing the hard rays from the soft.

Fig. 10.—A large burst of nearly parallel rays entering the chamber from above and

undergoing multiplication in the lead plates placed in the chamber. The rays here seen

entering the chamber must have branched off from the primary particle at a consider-

able distance above the apparatus and what is seen is probably but a small sample of

the whole burst. These bursts sometimes cover an area of 400 square meters and con-

tain rays whose energies total 10 volts. Because of their simultaneity the energy must

have originated from a single primary ray. (From Fussell and Street.)

Perhaps physicists would not have given up hope of explaining

the absorption of the cosmic rays in the atmosphere without having

to introduce the complexity of two different kinds of rays were it

not for other more direct evidence requiring the same hypothesis.

In the first place there were large differences in the energies lost by

rays as they passed through lead sheets. This effect was studied in

JUNE 15, 1939 JOHNSON: COSMIC RAYS 245

the cloud chamber by Anderson and Neddermeyer and by Blackett.

The energies of the ray before and after its transit through the lead

were determined from the curvature of the track (Fig. 12), and the

energy lost was plotted against the average energy (Fig. 13). In

spite of the rather large fluctuations the rays seem to fall definitely

into two groups, those for which the loss of energy is proportional

to the energy, and the point falls along the 45° line in the figure, and

those suffering slight energy losses independent of the energy of the

ray for which the points fall along the axis. Even this evidence might

have been attributed to fluctuations in the behavior of the rays were

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Fig. 11.—An analysis of the ionization-depth curve into a spectrum of absorption

coefficients based upon the assumption of exponential absorption. Although this law

is now known to be invalid, the existence of the two well-pronounced peaks would not

be altered in taking cognizance of the true absorption law. (From Eckhart.)

it not for the additional characteristic noted by Anderson and Ned-

dermeyer that the strongly absorbed rays represented by points on

the 45° line were usually accompanied by other rays either emanating

from the lead plate or entering the chamber from above, whereas

the rays that lost little energy in the lead were rarely accompanied

by other rays. Simultaneously with this discovery, Street and Steven-

son found that rays able to penetrate great thicknesses of lead, up

to 1 meter, seldom produced showers of secondary rays, whereas those

that were easily stopped in lead produced frequent showers. Simul-

taneous measurements of the energy in the cloud chamber showed

that the difference in behavior was not associated with a difference

246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

in energy. These and other experiments, not to be mentioned, defi-

nitely showed that two kinds of cosmic rays appear at sea level, the

hard rays making up about 70 percent of the total and the soft rays

accounting for the remainder. At higher elevations the soft rays

become more prominent and account for most of the intensity in

the stratosphere.

If one is to be able to identify different kinds of rays by their

differences in behavior it is necessary to know how different kinds of

rays behave. Unfortunately the necessary information can not be

obtained by direct observation, for there is no laboratory technique

for producing rays of known types with the energies of the cosmic

Fig. 12.—Photograph of a ray losing energy in a lead plate. A greater curvature

of the track in the lower half of the photograph is noted corresponding to a lower energy

after it has emerged from the lead. (From Anderson.)

rays. The only approach to the problem is through the theory. In

this instance, however, the theory seemed to be particularly reliable

in spite of its not having been put to rigorous test, and it was able,

in the hands of Bethe and Heitler, to make some specific predictions.

Two kinds of energy losses were described, the ionization losses as-

sociated with the interaction between the ray and the electrons in

the atoms of the absorbing matter, and the radiation losses arising

from the nuclear encounters. For rays of given energy these two types

of energy loss depend so differently upon the mass of the particle

that this might be the key to the difference in the observed behaviors

of the two types of rays. The ionization losses are inversely propor-

JUNE 15, 1939 JOHNSON: COSMIC RAYS 247

tional to the velocity, so that when two rays of different mass have

the same energy the heavier one will ionize the more heavily. When

the velocity approaches that of light the ionization ceases to vary

with the energy and has a low density. The energy at which the ion

density reaches this low value depends upon the mass and is about

equal to the mass energy mc.? The radiation losses, on the other hand,

increase with the energy in proportion to it, but the absolute value

of the losses experienced by this process depend upon the inverse

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Fig. 13.—The loss of energy per unit thickness of lead plotted against the average

energy. Rays that are accompanied by other rays are indicated by the open circles.

Rays that produce showers of rays in the lead plate are indicated by tails and single

rays are indicated by the black dots. The points appear to fall into two groups, those

that lose little energy and fall along the axis and those that lose energy in proportion

to their energy and fall along the 45° line. The latter group are also distinguished by

their shower-producing tendency and their frequent occurrence along with other rays.

(From Anderson and Neddermeyer.)

square of the mass. Thus a proton loses energy by this process only

one four-millionth as rapidly as an electron of the same energy. In

the case of the electron the theory showed that the radiation losses

should equal the ionization losses at an energy of 1.5 million volts,

and for higher energies it should predominate. Protons, on the other

hand, lose energy principally by ionization until their energy exceeds

10” volts.

The quantum theory foretold another phenomenon that proved of

248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 6

great importance in the identification of the rays, for it predicted

that the radiation lost by the particles during nuclear encounters

would soon appear again in the form of a pair of positive and negative

electrons created as the quantum passes through a nuclear field.

Thus rays that lose energy by radiation could be identified by their

family of secondaries.

In comparing the theory with the experimental results it was

found that the observed energy losses of the soft component in the

cloud-chamber experiments (Fig. 13) were just those to be expected

if the rays concerned were electrons. The secondary rays observed

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Fig. 14.—Logarithmic plot of the increments of intensity in the atmosphere be-

tween two latitudes attributable to rays of definite energies (represented by the points)

and the curves showing the theoretical variation of the intensity to be expected from

the multiplicative processes if the primary rays are electrons of these energies. (From

Euler.)

by Anderson and Neddermeyer accompanying the rays whose energy

losses were large were also in the right proportion to be accounted

for by the pair-formation process described by the theory. The theory

based upon the primary electron hypothesis was equally successful

when applied to the variation of the intensity in the upper atmos-

phere by Carlson and Oppenheimer and by Bethe and Heitler. If

the primary rays were electrons of the energies determined by the

latitude effect the multiplication provided by the radiative and pair-

formation processes gave just the observed increase of intensity

over the first part of the curve (Fig. 14), and it explained the first

part of the downward slope.

JUNE 15, 1939 JOHNSON: COSMIC RAYS 249

A third important success of the theory pointed out by Montgom-

ery and Euler was its ability to account for the observed frequency

and size distribution of the bursts and showers of rays observed in

the ionization chamber. This was accomplished without the introduc-

tion of any ad hoc hypotheses but merely from consideration of the

fluctuations if the elementary processes of radiation and pair forma-

tion were independently occurring events, taking place with the a

prior. probabilities indicated by the theory.

In every respect, in the cloud chamber, in the atmosphere, and in

the ionization chamber, rays of the soft component were behaving as

electrons obeying the theory should behave. Even though the theory

was not previously proved in this range of energies and even though

it was not known that the soft rays were electrons, the combination

of circumstances gave potent support to both hypotheses.

The hard rays on the other hand were not behaving as electrons,

for they experienced no large losses of energy like the radiative losses

of the soft component, and there were no positive and negative pairs

of electrons being produced by them. If these rays were to be de-

scribed by the theory it would be necessary to ascribe to them a mass

somewhat larger than that of the electron.

The first guess was naturally that the hard rays were protons. To

be sure, they occurred with both signs of charge in about equal num-

bers, but this aspect of the situation was not objectionable for physi-

cists with their love for symmetry had been looking for negative

protons. However, this hypothesis was of short duration, for tracks

of hard rays were found in the cloud chamber with a low density of

ionization indicating an energy greater than the mass energy, but

simultaneous measurements of their curvature in a magnetic field

showed that this energy was less than the mass energy of the proton.

If the theory applied these rays would have to have a mass in between

that of the electron and of the proton. No particle of this type was

previously known and it became necessary to admit into the family

of elementary particles a new member christened the mesotron, from

the Greek stems indicating a ray of intermediate mass.

Further more careful studies of some of the slower mesotron tracks

showed that they began to thicken when their energy fell below 108

volts, and it was concluded that the mass was about one-tenth that

of the proton. A mesotron track photographed by Williams and

Pickup is shown in Fig. 15, where it may be compared with the

thinner but more sharply curved track of a faster but less energetic

electron. An equally curved track of a proton would have been 100

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 6

times more dense and a proton track of equal density would have

shown no detectable curvature. Thus there can be no mistake in

distinguishing these rays from either protons or electrons, although

a high accuracy has never been claimed in the actual determination

of the mass.

As already noted, the first part of the ionization-depth curve is

satisfactorily accounted for by primary electrons. It would be hoped

that the variations of intensity at the greater depths where the hard

component predominates might be accounted for in terms of the

properties of the mesotron. Indeed, if one takes the energy distribu-

tion found from the cloud-chamber analysis at sea level and calculates

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Fig. 15.—A mesotron track photographed by Williams and Pickup (the straighter

track) compared with the track of an electron. The thinner electron track means that

the ray was moving with a higher velocity, but its greater curvature indicates a lower

momentum. The two conditions are consistent if the mesotron has a larger mass.

what mesotron intensities there should be at various depths below

sea level, the result is in satisfactory agreement with the experiments,

but if one works backward and calculates what energy the primary

rays must have had before their entry into the atmosphere, the calcu-

lation shows energies less than could have been admitted through the

magnetic field. The energy losses contemplated by the theory can

not account for the difference between the observed sea-level energies

and those that the primary rays must have had. Since the theory

is complete in its description of what happens below sea level we

must admit that the mesotrons are not primary rays but that they

have been produced near the top of the atmosphere by some other

more energetic primary radiation.

JUNE 15, 1939 JOHNSON: COSMIC RAYS 251

There are two other important arguments leading to this same

conclusion. In the first place, the east-west asymmetry of the hard

rays at sea level near the Equator shows that the primary rays are

predominantly positive. The cloud chamber analysis, on the contrary,

shows equal numbers of positive and negative mesotrons at sea level.

The second argument is based upon the evidence that a mesotron is

unstable and could not have survived a long time in interstellar

space without having disintegrated into an electron and a neutrino.

Perhaps a digression from the main thesis would be allowed for a

brief description of this evidence.

= 00 1060

Aquivalent m Wasser

Fig. 16.—The intensity of cosmic rays under water and under equal masses of air.

The greater intensity is found under the more dense medium where the time of transit

is least. The effect is explained if the mesotrons are unstable and have a mean life of

the order of 2X10~* seconds. (From Ehmert.)

The first hint of an instability of the mesotron component appeared

in a theory of Yukawa in which a particle of mass like that of the

mesotron found in the cosmic radiation was invoked for an interpreta-

tion of nuclear forces. The connection was vague, and it is doubtful

if any significance would have been attached to the instability pre-

dicted by Yukawa for his nuclear particle were it not for the fact that

the same property was needed to account for certain unexplained

effects in the cosmic radiation. Ehmert had measured the intensity

of the cosmic radiation under air and under equal masses of water

(Fig. 16) and had found that although these substances differ only

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

in regard to their density, the one-thousand-fold denser water was

the more transparent to the cosmic radiation. A similar effect was

found by Ehrenfest and Freon when they compared the intensities

of rays that had traversed equal masses of air at different pressures

(Fig. 17). Both experiments could be explained by the instability

hypothesis, for the greater intensity was always found along the

path requiring the least time for transit from the upper atmosphere.

Mr. Pomerantz and the writer have recently repeated these experi-

ments under more favorable circumstances by comparing the in-

tensities under an equivalent of two atmospheres of air made up in

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Fig. 17.—Curves showing the cosmic-ray intensity as a function of the mass of

absorbing matter traversed. The dotted curve is that obtained from measurements

in the atmosphere in the vertical direction. In the other curves the instrument was

inclined with respect to the vertical and the measurements carried out at four eleva-

tions. (From Ehrenfest and Freon.)

the first instance of the vertical path through the atmosphere and the

equivalent of one atmosphere of water in a cylindrical tank above

the instrument, and in the other instance by the air path along the

inclined direction 60° from the vertical. These measurements indicate

a mean life of the mesotron when at rest of 2.5 X 10-° seconds. Because

of a relativity transformation of the time scale when passing from the

reference frame of the mesotron to that of the observer the mean life

increases with the energy, and this is a phenomenon that has also

been confirmed in these experiments. The products of disintegration

are electrons and neutrinos. Euler has shown that the energy distribu-

tion and the intensity of the soft component at sea level is just that

JUNE 15, 1939 JOHNSON: COSMIC RAYS 253

to be expected if it consists of the disintegration electrons from the

hard component. Thus there is experimental evidence from many

angles that the mesotrons are unstable, and although this presents

some interesting problems of its own its bearing upon the main

thesis is that it requires the mesotrons in the atmosphere to be

secondaries of some other type of stable primary radiation.

Perhaps the simplest assumption is that the primaries of the meso-

trons are the electrons, which as we have already seen, account

satisfactorily for the soft component. If these produce mesotrons by

impact with the nuclei in the upper atmosphere they might also

account for the hard component. This has been a tempting idea and

one which has formed the basis of several theoretical discussions of

the probability of mesotron production, but it now appears to be no

longer tenable, because of some very recent results.

It has already been noted that the east-west asymmetry of the

cosmic radiation at sea level shows that the primaries of the mesotron

component are positive. If these primaries are the electrons of the

soft component all other secondaries produced by them should also

show the same east-west asymmetry, and at the top of the atmos-

phere where the intensity is produced in such large measure by the

field-sensitive rays, as shown by the latitude effect, the asymmetry

should be at least 10 times greater than that found at sea level. Dr.

Barry and the writer have just completed experiments to test this pre-

diction by measuring the relative intensities of the radiation from the

east and the west near the Equator at very high elevations. Unidirec-

tional recording instruments set at an angle just above the horizon

were sent up in free balloons to within a few percent of the top of the

atmosphere and there allowed to rotate about a vertical axis. The

orientation as well as the cosmic-ray intensity and barometric heights

was communicated to the ground station by radio signals automati-

cally sent out from the balloon. Five flights of this nature gave results

that agreed with one another in showing that the asymmetry was

no more than could be accounted for by the hard component alone

and that the soft component primaries must consist of equal numbers

of positives and negatives. If the soft component primaries had been

as predominantly positive as those of the hard component the asym-

_ metry would have been at least 8 times more pronounced than that

observed. Since the soft component primaries are equally positive and

negative, while the hard component primaries are entirely positive,

the two components must be produced by different primary rays,

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

the soft component primaries consisting of equal numbers of posi-

tive and negative electrons, and the primary rays of the hard com-

ponent consisting of practically 100 percent positive rays whose only

other known property is their stability to withstand long times of

transit through interstellar space.

These rays are not electrons and they are not mesotrons. Perhaps

then they are protons. Arguments against this hypothesis have been

advanced. Protons losing energy by ionization alone should reach sea

level in large numbers, and they should be identifiable from the

character of their track and their curvature in the cloud chamber

after they have been slowed down to an energy comparable with

their mass energy of 10° volts, but numerous attempts have failed to

find any trace of primary protons. The theory, also, though still

very vague, fails to find any very good reason why protons should

produce mesotrons. On the other hand, if protons produce mesotrons

perhaps the same interaction could explain why protons do not reach

_ sea level and the hypothesis might still be allowed.

Another approach to the problem is through a consideration of the

properties of interstellar space from which the particles arrive. Swann

has pointed out what enormous potential differences would exist

between points in space if all or any appreciable fraction of the pri-

mary radiation were made up entirely of charges of one sign. If, for

example, one-tenth of the primary radiation consisted of positives

unneutralized by an equal number of negatives, potentials of 10%”

volts would exist between two points separated by a distance of 1

light year, and the potentials go up as the square of the distance. The

fact that cosmic rays come to us at all is the best possible evidence

that there is no space charge in interstellar regions. Any element of

volume must have equal numbers of positive and negative rays within

it. It is also easy to see that the positives and the negatives must be

moving with statistically equal velocities, for otherwise there would

be more charges of one sign than of the other passing out through a

closed surface surrounding the source and the source would go on

charging up to an infinite potential and shut off the primary beam.

The only way to realize a steady potential at the source and at the

same time to have a neutral intergalactic space is to have equal

numbers of positives and negatives in each element of volume both

moving with the same velocities.

But how then can one find more positive than negative cosmic rays

in any given range of energy as the rays impinge upon the earth?

The answer must be that positive and negative rays of equal velocity

JUNE 15, 1939 JOHNSON: COSMIC RAYS 255

do not possess equal energies. They must have different masses.

Since the energies of two rays of equal velocities are in proportion

to their rest masses, a proton moving with the same velocity as an

electron would have 2,000 times more energy. When these encoun-

tered the earth’s magnetic field, the more energetic proton would pass

on through while the electron would be turned back into space, and

the primary rays would appear to be entirely positive. From this

point of view, therefore, we can account for the preponderance of

positive rays in the primary beam by merely assuming that the

positives have the greater mass.

If we consider the source of the cosmic radiation in a little closer

detail we can see that this picture of the primary radiation is also

consistent with what we might expect if the source is composed of

ordinary matter. If some mechanism, such as the thunderstorm, were

producing high-energy rays of either sign, these would be propelled

outward leaving the opposite charge on the source. In this field ions

of sign opposite to that of the initial rays would be accelerated out-

ward, while the initial rays would be decelerated. Finally, at a suffi-

ciently great distance the two would have the same velocity and the

positives with the greater mass would have most of the original

energy. |

If the initial rays were electrons, the soft component primaries

could also be accounted for in the same picture, for the initial elec-

trons before their deceleration would have produced positive and

negative pairs as they were passing outward through the atmosphere

of the source. If this multiplication takes place according to our

present knowledge of pair formation, these would have the energy

distribution which is observed, and they would consist of equal num-

bers of positives and negatives moving with statistically equal veloci-

ties, just as is observed.

In this way we can account for all the observed rays in the primary

beam, but it is also necessary to account for the absence of gamma

rays. If the soft component is produced by pair formation at the

source, there should also be a nearly equal number of gamma rays

in the primary beam, which should show itself as a component not

sensitive to the magnetic field of the earth, and yet the latitude

effect shows that at least 85 percent of the primary rays are electri-

cally charged. One possible solution of this difficulty has been sug-

gested by Alfven who considers the possibility of the existence of a

galactic magnetic field. If the source of the radiation is within the

galaxy the electrically charged rays would spiral around in planetary

256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

orbits within a region from which they could never depart while the

gamma rays would pass freely out and be lost in intergalactic space.

This idea of a galactic source trapped by a magnetic field is also

supported by the experiments of Compton and Getting, which have

shown that the diurnal variation is less than is consistent with an

extragalactic source when the proper motion of the solar system due

to the rotation of the galaxy is taken into account.

Where the source is, we may not yet say, but some recent evidence

found by Forbush in the very important program of the Carnegie

Institution for the study of the time variations of the intensity show

the presence of some unexplained variations of the intensity asso-

ciated with magnetic storms and other long-time variations that may

have the period of the sun-spot cycle. If these effects are produced

by solar influence—as they seem to be—a source of cosmic rays may

be considerably closer to us that we have heretofore imagined.

BOTAN Y.—Concerning Ardisia crispa (Thunb.) A. DC. and A.

crenata Sims, confused species of Myrsinaceae from eastern Asia.'

Ecpert H. Waker, U. 8. National Museum.

The name Ardisia crispa is usually applied to a woody plant of

eastern Asia commonly cultivated in greenhouses in Europe and the

United States, although this species is sometimes called Ardisza

crenata. In Japan, where it is also cultivated, it is known under

various names.” It was originally described as Bladhia crispa by the

Swedish botanist Thunberg® in 1784. In 1817 the English horti-

culturist Loddiges published an illustration of a shrub recently in-

troduced from China, which he named Ardisza crenulata but did not

describe. The following year this plant was described and renamed

Ardisia crenata by the English botanist Sims. In 1834 Alphonse

DeCandolle in his review of this family (Trans. Linn. Soc. London

17: 95-138. pl. 4-8) transferred Bladhia crispa Thunb. to Ardisia,

but his description and the fact that he cited A. crenata Sims as a

synonym show that he misunderstood Thunberg’s species and mis-

applied his name to the plants illustrated by Loddiges and by Sims.

This mistake has resulted in long-continued confusion, which was

only recently clearly resolved by Dr. H. Handel-Mazzetti in his

Symbolae Sinicae (Teil 7: 755-756. 1936). He examined Thunberg’s

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 13, 1939.

2 See formal synonymy below.

3 For precise references see the formal synonymy.

JUNE 15, 1939 WALKER: CONCERNING ARDISIA 257

type specimen, preserved in the herbarium at Upsala, and found that

it is not the same as that of Sims but is the same as A. hortorum

Maxim. published in 1865 and A. Henryi Hemsl. published in 1886.

Because of the misapplication of this name by DeCandolle and its

perpetuation in literature, Dr. Handel-Mazzetti rejects Thunberg’s

name, calling it a ‘‘nomen confusum,” and takes up the next oldest

name A. hortorum Maxim. as the valid one for Bladhia crispa Thunb.

However, since DeCandolle based his name Ardisza crispa on Thun-

berg’s species, the types are the same regardless of his misapplication.

Therefore Bladhia crispa Thunb., transferred to Ardisia as A. crispa

(Thunb.) A. DC., must be applied in its original sense. This interpre-

tation is also presented by Dr. A. Rehder in his treatment of the

woody plants described by H. Léveillé (Journ. Arnold Arb. 18: 282.

IOS) )e

Ardisia hortorum was described by the Russian botanist Maxi-

mowicz from live material from Japanese gardens. He contrasts it

with other living specimens growing in the St. Petersburg botanical

garden under the name Ardisia crispa A. DC. (A. lentiginosa Ker)

and with A. punctata Lindl.

Ardisia Henryt Hemsl. was described from specimens collected in

Hupeh Province, China, by Augustine Henry, nos. 3455 and 3972,

and by E. Faber from Szechwan, all of which have been examined by

Dr. Handel-Mazzetti. The writer has examined duplicates of the

Henry specimens at the United States National Herbarium, the Gray

Herbarium, and the Arnold Arboretum and a specimen at the New

York Botanical Garden designated as Faber 172 from Szechwan,

which conforms with the Henry specimens and which probably is a

duplicate of the collection cited by Hemsley. Handel-Mazzetti’s plac-

ing of this species with Bladhia crispa Thunb. through comparison of

types,* and with Ardisia hortorum Maxim., is confirmed by the

writer’s studies of many specimens and much literature. In respect

to published descriptions there is considerable diversity in characters

used. Too great reliance seems to have been placed on punctation

and other variable leaf factors. The characters used in this paper to

differentiate these species have been selected after 10 years’ study of

the eastern Asiatic species of this family. The characters used by Dr.

Carl Mez in his monograph of this family (Pflanzenreich 9 (IV. 236)

1902) have proved unreliable. Furthermore, his inclusion of these

two distinct species along with one other under the name Ardisia

* He has very kindly sent the writer a carefully prepared drawing of a leaf by which

Thunberg’s and Hemsley’s species have been further confirmed as identical.

258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

crispa (Thunb.) A. DC. has continued the confusion started by

DeCandolle’s error.

The specimens upon which the present paper is based will be cited

in the writer’s revision of the eastern Asiatic Myrsinaceae.

KEY

1. Stems minutely puberulent or lepidote when young; leaves membranous,

rarely punctate beneath, the margin entire or wavy, not crisped-un-

dulate; sepals not at all or sparsely punctate; stems usually conspicuously

elongating above the special flowering branches.............. A. crispa

2. Stems glabrous when young; leaves chartaceous or coriaceous, usually

raised-punctate beneath, the margin usually crisped-undulate; sepals

scattered-punctate; stems usually not conspicuously elongating above

the’ special flowerm~e: branchesmemre .... 20) ..s ee Lee A. crenata

ARDISIA CRISPA (Thunb.) A. DC. Ising, dh

Bladhia crispa Thunb. Fl. Japon. 97. 1784. ‘‘Crescit in insula Nipon.”

The type, in the herbarium of the University of Upsala, has been

examined by Handel-Mazzetti (Symbolae Sinicae, Teil 7: 756. 1936).

Ardisia crispa (Thunb.) A. DC. Trans. Linn. Soe. 17: 124. 18384; DC.

Prodr. 8: 1384. 1844. Based on Bladhia crispa Thunb. but mis-

applied by DeCandolle.

Ardisia hortorum Maxim. Gartenflora 14: 363. pl. 491. 1865. Based on

cultivated plants at the St. Petersburg botanical garden, received from

cultivation in Japan.

Ardisia Henryi Hemsl. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 26: 65. 1889. Based on

Kew specimens of Henry 3455, 3972 from Hupeh (duplicates seen at

the U. 8. National Herbarium, the Gray Herbarium, and the Arnold

Arboretum), and Faber (without number) from Mount Omei, Szechwan

(probable duplicate seen at the New York Botanical Garden, there

designated as Faber 172).

A shrub or undershrub up to 1.5 m high, the erect stem unbranched except

for the special flowering branches, usually minutely puberulent or lepidote;

leaves membranous, elliptic-lanceolate or narrowly oblong-lanceolate, acute

to long and slenderly acuminate, 6 to 15 cm long, 1.5 to 4 cm wide, entire

or wavy with marginal glands, usually finely lepidote and raised-punctate

beneath, the lateral nerves about 8 pairs, the marginal nerve very obscure

or wanting; inflorescences usually simple, sometimes compound, subumbel-

late, terminal on special slender lateral branches 5 to 10 cm long, these

usually with a few normal or reduced leaves near apex, glabrous, lepidote

or minutely puberulent, usually several in axils of the lower leaves or below

them; flowers white, 4 to 5 mm long, the sepals 1.5 mm long, oblong-ovate

or lanceolate, acute or narrowly rounded, not at all or sparsely punctate,

the anthers not punctate on back; fruit 5 to 6 mm in diameter, somewhat

punctate.

Japan to Szechwan.

Ardisia crispa var. amplifolia Walker, var. nov. Fig. 2

Frutex 1-2 m altus, ramulis crassiusculis asperis; folia circa 25 cm longa,

5 em lata, elliptico-lanceolata vel lanceolata, subtus obscure punctata,

JUNE 15, 1939 WALKER: CONCERNING ARDISIA 259

glandulis marginalibus donata, nervis lateralibus 13—20-jugis subtilibus in

nervum marginalem non confluentibus; inflorescentiae simplices subumbel-

latae, in ramulis specialibus brevibus in anthesi fortasse foliaceis terminales;

Fig. 1—(1) Ardisia crispa (Thunb.) A. DC: a, Whole plant with inflorescences,

x3, drawn from Henry no. 3455, at the Arnold Arboretum; 6, corolla and stamens,

X34; ¢, stamen, back view, X33; d, flower with corolla removed, X33. Details drawn

from Henry no. 6365, in the U. S. National Herbarium.

(2) Ardista crispa var. Dielsit (Léveillé) Walker: Stem with inflorescences, X 3.

Drawn from Henry no. 13279, in the U. S. National Herbarium.

sepala 2 mm vel minus longa, glabra, non punctata; fructus 5-6 mm longus,

rubescens, non punctatus.

Type in the United States National Herbarium, no. 457204, collected by

A. Henry in the mountains south of Mengtze, Yunnan, no. 9653; duplicates

260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

at the New York Botanical Garden and the Arnold Arboretum. Additional

specimens seen are Henry 9653A and 9653B, both from the same locality

and deposited in the New York Botanical Garden.

This variety differs from the typical form of the species in having thicker,

rough stems, and larger and broader leaves with about twice as many

lateral nerves.

Ardisia crispa var. Dielsii (Léveillé) Walker, comb. nov. Fig. 1 (2)

Ardisia Dielsit Léveillé, Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 9: 461. 1911. Based on

Bodinier (L. Martin) 1636 (erroneously cited as L. Martin 1636),

collected June 1, 1898, in rocky woods on the college hill at Kouy-Yang,

Kweichow, deposited in the Léveillé herbarium, now at the Royal —

Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. The type has been examined by the writer.

SoH SS

Fig. 2.—Ardisia crispa var. amplifolia Walker, var. nov.: a, Branchlet with fruiting

inflorescences, 4; 6, fruit, X34. Drawn from a duplicate at the Arnold Arboretum

of the type, Henry no. 9653.

Ardisia Henryi var. Dielsii Walker, Journ. Arnold Arb. 15: 290. 1934.

Based on A. Dielsiz Léveillé. Handel-Mazzetti does not recognize this

variety.

Ardisia hortorum var. brachysepala Hand.-Mazz. Symb. Sin. Teil 7: 756.

1936. Based on Handel-Mazzetti 10716 from Kweichow; bamboo

thicket on a hill at Dodjie between Badschae and Duyiin; limestone

of the subtropical zone, at altitude 700 m, July 18, 1917. The type has

been examined by the writer.

This variety differs from the typical form of the species in having longer

and more slender leaves, these narrowly long-lanceolate, 12 to 20 cm long,

1 to 4 cm wide, the lateral nerves very clearly curved-ascending.

Kwangsi, Kweichow, Szechwan, and Yunnan.

JUNE 15, 1939 BROWN: SOME AMERICAN ISOETALES 261

ARDISIA CRENATA Sims

Ardisia crenulata Lodd. Bot. Cab. 1: pl. 2. 1817. Nomen nudum, based

on cultivated specimens from China.

Ardisia crenata Sims, Curtis’s Bot. Mag. 45: pl. 1950. 1818. Proposed as

a new name for A. crenulata and accompanied by a description.

Ardisia lentiginosa J. B. Ker, Bot. Reg. 7: pl. 533. 1821. Proposed as a

change of the name A. crenata Sims, because of A. crenata Roxb. Hort.

Beng. 85. 1814. That name, however, was a nomen nudum until the

publication of a description in Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Carey 2: 276. 1824.

This name appears frequently in Japanese literature.

Ardisia crispa (Thunb.) A. DC., as misapplied in Trans. Linn. Soc. London

17: 124. 1834; DC. Prodr. 8: 134. 1844. DeCandolle trans-

ferred Bladhia crispa Thunb. but described A. crenata Sims, which he

placed as a synonym.

An erect shrub or undershrub up to 1.5 m high, the glabrous stem usually

unbranched except for the special flowering branches; leaves chartaceous or

coriaceous, elliptic-lanceolate or oblanceolate, acute or acuminate, 6 to 20

cm long, 2 to 4 em wide, generally crisped or undulate, with large albumi-

nous marginal glands, glabrous, usually raised-punctate at least beneath,

very sparingly lepidote below, the lateral nerves 12 to 18 pairs, uniting into

a generally distinct marginal nerve, this sometimes hidden beneath the re-

curved edge; inflorescences simple or compound, subumbellate or cymose,

terminal on special lateral or axillary branches about 10 cm long, these

sometimes up to 16 cm long or longer, bearing a few leaves generally only

at or near the curved apex, but sometimes scattered, glabrous; flowers

white or pink, 4 to 6 mm long, the sepals 1.5 mm long, oblong-ovate, rounded

or obtuse, scattered-punctate, the anthers distinctly punctate on back;

fruit 5 to 8 mm in diameter, punctate.

Japan to southern continental Asia.

PALEOBOTANY.—Some American fossil plants belonging to the

Isoetales.1 Rouanp W. Brown, U. 8. Geological Survey.

In 1889 Lester F. Ward? described at length but did not name some

sunflowerlike rosettes from two localities in the Fort Union formation

(early Tertiary) along the Yellowstone River, respectively 12 miles

above and 28 miles below Glendive, Mont. In The synopsis of the

flora of the Laramie group published in 1886, he had already alluded

to these fossils as “‘singular cryptogams.’’ Not, however, until 1915,

in Glimpses of the Cosmos, a posthumous volume, did he name them

Xantholithes propheticus.

The general superficial appearance of the more perfect of these

specimens is that of a flower having numerous long, narrow rays

attached to a small circular center, the whole sometimes attaining

a diameter of 30 cm. The rays are 2 to 3 mm in width for most of

1 Published by permission et the Director, Geological Survey, Department of the

Interior. Received March 1 9.

2 WarD, Lester F. oe on an undescribed vegetable organism from the Fort

Union group of Montana. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc. 37: 199-201. 1889.

262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

their length but terminate in a spatulate, blunt-pointed expansion.

The particular feature that immediately arouses special interest is

the presence of two parallel, closely-spaced rows of squarish cavities

or protuberances, depending on the specimen, through the middle

of the spatulate expansion and for some distance in the remainder of

the ray. Ward reported these squarish outlines as being arranged in

pairs; but examination of numerous specimens shows that alterna-

tions are not rare. The spatulate end of the ray has a smooth, lateral

flange, which, along the narrower portion toward the base of the ray,

becomes an undulate ribbon or ruffle. Because portions of the rock

matrix remained in the depressions of the undulations of this ruffle

when the specimen was uncovered, the ruffle appears broken, and

Ward supposed that the margin of the ray was toothed. In the speci-

mens seen by Ward the margin is entire; but a Cretaceous species

I collected just east of the ghost town of Cumberland, Wyo., during

the field season of 1938, has a serrate margin around the spatulate

end of the ray. In regard to the surface pattern, Ward reported that

“examination with a high power reveals the presence of a continuous

epidermal membrane composed of hexagonal cells.” Fig. 4 shows the

surface pattern magnified 13 times, but the cells are square to rec-

tangular, not hexagonal.

In order to determine the affinities of this organism Ward sought

the opinion of many eminent paleontologists, botanists, and zoolo-

gists, with no very definite results, some even suggesting the possibil-

ity that the fossils might represent an animal, not a plant. The latter

supposition is not altogether fantastic when viewed in the light of

remarkable coincidences or resemblances. Thus, in 1900 John M.

Clarke® described a marine organism from the Devonian of western

New York as Paropsonema cryptophya, a supposed echinoderm.

Clarke’s figures are, however, not so suggestive as they might be if

they illustrated U. 8S. National Museum specimen 62948 taken from

the Ithaca member of the Portage group (Upper Devonian) in the

excavation for the library at Cornell University. This almost perfect

specimen is so much like the rosettes here being discussed that, did

the specimens not occur in totally different environments and at

widely separated moments of geologic time, they might, on hasty

or superficial examination, well be confused.

Ward, however, himself concluded:

I am disposed to regard it as a ‘comprehensive type”’ of vascular crypto-

3 CLARKE, JoHN M. Paropsonema cryptophya, a peculiar echinoderm from the in-

tumescens zone (Portage beds) of western New York. New York State Mus. Bull. 39:

172-186, pls. 5-9. 1900.

JUNE 15, 1939 BROWN: SOME AMERICAN ISOETALES 263

gamic life, embodying some of the characters of several well-known living

types, viz., 1. The large tufted central base is suggestive of most species of

Isoetes, and the long weak stems [rays] of certain of these species are ob-

served to recline and lie prostrate in all directions around this center. 2.

The double row of spore-cases [median cavities] at the apex of the stem [ray]

agrees in all essential respects with that of Ophioglossum, and the elliptic

expansions may be regarded as homologues of the larger blade-like fronds

of that genus, which may easily be imagined to have the spores borne along

its median line instead of on a special fruiting frond. 3. The prostrate

sinuous habit is not widely unlike that of certain creeping species of Lyco-

podium.... 4. A still further approach is seen in Selaginella where the

scales have become distichous and the stems flat and closely creeping... .

5. Finally, ignoring the appendicular organs of Marsilia, we see in the fruit-

bearing portion a further analogy to our fossil, the fruiting stems [rays]

radiating from the thickened base and bearing the spores at their apex. The

fossil would thus represent a highly generalized type and may be phylo-

genetically related to all these more specialized modern forms with each of

which it seems to possess some characters in common.

In his reply dated August 2, 1888, to Ward’s request for suggestions

as to the affinities of this organism, Leo Lesquereux made two pene-

trating observations. First, the organism looked like that described

by J. W. Dawson in 1883 as Carpolithes horridus. Second, the long

slender ‘‘branches”’ are “peculiar organs of floating plants.’’ Coming

close to the latter idea also was the reply by W. G. Farlow, dated

July 31, 1888, who inquired, ‘‘Have you considered the possibility

of it being a whorl of inflated leaves like those of the upper portions

of some Utriculariae?”’

Dawson conjectured that his specimen, described and figured in

1883 as from Cretaceous strata on the Peace River in northeastern

British Columbia, was a “‘compound fruit perhaps of some cycada-

ceous plant, covered with bracts and rudimentary leaves.”’ The figure,

if faithfully drawn, represents an imperfect specimen, showing none

of the spatulate ends of the rays. In 1886 Dawson renamed his original

specimen Antholithes horridus and reported additional fragmentary

material from Cretaceous strata [Kootanie series, according to Daw-

son] on Old Man River, southwestern Alberta. He reiterated their

reference to the Cycadaceae.

Ward never published an illustration of Xantholithes propheticus;

but this lack was met by Knowlton in 1923, Cockerell in 1924, and

Berry in 19385 (see synonymy of Jsoetites horridus for references).

Knowlton was concerned with a specimen from the Green River

formation (middle Eocene) in Colorado, which he confidently referred

to Danaea. That specimen is a fragment; consequently, when Cock-

erell in 1924 described a better specimen from the Wind River Basin

of Wyoming as an Ophioglossum, Knowlton began to have doubts

264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 6

about his specimen being a Danaea, and agreed with Berry, who in

the meantime had received additional material from Wyoming, that

none of these specimens were Ophioglossum but were probably related

to Ward’s Xantholithes propheticus from the Fort Union formation.

However, in a letter dated December 15, 1924, Knowlton remarked

to Berry that, because his fragment of Danaea lacked the prominent

flange displayed by the terminal portions of Ward’s Xantholithes

propheticus, it was likely that his Danaea was after all a different

thing. In 19380 Berry reviewed the whole matter, calling all the Wyo-

ming and Colorado material simply ‘‘sporophylls” and suggesting

that these organisms ‘‘might represent a relict form of some member

of the Williamsoniales.”’ In 1934 I also reviewed the situation insofar

as it concerned the Danaea specimen from the Green River formation

and suggested that it be considered tentatively as distinct. With

most of the specimens referred to in the discussion up to this point

before me and with new collections made during the past few years

of field work in Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado, I am now of the

opinion that all these organisms are congeneric and represent species

belonging to the Isoetales. The basis for this opinion will be apparent

after considering the evidence derived from a reexamination of some

features of the specimens and bringing all information about these

organisms up to date.

The epidermal pattern of rectangular cells covers the entire surface

of the rays uniformly; that is, it may be observed not only on the

smooth surface but in the median depressions and protuberances of

the “‘spore eases’? and the undulations of the marginal ruffles as

well (Fig. 4). If the median squarish outlines were indeed spore cases,

these areas should display a somewhat broken or heterogeneous sur-

face; but this is not the case; the surface is a homogeneous pattern

throughout. I conclude, therefore, that these rays were leaves with

crispate or wavy membranous margins in the basal portions and with

midsections that carried a double row of undulations that may have

been sharp wrinkles or the external outlines of internal air sacs,

which, on fossilization, collapsed, leaving a series of squarish cavities.

Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5.—Tsoetites serratus Brown, n. sp. Figs. 1 and 2 show dichotomous

roots beneath the rosettes of leaves. Fig. 4 shows the surface pattern of a leaf, X18.

Fig. 5 is the spatulate end of a leaf showing the serrate margin, the ruffled, mem-

branous, lower margin and the parallel rows of median squarish depressions, X2. From

the Frontier formation (Upper Cretaceous), 1 mile east of Cumberland, Wyo.

Figs. 3, 6.—Isoetites horridus (Dawson) Brown, n. comb. Fig. 3 shows a section of

the corm, a set of spirally arranged leaf scars, and a circle of sporangia, mz (micro-

sporangia), me (megasporangia), at the bases of an outer whorl of leaves, X3. From

the Fort Union formation (early Tertiary) on Poison Spider Creek, 35 miles west of

Casper, Wyo. Fig. 6 is the spatulate end of a leaf showing the entire margin, X2.

From the Fort Union formation on the Yellowstone River at Burns Ranch, Mont.

JUNE 15, 1939 BROWN: SOME AMERICAN ISOETALES 265

Figs. 1-6.—(See opposite page for description.)

266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 6

It should be noted that the outside margins of these median undula-

tions are not so sharp as those on the inside but generally fade im-

perceptibly into the broad marginal flange. There is no trace of vena-

tion in these leaves, except for a thickened median line that may have

been a structure analogous to a midrib. Transverse to this ‘‘midrib,”’

especially in the proximad portion of the leaf, are scattered bars that

may have been internal septa.

The plant with its radial arrangement of leaves constituted either

a floating rosette or one that was elose to the soil or mud in a well-

watered situation. In the specimens (Figs. 1, 2) from the base of the

Frontier formation in Wyoming I found immediately beneath the

rosette a radiating system of dichotomous, filiform organs that appear

to have been roots. The leaves of the rosette were attached spirally

to a very much shortened, thick, upper portion of a stem or corm.

This is clearly shown in a specimen (Fig. 3) which I collected in 1936,

together with much material of the separate, broken leaves, from

the Fort Union formation on Poison Spider Creek, 35 miles west of

Casper, Wyo. At Burns Ranch, Mont., Xantholithes propheticus is

associated on the same slabs of rock with Trapa? microphylla Les-

quereux, a hydrophyte with a floating rosette and submerged, fim-

_briate, filiform leaves, anchored by a threadlike stem or root.*

Finally, the specimen (Fig. 3) from Poison Spider Creek also for-

tunately preserves the clue to the identity of all these specimens.

At the bases of the leaves are elliptic bodies of two kinds, one filled

with large cavities (me) that were once occupied by rounded objects

having ridges and a variety of surface sculpture, the other filled with

cavities (mz) only one-third or one-fourth the size of the former and

once filled with rounded objects that appear to have been compara-

tively smooth. The comparison of these elliptic bodies and their

contents with the sporangia and the megaspores and microspores of

Isoetes is obvious and is strengthened when the entire anatomy of the

fossils and their habit are compared with those of Jsoetes.

The interested reader will find a detailed discussion of the quill-

worts, Jsoetes, in Pfeiffer’ and Clute.® It will be sufficient for the

present purpose to cite only the facts that may apply to the speci-

mens under discussion.

Isoetes is essentially a rosette of numerous, short, rushlike, pointed

4 Brown, Rouanp W., and HouupswortnH, Epaar. The fruit of Trapa? micro-

phylla Lesquereux. This JoURNAL 29: 36-39, figs. 1-9. 1939.

5 PrmirFER, Norma. Monograph of the Isoetaceae. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 9:

79-232. 1922.

6 CuuTE, WILLARD N. The fern allies. New York 1905.

JUNE 15, 1939 BROWN: SOME AMERICAN ISOETALES 267

leaves, with sporangia in their axils, attached spirally to a very com-

pact 2- or 3-lobed corm from the hollows of which arise many dichot-

omously branched roots. A single collateral bundle runs through the

center of the leaf, and this, together with some surrounding tissue,

separates the hollow interior into four parallel chambers having many

cross partitions. Proximad the leaves have membranous margins,

and on the inner face near the base they carry a little flap of tissue

called a ligule. The surface pattern is a homogeneous fabric of rectan-

gular cells. Only the outer, earlier whorls of leaves produce sporangia,

the outermost producing megaspores, the inner, microspores. Both

are produced on the same plant, but in some species at different sea-

sons. The megaspores can be seen with the naked eye, but they are

generally 10 to 20 times larger than the microspores. The megaspores

are white, divided equatorially by a ridge into two hemispheres, one

of which is no farther divided, but the other is divided by ridges into

three nearly equal triangular areas. The surface is variously patterned

with spines, tubercles, pits, and serpentine forms, affording important

features for specific identification. The microspores are somewhat ir-

regularly oblong and have a smooth or slightly roughish surface.

There are about 50 species of Jsoetes, with representatives in most

parts of the world, but in general each species is remarkably re-

stricted. So far as habitat is concerned, they are classed as sub-

merged, amphibious, and terrestrial.

By comparison with the data just given, the fossils differ from all

living species of Jsoetes in the following particulars: (1) The mega-

spores are only 3 or 4 times the size of the microspores, unless the

objects here called microspores are immature megaspores. (2) The

leaves terminate in spatulate ends, with or without serrate margins.

(3) As the specimens showing sporangia are fragmentary at the point

where ligules should be looked for, nothing is definite as to the pres-

ence or absence of a ligule. (4) The outline of the cross section of

the corm, although somewhat irregular, shows no lobing.

Fossils most similar to the American specimens have been described

by Saporta’ from the Lower Cretaceous of Portugal as Isoetes choffatz,

now called Jsoetites choffati (Saporta) Seward.® Reviewing the fossil

Isoetaceae, Seward remarked that “if Saporta’s... species... is

correctly determined, it is the oldest fossil member of the family and

indeed the most satisfactory among the more than doubtful species

7SaportTa, Le Marauis pe. Flore fossile du Portugal. Direct. Trav. Geol.

Portugal, p. 134, pl. 24, fig. 2b, 9-11; pl. 25, figs. 5-8; pl. 27, fig. 6, 1894.

8 SEWARD, A. C. Fossil plants 2: 66-68. 1910.

268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 6

described as extinct species of Isoetes. .. . Such evidence as we have

lends support to the inclusion of these Portuguese fossils in the genus

Isoetes, but apart from the fact that we have no proof of any con-

nexion between the stems and supposed sporophylls, the resemblance

of the latter to those of [soetes is, perhaps, hardly sufficient to satisfy

all reasonable scepticism. .... ’’? It is hoped that the skepticism,

avowed by Seward in regard to Saporta’s Portuguese specimens, may

now be removed by the evidence supplied from the American speci-

mens reported here. As regards Saporta’s [soetopsis subaphylla from

the Eocene of Aix-en-Provence, continued doubt as to its relationship

with the Isoetaceae must be entertained.

Although not founded upon very satisfactory material, the genus

Isoetites Minster seems to have precedence and to be most appro-

priate for the fossils here under consideration. I distinguish two

American species: /soetites serratus Brown, with spatulate leaf ends

having serrate margins, and Jsoetites horridus (Dawson) Brown, with

spatulate leaf ends having entire margins.

To E. W. Berry and W. R. Maxon I am grateful for specimens and

an exchange of ideas concerning these fossils.

All specimens figured here are in the U. 8. National Museum.

Isoetites serratus Brown, n. sp. Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5

Rosettes of narrow, strap-shaped leaves with spatulate ends having a

serrate margin. The margin of the narrow portion of the leaves is entire,

membranous, and ruffled. The median line of the leaves is marked by two

parallel, closely spaced rows of squarish cavities or protuberances, depending

on the specimen. Immediately beneath the rosette of leaves is a radiating

system of dichotomously branched roots. The leaves and roots are attached

to a rounded, compact corm.

This species differs from Jsoetites horridus (Dawson) Brown chiefly in

having a serrate margin around the spatulate ends of the leaves. Whether

some other Cretaceous specimens now synonymized with J. horridus should

be included with I. serratus is a question that can be decided only when

better-preserved material from those localities is found.

Occurrence.—Base of the Frontier formation (Upper Cretaceous), in

shales weathering white, exposed in a bluff on the south side of Little

Muddy Creek, 1 mile east of Cumberland, Wyo. (Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5).

Isoetites horridus (Dawson) Brown, n. comb. Figs. 3, 6

Carpolithes horridus Dawson, Roy. Soc. Canada Trans. 1 (sec. 4): 21, pl. 1,

figs. 3, 3a, 36. 1883.

Antholithes horridus (Dawson) Dawson, idem. 3 (sec. 4): 7. 1886.

Vegetable organism, Ward, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc. 37: 199-201

1889.— Idem, 6th Ann. Rept. U. 8. Geol. Surv.: 534, 544. 1886.

JUNE 15, 1939 BROWN: SOME AMERICAN ISOETALES 269

Xantholithes propheticus Ward, Glimpses of the Cosmos, p. 150. 1915.—

Berry, Geol. Surv. Canada Mem. 182: 65, pl. 20. 1935.

Williamsonia marylandica Berry, Upper Cretaceous, Maryland Geol. Survey,

peGo) px ole tgs. O86.) LOUG:

Danaea coloradensis Knowlton, U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 131: 150,

pl. 36, fig. 4. 1923.—Berry, Torreya 24: 49. 1924.—Brown, U. 8.

Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 185—-C: 52. 1934.

Ophioglossum hastatiforme Cockerell, Torreya 24: 10, with text fig. 1924.

Xantholithes hastatiformis Cockerell, Torreya 26: 10. 1926.

Sporophylls, Berry, U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 165: 78. 1930.

This species is morphologically similar to [soetites serratus Brown, except

that it appears to be represented by larger specimens and has entire margins

around the spatulate ends of the leaves. The specimens from Poison Spider

Creek, Wyo., in addition show sporangia in the axils of the leaves, the only

American examples so far reported. These are similar to Isoetites choffata

(Saporta) Seward from Portugal, but as the latter species is not represented

by specimens showing the character of the leaf ends, it is not possible to

make further comparisons between it and the American species.

It may be that I have included in the synonymy some names attached

to fragmentary material which when better material from the same localities

or formations is found may necessitate some reallocations. In the meantime

the books will be cleared of a number of names now given to several in-

complete specimens.

Occurrence.—In Cretaceous (according to Dawson), on forks of Pine

River and Peace River, British Columbia; Kootanie series (according to

Dawson), on middle branch of north fork of Old Man River, southwestern

Alberta; Mentor formation (Lower Cretaceous), 8 miles south of Hanston,

Hodgeman County, Kans.; Magothy formation (Upper Cretaceous), Little

Round Bay, Anne Arundel County, Md.; Tullock formation (early Ter-

tiary), on Moon Creek, 10 miles west of Miles City, Mont.; in carbonaceous

shales (early Tertiary) in North Dakota, 3 miles north of Watauga, South

Dakota; Fort Union formation (early Tertiary), on Poison Spider Creek,

35 miles west of Casper, Wyo. (Fig. 3); idem, west flank of Cedar Creek

anticline, 12 miles southwest of Glendive, Mont.; idem, left bank of Yellow-

stone River at Burns Ranch, 28 miles northeast of Glendive, Mont. (Fig. 6);

Ravenscrag formation (early Tertiary), northwest sec. 35, T. 5, R. 1 W. of

3d meridian, Saskatchewan; probably Wasatch formation (Eocene), south-

west 7 sec. 18, T. 6 N., R. 4 W., north of Tipperary, Wyo.; Green River

formation (middle Eocene), Rio Blanco County, Colo.

270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 6

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

290TH MEETING

The 290th regular meeting was held May 38, 1938, in the assembly hall of

the Cosmos Club, President GRavATT presiding; attendance 85. Morris A.

HUBERMAN was elected to membership.

Notes and Reviews—M. C. Merritu called attention to the Boysen

berry, which was advertised as being adapted to Eastern United States.

Kenneth Raper called attention to the program of the Virginia Academy

of Sciences being held May 5, 6, and 7 at Blacksburg, Va.

Program.—W ALTER T. SwWINGLE: New methods utilized in studying the

taxonomy of the orange subfamily. (Albert H. Tellison demonstrated

microtome sections of flowers from herbarium material.) In 1918 Prof. H.

O. Juel, of the University of Uppsala, Sweden, published a taxonomic study

of the plant family Rosaceae. He had to use herbarium material for some of

the genera and devised a method of restoring dried flowers and young fruits

by softening them, first in hot water, then in hot dilute ammonia. This

material was then dehydrated, imbedded in paraffin, and cut into serial

microtome sections. :

With the skilled assistance of A. H. Tillson, Dr. Swingle has used Juel’s

method with good results in a taxonomic study of Crtrus and related genera.

Some 150,000 serial sections were made, mostly from herbarium material.

Juel’s method has been improved in some details; for instance, by treating

the softened and swollen material with a suitable fixative before dehydrat-

ing it. Very hard material was desilicified and softened by treating carefully

with the proper strength of hydrofluoric acid, which has been used so effec-

tively by Prof. E. C. Jeffrey. All these treatments were carried out in such

a manner as to permit the best and most brilliant double staining of the

tissues. This improved method made it possible to work out a new classifica-

tion of the orange subfamily Aurantioideae and to add several new genera

and a few new subtribes that permit a natural arrangement of all the genera.

Lantern slides were shown of longitudinal and cross sections of flower buds,

flowers, and young fruits taken from herbarium specimens. Doubled-stained

permanently mounted microtome sections of such material were demon-

strated with a compound microscope.

Haia DrermMen: Cytological analysis of polyploidy induced by colchicine

and extremes of temperature. The methods of inducing polyploidy in the

meiotic and somatic cells of Rhoeo discolor with colchicine and temperature

changes were described. Gross and cytological observations were pre-

sented concerning somatic changes brought about by colchicine treatment

of the Rhoeo flower parts. It was found that colchicine enters tissues and

inhibits cell division, while the nucleus and cell volume may increase, pre-

sumably, as long as colchicine is present in sufficient quantity to be effective

until such an increase is checked by some other factors.

Colchicine is effective on both premeiotic and meiotic cells. Pollen mother

cells derived from affected premeiotic tissue may be 4n, 8n, or higher, de-

pending upon how young the treated buds were at the time colchicine was

applied and how many times division in the premeiotic cells has previously

failed before being differentiated into meiotic cells. By affecting normal pol-

len mother cells, either diploid pollen grains are produced if the effect of

JUNE 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 271

colchicine is after reductional division or tetraploid pollen grains if the effect

is before reductional division. The treatment was apparently ineffective in

causing chromosome doubling in microspores.

The immediate result of temperature treatments was the same as that of

colchicine. However, it was shown that the effect of temperature changes is

immediate and not extended, as is usually the case with colchicine. Here lies

the most important difference in the effects of these two methods. It was

suggested that temperature effect may be more specific on chromosomes,

while colchicine effect may be more specific on cytoplasm.

Evidence was presented to account for the fact that by temperature-

treatment the percentage of polyploid seeds in heat-treated material is small,

and an attempt was made to account for the rarity of polyploidy occurring

in nature.

In temperature-treated material, fragmentation, fusion, and chromatin

bridging occurred. It was suggested that clumping brought about by

temperature treatment is responsible for these features.

Some suggestions were presented for plant breeders who are interested in

doing experiments in polyploidy.

Eric HuitTen (Curator of Herbarium, Lund, Sweden): Flora of Alaska.

291sT MEETING

The 291st meeting was held October 4, 1938, in the assembly hall of the

Cosmos Club; President GRAVATT presiding; attendance 90.

Notes and Reviews.—M. B. Wattt exhibited seeds from bamboos growing

at Stony Run near Baltimore. He also stated there was a large crop of

persimmons this year although other fruit crops were small. The persimmon

blooms in June. It ripened in September in southern Maryland one month

before frost.

Frank Thone exhibited several new books: Herbals, by Agnes Arber;

The world was my garden—Travels of a plant explorer, by David Fairchild;

Textbook of general botany, by Hollman and Robbins; Ferns of Southeastern

States, by John Kunkel Small; Tree growth, by D. T. MacDougal; Flora of

Costa Rica, publication of the Field Museum; Famous trees, a U. 8. Depart-

ment of Agriculture publication; Textbook of pharmaceutical botany, by H. W.

Younker.

Program.—WiuuiaM A. Dayton: Ecology of western range plants. The

U.S. Forest Service is primarily concerned with a multiple-use land problem,

in which forest, range, wildlife, recreation, water, sociological, and other

phases must be correlated and integrated. Nearly 40 percent of the land

area of the United States (728 million acres) is in range, of which about 90

million acres are in national forests. Forest Service range research is chiefly

concentrated at six forest and range experiment stations. Range vegetation

is chiefly composed of over 10,000 species of flowering plants, about 1,000

of which are “‘key’”’ plants, on which adequate range management must

primarily depend. The approach to their study is an ecological one. Pub-

lished research on range plants, in addition to the strictly economic phases,

physiology and chemistry, thus far largely concerns succession, methods of

reproduction, life history, indicator values, and reaction to biotic factors.

Use of the quadrat to help solve land-management problems appears to have

ee initiated in 1907 in range studies on the Wallowa National Forest,

regon.

L. F. Martin: Proteins in healthy and mosaic tobacco. Developments in

plant virus investigations leading to the isolation of paracrystalline and

272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 6

crystalline virus nucleoproteins were reviewed briefly. The problem of virus

multiplication has thus become a problem of protein synthesis. The nature

of this synthesis is still obscure, as revealed by recent speculations of Berg-

mann on the “organizer hypothesis” and his suggestion that all proteins are

their own organizers.

The unusual resistance of native virus nucleoprotein to tryptic digestion

makes it possible to estimate the amount of this substance in whole plant

tissue, and to determine its rate of synthesis and relation to the normal

protein fraction. Results of a preliminary study of the changes during the

course of infection show that displacement of normal proteins by virus pro-

tein occurs only during the first three to five days after inoculation. Follow-

ing this there is a very rapid accumulation of virus protein, accompanied by

increased production of total proteins, so that the virus protein is present in

excess of the normal proteins. During the later stages until maturity the

amount of virus protein diminishes gradually. Further work along these

lines is required to explain the mechanism of these changes involved in the

production cf virus in the host. ;

G. R. FEsseENDEN: Preservation of plant color in plant specimens. ‘This

process has been in development for 13 years and is still not yet out of the

experimental stage. It consists essentially in immersing fresh plant material

in complex viscous mixtures, which tend to set pigment colors and fix tis-

sues, at the same time removing cell-sap. A wide range of formula modifica-

tion is necessitated by individual biochemical differences of various types of

plants. When pigments and tissues have thus been preserved, specimens are

sealed between cellulose films (or between glass and film) so as to be pro-

tected from mechanical injury and damage from insects or mold. Mounts

are provided with backgrounds that may be hinged to allow viewing of both

sides.

Specimens thus preserved and mounted are suited for museum display;

herbarium reference use; agricultural records and demonstrations (especially

for plant breeding, pathological conditions, and nutritional deficiencies) ;

educational use in class rooms and libraries; horticultural exhibits; plant

exploration.

AuicE M. ANDERSEN, Secretary

Tee My >

ee :

~ WR ta cote

CONTENTS

Puysics.—Recent advances in the investigation of cosmic rays.

Tuomas H. JOHNSON......... OS ee ee

Botany.—Concerning Ardisia crispa (Thunb.) A. DC. and A.

crenata Sims, confused species of Myrsinaceae from eastern

Asia.. HGBERT H. WALKER. Gg. 4. oe...

PALEOBOTANY.—Some American fossil plants belonging to the Isoe-

tales. Rouanp W. BROWN.-<............. Are ar ka ee

PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY...... Gn Ree Beemrcsy te y

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Page

233

256

261

SF op

: AC ey Range

Dew:

Vou. 29

JuLy 15, 1939 No. 7

JOURNAL

OF THE

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BOARD OF EDITORS

FREDERICK D. Rossini C. Lewis GAZIN JAMES H. Kempton

NATIONAL BURBAU OF STANDARDS U. 8: NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Lewis V. JupDsON Austin H. CLarKx

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

H. H. T. Jackson

GEORGE TUNELL

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Jason R. SWALLEN Henry B. Couuins, JR.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCISTY

FRANK C. KRACEK

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 29 Juny 15, 1939 . No. 7

PALEONTOLOGY .—A further contribution to the Dragon Paleocene

fauna of central Utah.1 C. Lewis Gazin, U. 8. National Mu-

seum.

Additional material of Paleocene Mammalia from the upper por-

tion of the North Horn formation in central Utah was obtained by

the 1938 Smithsonian Institution expedition in search of fossil verte-

brates. The greater part of the collection was made from deposits of

limited exposure in Dragon Canyon, in the western half of section

8, T.1958., R. 6 E. A few specimens were collected at a locality on the

south end of Wagon Road Ridge to the west of Dragon Canyon and

at a much higher elevation. The North Horn formation, together

with the capping Flagstaff limestone and the older rocks, is much

faulted in this region, and the Paleocene deposits in Dragon Canyon

are a part of a depressed block separated by one or more north-south

striking faults from the higher standing rocks of Paleocene age in the

mountainous masses to the east and to the west.

The new materials collected during the 1938 season show the Drag-

on fauna to be more varied than had been recognized from the less

extensive, though important, collection made in 1937. The specimens

so far found are more fragmentary than the average of those coming

from the better known deposits in the San Juan Basin and Crazy

Mountain fields. In addition to crocodile and champsosaurid re-

mains, the collection now includes material representing about 19

mammalian forms, of these 9 are recognized as new species, and three

new genera are proposed. The following is a list of the Mammalia:

MULTITUBERCULATA:

Catopsalis utahensis, n. sp.

Ptilodus sp.

INSECTIVORA:

A phronorus simpsont Gazin

Insectivore? gen. and sp. undet.

PRIMATES?:

Primate? gen. and sp. undet.

* Published by permission of the Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Received

March 1, 1939.

Fabs; fy

: | : f

aul 4

274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

TAEPNIODONTA:

Conoryctella dragonensis, n. gen. and sp.

CARNIVORA:

Protogonodon? spiekerit Gazin

Oxyclaenus? sp.

Oxyclaenid near T'ricentes

Didymictis? sp.

TALIGRADA:

Periptychus gilmoret Gazin

Anisonchus dracus, n. sp.

Amisonchus onostus, n. sp.

Haploconus inopinatus, n. sp.

CONDYLARTHRA:

Dracoclaenus griphus, n. gen. and sp.

Ellupsodon shepherdi, n. sp.

Ellipsodon? sternbergi, n. sp.

Ellipsodon? sp.

Jepsenia mantiensis, n. gen. and sp.

Most of the above forms are rather sparsely represented, the Con-

dylarthra including the more common forms. Material of Ellipsodon

and of the new group Dracoclaenus is relatively most abundant, al-

though that of periptychids, especially Periptychus gilmoret, is not

uncommon.

The intermediate character of the fauna between that of the Puerco

and that of the Torrejon, previously noted in the relationships of

Periptychus gilmorei and of Protogonodon? spiekeri, is further indi-

cated in the relationships of Conoryctella dragonensis and of Ani-

sonchus dracus. These have related types in both the Puerco and

Torrejon faunas. The remaining forms in the Dragon fauna either

do not have comparable types in one or the other of the two San

Juan horizons or the material is too fragmentary to permit more than

the most casual comparisons. Five of the forms listed—Catopsalis,

Ptilodus, Aphronorus, Didymictis, and Haploconus—suggest in name

a closer approach to the Torrejon stage. Such may be the case; how-

ever, since the ancestry of these forms in the Puerco horizon is not

known, the relative position in time which they suggest is doubtful.

The problems of each of the forms will be discussed under their re-

spective headings.

I wish to acknowledge the courtesy extended by Dr. Walter

Granger in permitting comparisons with Paleocene materials in the

American Museum of Natural History and by Dr. Glenn L. Jepsen,

of Princeton University, in permitting me to examine Paleocene ma-

terials from the Big Horn Basin. The drawings illustrating certain of

the Dragon specimens were made by Sydney Prentice.

Juny 15,1939 GAZIN: PALEOCENE FAUNA OF UTAH 275

SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF THE MATERIAL

MULTITUBERCULATA

Catopsalis utahensis, n. sp.

Type.—Left M,, U.S.N.M. no. 15757.

Horizon and locality —Dragon Paleocene, Dragon Canyon, Emery Coun-

ty, Utah.

Specific characters.—Cusp formula: M, 6:4. Length of M; approximately

12 mm. Width 6.5 mm. |

Description.—A single first lower molar is recognized as representing a

taeniolabid multituberculate. The tooth exhibits the simple type of pattern

seen in Catopsalis from the Torrejon rather than the more specialized dental

structure of the Puerco Taenzolabis. It differs from species of Catopsalis

known from the Torrejon of the San Juan Basin in the cusp formula of M).

In Catopsalis foliatus it is 5:4, and in C. fissidens the formula is 6:5 or better.

Moreover, the tooth appears relatively wider than in either of the Torrejon

species. C’. calgariensis Russell from the Paskapoo was described from a sec-

ond lower molar; hence no satisfactory comparison is possible.

The relative position in time of the genera Taeniolabis and Catopsalis, as

pointed out by Granger and Simpson, appears paradoxical; consequently

one should expect to find, eventually, other taeniolabids representing an-

cestral stages of Catopsalis in beds earlier than Torrejon. The single tooth of

C.. utahensis does not seem to present any significant evidence as to ancestral

stages in the development of the genus Catopsalis, but appears only to ex-

tend its known geologic range to a somewhat earlier part of the Paleocene.

Ptilodus sp.

A lower jaw fragment, U.S.N.M. no. 15730, including the basal portion

of the incisor and the anterior part of Ps is considered to represent Ptzlodus,

a conclusion in which Dr. G. L. Jepsen of Princeton University concurs. The

material is too incomplete to permit specific comparisons, but the specimen

indicates an animal not greatly different in size from Ptilodus mediaevus of

the Torrejon. |

Material of Ptilodus is not known elsewhere in beds earlier than Torre-

jon; hence a consideration of the development of Ptzlodus during earlier

Paleocene time remains speculative and based on what is known of related

types in the Cretaceous. Here again, vide Granger and Simpson, the position

of Ptilodus relative to the more specialized EHucosmodon, known from the

Puerco as well as the Torrejon, seems capricious but indicates a diversity of

phyletic lines.

INSECTIVORA

Aphronorus simpsoni Gazin

Only a few fragmentary specimens of this form were obtained by the 1938

expedition. These add little or nothing to the diagnosis made in the original

description. Except for a noticeably worn upper molar, tentatively referred

to this form, the material consists of lower teeth or jaw portions.

Insectivore? gen. and sp. undet.

A jaw fragment with M; and perhaps other isolated teeth may represent

one of more Insectivora other than A phronorus.

276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 7

PRIMATES?

Primate? gen. and sp. undet.

In a fragment of a jaw, U.S.N.M. no. 15719, a molar tooth, M, or Mg, in

which the crown of the trigonid is broken away, exhibits a talonid portion so

closely resembling that in the Fort Union primates as to indicate strongly

affinities with that group. The heel shows a wide basin with a prominent

hypoconid and somewhat less important entoconid, no accessory cuspules

and the posterior wall of the tooth appears only slightly convex between the

two cusps. The specimen is close to Paromomys maturus Gidley in size but

pe does not represent the same genus. The talonid portion has a width

of 2 mm.

If the affinities of this very fragmentary specimen are properly under-

stood, it represents the earliest primate known.

TAENIODONTA

Conoryctella, n. gen.

Type.—Conoryctella dragonensis, n. sp.

Generic characters—Near Conoryctes but P* not molariform, tritocone

(metacone) not comparable to protocone and deuterocone in development,

and no indication of a metaconule. Teeth less hypsodont, cusps lower, with

heavy cingulum around outer cusps of upper molars. Mesostyle less promi-

nent. Paraconid in M,? unreduced in a referred specimen.

Conorcytella dragonensis, n. sp. Ries 1

Type.—Portion of left maxilla with P* to M?, U.S.N.M. no. 15704.

Horizon and locality— Dragon Paleocene, Dragon Canyon, Emery Coun-

ty, Utah.

Specific characters.—Smaller than Conoryctes comma but much larger than

Onychodectes tisonensis.

Description.—The upper teeth, made the type of Conoryctella dragonensis,

are only a little smaller than in Conoryctes comma but distinctly larger than

in Onychodectes tisonensis. The Dragon form is about intermediate between

these two species in degree of hypsodonty. P* is not so nearly molariform as

in C’. comma and has the lingual portion more compressed anteroposteriorly.

The protocone and deuterocone are prominent conical cusps, and the tri-

tocone, though damaged, is seen to be but weakly developed as compared to

the two other cusps. The lingual portion of this tooth does not appear cres-

centic; nevertheless, a low crest or cingulum extends along the posterior por-

tion between the deuterocone and tritocone.

The paracone and metacone in the first two molars, as far as preserved, are

seen to be conical and low and are separated from the outer margin of the

teeth by a heavy cingulum. The mesostyle, though present, is not so strongly

developed as in C. comma. It is absent in O. tisonensis. The anteroexternal

and posteroexternal angles of the teeth are more rounded than in O. tzsonen-

sits and do not exhibit styles at these points such as in the Puerco form.

The anteroposterior diameters of the upper teeth, P* to M?, are approxi-

mately 7.5, 8.2, and 7.4 mm, respectively. Any transverse measurements

would be highly arbitrary.

A lower jaw fragment, U.S.N.M. no. 15722, with a molar tooth, appar-

ently M,, may represent Conoryctella dragonensis, although it is from an in-

dividual somewhat smaller than the type. The tooth is about intermediate

between O. tisonensis and C. comma in hypsodonty but apparently a little

Sumy 15; 1939 GAZIN: PALEOCENE FAUNA OF UTAH 277

nearer O. tisonensis in size. The trigonid of the tooth possesses a moderately

developed paraconid situated much as in M; of O. tisonensis. The heel or

talonid, though partially obscured by matrix is relatively broad, appears to

be deeply basined and to have a somewhat cuspidate crest, approaching the

condition seen in C. comma.

The Dragon lower tooth does not exhibit the basal accessory cuspule an-

teroexternal to the hypocone seen in Onychodectes rarus.

CARNIVORA

Protogonodon? spiekeri Gazin

Only a third upper molar and a portion of a lower molar of Protogonodon?

spiekeri were added to the collection by the 1938 expedition. The characters

of these teeth were known from material collected in 1937; hence nothing

new can be added to the diagnosis of this form.

Oxyclaenus? sp.

A lower jaw fragment, U.S.N.M. no. 15776, with Me and part of M,, re-

sembles closely, in the characters of Me, a lower tooth belonging to the type

Oxyclaenus simplex and material referred to O. cuspidatus. It differs from

these only in having the crest connecting the paraconid and protoconid ex-

tending slightly less anteroexternally, in the absence of a very small cuspule

probably unimportant, anterior to the entoconid, which tends to close the

talonid basin internally in the Puerco material, and in somewhat less de-

velopment of the hypoconulid. The second molar has about the proportions

of the lower tooth belonging with the type of O. simplex and exhibits a well-

marked external cingulum.

Another lower molar, no. 15784, apparently an M,, possibly of the same

form, is distinguished by having the paraconid somewhat more median in

position and lacking the external cingulum.

Oxyclaenid, near Tricentes

An isolated upper molar, U.S.N.M. no. 15783, apparently Mu, is recog-

nized as coming from an oxyclaenid type of creodont belonging to or near

Tricentes. The tooth is about one-fifth smaller than in Tricentes subtrigonus

from the Torrejon. The cusps have about the same conical appearance, and

the hypocone occupies a position equivalent to that in Tricentes: also, the

cingulum is not continuous across the buccal surface of the paracone, a con-

dition characteristic of M! in Tricentes. However, the enamel appears less

rugose than in 7. subtrigonus and the cingulum lingually is not continuous

across the protocone.

Didymictis? sp.

A fourth lower premolar, U.S.N.M. no 15763, apparently represents the

genus Didymictis. The tooth is only slightly smaller than in Didymictis hay-

denianus from the Torrejon but does not have the first cuspule posterior to

the large cusp so distinctly set off from this primary cusp. The cuspules of

the talonid are more nearly in the median line of the tooth than was observed

‘in D. haydenianus. The tooth is distinctly larger than in D. microlestes from

the Crazy Mountain locality in the Fort Union of Montana.

An isolated fourth upper premolar may possibly belong to Didymictis but

is too small to belong to the form represented by the lower tooth. Moreover,

the deuterocone portion does not extend forward so markedly as in the Tor-

rejon material of Didymictis, a condition suggestive of Ictidopappus, but the

278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

posterior cusp, though prominent, is not developed into so nearly a shearing

blade as in either Didymictis or Ictidopappus.

TALIGRADA

Periptychus gilmorei Gazin

Several additional specimens of this large peritychid were obtained in 1938,

the most significant being portions of the right and left rami of a lower jaw,

U.S.N.M. no 15689, exhibiting P, to M3. This material further warrants the

conclusions drawn from the upper dentitions figured in an earlier paper. The

lower teeth are also nearly intermediate in most respects between Carsiop-

tychus coarctatus from the Puerco and Periptychus carinidens of the Torrejon.

The protocone of P, is not directed posteriorly so markedly as in C. coarcta-

tus, and a small anterointernal cusp is present, this being prominent in P.

carinidens but usually absent in C. coarctatus. On the posterointernal por-

tion of the tooth there is a small cusp; the talonid, however, is not developed

so much as in P. carinidens. The extent to which a metaconid has become

distinct from the protoconid can not be exactly determined, owing to wear,

but it is clearly not separated to the extent seen in P. carinidens.

The lower molars are wider than in the Carszoptychus material at hand but

not so wide as is common in Torrejon material of Periptychus. These teeth

show a slight cingulum around the external side, which was not observed in

material of the other forms. The small seventh cusp located about in the

center of the crown of the lower molars of Periptychus carinidens is not pres-

ent in the first two molars of P. gilmorei but is weakly developed in M3. This

cusp is not known in Carsioptychus.

TABLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETERS) OF LOWER

TEETH OF Periptychus gilmore

P, M, M> M;

Anteroposterior diameter... «45 sa6 9 14s ae lal 10.3 10 11.5

APransverses diameter cine el oets seeee ee ea 9.6 Sea 9.7 9

Anisonchus dracus, n. sp. Fig. 2

Type.—Maxillary fragment with P* to M’, U.S.N.M. no 15745.

Horizon and localityx— Dragon Paleocene, Dragon Canyon, Emery Coun-

tiny Ueto, i

Specific characters.—Intermediate in position of cusps and in relative pro-

portions of the upper cheek teeth between Anisonchus gillianus and A. sec-

torius.

Description.—The maxillary fragment, no. 15745, with cheek teeth P* to

M? inclusive, clearly belongs to the genus Anzsonchus and is intermediate in

the observed characters between A. gillianus and A. sectorius of the Puerco

and Torrejon, respectively. As has been noted in the comparisons of Perz-

ptychus gilmorei with comparable forms in the Puerco and Torrejon, the up-

per cheek teeth in the Dragon Anisonchus are of an intermediate character

in the relation of the length to the width of the crowns.

The Dragon form approaches A. sectorius in size but retains relatively

wider teeth transversely, and longitudinally a little shorter, and the cusp

pattern is not so restricted transversely. The upper teeth appear also to have

a longer, more gradually sloping lingual wall, with a somewhat more |in-

gually placed hypocone column. The lingual portion of P* seems more con-

Junmy 15, 1939 GAZIN: PALEOCENE FAUNA OF UTAH 279

stricted anteroposteriorly and apparently has a less conspicuously developed

lingual crescent.

A. gillianus has teeth relatively wide transversely, the length of the tooth

Fig. 1.—Conoryctella dragonensis, n. gen. and sp. Left P* to M?, type, U.S.N.M.

no. 15704. Lateral and occlusal views. X1.8. Fig. 2.—Anisonchus dracus, n. sp.

Left P* to M3, type, U.S.N.M. no. 15745. Lateral and occlusal views. X3. Fig. 3.—

Anisonchus onostus, n. sp. Left M; and Mo, type, U.S.N.M. no. 15788. Occlusal

and lateral views. X3. Fig. 4.—Haploconus inopinatus, n. sp. Left M! and M?,

type, U.S:N.M. no. 15760. Lateral and occlusal views. <3.

row shorter, and the hypocone is placed more lingually with respect to the

metacone, and to a certain extent with respect to the protocone, than in A.

sectorius.

Two isolated jaw fragments, U.S.N.M. nos. 15715 and 15787, each with

280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

a single molar, presumably both Me, are nearly equal in size to Anisonchus

seclorius and show no significant differences from either A. sectorius or A.

gilianus. However, the crest connecting the hypoconid to the trigonid ap-

pears distinctly lower than that connecting the entoconid to the meta-

conid. This condition was noted in an M, of A. gillzanus but not in other

specimens of either this species or A. sectorius. Moreover, the hypoconulid

does not project backward in the molars referred to Anisonchus dracus quite

so far asin Mo of A. sectorzus, a condition approximated in Mp of A. gillianus,

though possibly of doubtful significance.

TABLE 2.—MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETERS) OF UPPER

TEETH OF Anisonchus dracus

P4 M} M2 M3

Anteroposterior diameter............... 5? 4.4? 4.8 4?

Greatest transverse diameter........... 6.6? Lo®

Anisonchus onostus, n. sp. ; Fig. 3

Type.—Left ramus of mandible with M, and Mz, U.S.N.M. no 15788.

Horizon and locality —Dragon Paleocene, Dragon Canyon, Emery Coun-

ty, Utah.

Specific characters—Near Anisonchus gillianus in size. Teeth slightly

lower crowned and cusps of talonids more widely spaced.

Description.—A nisonchus onostus is decidedly smaller than A. dracus, be-

ing very near the Puerco form A. gillianus in size but with the cusps on the

talonid of both M, and Mz slightly more widely spaced, though having the

cut characterizing the anisonchines. This spacing of the cusps gives the teeth

a somewhat wider appearance, whereas actually they are a trifle narrower

than those in several specimens of A. gillzanus with which comparisons were

made. The teeth also appear somewhat lower crowned than those of A. gil-

lianus exhibiting about the same wear.

The anteroposterior diameters of the first and second lower molars are

4.3 and 4.1 mm, respectively. The transverse diameters are 2.9 and 3.2 mm.

Haploconus inopinatus, n. sp. Fig. 4

Type.—Portion of left maxilla with M! and M?, U.S.N.M. no. 15760.

Horizon and locality.— Dragon Paleocene, Dragon Canyon, Emery Coun-

ty, Utah.

Specific characters.—Size small. Second molars much wider transversely

than first molars. Protostyle prominent. Slight development of metaconule.

Description.—A second genus of anisonchine periptychids is represented

by a maxillary portion with M! and most of M?. The form apparently rep-

resents Haploconus as indicated by the prominent lingual position of the

hypocone. It appears in size to be close to the Torrejon material referred to

Haploconus angustus but with the teeth relatively wider transversely and

with M? relatively much wider than M!. A difference in width between M!

and M? was noted in certain specimens of Haploconus referred to A. angustus

but apparently the difference is not so marked as in Haploconus inopinatus.

The two upper molars show a slight development of a metaconule, but

inost noticeable is the distinct protostyle that characterizes teeth in Haplo-

conus corniculatus. H. inopinaius is much smaller than the type of H. corni-

culatus, and in the latter the upper molars appear to be relatively as well as

actually much longer anteroposteriorly than in the Dragon form.

JuLY 15, 1939 GAZIN: PALEOCENE FAUNA OF UTAH 281

The anteroposterior diameter of the first upper molar is 4.3 mm. The

greatest transverse diameters of the first and second upper molars are 6.1

and 7.1 mm, respectively.

A lower jaw portion, U.S.N.M. no. 15744, with M, and Mz poorly pre-

served, and partially obscured by ironlike matrix, appears to represent

Haploconus in the absence of a paraconid and in the bladelike form of the

protoconid on M,. It corresponds closely in size to the type of Haploconus

angustus, but with M, narrower, particularly the anterior portion, and M,

wider than in the Torrejon form. This suggests that the premolars in the

Dragon form may not have been so robust as in the Torrejon stage.

CONDYLARTHRA

Dracoclaenus, n. gen.

Type.—Dracoclaenus griphus, n. sp.

Generic characters.—Near Protoselene, but P* much more inflated and with

tritocone almost indistinct. Anteroexternal and posteroexternal styles on P#

prominent. M! appreciably smaller than M?. External cingulum on upper

molars strong and mesostyle present though distinct from crest connecting

paracone and metacone, paraconid on lower molars more lingual in position

than in Protoselene, and in Mz this cusp is less reduced and not placed so low.

Talonid on lower molars somewhat shallower and narrower between hypo-

conid and entoconid.

Dracoclaenus griphus, n. sp. Figs. 5-7

Type.—Fragment of right maxilla with M! and M2, U.S.N.M. no. 15789.

Horizon and locality Dragon Paleocene, Dragon Canyon, Emery Coun-

ty, Utah.

Specific characters.—Close in size to Protoselene opisthacus.

Description.—The material here considered to represent the new form

Dracoclaenus griphus most closely resembles that of the Torrejon form Pro-

toselene opisthacus but differs from it in several respects. A relatively large

number of specimens, though fragmentary, are considered as representing

this new form and three are figured and form the basis for the description.

P* in specimen no. 15705 is larger and more inflated than in P. opisthacus,

approaching in this respect P* in Mioclaenus turgidus, but with less reduc-

tion of the cingulum and no metaconule such as usually present in M. turg7-

dus. The tritocone of P*in Dracoclaenus griphus is almost indistinct from the

protocone, whereas this tooth in P. opzsthacus exhibits a division of the main

outer cusp into a prominent protocone and a lesser tritocone placed close to-

gether. The anteroexternal and posteroexternal styles are more prominent

on P+ of the Dragon form, and a slightly better developed cingulum, though

discontinuous, is indicated on the outer surface.

The upper molars, M! and M2, in no. 15789 resemble closely those in

Protoselene opisthacus, but the difference in size between these teeth is more

noticeable than in the Torrejon form. The external cingulum is more promi-

nent and more markedly crescentic about each the paracone and metacone.

The mesostyle is about as well developed as in P. opisthacus but distinctly

separated from the crest which extends between the paracone and metacone.

In P. opisthacus the mesostyle extends outward as a spur or projection from

this crest.

Another upper dentition, including P! to M2, no. 15703, resembles the

type in most characters of the molars but has a weaker hypocone on both

molars and a very weak metaconule on M2. The anteroexternal angle of M?

982 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou, 29, NO..7

Figs. 5-10—(See opposite page for description.)

JuLY 15, 1939 GAZIN: PALEOCENE FAUNA OF UTAH 283

extends forward somewhat more, suggestive of the oxyclaenids, but has the

mesostyle, particularly in M!, as in no. 15789. The external cingulum is not

so crescentic around the outer cusps, the outer wall being more nearly

straight. P* is similar but a little smaller than in nos. 15705 and 15780. This

specimen, no. 15703, may represent a distinct species of Dracoclaenus or may

possibly be of an oxyclaenid, close in size to Oxyclaenus simplex, however,

P‘ and M! more closely resemble the Dracoclaenus material.

The lower jaw portion, no. 15773, considered by comparison to represent

Dracoclaenus griphus, also resembles material of Protoselene. It corresponds

closely in size to P. opisthacus, but has the paraconid on M,; and M, more in-

ternal in position, and in M; it is not placed so low and is less reduced than

in P. opisthacus. The talonid basin is apparently not so deep and is narrower

between the hypoconid and entoconid. A slight accessory cusp is present on

the anterior crest of the entoconid nearly as prominent as in P. opisthacus.

An M3, no. 15752, in the collection, possibly belonging to this form, does

not so closely resemble P. opisthacus. The paraconid, though low, is placed

more internal than is usual in the Torrejon form. Moreover, the entoconid is

not so simple as usual in P. opisthacus, exhibiting three small cusps in this

position, and the hypoconulid is more distinctly separated from the hypo-

conid.

TABLE 3.—MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETERS) OF UppER TExETH, No. 15789,

AND Lower TrExEtH, No. 15773, or Dracoclaenus griphus

M}! M2 M, M>

Anteroposterior diameter............... 5.4 5683 5.3

MransverseGlameter. ... 652... 5..5 60 ee 6.4 Meo + 4.4

Ellipsodon shepherdi, n. sp. Figs. 8-9

Type.—Right ramus of mandible with Mz and M3, U.S.N.M. no. 15721.

H ae and locality.—Dragon Paleocene, Dragon Canyon, Emery Coun-

ty, Utah.

Specific characters.—Teeth somewhat smaller than in Hllipsodon lemuroides

and a little larger than in LE. acolytus. P* with a metaconule, distinct from

cingulum. Paraconid distinct and lingually placed in M2 and M3. M? and

M; reduced in size. |

Description.—Ellipsodon shepherdi, as indicated by the type lower jaw,

is slightly smaller than H. lemuroides, and the molars M, and Ms; are rela-

tively narrower. M; is reduced to about the same extent as in F/. lemuroides,

more reduced than in the smaller forms, HL. aequidens, E. acolytus, and E.

aquilonius, but less reduced than in the Puerco species, LH. priscus, and pos-

sibly somewhat less reduced than in the genotype, HL. inaequidens. The para-

conid of the last two lower molars is more distinct in the Dragon form than

in any of the previously known species of Hllipsodon, much better developed

Fig. 5.—Dracoclaenus griphus, n. gen. and sp. Right M! and M?, type, U.S.N.M.

no. 15789. Lateral and occlusal views. X3. Fig. 6.—Dracoclaenus griphus, n. gen.

and sp. P* and M! (part), U.S.N.M. no. 15705. Lateral and occlusal views. X3.

Fig. 7.—Dracoclaenus griphus, n. gen. and sp. Right M; and Mz, U.S.N.M. no.

15773. Occlusal and lateral views. X3. Fig. 8.—Ellipsodon shepherdi, n. sp. Right

M, and Ms, type, U.S.N.M. no. 15721. Occlusal and lateral views. X3. Fig. 9.—

Ellipsodon shepherdi, n. sp. Right P* to M?, U.S.N.M. no. 15790. Lateral and

occlusal views. X3. Fig. 10.—Jepsenia mantiensis, n. gen. and sp. Right M! to

M$, type, U.S.N.M. no. 15747. Lateral and occlusal views. <3.

284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

and more lingually placed than in EF. aequidens, but only slightly more prom-

inent than in FE. aquilonius. The talonids of Mz and M3; are more distinctly

basined than in Torrejon material referred to H. inaequidens, but less dis-

tinctly basined than in E. aquilonius from Montana, also, the talonid on Ms;

is better developed than in the Puerco form, EH. priscus. Moreover, the talo-

nid of M2 in FE. shepherd does not exhibit so prominent a hypoconulid as in

E.. aequidens, but shows a more distinct entoconid than in FL. inaequidens.

The upper teeth, P* to M?, in the maxilla, U.S.N.M. no. 15790, referred to

Ellipsodon shepherd: are relatively smaller than in the type lower jaw and ap-

proach somewhat closer to EL. acolytus than to E. lemuroides in size, however,

this difference within the Dragon material may not be greater than can be

accounted for by individual variation.

P* shows a cusp in the position that would be occupied by the metaconule

in the molars. This is absent in the somewhat smaller P? of the Puerco form,

E. priscus, but was observed in certain specimens of the later material. P+

is noticeably larger than in EH. aequidens, and M! and M? are relatively long-

er. |

An M?if properly referred, indicates this tooth to be more reduced than

in FL. lemuroides, and much more reduced than in E. acolytus, E. aequidens,

and EF. aquilonius.

The upper teeth do not closely resemble those in the genotype, E. inae-

quidens. ‘The upper teeth in the latter exhibit smooth crests running to the

protocone and weak or undeveloped cingula.

TABLE 4.— MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETERS) OF UprpER TEETH, No. 15790,

AND Lower TrxEtu, No. 15721, or Ellipsodon shepherdt

Pe M! M? Me M;

ANtEKOpPOSterior, diamMeteransss= sie 3.7 3.9 3.6 4.4 3.8

dirans Verse diam Clem sweaiarts tease es se a ae 4.5 4.9 5.8* 4 2.9

* Greatest transverse diameter.

Ellipsodon? sternbergi, n. sp.

Type.—Fragment of right ramus of mandible with M3; and part of Ma,

U-SIN ME no. 15755:

Horizon and locality.—Dragon Paleocene, Dragon Canyon, Emery Coun-

ty, Utah.

Specific characters.—Considerably more robust than Ellipsodon shepherdi

or E. lemuroides but much smaller than Mioclaenus turgidus. Molars simple

and relatively broad. M; oval in shape and reduced in size.

Description.—A species nearly intermediate in size between Ellipsodon

lemuroides and Mioclaenus turgidus is represented by a few fragmentary

specimens, including a jaw portion with M; and a part of Me, which is made

the type of Ellipsodon sternbergt. Mz is much larger and broader than in other

species of Hllipsodon; however, it apparently shows no crenulation of the

crest around the posterointernal margin of the talonid as seen in many of,

though not all, the lower dentitions of M. turgidus. The paraconid is only

weakly developed on a referred Ms, which has this portion of the tooth pre-

served. M3 is only a little larger than in Hllipsodon shepherdi and somewhat

more rounded, being nearly oval in shape. The paraconid is lacking on M3;

with only a low crest extending across the front of the tooth, connecting the

protoconid and metaconid. Though reduced, the paraconid is present in all

specimens of Mioclaenus turgidus in which M3 was observed.

fimigy 15; 1939 GAZIN: PALEOCENE FAUNA OF UTAH 285

There is no certainty that this form represents the genus Ellipsodon, par-

ticularly since the premolars are not known. It is possible that a small species

of Mioclaenus is represented.

The transverse diameter of the second lower molar is about 5 mm. The

anteroposterior and transverse diameters of the third lower molar are 4.4

and 3.3 mm, respectively.

Ellipsodon? sp.

A lower jaw, U.S.N.M. no. 15781, is unusual in that the two teeth pre-

served, M; and Mp, have rather blunt cusps, a flattened talonid, and a rela-

tively undepressed area between the three cusps of the moderately elevated

trigonid. It resembles somewhat specimens from the Torrejon that have been

referred to Ellipsodon inaequidens but with the paraconid more distinctly

set off, although this cusp is subdued as are the other cusps of the teeth.

This may represent an unusual condition in EL. shepherdi but probably rep-

resents a distinct form whose affinities are uncertain.

Jepsenia, n. gen.

Type.—J epsenia mantiensis, N. sp.

Generic characters.—Near Litaletes, but lingual portion of M? more ex-

panded anteroposteriorly and hypocone weaker. Cusps of molars, particu-

larly protoconule and metaconule, more nearly conical. Paraconule and met-

aconule better developed. Parastyle and mesostyle developed, more notice-

ably on M?, although cingulum at anteroposterior angle of tooth not so

extended. M? relatively smaller with less development of metacone and

cingulum.

Jepsenia mantiensis, n. sp. Fig. 10

Type.—Portion of right maxilla with M! to M3, U.S.N.M. no. 15747.

Horizon and locality —Dragon Paleocene, Dragon Canyon, Emery Coun-

ty, Utah.

Specific characters.—Jepsenia mantiensis is slightly larger than Lztaletes

disjunctus.

Description.—J epsenia mantiensis makes the closest approach to Litaletes

disjunctus of the various hypsodont condylarths with which comparisons

have been made. The upper molar series designated as the type is only slight-

ly more robust than in the Montana form. M!? has about the relative pro-

portions of that in L. diszunctus and shows a distinct hypocone about as in

that form. However, the lingual portion of M? is more expanded anteropos-

teriorly and the hypocone in this tooth is weaker and represented only by

the abrupt termination lingually of the posterior cingulum. Also, the mid-

portion of the posterior cingulum on both M! and M?is not deflected upward

toward the root portion of the teeth so much as in L. disjzunctus. The cusps

in the upper molars have a more nearly conical appearance, especially the

protoconule and metaconule. Moreover, the protoconule and metaconule are

distinctly better developed. A parastyle and mesostyle are present, more no-

ticeable in M?, although the cingulum is not so extended at the anteroexter-

_ nal portion of the molars. M? is relatively smaller than in L. disjwnctus and

the metacone, though distinct, is not so well developed, and the cingulum is

less prominent and is discontinuous around the lingual and buccal surfaces of

the tooth.

An M? with material numbered 15544 shows more acute anteroexternal

and posteroexternal styles, no mesostyle, a lower protocone than in L. dis-

junctus, protoconule and metaconule relatively weak as in L. disjunctus, but

286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

the hypocone is much more lingual in position and is nearly matched by a

protostyle on the anterolingual portion of the tooth, with the cingulum al-

most but not quite continuous around the inner margin of the protocone.

M?' in this material, though lacking a mesostyle, corresponds closely to that

in the type of Jepsenia mantiensis. It is possible that the two molars, which

were found close together, belong to the same individual and may represent

a form distinct from the foregoing.

TaBLE 5.—MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETERS) OF UPPER

TEETH OF Jepsenia mantiensis

M! M? M3

Anteroposterior diameter ic sc eerie Aree 4.5 4.4 3

PeRAns VerSerala meer cae ce ee ee 5.4 6.4 4 .6*

* Greatest transverse diameter.

Several isolated jaw fragments with single molars, one with M, and part of

M,, another with a well-worn M, and M3, are presumed to represent Jep-

senia mantiensis. The lower teeth in general show a distinct paraconid in a

lingual position and a basined talonid with a strong hypoconid, a moderate

entoconid, and a weak hypoconulid, which is the dorsal termination of a

slight posterior cingulum rising from the posteroexternal portion of the

tooth. The trigonid portion is not greatly different from that in L. disjunctus,

although the entoconid on the heel is generally better developed and the

small cuspule anterior to the entoconid is more distinct, however, in certain

of the referred teeth there is little evidence of this accessory cusp.

REFERENCES

Gazin, C. L. A Paleocene mammalian fauna from central Utah. Journ. Washington

Acad. Sci. 28: 271-277, figs. 1-3. 1988.

Ancient mammals of Utah. Explorations and Field-Work of the Smithsonian

Institution in 1938: 25-28, figs. 22-25. 19389.

GRANGER, WALTER, and Simpson, G. G. A revision of the Tertiary Multituberculata.

Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 56(9): 601-676, figs. 1-48. 1929.

JEPSEN, G. L. Stratigraphy and paleontology of the Paleocene of northeast Park County,

Wyoming. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 69(7): 463-528, figs. 1-4, pls. 1-10. 19380.

MatruEew, W. D. Paleocene faunas of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. ‘Trans.

Amer. Philos. Soc., n.s., 30: i-viii, 1-510, figs. 1-85, pls. 1-65. 1987.

Stmpson, G. G. The Fort Union of the Crazy Mountain field, Montana, and its mam-

malian faunas. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 169: i—x, 1-287, figs. 1-80, pls. 1-10. 1987.

SpreKkER, E. M. The Wasatch Plateau coal field, Utah. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 819:

i—vi, 1—210, figs. 1-11, pls. 1-33. 1931.

JuLY 15, 1989 FRIEDMANN AND DEIGNAN: ASIATIC OWLS 287

ORNITHOLOGY .—Notes on some Asiatic owls of the genus Otus, with

description of anew form! H. FRIEDMANN and H. G. Drianan,

U. 8. National Museum.

In the collections of Siamese birds in the U. 8. National Museum

are two specimens of Otus that are widely different from any other

Asiatic form of the genus but are so closely and obviously related to

the African Otus senegalensis that, in spite of the enormous geograph-

ical interval involved, we have no hesitancy in placing them in that

species. In view of the difficulties inherent in such variable and poorly

known birds as the Asiatic forms of Otus, we have borrowed exten-

sively from the following institutions and private collectors, to whom

our thanks are hereby expressed: The American Museum of Natural

History, the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the

Museum of Comparative Zoology, the Field Museum of Natural

History, the Raffles Museum, and W. Koelz.

Otus senegalensis distans, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters—Very similar to (almost indistinguishable from)

Otus senegalensis henderson of Angola but slightly washed with buffy on the

upperparts, this wash especially noticeable on the pale bars of the outer

rectrices and the primaries, and with the feathers of the lower sides and

flanks less vermiculated, more whitish than in O. s. henderson.

Type.—U.5.N.M. no. 349931, adult female, collected at Sala Me Tha,

Chiengmai Province, North Siam, February 20, 1936, by H. G. Deignan.

Description of type-——General color of upperparts dark brownish gray,

conspicuously mottled with black and white. Feathers of crown largely black,

with brownish-gray border, sometimes with a whitish spot. Feathers of nape

gray or whitish, with an irregular black streak along apical third of shaft and

narrow broken black bars, concealed portion washed with pale ferruginous.

An ill-defined pale ferruginous collar across upper back, caused by color of

concealed portion of feathers, which are otherwise white with a broad black

streak along apical third of shaft and with black irregular crossbars. Feathers

of back with a broad black shaft-streak, otherwise vermiculated with black

and grayish white, sometimes washed with pale ferruginous. Rectrices

light gray-brown with blackish-brown vermiculations and shaft-streaks.

Outer webs of primaries broadly barred pale gray and brownish black;

inner webs blackish brown with broad dull rufous bars, which become

white toward edge approaching base of feather. Outer webs of secondaries

broadly barred dull rufous and blackish brown; inner webs blackish brown

with large white patches, not reaching shaft and inwardly tinged with pale

ferruginous. The lesser upper wing coverts rufous with indistinct blackish

bars, forming a conspicuous reddish band the whole length of the forearm. The

median and greater upper wing-coverts like the remiges. Scapulars with the

outer web wholly or largely pure white, giving the appearance of a broad

1 Published by permission of the Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Received

March 6, 1939.

288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

white bar along sides of back, otherwise mottled gray and black, and with an

interrupted black shaft-streak. Facial disk silver-gray, each feather with in-

distinct blackish crossbars. Disk edged at sides of neck by pale ferruginous

feathers, which are subapically marked white and tipped black, forming a

distinct black and ferruginous gorget, extending to nape, but interrupted on

the breast. Feathers of breast and sides of neck whitish with broad dark

gray tips, black shaft-streak and irregular black crossbars. Feathers of ab-

domen and flanks pure white or white faintly tinged ferruginous and with

very broad black shaft-streaks and irregular narrow black bars. Under tail-

coverts white with black shaft-streaks or immaculate. Tarsi feathered onto

base of toes, white with scattered rufous macules. Bend of wing white. Under

wing-coverts white with a few irregular black and ferruginous markings. In —

the dried skin the maxilla is horny-black; the mandible yellowish beneath,

otherwise like the maxilla. Wing: 141.8; tail: 70.5; culmen from base: 19.5.

First (outermost) primary equal to the eighth; second between fifth and

sixth.

We have examined all the pertinent members of the genus known from

Africa and eastern Asia and, in general, agree with the specific groupings of

Stresemann (Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin 12 (1):191-195. 1925). We do not,

however, accept the range of malayanus, as it has been understood in the

past. O. malayanus is readily separable from japonicus by its much darker

coloration (our 8 specimens are all in a red or brownish-red plumage) and by

having the basal third of the tarsus naked; the third and fourth primaries

are longest and the first (outermost) lies between the sixth and seventh or

equals the seventh. O. japonicus, of which we have ample topotypical mate-

rial, is much lighter, has both red and gray phases, and has the tarsus feath-

ered to the base of the toes; the third and fourth primaries are longest, and

the first lies between the sixth and the eighth.

A skin from Szechwan (April) and another from Yunnan (October) can

not be matched in our series of japonicus, but they do agree in every par-

ticular with malayanus from the Malay Peninsula (where it is known only

as a winter visitor). It seems probable that malayanus is a breeding form

from southern China south to an unknown limit, occurring in winter as far

as Malaya.

We have seen one specimen inseparable from Japanese japonicus, taken

on the small island Koh Tao (Gulf of Siam) on the same day as a specimen of

malayanus. This implies that japonicus may occur in winter anywhere within

the range of malayanus. In view of this probability, Malayan specimens

should be carefully compared with Japanese birds, especially the birds in

gray phase recorded by Robinson.

We have also seen three winter specimens from northern and central

Siam that are near to japonicus but differ in somewhat darker coloration, al-

though they are still much lighter than malayanus.

Among the specimens sent us by Dr. Ernst Mayr are the birds from Bur-

_Junty 15,1939 FRIEDMANN AND DEIGNAN: ASIATIC OWLS 289

ma and Assam, discussed by him in the Ibis for April, 1938, p. 313. With the

more extensive comparative material before us, we have identified these

birds quite differently.

“Otus scops modestus” from Dalu is not separable from specimens of Otus

sunia sunia from Bengal.

The series of Assamese specimens that Dr. Mayr took to be typical spzlo-

cephalus is here tentatively referred to O. scops sunza, in the absence of defi-

nitely identified specimens of red phase sunza, but these four birds arouse

the suspicion that they may be of an undescribed form. The bird from Da-

bahka, called ‘‘Otus spzlocephalus latoucht,’’ is, in our opinion, true Otus

sptilocephalus spilocephalus, from which latoucht seems only doubtfully dis-

tinct.

In searching the literature with regard to the nomenclature of this group,

we have discovered that Pisorhina capensis grisea Gunning and Roberts

(Ann. Transvaal Mus. 3:111. 1911. Bethulie, Orange Free State), is pre-

occupied by Scops griseus Jerdon (Madras Journ. Lit. Sci. 13(2), no. 31:119.

Dec. 31, 1844). We are not in position to pass on the validity of Gunning and

Roberts’ form, which, according to Chapin, ‘“‘may perhaps prove separa-

ble,’ and therefore leave the renaming of it to some future student of the

African scops owls.

Recently Junge (Treubia 16(8):344. Aug., 1938) has considered Otus

umbra enganensis Riley as a race of O. sunza. Previously Stresemann (Mitt.

Zool. Mus. Berlin 12:194. 1925) suggested with a question that O. wmbra

might be the same as O. bakkamoena lempiji. Chasen (Handlist of Malaysian

Birds, p. 86, 1935) writes that wmbra “can almost certainly be lumped with

one of the other more widely spread Malaysian species, but as we have not

seen either umbra or enganensis we can not attempt a wider nomenclature.”

We have examined the type specimens of wmbra and of enganensis and find

that they are not like any O. s. malayanus we have seen, and we consider

them to form a specific group characterized by a massive bill and white bars

on the chestnut flanks. In the type of wmbra the first (outermost) primary

is equal to the eighth, and the second is between the fifth and the sixth,

whereas in O. s. malayanus the first is between the sixth and seventh, or

equal to the seventh, the second between the fourth and the fifth. If Junge’s

Engano birds are really related to swnia, it may be that they represent an

undescribed form. The type of enganensis has the primaries frayed, which

prevents our giving its wing formula, and which also may account for the

fact that Junge’s bird had larger measurements than Riley gave for the type.

III

The form of Otus bakkamoena resident throughout Siam north of the prov-

ince of Pattani (Malay Peninsula) has been considered identical with letiia

of Nepal by all authors, except Chasen (Handlist of Malaysian Birds) who,

290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

without comment, calls the birds of Peninsular Siam condorensis of Kloss

(Journ. Siam Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 8(2):81. 1930. [Pulau Condor, ca. 45

miles off the coast of Cochinchina]) and Riley (U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 172)

who attributes to the same race a specimen from East Siam and another

from Southwest Siam (where it occurs side by side with “‘lettza’’).

O. condorensis was named on a series of only four specimens from an island

possessing no other known endemic birds, the describer having at the time

highly inadequate comparative material. The most northern specimen of

“lettia’”’? came from North Siam, other specimens from Raheng and Bang-

kok. Kloss was, moreover, misled by Stuart Baker into believing that lettia -

of Nepal and lempzji of Java are “‘practically the same in general tone of

plumage’’; accordingly, he diagnosed condorensis as being paler and larger

than lempijz, paler and smaller than lettza.

The alleged size differences between condorensis and ‘‘lettia’’ are of the

slightest according to Kloss’s own measurements (the wing length of the for-

mer from 155 to 161 mm, of the latter from 158 to 167) and nonexistent when

a good series of Siamese birds is examined. The alleged color differences do

not appear at all in two birds from Cochinchina but do appear in odd indi-

viduals from Central and North Siam. There is some individual variation

shown in the color of Siamese birds from any area, but all are considerably

paler than lempijz and, to a less marked degree, paler than birds from

Szechwan (and presumably Nepal also).

We have, unfortunately, not been able to examine lettia from Nepal.

Birds from Szechwan have been called glabripes by authors, but they should

at least show some approach to lettza for geographical reasons. They do, in

fact, agree perfectly with a topotypical specimen of glabripes as well as with

birds from Tongking. The further fact that we have found nothing in litera-

ture to indicate how glabripes may be distinguished from Nepalese lettza

arouses some doubt as to the validity of the former, and we feel that the two

races should be critically compared.

A series of 8 birds of both sexes (sexes alike in size) from Tongking and

Szechwan have the wing length from 172 to 192 mm; a further series of 22

birds from Annam, Cochinchina, Hast Siam, Southeast Siam, Central Siam,

West Siam, and North Siam have the wing length from 154 to 166 mm. Two

birds from Southwest Siam measure 147 and 152 mm and seem to be ap-

proximating lempij7. Two specimens from Assam measure 161 and 167, thus

falling into the size group of Indochinese birds.

The Fauna of British India, Birds, ed. 2 (4:427), embracing Assam and all

Burma within the range of lettza, gives this race a wing length from 162 to

182 mm, and it seems reasonable to suppose that if only Nepalese birds had

been measured even this slight overlap with Siamese birds would disappear.

If glabripes prove indeed inseparable from lettia, the difference between Sia-

mese birds and lettza will appear clearly from the measurements given above.

JULY 15,1939 FRIEDMANN AND DEIGNAN: ASIATIC OWLS 291

To the pale, short-winged birds of Annam, Cochinchina, Siam, ?Burma

and ?Assam, we suggest that the name condorensis be applied.

Material examined:

Otus senegalensis griseus

grauert

hendersont

senegalensis

ugandae

CLCUS

distans

Otus cyprius

Otus scops elegans

japonicus

SUNITA

rufipennis

ballz

malayanus

scops

pulchellus

menadensis

steeret

Otus spilocephalus spilocephalus

latoucht

stamensts

vulpes

Otus rufescens malayensis

rufescens

Otus sagittatus

Otus umbra umbra

enganensis

Otus cuyensis

Otus bakkamoena semitorques

pryeru

glabripes

bakkamoena

condorensis

lempiji

mentawe

fuliginosus

whiteheadi

Otus capnodes

Otus rutilus

2 specimens

(incl. type)

Oe Se NO NO NOt

series (A. M.N. H.)

“ “

23 specimens

il “c

9 cc

5 cc

Lo Kaas),

4 specimens

5 c

1 “ (paratype)

y “c

2 specimens

1 <4

2 specimens

1 specimen (type)

1 6c CF

2 specimens

23 specimens

“c

10 “

2 “

20 6c

» ¢9

i 6c

il “

3 specimens

4 specimens

292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

ENTOMOLOGY .—The North American empoascan leafhoppers of the

radiata group (Homoptera: Cicadellidae).1. Nancy H. WHEELER,’

U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. (Communi-

cated by J. 8S. Wade.)

The species of leafhoppers treated in this paper are characterized

by a strongly produced crown, tending to be bluntly pointed, with

the median length almost as long as, or in some cases longer than, the

narrowest interocular space. The species of this group range in length

from 2.75 to 3.75 mm. They are frequently well marked with dis-

tinctive color patterns and are usually easily distinguishable ex-

ternally. However, from a study of the group in general, and from an

examination of extensive western collections in particular, it appears

obvious that several of the closely related species can be differentiated

readily and accurately only by examination of the structures of the

internal male genitalia.

Some of the species here discussed were originally included by

DeLong? in the subgenus Idona, which he established with minuenda

Ball! as the type, on the basis of the shape of the head. In addition to

the type, he included in this subgenus panda DeLong, junipera De-

Long, elongata DeLong, rufa DeLong, tencta DeLong, morrison: Hart-

zell, radiata Gillette, and mexicana Gillette. Later, McAtee® pointed

out reliable venational characters and raised [dona, with minuenda as

the type, from subgeneric to generic rank, stating that “‘some of the

other species certainly, and all of them probably, can well remain in

the typical subgenus of Empoasca Walsh.”

In view of the uncertain status of this group, a careful examination

has been made of all available type material of the species involved.

As a result, some synonymical changes are recorded and the group,

of which radzata is a typical example, is redefined and considered as

a part of the subgenus E’mpoasca Walsh. Only four of the original

species are included in this radzata group, and, on the basis of the

characters defining the group, elongata, morrisoni, and panda (be-

cause of their larger size and more rounded crown) are excluded and

referred to the fabae group; mexicana Gillette, which will have as a

1 Paper no. 5120 of the U. 8S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. Re-

ceived April 4, 1939.

2 In the preparation of this paper the writer has had access to the U. 8S. National

Museum collections and expresses her thanks to P. W. Oman, of the Division of Insect

Identification, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, for his cooperation and

helpful criticism, and to Dr. R. H. Beamer, Dr. D. M. DeLong, and E. P. Van Duzee

for loan of valuable material for comparison.

3 U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 231: 1-59. 1931.

4 Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 34: 23-24. 1921.

5 Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1934, pt. 1: 107. 1934.

JuLY 15, 1939 WHEELER: EMPOASCAN LEAFHOPPERS 293

synonym bitubera DeLong, 1932,° is referred to the alboneura group;

while occidentalis,’ subsequently described by DeLong and David-

son, is placed in the radiata group. Another species, ruficeps, de-

scribed in 1917 by Van Duzee from external characters only, appar-

ently belongs to this group but was not included by DeLong in his

revision of the genus.

This paper includes the description and illustrations of the internal

male genital characters of ruficeps, together with those of five other

species of the radiata group, four of them new to science. Three il-

lustrations of each species are given, depicting both lateral and ven-

tral views of the male genital capsule, and the ventral view of the

sternal apodemes, and each drawing shows an enlargement of approxi-

mately 70 diameters.

The following key is presented as an aid in the separation of the

species of the radiata group® now known to occur in North America.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF THE RADIATA GROUP

A. Fore wing without definite gray or brown spots, and consequently with-

out a mottled appearance.

B. Posterior margin of seventh sternite of female with a median slightly

produced lobe or tooth and a slight indentation on each side of it.

General color olivaceous-green............... qunipera DeLong

BB. Posterior margin of seventh sternite of female not as above. General

color yellowish, orange, or testaceous-green.

C. Fore wing with orange or brownish stripes along the claval

suture. Lateral processes, in ventral view, with apices curved

latenddtiss.: Sues. ES RI MER, Se Ogata Sea radiata Gillette

CC. Fore wing without stripes along claval suture. Lateral processes,

in ventral view, with apices not curved laterad.

D. Fore wing tinged with testaceous. Lateral process, in

ventral view, terminating in a small hock curved mesad

bdr se meh tah h ae 2 rk A See 7 Ue De SE Te tincta DeLong

6 Ohio Journ. Sci. 32(4): 395. 1932.

Ohio; Journ, Sci. 35(1): 32=383. 1935.

§ After this manuscript was submitted for publication, Davidson and DeLong (Ohio

Journ. Sci. 39(2): 110-118. 1939) published descriptions of Empoasca dorothyi, E.

galluxa, and E. ancistra, which apparently belong to the radiata group. Subsequent

study of male paratypes of these species indicates that the first two bear a close re-

semblance, both externally and internally, to the species herein described as EL. crep-

idula. The single specimen of each species available for examination may be differ-

entiated by the relative length of the lateral process and the curvature of the apical

portion of this process. In dorothyi and galluza, the lateral process in ventral view is

longer than in crepidula, but the apical portion is less curved mesad in dorothy than

in either crepidula or galluza. It is possible that crepidula may prove to be an extreme

variation of dorothyi and that a study of a longer series in each case, particularly of

abundant material from northern Arizona, may show that dorothyi, galluxa, and

crepidula are variants of a single species. The species described as ancistra is apparently

close to what has been identified as radiata Gillette, but, since the male type of radzata,

supposedly in the U. S. National Museum collection, can not be located, there is some

question as to the proper identity of that species and decision in this matter must await

further study.

294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

DD. Fore wing tinged with smoky green or orange. Lateral

process, in ventral view, without terminal hook.

E. Fore wing tinged with smoky green across center of

clavus and apex, giving a banded appearance. Pos-

terior margin of seventh sternite of female with

a shallow median quadrangular emargination

sr PI Ae ORE Ga occidentalis DeLong and Davidson

EE. Fore wing tinged with orange, without banded ap-

pearance. Posterior margin of seventh sternite of

female produced and rounded, without median

quadrangular emargination.

F. Lateral process, in lateral view, relatively short

Maloun sy OOMMNECLY Soo 2 cee - crepidula, n. sp.

FF. Lateral process, in lateral view, long and sharply

DOMME C ey ee 8s as, Ge acuminata, n. sp.

AA. Fore wing with definite gray or brown spots, giving a mottled appear-

ance. 7

B. Head with a network of red pigmentation. Fore wing greenish white

mottled with gray.

C. Lateral processes, in ventral view, crossed medially, their apices

produced and curved inward........ erythrocephala, n. nom.

CC. Lateral processes, in ventral view, not crossed medially, their

apices bluntly rounded and divergent.......rubrarea, n. sp.

EB. Head without a network of red pigmentation. Fore wing yellowish

ereen mottled with orange, gray, or brown.

C. Lateral processes, in ventral view, crossed medially, their

apices produced and overlapping...... -ruficeps Van Duzee

CC. Lateral processes, in ventral view, not crossed medially.

D. Lateral process, in lateral view, with apex sharply pointed

and curved dorsad....rubrarea var. indistencta, n. var.

DD. Lateral process, in lateral view, with apex bluntly pointed

and curved vemtrad 2) 7.7.1.0 eee delta, n. sp.

Empoasca crepidula, n. sp. Fig. 1

Superficially resembling occidentalis but more yellowish and lacking

banded appearance, and with a shorter lateral pygofer process and a small

slipperlike spine. Length 3.75 mm. 3

External characters.—General color dull yellowish green tinged with

orange. Crown irregularly marked with indistinct white areas. Pronotum

with three large white spots along anterior margin. Scutellum with a median

white stripe and a large white dot in center near apex, with a much smaller

dot on each side. Fore wing subhyaline, with apex faintly fuscous. Seventh

sternite of female with posterior margin slightly produced and rounded

not notched medially.

Male internal structures.—Lateral process relatively short, extending only

slightly beyond tip of style; in lateral view curving dorso-caudad, with apex

appearing bluntly pointed; in ventral view broadly sinuate, with apical

half curving gradually mesad and tapering to a point. Dorsal spine narrow

at base and broadening into a small sharply pointed slipperlike shape with

apex directed ventrocephalad. Sternal apodemes long and slender, bluntly

rounded distally.

Suey 15; L939 WHEELER: EMPOASCAN LEAFHOPPERS 295

Described from one male and two females collected at Oak Creek Can-

yon, Ariz., August 9, 1932, by R. H. Beamer.

Holotype male and allotype and paratype females deposited in the Snow

Entomological Collection, Lawrence, Kans.

Empoasca acuminata, n. sp. Fig. 2

A dull yellowish-green species, with long-pointed lateral process. Length

3.2 mm.

External characters.—General color dull yellowish green tinged with orange.

Crown with median white line constricted at middle and with two oblique

white dashes on each side near eye. Pronotum with four irregular white

spots along anterior margin, median pair almost contiguous. Scutellum with

median white area and three white spots near apex along incised line. Fore

wing subhyaline, tinged with orange. Seventh sternite of female with pos-

terior margin produced and rounded.

Male internal structures.——Lateral process long and pointed, slender at

base and gradually broadening toward middle, with apical fourth tapering

to long slender point directed caudad. Dorsal spine broad at base, with apical

portion bluntly rounded and extending ventrad. Sternal apodemes large and

saclike.

Holotype male, allotype female, and 12 male and 8 female paratypes from

Nogales, Ariz., October 20, 1937, P. W. Oman, collector.

Type, U. 8. N. M. no. 53285. Four paratypes deposited in collection of

the entomological laboratory of the U. 8. Bureau of Entomology and Plant

Quarantine, Arlington Experiment Farm, Arlington, Va.

Empoasca erythrocephala, new name Fig. 3

Empoasca rufa DeLong (nec Melichar, Homop.-Fauna v. Ceylon: 212. 1903),

Wee. Depr. Agr, Pech. Bull. 231253-54. 1931.

From specimens collected at Pasadena, Calif., DeLong, in 1931, described

as Hmpoasca rufa DeLong (nec Melichar) a small (3.2 mm) white species

with reddish mottling on the head and with crown bluntly pointed. Melichar

in 1903, from external characters only, had previously described as F. rufa,

a scarlet-red, foreign species, 4 1/5 mm in length, illustrating the head, fore

~ wing, and hind wing. From a study of the illustrations and the description

of Melichar’s species, and from a comparison with specimens in the U. S.

National Museum collection, which appear to be that species, rufa Melichar

is considered representative of an oriental group of Empoasca having no

close relation with the radiata group. DeLong’s species is therefore given the

hew name erythrocephala and is reillustrated, for the purpose of comparison

with other closely related species, from specimens collected by R. H. Beamer

at Claremont, Calif. The types of rufa DeLong are in the collection of E. D.

Ball.

Empoasca rubrarea, n. sp. Fig. 4

Superficially resembling erythrocephala, but with a shorter dorsal spine

and the lateral processes in ventral view not crossed in the middle. Length

2./9-3 mm. a

296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

1 crerious

2. ACUMINATA

3 ERYTHROCEPHALA

Figs. 1-3.—Lateral and ventral views of male genital capsule and ventral view of

sternal apodemes of (1) Empoasca crepidula, n. sp., (2) HE. acuminata, n. sp., and (3)

E. erythrocephala, new name. X ca. 70

External characters.—General color pale greenish white, with the network

of bright red pigmentation on upper portion of face and crown less heavily

outlined than in erythrocephala; irregularly marked with red on pronotum

and scutellum and on base and costal margin of fore wing. Fore wing also

flecked with small gray spots, the larger spot on middle of clavus along com-

JuLyY 15, 1939 WHEELER: EMPOASCAN LEAFHOPPERS 297

missural line much darker and more distinct than in erythrocephala; apex

fuscous, with pale nervures. Seventh sternite of female slightly produced and

rounded posteriorly.

Male internal structures.—Lateral process in lateral view relatively stout,

curving dorso-caudad, with dorsal margin slightly concave at distal portion,

terminating in a sharply pointed apex directed dorsad; in ventral view

curving mesad, then caudad, with distal portion slightly enlarged and

bluntly rounded. Dorsal spine rather indistinct, slightly broader at base,

deeply concave on cephalic margin and curved to sharply pointed apex

directed ventrocephalad. Aedeagus broad distally. Sternal apodemes

medium sized, bluntly rounded distally.

Described from a series of 53 males and 93 females collected by R. H.

Beamer, July 24, 1935, in Santa Barbara County Park, 13 miles east of

Nipomo, Calif., labeled ““Nipomo, Cal.” There are also at hand collections

by R. H. Beamer consisting of one male from Claremont, Calif., July 29,

1935, and 14 males and 20 females from Topango Canyon, Calif., August

3S:

Holotype male, allotype female, and 25 male and 45 female paratypes de-

posited in the Snow Entomological Collection, Lawrence, Kans.; 15 male and

15 female paratypes deposited in the U. 8. National Museum (no. 53286);

12 male and 32 female paratypes deposited in the collection of the ento-

mological laboratory of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine

at the Arlington Experiment Farm, Arlington, Va.

Empoasca rubrarea var. indistincta, n. var.

Agreeing with rubrarea in general form and with identical internal genital

structures, but more yellowish in color and Jacking the network of bright

red pigmentation on head and other red markings. Length 2.75-3 mm.

External characters.—General color yellowish green. Crown tinged with

orange, with four small white spots along anterior margin, a larger spot on

each side near eye, and a white median area constricted in middle, some-

times forming two distinctly separated spots. Pronotum and scutellum

tinged with orange, the former with three larger white spots along anterior

margin and the latter with a median white spot near anterior margin and

three smaller white spots along the incised line. Fore wing mottled with

orange and more sparsely flecked with gray than rubrarea, but with a

similar, distinct, fuscous spot on middle of clavus, and apex fuscous with

pale nervures. Seventh sternite of female like that of rubrarea.

Holotype male, allotype female, and 8 male and 8 female paratypes from

Monterey, Calif., July 22, 1935, collected by R. H. Beamer. Other para-

types as follows: One male from Cajon, Calif., June 6, 1935, and 1 male

from Mint Canyon, Calif., June 7, 1935, collected by P. W. Oman; 1 male

and 2 females, Beaumont, Calif., July 26, 1933, 2 males and 2 females, San

Gabriel Canyon, Calif., July 27, 1935, 4 males and 8 females, Monrovia,

Calif., July 27, 1935, and 4 males, San Diego, Calif., August 7, 1935, all col-

lected by R. H. Beamer; 6 males and 6 females collected by Jack Beamer,

Monterey, Calif., July 22, 1935.

298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

4 RUBRAREA

5 Ruricers

Figs. 4-6.—Lateral and ventral views of male genital capsule and ventral view of

sternal apodemes of (4) Empoasca rubrarea, n. sp., (5) HE. ruficeps Van Duzee, and

(6) HE. delta, n. sp. X ca. 70.

fume £5, 1939 WHEELER: EMPOASCAN LEAFHOPPERS 299

Holotype male, allotype female, and 15 male and 14 female paratypes de-

posited in the Snow Collection, Lawrence, Kans.; 6 male and 6 female para-

types deposited in the U. 8. National Museum (no. 53287); and 6 male

and 6 female paratypes in the collection of the entomological laboratory of

the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Arlington Experiment

Farm, Arlington, Va.

Empoasca ruficeps Van Duzee Fig. 5

Empoasca ruficeps Van Duzee, Proc. California Acad. Sci. 7 (ser. 4): 304-

305. 1917.

External characters.—Small, yellowish green, mottled with brown, with

pronotum and scutellum marked with sanguineous-brown, and apex of fore

wing deeply infuscated, with strong pale nervures. Length 3.5 mm.

Male internal structures.——Lateral process in lateral view curving dorso-

caudad, basal half with sides almost parallel margined, apical half slightly

broader, terminating in a blunt point directed caudad; in ventral view the

lateral processes are long, curving first mesad and crossing near middle,

extending slightly laterad, then caudad, broadening distally, then tapering

to bluntly pointed, overlapping apices directed laterad. Dorsal spine broad

at base, deeply concave on cephalic margin, with sharply pointed apex

directed cephalad. Aedeagus narrow at base, enlarged distally. Sternal

apodemes medium sized, bluntly rounded distally.

Van Duzee described ruficeps from 30 specimens collected at Los Altos,

Calif., July 26, 1916, on pitcher-sage (Sphacele colycina), and at West-

point, Mount Tamalpais, 1,300 feet elevation, August 16, 1916. The

drawings (Fig. 5) were made after examining male and female paratypes

received from Van Duzee, 1 female collected at Mount Diablo, Calif., June

21, 1935, by Oman and compared by him with the type, and 5 males and 5

females collected at Lockwood, Calif., July 25, 1935, by R. H. Beamer.

Empoasca delta, n. sp. Fig. 6

Resembling ruficeps somewhat in general appearance, but smaller, with

pronotum and scutellum yellowish green and less marked with sanguineous-

brown, and apex of fore wing less deeply infuscated. Genital characters dis-

tinct. Length 2.5—2.75 mm.

External characters —Crown tinged with orange, with a pale spot on each

side near eye and a pale median area, sometimes constricted in middle,

forming a pale spot at apex and one at middle of posterior margin. Pronotum

yellowish green, with three paler areas near anterior margin, the middle one

outlined by a dark line on each side and the lateral areas each surrounded

by several dark-brown dots. Scutellum yellowish green, with a median white

area and a transverse row of three pale points just below the incised line,

the apex terminating in a conspicuously dark-brown point. Fore wing sub-

hyaline, yellowish green, mottled with brown, sometimes with orange, with

a small rufous-brown spot near tip of clavus; apex fuscous, with pale

nervures. Posterior margin of seventh sternite of female rather strongly

produced from prominent lateral angles.

Male internal structures.—Lateral process long, curved, relatively stout,

with sides parallel to near apex; in lateral view distal portion slightly en-

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

larged and terminating in a short fingerlike process curved downward; in

ventral view distal portion angularly bent on inner margin and curved on

outer margin to sharply pointed apex directed mesad. Dorsal spine stout,

tapering to a sharp point, curved cephalad. Aedeagus broad distally. Sternal

apodemes medium sized, bluntly rounded distally, with apices more widely

separated than in rujficeps.

Holotype male, allotype female, and numerous paratypes of both sexes

from Delta, Calif., June 28, 1935, P. W. Oman, collector. Types, U.S.N.M.

no. 53288. Twelve paratypes deposited in collection of the entomological

laboratory of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Arlington

Experiment Farm, Arlington, Va. |

Empoasca mexicana Gillette

Empoasca mexicana Gillette, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 20(1188) : 737-738. 1898.

Empoasca bitubera DeLong, Ohio Journ. Sci. 32(4): 395. 1982. (New syn-

onymy.) :

As previously mentioned, mexicana, because of the more rounded crown

and the pale nervures of the fore wing, belongs in the alboneura group, but

the writer treats it here in order to establish the synonymy indicated.

The original description of mexicana by Gillette was based on 5 females

collected near Veracruz, Mexico, type no. 3430, U. 8. National Museum.

Later DeLong? redescribed specimens ‘“‘as apparently this species”’ and illus-

trated the male genitalia from a series in the U. 8. National Museum collec-

tion consisting of 5 females and 3 males collected at Marfa, Tex., June 5,

1908, by Mitchell and Cushman, stating that Gillette’s type could not be

located in the National Museum. From an examination of this series now

extant, consisting of 1 male (dissected), 3 females, and 2 specimens with

abdomens missing, the external markings and internal structures of the

male were found to be identical with those described and figured later by

DeLong for bitubera. Empoasca bitubera is therefore placed as a synonym

of HL. mexicana Gillette.

9U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 231: 56-57. 1931.

MAMMALOGY.—A new badger from Sonora.t E. A. GOLDMAN,

U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey.

The badgers of the widely dispersed species, T'axidea taxus, are

divisible into several closely allied geographic races. One of these,

hitherto unrecognized, from near the southern known limit of the spe-

cies along the eastern side of the Gulf of California is described as

follows:

Taxidea taxus sonoriensis, subsp. nov.

Type.—From Camoa, Rio Mayo (about 15 miles above Navojoa), Sonora,

Mexico. No. 96211, & young adult (frontoparietal sutures fused), U. S. Na-

tional Museum (Biological Survey collection); collected by E. A. Goldman,

November 29, 1898. Original number 13263.

1 Received June 1, 1939.

JuLy 15,1939 GOLDMAN: A NEW BADGER FROM SONORA o01

Distribution.—Lowland plains region of southern Sonora; limits of range

undetermined.

General characters.—A rather small, dark-colored subspecies with conspic-

uously blackish chin; white median dorsal stripe ending near shoulders, or

extending as a very narrow, more or less interrupted line to lower part of

back, but not normally reaching over rump; nasals narrowing abruptly

posteriorly at point of contact between maxillae and frontals. Closely allied

to Tazidea taxus berlandieri of western Texas, but general color slightly

darker, more extensively mixed with black; chin usually distinctly blacker;

nasals narrowing more abruptly at point of contact between maxillae and

frontals. Very similar to Tazidea taxus infusca of southern Lower California,

but white median dorsal stripe less continuous posteriorly (extending over

rump in 7nfusca); chin usually distinctly blacker; cranium flatter and differ-

ing in detail.

Color.—Type: Facial area, including eyes, and forehead (except median

line), and patches on sides of head in front of ears black as usual in the spe-

cies; irregular white markings under and behind eyes confluent with white

of under parts; white median line extending from middle of face to near

shoulders; general dorsal area and sides of body a coarse mixture of buff,

black, and white, the individual hairs pinkish buff at base, becoming black

subterminally and white at tip; general abdominal area light buff thinly

streaked with black, becoming pure white along a narrow median line; under

side of neck pure white; chin and spot at base of median tuft of vibrissae

on throat blackish; ears blackish, edged with white; fore and hind limbs

black; upper side of tail similar to back, but basal color of hairs more cinna-

mon-buff, under side of tail more predominantly cinnamon-buff.

Skull.—Very similar in size and general form to that of berlandieri, but

nasals narrowing more abruptly at point of contact between maxillae and

frontals (in berlandierz the nasals are more evenly V-shaped, tapering gradu-

ally to a point posteriorly); mastoids more rounded and fully inflated, denti-

tion about the same. Compared with that of infusca the skull is somewhat

broader and flatter, the brain case less highly arched, basioccipital broader;

nasals broader, less evenly tapering posteriorly (differing to about the same

extent as from berlandierz); auditory bullae less bulging below level of basi-

occipital, dentition similar.

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 662 mm; tail vertebrae, 122; hind

foot, 100. An adult female topotype: 625; 110; 107. Skull (type and an adult

female topotype, respectively): Condylobasal length, 114.7, 113; zygomatic

breadth, 69.8, 70.9; breadth of braincase (across mastoid processes), 70.7,

69.5; height of braincase (over auditory bullae), 48.5, 48.4; interorbital

breadth, 24.2, 25.2; postorbital constriction, 27.4, 28.6; palatal constriction,

14.1, 13.5; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 35.8, 38.5; crown length (outer side)

of upper carnassial, 11.4, 12.5; crown width of upper carnassial, 8.8, 9.8.

Remarks.—Tazidea taxus sonoriensis appears to be most closely allied to

T. t. berlandieri, with which it doubtless intergrades on the north. One of the

most distinctive cranial details noted is the abruptly narrowing outline of

the nasals, which is quite uniform in the series of topotypes.

Specimens examined.—Total number, 6, all from Sonora, as follows:

Camoa (type locality), 5; Costa Rica Ranch (about 40 miles southwest of

Hermosillo), 1 (skull only).

302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1138TH MEETING

The 1138th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

October 8, 1988, President Heck presiding.

Program: STERLING B. Henpricks, U.S. Bureau of Chemistry and Soils:

Random structures and water sorption in clays.—The crystal structures of a

number of minerals related to the micas were described, and models illus-

trating some of their structures were exhibited. Three general problems

were then discussed: (1) Why is kaolin, Al,O3-2S8i02-2H2O, polymorphic

and why is aluminum only slightly replaceable by iron or magnesium in

the kaolins? (2) What is the structure of the hydrates of the clay minerals?

(3) Why do some minerals related to tale show diffuse reflections and what

is the connection between this property and random factors present in the

structures? (Author’s abstract.)

R. W. Goranson: On the electrical properties of multilayers —Experi-

ments were described which demonstrated that the electrical properties of

multilayers of stearic acid, as formed by the Langmuir-Blodgett method,

were caused by the adsorption of metallic ions from the substrate. It was

shown that these ions were present in the multilayer as a volume dis-

tribution. Evidence was presented as to the existence of a marked influence

of the speed of building the multilayers on the electrical properties. While

adsorbed positive charges were always present, at speeds in excess of a

certain value, negative frictional charges also developed. The frictional

charges were caused by the relative motion of film and aqueous substances.

(Author’s abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. RoLuLER, BRICKWEDDE, and

TELLER; the second one by Messrs. MoHuER, BRICKWEDDE, and GIBSON.

1139TH MEETING

The 1139th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

October 22, 1938, President Heck presiding.

Program: N. Smitu, National Bureau of Standards: Regular characteristics

of the tonosphere during half a sunspot cycle-—The sun is the principal source

of the energy that produces the ionization in the earth’s upper atmosphere.

The increase in solar activity from the sunspot minimum in 1933 to 1938

resulted in large increases in this ionization. During this period the maxi-

mum ionization density of the E layer, at about 130 km in height, increased

by a ratio of 1.55 to 1, and the maximum ionization density of the F; layer,

at about 300 to 400 km in height, increased by a ratio of 4 to 1. This means

an increase in the solar radiation responsible for the E layer by a ratio of

about 2.4 to 1 and for the F» layer by a ratio of about 16 to 1. The ionization

of the E layer has followed fairly well in phase with the sunspot cycle,

whereas the ionization of the F, layer showed somewhat of a lag.

Superimposed on this long-period increase of ionization were the more

or less regular diurnal and seasonal variations. The diurnal and seasonal

variations of E layer ionization for the most part accord quite well with

the simple theory of ionization by ultraviolet radiation from the sun, but

the variations in F», layer ionization show that other factors must be taken

into consideration. (Author’s abstract.)

tummy 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 303

S. S. Kirpy, National Bureau of Standards: The sporadic-E layer of the

ionosphere.—The sporadic-E layer is a term used to designate a layer of the

ionosphere which reflects radio waves from a height about that of the

normal-E layer but at sporadic intervals of time and frequently at scattered

geographical locations although occasionally the effect is general over wide

areas. The reflections occur at much higher frequencies than from the

normal-E layer and sometimes at higher frequencies than from the F» layer.

~ As additional contrasts to the normal-E and F; layers, the sporadic-E has

no smooth diurnal and seasonal variations but occurs both day and night

principally in summer, does not exhibit marked critical frequency effects,

and is often semitransparent over wide frequency ranges. These effects have

been indicated by vertical incidence ionosphere measurements.

The sporadic-E layer is responsible for moderately long distance propa-

gation of ultra-high frequencies at sporadic intervals of time and usually

over scattered geographical areas, but occasionally over wide areas. These

results have been indicated chiefly by amateur transmissions at 56 Mc/s

over distances from several hundred to 2,000 or more kilometers.

Both the vertical-incidence ionosphere measurements and the long-

distance transmissions convey the impression that sporadic-E layer is

formed at sporadic time intervals in clouds which are usually very much

limited in geographical distribution but sometimes are widespread.

Data have been compared and no definite relations have been found

between the occurrence of sporadic-E layer and thunderstorms, ionosphere

storms, or fadeouts at Washington. ~

The sporadic-E layer does not appear to be an intense ionization pro-

duced directly by sporadic solar activity. A more reasonable explanation is

that the effect is caused by reflections from the sharp boundary of a layer

of moderate ionization density and that the direct cause of the sharp

boundary is largely terrestrial. Since the normal-E layer has a fairly sharp

boundary the change in distribution of ions would not have to be very ~

great. (Author’s abstract.)

The papers were discussed by Messrs. BRickKweppr, McNisuH, Maris,

Humpureys, Monier, BRoMBACHER, MAXWELL, SEATON, and VESTINE.

1140TH MEETING

The 1140th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

November 5, 1938, President H&cxk presiding.

Program: WALTER RAMBERG: Flexural vibrations of rotating propeller’

blades.—Flexural vibrations of propeller blades are believed to be an im-

portant cause of the propeller failures that have occurred from time to time

under flight conditions. A previous study of nonrotating propeller blades

which had been set to vibrate flexurally had shown that the measured

natural frequencies and stress distributions agreed with those given by con-

sidering the propeller blade as a straight slender beam of variable section.

A report of this work was presented before the Society on April 13, 1935.

__ The present paper extends the theoretical portion of this work to include

the effect of rotation at service speeds. The integral equation was derived

for a propeller blade that vibrates flexurally with a symmetrical mode. This

equation was solved for two aluminum alloy propeller blades of typical

design vibrating with the fundamental mode and with the second harmonic

mode. The two extreme conditions of rigid clamping at the hub and of

zero clamping at the hub were considered.

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

Rotation was found to shift the maximum stress per unit tip deflection

toward the hub and it raised the value of this maximum up to 10 percent.

Rotation caused an increase in natural frequency that could be predicted

closely by substituting the deflection curve for no rotation in Lord Ray-

leigh’s expression for the natural frequency of an elastic system. The model

rules due to Theodorsen were discussed which show that the stress distribu-

tion and the frequency for flexural vibrations in a given blade may be

determined directly provided that this blade is affine in dimensions to a

type blade for which solutions are already available. The need for experi-

mental work was emphasized to check the assumptions of the theory and to

determine which natural modes of the propeller-crankshaft system are most

dangerous in leading to fatigue failure. (Author’s abstract.)

L. B. Tuckerman: Heterostatic loading and critical astatic loads.—South-

well has shown how, in some cases, it is possible to compute the critical

astatic load, i.e., the elastic buckling load, of a structure from measurements

of its heterostatic deflections at lower loads. The history of the theory of

heterostatic loading and Southwell’s method is briefly reviewed. Wester-

gaard’s general theory is then applied to the problem. It is shown that

Southwell’s method and Lundquist’s modification of it are theoretically

accurate for results of measurements which are proportional to the value

of any one astatic parameter. These measurements need not be deflection

measurements but may be strain measurements or, theoretically, measure-

ments of any effect linearly dependent upon the deformation. Further, the

parameter need not be the parameter corresponding to the lowest critical

load but theoretically may correspond to any higher critical load.

Southwell’s method is thus useful in cases where measurements within

the elastic range can be made to depend primarily upon the change of a

single astatic parameter. If the measurements are affected appreciably by

changes in other parameters, the critical load computed by Southwell’s

method or Lundquist’s modification may be considerably in error. A com-

bined numerical and graphical method of computation is outlined which by

successive approximations gives more accurate results in such cases. Finally

experimental results are given in which the second and third critical loads

of a “round end’’ Euler column are computed from strain gage measure-

ments taken at loads below the first critical load. (A uthor’s abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. TucKERMAN and NELSson; the

second one by Messrs. TELLER, DEMING, RAMBERG, and NELSON.

1141sT MEETING

The 1141st meeting of the Society was held in the Cosmos Club Audi-

torium, Saturday, November 19, 1938, President Hck presiding.

Program: J. W. Bans, University of Virginia: Some applications of high

rotational speeds.—A few high-speed vacuum-type air-driven centrifuges are

described and their operating characteristics given. Their applications to

such problems as the separation of isotopes, purification of material, deter-

mination of molecular and particle weights and sizes, are discussed. A brief

description is also given of the new magnetically-supported electrically-

driven vacuum-type centrifuge. Like the air-driven centrifuge, the maxi-

mum rotational speed of this electrically-driven magnetically-supported

centrifuge is limited only by the bursting strength of the centrifuge. Six-inch

rotors have been spun at speeds above 1,000 rps. The speed does not vary

by more than 1 rps. for periods of six hours, and the temperature of the

rotor remains very constant. The technique of spinning long tubes about a

JULY 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 305

vertical axis in a vacuum to very high speeds is briefly described, and their

use as centrifuges for gases and liquids is outlined. The material to be

centrifuged enters the spinning tube at one end and is collected in light

and heavy samples at the other. (Author’s abstract.)

An informal communication on ‘Natural Diffraction Spectra in Agates”’

was presented by J. W. McBurRNeEY.

1142D MEETING

The 1142d meeting, constituting the 68th annual meeting, was held in

the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, December 3, 1938, President

Heck presiding.

The treasurer reported that the income from dues and from interest on

investments was $1,366.19 and that the expenditures, other than invest-

ments, were $1,313.83, leaving a net surplus of $52.36 on ordinary expenses.

The ordinary expenditures were at the rate of $4.27 per member. The

treasurer reported that, with the approval of the General Committee, he

had sold certain securities of the Society, reinvested a portion of the pro-

ceeds in other securities, and is conducting negotiations for the investment

of the balance in other securities.

The secretaries’ joint report showed an active membership as of De-

cember 1, 1938, of 308, of whom the following were elected during the year:

Ray L. Driscoutit, Lester R. FRANKEL, CHRISTOS HARMANTAS, ENOCH

Karrer, R. B. KENNARD, PAuL 8. ROLLER, OTIs W. Swarinson, E. H.

VESTINE, DAviD WERTMAN, and Guapys Wuiret. The following were elected

in 1937 and qualified in 1938: WestLEy F. Curtis, THEODORE B. GODFREY,

H. F. Kaiser, Forrest R. Movutton, Francis W. STRUTHERS, Rouua H.

Tayutor, and Mmrue A. TUVE.

The annual report of the General Committee described the outstanding

items of business that had come before the General Committee during the

year as follows: (a) Changes in the bylaws of the General Committee relative

to the conduct of elections; (b) necessity of curtailment of ordinary expenses

due to decreased income from investments; and (c) elimination of an item

of expense for subscription to the JoURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES for members of the Society who are not members of the

Academy. These items were discussed by Messrs. DryprEN, HUMPHREYS, -

SEEGER, and Howse.

Changes in the bylaws relative to the conduct of elections were adopted

as recommended by the General Committee and were made retroactive.

W. D. Lampert made some comments and recommendations regarding

the preparation and mailing of ballots and instructions to voters. This

matter was discussed by Messrs. TucKERMAN, WERTHEIMER, MOHLER,

McNisu, SILSBEE, and BLAKE.

The following officers were declared elected for the year 1939: President,

F. G. BrickwEDDE; Vice-Presidents, R. E. Gipson and H. E. McComs;

Recording Secretary, R. J. SeEGER; Treasurer, H. F. Stimson; and Members-

at-Large of General Committee, WALTER RamMBere and A. G. McNisu.

Program: HERBERT G. Dorsry: Sono radio buoys for hydrographic sur-

veying.—These buoys were developed by the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic

Survey to serve as inexpensive hydrophone stations in radio acoustic rang-

ing.

Each sono radio buoy consists of one or more hollow steel drums to con-

tain the electrical apparatus and furnish buoyancy to float the super-

structure and counterweight.

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 7

In one of these drums there is an audio amplifier, designed primarily for

frequencies below 200 cycles, a keying tube and a crystal controlled radio

transmitter. A total of five or six 2-volt tubes is used, all biased to cut off

so that no B battery current is required, except about two milliamperes

screen grid current, when no signal is received. The filaments are kept

heated continuously by dry batteries. Bomb signals are received from the

water by an electromagnetic hydrophone, suspended below the sono radio

buoy, the impulse of which is amplified by the audio amplifier, actuating the

keying tube which furnishes screen grid current to the transmitting tube,

sending a short radio signal from the antenna supported on the super-

structure.

The time elapsed between firing the bomb by the surveying ship and the

return of the radio dash is measured to 0.01 second on the ship’s recording

chronograph and by such returns from two or more sono radio buoys placed

in known locations the ship’s position can be located with far greater

accuracy than by any method other than visual fixes.

These sono radio buoys have now been successfully used by the U. S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey for the past three seasons and their use has been

adopted by the U. 8. Naval Hydrographic Office during the past year.

(Author’s abstract.)

In discussing this paper Mr. P. A. SmrruH presented a slide showing some

of the detailed hydrographic work that has been done recently by this

method off the eastern shore of the United States.

H. E. McComps, Recording Secretary

1148p MEETING

The 1148d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

December 17, 1938, President BrIcKWEDDE presiding.

Program: HK. A. JoHNSON: Measurement of small magnetic moments.—

In order to measure the magnetic polarization of weakly magnetized sedi-

ments, an electromagnetic method of measurement has been developed

which is very sensitive. The magnet to be measured is rotated inside of a

fixed coil at ten cycles per second and the voltage induced in the coil is

measured by an alternating-current amplifier and synchronous commutator.

The limiting sensitivity is computed from the calculated signal voltage and

the thermal agitation in the input circuit. The limiting sensitivity can be

obtained in practice. Moments of 3107-7 CGS unit can be detected and

with specimens 1.5 cm on a side 8X 10-8 CGS unit/ce can be detected. The

method has allowed the study of the weak magnetic polarization in un-

metamorphosed sediments and has led to interesting results in regard to

the direction of the compass in prehistoric times. The direction of polariza-

tion can be determined to within 1° with the apparatus. (Author’s abstract.)

A. G. McNisu: The residual magnetization of rocks —To extend records

of changes in the earth’s magnetic field over a greater length of time than is

covered by historic records, measurements have been conducted on the

residual magnetization of sedimentary rocks. Unmetamorphosed sediments

are believed to have acquired their magnetization through alignment of

their magnetic constituents under the directive influence of the earth’s

magnetic field at the time of their formation. Measurements on the deposits

of varved Pleistocene clays left at the recession of the last ice-sheet from

New England have revealed distinct differences in direction of their residual

magnetization suggestive that for a 200-year period studied the average

direction of the earth’s field was 30° west of its present direction in the same

uve 15) 1939 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 307

region. Variations occurring during this period indicate that secular change

was in progress at the time with rates of change comparable with those

observed today. Measurements on sediments from the bottom of the ocean

also reveal secular change, although the measurements on these sediments

may not be directly related to present values of declination. (Author’s

abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. F. L Mouuerr, H. KE. McComp,

- and W. Rampera; the second one by Messrs. R. B. Kennarp, N. H. Heck,

F. G. Brickweppz, W. J. HumpHreys, A. 8S. HAwKswortTh, and J. Paw-

LING.

1144TH MEETING

The 1144th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

January 14, 1939, President BRICKWEDDE presiding.

The Retiring President, N. H. Heck, gave an address entitled From the

center of the earth to the sun. This address was published in this JoURNAL 29:

189-218. 1939.

1145TH MEETING

The 1145th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

January 28, 1939, President BRicKWEDDE presiding.

Program: KE. O. Hutsurt: The brightness of the twilight sky —The sunlight

illumination of the twilight sky was investigated for the purpose of deter-

mining the density and temperature of the atmosphere to as great an alti-

tude as possible. As the sun sets, the earth’s shadow above the observer

moves upward and the region of the atmosphere illuminated by the direct

rays of the sun moves to high levels. A reversed sequence of events occurs

before dawn. Measurements were made during clear weather of the bright-

ness of the zenith sky for about an hour after sunset and an hour before

sunrise. From the measurements, combined with the known intensity of

sunlight and the law of scattering of light by air, the density (or pressure)

and the temperature of the atmosphere were determined. Corrections were

made for secondary scattering which were obtained from measurements of

the brightness of the sunset or sunrise glow of the twilight sky near the

west or east horizon.

The temperature came out to be between 205° and 235° K from 12 km

to about 60 km. Thus, the temperature of the upper air was cold and was

roughly constant with altitude. From the temperature the pressure was

determined. No important changes were noted with the season from October,

1937, to April, 1938. For altitudes above about 60 km the method fails,

since at greater heights the light of the twilight sky is very weak and the

corrections due to secondary scattering are relatively large. These results

refer only to the atmosphere during conditions of twilight at Washington,

D. C., latitude 40° north. In general, one would expect that the upper air

erow warmer during the day and cooler at night. However, the day and

night change between 20 and 60 km may not be very great, and might be

supposed to increase with increasing altitude. (Author’s abstract.)

R. E. Gisson: Effect of pressure and temperature on the transmission of

light by certain solutions.—The solutions of aromatic amines in nitrobenzene

are highly colored even though the pure components are practically color-

less. This paper presented the results of a study of the light transmitted at

different pressures and temperatures by some of these solutions, especially

those of aniline in nitrobenzene which under ordinary conditions have a

deep orange color. It was found that rise of pressure at constant temperature

308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

decreased the amount of light transmitted by the solutions much more

strongly than could be accounted for by the compressibility of liquids. As

the light of shorter wave lengths (green and yellow) was absorbed more

strongly at the higher pressures, the visible effect was an apparent change

in the color of the solution. It was also found that the increase of temperature

at constant pressure had no detectable effect on the transmission of light by

these solutions, even when the volume change produced by a given change

of temperature, e.g., 85 to 25°, was approximately the same as that pro-

duced by a rise of pressure, viz., 1 to 1,000 atm.

The absence of a temperature coefficient together with other thermo-

dynamic properties of the solutions made it highly improbable that the

color of these solutions was due to the formation of addition compounds,

and, to account for the absorption of light by the solutions and its change

with increase of pressure, the hypothesis was advanced that the amount of

light of the longer wave lengths absorbed by the solutions was determined

by the frequency and violence of collisions between the nitro and amino

groups on the unlike molecules. Additional RUC in favor of this hy-

pothesis was presented.

Taking into account the known behavior of the oxygen atoms in the nitro

groups as electron-attracting groups and the known tendency of the —NR3;

eroup to act as an electron-repelling group, a mechanism was suggested

whereby at the moment of collision an aromatic amine might lower the

energy of the excited state of the nitro-group in nitrobenzene. As con-

firmatory evidence the behavior of solutions of p-nitro-acetanilide in nitro-

benzene which are practically colorless was cited.

Studies of the effect of pressure and temperature on the light transmitted

by these solutions suggest that in these solutions we have examples of the

limiting case of compound formation in solution and of the production of

profound changes in the light-absorption of molecules by intermolecular

disturbances.

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. J. Pawiine, F. L. MouuEr,

L. B. TuckprMan, P. A. SmitH, W. G. BromBacHeEr, and W. L. Hum-

PHREYS; the second one by Messrs. P. A. Rouuer, J. A. DunrxKson, W. J.

HumpuHereys, and J. Breck, Jr.

Mr. J. Pawuina presented an informal communication consisting of a

typical photograph of two sunspots.

1146TH MEETING

The 1146th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

February 11, 1939, President BRICcKWEDDE presiding.

Program: H. F. Stimson: The measurement of the specific heat and the

latent heat of water from 0° to 100°C.—Precise determinations were made of

the specific heat of water from 0°C to 100°C. These are of value in deter-

minations where water is used as a standard of heat capacity. The latent

heat of vaporization was determined at 15 selected temperatures from

100°C down to 0.15°C.

The theory of the method was outlined and the apparatus described.

Some of the precautions to attain accuracy were enumerated and the formu-

lation of the results described. The agreement of the formulation with the

experimental results for the specific heat showed a precision of better than

one part in 10,000 but it was pointed out that the accuracy is not necessarily

that high. (Author’ s abstract.)

Jwny 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 309

E. TELLER: Report on the theoretical conference on low temperature phe-

nomena.—This year’s Theoretical Conference centered around low tem-

perature physics. One of the main questions was connected with the mag-

netic method for production of extremely low temperatures. To reach low

temperatures it is necessary to find some modes of motion that will persist

to low temperatures. Such motion is that of the magnetic dipole of electrons

and the question discussed at the conference concerned the coupling of mag-

netic dipoles with other degrees of freedom. Another group of questions was

related to the zero-point energy of the lightest atoms. This zero-point

energy is responsible for the different behaviors of solid or liquid hydrogen

and deuterium. The remarkable properties of the low temperature modi-

fication of liquid helium are, however, the most striking illustrations of

quantum effect. For this liquid helium the designation “quantum helium”

has been used, since it is zero-point energy rather than temperature motion

that keeps it from solidifying. Liquid helium also may serve as a model for

the droplet theory of the atomic nucleus. (Author’s abstract.)

The first of these papers was discussed by Messrs. F. D. Rossin1, F. C.

Kracex, W. F. Waitt, W. J. HumpuHreys, L. B. TucKERMAN, and

J. PAawiinG; the second one by Messrs. A. 8S. HAwxKswortu, L. R. Max-

WELL, F. D. Rossini, and F. G. BRICKWEDDE.

1147TH MEETING

The 1147th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

February 25, 1939, Vice-President G1Bson presiding.

Program: J. Pawuine: The formation of a revised second Bordeaux catalog.

H. C. Hayss: Sap flow and pressure in birch trees.

Sap flow resembles respiration rather than circulation. The tree starts

taking in sap under certain stimulating conditions that are not fully under-

stood and continues until boiler pressures of considerable magnitude are

established. After maintaining these high pressures for a period of several

hours the tree starts expelling sap and continues until the pressure ap-

proaches zero and occasionally becomes less than atmospheric pressure.

Maximum pressures slightly in excess of 200 centimeters of mercury above

and minimum pressures as low as 6 centimeters of mercury below atmos-

pheric pressure have been recorded.

Sap pressure appears to be independent of the size or height of the tree. It

tends to rise and fall with the temperature, but no relation between tem-

perature and pressure has been established or even approximated. Moreover,

a comparison of many simultaneous temperature and pressure records leads

to the belief that factors other than temperature must operate to account

for some of the rapid pressure fluctuations where changes as great as 2 or

3cm of mercury may occur within a minute of time during which there is no

measurable change of temperature. Such pressure influencing factors, if

they exist, can be traced to the sun for the reason that these small, erratic

and relatively rapid pressure fluctuations do not occur during the night.

Pressure changes occur practically simultaneously in all trees in the same

locality. This statement apparently holds even for the small rapid pressure

fluctuations which are usually present during the hours of sunshine. This

fact proves that the stimulus causing the change of sap pressure in a tree

comes from without the tree.

The resistance to sap flow through the tree varies between wide limits

becoming surprisingly small during the periods when the pressure is high

310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

and active to much greater values when the pressure is low and inactive.

The seat of the sap pressure lies in the new cell growth about the tips of

the tiny root hairs. Both pressure and pressure changes appear to depend

on the vital activity of these cells because their experimentally determined

values can not be accounted for by osmosis and/or capillary action. These

cells apparently have the ability to store energy which, under some external

stimulus not fully understood, is expended in forcing sap into the trees

against pressures approaching 40 pounds per square inch and in main-

taining such pressures over periods of several hours. The termination of such

pressure periods appears to be definite and practically simultaneous in all

trees of the locality as though it were caused by cessation of the pressure-

inducing stimulus which then permits the sap to pass outward to the soil

through the action of gravity. There is also the possibility that the outward

flow of sap is due in part to reversal of activity and not to inactivity of the

root cells.

The first of these papers was discussed by Messrs. H. F. Stimson, A. 8.

Hawxkswortu, P. A. SmirH, W. J. Humpureys, R. J. SeEcerR, and

C. Bararr; the second one by Messrs. P. 8S. RoutuEer and P. A. Suiru.

1148TH MEETING

The 1148th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

March 11, 1939, President BRIcKWEDDE presiding.

Program: RicHarD B. Rosperts, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism

of the Carnegie Institution: The splitting of uranium and thorium nuclei by

neutrons.—Several years ago Fermi and collaborators observed that arti-

ficial radioactivity is induced when uranium is bombarded by neutrons.

Recently Hahn and Strassman have shown by chemical methods that among

the radioactive elements produced are barium, cerium, and lanthanum. This

observation was explained by Meitner and Frisch as a fission on the uranium

nucleusinto two roughly equal parts with approximately 200 million electron-

volts of energy released in the process. This theory was soon confirmed by

observing the ionization produced by these heavy and highly energetic

particles. Neutrons were also found to be emitted in this fission process and

these neutrons might conceivably lead to an exothermic chain-reaction.

However, it appears very probable that separated isotopes of uranium in

large quantities would be necessary to sustain such a chain-reaction.

(A uthor’s abstract.)

MicHAarL GoLpBERG: Linkage mechanisms in three dimensions.—A closed

chain of n hinged links in three dimensions (that is, a linkage in which the

hinges are not all parallel) has, in general, n-6 degrees of freedom. When n is

less than seven, the linkage is generally rigid; a movable chain is said to be

“naradoxical.’”’ Models of the known paradoxical linkages of less than seven

links were exhibited and discussed. These included the plane and spherical

linkages, the Bricard 6-bar linkage, which is the basis of the deformable

octahedron, the Bennett 4-bar linkage, a new 5-bar linkage and two new

6-bar linkages discovered by the speaker, plane and line symmetric 6-bar

linkages, a special 6-bar linkage of 90° twisted links, and several classes of

linkages employing plane links. (Author’s abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. E. TELLER, W. G. BROMBACHER,

F. C. Kracrk, C. Bararr, and L. R. MAXwE Lu.

Juny 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY oll

1149TH MEETING

The 1149th meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of

Sciences in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 16, 1939, with President

CHAMBERS of the Academy presiding.

Professor Enrico Fermi, Department of Physics, Columbia University,

spoke on The mesotron. The lecture was discussed by members of the

Academy and of the Philosophical Society.

1150TH MEETING

The 1150th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

March 25, 1939, President BRIcKWEDDE presiding.

The Ninth Joseph Henry Lecture entitled Recent developments of cosmic-

ray investigation was delivered by Dr. THomas H. JounstTon, Assistant

Director of the Bartol Foundation of the Franklin Institute. This lecture,

which was discussed by Mr. C. Bararr, has been published in this JouRNAL

29: 233-256. 1939.

1151ST MEETING

The 1151st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

April 8, 1939, President BRICKWEDDE presiding.

Program: CHARLES K. GREEN, Coast and Geodetic Survey: Submarine

topography in the pilot house.—Until the advent of echo sounding the average

mariner gave but little thought to the configuration of the ocean bottom

while cruising in deep water. As long as his course was free from dangers it

mattered little whether the vessel at the moment was passing over asub-

marine knoll or a steep sided canyon. He could not utilize the charted depths

for fixing his position without stopping the ship and measuring the depth

with a wire—a time-consuming procedure resorted to in exceptional cases

only. For ordinary navigation in deep water it was not practicable to use

this method.

Today, however, it is possible to obtain a continuous profile of the bottom

with the vessel underway. This means that deep-water bottom relief has

become important to the man in the Pilot House, since it is available for

practical use in guiding his ship. Bottom features in deep water areas are

not readily discernible on the conventional chart, on which soundings only

are shown. A new method of charting was therefore needed.

The first nautical chart to show detailed bottom relief by depth contours

has just been issued by the Director of the Coast and Geodetic Survey.

This chart, 5101A, covers the area off the coast of Southern California and

the 50-fathom depth contours printed in blue bring into prominence the

many submarine “‘landmarks”’ useful to mariners in fixing position by echo

sounding.

By this method of charting, full use can be made of the survey data,

whereas on the conventional type chart of this area, only two percent of

the soundings could be used without impairing legibility. (Author’s abstract.)

O. W. Swainson: Problems of the modern hydrographer——To develop

radio acoustic ranging to its present state of reliability where the position

of soundings taken in hydrographic surveying out of sight of land and for

distances up to 200 miles can be obtained, enabling the accurate charting

of submarine canyons and mountains, it was necessary to solve many prob-

312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

lems. Some of those described were the development of safe and special

bombs to be fired at depths up to 6,000 feet using a single electrical con-

ductor; the determination of the path of the refracted sound wave in sea

water; and the overcoming of the difficulty of reflection from submarine

canyon walls and mountain sides. A formula was described for obtaining

the distance of the bomb from the hydroplane using the approach to

parallelism of travel time curves with distances over 30 miles. (Author’s

abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. J. PawLine and M. GoLpBERG;

the second one by Messrs. G. T. Rupr, W. Bowis, P. A. Smiru, and A. §.

HAWKSWORTH.

1152D MEETING

The 1152d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

April 22, 1939, President Brick WEDDE presiding.

Program: E. L. Kurtin, Naval Research Laboratory: Radiation pressure

and its measurement.—The paradoxical history of radiation pressure is re-

called. It is pointed out that, whether regarded on the basis of the wave

theory or quantum theory, radiant energy possesses momentum. With this

momentum is always associated radiation pressure. The smallness of radia-

tion pressure is illustrated by calculating the tremendous power that a

searchlight or loud speaker requires in order that the radiation pressure in

the beam of light or sound might support a 2-ounce hat. This negligible

effect on earth is contrasted with the incredible magnitudes of radiation

pressures dealt with in astrophysics.

Devices for measuring radiation pressure of light and of sound are de-

picted. Apparatus utilizing this effect in standardizing subaqueous acoustics

are discussed. It is shown how the radiation pressure developed by a sound

generator may be evaluated by two distinct radiometric instruments under

identical conditions. Secondary standard microphones are calibrated by the

aid of these devices. (Author’s abstract.)

L. B. Tuckerman: Mathematics as she are taught—Very many otherwise

competent and well-trained engineers are either afraid of mathematics or

scornful of any engineering use of anything but the most elementary mathe-

matics. They can hardly be blamed for this attitude when they find that the

so-called mathematics, which they have been taught, repeatedly gives them

wrong answers. Some engineering textbooks in wide current use even en-

courage them in this attitude by sneering at sound mathematical treatment

and by treating some mathematical problems in ways which are inadequate,

misleading, or even wholly wrong.

Examination of textbooks of algebra, calculus, and function theory in

wide current use today shows that these inadequate, misleading, and wrong

treatments in engineering textbooks are to be ascribed partly, at least, to

equally inadequate, misleading, and wrong treatment of fundamental

principles with which many mathematical textbooks, which are supposed

to teach mathematics, are filled. It is no wonder that many students give

mathematics up as useless and hopeless, convinced that they never can

understand it.

These statements are substantiated by many excerpts (shown as lantern

slides) from textbooks in wide current use, containing, not a few minor slips,

but many different inadequate, misleading, and wrong statements about

fundamentals.

JuLy 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 313

Fortunately some textbooks are not so bad as those from which these

excerpts are taken and some teachers are careful to correct the faults of the

texts. Nevertheless there is urgent need for drastic reform of the textbooks

and the teaching of elementary mathematics in our schools. (Author’s

abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. H. F. Stimson, P. A. Smita,

A. S. Hawxsworth, and H. L. Curtis; the second by Messrs. A. WirT-

HEIMER, M. Goupsere, and T. DANrtzia.

1153D MEETING

The 1153d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

May 6, 1939, President BRICK WEDDE presiding.

Program: H. L. Curtis, C. Moon, M. Sparks, F. WENNER, J. L. THOoMas,

I. L. Cootsr, F. R. Kotter: Absolute measurements of electrical resistance.—

The resistance of a conductor in absolute ohms is the ratio of the potential

difference between its terminals, in absolute volts, to the current, in absolute

amperes, which is flowing through the conductor. However, the determina-

tion of the resistance in absolute ohms has usually been made by methods

which do not require the measurement, in absolute units, either of the

potential difference or of the current. By the methods used at the National

Bureau of Standards a comparison is made of the potential difference be-

tween the terminals of a resistor carrying a current and the electromotive

force which is induced in an inductor when this same current is changing in

a definite manner. Then the absolute value of the resistance is obtained

from the value of the inductance, which may be computed from its dimen-

sions, and from a time interval which is determined from the manner in

which the current changes. At the National Bureau of Standards two

different methods have been carried to completion, in one of which a self

inductance was employed and in the other a mutual inductance.

I. Self-Inductance Method. In the self-inductance method an alternating

current bridge was used for comparing the self inductance with a capaci-

tance and two resistances. The capacitance was then measured in a direct-

current bridge in which the capacitor was charged and discharged a known

number of times per second. The capacitance could be eliminated between

the equations which connect the constants of these two bridges so that the

inductance was determined in international henrys when the resistances of

the two bridges were in international ohms. The value of the inductance in

absolute henrys was computed from the mechanical dimensions of the in-

ductor and the permeability of the space which surrounded it. The ratio of

these two values of the inductance gave the correction factor for converting

the value of a resistance in international ohms to its value in absolute ohms.

The self inductor used in the determinations outlined above was a single-

layer solenoid. The solenoid was wound on a pyrex glass form, over a meter

in length, in which a screw thread was cut and lapped on the outer surface.

Two problems were involved, one to have the pitch uniform, the other to

have the diameter uniform. The method of lapping gave a pitch which was

so uniform that methods of measurement were not available for showing

that there were any variations. The maximum variation in diameter was

about one micron. In order to have the wire sufficiently uniform in diameter

and free from kinks, it was drawn directly onto the cylinder. When a flat

oilstone was passed lightly along the length of the finished solenoid, a spot

314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

was polished on each of the wires; the depth of a spot being less than a

micron in every case. If there had been a variation in the diameter of the

wire as much as 0.1 micron it could readily have been detected by observing

these spots.

II. Mutual-Inductance Method. The method of measurements involved:

(1) eyelic reversals of the current in the primary winding of the mutual

inductor without opening the primary circuit; (2) cyclic reversals of the

connections to the secondary winding without opening the secondary cir-

cuit; (3) the maintenance of a practically constant current in that part of

the primary circuit containing the resistance which was being measured;

(4) the maintenance of a practically zero current in the secondary circuit

when adjustments were such that the rectified value of the induced electro-

motive force was equal to the potential drop across the resistor; (5) when

adjustments are properly made, R=4nM, where R is the measured re-

sistance, nis the frequency of the primary current cycle and M is the mutual

inductance. When M is expressed as the product of cm, wo and 10~°, and

nis the number of cycles per second, RF is in absolute ohms.

The mutual inductor was a modification of the Campbell type. The

primary was a solenoid wound on a porcelain form and constructed by a

somewhat similar method to that used for the solenoid in the self inductance

method. However, the winding was not continuous but had two gaps which

were symmetrical with respect to the center. This type of winding gave,

outside the primary, a region in which the magnetic field was practically

zero. The second winding was placed in this region. The secondary was wound

in a groove made by cementing together three plate-glass rings, all having

the same inside diameter but the two outer ones having a larger outside

diameter than the inner ring.

III. Results. The ratio of the absolute ohm to the international ohm by

the two methods is in very satisfactory agreement. The average value by

the self inductance method for 104 measurements taken during the past

year can be stated as

1 NBS international ohm =1.000 484 absolute ohms. |

The value so far obtained by the mutual inductance method is

1 NBS international ohm = 1.000 485 absolute ohms.

(Authors’ abstract.)

The above program was presented as four papers. The theory of the self-

inductance method was presented by H. L. Curtis, the experimental pro-

cedure and results of that method by C. Moon, the mutual inductance

method by F. WENNER, and the mutual inductor by J. L. THomas. These

papers were discussed by Messrs. P. A. Smitu, L. B. TuckERMAN, C. SNow,

A.S. Hawkswortu, E. BuckincHaM, and E. C. CRITTENDEN.

1154TH MEETING

The 1154th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

May 20, 1939, President BRIcKWEDDE presiding.

Program: A. Bramury, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils: A thermal method

for the separation of gases and isotopes.—Methods for separating gases by

thermal diffusion [Chapman and Dootson, Phil. Mag. 33, 248 (1917)] have

been improved by making the process accumulative [Clusius and Dickel,

Naturwiss. 33, 546 (1938); Brower and Bramley, Phys. Rev. 55, 590 (1939) ;

JuLY 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 315

Bramley and Brower, American Chemical Society Abstracts, Baltimore

Meeting (1939)]. Our glass apparatus consists of two concentric cylinders,

the inner one heated, the outer one cooled. Measurements were taken on a

50—50 mixture of CH, and NH; at 20 cm pressure. The cylinders were 100

em long; the inner cylinder had a diameter of 1 cm. As the diameter of the

outer cylinder was changed from 1.3 cm to 5.4 cm, the separation went

through a broad maximum. As the optimum diameter of 2.5 cm the mixture

showed a 27 percent enrichment of NH; at the bottom. With this apparatus,

diameter of outer tube 2.5 cm and inner 1 cm, measurements were made

on the effect of time, temperature, and pressure. At a pressure of 20 cm

and average temperature of 150°C. the separation reached 90 percent of its

final value in 15 minutes. At this same pressure, the separation increased as

the average temperature of the gas increased up to 170°C. With a fixed

power input, the separation increased as the pressure decreased from 60

to 20 cm; below that it decreased again. Measurements have been made on

separating the chlorine isotopes of HCI. (Author’s abstract.)

BriAN O’BriEn, Institute of Optics of Rochester University: The problems

of solar variability and new methods of attack.—There are many indications

of variability of the sun. The number and distribution of sun spots exhibiting

clearly an eleven-year periodicity, changes in form of the solar corona,

fluctuations in the earth’s magnetic field, and changes in the ionosphere all

give evidence of periodic variation of solar origin. The recent and excellent

correlation between radio fade-outs and chromosphere flares is further

evidence of solar variation reflected in terrestrial phenomena.

Perhaps the most direct method of attack on the problem of solar varia-

tion is the systematic measurement of radiation received from the sun. This

offers no great problems so far as the determination of radiation received

at the earth’s surface, but to remove terrestrial effects from such measure-

ments it is necessary to determine, at the same time, the transmission co-

efficients of the earth’s atmosphere. The difficulties of determining these

precisely are very considerable, but this problem has been attacked with

much success by the Smithsonian Institution over a period of years. As a

result the total radiation emitted by the sun, the form of its spectral energy

curve, and the spectral transmission coefficients of the terrestrial atmos-

phere under clear air conditions are known with high accuracy.

The fluctuations observed in total radiation as received from the sun out-

side the earth’s atmosphere are small, but there is reason to believe that

these may be of much importance. Any improvements in the accuracy of

determination of the atmospheric transmission coefficients (the principal

source of uncertainties) are thus very desirable. While measurements are

less complete there is good evidence that fluctuations in solar radiation are

much greater in the near ultraviolet than are those at longer wave lengths.

In view of the above we have attacked the problem by measurement in

the ultraviolet and at high levels in the earth’s atmosphere. This is being

done in two ways. By the use of sounding balloons, photoelectric keyed

radio-telemetering instruments are carried to altitudes of the order of 20

km, above which level the uncertainties remaining in atmospheric trans-

mission are very small. While excellent in principle, this method imposes

very severe operating conditions for a precision instrument. The second

method, which is applied independently, consists in precise measurement at

two spectral regions (one in the ultraviolet and one in the infrared both

removed from regions of strong absorption) of the solar radiation simul-

316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 7

taneously at the earth’s surface and at altitudes attainable by an airplane.

By this means the uncertainties in transmission of the lower atmosphere

due to dust, water droplets and other contaminations are eliminated.

Although both methods are being tested experimentally, the instru-

mental precision is not yet as great as desired, and development work is

being continued. Details of this will be discussed. (Author’s abstract.)

The first of these papers was discussed by Messrs. R. E. Grpson, A. K.

Brewer, L. R. Maxwe.., and L. B. TuckrerMan; the second by Messrs.

F. L. Mouuer, L. R. Maxwet., T. A. Smitu, L. B. Tuckerman, C. G.

Axpsot, and H. L. Curtis.

RayMonpD J. SEEGER, Recording Secretary

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Vou. 29 Auaeust 15, 1939 No. 8

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 29 Avaust 15, 1939 No. 8

BIOLOGY.—The measure of population divergence and multiplicity

of characters... Isaac GinsBuRG, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.

(Communicated by Waxpo L. ScHMITT.)

In two previous papers (1937 and 1938) I discussed the problem

of the species and its subdivisions and concluded that the lines drawn

between these taxonomic categories must of necessity be arbitrary.

In the later paper I employed a method for determining the precise

divergence between natural populations, based on the character

showing the greatest divergence (designated by Davenport, 1898, as

the principal character, and the same term used in this paper), for

the purpose of drawing pertinent arbitrary lines between those taxo-

nomic categories. The question of multiplicity of characters was men-

tioned only in a passing manner. This paper takes up this question

in some detail.

The determination of divergence may be considered with reference

to time and to extent. Each one of these two factors may be con-

sidered further with reference to a single character and to a number

of characters.

Time is, of course, an important element in divergence. With ref-

erence to time, changes that result in the differentiation and isolation

of populations from preexisting populations, as manifested by any

one character, may be roughly divided into two categories: rapid

and slow. The former class may be called explosive evolutionary

changes. Changes sometimes designated as mutations are of the ex-

plosive kind. (Geneticists have appropriated the use of the word mu-

tation to express the idea of a change in the gene of any kind or de-

gree. I use the word in the original sense, that is, to signify a percept-

ible change that is sudden, stable, heritable, and of appreciable

magnitude, no matter what its immediate cause may be. We need

two separate words to express these two ideas.) While probably not

infrequent, it is apparently not the usual modus operandi of nature

in evolution. The biological evidence adduced up to now makes it

apparent that evolution, the differentiation of new populations from

‘ Received February 2, 1939.

2 1

Ayn 6 *

318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

preexisting ones, usually takes place by slow changes. It may be

assumed that, in general, each succeeding generation—or at least

some individuals thereof—differs, in any one given character, very

slightly from the preceding one. The difference between any two suc-

cessive generations, considered in their entirety as separate popula-

tions, is usually so slight as to be imperceptible by our rather crude

methods of observation and measurement. But the minute differences

are cumulative, and when any two widely separated generations are

compared, they may be detected by statistical methods. (It may be

possible to test now the truth of this assumption. Possibly some

museum has an adequate sample, collected a hundred or so years ago,

of a population of plants or animals that reproduce annually and that

have a short span of life, say, one or two years. Such a sample, when

compared with a sample of the same population as it exists today,

would represent an interval of 50 or more generations. With respect

to evolution, biologists are usually in the habit of thinking in terms

of geological time; but hardly anything is known now in regard to

the time factor in evolution. Possibly in some cases an interval of

even 50 or 100 generations may produce cumulatively, under natural

or wild conditions—leaving out of consideration laboratory or do-

mesticated conditions—a very small but statistically measurable

difference. Crampton (1916, pp. 57, 120; 1932, pp. 78, 95) presents

evidence to show that some populations of terrestrial gastropods of

the genus Partula have undergone average morphological changes,

sometimes to a considerable extent, during an interval of a little over

half a century, as well as changes in their geographic distribution.

Although no detailed observations appear to be extant on the span of

life, the age at maturity, and the time frequency of reproduction in

Partula, it seems safe to assume that a year represents the time inter-

val of one generation and quite probably more than one.)

Though time no doubt plays an important role in evolution, it is

hardly of practical importance in discussions of the species problem.

For one thing it can not now be determined with anything approach-

ing precision, or, more generally, it can not be determined at all. It

is also reasonable to assume that there is no sharp line of demarca-

tion between the above two classes of change with respect to time,

and that one gradually merges into the other. We recognize only ex-

treme examples of the explosive kind that happen to come under our

observation and designate them as mutations. Even in populations

undergoing comparatively slow changes there are apparently all de-

grees of differences in tempo. In general, it is obvious that some

Aveust 15, 1939 GINSBURG: MEASURE OF POPULATION DIVERGENCE 319

populations, especially those belonging to certain genera, are now

in a state of flux, actively changing and proliferating (the taxonomi-

eally so-called ‘‘difficult’’ genera are of this kind), while others show

no perceptible change during long intervals of time, hardly differ-

ing even from their remote, fossil ancestors. Consequently, evenif

it were possible to use the time factor in determining divergence,

we would have to draw arbitrary lines there also, the same as in the

determination of the extent of divergence. Furthermore, the time

factor, taken by itself, can not be used as a universal criterion in de-

termining divergence. It is obvious that this factor depends on the

span of life, age at maturity, fecundity, and length of the reproductive

period of the particular population. Primarily it depends on the

interval of time occupied by a generation, which, from this stand-

point, may be taken to be its actively reproductive period.

Chiefly from a practical standpoint, therefore, the extent of di-

vergence is the important thing to consider. If pairs of closely related,

natural populations diverge to approximately the same extent, at

least by the principal character, they are to be regarded as of the

same taxonomic rank no matter whether they diverged by explosive

or by slow evolutionary changes of different degrees.

In determining the extent of divergence the usual existence of a

multiplicity of characters introduces a disturbing element. If closely

related diverging populations differed by only one character, the ex-

tent of their divergence could be expressed readily and almost com-

pletely by the measure employed in my paper referred to (1938), or

by some similar measure. But diverging populations usually differ

in more than one character. The diagram I presented (1937, p. 187),

to illustrate the gradual series obtained when the divergences of the

chief distinguishing character or the principal character of a number

of pairs of populations are arranged in order, may also be used (omit-

ting the horizontal lines) as a general graphic illustration of the di-

vergences of several characters between a single pair of populations.

That is, when two closely related diverging populations are carefully

studied, we find that usually they differ in several characters showing

different degrees of divergence. The difficulty introduced by the usual

existence of several diverging characters as between any given pair

of populations was obviated by me (1938) by using the principal

character as the basis of determining and measuring the extent of

divergence. This method is seemingly incomplete. How are we to

express the degree of divergence of two closely related populations

by taking into consideration other characters in which they diverge

320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 8

in addition to the principal character? What weight, if any, are these

other characters to be given in measuring divergence? An altogether

satisfactory answer to this question can not be given at present; but

apparently not much weight should be placed on the other charactezs.

The problem of the measure of divergence as related to a multi-

plicity of characters may also be considered with reference to time

and extent. With respect to time it is reasonable to assume that when

a pair of populations diverge in more than one character, the several

characters, in general, change about simultaneously, although this

is probably not always and not altogether so. Consequently, it seems

probable that the time element is usually of not much importance in

determining the hypothetical sum total of divergence of all the char-

acters. As far as the time factor is concerned, the principal character

apparently forms an adequate basis for a measure of divergence. In

any case, the time factor is not definitely determinable, and we are

forced to leave it out of consideration in practice. While the time fac-

tor is of much theoretical interest, its consideration at present must

be almost altogether of a speculative nature. For practical work in

taxonomy we must rely on the extent of divergence. This is the factor

of much practical importance in taxonomy, and it may be determined

with some measure of precision.

(Geneticists may be dissatisfied with some of the above statements. For

instance, some would probably object to the idea of changes being cumu-

lative in an accretive sense, with reference to degrees of magnitude in the

development of a given character; and would restrict the idea to a statistical

sense, that is, the gradually cumulative addition to the population of indi-

viduals showing a given change or changes. With respect to any one pre-

sumably single factor character, they probably would express the idea of a

cumulative change in a population in their language, in terms of a change,

for some largely unknown causes, in the frequency ratios of alternative

alleles. With respect to several characters, or any one presumably multiple

factor character, they may want to express the idea as the statistical accum-

ulation of mutant genes in the population. However, I am speaking here

from the point of view of the taxonomist. The chief cause of difference in

the points of view of taxonomists and geneticists is that the latter deal

mainly with a particular and comparatively restricted kind of differences,

qualitative differences; whereas taxonomists deal with all kinds of popula-

tions, and the great majority of closely related populations differ quanti-

tatively, not in the absolute, but in having different frequency distributions

that very often overlap, even in those populations that are generally re-

garded by taxonomists as of the rank of species. Because of the difference,

by and large, in the material with which they work, they even think in

different terms. Geneticists usually think of characters as of something

being present or absent, or as of something that may manifest one form of

two or more alternative and more or less discrete forms. Taxonomists, on

the other hand, in consequence of the things with which they are more

Aveust 15, 1989 GINSBURG: MEASURE OF POPULATION DIVERGENCE 321

familiar, generally think of characters as being variables that vary in a

gradual manner about a more or less central mode, and in case of continuous

variables, in virtually infinitesimal gradations. Another consequence is that

in considering divergence between closely related populations, geneticists

appear to think of and often lay stress on its being discrete or discontinuous,

whereas taxonomists think in terms of degrees of magnitude that are virtu-

ally infinitesimally graded.

~ If current ideas regarding multiple factors and manifold effects of single

genes are accepted as a working hypothesis, the proposition of a cumulative

change in degrees of magnitude of a gradually variable quantitative char-

acter is not excluded, on the assumption that the change in the visible char-

acter is due to changes in a number of genes. Therefore, no matter how the

propositions are stated, they refer to the same conclusion, that is, the usual

way in which perceptible evolutionary changes in populations are brought

about in nature is by the slow accumulation of minute differences.

The business of the taxonomist is to distinguish populations—species,

subspecies, and races—by their visible morphological characters. The deter-

mination of their genetic constitution is a coordinate but, in practice, a

separate problem. While a good beginning has been made toward an under-

standing of the operation of the genetic factors in heredity, it is only a

beginning, and it may be expected that current hypotheses will be modified

with increased knowledge. What the taxonomist is doing is to study the end

products of the very complex interaction of genetic factors. A proper syn-

thesis of the two closely allied branches of biology, genetics and taxonomy,

is sorely needed. Perhaps, in the present state of knowledge, the time is

not yet ripe for such a constructive synthesis. Meanwhile, I am here speak-

ing the language of the taxonomist. The statements made above flow as a

a plausible consequence of his experience. They also do not seem to be in

conflict with the known facts so far uncovered in genetic studies. )

The extent of divergence of a multiplicity of diverging characters

may be considered by referring to some hypothetical populations. Let

us assume a pair of closely related populations, alpha and beta, that

differ by two characters, A (Fig. 1) and B (Fig. 2). The divergence of

character A is such that no intergrades exist; that is, the extent of

divergence is 100 percent, every individual may be definitely referred

to one or the other population on the basis of this character; while

character B shows a very high degree of intergradation. Let us as-

sume further another pair of population, gamma and delta, that also

differ by two characters, C (Fig. 3) and D (Fig. 4), both characters

showing a moderate degree of intergradation. Character D, as indi-

cated in the figure, is assumed to show a slightly higher degree of

intergradation than C, and C is, therefore, the principal character as

between these two hypothetical populations. In this hypothetical

case a number of individuals are not definitely referable to either

population on the basis of any one character. When both characters

are considered a number of such intergrades will likely be placed with

a satisfactory measure of assurance by one of the characters falling

322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

near the mode or even near the outer extreme end of the distribution

of its population; but a residue of the individuals will likely have

both characters intergrading.

Judged by criteria now in practical use by biologists in distinguish-

ing populations, it is evident that the first pair of the foregoing two

hypothetical pairs of populations shows a relatively greater extent

of divergence than the second pair, because every individual, with-

out exception, can be definitely referred to its proper population. The

relative degree of divergence between the first pair of populations,

a/ hg

wy ~

& % e / sy,

is = S

Qo 3 Qo

Si}, 4.

Fig. 1.—Graphic representation of frequency distributions of character A in two

hypothetical populations, alpha and beta. Fig. 2.—Graphic representation of fre-

quency distributions of character B in two hypothetical populations, alpha and beta.

Fig. 3.—Graphic representation of frequency distributions of character C in two

hypothetical populations, gamma and delta. Fig. 4.—Graphic representation of fre-

quency distributions of character D in two hypothetical populations, gamma and delta.

as compared with that between the second pair, may be indicated

by some measure expressing the extent of divergence of the principal

character in the two pairs, characters A and C, respectively. But how

are we going to combine the divergence of the two characters in each

pair of populations in order to compare the relative divergence of the

two pairs? Apparently a combination that will include the full meas-

ure of divergence of each character separately will likely show a higher

relative divergence of the second pair of populations, a misleading

result. If we are to include the lesser diverging character in the meas-

ure of divergence, it must be weighted, and weighted so that it will

have only a very minor effect on the measure as determined by the

Aveust 15, 1939 GINSBURG: MEASURE OF POPULATION DIVERGENCE 323

single character showing the greatest divergence. The development

of a satisfactory method of weighting to produce a pertinent index

of divergence is problematical. It seems apparent that a measure of

divergence based only on the character showing the greatest diver-

gence is fairly adequate, although perhaps not altogether complete,

- as an expression of the relative divergence of the above two hypo-

thetical pairs of populations.

It should not be difficult to find in nature examples approximately

corresponding to the above hypothetical cases. The same order of

reasoning may be applied to three or more characters, and to the

untold multitude of actual cases that may be encountered in practice.

Measures that have been proposed based on a combination of sev-

eral characters are unsatisfactory. A few examples of such measures

are next cited and discussed.’

Physical anthropologists have been using such a measure, Cesig-

nated as the ‘‘coefficient of racial likeness.’’ This was devised chiefly

for use in cases in which only small samples are available, on the

assumption that the study of many characters and the combination

of the sum of their differences in a single figure will compensate for

the paucity of individuals studied and yield comparative figures that

would be more reliable than those based on the comparison of a

single character (see Pearson, 1926). Of course, the same measure

may be applied to samples of fair or large size. The formula in use for

determining this measure depends chiefly on the following factors:

(1) the difference between the means of any one character of the two

populations compared, (2) the standard deviation, (3) the number of

specimens in the samples, (4) the summation of the values for the

separate characters, (5) division of the value obtained by the number

of characters. When a sample is small the standard deviation deter-

mined by it is unreliable, and that of the nearest related population

for which an adequate sample is available is employed on the as-

sumption that anthropometric data usually have a nearly normal

distribution and that there is not much difference between the stand-

ard deviations of the different populations.

Seltzer (1937) discusses some of the errors and fallacies inherent

in the “coefficient of racial likeness” when used as a measure of di-

2 Students of the differing frequency distributions of blood groups in different

populations of the genus Homo have been using a “‘biochemical index” or other indices

to express population differences in terms of a single figure. These indices do not

represent a combination of two or more characters, but a combination of percentage

ratios of frequencies in the same distribution. As may well have been expected, such

He as well are inapplicable and sometimes misleading (see Wiener, 1935, pp. 153-

324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

vergence, as follows: (1) For any given character, it assumes arbi-

trarily and unjustifiably a single standard deviation for different

populations. (This objection may be overcome when the samples

compared are of fair size, and the standard deviation of each popula-

tion separately determined.) (2) It depends on the number of char-

acters used in the comparison. (3) It depends on the number of

specimens in the samples. (4) Fundamentally, it is not a measure of

divergence, but rather an expression of probability. (5) What is most —

important of all, Seltzer shows that biologically it is altogether inap-

plicable, because it results in absurdly misleading conclusions. (The

last three objections I raised in my 1938 paper in connection with the

application of current formulae to a single character for the purpose

of measuring divergence. The very fact that the coefficient of racial

likeness is an expression of probability should lead one to expect that

it will often result in false conclusions when used as a measure of di-

vergence. )

Much simpler methods of combining several characters have been

employed by some students of fishes in comparing populations or

samples. Hubbs and Whitlock (1928, p. 471) compare two samples

by determining the value of a ratio the numerator and denominator

of which represent the products of measurements of certain parts,

respectively, of the head and body. Koelz (1929, p. 426) also uses a

ratio to express, in part, the difference between two populations

(designated by him as subspecies), but the numerator and denomi-

nator represent the sums of the numerical value of two measure-

ments. Schultz and Welander (1934, p. 6) employ the simple addition

of the number of anal, dorsal, and both pectoral rays to determine the

difference between two species. Similarly, Hubbs and Kuhne (1937)

employ the sum of the numbers of anal, dorsal, ventral, and pectoral

rays and the scales to determine the difference between two popula-

tions (designated by them as subspecies). Schultz and Schaefer

(1936, p. 5) go a step farther and compare certain populations by both

the addition and subtraction of the numerical values of certain char-

acters, and the same device is employed by Schultz and Thompson

(1936, p. 74), by Schultz and Reid (1937), and by Schultz (1937,

p. 19).

By any of the above devices of combining characters, the numerical

value of the combination is determined for each individual separately.

A frequency distribution may then be arranged based on the indi-

vidual numbers thus obtained.

Aveust 15, 1939 GINSBURG: MEASURE OF POPULATION DIVERGENCE . 325

For the purpose of determining relative divergence, or the taxo-

nomic rank of the particular pair of populations compared, the com-

bination of characters as determined by the above workers is inap-

plicable because it will prove to be misleading in many cases. Its use

as a measure of divergence is therefore excluded for this one reason,

outside of any other consideration. It is readily conceivable that by

the use of such figures in the form of frequency distributions, some

races may be shown erroneously to diverge to a greater extent than

some species. It should not be difficult to find examples in nature to

prove the truth of this assertion.

Judged by the evidence presented in one of the papers cited above,

that by Schultz (1937), the two populations compared, Mallotus vil-

losus and M. catervarius, are evidently not more than races, or sub-

species at the most. Schultz compares in detail a larger number of

characters than usual in such cases. It is work done in a thorough

manner by methods that will help us solve the species problem.

It is unfortunate, therefore, that his frequency distribution tables

were not published, so that we could judge the precise divergence of

every character separately. However, judged by the summaries of

his data presented, the ranges and the means, it seems evident that

the two populations intergrade widely in every character. Yet, when

a certain number of characters are combined, by addition and sub-

traction, a frequency distribution is obtained that even shows a gap

between the two populations. It should be possible to obtain the same

result with many pairs of races if they are studied in as great detail

as Schultz studied the pair of populations mentioned.

Another important matter to consider in this connection is the

number of diverging characters. Let us take, for instance, two popula-

tions, epsilon and zeta, whose divergence in one character is close to

100 percent, or, concomitantly, intergradation is close to zero; and

suppose, furthermore, that they do not diverge very appreciably in

any other character. Nearly every individual may thus be referred to

either population by the single, widely diverging character, and the

two populations are to be properly regarded as distinct species. Now,

let us suppose two other populations, eta and theta, that differ by, say,

ten diverging characters, and furthermore, that there is considerable

intergradation in every character, so that divergence of any one char-

acter is not more than of racial magnitude. In that case the two

populations are to be properly regarded as of racial rank only, yet

if the numerical values of the several characters are combined by the

methods employed by the above authors, the two populations may

326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

show a high degree of divergence, perhaps even a gap between them,

higher than the divergence between populations epsilon and zeta. The

two populations studied by Schultz, mentioned above, apparently

constitute an example very similar to our hypothetical eta and theta.

The foregoing discussion relates chiefly to the device of combining

the numerical value of characters by addition and subtraction. The

same misleading results will be obtained by combining characters in

the form of ratios or by division. A consideration of this manner of

combining characters may be simplified by reducing it to its lowest

terms, the combination of two characters. In the two hypothetical

pairs of populations illustrated above, for instance, let us assume

that character D differs in such manner that it has a greater numeri-

eal value in population gamma than in delta, that is, the left-hand

curve in Fig. 4 represents delta while the right-hand curve represents

gamma. Then, if we combine the two characters in the form —, it

seems apparent that, for most specimens at least, the values -5- will

be relatively greater for delta than for gamma, than in the comparison

of the values of C alone. (This will depend to some extent, in indi-

vidual specimens, on the degree of correlation of the two characters

in each one of the two populations; but in general, the above state-

ment may be expected to hold.) Consequently, the two arbitrary

frequency distributions obtained from the values -—, representing

gamma and delta, respectively, will evidently show a greater diver-

gence than either C' or D taken separately. On the other hand, if we

suppose that the numerical value of the characters A and B remain

as illustrated, then the arbitrary distributions obtained by the com-

bination ~ will likely show a lesser degree of divergence than that

shown by the divergence of character A when considered by itself.

In other words, by combining the two characters in each pair of popu-

lations as indicated, gamma and delta may show a higher degree of

divergence than alpha and beta, evidently a misleading result. When

the numerator or denominator, or both, are, in their turn, made to

represent a combination of more than one character, by addition,

subtraction, or multiplication, things become more complicated, but

it is apparent from the foregoing discussion that combining characters

in such manner will often result in misleading conclusions.

Such combinations of characters by addition, subtraction, multi-

plication, and division of their numerical values, when carried to their

extreme as is done in some of the papers cited above, on the whole

give the impression of a mere manipulation of figures rather than that

of sound statistical treatment of the data. This impression appears

Auvcust 15, 1989 GINSBURG: MEASURE OF POPULATION DIVERGENCE 327

justified by the misleading results that are apt to occur. Funda-

mentally, what taxonomists are actually doing in distinguishing

species, subspecies, or races, either by a numerical combination of

several characters or by a consideration of every character separately,

is to determine the relative degree of divergence; although this idea

is often lost sight of on superficial thought. Our basis of comparison

is, of course, always a single pair of populations. We determine to

what degree a pair under consideration diverges and compare this

divergence in relation’ to divergences shown by other pairs, either in a

definite manner as I (1938) have suggested, or by rule of thumb as is

usually done in taxonomic practice. That is just what most of the

above-mentioned authors set out to accomplish, to determine by

combining several characters the relative divergence of their popula-

tions, for the purpose of deciding whether they represent distinct

species or categories of lower rank. For this purpose, their device of

combining several characters is altogether misleading. What is par-

ticularly misleading in the use of such devices is that the ‘arbitrary

frequency distribution obtained as a result of the combination of

the several characters may be treated by the ordinary statistical

methods—as, indeed, a wholly mythical frequency distribution may

be treated—to determine the value of the standard deviation, the

probable error, the probability ratio, etc. Such treatment, seemingly,

covers the figures with a cloak of statistical respectability, so to

speak; it gives them a seeming validity. But, biologically, for the

purpose of determining relative divergence, the figures are mislead-

ing, as discussed.

The foregoing devices of combining characters, in their extreme

form, are carried to a point where they constitute almost a reductio

ad absurdum going to prove their inapplicability. One is then com-

pelled to reexamine the entire question more fully and work backward

to the more simple forms. As a consequence, the applicability of

some proper appearing, simple methods of combining characters is

cast in doubt. For instance, it is the general impression among

taxonomists that it is proper to use a ratio of two given measurements

for the purpose of distinguishing species or populations of lower

rank. I have used this method for distinguishing Gobiosoma bosci

from G. robustum in my revision of their genus, and I used (1938)

that comparison as one of the examples in establishing a gradual

series of relative divergences. I (1929, p. 80) have also used the same

method, in part, in comparing two populations of Cynoscion. Other

taxonomists, and physical anthropologists in particular, sometimes

328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

use character indices in the form of a ratio based on the numerical

value of two measurements. Doubt is now cast on the propriety of

treating the data in this manner for the purpose of determining rela-

tive divergence. 7

From this point of view, one of the general, basic methods of fish

taxonomy needs a reappraisal. Measurements of various parts are

generally used in distinguishing populations of fishes of specific or

lower rank. The measurements are generally stated not as absolute

values, but as the numerical value of a ratio, generally as entering so

many times in the standard length (that is the combined length of

head and body), or in the head. Sometimes a ratio is stated in per-

centage form. This method is adopted because measurements differ

with the size of the individual, and consequently absolute measure-

ments would often be of limited value unless they were based on

individuals of approximately the same size. At any rate, measure-

ments as generally employed in distinguishing populations of fishes

are used as a combination of two characters. In view of the foregoing

discussion, it may be asked, Do they form a legitimate basis for the

determination of relative divergence?

It is well to emphasize here the distinction between two ideas or

processes, namely, identification and determination of relative di-

vergence. A combination of the numerical values of two or more

characters to form an index may be useful in identifying specimens.

However, identification is not the only function of taxonomy. By a

comparative study of morphology taxonomists are also trying to

interpret relationship. And what is of greater immediate importance,

they are classifying populations into categories—species, subspecies,

races, etc. For the latter purposes we need to determine relative di-

vergence as precisely as possible, and for this determination the com-

bination of the numerical values of several characters will often prove

misleading. These values may be shuffled so that a pair of races may

show a greater degree of divergence than a pair of species, and a pair

of closely related species a lesser degree of divergence than a pair of

races compared. It remains to be determined to what extent and how

often the combination of two characters in the form of a ratio, such

as the cephalic index of physical anthropologists, or the manner of

expressing measurements employed by fish taxonomists, may be used

in expressing relative divergence and how often it will be misleading

for this purpose.

It has been stated above that for the purpose of a precise determi-

nation of relative divergence, the principal character constitutes a

Aveust 15, 1939 GINSBURG: MEASURE OF POPULATION DIVERGENCE 329

basis for an adequate measure with respect to time and fairly ade-

quate with respect to extent. Not only that, but the foregoing

discussion makes it evident that it is the only proper basis now

available. It is doubtful whether the other characters are to be con-

sidered at all in determining the measure of divergence, and in any

case they should be afforded a very minor weight. The proper basis

of determining such weights is not apparent now. In determining

relative divergence every character must be considered separately,

and apparently the best we can do now is to consider the other char-

acters in a general way, in pairs of populations standing near the bor-

der line between the species and the subspecies, or the subspecies

and the race, as determined by the principal character, as was sug-

gested in my 1938 paper. The proper consideration of the other char-

acters in this manner will, of course, depend on the thoroughness,

skill, insight, and intuitive capacity of the taxonomist.

Other difficulties in the way of combining several characters appear

altogether insurmountable. One of these is the possible existence of

unequal numbers of diverging characters as between two or more

given pairs of populations. This point has been raised above and

hypothetical examples cited. Let us suppose further that one pair

diverges in ten and another in twenty characters. Apparently, by

combining all the characters in both cases, the two measures thus

obtained will not express fairly the relative divergence of those two

pairs of populations. To limit ourselves to a certain definite and equal

number of characters in both pairs, as is done by Morant (1928), for

instance, is a wholly arbitrary procedure; because on the assumption

that the other characters, besides the principal one, are of importance

in determining the measure of divergence, they should all be included

in a determination of that measure for any one given pair of

populations.

Another insurmountable difficulty is that it is practically impossible

to study all characters. This is especially true if we are to include

measurements of the head, body, or separate organs, or parts of the

head, body, or organs, or the distance between any two given points,

measurements by which distinct populations usually differ more or

_ less. The number of such characters may be almost indefinitely in-

creased. In practice, therefore, the number of characters studied

necessarily must be limited, and the determination of divergence

somewhat incomplete as far as it relates to the minor characters.

From the foregoing discussion the conclusion is reached that the

principal character forms a fairly adequate basis for a measure of

330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29; NO. 8

divergence of a given pair of populations, which may be used in de-

termining relative divergence in a series of pairs. It is the only ap-

propriate basis now available. The other characters, if considered at

all for this purpose, should be given very minor weights. In any case,

it is practically impossible to include all the minor characters.

LITERATURE CITED

CRAMPTON, Henry E. Studies on the variation, distribution, and evolution of the genus

Partula. The species inhabiting Tahiti. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 228:

1-313. 1916.

The species inhabiting Moorea. Ibid. 410: 1-335. 1982.

DAVENPORT, CHARLES B., and BLANKINSHIP, J. W. A precise criterion of species.

Science (n.s.) 7: 685-695. 1898.

GinsBuRG, Isaac. Review of the weakfishes (Cynoscion) of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts

of the United States, with a description of a new species. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish.

45: 71-85. 1929.

—— The species and tts subdivisions. Copeia, 1937, pp. 184-188.

—— Arithmetical definition of the species, subspecies and race concept, with a proposal for

a modified nomenclature. Zoologica 23: 253-286. 1938.

Husss, Cari L., and Kuune, Eucene R. A new fish of the genus Apocope from a

Wyoming warm spring. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan No. 348, 21 pp.

1937.

Husss, Caru L., and Wuiritock, STantEY C. Dvverse types of young in a single

species of fish, the gizzard shad. Pap. Michigan Acad. Sci. Art. Lett. 10: 461-482.

1928.

Koriz, WALTER. Coregonid fishes of the Great Lakes. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 43(2):

297-6438. 1929.

Morant, G. M. A preliminary classification of European races based on cramal

measurements. Biometrica 20B: 301-375. 1928.

PEarRson, Karu. On the coefficient of racial likeness. Ibid. 18: 105-117. 1926.

Scuutrz, Leonarp P. Redescription of the capelin Mallotus catervarius (Pennant)

of the Pacific coast. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 85: 13-20. 1987.

Scuutrz, LEonarD P., and Reip, Hart D. The American Atlantic toadfishes of the

genus Opsanus. Copeia, 1937, pp. 211-212.

Scuuttz, LEONARD P., and ScHAEFER, MILNER B. Descriptions of new intergeneric

hybrids between certain cyprinid fishes of northwestern United States. Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 49: 1-10. 1936.

Scuuutz, Lronarp P., and THompson, Rosert J. Catostomus syncheilus palouse-

anus, a new subspecies of a catostomid fish from the Palouse River (Columbia R.

system). Ibid. 49: 71-76. 1936.

Scuuuitz, LEoNARD P., and WELANDER, ARTHUR W. The cottoid genus Hemilepidotus

of the North Pacific. Journ. Pan-Pacific Res. Inst. 9(2): 5-6. 1934.

SELTZER, CarL C. A critique of the coefficient of racial likeness. Amer. Journ. Phys.

Anthrop. 23: 101-109. 1987.

WIENER, ALEXANDER 8S. Blood groups and blood transfusions. 220 pp. Springfield,

EO 3 be

Avcust 15, 19389 BERRY: FOSSIL PLANTS FROM MINNESOTA 331

PALEOBOTANY.—Fossil plants from the Cretaceous of Minnesota.

Epwarp W. Brrry, Johns Hopkins University.

In part 1 of volume 3 of the Final Report of the Geological and

Natural History Survey of Minnesota there appeared a paper on the

fossil plants prepared by the veteran paleobotanist Leo Lesquereux.

This was published in 1895, and in it he identified 28 species of fossil

plants, most of them well-known Dakota sandstone forms. He stated

that they were entrusted to him for description by N. H. Winchell,

the State geologist. The bulk of the material came from the banks of

the Cottonwood River near New Ulm, but several are recorded from

Mankato and from Goodhue County.

If the reader will consult the small scale geologic map that forms

the frontispiece of the volume he will observe that considerably more

than the western half of the State was thought to have been sub-

merged by the eastern borders of the waters that flooded the great

Colorado geosyncline during Middle and Upper Cretaceous times,

and it has always seemed strange that no local geologist or paleon-

tologist has been inspired to cultivate this field in the more than two

score years since Lesquereux penned his report.

In January 1938, I received from Dr. F. M. Carpenter, of the Mu-

seum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, two specimens that had

been submitted to him by Prof. Clarence Nickel, of the University of

Minnesota. The specimens had been collected by Ludwig Koelnau,

one-half mile north of Springfield, Brown County, Minn., and with

the idea that they might represent some sort of an insect larva or

pupa had been submitted to the Entomology Department of the

University.

This locality is not far from the Big Cottonwood outcrop from

which the bulk of the material came that was described by Lesquer-

eux. My great interest led to Prof. C. O. Rosendahl’s sending me in

February of last year a small collection made from the Big Cotton-

wood outcrop, which is about 1 mile southwest of Springfield.

In addition to the pod mentioned above, there are several other

things not before found in the Dakota of Minnesota, so that it is

quite apparent that detailed and persistent exploration of this hori-

zon would add considerably to the Cretaceous flora of Minnesota.

This brief note seems distinctly worth while to call attention to this

neglected field aside from what it adds to our knowledge of mid-

Cretaceous plants.

1 Received March 1, 1939.

332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

Capsulocarpus dakotensis, gen. et sp. nov. Figs. 1-4

As will be realized from what follows, the nomenclatorial problem raised

by the present specimen is perplexing, and I have reached a tentative solu-

tion by proposing the botanically noncommittal pseudogenus Capsulocarpus

in order that there may be a name for these objects. For the present it has

the features of the type species, which may be characterized as follows:

Podlike capsule, which, from the nature of its outer surface, was probably

indehiscent. Somewhat falcate in outline, abruptly pointed distad, narrowed

to a short and stout peduncle proximad, inflated and circular or inflated

lenticular in cross section, filled with approximately circular thin seeds at

right angles to its axis. This appearance may not represent seeds but may

be due to the transverse direction of the fibrous inner wall of the capsule,

the suggestion that it may be due to the edges of seeds being furnished by

certain existing forms in the family Bignoniaceae. An external impression

of the capsule is furnished by the counterpart of the specimen shown in

Figs. 1 and 3. This is marked by a series of shallow oblique curved ribs and

depressions roughly parallel with the convex side which are rather sharp and

distinct on this convex side, but which diminish in magnitude and become

obsolete about halfway toward the concave side. The whole organ is slightly

under 5 cm in length and about 1.7 cm in width. If the bas relief shown in

the specimen was symmetrical in life it was about 1.4 em in thickness.

There is an undescribed specimen of what must be regarded as the same

thing in the National Museum collections, which I owe to the courtesy of

Dr. R. W. Brown and which comes from the Dakota sandstone 12 miles west

of Lincoln, Nebr. This is somewhat smaller than the Minnesota specimen

but shows the same falcate shape and transverse markings as the Minne-

sota specimen. This is about 3 cm long and 7 or 8 mm in maximum width

and at most could be considered a second species of the same genus. For

the present there seems to be no ground for regarding it as a distinct species,

particularly in view of the following: Lesquereux in 1868 described from the

Dakota sandstone at Decatur, Nebr., what he called Plerophyllum haydenit.?

In his Cretaceous Flora? he published figures, and in 1883 and 1892 he re-

ferred to it as Podozamites haydeni.* The original of Lesquereux’s figure 6

can no longer be found, but I have before me the original of his figure 6b.

This, although somewhat compressed and otherwise poorly preserved, is

exactly like the Minnesota specimen and approximately of the same size.

The artist has emphasized a series of parallel longitudinal lines in keeping

with what should be seen in a cycad pinnule (such as Lesquereux thought

the specimens to be) and has entirely ignored the much more prominent

transverse lines like those shown in the Minnesota specimen (Fig. 1).

Lesquereux’s specific name has not been taken up for the present species

because it also included later discovered remains, which he subsequently

regarded as a species of Ab/zetites, so that if I have violated the canons of

2 LESQUEREUX, L. Amer. Journ. Sci. 46:91. 1868.

Q U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr. 6: 49, pl. 1, figs. 6, 6b. 1874.

4 Ibid. 8: 27. 1883; U. S. Geol. Surv. Mon. 17: 26. 1892.

333

FOSSIL PLANTS FROM MINNESOTA

Aveust 15, 1939 BERRY

ig.

2 and 4

1 and 2 are from untouched photograp

7.—Sassafras

’

inner par

Figs.

1 and 3 the

. Sp.

Berry, n

grifolius (Lesquereux) Berry

of the outer surface.

impression

Figs. 1-4.—Capsulocarpus dakotens

5.—Protophyllocladus subinte

acutilobum Lesquereux.

the

3304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

nomenclature, some taxonomic purist may have the pleasure of changing my

proposed name. The really important fact is that an identical species occurs

in both Minnesota and Nebraska and that the supposed cycad in the Dakota

sandstone flora, Pterophyllum and Podozamites, goes into the discard and

disappears from paleobotanical literature.

Regarding the possible botanical relationship of these fossil fruits the story

is about as involved as is the taxonomic one.

The present specimens at once suggested comparisons with a form de-

scribed first in 1878 by Lesquereux and called Carpolithes arachioides, and

subsequently changed to Leguminosites arachioides from a fancied resem-

blance to the modern peanut (Arachis). This form has been found at a score

of localities near the Cretaceous-Eocene boundary throughout the Western

United States and Canada and in the lower Eocene of the Mississippi em-

bayment. The largest of these are only about one-half the size of the present

specimens? and occur in racemes. They are similarly inflated and ornamented

with longitudinal and transverse markings, and similar but smaller forms

were described by me in 1930 as Leguminosites arachioides minor® and by

Knowlton from the Denver formation of Colorado as Berrya racemosa.’

Meanwhile Brown® has discussed the question of the botanical relation-

ships of these objects, and has shown that they are related to the existing

Asiatic genus Cercidiphyllum, to which many of the early Tertiary leaves

described as Populus are also related. Brown’s proof, which I regard as

conclusive, consists in finding at scores of localities the leaves in association

with the capsules and characteristic tiny winged seeds. In a paper now in

press, which I have been privileged to read, he gives complete details.

At first I was disposed to consider the Minnesota capsule as closely related

to these trochodendraceous forms, but its large size, different habit, and

different external ornamentation, as well as the possibility that the ornamen-

tation of the inner capsule (Figs. 1 and 3) might indicate a column of disk-

like seeds, suggested caution, and at present I am unable to suggest its bo-

tanical affinity. I doubt if it belongs to the Leguminosae and believe it will

be found to represent some genus, perhaps an extinct one, of the family

Bignoniaceae.

In connection with this material attention should be called to an object

described by Newberry from the Raritan formation of New Jersey under

the name of Tricarpellites striatus.® His figure 9 is especially like the external

impression of Capsulocarpus dakotensis.

5 See Berry, E. W. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 91, pl. 48, fig.9. 1916.

6 Berry, EK. W. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 156: 89, pl. 14, figs. 2-6. 1930.

haa Know ton, F. H. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 155: 134, pl. 41, figs. 4, 5.

8 Brown, R. W. Journ. Pal. 9: 575, pl. 68. 1935.

9 NEwBERRY, J.S. U.S. Geol. Surv. Mon. 26: 132, pl. 46, figs. 9-18. 1895.

Aveust 15, 19389 BERRY: FOSSIL PLANTS FROM MINNESOTA 300

Protophyllocladus subintegrifolius (Lesquereux) Berry Fig. 5

The usually incomplete leaves or phyllodes of this species are the most

abundant in the collection studied. Described first by Lesquereux!® from the

Dakota sandstone of Kansas and Nebraska as a fossil species of Phyllo-

cladus, it was recorded from the Atane beds of western Greenland by Heer

under the name of Thinnfeldia lesquereuxitana.“ Newberry reported it from

the Raritan formation of the Amboy district in New Jersey, and still later

it has been found to be of common occurrence in the Magothy formation

of the Atlantic Costal Plain, in the Tuscaloosa formation of Alabama, in

the Frontier formation of Wyoming, in the Cretaceous of Alaska, and in

Russian Sakhalin. Meanwhile other species have been described from

Alaska, the Western United States, and Patagonia.

The Minnesota specimens are perfectly characteristic. Its botanical affini-

ties have been much discussed.”

Sassafras acutilobum Lesquereux!® Figs. 6, 7

Also relatively abundant in the present collection are leaves that are

indistinguishable from this species, first described by Lesquereux in 1874

from the Dakota sandstone of Kansas, and since recorded from numerous

additional localities, especially along the Atlantic and Gulf borders from

Marthas Vineyard to Alabama in the Raritan, Magothy, and Tuscaloosa

formations.

Lesquereux described many species of Sassafras from the Dakota, and

other similar lobed leaves as various species of Araliopsis, Platanus, Cis-

sites, and Sterculia. Their generic relations are extremely tangled and over-

lapping. Some of these are certainly related to Sassafras and some are not.

The geological history of the genus is treated at some length by the present

writer, to which account the reader is referred.* The Minnesota specimens

are identical with those of the type from the Dakota sandstone. Any ex-

tended discussion is not pertinent in the present note and would be endlessly

complicated by the jealousies growing out of the rivalry between Lesquereux

and Newberry and the feeling engendered by the establishment of the U. 8.

Geological Survey and the liquidation of the Hayden Survey. While this

rivalry was not so venomous as that between Cope and Marsh in the verte-

brate field, it resulted in similar, if somewhat less marked, taxonomic

tangles.

Laurus plutonia Heer

Several specimens of this quondam species are present in the present

collection. It was first described by Heer from the Dakota sandstone of

10 LesquEREuUX, L. Amer. Jour. Sci. 46: 92. 1868.

11 Heer, O. Flora, fossilis Arctica 6(2): 37. 1882.

2 See BERRY, EK. W. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 30: 440. 1903.

13 A fairly complete synonymy is given by Berry, E. W. Maryland Geol. Survey.

Upper Cretaceous, p. 866. 1916.

14 Berry, E E. W. Tree ancestors, pp. 247-251. 1923.

336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

Kansas and was doubtfully recorded by Lesquereux from New Ulm, Minn.

It has also been recorded from a large number of Upper Cretaceous localities

in West Greenland, along the Atlantic border of the United States from

Marthas Vineyard to Alabama and Texas. The name Laurus does not imply

a close relationship with the existing Old World species of Laurus, but it

has been used by paleobotanists in the sense that a few wiser authors have

used the pseudogeneric term Laurophyllum, implying some undetermined

genus in the family Lauraceae.

ZOOLOGY .—Onychocythere, a new genus of marine ostracod from

Florida, with a description of one species. Wruis L. TRESSLER,

University of Buffalo. (Communicated by Wa.Lpo L. ScumirTT.)

Two specimens, a male and a female, of this ostracod were sent to

the writer by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, curator of marine invertebrates,

U. 8. National Museum, for identification. They were collected by

Miss Louella E. Cable from the stomach of ashad caught at Welaka,

Fla., in the St. Johns River on April 1, 1938. The shad (Alosa sapidis-

stma) had a total length of 478 mm and a standard length of 327 mm.

There was very little food in either the stomach or intestine, as is the

case with most of the adult shad examined. In the summer of 1936,

two collections of shad totaling 58 specimens were taken from the

Hudson River and were found to have been feeding on surface drift

exclusively (Tressler and Bere, 1937). In the Florida shad the stomach

contents amounted to only 4.0 cc, most of which consisted of tiny

bits of plant material, rotted leaves, twigs, and grasses. In addition

there were 30 copepods identified by Dr. C. B. Wilson as Mesocyclops

leuckartt (Claus), 1 nematode, 4 daphnia identified by Dr. C. Juday

as Daphnia longispina var. hyalina, 1 chironomous larva, 1 minute

crab leg, and 6 ostracods. The ostracods consisted of the two speci-

mens mentioned above and four specimens of Cypria opthalmica, a

common fresh-water species. The shells of the marine ostracods were

somewhat disintegrated (this was particularly true of the shell of the

female), while those of Cypria were well preserved. It seems likely,

therefore, that the marine ostracods had been in the stomach for

some time before the fresh-water forms had been eaten. The cal-

careous shell is fairly resistant to the action of weak acids, and evi-

dently the gastric juice requires a considerable period of time before

the contents are available as food. The exact location of the habitat

of this ostracod is, of course, indeterminable, but as the vast majority

1 Received March 18, 1939.

Aveust 15, 1939 TRESSLER: A NEW OSTRACOD FROM FLORIDA dol

of the family Cytheridae and all the known members of the subfamily

Cytherinae are marine, it is logical to suppose that the shad had fed

upon them in the ocean before entering the St. Johns River. All the

members of the family Cytheridae are almost entirely devoid of

natatory powers and are, as a consequence, strictly bottom dwellers.

Cypria, on the other hand, is a very agile swimmer although many

of the species keep close to the bottom.

The slides of the dissected ostracods have been deposited in the

U.S. National Museum as type specimens.

Suborder PODOCOPA Sars

Family CYTHERIDAE Baird

Subfamily CYTHERINAE Sars

This subfamily was proposed by Sars (1928) to include the more typical

Cytheridae; those closely allied to the genus Cythere. The shell is of very

firm consistency and calcareous with a more or less sculptured surface, which

may or may not bear projections or spines. Both of the antennae are strongly

developed; the anterior antennae have 8 or 4 joints and possess 2 or 3 claw-

like spines with several thinner bristles in between. The legs are normally

developed in all the previously described genera and are of the same appear-

ance in both sexes. The new genus described here departs from the usual

conditions found in the characteristics of the thoracic legs of the subfamily

Cytherinae, but as it seems to conform in all other major respects most

closely to this group, it appeared best to include it here.

Onychocythere, n. gen.

Generic characters.—Shell of rather firm consistency but without sculptur-

ing or projections. Surface of valves with a few very coarse scattered spines.

A comparatively clear marginal zone at the anterior end bears numerous

coarse spines. The posterior border is much narrower and has fewer and

somewhat finer bristles. Seen from the dorsal side, the shell is rather tumid,

the anterior extremities narrowing down from a point about two-thirds of

the distance from the posterior margin. Eye, conspicuous and single. First

antennae of normal appearance except for a very long and robust bristle,

which arises from the posterior border of the second segment and which is

coarsely haired throughout its distal half. Second antennae of normal ap-

pearance with a long tapering flagellum. Maxillae with masticatory lobes

produced, the palp with three stout unarmed claws and a somewhat longer

and more slender spine. Thoracic legs unequally developed and possessing

_ several remarkable and apparently unique features which are sufficient to

readily identify this genus. First leg, short and of normal appearance. Sec-

ond leg, much the longest, with a thick terminal claw, which bears a peculiar

aberrant bristle about one-third the length from the distal end on the pos-

terior border. Third leg, short and heavily built with a recurved, slender

terminal claw and a second short, heavy claw at its base. No differentiation

of the legs in the two sexes.

338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

Figs. 1—-11.—Onychocythere alosa, new genus and species. 1, Lateral view of left

valve of male. 2, Dorsal view (slightly tilted) of male. 3, Second antenna of female.

4, Muscle marks and detail of shell markings, female. 5, Spines of palp of masticatory

lobe of maxilla of female. 6, Mandible of female. 7, First antenna of female. 8,

Copulatory apparatus of male. 9, Third thoracic leg of female. 10, Second thoracic

leg of female. 11, First thoracic leg of female.

Avaust 15, 1939 TRESSLER: A NEW OSTRACOD FROM FLORIDA 309

Onychocythere alosa, n. sp. Figs. 1-11

Specific characters.—Female: Shell of oval shape, seen laterally, with

broadly rounded ends, the anterior somewhat more broadly rounded than

the posterior. Greatest height anterior to the middle. Ventral margin con-

vex. Hyaline border widest anteriorly. Surface of valves without sculpturing

but marked with a very delicate pattern of polygonal areas bordered by

darker margins. The anterior margin gives rise to a number of very coarse

bristles, which are also sparsely scattered over the surface of the valves.

Posterior border with smaller and fewer bristles. Seen dorsally, oval in out-

line; greatest width in the center. Anterior ends attenuated; posterior

broadly rounded. Eye spot, single and conspicuous. Valves nearly equal,

the right being slightly longer than the left. First antenna of normal shape

for this group except for a very long and heavy spine originating from the

posterior border of the second segment (Fig. 7, a). Terminal half of spine

coarsely haired. Second antenna with a long tapering flagellum. Palp of

masticatory lobe of maxilla with three stout unarmed claws and a heavy

spine. Legs much differentiated, the first being the shortest and least de-

veloped. The second leg is the longest and terminates in a heavy, slightly

curved claw, which bears near its tip and aberrant bristle (Fig. 10, c). At

the base of the terminal claw is a row of six short bristles. The third leg is

by far the most highly developed of the three and, while shorter than the

second, is very stout and bears a strongly recurved tapering terminal claw.

At the base of the terminal claw is a second heavy, short claw (Fig. 9, 6).

The bristle on the posterior margin of the second segment is very heavy and

is densely haired on its distal half. |

Male: Shell of similar size and shape to that of the female. Bristles much

coarser. Internal structure almost identical with that of the female, including

the structure of the three thoracic legs, which show the same features found

in the other sex. Copulatory apparatus very large, with the basal portion

rounded triangular in shape. Below, it sends off a slight, short, nearly

straight projection, which is slightly hooked at its extremity. Inside it is

provided with a very much curled, thick cord. Terminal portion with a

slightly blunt posterior end and a much elongated anterior projection which

curves ventrally near the extremity.

Color of shell undetermined.

Length of adult female, 0.91 mm. Length of adult male, 0.99 mm; height,

0.54 mm; width, 0.61 mm.

Occurrence.—Taken from the stomach of a shad caught in the St. Johns

River at Welaka, Fla., on April 1, 1938. Female holotype, U. 8. N. M. no.

77805. Male paratype, U.S. N. M. no. 77806.

Remarks.—This genus seems most closely allied to the genus Cythere, in

its modern restricted sense, and agrees with it in the general conformation

of the shell and in most of the internal parts. The remarkable differentiation

of the thoracic legs, particularly that of the third leg, which seems to be

unique in the literature, makes it seem necessary to establish a separate

genus.

LITERATURE CITED

Sars, G.O. An account of the Crustacea of Norway. 9, Ostracoda. Bergen Museum

Publ., pp. lee O28:

TRESSLER, W. L., and BERE, Rusy. A limnological study of some lakes oF the Lower

Hudson area. Suppl. 26th Ann. Rep. New York State Cons. Dept. 8: 249-263.

340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new genus of Trypetidae near Anastrepha

(Diptera)... ALAN Strong, U. S. Bureau of Entomology and

Plant Quarantine.

A study of species heretofore placed in the genus Anastrepha has

revealed a number that differ rather widely in structure from the

genotype. Certain of these belong to the subgenus Pseudodacus Hen-

del, which I believe to be worthy of generic status and which I shall

treat in a later paper. The others I place in the genus described in this

paper. Eight previously described species and three new ones are

included.

Certain terms in this paper may require explanation. The wing

pattern is considered to consist of three bands, which become some-

what coalescent in certain species, broken or incomplete in others.

The costal band extends along the anterior margin from the base of

the wing to the apex of vein R,; the S-band and the V-band are as

designated by previous writers. The ovipositor is a sclerotized, sub-

cylindrical tube with an acute apex, lying in a cylindrical, tapering,

ovipositor sheath, the seventh abdominal segment. The eighth abdomi-

nal segment is membranous, is invaginated into the end of the ovi-

positor sheath, and bears denticles dorsally which form the rasper.

Since the abdomen is often bent in mounted specimens, the total

length of the body is difficult to determine. For this reason I have

used instead, to indicate the size of the species, the length of the meso-

notum from its anterior margin to the apex of the scutellum.

The writer is particularly indebted to A. C. Baker, of the Division

of Fruitfly Investigations, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran-

tine, who first proposed the segregation of this genus, for specimens

of the two new Mexican species; to James Zetek of the same Division

for the new species from Panama; to John Smart, of the British

Museum, for valuable information on the type of Trypeta acidusa

Walker; and to A. da Costa Lima, of the Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,

Rio de Janeiro, for information on a number of his species.

Lucumaphila, n. gen.

Agreeing in structure and chaetotaxy with Anastrepha (type, Dacus ser-

pentinus Wiedemann) except for the following: Ovipositor sheath more

slender; denticles of rasper usually all minute, long hooks absent, or, if the

denticles are longer (0.1 mm), straight with blunt apices, not hook-shaped;

Ovipositor extremely slender, subcylindrical, the shaft about 0.05 mm or less

in diameter; claspers of male rounded apically, the teeth subapical; aedeagus

very slender, 1-2 mm long, reaching well beyond apex of claspers but con-

siderably shorter than ovipositor; tip of aedeagus simple, membranous.

1 Received March 29, 1939.

Aveust 15, 1939 STONE: A NEW GENUS OF TRYPETIDAE 341

Genotype.—Lucumaphila sagittata, n. sp.

Distribution.—Neotropical Region from the Rio Grande Valley, Tex., to

Brazil. The host fruits of only two species are known, both belonging to the

genus Lucuma of the family Sapotaceae.

The species are medium sized to rather large and predominantly yellow-

brown in color. The wing pattern is essentially similar to that found in many

species of Anastrepha and not reduced or modified as in Pseudodacus. The

microchaetae usually present on the dorsal surface of the posterior portion of

the alula in Anastrepha are absent in Lucumaphila. All but one species of

Lucumaphila (hamadryas) has, in the female, a distinct, small, dark nodule

dorsally on the eighth segment just distad of the end of the ovipositor sheath. .

Certain species of Anastrepha have the ovipositor nearly as slender as in the

genus Lucumaphila, but in these species it is never both extremely slender

and very long and the rasper is always well developed. In Lucumaphila

hamadryas, new species, the denticles of the rasper are unusually large for

the genus, but they are straight and blunt, not curved and tapering as in

Anastrepha, and they differ only in size from the minute denticles of the

other species of Lucumaphila. The modified wing pattern and large hooks of

the rasper distinguish the females of Pseudodacus. The male terminalia in

Lucumaphila are much as in Pseudodacus, but the aedeagus of Pseudodacus

is always very much reduced, scarcely exceeding the claspers. In those

species of Anastrepha in which the teeth of the male clasper are subapical,

the aedeagus is always much stouter and longer than in Lucumaphila.

Within the genus Lucumaphila the male terminalia exhibit very few dif-

ferences, at least in those species known to the writer. The aedeagus is 1

to 2 mm long, the exact measurement being very difficult to make. The dis-

tal portion is slightly enlarged, with the apex attenuate and without the

sclerotized modifications present in Anastrepha. The claspers are very simi-

lar in most of the species, but in the three species the males of which are

known to me a sclerotized structure at the junction of the claspers, at the

point where the anal segment joins the clasper segment ventrally, shows

some differences. This structure is figured, but its value can not certainly

be determined until more specimens can be studied.

The ovipositor tip is sagittate in several species, but the character is

frequently difficult to see because the extracted, mounted ovipositor tends

to lie on its side or will turn on its side even after mounting. Also, the ovi-

positor is so slender and delicate that extracting it without breaking off the

tip is difficult.

KEY TO SPECIES

1. Costal and S-bands of wing widely separated...................... 2

Costal and S-bands of wing touching to broadly confluent........... 3

2. Ovipositor shaft about 0.025 mm wide, the tip very slender; two brown-

ish spots on posterior margin of mesoscutum; V-band broken anteri-

CEN, 2 See ee eee 1. luederwaldt: (Costa Lima)

Ovipositor shaft about 0.05 mm wide, the tip broader, with fine serra-

tions; no dark spot on posterior margin of mesoscutum; V-band com-

LOE So ot Sab peteten ae CGI ae ane eo 2. hambletont (Costa Lima)

3. Bands on apical half.of wing broadly confluent and somewhat diffuse;

celle; completely imiuseated........... 25.0.5... 0-6. 3. obscura (Aldrich)

w-bandadistinet cell hk, partially hyaline. ...<....4...<....-+s25+ 04. +

342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

4. Mesoscutum with two or three distinct black spots on posterior margin. .

whe Pa eicteetatie: apt aiid et RRM Cs 20k, ee rr 4. dentata, n. sp.

Mesoscutum not spotted with black, although a dark brown band or

diffuse brownish spots may be present posteriorly................ 5

5. Costal and S-bands very broadly coalescent along vein R4,;; the hyaline

area in cell F& greatly reduced; cell M infuscated; V-band narrowly

joimed to S-band! atavenme irae.) 5 4 ane renee 5. uricht (Greene)

Costal and S-bands joined more narrowly along vein R4,;; the hyaline

area in cell & larger; cell M hyaline; V-band separated from S-band at

6. V-band separated from S-band; denticles of rasper of female rather large,

about) 0: mma lone eee oe eee 6. hamadryas, n. sp.

At least proximal arm of V-band joined to S-band; denticles of rasper of

female.much smaller... 02. ....063 08... ds eee 7

7. Distal arm of V-band slightly narrower at wing margin than it is near

anterior end; hind margin of S-band subparallel to proximal margin

of inner arm of V-band from vein R4,; to fold in cell first My........

Re ha ie! EN ae chs) 3 aN te SIU og 7. sagittata, n. sp.

Distal arm of V-band of uniform width, narrowed anteriorly, or greatly

reduced, in any case usually disconnected from proximal arm; S-band

and proximal arm of V-band divergent from near their juncture... .8

8. Ovipositor sheath 8 mm long; macrochaetae of dorsum of thorax black;

vein My. but little turned forward at wing margin................

Ha re eee MEER Rese hd tee GR cE Shek 8. longicauda (Costa Lima)

Ovipositor sheath less than 7 mm long; macrochaetae of dorsum of

thorax orange-brown; vein M,,. with the normal forward curve... .9

9. Ovipositor sheath more than 5.5 mm long........... 9. hamata (Loew)

Ovipositor sheath about 4mm long........... 10. zernyzt (Costa Lima)

Lucumaphila acidusa (Walker) would run to couplet 9 in this key, but

since the ovipositor sheath and ovipositor are incomplete it can not be keyed

further.

1. Lucumaphila luederwaldti (Costa Lima), n. comb.

Anastrepha luederwaldti Costa Lima, Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 28: 510,

figs. 15-16, pl. 66, fig. 18, pl. 76, ‘fig. 67, 1934.

Medium sized, yellow-brown. A pair of castaneous spots on apioal margin

of mesoscutum; metanotum entirely yellow-brown. Macrochaetae pale

yellow. Sternopleural bristle well developed. Wing 7.75 mm long, the costal,

S-, and V-bands all separated and the V-band broken anteriorly, neither arm

crossing vein R445; vein Mi,. only slightly turned forward at apex. Female:

Body, exclusive of ovipositor sheath, 6.5 mm. Ovipositor sheath 3 mm long,

tapering. Ovipositor about 0.025 mm wide, the tip tapering and with no

serrations. Male: Tip of clasper obtuse, turned slightly caudad, the teeth

subapical.

Cotypes.—Two females, two males (Museu Paulista, S40 Paulo).

Type localities —Sao Paulo, Ypiranga, and Alto da Serra, Brazil.

Aveust 15, 1939 STONE: A NEW GENUS OF TRYPETIDAE 043

Distribution.—Known only from the foregoing localities, all in southern

Brazil.

Remarks.—I have not seen this species, the above description being based

upon the original one. The slender ovipositor and character of the rasper

make its assignment to this genus rather certain.

2. Lucumaphila hambletoni (Costa Lima), n. comb.

~ Anastrepha hambletoni Costa Lima, Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 28: 519,

fig. 19, pl. 67, fig. 21, 1934.

Medium sized, yellow-brown, the mesoscutum with pale-yellow stripes.

Total length, exclusive of ovipositor sheath, 7 mm. Macrochaetae cas-

taneous. Sternopleural bristle present. Wing 7 mm long, the costal, S-, and

V-bands all separated; V-band complete; vein R23 slightly undulant.

Female: Ovipositor sheath 5 mm long, slender, tapering. Ovipositor long,

slender, the shaft about 0.05 mm wide; tip narrowed rather abruptly, with

a few fine serrations.

Holotype.-—Female (Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro).

Type locality.— Vicosa, State of Minas Geraes, Brazil.

Distribution.—Known only from the single specimen.

Remarks.—I have not seen this species, the above description being based

on the original one. The dimensions of the body and wing were not given

in the original description but have been furnished me by Dr. Costa Lima.

3. Lucumaphila obscura (Aldrich), n. comb.

Anastrepha obscura Aldrich, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 66 (18): 5, 1925.—Greene,

Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 36: 157, pl. 21, fig. 2, 1934.—Costa Lima,

Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 28: 500, 1934.

Large, orange-brown. Mesonotum 4.6 mm long, orange-brown, the

mesoscutum with indistinct paler stripes; no black on metanotum. Macro-

chaetae orange-brown; pile yellow. Sternopleural bristle very weak. Wing

(Fig. 10) 10.5 mm long, orange-brown, except for a hyaline triangle on costa

beyond stigma and pale spots on posterior margin of wing in cells second

M2, Cu, and anal, the spot in Cu; extending forward faintly to vein R445;

in one specimen a fenestrate spot in cell R2,3 beyond costal hyaline spot.

Female: Ovipositor sheath 6.5 mm long, the basal half somewhat swollen,

tapering to the slender apical half; spiracles about 1.1 mm from base. Ovi-

positor 5.5 mm long, very slender, the shaft about 0.035 mm wide, slightly

swollen before apex; tip as in figure 1. Male: Tip of clasper acute in lateral

view. Cephalic view as in figure 7.

Holotype-—Female (U. 8. National Museum).

Type locality —Maraval, Trinidad.

Distribution.—Trinidad and Brazil.

Host plant—Lucuma multiflora.

Remarks.—In addition to the original specimens there is a male from

Trinidad, March 5, 1919 (F. W. Urich), in the U. 8. National Museum and

a female from Brazil (H. W. Bates) in the British Museum. The species is

easily recognized by its wing pattern.

4. Lucumaphila dentata, n. sp.

Medium sized, yellow-brown, with black spots on mesoscutum. Mesono-

tum 3.58 mm long, pale yellow, the mesoscutum with four orange-brown

stripes, the outer pair extending from behind humeri to lateral angles of

044 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

scutellum, narrower posteriorly and coalescent with inner pair anteriorly;

two inner stripes extending about three-fourths of distance from anterior

margin to scutellum and separated by a median line which narrows ante-

riorly, leaving a transverse, pale-yellow area anterior to scutellum with a

median projection to anterior margin of mesonotum and narrow lateral

projections, fading out anteriorly; at posterior end of each lateral orange-

brown stripe a black spot, concave on inner and anterolateral margins,

7 8 9

Fig. 1.—Ovipositor tip of Lucumaphila obscura (Aldrich). Fig. 2.—Ovipositor tip

of L. dentata,n. sp. Fig. 3.—Ovipositor tip of L. uricha (Greene). Fig. 4.—Ovipositor

tip of L. hamadryas, n. sp. Fig. 5.—Ovipositor tip of L. sagittata, n. sp. Fig. 6.—

Ovipositor tip of L. hamata (Loew). Fig. 7.—Right male clasper of L. obscura (Al-

drich). Fig. 8—Right male clasper of L. sagittata, n. sp. Fig. 9—Right male clasper

of L. hamata (Loew).

convex on posterolateral margin; holotype and female paratype only faintly

brownish on scutoscutellar suture medianly; male paratype with a pro-

nounced brownish-black spot; pleura predominantly pale yellow; metano-

tum uniformly yellow-brown. Macrochaetae yellow-brown; pile yellow.

Sternopleural bristle present, slender. Wing (Fig. 11) 8 mm long, the bands

yellow-brown; costal and S-bands united a short distance on vein R445;

V-band complete, joined to S-band anteriorly. Female: Ovipositor sheath

2.6 mm long, evenly tapering apically; spiracles 0.67 mm from base. Ovi-

positor very slender, the shaft about 0.0175 mm wide; length unknown, as

it is complete in neither female; tip as in Fig. 2. Male: Terminalia acci-

dentally lost.

Auvcust 15, 1989 STONE: A NEW GENUS OF TRYPETIDAE 345

Holotype.-—Female. Paratypes, one male, one female (U. S. N. M. no.

51649).

Type locality —Tequila, Jalisco, Mexico.

Distribution.—Jalisco, Mexico; Texas.

Remarks.—The holotype and male paratype formed part of the material

obtained as a result of a trip by A. C. Baker and Alfons Dampf to Tequila

in the latter part of July 1934. The name dentata is the manuscript name

under which Dr. Baker figured the species in an unpublished report, chosen

in reference to the toothlike black spots on the mesoscutum. The female

paratype was collected at San Juan, Tex., February 20, 1935, by Burl

Stugard. The ovipositor sheath of this specimen is the one described, as the

sheath of the holotype was not preserved by Dr. Baker.

5. Lucumaphila urichi (Greene), n. comb.

Anastrepha urichi Greene, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 36: 159, pl. 22, fig. 1,

1934.

Rather large, yellow-brown. Mesonotum 4.39 mm long. Entire thorax

uniformly yellow-brown. Macrochaetae orange-brown; pile pale yellowish

brown. Sternopleural bristle very weak. Wing (Fig. 12) 9.25 mm long, the

venation normal; wing bands orange-brown, the hyaline area between apical

portion of S-band and distal arm of V-band distinctly constricted at vein

R45; V-band broad, broadly connected with S-band anteriorly and narrowly

so on vein M; costal and S-bands broadly coalescent; cell M infuscated.

Female: Ovipositor sheath 4.87 mm long, the apical third distinctly nar-

rower than the posteriorly tapering basal two-thirds; spiracles 1.83 mm

from base. Ovipositor 4.25 mm long, extremely slender, the shaft about

0.029 mm wide; tip slightly widened, with the apex rounded and indis-

tinctly serrate (Fig. 3).

Holotype—Female (U.S. National Museum).

Type locality —Trinidad.

Distribution.—Known only from the single specimen.

6. Lucumaphila hamadryas, n. sp.

Large, yellow-brown. Mesonotum 4.9 mm long. Mesoscutum pale yel-

‘low, with four rather indistinct orange stripes, the median pair’ not reach-

ing to acrostichal bristles posteriorly; a darker orange-brown, transverse

band in front of scutellum; scutellum and pleura pale yellow; metanotum

orange-yellow. Macrochaetae black; pile pale yellow-orange. No sterno-

pleural bristle. Wing (Fig. 15) 11.5 mm long, the pattern mostly brown,

the costal and S-bands joined for a short distance on vein R45; V-band

rather heavy, narrowed but not broken at apex, narrowly separated from

S-band. Female: Ovipositor sheath 6.5 mm long, slender, tapering, the

spiracles about 1.34 mm from base. Ovipositor 5.53 mm long, the shaft

about 0.035 mm wide, the base abruptly widened, the tip long, slender,

with minute serrations apically (Fig. 4).

Holotype-—Female (U. 8. N. M. no. 51650).

Type locality—La Campana, Panama.

Distribution.—Known only from the type specimen.

Remarks.—The type was collected in a glass trap in Mufioz Grove, La

Campana, January 7, 1939, by James Zetek, who wrote, ‘‘The single large

female is the largest Anastrepha yet collected by us....’’ As indicated

previously, this species shows certain features of the eighth segment and

346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 8

Fig. 10.—Wing of Lucumapfhila obscura (Aldrich). Fig. 11.—Wing of L. dentata,

n.sp. Fig. 12.—Wing of L. uricht (Greene). Fig. 13.—Wing of L. hamata (Loew).

Aucust 15, 1939 STONE: A NEW GENUS OF TRYPETIDAE 347

rasper rather different from other species of the genus, but the shape of the

rasper denticles and the character of the ovipositor place itin Lucumaphila.

7. Lucumaphila sagittata, n. sp.

Rather large, predominantly yellow-brown. Mesonotum 4.5 mm long.

Mesoscutum orange-yellow, with humerus, a sublateral stripe from trans-

verse suture to scutellum, and an area in front of acrostichal bristles having

- a narrow median extension anteriorly, pale yellow; a brown transverse

band on scutoscutellar suture, most of it anterior to suture; pleura pale

yellow; metanotum orange-yellow. Macrochaetae orange-brown; pile pale

yellow. No sternopleural bristle. Wing (Fig. 14) 9.9 mm long, the pattern

orange-brown, the costal and S-bands rather narrowly connected; V-band

rather narrowly connected to S-band; distal arm of V-band widest just

behind connection with the proximal arm, narrowing to the posterior mar-

gin. Female: Ovipositor sheath 4.5-5.2 mm long, slender, tapering, slightly

curved upward, the spiracles about 1.11 mm from base. Ovipositor 3.9—4.5

mm long, the shaft about 0.028 mm wide; tip scarcely wider than shaft,

sagittate (Fig. 5). Male: Clasper stout, the apex blunt in lateral view;

cephalic view as in Fig. 8.

Holotype-—Female. Paratypes, 15 females, 5 males (U. 8S. N. M. no.

51651).

Type locality Cuernavaca, Mexico.

Distribution.—Texas to Panama.

Host plant—According to Dr. Baker this species has been reared from

the seeds of Lucuma in Mexico, but I have seen no reared specimens.

Remarks.—The holotype was trapped at Cuernavaca in September 1933

by M. McPhail; 15 paratypes were trapped at the same locality in Septem-

ber 1933 and November 1934; 4 paratypes were trapped at Mission, Tex.,

January 6, 1938, by D. O. Sikes; one paratype was trapped at Balboa,

Canal Zone, in September 1938 by James Zetek. The name of this species,

suggested by the strongly sagittate tip of the ovipositor, is the manuscript

name under which Dr. Baker figured and described the species in an un-

published report.

8. Lucumaphila longicauda (Costa Lima), n. comb.

Anastrepha longicauda Costa Lima, Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 28: 525,

fig. 23, pl. 48, fig. 25, pl. 74, fig. 58, 1934; O Campo 8: 38, 1937.

Large, yellow-brown. Mesoscutum yellow-brown with no pale stripes;

metanotum with two brownish, transverse streaks on each side. Macro-

chaetae black. No sternopleural bristle. Wing 10.5 mm long, the costal and

S-bands narrowly touching on vein R2,3; proximal arm of V-band rather

broadly joined to S-band anteriorly; distal arm slender, separated from

proximal arm anteriorly; vein Mi,. but little turned forward at apex.

Female: Body, exclusive of ovipositor sheath 9.5 mm long. Ovipositor sheath

8 mm long, slender. Ovipositor about 6.9 mm long, very slender, the shaft

about 0.04 mm in diameter; the tip is figured by Costa Lima as being no

wider than the shaft, without teeth or processes, but it is probable that the

view is a lateral one.

Holotype.-—Female (Instituto Oswaldo Cruz).

Type locality.—S. Gabriel, Rio Negro, Amazonas, Brazil.

Distribution — Known only from the type specimen.

Remarks.—The above description is based upon the original description,

since I have not seen the species.

348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

9. Lucumaphila zernyi (Costa Lima), n. comb.

Dacus parallelus Wiedemann (part), Aussereuropaische zweiflugelige In-

secten 2: 515, 1830.

Anastrepha zernyt Costa Lima, Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 28: 425, pl. 62

fig. 2-3, 1934; O Campo 8: 38, 1937.

Fig. 14.—Wing of Lucumaphila sagittata, n. sp. Fig. 15.—Wing of L. hamadruyas

n.sp. Fig. 16.—Wing of L. acidusa (Walker) (photo by John Smart).

Rather large, yellow-brown. Mesonotum 3.9 mm. long. Thorax yellow-

brown, a small brownish spot on mesoscutum just anterior to corner of

scutellum. Macrochaetae orange-brown; pile yellowish brown. Sternopleural

bristle slender. Wing 8.5 mm long, the bands yellow-brown; costal and

S-bands narrowly touching; proximal arm of V-band rather broadly joined

to S-band anteriorly. Female: Ovipositor sheath 4 mm long, slender, the

Aveust 15, 1939 STONE: A NEW GENUS OF TRYPETIDAE o49

spiracles 0.97 mm from base. Tip of ovipositor lost in the specimen before

me.

Holotype—Female (Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna), cotype of

Dacus parallelus Wiedemann.

Type locality.—Brazil.

Distribution.—Braail.

Remarks.—Besides the type, this species is known only from a pair in

the American Museum of Natural History, collected at Chapada, Brazil,

which I believe belong to this species. The foregoing description is based

upon these latter specimens. The species agrees very closely with hamata

save. for the distinctly shorter ovipositor. The male has lost most of its

abdomen.

10. Lucumaphila hamata (Loew), n. comb.

Trypeta hamata Loew, Smithsonian Misc. Coll. No. 256: 229, pl. 11, fig. 22,

1873.

Anastrepha hamata (Loew), Bezzi, Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr. Portici 3: 284,

1909.—Hendel, Abh. Ber. Zool. Anthr.-Ethn. Mus. Dresden 14(3):

14, 1914.—Greene, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 36: 157, pl. 2, fig. 3,

1934.—Costa Lima, Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 28: 524; O Campo 8:

38, 1937.

Large, yellow-brown. Mesonotum 4.5-4.8 mm long. Thorax yellow-brown,

slightly darker just anterior to scutoscutellar suture; metanotum not or

little darkened laterally. Macrochaetae orange-brown; pile yellowish

brown. Sternopleural bristle very weak or absent. Wing (Fig. 13) 9.8-11.2

mm long; costal and S-bands joined for a short distance along vein Ro3;

proximal arm of V-band rather narrowly joined anteriorly to S-band; distal

arm more or less reduced, often confined to a small streak near hind margin,

but occasionally narrowly connected to proximal arm. Female: Ovipositor

sheath 6—7.25 mm long, slender, the spiracles 1.22 to 1.44 mm from base.

Ovipositor 5.2-6 mm long, very slender, the shaft about 0.026 mm in

diameter, the tip slightly expanded, serrate as in Fig. 6. Male: Claspers

stout, the apex blunt in lateral view; cephalic view as in Fig. 9.

Cotypes.—Male and female (location unknown).

Type locality.—Brazil.

Distribution.—Brazil and Panama.

Remarks.—The above description is based upon six specimens in the

United States National Museum which appear to belong to this species.

The data for these specimens are as follows: Brazil (Compere); Amazon

River, Arary to Manaos, Brazil, September 20-21, 30 (Holt, Blake, and

Agostini); Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, September 17, 1937 (Zetek);

La Campana, Panama, November 1937 (Zetek); Balboa, Canal Zone, June

1938 (Zetek).

11. Lucumaphila acidusa (Walker), n. comb.

Trypeta acidusa Walker, List of the specimens of dipterous insects in the

collection of the British Museum 4: 1014, 1849.

Anastrepha acidusa (Walker), Aldrich, Smithsonian Misc. Coll. No. 1444:

602, 1905 (part).—Costa Lima, Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 28: 530 and

604, 1934.

I have not positively recognized this species. The type has lost a portion

of the ovipositor sheath and ovipositor so that the length of these and the

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 8

character of the rasper are unknown. Dr. Smart has mounted the rem-

nants of the ovipositor sheath and ovipositor and sent photographs to me.

The shaft of the ovipositor is about 0.021 mm wide and this extreme slender-

ness combined with the general appearance makes assignment to this

genus quite certain. The species would run to hamata in the key and seems

to agree in every particular save that the V-band is complete, a condition

unusual in hamata. Dr. Smart also photographed the wing of the type

(Fig. 16). The pattern of the missing portion is indicated by stippling as it

appears on the opposite wing.

Holotype.-—Female (British Museum).

Type locality. Jamaica.

Remarks.—lIt is to be hoped that the species can again be collected in

Jamaica so that it can be more fully described. The name Anastrepha

acidusa has been used a number of times for the species that Sein described

as A. mombinpraeoptans, and the Florida record mentioned by Aldrich

is probably this latter species. A. mombinpraeoptans has an unusually short

ovipositor and in a number of other respects is quite different from the

species described by Walker.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

566TH MEETING

The 566th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 9, 1938,

President H. D. Mismr presiding.

Program: E. B. Ecke.: Abutment problems at Zuni dam, New Mexico.—

The Zuni dam is an outstanding example of the fact that no dam can be

better than its natural foundations. It is built in a narrow gorge that has

been cut through a 30-foot basalt flow and into underlying alluvium. A bed

of loose sand lies between the base of the flow and a layer of tough clay.

The abutments have caused trouble ever since the reservoir was first filled.

The most serious difficulties occurred in 1909 and 1936, when large leaks

broke out on the south abutment. Both resulted in cracking and settlement

of the lava cap and loss of reservoir water. A cut-off wall, built after the

first break, was effective for 27 years. The leaks were caused when water

entered openings in the basalt and reached the sand layer. This layer acted

like a broad, flat pipe and led the water to an outlet below the dam. The

sand was flushed out, allowing the spillway and abutment to settle. After

the 1936 break, a combination dike and blanket was laid along the south

abutment in order to prevent entrance of water into the basalt. The new

structure has been tested only for a short time but will apparently be

effective. Several geologic problems involved in the repair work were dis-

cussed by the speaker.

C. P. Ross: Some comments on the geology of quicksilver.—Quicksilver de-

posits are widely distributed but so irregular and individually small that

it is difficult to prospect for them or to block out ore in advance. Even more

than other metals, they are deposited far from their original sources and in

areas relatively free from commercial deposits of other metals. Most of the

production has come from a small percentage of the known lodes. The de-

posits are localized where structural conditions furnish comparatively

Auaust 15, 19389 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 351 @

abundant openings in the rocks and where decrease in temperature and pres-

sure and, at least in some places, mingling with acid groundwater, promote

precipitation. In some places, concentration into deposits of commercial

grade is assisted by structural traps.

J. S. Witurams: Lower Permian of the type area, U.S.S.R.—Members of

the Permian excursion of the Seventeenth International Geological Con-

gress in the U.S.S.R., visited the typical region of the Permian system of

Murchison and of the Artinskian, Kungurian, Ufimian, Kazanian, and

Tartarian subdivisions. Murchison’s original Permian included beds down

to the base of Kungurian. He placed the Artinskian or Artinsk grits in the

top-of the Upper Carboniferous. Karpinsky described cephalopods from

these grits from several localities, some of which (especially those from the

Orenburg region about 350 miles south of Artinsk) he recognized were from

beds that were of Artinskian facies but older than the beds at Artinsk.

Later work has shown that in places beds of Artinskian facies go as far down

as to the Lower Carboniferous. Tschernyshew, in 1904, published his work

on the Upper Carboniferous brachiopods of the Urals and Timan. In this

influential work he placed the top of the Upper Carboniferous immediately

above his “Schwagerina”’ zone. Both Karpinsky and Tschernyshew con-

sidered the Artinskian as Permo-Carboniferous, as also did the Central

Geological Committee.

The Permian is currently divided into a twofold division by geologists

of the U.S.8.R. The Lower Permian in the type region now consists of an

upper, Kungurian, subdivision and a lower, Artinskian, subdivision. The

Upper Carboniferous has been generally known as the Uralian. Geologists

differ regarding the horizon at which the boundary between the Uralian

and the Artinskian should be placed and some would place a new division,

the Sakmarian, between them. In the U.S.S.R., as in the United States,

several boundaries between the Permian and Carboniferous each have ad-

herents. Three boundaries have, however, the most adherents in the U.S.S.R.

The highest of these is immediately below the zone commonly referred to

as the Pseudofusulina lutugini zone, correlated with the Phosphoria and

Word formations of the United States by some and with the Upper Leonard

by others. The next highest boundary is immediately below the P. an-

derssont zone, which is itself immediately below the P. lutugini zone. The

P. anderssonz zone has been correlated with part or all of the Leonard forma-

tion of the United States. Below the P. anderssoni zone is the P. moelleri

zone and below that zone is the well-known so-called ‘‘Schwagerina’’ (now

Pseudoschwagerina) zone. These zones together probably comprise the

Sakmarian, proposed by Rutzensev from studies in the Orenburg region.

The lowest of the principally advocated boundaries is immediately below

the so-called “‘Schwagerina”’ zone.

From publications the writer has read and from impressions gained in

the U.S.S.R., he believes that the boundary below the P. lutugini zone is

the most widely used in the U.S.S.R., but no statistical evidence was ob-

tained. Reasons advanced by various Soviet geologists for placing the Per-

mian-Carboniferous boundary here include the following: A bryozoan

specialist would place it here because of a discontinuity in bryozoan de-

velopment; a fusulinid specialist, because of a discontinuity in the sequence

of fusulinids; and a coral specialist, because of the appearance of certain

peculiar corals. Others cite changes in certain plants, the fact that a sharp

change in lithology and an unconformity come at the base of the P. lutugini

352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

zone near Artinsk, and the presence of stratigraphic breaks at places on

different continents approximately at this horizon.

Soviet geologists who would place the boundary immediately above the

P. moellerz zone cite the following among their reasons for doing so: A fusu-

linid specialist believes the fusulinids below this boundary are more closely

related to Upper Carboniferous than to younger fusulinids. This same

geologist states that a sharp change in geographic and sedimentary con-

ditions and diastrophic processes begins here, that it is very convenient

to place the boundary here because of the ease with which underlying beds

can be identified, and that Murchison’s lower Artinskian boundary was

above this zone. Another geologist would place it here because Tscherny-

shew, who has been widely followed both in official and other reports,

placed the Upper Carboniferous boundary above the Schwagerina zone.

Still another would place it here because of an unconformity above the

““Schwagerina’’ zone.

Rutzensev and Nalivkin are the chief Soviet advocates of placing the

boundary at the base of the so-called Schwagerina zone. They advocate this

boundary because they believe that the ammonoids of this zone are more

closely related to younger than to older rocks, because of a discontinuity

in the sequence of fusulinids; because Karpinsky described as Artinskian

certain cephalopods found in Schwagerina-bearing beds in the South Urals,

which are of Artinskian facies (even though Karpinsky did recognize that

these cephalopods were older than those of the Artinskian at Artinsk), and

because certain coral genera which occur in undisputed Permian beds else-

where occur in the Schwagerina beds. Another cephalopod specialist would

place it here mainly because of discontinuities in the cephalopod develop-

ment, and a Soviet coral specialist would also place it here. Other arguments

were advanced chiefly by foreign geologists.

The number of boundaries advocated, each of which seems most logical if

certain selected criteria are used or if the emphasis of a single criterion is

favorably placed, suggests that an agreement on criteria to be used is the

first step in the solution of the problem of the lower Permian boundary.

Few would suggest holding strictly to priority, the most easily followed

criterion. Lacking such an agreement also on other criteria, as at present,

preponderance of the usage followed in the type region seems to promise

as nearly a satisfactory standard as it is possible to obtain. Restriction of

the standard to the type region would localize the problem in an area that

could be studied in detail and would put the determination of period stand-

ards essentially on the basis that is generally used in interpreting disputed

details about formations. If world-wide opinion should demand a change

to some other sequence than that of the present type region as a standard

because of the absence of intermediate beds in the type locality, which does

not seem to be likely, or if world opinion should demand the use of some

boundary other than that generally used in the type region, because of

agreement upon a more satisfactory boundary the world over or for some

other reason, recourse could then be had to a world-wide representative vote

or to such an organization as the International Geological Congress, which

has considered similar problems. It seems likely, however, that if world-wide

opinion were decidedly against the boundary commonly used in the type

region, it would force a change there without the necessity of action by an

International Geological Congress.

As stated earlier, the original Permian of Murchison extended down to

include the Kungurian. In the early part of this century, the Central Geo-

Avucust 15, 19389 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 303

logical Committee placed the Kungurian and Artinskian in the Permo-

Carboniferous. In 1917, they transferred these beds to the Permian. Tscher-

nyshew’s work has been most widely followed since its publication, but the

use of his classification is hindered because part of his section is said to have

been misinterpreted and because some maintain that “Schwagerina’’ is not a

narrow-zone fossil as once thought but ranges through a considerable sec-

_ tion in some places and occurs in beds that are of different ages in different

~ places. It is the writer’s distinct impression that most Permian stratigraphers

in the U.S.S.R. now place the boundary above the ““Schwagerina”’ zone asitis

generally interpreted, and that it is so placed in most official publications

of the Central Geological and Prospecting Institute.

Because there seems to be some indication that present opinion in the

U.S.8.R. may change and because many geologists in the United States

place the boundary below the ‘“‘Schwagerina’”’ zone, the writer continues to

advocate, as he has since 1936, that some group name be selected for this

zone, that this group be designated temporarily as Pennsylvanian or Per-

mian, and that correlations be made mainly in terms of the group units

with less emphasis being placed on the location of the Pennsylvanian-

Permian boundary. The widespread use of such group units as reference

points for correlations would restrict our problems mainly to areas in the

United States that can be visited repeatedly and studied in detail. It would

fully serve the needs of most geologists, because most geologists are inter-

ested mainly in local and perhaps sectional correlations. These are only con-

fused if the details of international problems inherent by definition in the

setting of period standards and the drawing of period lines are introduced

into local controversies.

567TH MEETING

The 567th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 23, 1988,

President H. D. Misr presiding.

Informal communications.—Mr. J. B. MertixE described the Dufay and

Kodachrome processes of making colored transparencies and projected a

number of Dufay color photographs that he had taken in Alaska during the

past field season.

Program: R. C. Canpy: Erosional history of the North Platte Valley in Ne-

braska.—The North Platte River in the region of Scotts Bluff County,

western Nebraska, has cut its valley over 1,600 feet below the upper level

on the plains. Gravel occurs on the high level of the plain north of the river,

and as the river eroded the valley the gravel was washed down the valley

sides. This gravel cover protected the terrace surfaces from erosion and

thus aided in their preservation. The upland plain south of the river fur-

nished much less gravel than that to the north, with the result that the

terrace surfaces on the south side were not preserved, and the south side

of the valley is steeper than the north side.

Six terrace levels can be recognized, including the gravel remnants on the

upland. The fifth level (numbered from lowest to highest) is a steep, convex

slope covered with coarse gravel. It seems to represent the greatest part of

the Pleistocene erosion. Four substages are suggested by breaks in slope on

this surface, the lowest being a line of hillocks 300 feet or more above the

level of the river. The fourth terrace level is a rock bench covered with

gravel. The surface of the third terrace is 80 to 100 feet above the present

level of the river. After its formation the river and tributary streams cut

deep, narrow trenches into it. The river cut down about 300 feet, but the

354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

tributary gulches were not cut so deeply. Before they could be widened very

much they were refilled with gravel. The bottom of the channel that was

cut and refilled by the river now lies about 200 feet below the present level

of the river. After the channels were refilled the river began to cut down

again, and to widen its inner valley by lateral corrasion. It reached grade

at a level 40 to 50 feet below the surface of the third terrace. The tributary

streams also cut down but not so deeply as the river. Fine-grained sedi-

ments were deposited in the newly eroded valleys, partially filling them.

The lremnants of this fill constitute the second terrace. The river and tribu-

tary streams were again rejuvenated and they began to cut through this fill.

Most of the remnants of the second terrace were removed from the valley .

of the river, but they are still preserved in some of the tributary valleys.

After about 20 to 30 feet of downcutting had taken place the new gullies

were again partially filled with fine-grained sediment. Remnants of this fill

constitute the first terrace. Since that time the streams have cut about 15

or 20 feet below the top of the first terrace.

The terraces, particularly the third, second, and first, possess character-

istics that render them recognizable in other valleys in the region.

Little is definitely known of the age of the terraces. Vertebrate fossils are

being collected from gravels on the fifth terrace, and they are considered

to be early Pleistocene in age. Yuma artifacts in association with extinct

bison have been taken from sediments that constitute the second terrace.

Hearths and pottery of not very ancient date are found in the sediments

of the first terrace. The second and first terraces are more similar to each

other than to any of the older terraces. Also, more erosion took place in the

interval between the third and second terraces than took place between the

formation of the second terrace and the first. It is believed, therefore, that

the second terrace may be late Wisconsin or early Recent in age.

M. M. Knecute.: Large boulders and glacial striae near Little Rocky

Mountains, Mont.—Extending southeastward for at least 36 miles from

Snake Butte, a prominent feature of the plains of the Fort Belknap Indian

Reservation north of the Little Rocky Mountains, Mont., is a train of

glacial boulders, many of which are very large. The igneous rock composing

the boulders is identical with that exposed on Snake Butte, and on top of

the butte glacial striae elongated southeastward indicate that the boulders

were transported by the glacier and not, as has been supposed, by icebergs

floating in water ponded between the ice front and the high land at the base

of the Bearpaw and Little Rocky Mountains. As there are reasons for

believing that the Keewatin ice sheet advanced into the Montana plains

from the northeast, deflection of the ice southeastward by the Bearpaws and

Little Rockies is indicated.

J. T. Parpus: Post-Tertiary faulting of ilermontene basins, western

Montana.—The region considered is part of the physiographic province

known as the Northern Rocky Mountains. The principal mountain group

and ranges within it attain altitudes of 10,000 feet or more and rise 4,000

to 6,000 feet above adjacent lowlands. The mountains are maturely dis-

sected by narrow, steep-sided valleys but flat or gently sloping surfaces of

noteworthy extent remain on many of the summits. Between the different

mountain groups and ranges are 40 or more wide intermontane basins that

aggregate 10,000 square miles or about one-fourth of the total area.

The intermontane basins are underlain largely by Tertiary and later

sediments that rest unconformably on a bedrock floor eroded across strongly

deformed older rocks that also compose the mountains. The structure of the

Aueust 15, 1989 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY BE

Tertiary sediments suggests downwarping in some of the basins and down-

faulting in others. The idea of downfaulting is supported by the occurrence

of fault scarps at one side or the other of several of the basins. Among these

are low scarps of Recent age in the Madison, Centennial, and Red Rock

(Lima) Valleys that are formed in unconsolidated alluvium and glacial

deposits. Others are more or less worn scarps in the older rocks that form

certain mountain fronts. Some of these mark vertical displacements of as

much as 5,000 or 6,000 feet. The two severe earthquakes recorded in this

region within the past 15 years appear to have been caused by movements

on faults, marked by the older scarps only belonging to a system along the

eastern side of the mountain province.

568TH MEETING

The 568th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, December 14, 1938,

Presient H. D. Misr presiding.

The prize for the best paper presented to the Society during the year was

awarded to Mr. K. J. Murata. The second prize was awarded to Mr. R. E.

STEVENS.

Program: Presidential address by H. D. Misr: Our petroleum supply.—

The United States produces and consumes three-fifths of the world’s annual

output of petroleum and it possesses about half of the world’s known re-

serves. Our domestic petroleum production is obtained from about 360,000

wells in 22 States, and its value is one-fourth the value of the entire annual

mineral production of the United States.

Petroleum and its associated hydrocarbons have been used by the peoples

of many lands for at least several thousand years; and the history of their

recovery, transportation, treatment, and utilization records a fascinating

story of the progress of human civilization. The phenomenal growth of the

petroleum industry in the United States since 1859, when our first well was

drilled for oil, has been greatly aided by geology. The number of geologists

now serving the industry in the United States, in the employ of companies

and in the employ of Governmental, State, and other institutions, appears

to exceed 3,000. The oil geologist, in the search for petroleum, makes use of

facts and conclusions from many phases of geology, including structure,

stratigraphy, paleontology, sedimentary petrology, sedimentation, geo-

morphology, and metamorphism; and, because of the vast amount of in-

formation obtained from deep wells, as much as 15,004 feet in depth, and

from the 30,000-foot depths reached by geophysical methods, he has made

notable contributions to the general science of geology.

46TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 46th annual meeting of the Society was held immediately following

the 568th regular meeting. The reports of the secretaries, the auditing

committee, and the treasurer were read and approved.

The Society elected the following officers for the year 1939:

President: J. B. MrrttE£, Jr.

Vice Presidents: J. B. ReEsipE and J. T. PARDEE

Treasurer: T. B. Notan

Secretary: P. D. Trasx

Members-at-Large-of-the-Council: A. A. Baker, R. W. Brown, T. A.

Henpricks, HE. A. Tracer, J. S. WILuIAMS.

The Society also appointed Mr. Hueu D. Miser its nominee for vice-

president of the Washington Academy of Sciences.

J. W. Greic, Secretary

006 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8

Obituary

The death of W1LLaARD DELL BicELow on March 6, 1939, brought to its

close the career of a distinguished pioneer in food research, whose passing

is mourned by a great host of personal friends and scientific contemporaries

the world over.

Dr. Bigelow was born at Gardner, Kansas, on March 31, 1866. He was

graduated from Amherst in 1889, subsequently serving a short term as as-

sociate professor of chemistry at Oregon State College. This was followed

by post-graduate work at Amherst, and in 1892 Dr. Bigelow accepted a posi-

tion in the U. 8. Bureau of Chemistry. In 1901 he was made chief of the Food

Division of the Bureau of Chemistry, and in 1903 became assistant chief of

the Bureau. Following enactment of the Federal Food and Drugs Act in

1906, he was associated with Dr. Harvey W. Wiley in the enforcement of the

Act and had the primary responsibility for the selection of personnel of the

new branch laboratories.

In 1913 he became associated, as chief chemist, with the newly organized

research laboratories of the National Canners Association, and in 1918 he

became the first director of the laboratories.

He was universally recognized as one of the leading authorities on foods

and food legislation, and tribute was paid to his ability and learning by his

election to many offices of distinction in scientific organizations and socie-

ties. He was for many years a director and counselor of the American Chem-

ical Society, and he served as president of the Association of Official Agricul-

tural Chemists and of the Association of Dairy and Food Officials.

Outstanding among his many services to the canning industry were his

contributions to the study of the tin container, the nutritive value of canned

foods, and the fundamental methods for establishing safe processes for all

classes of canned foods.

Dr. Bigelow was respected by all for his wise counsel, upright character,

and sound judgment; his kindliness and courtesy won the friendship and af-

fection of those with whom he came in contact.

In 1901 he was married to Miss Nancy M. Nesbit, who, with their two

ee Miss May Thorpe Bigelow and Mrs. Jessie B. Martin, survives

im.

CONTENTS

Page

Brotogy.—The measure of population divergence and multiplicity of

characters. ISAAC GINSBURG. ....06)0.... 6 rr 317

PALEOBOTANY.—Fossil plants from the Cretaceous of Minnesota.

HpwarD W. BERRY ..0 2228600. 005. ee ool

ZooLoGy.—Onychocythere, a new genus of marine ostracod from Flor-

ida, with a description of one species. Wiunuis L. TRESSLER.... 336

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new genus of Trypetidae near Anastrepha (Diptera).

ALAN STONE... 022.500 2028.40) Ge ee 340

Proceepines: Gro.ocical SocieTy...............)... 350

OBITUARY: WILLARD DELL BIGELOW. ...0........ 2...) 356

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 No. 9

one

‘. &

JOURNAL ©

OF THE

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

-Freperick D. Rossin1 C. Lewis Gazin James H. Kempton

NATIONAL BURBAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM BURDBAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Lewis V. Jupson Austin H. Cuark

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIDTY

H. H. T. Jackson GrorGE TUNELL

BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY GHROLOGICAL SOCIETY

Jason R. SwALLEn Henry B. Couuins, JR.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY

FRANK C. KRACEK

CHEMICAL SOCISTY

PUBLISHED MONTHLY

BY THE

iy WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

oe 450 Aunaip Sr.

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JOURNAL

| OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 29 SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 No. 9

CHEMISTRY.—Some problems in attaining adequate nutrition.'

Paut E. Howe, U. 8. Bureau of Animal Industry.

In observing the problems that arise in the feeding of large groups

of men in the Army and in charitable and penal institutions, and con-

trasting these problems with those that are encountered in the feeding

of farm animals, I have been impressed with the extent to which man’s

aesthetic reactions to foods handicap his nutritional status. Much

of the malnutrition that exists both inside and outside of institutions,

as well as the unrest, discontent, and low morale that lead to demon-

strations, riots, and other disciplinary problems, is the result of man’s

unwillingness or inability to base the satisfaction of his appetite on

his dietary needs and on the restriction of his purse.

Nutritional workers have calculated the needs of both men and

farm animals and have determined by analyses which of the available

food products contain the essential elements in forms suitable for use.

In farm animals the nutritional problem is fairly simple. Scientific

investigators have drawn definite conclusions as the result of labora-

tory work with animals and feeds and have made definite recommen-

dations. Feeds for animals are evaluated scientifically on the basis

of their nutritional and economic factors. On such a basis farmers are

able to work out feeding schedules for their livestock in a sound and

economical manner. It would seem equally feasible and highly desira-

ble to approach human nutritional problems in the same objective

manner.

Man, however, uses food as a means of satisfying many emotional

needs, which are so closely tied up with his physiological needs that

unless they too are met he fails to get the most from his food. He en-

joys and even demands variety, not only in foods themselves but in

methods of preparing them. He wants foods that appeal to his eyes

_and his senses of taste and smell; he wants to eat in pleasant sur-

roundings. Traditionally, partaking of food with other persons has

been of such social importance that the emotional satisfaction de-

rived from eating has often overshadowed the actual physiological

_ 1 Address of the retiring president of the Washington Academy of Sciences, de-

livered on January 19, 1939. Received July 8, 1939.

357

358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

needs supplied by food. These factors greatly complicate the attain-

ment of an adequate diet.

No really comprehensive treatment of nutrition is possible in the

limited time available. Therefore, I have selected for discussion cer-

tain phases of human dietary habits and some of the possibilities and

complications that arise in the practical application of our knowledge

of foods and nutrition. |

COMPLICATIONS IN HUMAN NUTRITION

Man’s fundamental nutritive requirements, as determined experi-

mentally, are usually expressed in terms of chemical compounds or

complexes—proteins, fats, carbohydrates, etc.—of the foods com-

monly included in his diet. Until recently these compounds making

up the major parts of the diet were the chief consideration. The im-

portance of the vitamins and certain of the mineral elements required

in small amounts is now being recognized. Some of these compounds

are known only by the effects produced in the organism when they

are absent from the diet.

The necessary quantities of the various foodstuffs vary with the size,

age, and activity of the individual concerned and with the external

conditions to which he is subjected.

The requirements for the various nutrients are seldom considered

by man when arranging his diet. Instead, he thinks in terms of food—

meat, potatoes, milk, salads. As the science of nutrition has pro-

eressed, it has been necessary to reevaluate foods as sources of the

various nutrients and to indicate the uses of particular classes of foods

in the diet. To make the best use of available foods in meeting the

variety of tastes and habits in man, it is necessary to know the com-

position of foods, the variations in the composition of the same food,

and changes that occur between harvesting and consumption. Fur-

thermore, variations occur in the composition of different varieties of

the same product and also as the result of maturity, climatic condi-

tions, the fertility of the soil, and other factors.

The preservation and purification of foods add further complica-

tions. Natural foods contain some of almost all the necessary nutri-

tive factors, although the quantities present may be so small that the

food can not be considered an important source of that particular fac-

tor. The methods of preservation and purification used to keep foods

from spoiling or losing quality or to make them more attractive often

change the composition of the original food. Thus, there may be a re-

duction in certain constituents on drying or cooking, or a concentra-

SEPTEMBER 15, 19839 HOWE: PROBLEMS IN NUTRITION 309

tion of nutrients such as occurs in the manufacture of white flour, re-

fined sugar, and polished rice. These changes create special nutritional

problems when products of this type form the major part of a diet.

The use of polished rice is a good example. In polishing rice the outer

hull and the germ, which contain vitamin B,, are removed, leaving

the inner starch-rich endosperm. People who live largely on polished

rice develop the nutritional deficiency disease known as beriberi. This

ean be corrected by feeding the rice polish itself or some other source

of vitamin B,. Once polished rice has been used it is very difficult to

get people to accept unpolished or brown rice, in spite of its superior

nutritive value. The use of refined products, however, is not objec-

tionable in itself, but it necessitates careful selection of other foods if

the diet is to be adequate.

To meet the various food habits and tastes of a cosmopolitan popu-

lation it is important to popularize more than one source of each nu-

tritive factor. Fluid milk, for example, is the standard source of cal-

cium. The daily consumption of a quart of milk by a child or a pint by

an adult is an assurance of an adequate calcium intake. But those who

do not like or can not get fluid milk may substitute canned or dried

milk, cheese, an extra amount of leafy vegetables, or even calcium

salts and still meet their daily calcium requirements.

Carotene, one of the precursors of vitamin A, is chiefly responsible

for the yellow color of vegetables and milk. Carotene is also present

in the green leaves of plants, although masked by the green color. Any

of the yellow or green vegetables, especially the leafy vegetables, or

the yellow foods derived from animals, may be selected as a probable

source of vitamin A.

An example of the value of substituting one food for another for

economic reasons was shown some years ago by Dr. A. F. Hess. At

a time when lime juice and lemon juice were the accepted sources of

vitamin C, the antiscorbutic vitamin, Hess demonstrated the value

of tomato and potato juice for treatment of scurvy in Negro children

in New York. In this way he introduced antiscorbutic foods that were

cheap and easily obtainable.

SIMPLIFYING SELECTION BY USE OF FOOD GROUPS

To simplify selection, foods that are somewhat similar in composi-

tion or are particularly valuable as a source of one or more nutrients

may be grouped together. For example, meats, milk, and eggs are

sources of protein of good quality; milk, the leafy vegetables, and dried

legumes are sources of calcium; the green and yellow vegetables and

360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

butter fat are sources of vitamin A and carotene; fruits and vegeta-

bles, especially the acid products, are sources of ascorbic acid; and

lean meat, milk, and the leafy vegetables are sources of nicotinic acid,

the antipellagra vitamin.

By using such knowledge, it is possible to express the nutritive re-

quirements in terms of the quantities of the various types of foods for

an adequate diet. A classified dietary of this kind has been used rather

successfully as the basis of dietary control in the Federal penal insti-

tutions. An example is given in Table 1.

TABLE 1.—STANDARD RATION FOR FEDERAL PENAL INSTITUTIONS

(Expressed in pounds per man per day)

General | Hospital

Food groups Type food idsces ieces

Micatsivns race et mbes Ceram. 3 Beef. 75 .50

eh cE Serer a ne kono hint, ee Oleomargarine. alley 5S

Flour, etc.

Spaghetti, macaroni, rice, etc. {— Flour, white. 280 ou

Dairy PLOductsn.c wwe aac. oe Milk, fresh.! 1.00 2.00

Bie OFA a oit-e pce cent are Sen See een a Eggs. .03 .25

Suara sy GU pee tec eee ia. Sugar, granulated. 229 .25

BeVeragesys soi inee min ae eee. 0 Coffee. .10 .10

Botwtocs) | sks weet

rouse \. ‘ Potatoes, 1.00 80

Leafy green and yellow vegetables z

(including tomatoes 0.10 Ib.) if Cabbage.’ soe BU

Beans dried sete. (ce c.g eee: Beans, navy. 5G) .10

IDV, TORSO Cle CHINN, 6 oa.cn cc cly oa ae Apples.’ 15 25

Jeb ACOA UeYG | eee aera ea) oe ee Prunes. .08 ~ 08

Moscellameouss: si) en es ees ss Yeast. .015 .015

iS) SIGs OU Co ot ton erg eRe t TERR: ok 6 oe Salt. 10) eo)

1 In reporting evaporated milk, dried milk, and cheese, they are converted to their

equivalents of fresh milk.

2 When a greater quantity of some other food than the type food in this group is

useds in a given month, it becomes the type food for purposes of estimating the cost of

the ration.

In this ration the foods are grouped according to one or more of the

following characteristics: (1) Similarity of nutritive value, (2) palata-

bility, and (3) dissatisfaction when too large quantities are used.

The use of food groups simplifies the recommendation of diets, of-

fers considerable opportunity for variety of choice, and permits an

approximate evaluation of diets from different parts of the country

that reflect wide variations in food habits.

The monthly ‘‘Mess House Operations”’ report used by the United

States Department of Justice for each Federal penal institution shows

the total quantity and average daily consumption for each food group

calculated to the pounds consumed per man per day. Other data re-

lated to the cost of the various items and waste are reported. A calcu-

lation is also made of the cost of such a ration based on the price paid

SEPTEMBER 15, 19389 HOWE: PROBLEMS IN NUTRITION o61

for the type foods, reporting each food group as indicated in the pre-

ceding table.

A report of this kind is very useful in appraising the nutritional

value of the food consumed and the economy of the expenditure for

food in an institution. Such an analysis, combined with an examina-

tion of the menus, indicates the probable acceptability of the foods

served, as well as the adequacy of the diet. A knowledge of the skill

with which food is prepared and served in an institution 1s necessary

for a complete understanding of the satisfaction derived from its op-

erations. It is interesting to note that various institutions show in-

dividual food patterns characteristic of the region in which they are

located. Furthermore, it is often possible to detect a change in stew-

ards or in administrative control by shifts in the quantities of different

foods used.

Reports of the kind just outlined should be as much a part of the

records of all public institutions responsible for the care of men,

women, or children as the financial reports. In fact, the justification

for the expenditure of money in institutions, armies, or navies is to

provide an adequate satisfactory diet. Without records of foods con-

sumed, it is impossible to demonstrate the extent to which the expen-

ditures have been properly made.

Dr. Hazel Stiebeling, of the Bureau of Home Economics of the

United States Department of Agriculture, has successfully employed

food groups in setting up dietary standards for persons of different

ages and sexes at various levels of income or satisfaction.

USE OF THE MENU OR MEAL PLAN

When selecting or planning meals and reviewing dietaries, it is

possible to use certain devices to test the adequacy of the diet or its

probable acceptability, such as (1) by the quantities of each of the

types or classes required, which has just been discussed, and (2) by a

series of meal plans or menus. In reviewing dietaries, both kinds of in-

formation are needed if an indication of the probable acceptance of

the diet is desired.

A menu may be considered as a plan by which foods are combined

to make a satisfactory meal. By working out a series of menus a vari-

ety of foods and an adequate diet can be assured. Menus tend to fol-

low patterns and are part of our food habits. Through the skillful

planning of combinations of food, nutritive elements in which the

diet was previously deficient may be added often without upsetting

an accustomed routine. A large part of the success of this method of

362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

changing food habits les in maintaining interest in the meals from

day to day. This is just as true for maintaining good dietary habits as

for changing poor ones.

Although the immediate concern will be with the proper nutritive

elements in the menu, many other factors enter into the contentment

and satisfaction people obtain from meals, particularly the methods

of service and the surroundings in which food is eaten. Interest in

food through the menu or meal plan is attained by (1) the use of foods

attractive in themselves, (2) changes in methods of preparation of

foods, and (3) combinations of the foods into attractively prepared

dishes. In the last-mentioned case the attractive characteristics of

some foods, such as meats, sugars, etc., may be used to add interest

to less attractive but necessary or useful foods such as the bland cereal

grains or vegetables. |

It is not enough to provide variety among the meals of one day.

It is necessary also to prevent the monotony that follows the frequent

repetition of foods or combination of foods, or the repetition of the

same foods at regular intervals. This is evident from the difficulties

that arise in feeding large groups of persons such as in college dining

halls, army messes, and correctional institutions, particularly when

the cooking is mediocre. Poor cooking and monotonous meals have

been responsible for many riots. It is a matter of record that Harvard

College was almost wrecked in its early days because of monotonous

and inadequate meals.

The meal plan offers a very useful method of selecting a meal from

a restaurant menu or cafeteria counter. For example, in selecting a

dinner one might soliloquize as follows:

“Soup? A small portion, it’s appetizing and not too filling.

‘“Meat? Yes, a steak—no animal protein so far today.

‘Potatoes? Yes.

“Other vegetables? Broccoli, turnips, beets, or carrots? Make it broccoli

and carrots, not enough vitamin A so far.

“Salad? Lettuce or fruit? Lettuce with Roquefort dressing—more caro-

tene and more calcium.

“Dessert? Cottage pudding? No, calcium is still low, make it pumpkin

pie, and a cup of coffee.

‘“‘Now, let’s see, I had grapefruit this morning, tomato juice this noon, and

broccoli, carrots, butter, and salad tonight to provide sufficient vitamins C

and A. The meat, bread, my peanut-butter sandwich this noon, and cheese

provide plenty of protein. The calcium may be a little low but the cheese and

pumpkin pie have helped, and there was skim milk in the bread.

‘The B factors? Ihave had only white bread, but there were meat, pea-

nut butter, cheese, and vegetables to help out.

“There is plenty of iron, and by the time I fill up on bread and butter there

will be enough calories.”’

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 HOWE: PROBLEMS IN NUTRITION 363

The chances are, however, that someone else plans the meals that

you eat and enjoy without questioning whether all the necessary

nutrients have been supplied. Even the housewife may use ready-pre-

pared menus. What training did the person who planned the meals

have? How well was the planning done? If a pattern was followed, was

the pattern good? Upon the housewife, dietitian, cook, or steward

often rests the responsibility for inducing us to eat foods that are

needed even though we may not like them. They should be trained

at least in the general facts of nutrition and the possibilities of chang-

ing food habits. We look to them to plan meals that we can enjoy

with the assurance that they are adequate as well as appetizing.

Although menus and meal plans are useful in attaining a good diet,

they alone do not provide sufficient evidence by which to judge ade-

quacy. Often diets appear inadequate when judged by the menus but

are shown to be adequate by analyses of the quantities of foods con-

sumed. Conversely, a similar analysis of interesting-looking menus

may show an insufficient intake of important foods, especially vege-

tables. :

PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES INFLUENCING ACCEPTANCE OF FOODS

I have so far discussed food requirements and methods of checking

the adequacy of diets and have touched only lightly upon attitudes

toward food and the difficulties that sometimes interfere with the at-

tainment of an adequate diet. Although there are complications, they

arise because of man’s intelligence. In modern civilization many peo-

ple have gradually conditioned themselves to expect and even

demand a much more complicated dietary than is needed to satisfy

nutritional needs. This enjoyment is one of the privileges of man.

Insofar as people can afford these habits, they should enjoy them.

Enjoyment is, however, only relative. New opportunities arise and

with them new desires are created. On the other hand, when enjoy-

ment interferes with the acceptance of an adequate dietary, the in-

dividual is faced with the dilemma of continuing his habits or accept-

ing something that appears to him to be less interesting and satisfying.

These changes are more easily accepted by the individual than by

groups of individuals.

Man likes what he is used to, but he also likes a change. On this

premise it should be possible, under circumstances in which he is

faced with the need for a correction in the dietary, to condition him-

self to a new set of habits.

In any attempt to improve the nutritional status of a person, there-

364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

fore, use should be made of instincts, appetites, habits, and any other

devices to condition him favorably to desirable food habits. Hunger

and appetite can be made valuable aids in securing the acceptance of

food. Hunger that is due to actual contractions of the stomach stimu-

lates the seeking of food. Appetite, on the other hand, is associated

with the presence, or even the memory, of pleasant odors and flavors

of food and may occur when the stomach is full. When hunger con-

tractions or pangs occur, people show irritability and restlessness,

even when the attention is so occupied that the contractions are not

recognized. When three meals a day are eaten at regular hours, hun-

ger contractions are seldom noticed, and when only one or two meals

a day are eaten a certain amount of indifference to them may be built

up. Excitement, pain, or anger inhibits hunger; outdoor exercise,

physical work, or insufficient food stimulates hunger and lowers the

level of discrimination, thus creating a situation favorable to the ac-

ceptance of new foods, that may be utilized when there is need to

change dietary habits.

As a matter of fact, people often take food as the result of appetite

rather than of hunger. Appetite stimulates the flow of digestive juices

but is not essential to the digestion of food, since once in the stomach,

food is equally well digested whether liked or not, provided no serious

or continuous emotional factors are involved.

Habit plays an important role in the acceptance, as well as refusal,

of certain foods and is thus useful in efforts to provide an adequate

dietary. Habits are paradoxes. A man will eat the same breakfast year

in and year out but will rebel if his dinners or suppers are the same or

even if they are repeated at weekly intervals. In New England hot

baked beans are traditionally necessary for Saturday suppers and cold

baked beans for Sunday breakfasts. In the South boiled beans are or

were often a customary second dish for both dinner and supper, but

in other parts of the country if beans are served two meals in succes-

sion there is likely to be trouble.

Man is not alone in the persistence of habit in the face of change.

Animals accustomed to a particular ration do not readily change to

another unfamiliar diet. For instance, a farmer in Ohio purchased

some cattle raised in North Dakota that had never been fed corn, and

it took some time to teach these cattle to eat corn. He reports that one

steer never did acquire the habit of eating corn. Animals, however,

show a greater willingness to consume the food presented to them

than does man. They can also be taught to expect variety in their

diets. These habits usually result from the tutelage of man and are

SEPTEMBER 15, 1989 HOWE: PROBLEMS IN NUTRITION 065

frequently seen in household pets, where their owners have projected

their own conceptions of the pet’s desire for variety or for particular

foods.

Conditioning is another device that can be used to modify food

habits. The classic experiment of Pavlov’s dogs has led us to see how

many of our actions, including attitudes toward food, are the result

of conditioning or involuntary reactions to stimuli. Poffenberger

favorably conditioned a group of students to music they did not like

by playing it while they ate attractive meals. Most of us can explain

an intense aversion to a particular food by its association with some

painful event, or remember discovering that we ‘‘liked”’ a new food

when it was eaten on a gala occasion. Conscious use of such methods

of modifying established habits or creating acceptance of desirable

foods offers a valuable means of improving dietary habits.

The role of instinct in determining the choice of foods is not cer-

tain, but some interesting examples of its effect on choice are reported.

The new-born animal, born with a strong sucking instinct, having

once found tke nipple, soon learns to return to it with unerring accu-

racy. As it grows older it samples the various objects within its reach,

learns that some foods are better than others, and builds up a stand-

ard of selection within the limits of food available.

An experiment with rats, conducted for the purpose of determining

whether animals search for specific nutrients, indicated that the

choice of a particular food was the result of a generalized search for

food and that habit or conditioning played a part in its selection. Un-

der experimental conditions rats have been found to choose a satis-

factory diet from 11 relatively pure foods, including protein, carbo-

hydrates, fat, certain vitamin-rich foods, and minerals, and to increase

the consumption of sodium chloride or calcium where additional

quantities of these elements were needed. Experiments with chicks

showed that some of them consistently chose better diets than others.

Man’s instinct or ability to select a satisfactory diet from among a

number of foods or to modify the diet to meet changes in nutritive re-

quirements has also been demonstrated. There is a careful report of

three young children who were allowed complete freedom of choice

from among a wide variety of natural foods over a long period of time.

The diets selected met all their nutritive requirements and resulted

in excellent growth. Normally, however, man’s instinct is so over-

laid by conditioning that he can not be trusted to select food with

any relation to his physiological needs.

At present, sufficient evidence to determine the exact manner in

066 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 9

which the body recognizes nutritional deficiencies and determines the

choice of food is lacking. One suggestion is that nutritional deficits

cause physiological changes in the body and that these changes alter

the taste mechanism and set up a craving for a specific food.

These nutritional facts and the attitudes of man to food may well

serve as the basis for considering a problem that frequently defeats

efforts to improve the nutritional status by setting up dietary stand-

ards. A survey of dietary habits indicates that there is still much to be

done in bringing people to accept a diet that meets the caloric needs of

the body and provides a liberal allowance of all the nutrients required.

It is concerned with the maintenance of morale in men fed in groups,

as in the Army and Navy, and the practical application of the newer

knowledge of nutrition to the improvement of our national health and

economic welfare. The difficulties involved become evident when an

attempt is made to change the food habits of persons satisfied with a

generous but nutritionally inadequate diet, to make drastic changes

in the food of troops and yet maintain their morale, to set up a re-

stricted though adequate diet for persons on relief, or even to under-

stand the problems of the housewife who tries to stay within her food

budget and still have a well-nourished and satisfied family. In each

case the major problem lies in getting the persons concerned to accept

the foods that should be used among those that are available.

Evidence has just been presented that indicates that young chil-

dren and animals will select a fairly adequate diet if given a reasona-

ble variety of natural foods from which to choose, or that they will

seek other foods if the diet presented is inadequate. But as man grows

older and develops fixed habits this faculty of selection of the diet is

apparently submerged and seldom used. The desire for palatable or

customary foods displaces the urge to search for foods that will make

the diet more satisfactory from a nutritional standpoint.

VALUE OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

The most promising solution of the problem of getting people to

accept an available adequate diet lies in education and training.

Training must begin with the establishment of good food habits in the

child and involves learning to enjoy a simple adequate diet and to be

willing to accept new foods to replace or supplement customary foods.

The success of this program depends largely upon skill and attitude of

the mother. Although education begins at home, it should be carried

on also in the schools. Information given there reaches back into the

home and affects the parents and other members of the family. Fi-

SEPTEMBER 15, 19389 HOWE: PROBLEMS IN NUTRITION 367

nally, there are great possibilities for general education for better

dietary habits, particularly for adults. Here the problem is to insure

the sound, broad presentation of facts, unbiased and in their proper

relationships. Many books, bulletins, and pamphlets containing a

large amount of information about nutrition are available for use in

~ the home and school. Radio broadcasts and household publications

offer advice and aid in planning meals. Many of these are biased;

hence the information should be carefully evaluated before it is ac-

cepted. Great care must be taken to make sure that material to be

used in the schools is factually accurate, that it presents completely

unbiased discussions, and that it promotes no food product exclusive-

ly. Sometimes material is offered as educational that is really special

pleading for particular food products. It may be well written, accu-

rate, and informative. While manufacturers and industries are justi-

fied in advertising the merits of their products, this promotional ma-

terial usually lacks the detachment and broad approach that should

characterize educational material and should not be confused with it.

A considerable part of current popular material about food is pre-

sented in the form of recipes. This kind of material is very useful in

securing the acceptance of new foods or the wider use of common

foods. While recipes may be of little immediate interest to students of

nutrition they are of real value to those who must prepare and serve

meals. Since these persons should always consider foods in relation

to their nutritive values and their place in the diet, material on prepa-

ration should present facts about the place of the foods in the dietary.

An example of an excellent service of this kind is the weekly mimeo-

graphed press release called ‘‘The Market Basket,’’ which the De-

partment of Agriculture has issued for a long time. It has combined

information on the general nutritive requirements of the family with

information on seasonable foods and presents simple yet attractive

methods of preparation.

As previously pointed out, material that is to be used as a guide

either in teaching nutrition or in planning dietaries should suggest

more than one major source of each of the nutrients. This is especially

true if the material is to be used by people in all parts of the country

and if people are to be taught the possibilities of varied diets.

The average person can hardly expect to keep well informed about

all the changes in and additions to knowledge of man’s food require-

ments, but he should realize the extent to which his food habits play

a part in determining his well being. He should also realize that these

are not infallible guides and that a nutritionally abundant and rea-

368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

sonably satisfactory diet can be achieved at different income levels if

one is willing to bring an open mind to its acceptance. If the house-

wife, steward, or cook can combine this knowledge with skill in the

selection and preparation of food, real progress toward better nutri-

tion can be made. Thus man can satisfy his body requirements for

food without losing the opportunities to enjoy it.

BIOPHYSICS.— Delayed killing of maize seeds x-rayed at liquid-air

temperature. Louis R. Maxwe uu, U.S. Bureau of Agricultural

Chemistry and Engineering, and J. H. Kemprsin, U. 8. Bureau

of Plant Industry.

The first stage in the biological response to x-rays is the absorption

of quanta with the production of high-energy primary electrons. As

these particles traverse the medium they lose their energy in the proc-

ess of ion pair formation. On the average as each ion pair is formed

there will be about 32 electron volts of energy taken from the primary

electron. These early physical phenomena will be independent of

temperature changes and will always provide discrete amounts of

energy to the medium. The ion pairs formed will react with neighbor-

ing molecules and, since their energy is large compared with ordinary

thermal reactions, these processes should not be dependent on tem-

perature. These ionic reactions will then provide the initial energies

of activation for subsequent low-energy, including thermal, reactions.

The subsequent changes will be manifested by changes in the living

plant. It is to be expected that many of these low-energy reactions

will depend upon temperature changes. Any external influences, such

as extreme variations of temperature, that will greatly affect any

of these fundamental steps should prove to be a useful tool in the

investigation of biological response to radiation with x-rays.

Maintaining the specimens at about —187°C. by means of liquid

air during irradiation should largely eliminate significant thermal

reactions within,the material. The subsequent development of such

specimens under normal growing conditions should give information

as to the actual importance of thermal reactions during the time of

irradiation. In the present experiments dry maize seeds were used

because they are able to withstand submergence in liquid air without

seriously altering their subsequent growth’ (9).?

Various experimenters have investigated the effects of small changes

of temperature during the time of irradiation by x-rays. Early work

1 Received May 24, 1939.

2 Numbers in parentheses refer to the ‘‘Literature Cited.”

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 MAXWELL AND KEMPTEN: MAIZE SEEDS X-RAYED 369

by Muller (8) on Drosophila melanogaster and Stadler (10) on barley

and maize showed no influence of temperature during irradiation on

the observed mutation rates. As regards physiological changes (1) the

temperatures used during irradiation have in general produced either

_ no effect or else an increase in the amount of injury resulting from the

irradiation as the temperature was raised. The literature on the ge-

netic effect of x-rays has been summarized recently by Timoféeff-Res-

sovsky (12) and for plant cytogenetics by Goodspeed and Uber (5).

Crabtree (3) and Crabtree and Cramer (4) have shown that cold

treatment renders cells more sensitive to radium radiation. This re-

sult has been confirmed by Mottram (7), who has shown that the

growth of bean roots held at 0°C. during irradiation is much more

adversely affected than when they are irradiated at 24°C. Apparently

the temperatures used have not been below 0°C.

It has been found that under normal conditions maize seeds will

respond to x-ray treatment in a very definite manner, which has been |

called ‘‘delayed killing’”’ (2). An x-ray dosage of 70,000 r units for dry

maize seeds will result, after normal germination, in complete delayed

death as characterized by cessation of growth before the first leaf is

fully exserted from the coleoptile. This type of response is obtained

with certainty, and it was used in the present work as a criterion for

detecting possible new developments arising from the use of liquid-

air temperature.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

The experimental arrangement used is illustrated in Fig. 1. Directly

beneath the x-ray tube was placed a large liquid-air flask in which

a metal boat containing the maize seeds floated on the liquid air.

The actual temperature was measured by means of a thermocouple

embedded in one of the seeds, which showed that the seed tempera-

ture was not more than 2°C. above the temperature of the liquid air

used (approximately —187°C.). Runs were made at room tempera-

ture under conditions identical with the liquid-air experiments by

replacing the liquid air with water. This ensured that all secondary

effects such as back scattering would be the same in both cases. After

the x-ray exposures the seeds were brought up to room temperature

within a few minutes.

A Coolidge air-cooled x-ray tube with tungsten anode was used at

a constant potential of 45 k.v. This provided a continuous band of

radiation with maximum intensity at approximately 0.50 A. A sheet

of black paper was used as a filter to eliminate heat radiation. The

370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

anode distance was 23 cm, exposure time 53 hours for 70,000 r units,

and plate current 7 ma. Dosage values given were measured by means

of a standard open-air ionization chamber (11) before and after each

run. Dosage values given are accurate to within 5 percent.

Three treatments were given as follows: (a) 70,000 r units at liquid-

air temperature, (6) 70,000 r units at room temperature, and (c) no

INCHES —

lL 23 +47 76 16

SCALE

Fig. 1.—Diagram of the arrangement used in x-raying dry maize seeds

at liquid-air temperature.

x-ray exposure but cold treatment at liquid-air temperature identical

to (a). To this group was added a fourth lot as controls, which were

kept at room temperature and were not irradiated.

In each of the treatments 300 seeds of Funk Yellow Dent maize

were used. This seed was drawn from a thoroughly mixed commercial

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 MAXWELL AND KEMPTEN: MAIZE SEEDS X-RAYED 371

stock that on testing had 8 percent moisture. This variety of maize

has been used for several years in both x-ray and other radiation ex-

periments and furnished the material on which the previous x-ray

Liquid Air | Room Temp. Liquid Air Room Temp.

No X-Rays NoX-Rays X-Rays X-Rays :

70,000"r" 70,000°r

Fig. 2.—Section of a seedling flat showing seedlings natural size

from the four classes of treated seeds.

reports were based (2, 6). Experiments planned to disclose differ-

ential reactions of diverse types of maize to x-rays have been tried

with negative results. It is believed, therefore, that the reactions ob-

tained in the present experiment are general for maize seeds having

no more than 8 percent moisture.

The three lots of treated seeds, together with the controls, were

planted in the greenhouse in seven metal flats within a few days after

372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

irradiation. These flats, 1 foot square and 4 inches deep, were designed

to grow 12 rows of 12 plants each. The flats were filled to within one-

half inch of the top with carefully mixed sterilized soil. After the

seeds were planted points down and the crowns flush with the soil

surface, the flats were filled level with the sides with water-washed

sand. Thirty-six seeds from each treatment and the untreated control

were planted in each of seven flats. With perfect germination this

planting would provide 252 seedlings of each treatment. The position

of the treatments within the four row blocks was random within each

flat, and the flats were mounted on a compound clinostat where not

only the table rotated but each flat rotated independently, thus

eliminating between flats, and parts of flats, the Guiects of fixed shad-

ows inevitable in grécuhouse plantings.

Ten days after planting the heights of the ordi were recorded

in millimeters, the measurements being made from the box edges, not

the soil surface. The plants were grown for another ten days to make

certain there were no recoveries.

The results obtained show first that delayed killing still occurs for

the seeds held at liquid-air temperature during the tume of irradiation, as

shown in Table 1 and illustrated in Fig. 2. However, within the x-

rayed group the plants from seeds subjected to liquid-air temperature

average 27 percent larger than those x-rayed at room temperature.

The reverse of this is true for the plants from non-x-rayed seeds. In

this latter case the plants from seeds cooled for 53 hours at liquid-air

temperature were 41 percent shorter than the controls. The differ-

ence in both cases is statistically significant as shown in the analysis

of variance given in Table 2

STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF RESULTS

Despite the precautions taken to ensure uniformity, the four row

blocks differed among themselves more than would be expected from

random variations. The variance of four row blocks was further sub-

divided into that contributed by differences between flats and that

between the blocks within the flats. The ratios of the mean squares to

the error mean squares show that the significant variability is between

flats and not between the four row blocks within the flats.

The generalized error obtained from the entire experiment can not

rightly be applied to the differences within x-ray treatments, because

of the great disparity in size between the seedlings from x-rayed as

compared with those from non-x-rayed seeds. However, the mean

square for interaction shows conclusively that temperature and x-ray

SEPTEMBER 15, 19389 MAXWELL AND KEMPTEN: MAIZE SEEDS X-RAYED 373

treatment had a significant combined effect. To derive generalized

errors for the x-rayed and non-x-rayed seeds the two populations were

considered separately. Analyzing the variance for the group of seed-

lings from x-rayed seeds we see that the temperature at which the

seeds are treated produces a significant effect and similarly within

‘the non-x-rayed group temperature produces a significant effect. For

the size populations under consideration the error of the difference be-

tween the two temperatures within the x-rayed group is 0.45 mm and

in the group of seedlings from the non-x-rayed group it is 1.84 mm.

TABLE 1.—NUMBER AND MBAN HeEtcuts oF MAIzE SEEDLINGS SUBJECTED TO THE

INDICATED TREATMENTS

Treatment Be of Mean height

: mm

70 ,000 r, liquid-air temperature........... 226 10.12 +0.30!

7O-O00H; room temperature. ............. 239 MeO ORSO

No x-ray, liquid-air temperature.......... 240 (if saxt) se ale

No x-ray, room temperature.............. 248 109.52 41.29

1 Error of the difference between the x-rayed groups =0.45 mm.

2 Error of the difference between the non-x-rayed groups=1.84 mm.

TABLE 2.—ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Complete ex- X-rayed seeds | Non-x-rayed seeds

periment? only? only?

Treatment

Degrees Degrees Degrees

of free- Mean of free- | Mean | of free- Mean

SST, square fiom || SOMERS || hare square

Mist ee i ss ss 83 IE OAS) Se 464 25.0 A87 716.4

Four-row blocks....... 20 61.2

Two-row blocks........ 20 33.0 20 1,508.8

Mreatments:...........- 3 53,468 .1 il 536.2 1 126,257 .9

JEPOity bs oh 2 60 40.7 443 Pay h5) 466 413.0

Subdividing blocks:

WHATS Rees ee 6 134.4 6 19.2 6 3,546.9

Wathin flats. ;..... . 14 29.8 14 38.9 14 635.3

Subdividing treatments:

Temperature...... 1 4,680.1

SAN Sige ee ee if 149,607 .4

imGeraction......~. if ONG?

1 Based on means of rows to avoid unequal frequencies.

2 Based on individual plants.

DISCUSSION

It can be concluded first that delayed death does not result prima-

rily from temperature-dependent thermochemical reactions, which

might take place during the time of irradiation, However, when the

374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 9

seeds are x-rayed at liquid-air temperature the extent of plant growth

before death is greater than when they are irradiated at room temper-

ature (approximately 21°C.). This would indicate that important de-

structive reactions that are involved in the phenomenon of delayed

death can be retarded by holding the specimens at the temperature of

liquid air during irradiation.

SUMMARY

1. The biological effect of x-rays is classified into essentially three

stages:

(a) Absorption of quanta with liberation of primary electrons and subse-

quent ion-pair formation.

(b) Ion-pair reactions with the surrounding medium which are expected

to be temperature independent involving chemical reactions which

may require both low and high energies of activation.

the life of the material.

2. Maintaining seeds at liquid-air temperature during irradiation

should greatly reduce the number of thermal reactions occurring at

time of irradiation.

3. Delayed killing of maize seeds by x-rays is found to occur for a

dosage of 70,000 vr units when they are irradiated at liquid-air temper-

ature (about —187°C.). Extent of growth of delayed killed plants at

liquid-air temperature is significantly greater than for seeds irradiated

at room temperature.

4. It is concluded that delayed killing of maize is not due primarily

to temperature-dependent thermochemical reactions that might take

place during time of irradiation. Factors producing delayed death

are diminished by using liquid-air temperature during irradiation.

LITERATURE CITED

CLARK, JANET H. Amer. Journ. Roentgenology and Radium Therapy 40: 501.

1938.

Couuins, G. N., and Maxwe.u, L. R. Science 83: 375. 1936.

CRABTREE, Herpert Grace. 10th Sci. Rpt. Imp. Canc. Res. Fund. 1932.

. Biochemical Journ. 29: 2334. 1935.

CRABTREE, H. G., and CramMER, W. Proc. Roy. Soc., 1933, pp. 113-226. 1933.

. llth Sci. Rpt. Imp. Canc. Res. Fund. 1933.

GoopsPEED, T. H., and Usprer, Frep M. Bot. Rev. 5: 1-48. 1939.

MaxweE.L., L. R. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 24: 377. 1938.

Morrram, J.C. British Journ. Radiology 8: 32-39. 1935.

Movuuter, H. J. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 14: 714. 1928.

SeLtBy, A. D. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 28: 675. 1901.

10. SrapueR, L. J. Anat. Rec. 41: 97. 1928.

. Journ. Hered. 21: 12. 19380.

alee TAYLOR, L. S., and SincEeR, G. Radiology 15: 637. 1930.

12. TIMoFréErr- RESSOVSKY, N. W. Exp. Mutationsforschung in der Vererbungslehre,

p. 68. Dresden, 1937.

—

SCI AICI ENS Go SS

SEPTEMBER 15, 1989 MORTON: A SECOND UNITED STATES BERNARDIA 375

BOTANY.—A second United States species of Bernardia.! C. V.

Morton, U. 8. National Museum.

All the United States plants of the genus Bernardia (Euphor-

biaceae) have been referred to a single species, B. myricifolia

(Scheele) Wats., described from Texas on material collected by Lind-

heimer. Specimens collected in Arizona and California have, however,

a somewhat different appearance, and a detailed examination has

proved that they represent a distinct species. The western specimens

have small leaves (rarely over 1.5 cm long) of an ashy color due to

the very close, stellate pubescence, the individual hairs being so mi-

nute (hardly over 0.1 mm long) that they can be seen only with a

rather high magnification. The under side of the leaves is so densely

covered that none of the leaf surface itself is visible. On the other

hand, the specimen of the type collection of B. myricifolia in the

U. S. National Herbarium and all the numerous other Texas speci-

mens have relatively larger leaves (often 4 or 5 cm long) and a longer

and less dense pubescence, perhaps best described as stellate-hirsutu-

lous. The rays of the hairs are 0.5 to 1 mm long, and the leaf surface

is frequently visible. The stipules of the western plant are relatively

conspicuous, owing to their blackish-purple color; those of B. myri-

cifolia are inconspicuous, pale green or yellowish in color.

The stamens of the western plant are either 5 or 6 in number (or

sometimes 7 according to Jepson), those of B. myricifolia twice as

many (11 to 15). It is possible that there may also be a difference in

the color of the connectives, those of B. myricifolia being dark pur-

plish, those of the western plant apparently yellowish and of the same

color as the anther cells. A further difference is observable in the

styles, which are 3 in number, each once-parted. In B. myricifolia

the lobes are conspicuously and complexly laciniate, but in the west-

ern specimens they are frequently quite entire or bear only one or two

teeth on each side.

The western plant, here described as Bernardia incana, is quite

common in Arizona but apparently rare in California. Its range does

not overlap that of B. myricifolia, which in the United States is found

only in Texas and New Mexico. In Mexico the ranges of the two are

equally distinct, B. myricifolia being found in eastern Mexico (Coa-

huila and Tamaulipas), B. zncana only in Lower California.

The only other species of this relationship that has ever been de-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived May 4, 1939.

3/6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 9

scribed is Bernardia viridis Millsp. from Lower California, the type

of which has very kindly been lent by the University of California.

This species was reduced to the synonymy of B. myricifolia by Stand-

ley, but it is evidently distinct. The material is inadequate for a

complete diagnosis, but the relationship is decidedly with B. myrici-

folia rather than with B. ancana.

It should be mentioned that both Jepson and Munz state that

B. myricifolia (i.e., B. incana) is monoecious. I have examined a good

many specimens carefully with this in mind but have never found

both sexes on the same specimen, although both are often on the

same herbarium sheet.

Bernardia incana Morton, sp. nov.

Frutex dioicus; folia alterna bistipulata, stipulis crassis cucullatis atro-

purpureis persistentibus; lamina foliorum oblonga, 10-15 (raro 25) mm

longa, crenata, subtus cinerea, dense incano-puberula, pilis stellatis minutis

pluriradiatis; pedicelli masculi graciles, sepalis 3 minutis, externe minute

puberulis; stamina 5-7, antheris flavis, connectivo concolore; flores femine}

solitarii vel bini, sessiles, segmentis 5 imbricatis, externe minute puberulis;

styli 3 bipartiti, lobis integris vel dentes 1 vel 2 utroque latere gerentibus.

A much-branched, thorny, dioecious shrub, the stems terete, glabrate

except at apex; leaves alternate, congested at the tips of short lateral

branchlets, bistipulate, the stipules elongate-triangular, 1 mm long or less,

cucullate, thick, blackish purple, externally puberulous, persistent; petioles

short, terete, up to 4 mm long, about 0.5 mm in diameter, densely short-

puberulous; leaf blades oblong, up to 25 mm long and 12 mm wide, rounded

at apex, obtuse at base, regularly crenate, the crenations 4—6 on each side,

subcoriaceous, subtrinerved at base, pale green above, cinereous beneath,

densely short incano-puberulous beneath, the hairs stellate with many

(about 10) rays, these not over 0.13 mm long, about 10u wide; staminate

inflorescence up to 15 mm long, axillary, the rhachis slender, densely puberu-

lous, the bracts 4-6, minute, each subtending a fascicle of 3 or 4 flowers,

the pedicels 2—2.5 mm long, very slender, often nearly glabrous; staminate

perianth of three sepals, these free, ovate, about 1 mm long, valvate, acutish,

pale yellow, externally puberulous; stamens 5 or 6 (or rarely 7), the filaments

about 0.5 mm long, glabrous, the anthers yellow, suborbicular, about 0.25

mm long, the connective pale; rudimentary ovary none; pistillate flowers

solitary or in pairs, sessile, the perianth segments 5, about 2 mm long,

imbricate, the innermost linear; disk low, trigonal; ovary stellate-puberu-

lous; styles 3, two-cleft, the branches simple or with 1 or 2 short lobes on

either side; capsule about 6 mm high, 9 mm wide, densely cinereous-puberu-

lous, the hairs stellate, similar to those of the lower leaf surface; seeds sub-

globose, pale brown, about 6 mm long, ecarunculate.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 59822, collected at Sierra

Tucson, Ariz., April 21, 1884, by C. G. Pringle.

ADDITIONAL SPECIMENS EXAMINED:

Arizona: Fish Creek, McKelvey 1110; Peebles, Harrison, & Kearney 5348.

Sierra Estrella, Peebles, Harrison, & Kearney 3292. Superstition Mountain,

Gillespie 8606. Lowell, Parish s. n. Bright Angel Trail, Grand Canyon,

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 BERRY: MELIOSMA IN WILCOX EOCENE old

Leiberg 5953; Goldman 2225; Coville 1690, 1695; Eastwood 1. Pipe Creek,

Grand Canyon, Goldman 2246. Congress Junction, M. H. Jones s. n.

California: Whitewater, Parish 752. Without special locality, Parry &

Lemmon 375.

Lower California: San Pablo, Purpus 27.

PALEOBOTAN Y.—A Meliosma in the Wilcox Eocene.1 Epwarp W.

Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

Many years ago Professor Newberry described a leaf that he chris-

tened Viburnum cuneatum? from the Eocene of Tongue River in Mon-

tana. This was ultimately figured in his posthumous monograph.’

Newberry was very uncertain about this generic reference, and, as

the specimen had none of the features of Viburnum, when I found

what appeared to be identical forms in the Holly Springs sand of

western Tennessee I reviewed a large amount of recent material and

came to the conclusion that its affinities were with the Hama-

melidaceae and transferred it to the genus Parrotia of that family.*

Some years later better material was collected in Arkansas.°®

I have been on the lookout for comparable recent material ever

since and some years ago concluded that my earlier comparison with

Parrotia was a mistake and that what it really represented was a

species of Meliosma.

The genus Melzosma of Blume comprises more than half the existing

species of the family Sabiaceae, which is hence a relatively small

family, tropical or subtropical in its occurrence, mostly north of the

Equator, and Asiatic and American. Meliosma is divided into two

sections, the one with pinnate and the other with simple leaves.

The general features that distinguish these leaves is their obovate

form; rather shiny firm texture; variable margin, either entire or

when toothed generally entire in the lower half, when toothed rather

irregularly so both as to spacing and emphasis; prominent primary

venation; secondaries in the toothed forms indifferently craspedo-

drome or camptodrome, some ending in the teeth and others sending

a tertiary branch into the teeth; tertiaries sometimes simple and per-

current, at other times connected by zigzag connections midway

between adjacent secondaries. The whole venation facies is rather

characteristic and readily recognizable, but difficult to describe.

The lower Eocene Montana-Wilcox form should be called Melzosma

1 Received May 2, 1939.

2 NEWBERRY, J. S. Proc. uy See Nate Mirseo ss obi 188s.

3 NEWBERRY, J. S. Mon. S. Geol. Surv. 35: 130, pl. a fig. 2. 1898.

oERRY. He Wee Uns: Geile ‘Surv. Prof. Paper 91: 219.

PBR RY Mame lotde 150e) 715 pl. 12 ficaO. 1930:

378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29,.No. 9

cuneata (Newberry). (See Fig. 1.) Its closest living analogues occur

for the most part in Mexico and Central America. In general there is

less close a resemblance to existing species in the Antilles, which are

mostly entire; and those of eastern Asia, which are generally slenderer

Figs. 1, 2.—1, Meliosma cuneata (Newberry), Wilcox Eocene. 2, Meliosma

dentata Urban, from Central America.

and have more regularity of dentition, although several of the latter

are more like the Montana example than they are like the Wilcox

forms.

It is among the variable leaves of Meliosma dentata Urban and

Meliosma glabrata (Liebm.) Urban of Central America that the fossil

SEPTEMBER 15, 1989 MCINTOSH: A NEW TREMATODE BY Ay)

form can be most closely matched. The leaf of the former shown

in Fig. 2 is not nearly so like the fossil as others of that species which

I was unable to obtain for illustrating.

The fossil record of Meliosma is very incomplete, largely, I believe,

because paleobotanists have been relatively ignorant of the foliar

characters of some of the tropical families. The present Wilcox species

is the oldest known leaf specimen, although Reid and Chandler*® have

described three species based on endocarps from the London clay of

southeastern England (Sheppey), which is almost exactly the same

age as the Wilcox (Ypresian). There is also a fruit from the Pliocene

of Reuver and Swalmen’ in Holland, which completes the known

European records.

The additional American records include a fruit described by the

present writer® from the lower Miocene of California and three species

based upon leaves described by Chaney and Sanborn’ from the upper

Eocene Goshen flora of Oregon. One of these—Meliosma goshenensis

Chaney and Sanborn!°—is the most similar to the Wilcox species.

These authors compare this species particularly with the existing

Meliosma panamensis Standley, although calling attention to certain

similarities in the living Chinese M. rigida 8. & Z. and M. simplici-

folia Roxb.

ZOOLOGY .—A new allocreadiid trematode, Podocotyle shawi, n. sp.,

from the silver salmon ALLEN McIntosu, U. 8. Bureau of Ani-

mal Industry.

The species described in this paper is based on 5 specimens that

were recently forwarded for identification to the Bureau of Animal

Industry by Dr. J. N. Shaw, Oregon State Agricultural College,

Corvallis, Oreg. This species belongs to the genus Podocotyle, but

since it does not appear to agree with any known member of the

genus, it is regarded as new and is described below.

Podocotyle shawi, n. sp.

Description Body elongated, 4.1 mm long by about 1.1 mm wide,

slightly constricted at equator, broadest at region of testes, anterior end

more attenuated than posterior end; cuticula without spines. Oral sucker

terminal, 310u by 250u; cuticula of inner wall of oral sucker appearing as if

6 Reip and CHANDLER. London clay flora, British Museum. 1933.

7™C. and E. M. Reid. Pliocene flora of the Dutch Prussian border, p. 118, pl. 11,

figs. 19-21, 24, 25. 1915.

8 Berry, EH. W. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 19: 99, figs. 1, 2. 1929.

9 CHANEY and SANBORN. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 439: 84. 1933.

10 Tbid. 84, pl. 28, figs. 2, 3; pl. 29, figs. 1-8.

1 Received March 8, 1939.

o80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 9

provided with rasplike scales. Acetabulum pre-equatorial, 500u by 450u.

Prepharynx about 150u by 150u; pharynx 200y in diameter; esophagus 400u

by 50u; intestinal crura ending near posterior end of body. Excretory pore

at posterior end of body, opening into an elongated bladder. Testes from

ovoid to almost spherical in outline, tandem and contiguous, situated in

posterior half of body; anterior testis 380u by 600u, posterior testis 450u by

550u. Cirrus sac 1.7 mm long by about 100u wide, extending along median

line from near region of ovary, bending to pass acetabulum laterally to area

IMM.

Fig. 1—Podocotyleshawi,n.sp. A, Ventralaspect. B, Ovarian complex, dorsal aspect,

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 MCINTOSH: A NEW TREMATODE o8l

between acetabulum and cecal fork and then continuing diagonally to

genital pore; cirrus spiny, protruding in type specimen beyond body margin.

Genital pore located laterally about halfway between median line and

margin of body in zone of posterior third of esophagus. Ovary lobed, 200u

by 380u, median or lateral in position, pretesticular. Seminal receptacle

dorsal to ovary, about 150 to 300u; Laurer’s canal extending anteriorly from

large seminal receptacle. Vitellaria extending from level of intestinal fork

to beyond cecal tips, usually with an interruption at basal level of acetabu-

lum. Uterus between ovary and acetabulum, consisting of few coils. Metra-

term elongated, to left of cirrus sac. Eggs about 78u by 55u, yellowish

brown.

Habitat.—Intestine of silver salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum).

Distribution.—Alsea River, Oregon, U.S. A.

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. nos. 48427 (type) and 43428

(paratypes). |

Remarks.—In addition to the type specimens from Oncorhynchus kisutch

there are several specimens in the Helminthological Collection of the Bureau

of Animal Industry from the cutthroat trout (Salmo clarkii Richardson)

and the steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneriz Richardson) that apppear to be

identical with the specimens on which the new species is based; these speci-

mens were also collected by Dr. Shaw from the same locality.

Podocotyle shawi differs from most of the other members of the genus in

that the vitellaria on each side extend in front of the acetabulum to the

level of the cecal fork. In a few species of the genus Podocotyle, namely,

P. atomon var. dispar Nicoll, 1919, P. lanceolata Price, 1934, and P. pennelli

Leiper and Atkinson, 1914, some few vitelline follicles, usually only on the

right side, are present in front of the acetabulum; however, in these three

species the cirrus sac is short in comparison with the elongated cirrus sac

of P. shaut.

Recent contributions to our knowledge of the genus Podoctyle are to be

found in papers by Price, 1934 (Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 91: 1-8); McFar-

land, 1936 (Journ. Biol. Board Canada 2: 335-347); and Park, 1937 (Journ.

Parasit. 23: 405-422). In the last-named paper a key to the species of the

genus Podocotyle is given.

382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

ENTOMOLOGY.—A key to the larval Bostrichidae in the United

States National Museum (Coleoptera)... Witi1am H. ANDERSON,

U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. (Communi-

cated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK.)

Twenty-one species are included in the accompanying key, which

deals only with full-grown or nearly full-grown larvae. Twenty of

the species are represented in the larval collection of the United

States National Museum. The only species treated of which no larvae

are contained in that collection is the cosmopolitan Rhizopertha do-

minica (F.), the distinguishing characters of which have been taken

from the valuable paper by Gardner.” Except for Dexicrates robustus

(Blanch.), all the species in the key occur in North America.

The family characters of larval Bostrichidae have been given in

detail by B6ving? and will not be repeated here. However, the scope

of the family is here extended to include the Psoidae of Boving and

Craighead.* The genera comprising this family, namely Stephano-

pachys, Rhizopertha, Dinoderus, Polycaon, and Psoa, were excluded

from the Bostrichidae by those authors because they possess strong

epipharyngeal sclerotization, a large pseudomolar process, and large

fleshy lacinia mandibulae. That these characters are hardly sufficient

for family separation was brought out by Gardner (1. c.), who showed

that the larval mandible of the Bostrichini has a small fleshy append-

age (lacinia mandibulae) and a small rodlike projection (pseudomola).

Furthermore, although in habitus the imagoes of the Psoinae are

somewhat divergent from those of the Bostrichinae, those of the

Dinoderinae must be considered convergent. And a study of the

larvae of Psoinae and Dinoderinae indicates the close relationship

between the subfamilies. In addition, the biologies of the Psoinae and

Dinoderinae are very similar to those of the Bostrichinae. It seems

best, therefore, to include the Psoidae of Boving and Craighead in

the Bostrichidae.

I agree with Gardner (I. ce.) and Lesne® in considering Dinoderus

and related genera (Dinoderinae) sufficiently distinct from the Psoi-

nae to be worthy of subfamily rank. In the Dinoderinae the anterior

1 Received March 22, 1939.

2 GARDNER, J. C. M. Immature stages of Indian Coleoptera (13) (Bostrychidae).

Indian Forest Rec., Ent. Ser. 18 (9): 1-19, 4 pls. 1988.

3 BOVING, Apam G. Taxonomy and morphology of the larval stages a Scobicia

declivis (Lec.). U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1107 (appendix): 49-56, pls. 1-2. 1922.

4 Bovine, ADAM G., and CraIGHEAD, F. C. An illustrated synopsis a oe prin-

cipal larval forms of the ‘order Coleoptera. Ent. Amer. 11 (n.s.): 1-341, 125 pls. 1931.

5 LESNE, PiprRE. Les coléoptéres bostrychides de lV Afrique Tropicale Francaise.

Paris, 288 pp., 210 figs. 1924.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 ANDERSON: KEY TO LARVAL BOSTRICHIDAE 389

Be:

S. RUGOSUS 2

S. SUBSTRIATUS / 3

D. minuTus

S. SUBSTRIATUS 4

R. DOMINICA ©

S. SUBSTRIATUS 8

D. MINUTUS

S. PACIFICUS

y S. SUBSTRIATUS

S. PACIFICUS

Figs. 1-11.—1, Stephanopachys substriatus (Payk.), lateral view (body setae

omitted). 2, S. rugosus (Oliv.), tibiotarsus and claw, left prothoracie leg (setae

omitted). 3, Dinoderus minutus (F.), tibiotarus and claw, left prothoracic leg (setae

- omitted). 4, Stephanopachys substriatus, tibiotarsus and claw, left prothoracic leg

(setae omitted). 5, Rhizopertha dominica (F.), right mandible, dorsal view (adapted

from Gardner, l. c., fig. 34). 6, Dinoderus minutus, left mandible, dorsal view. 7,

Stephanopachys substriatus, left mandible, dorsal view. 8, S. substriatus, spiracle from

third abdominal segment. 9, S. pacificus Csy., head, dorsolateral view (setae, for

the most part, omitted). 10, S. pacificus, left maxilla, ventral view. 11, S. substriatus,

left maxilla, ventral view. Except for Fig. 5, all drawings are by the author.

384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

abdominal terga have only two folds and the prothorax lacks a lateral

thickening, whereas in the Psoinae there are four tergal folds and the

prothorax possesses a lateral thickening.

There seem to be excellent reasons for maintaining the Lyctidae

as a distinct family, although Gardner (1. c.) and Lesne (. ¢.) have

treated them as a subfamily (Lyctinae) of the Bostrichidae. The

Lyctidae are undoubtedly closely related to the Bostrichidae, espe-

cially through the Dinoderinae and Psoinae, which resemble the

Lyctidae in the shape of the head, the structure of the mouth parts,

the development of the legs and their position at rest, and the en-

largement of the thorax. It is probable that the similarity of food and

of feeding habits is largely responsible for these resemblances. Other,

less adaptive characters show the two groups to be distinct.

An important difference is found in the lobes around the anal open-

ing. The tenth abdominal segment of the Bostrichidae, in front of the

anus, has a pair of adjacent lobes separated by a longitudinal groove.

In the Lyctidae, however, the tenth abdominal segment lacks the

longitudinal groove and folds in front of the anus, the anal opening

being surrounded by a transverse anterior and two lateral lobes.

A structure that probably has considerable significance is found in

the posterior portion of the intestine. It consists of a pair of slender,

apparently sclerotized rods, which lie in, or inseparably on, the wall

of the intestine. In the Bostrichidae they begin at the lateral margins

of the longitudinal groove in front of the anus and extend anteriorly

in spirals. The spirals run clockwise for two or three turns, then

reverse and run counterclockwise for one or two more turns. The rods

then unite and end blindly. In the Lyctidae these supporting rods

simply follow along the ventral wall of the intestine without winding

spirally, around it.

The eighth abdominal spiracle in the Lyctidae is comparatively

huge, whereas in the Bostrichidae it is not larger than other abdomi-

nal spiracles.

The pupae of the two families show little of significance, interpreted

by our present knowledge, which would separate them. There is a

difference in the habitus that is in agreement with the habital differ-

ence between the imagoes, the Lyctidae being usually more strongly

depressed and less compact.

There is a significant difference in the male genitalia of the two

families. In the Bostrichidae the axis of the aedeagus is parallel to

that of the body. The genitalia of the Lyctidae, on the other hand, are

somewhat asymmetrical in that the sclerotized parts are curved in

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 ANDERSON: KEY TO LARVAL BOSTRICHIDAE 385

P sTou7

P srouTi 12

14 15

P MACULATA P sTou7

P srouti 16 P MACULATA 17

le CETL) 18 H. conrertum JQ

RES NE jl az y,

SRA ZS

\ NZ

H, CONFERTUM

Figs. 12—21.—12, Polycaon stouts (Lec.), lateral view (body setae omitted). 13,

P. stout, right mandible, buccal view. 14, Psoa maculata (Lec.), tarsal claw, right

prothoracic leg. 15, Polycaon stoutt, tarsal claw, right prothoracic leg. 16, P. stowtz,

antenna. 17, Psoa maculata, antenna. 18, Heterarthron plicatum (Lec.), antenna.

19, H. confertum (Lec.), antenna. 20, H. confertum, right mandible, buccal view. 21,

Stephanopachys substriatus, epipharynx. All drawings by the author.

2 O S. SUBSTRIATUS

386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

such a manner that the posterior extremities of the lobes are not in

the midline of the body. Furthermore a distinct torsion of the aedea-

gus has taken place in the Lyctidae, probably as a result of the

curvation.

It seems advisable to discuss briefly a few of the structures used in

the key. Some of them have not been studied before in this family,

and one structure has, at times, been misinterpreted.

Arising from the ventral surface of the labral sclerite there is a pair

of stout sclerotized processes, the so-called ‘‘epipharyngeal rods.”’ They

extend vertroposteriorly through the pocketlike space between

labrum and epipharynx and become secondarily attached to the dor-

sal surface of the epipharyngeal membrane. On the ventroposterior

end of each rod, muscles are inserted which usually originate within

the head and are responsible for the principal movements of the

labrum.

Beneath the floor of the pharynx, immediately behind the buccal

cavity, there is a forwardly directed U-shaped sclerome (Fig. 48).

This has been termed the fulcrum. Extending posteriorly and some-

what dorsally along the walls of the pharynx from the arms of this

sclerome there is, in most species, a supplementary pair of rods

(Fig. 38). Muscles are attached to these rods® which assist in the tilt-

ing of the floor of the pharynx, and hence in opening or closing it.

The antenna consists of three articles except when the second and

third have fused. In the latter case the distal end of the second can

be located by the uniformly present, supplementary, conical, sensory

appendix. In addition to the three articles there is a rather prominent

basal membrane by which the antenna is connected to the head. By

some investigators of this and other families this membrane has been

considered as the basal article. An examination of the antennal mus-

cles shows this conception incorrect since, from their origin within

the head, the muscles can be traced to the base of the first article, and

are not inserted on the membranous ring. 7

The bostrichid larvae in the United States National Museum are

readily separable into the three subfamilies Dinoderinae, Psoinae,

and Bostrichinae. That these are natural groups is shown both by

larval characteristics and by the structure of the male genitalia.

6 It is, of course, impossible to consider these rods as being, as Pringle stated,

“upwardly directed into the mouth cavity.”” Prineun, J. A. Observations on certain

wood-boring Coleoptera occurring in South Africa. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London 87

(11): 247-270, 1 pl., 5 figs. 1988.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 ANDERSON: KEY TO LARVAL BOSTRICHIDAE 387

A. CORNUTUS

L. ARMIGER 2 if,

A. HAMATUS 24 KN

a L. ARMIGER 28

Ny’ ,

A. FORTIS 2 6 \ :

| eG

A. CORNUTUS 29 oe

L. BICORNIS 3O L. ARMIGER 3/

L. B/CORNIS

L. ARMIGER a

33 A. cone t 3 4

Figs. 22-34.—22, Apatides fortis (Lec.), left mandible, buccal view (BLG, dorsal

bulge). 23, Amphicerus cornutus (Pallas), left mandible, buccal view. 24, A. hamatus

(F.), antenna. 25, Lichenophanes bicornis (Web.), epipharyngeal rod, lateral view.

26, Apatides fortis, epipharyngeal rod, lateral view. 27, Lichenophanes armiger (Lec.),

epipharyngeal rod, lateral view. 28, L. armiger, antenna. 29, Amphicerus cornutus,

antenna. 30, Lichenophanes bicornis, outline of foramen. 31, L. armiger, outline of

foramen. 32, L. bicornis, antenna. 33, L. armiger, tibiotarsus and claw, left pro-

thoracic leg. 34, Amphicerus cornutus, tibiotarsus and claw, left prothoracic leg. All

drawings by the author.

388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 9

KEY TO SPECIES STUDIED

1. Abdominal segments 1 to 5 with two tergal folds (Fig. 1); labial palpus

with one article; prothorax without lateral thickening (Dinoderinae) .2

Abdominal segments 1 to 5 with three or four tergal folds (Fig. 12);

labial palpus with two articles; prothorax laterally with oblique rod-

like thickening or with oval raised area..:4...4.. 4.3 eee 6

Dinoderinae (couplets 2-8 inc.)

2. Head without subcutaneous pigment spots or ocelli; spiracles simple,

OVE 5 eee 8 cele ec BRO Sk eh 3

Head with pigment spots (usually 5) and an ocellus (Fig. 9); each spiracle

with a dorsaloval projection (Fig. 8)... ).. 2. ae 4

3. Mandible with three teeth; molar part granular (Fig. 5)..............

CL Nes An ean eB, Se. a RC ee Rhizopertha dominica (F.)

Mandible oblique, with one projecting tooth; molar part smooth (Fig. 6)

iin NMBA OM VU UNA te. 2,10. aa OEM ee Dinoderus minutus (F.)

4. Claw of prothoracic leg robust, subequal in length to width of tibiotarsus

(Hig. 2)’ + ventral pigment spot ot head largest. ).- ee

NE ie pe bseaiatare sae in ane eee ie 5 Gemieet Stephanopachys rugosus (Oliv.)

Claw of prothoracic leg slenderer, 14 to 14 times width of tibiotarsus

(Fig. 4); ventral pigment spot not larger than others (Fig. 9)...... 5

5. Stipes with numerous setae (Fig. 11). Stephanopachys substriatus (Payk.)

Stipes with few setae (Fig. 10).......... Stephanopachys pacificus Csy.

6. Mandible with large pseudomola and with large fleshy appendage (Fig.

13); epipharynx with large median sclerome (Fig. 21); maxillary

palpus with three articles (Psomae).......... 2. 52 eee 7

Mandible without large pseudomola, either with (Fig. 46) or without

(Fig. 44) a small rodlike projection; epipharynx without median

sclerome; maxillary palpus with two articles (Bostrichinae)....... 11

Psoinae (couplets 7-10 inc.)

7. Mandibular molar part with three transverse ridges (Fig. 20)........ 8

Molar part with one transverse ridge, (Fig. 13): | 555 eee 9

8. Prothoracic tarsal claw stout; clypeus lightly pigmented; antenna clearly

with three articles (Fig. 18)............ Heterarthron plicatum (Lec.)

Prothoracic tarsal claw slender; clypeus heavily pigmented; antenna

with second and third articles apparently fused (Fig. 19)...........

Pay ok Oc meiteen aus Vega aM ae rie ad Heterarthron® confertum (Lec.)

7 The tarsal claw of bostrichid larvae has been considered immovably united with

the tibiotarsus. In certain species (cf. Fig. 3) that have been investigated in this

study the full quota of muscles is present and extends from the claw into tibiotarsus

and femur. It seems logical, therefore, that the claw is independently movable.

® The use of Heterarthron in place of Polycaon for these two species seems justified,

since they are not congeneric with Polycaon stouti (Lec.). Lichenophanes bicornis (Web.)

has been used in place of Bostrichus bicornis (Web.) because bicornis appears congeneric

with L. armiger (Lec.). Lesne has expressed these same opinions in his recent catalogue:

Lesne P. Bostrychidae, in Coleopterorwm catalogus (W. Junk) 10 (161), 1988.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 ANDERSON: KEY TO LARVAL BOSTRICHIDAE 389

S. o€¢tivis

S. DECLIVIS

X. TEXANUS

By /

hh 0) A

OD. SERICANS D. SERICANS S. B/IDENTATA X. TEXANUS

La D. SERICANS o AQ

— ae

D. SERICANS 4 4 A. FORTIS

Figs. 35-46.—35, Dendrobiella sericans (Lec.), posterior half of mae 36,

Scobicia bidentata (Horn), posterior half of abdomen. 37, S. declivis (Lec.), fifth and

sixth abdominal terga. 38, S. declivis, pharyngeal fulcrum. 39, Xylobiops texanus

(Horn), posterior half of abdomen. 40, Dendrobiella sericans, pharyngeal fulcrum.

41, D. sericans, head capsule, ventral view. 42, Scobicia bidentata, head capsule,

ventral view. 43. Xylobtops texanus, pharyngeal fulcrum. 44. Dendrobiella sericans,

left mandible, dorsal view. 45, D. sericans, tip of abdomen, posterior view. 46,

A patides fortis, left mandible, dorsal view. All drawings by the author.

390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 9

9. First article of antenna robust, bearing many setae (Fig. 16); mentum

veryohaityes eu oul es Rs 10

First article of antenna normally developed, with but few setae (Fig. 17);

mentum sparsely setose; [prothoracic tarsal claw stout (Fig. 14)]....

aA ak avi eMac otis. SO can aie Ramee >, 3 NA Psoa maculata (Lec.)

10. Pigmentation on outer face of stipes long, extending about one-half

distance from cardo to base of palpiger; submentum bearing many

long, silky hairs. . Dexicrates robustus (Blanch.) (from South America)

Pigmentation on outer face of stipes not evident; submentum with fewer,

shorter hairs; [prothoracic tarsal claw slender (Fig. 15)]...........

ee.) MRR MMC OR. oS MMR ET A Ln Cece er Polycaon stouti (Lec.)

Bostrichinae (couplets 11—20 inc.) :

11. Maxillary mala with freely projecting stylet; mandible with small rod-

hke projection (Mig. 46) (Bostrichin)).... 22. ee 12

Maxillary mala without stylet; mandible without rodlike projection

(Fig. 44) (Xyloperthini) 2. 305.0... 6. eee 16

12. Terminal setae of prothoracic tibiotarsus subequal in length with claw

and forming a compact ‘“‘brush” (Fig. 34); epipharyngeal rod short

(Fig. 26); antenna with third article distinct, subequal in length to

first article (Fig. 24):...00...22..005... 0. ee 13

Terminal setae of prothoracic tibiotarsus stout, much shorter than claw

and not forming a “brush” (Fig. 33); epipharyngeal rod long (Fig.

25); antenna with third article shorter than first and apparently fused

with second ‘article (Fig.28) 9.5... 24. oe 15

13. Mandible with outer face dull and with dorsal bulge (Fig. 22, Bua.)

prominent, gently receding from plane of inner face...............

Sl A Mdnng Ui teiige neice Never Neen A RR 9. > Oa Apatides fortis (Lec.)

Mandible with outer face shiny and with dorsal bulge not prominent

(Fig. 23), sharply receding from plane of inner face. ....-.... 14

14. First article of antenna long, slightly less than one-third total length

of janpennan(higs 24) 0 ee 26 ee Amphicerus hamatus (F.)

First article of antenna short, about one-fifth total length of antenna

Gg DOE rear en, Mae hen reer a Amphicerus cornutus (Pallas)

15. Opening of foramen broad, lateral margins smoothly curved (Fig. 31)

Ra ear Moe, NAM eRe autumn ed Lichenophanes armiger (Lec.)

Opening of foramen narrow, lateral margins nearly straight (Fig. 30)

ESTO Me ata natM) | hs a. Dia | OR Lichenophanes bicornis (Web.)

16. Tarsal claw cleft; antenna shorter than maxillary palpus; mandible

Oblique spotted *. 6 ke ae eee oe SUR Dinapate wrightt Horn

Tarsal claw simple; antenna longer than maxillary palpus; mandible

gouge-shaped obo ss ee OR a, ee 7

17. Posterior extensions from pharyngeal fulerum not developed as pig-

mented rods (Fig. 43) 0. 2 aer Wh ae he dase ee eae er 18

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 CUSHMAN: NEW ICHNEUMON-FLIES 391

Posterior extensions from pharyngeal fulcrum developed as pigmented

TROIS) (LOTR BxeD) fr eeg qu lt AR 3) oo a5 MMM es Cr ey oO 19

18. Claws on second and third pairs of legs pigmented; scutum and scutel-

lum of sixth abdominal segment forming a conspicuous transverse

ren key (GBT BON Ve ee Rc cs a Xylobiops texanus (Horn)

Claws on second and third pairs of legs not pigmented; scutum and

scutellum of sixth abdominal segment not forming a conspicuous

TETICIARS 5 Soke a ere nibs oe a re Be Xylobiops basillaris (Say)

19. Sixth abdominal segment, dorsally, divided into two transverse areas

(Fig. 36); lateral margins of foramen straight, nearly parallel (Fig.

WA) Feaial 1ODESsOROMMMEMt. ver taen<:: eye <del oo eo ai a ee 20

Sixth abdominal segment, dorsally, divided into three transverse areas

(Fig. 35); lateral margins of foramen strongly curved (Fig. 41); anal

lobes less prominent (Fig. 45).......... Dendrobiella sericans (Lec.)

20. Scutum of sixth abdominal segment prominent (Fig. 36).............

ih et) akin ah eaten hm ie ws SRR Scobicia bidentata (Horn)

Scutum of sixth abdominal segment not prominent (Fig. 37).........

=o 5.0.9 tise Hictis Asan HaeMGls Or PRAM re gs ET Scobicia declivis (Lec.)

ENTOMOLOGY .—New ichneumon-flies parasitic on the hemlock

sawfly (Neodiprion tsugae Middleton). R. A. CusHmMan, U.S.

Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. (Communicated

by C. F. W. MuUESEBECK.)

Recent outbreaks of conifer-feeding sawflies of the genera Diprion

and Neodiprion, both introduced and native species, have greatly

increased the interest in and economic significance of the parasites of

such insects. This has resulted in the rearing of large numbers of the

parasites, many representing undescribed species, for which names

are desired for use in economic and biological papers.

This paper consists of the descriptions of eight new species parasitic

on the hemlock sawfly, Neodiprion tsugae Middleton, together with

a few taxonomic and nomenclatorial notes pertinent to the main

subject.

Genus Ischnus Gravenhorst

Ischnus Gravenhorst, Ichneumonologica Europaea 1: 638. 1829.—Viereck,

U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 83: 78. 1914.

_ Habrocryptus Thomson, Opuscula entomologica, fase. 5: 471, 498. 1873.—

Schmiedeknecht, Opuscula ichneumonologica, fase. 7: 502. 1904.

This is the Ischnus of the genotype, porrectorius (F.), not the phaeogenine

genus Ischnus of European works. To it should be referred the following

North American species:

1 Received May 20, 1939.

392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 9

Ischnus amblytelarius (Provancher), n. comb.

Cryptus amblytelarius Provancher, Additions et corrections au volume 11 de

la faune entomologique du Canada... p. 70. 1886.

Ischnus atricollaris (Walsh), n. comb.

Cryptus atricollaris Walsh, Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. 3: 72. 1873.

Ischnus polychrosidis (Cushman), n. comb.

Spilocryptus polychrosidis Cushman, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 53: 461. 1917.

Ischnus oregonensis, n. sp.

From the foregoing three species this species is easily distinguished by its

entirely impunctate abdomen and distinctly convex (in front view) cheeks.

Also the thorax never has any ferruginous color, alshoueks the propodeum is

rarely partly piceous.

Female.—Length 6-8 mm (holotype 8 mm).

Head mat; temples strongly receding, convex; frons with a narrow, shin-

ing, median groove, scrobes also shining; eyes slightly divergent below an-

tennae; clypeus strongly convex, small, shining; cheeks in front view convex;

malar space as long as basal width of mandible; antenna distinctly shorter

than body, 31-jointed, slender, filiform, first joint of flagellum nearly 6

times as long as thick, second only slightly shorter.

Thorax mat; pronotum mostly striato-rugulose; mesoscutum, scutellum,

and pleura minutely punctate, the scutum and pleura confluently so,

speculum polished; propodeum finely rugulose, dorsal face short, posterior

face nearly vertical, transverse carinae distinct, apical carina sometimes

obsolete medially but strong at angles; sides of areolet distinctly convergent

toward radius, but their upper ends rather widely separated.

Abdomen granularly mat, impunctate, only the petiole dorsally shining;

sheath of ovipositor about a half longer than first segment.

Black, with abdomen and legs ferruginous, front coxa and sometimes

others more or less piceous, hind tibia (except base) and tarsus fuscous;

anterior orbit and short streaks behind and above eye and a triangular spot

in malar space whitish; labrum whitish; clypeus and mandibles piceous;

palpi and flagellum fuscous; collar and usually a narrow humeral margin of

pronotum whitish; tegulae brown; propodeum sometimes more or less red-

dish posteriorly (in holotype there is a streak of this color along median

portion of apical carina); wings subhyaline, venation black.

Male.—Length 6-7 mm.

Much slenderer than female, with propodeum more evenly rounded and

less precipitous and with weak carinae; genital sheath abruptly very slender

apically. Head and thorax copiously white-marked, this color including

face, clypeus, mandibles, palpi, malar space, broad orbital ring (interrupted

only behind top of eye), underside of scape, ventral portion of propleuron,

broad collar and humeral margin of pronotum, median spot on mesoscutum,

scutellum, tegula, subalar tubercle, spots on lower mesopleuron, meta-

pleuron and center of propodeum, front and middle coxae and trochanters,

and a spot dorsally on hind coxa; hind coxa and basal joint of trochanter

piceous; wings hyaline; petiole and apex of abdomen black.

Host.—Neodiprion tsugae Middleton.

Type locality—Sweet Home, Oreg.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 CUSHMAN: NEW ICHNEUMON-FLIES 393

Holotype, allotype, and paratypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 53343.

Paratypes.—Canadian National Collection; California Academy of Sci-

ences.

Thirteen females and 18 males (including holotype female and allotype

male, a mated pair), all reared at the type locality from Neodiprion tsugae

under N. E. For. Ins. Lab. no. 51.201, during June and October; 22 and

50 reared from type host at type locality under Hopk. U.S. nos. 31607-S,

31660-F, and 18875-F, during May, August, and September; 12 and 1d,

West Yellowstone, Mont., from sawfly on lodge-pole pine, Hopk. U. S.

nos. 18088-F, Aug. 13, 1926 ( 9 ), 18088-E, 1925 (co); and 1%, West Yellow-

stone, Mont., Hopk. U.S. no. 17248-B, April 9, 1925.

Spilocryptus neodiprionis, n. sp.

From Spilocryptus lophyri (Norton), which is also parasitic on species of

the genus Neodiprion, this species can be distinguished at once, in the female,

by the entire lack of yellow markings on the head and thorax, and in the

male by the black face and orbits, only the clypeus and mandibles being

white, whereas in lophyri the orbits, and in the male, usually the middle of

the face, are white-marked.

Female.—Length 5.5-8 mm (holotype 8 mm).

Head mat, face densely and postvertex more sparsely punctate, frons

medially rugulose, lower cheeks polished; temples very strongly receding,

weakly convex; clypeus strongly convex, shining; malar space about as

long as basal width of mandible; antenna three-fourths as long as body,

26- to 27-jointed, slender, filiform, first joint of flagellum six times as long

as thick at apex, subapical joints definitely longer than thick.

Thorax dorsally shining, mesothorax densely and finely punctate and scu-

tellum sparsely so; pronotum mostly striate; mesopleuron and metapleuron

finely rugulose, mat; sternum shining, finely punctate; propodeum more

coarsely rugulose than pleura; apical carina rather prominent laterally,

broadly interrupted medially; sides of areolet slightly convergent, recurrent

at or slightly beyond middle of areolet.

Abdomen very minutely coriaceous, with minute scattered punctures on

basal tergites and with rather dense and very fine appressed silvery pubes-

cence; first tergite impunctate and glabrous dorsally, the petiole polished;

sheath of ovipositor barely longer than first segment.

Black, with basal three abdominal segments and legs ferruginous; a

median spot on tergite 7 and usually an incomplete annulus centering on

flagellar joints 7-8 white; antenna reddish fuscous, scape redder; tegulae

piceous; hind femur apically and tibia dorsally blackish; wings subhyaline,

venation black.

Male.—Length 5.5-7 mm.

More slender than female and with propodeum more evenly rounded be-

cause of much weaker apical carina; clypeus, mandibles, palpi, and tegulae

whitish; antenna without trace of annulus; legs paler, especially front and

middle coxae and trochanters and joints 2—4 of hind tarsus, the tarsus other-

wise darker than in female; tergites 4 and 5 also ferruginous, some or all of

the red tergites frequently more or less spotted or banded at base with black;

tergite 7 without white spot.

Host.—Neodiprion tsugae Middleton.

394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

Type locality —Sweet Home, Oreg.

Holotype, allotype, and paratypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 53344.

Paratypes.—Canadian National Collection; California Academy of Sci-

ences.

Described from 27 females and 29 males all reared from the host in April,

May, June, and October 1936, under N. E. For. Ins. Lab. no. 51.201.

Included are five mated pairs, identified by the added number 36.2, of which

the holotype female and allotype male are one pair.

Unlike most species of the genus, this lacks the conspicuous white annulus

at the base of the hind tibia.

Aptesis (Pezoporus) tsugae, n. sp.

Unusual in the form of the areolet, which is nearly parallel-sided.

Female.—Length 5—8.5 mm (holotype 8.5 mm).

Head narrower than thorax, finely coriaceous, somewhat shining; temples

convex, receding; vertex and frons medially grooved; scrobes shallow, sub-

polished; eyes divergent below, antennae not far above inferior tangent of

eyes; face with a small, round, median elevation; clypeus small, strongly con-

vex, apically truncate; malar space as long as basal width of mandible; an-

tenna about two-thirds as long as body, stout filiform, 25- to 27-jointed,

first joint of flagellum slightly shorter than second and about two and a

half times as long as thick.

Thorax stout; pronotum mat, finely striato-coriaceous; mesoscutum shin-

ing and faintly punctate laterally, densely and finely punctate medially,

notaulices fine and distinct anteriorly; scutellum polished, sparsely punctate;

mesopleuron shining, indefinitely coriaceous and sparsely and weakly punc-

tate, fovea very deep; sternum shining and sparsely punctate; metapleuron

mat, finely coriaceous; propodeum short dorsally, precipitous and concave

posteriorly, basal area and areola confluent, basal carina obsolete, apical

strong, basal lateral and petiolar areas coriaceous, surface elsewhere rugu-

lose; legs moderately stout; areolet nearly parallel-sided, second intercubitus

mostly bullate, second recurrent slightly before middle of areolet; nervulus

slightly postfurcal, postnervulus broken nearly at middle; nervellus broken

near bottom and strongly inclivous.

Abdomen broad, coriaceous, mat; sheath of ovipositor about as long as

first segment.

Black; inner orbits, a more or less definite incomplete annulus on flagellar

joints 7-9, tegulae, wing radices, and a more or less distinct line on humeral

margin of pronotum white or whitish; face medially, and clypeus and

mandibles more or less, reddish; antenna apically and ventrally reddish;

thorax black, sometimes piceous or ferruginous laterally and ventrally; legs

ferruginous; wings hyaline, venation blackish; abdomen normally black,

with reddish tinge, especially at apices of tergites, but frequently more

definitely reddish especially on tergites 1-3.

Male.—Length 5.5-7 mm (allotype 6.5 mm).

Much more slender than female, with antenna tapering and nearly as

long as body, joint 1 of flagellum distinctly longer than 2 and three times as

long as thick; malar space much shorter than basal width of mandible;

eyes parallel; antenna not far below middle of eye; propodeum longer above

and shorter behind, with petiolar area more sloping and more weakly

concave.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 CUSHMAN: NEW ICHNEUMON-FLIES 395

Color as in female, but with less tendency to red on thorax and abdomen;

antennae entirely black; white markings more extensive, including face,

clypeus, mandibles, palpi, and front and middle coxae and trochanters;

hind coxa and trochanter piceous, apically whitish; hind tibia apically and

tarsus blackish.

Host.—Neodiprion tsugae Middleton.

Type locality —Sweet Home, Oreg.

Holotype, allotype, and paratypes —U.S.N.M. no. 53345.

Paratypes——Canadian National Collection; California Academy of Sci-

ences.

Thirty-six females and 33 males, all from the type locality and all reared

from Neodiprion tsugae, 30 females and 31 males under N. E. For. Ins. Lab.

no. 51.201. Included in this series are five mated pairs, of which the holo-

type female and allotype male are one pair. The other 6 females and 2

males were reared under Hopk. U. S. nos. 31607—204, 31660-V, 31660-Q,

and 31675-V.

Genus Thysiotorus Foerster

In his Type species of the genera of ichneumon flies? Viereck designated, as

the type of Thysiotorus Foerster, Hemiteles (Physiotorus) brevipennis

Brischke, assuming Brischke’s spelling of the subgeneric name to be a

typographical error.

The genus was originally characterized only by the few characters leading

to it in Foerster’s key to his family Phygadeuontoidae, and no species was

assigned to it. The first couplet in the key definitely excludes Brischke’s

two species from Thysiotorus, for they are described as having the wings

short, and quite obviously would run not to Thysiotorus but to Phyrtus,

and one wonders if the name Physzotorus was not a lapsus for Phyrtus on

the part of Brischke rather than a printer’s error in the spelling of Thys7-

otorus. In any event, it is obvious that neither of the two species referred to

Physiotorus by Brischke can properly serve as genotype of T’hyszotorus.

The next inclusion of a species in Thysiotorus was by Viereck,? who re-

ferred Mesoleptus? peregrinus Cresson to the genus. I have already shown+

that this species can not be accepted as the genotype, since it disagrees

with the original description of the genus.

In Foerster’s key Thysiotorus is grouped with Panargyrops and Apsilops

(as though their author considered them related) on three characters: Long,

slender, basal joints of flagellum, silky-haired face, and long deep notaulices.

By these same three characters with others, Thomson characterized his

genus Leptocryptus,> including in it claviger Taschenberg, properly desig-

nated by Viereck as genotype of Panargyrops and of the synonymous

2U.8S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 83: 145. 1914.

3 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 42: 645. 1912.

4 Ibid. 58: 258, 260. 1920.

5 Opuscula entomologica, fasc. 10: 963-966. 1884.

396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29; No. 9

Leptocryptus. Also included in Leptocryptus is L. lamina Thomson, which

agrees perfectly with the published description and also with Foerster’s

detailed unpublished description of Thysiotorus. I have already‘ referred

lamina Thomson and smitht Cushman doubtfully and Mesoleptus triangu-

laris Cresson positively® to Thyszotorus, and I am now convinced that they

are properly to be referred to the genus. Viereck’ apparently had no such

doubt with regard to smithi, for he definitely referred it to Thysiotorus,

thereby making it the first species properly so referred.

The following alterations to Viereck’s genotype catalogue are therefore

proposed :

Phystotorus Brischke (not Thysiotorus Foerster).

Schrift. Naturf. Ges. Danzig 7 (N.F.): 71. 1891. Two species.

Type.—Hemiteles (Physiotorus) brevipennis Brischke (by designation of

Viereck, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 83: 116. 1914). .

Thysiotorus (Foerster) Viereck.

Verh. Naturh. Ver. Preuss. Rheinlande 25: 81. 1868. No species.

Can. Ent. 57: 77. 1925. One species.

Type.—(Thysiotorus ? smitht Cushman) = (Mesoleptus) Thysiotorus tri-

angularis (Cresson), new synonymy. By present designation; Hemz-

teles (Physiotorus) brevipennis Brischke (by designation of Viereck,

U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 83: 145. 1914) does not agree with original

description and is therefore not available as genotype.

The above entries should replace the earlier emendations to the type

catalogue proposed by me? under the headings ‘‘Thysiotorus Brischke, not

Foerster’ and ‘“‘Thysiotorus Foerster.”

The following is a free translation of Foerster’s manuscript description:

TuHysioTorus Foerster

Clypeus weakly separated from face, flat, rounded at apex and trans-

versely impressed, without apical denticles, but slightly projecting medially;

face and clypeus covered with long silky hair; clypeal foveae and malar

space with much denser hairs, these hairs curved—not long, straight, and

weak as those on the face and clypeus; teeth of mandible of equal length;

first joint of flagellum longer than second; mesoscutum with notaulices deep

and complete; propodeum with long hair, completely areolated; first ab-

dominal segment slender, little broadened toward apex, fringed laterally

by long erect hair, spiracles slightly behind middle; second segment with

thyridia far from base, spiracles behind middle; nervellus not broken; sec-

ond discoidal cell a little or distinctly broader at base than the brachial cell

at apex; discocubitus broken; hind calcaria less than one-third as long as

basitarsus; fifth tarsal joint somewhat shorter than third.

Following the description in Foerster’s manuscript is a key to nine manu-

script species.

Thysiotorus latifrons, n. sp.

Similar to triangularis (Cresson), but with smaller eyes, broader face,

longer malar space, more shining propodeum, and open areolet.

6 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 74 (16): 58. 1927.

7 Can. Ent. 57: 77. 1925.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 CUSHMAN: NEW ICHNEUMON-FLIES 397

Female.—Length 5.5 mm, antenna 4 mm.

Head with dense silvery pubescence, longest on face and sides of frons;

combined face and clypeus as broad as long; eyes very slightly convergent;

clypeus convex, transversely impressed before the bidenticulate apex, foveae

covered by tufts of long curved hairs; malar space two-thirds as long as

basal width of mandible; temple convex, strongly receding, two-thirds as

long (in dorsal view) as short diameter of eye; diameter of lateral ocellus

longer than postocellar line and nearly as long as ocellocular line; antenna

26-jointed.

Thorax shining, with long silvery pubescence; pronotum laterally largely

polished and glabrous, as is also a large area on mesopleuron embracing

speculum and a deep, oblique impression; propodeum shining, especially

medially, where it is virtually hairless, apical carina nearly at middle of

dorsal length, areola large with costulae far before middle; areolet open at

apex, the second intercubitus barely indicated.

Abdomen elongate fusiform, widest at apex of third segment; first tergite

scarcely twice as broad at apex as at base, spiracles barely behind middle,

postpetiole laterally striate; tergites 2 and 3 longitudinally striate, polished

apically, polished areas longer medially; other tergites, except finely punc-

tate base of 4, unsculptured; ovipositor sheath about as long as first segment.

Black; mandibles reddish; palpi, scape below, front and middle legs,

tegulae, and small humeral angles of pronotum stramineous to whitish;

tergites pale reddish stramineous apically, 2 to 4 triangularly so; front tarsus

apically and middle tarsus except base black; hind coxa, trochanter, and

femur brownish ferruginous to piceous, coxa and trochanter stramineous

below; hind tibia fuscous, paler below; tarsus black, calcaria pale; wings

hyaline, venation blackish, stigma pale at base.

Male.—More slender than female but otherwise very similar structurally;

hind coxa and trochanter stramineous, hind femur somewhat paler; pale

markings of abdomen larger, those of tergites 2-4 sometimes extending to

base medially.

Host.—Neodiprion tsugae Middleton (probably secondary).

Type locality—Sweet Home, Oreg.

Holotype, allotype, and paratypes —U.S.N.M. no. 53346. :

Paratypes.—Canadian National Collection; California Academy of Sci-

ences.

Described from 50 females (including holotype) and 16 males (including

allotype), all reared from cocoons of Neodiprion tsugae Middleton, undoubt-

edly as secondary parasites, partly at the type locality by R. L. Furniss,

under Hopk. U. 8S. no. 31600G, and partly at the Northeastern Forest

Insect Laboratory, New Haven, Conn., under no. 51—201-35, from cocoons

of N. tsugae received from Sweet Home, Oreg.

Panargyrops areolaris, n. sp.

Closely related to izbialics Cushman, but generally stouter, with post-

petiole nearly or quite twice as broad as petiole and second tergite much

less than three times as long as basal width; clypeus nearly or quite as long

as face is medially; propodeal areola very large, broader than long, with

sides parallel; and ovipositor distinctly less than three-fourths as long as

abdomen.

398. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29;-No. 9

Female.—Length 6-8 mm (holotype 8 mm).

Head thick, occiput shallowly concave; temples hardly receding; diameter

of lateral ocellus as long as postocellar line and half as long as ocellocular

line; eyes parallel; face twice as broad as long, hardly longer medially than

clypeus; malar space more than half as long as basal width of mandible;

clypeal denticles distinct and rather widely separated; eyes somewhat

bulging; antenna as long as abdomen, 29-jointed in holotype.

Thorax rather stout, much less than twice as long as deep, polished, very

faintly punctate; pronotum not striate below, epomia distinct nearly to

ventral angle; mesoscutum nearly circular, as broad as long; propodeal

areola very large, slightly broader than long.

Abdomen slender, minutely punctate; postpetiole nearly twice as ical

at apex as petiole, medially channeled; second tergite less than three times

as long as basal width, third about as long as broad; ovipositor sheath little

more than half as long as abdomen.

Black; pubescence with silvery reflection; scape below, mandibles, palpi,

tegulae, and radices of wings white; humeral angle of pronotum pale red-

dish; legs reddish testaceous to ferruginous, hind leg darkest, front coxa and

front and middle trochanters whitish, hind tibia mostly fuscous, its tarsus

black, calcaria pale; abdomen with apical tergites very narrowly pale mar-

gined, venter whitish with piceous sternites.

Male.—Differs remarkably from female in both structure and color; eyes

distinctly convergent below; face two-thirds as long as broad; malar space

very short; abdomen very slender, postpetiole only a little broader than

petiole, tergite 2 fully three times as long as basal width, its sides weakly

divergent; tergite 3 much longer than broad; hind coxa and trochanter

ventrally whitish; abdomen with a median pattern of reddish involving apex

of tergite 1, apex or entire length of tergite 2, and entire lengths of 3 and 4,

and broadening at apices of tergites 2—4 to embrace nearly or quite the entire

width of the tergites, tergites 3-4 sometimes entirely reddish.

Host.—Neodiprion tsugae Middleton (probably secondary).

Type locality. Sweet Home, Oreg.

Holotype, allotype, and paratypes.—U.S.N.M. No. 53347,

Paratypes.—Canadian National Collection; California Academy of Sci-

ences.

Twenty-four females and 7 males, two of the females reared at the type

locality by R. L. Furniss, September 16-17, 1935, under Hopk. no. 31660Q;

the rest, including the holotype female and allotype male, reared from host

cocoons from the same locality, at the Northeastern Forest Insect Labora-

tory, under no. 51—201-36-2 in Oct. 1936 and May and June 1937.

The antigeny in this species is very unusual—so far as the observation of

the author goes, unique—for the genus. Also unusual is the frequent lack,

especially in the male, of the second intercubital vein, resulting in an open

areolet.

Delomerista diprionis, n. sp.

A stouter species than novita (Cresson), with the thorax nearly two-thirds

as deep as long, the propodeal areola fully as broad as long, and the abdo-

men broader, with the second tergite not longer than its basal width. In

novita the thorax is nearly twice as long as deep, the areola longer than broad,

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 CUSHMAN: NEW ICHNEUMON-FLIES | 399

and the second tergite longer than the basal width. In diprionis the ovi-

positor sheath is hardly half as long as the abdomen and the apex of the ovi-

positor is very bluntly pointed, whereas in novita the sheath is distinctly

more than half as long as the abdomen and the ovipositor is acute at the

apex.

Female.—(Holotype) Length 10 mm, antenna 8 mm, ovipositor sheath

o mm.

Head polished, sparsely and weakly punctate, except on face, which is

coarsely punctate and mat, in dorsal view with temples convexly receding,

about two-thirds as long as short diameter of eye; face medially strongly

convex; clypeus about twice as broad as medially long; malar space nearly

half as long as basal width of mandible.

Thorax stout, nearly two-thirds as deep as long, polished, sparsely and

minutely punctate; propodeum short, posterior face longer than dorsal face,

basal lateral areas and areola polished and at most sparsely punctate,

posterior face finely coriaceous and mat, other areas more coarsely punctate.

Legs stout, hind coxa a little longer than deep, femur about four times as

long as deep, tibia distinctly shorter than combined lengths of femur and

trochanter.

Abdomen minutely ruguloso-coriaceous, mat, first tergite more roughly

sculptured; broad, second tergite as broad at base as long; ovipositor sheath

barely half as long as abdomen; ovipositor in profile bluntly pointed.

Color, as in novita, black, with mandibles, malar space, palpi, humeral

angle of pronotum, tegulae, radices of wings, and membranous margins

of tergites 5-7 whitish; clypeus and occasionally facial orbits piceous; legs

ferruginous; apex of front coxa, trochanter and femur anteriorly and

apically, middle trochanter and femur apically, front and middle tibiae,

except a basally incomplete piceous streak on the extensor surface of each,

hind tibia at base and usually more or less below, and a narrow basal

annulus on basitarsus whitish; front coxa piceous; front and middle tarsi

fuscous; hind femur at apex, and hind tibia and tarsus except white mark-

ings, black; wings hyaline, venation black, stigma with a small white spot.

at base; apex of ovipositor sheath reddish.

Male.—Except for smaller size, more slender build, and shorter malar

space, differs from female largely in greater extent of white, this including

face, underside of scape, clypeus, entire front and middle coxae and tro-

chanters and hind trochanter, and front and middle femora except

posteriorly.

Host.—Various species of Diprion and Neodiprion.

Type locality —Oakville, Ontario.

Holotype, allotype, and paratypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 19180.

Paratypes—Canadian National Collection; Boston Society of Natural

History; Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station; Entomological

Laboratory, Maine Forest Service, Augusta, Maine; California Academy of

Sciences.

Described from 38 females and 27 males selected from several series reared

from various species of the sawfly genera Diprion and Neodiprion and a

few collected specimens as follows: 9@ and 407, Oakville, Ontario, reared,

evidently indoors, January 1-19, 1934, from Diprion simile (Hartig), in-

cluding holotype and allotype: 32 and 6c, New Haven, Conn., reared

400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29;-No. 9

April 29-May 21 from D. simile by M. P. Zappe; 19, Dublin, N. H.,

reared (indoors) January 15, 1938, from D. polytonum (Hartig) under N. E.

Forest Insect Laboratory no. 11.203-37—22; 59 and 10c’, Sweet Home,

Oreg., under N. E. For. Ins. Lab. no. 51-201, April 14-June 21, 1936, from

Neodiprion tsugae Middleton; 42 and 30, Sweet Home, Oreg., June 29-

July 19, 1935, also from Neodiprion tsugae Middleton, under Hopk. no.

31607 P; 22 and 1c from the same host, Queen Charlotte Island, British

Columbia, April 6, 1931, and March 21 and April 26, 1932, G. R. Hopping;

82 and 2’, Lincoln, Maine, May 26—June 5, 1932, from Neodiprion sp. on

Pinus rigida and Pinus resinosa; 19, Mont. Laurier, Quebec, December 6,

1929, Neodiprion sp. on Pinus banksiana, M. Dunn; 12, Pictured Rocks,

Munising, Mich., August 2, 1936, C. W. Sabrosky; 32, Cranmoor, Wis.,

June 25, 1910, C. W. Hooker; 12, Pullman, Wash., August 11, 1896, C. V.

Piper; 1c’, Moscow, Idaho, May 30, 1912, J. M. Aldrich.

There is considerable variation in size, partly associated with size of the

host, specimens from Diprion simile averaging largest and those from

Neodiprion tsugae smallest, females ranging in length from 5 to 11 mm,

and males from 6 to 10 mm. The comparative width of the abdomen, espe-

cially in the female, and the strength of the propodeal carinae also exhibit

considerable variation.

Genus Lamachus Foerster

To this genus are here assigned those species, otherwise very close to

Mesoleius both morphologically and biologically, that possess the alar

areolet and have the clypeus without a median elevation, but nearly flat,

at most shallowly emarginate apically and with a narrow reflexed margin.

All the species here treated differ from the genotype, lophyrorum (Hartig),

by having the speculum more or less polished. Like the genotype, all are

parasitic in larvae of sawflies of the subfamily Diprioninae.

The following North American species are referable to the genus as here

limited:

Lamachus lophyri (Ashmead), n. comb.

Neoeryma lophyri Ashmead, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 4: 169. 1897.

Lamachus virginianus (Rohwer), n. comb.

Lagarotis virginianus Rohwer, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 49: 218. 1915.

Lamachus ruficornis (Cushman), n. comb.

Labrossyta ruficoxalis Cushman, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 21: 118. 1919.

Lamachus contortionis Davis

Lamachus ? contortionis Davis, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 24: 284. 1897.

Lagarotis dipriont Rohwer, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 49: 215. 1915. New

synonymy.

SEPTEMBER 15, 19389 CUSHMAN: NEW ICHNEUMON-FLIES 401

Lamachus tsugae, n. sp.

A black species with unusually few and small pale markings.

Female.—Length (holotype) 6 mm, antenna 5.5 mm.

Head mat, alutaceous, only temples shining; temples strongly convex;

postocellar line little longer than ocellocular line and hardly a half longer

than diameter of an ocellus; face sparsely and finely punctate, nearly as

- broad as eye is long; eyes parallel, very faintly emarginate opposite an-

tennae; clypeus fully half as long as interfoveal line; malar space much less

than half as long as basal width of mandible; antenna 35-jointed.

Thorax stout, hardly a half longer than deep, finely alutaceous and

sparsely punctate laterally and ventrally, subpolished and sparsely punctate

dorsally, speculum polished; notaulices shallow but distinct to a flattened

area on disk of mesoscutum; propodeum finely alutaceous, shining basally,

mat apically, with faintly indicated lateral carinae, but without median and

apical carinae; legs rather slender, hind femur nearly six times as long as

deep.

Abdomen stout, tergite 1 distinctly broader at apex than distance from

spiracle to apex and more than half as broad basally as apically, tergite 2

broader at base than long; abdomen alutaceous, mat, impunctate, compressed

at apex.

Black, with the following markings yellow: Triangular spots in lower

facial orbits and occasionally more or less of middle area of face, clypeus,

cheeks narrowly, mouthparts, collar narrowly and more or less of lower

anterior margin and humeral angle of pronotum, sometimes small spots at

origins of notaulices, usually very narrow margins of tergites, and ventral

plica; antenna black, faintly reddish below; scutellum and postscutellum

sometimes piceous and rarely yellowish medially; legs ferruginous, front and

middle coxae and trochanters usually more or less stramineous anteriorly,

hind knee, apical third or more of tibia, and entire tarsus black, tibia basally

white; wings hyaline, venation black, stigma slightly paler.

Male.—More slender than female but otherwise very similar structurally ;

face yellow for its entire width and nearly up to antennal foramina, upper

margin of yellow made uneven by three points of black extending into it

from above; prepectus medially yellow and sometimes one or more streaks

of yellow extend backward from it on sternum and lower part of pleurum.

Host.—Neodiprion tsugae Middleton.

Type locality —Sweet Home, Oreg.

Holotype, allotype, and paratypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 53348.

Paratypes—Canadian National Collection; California Academy of Sci-

ences.

Described from 19 females and 7 males, all from cocoons of the host col-

lected by R. L. Furniss at the type locality but mostly reared at the North-

eastern Forest Insect Laboratory under no. 51.201.36.2. A few were reared

by the collector under Hopkins U. S. no. 31607T.

Lamachus oregon, n. sp.

Similar to ruficozalis (Cushman), but with entire face, broad frontal

orbits, mesosternum largely, and front and middle coxae and trochanters

yellow.

Female.—Length 7.0 mm, antennae (broken).

402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 9

Head alutaceous, mat, temples somewhat shining, moderately convex and

receding; postocellar line and diameter of an ocellus equal, slightly shorter

than ocellocular line; face medially sparsely punctate, hardly as broad as

eye is long; eyes parallel, faintly emarginate; clypeus half as long as inter-

foveal line; malar space nearly half as long as basal width of mandible.

Thorax hardly a half longer than deep, finely alutaceous and weakly shining

laterally, polished dorsally, speculum polished, mesoscutum very finely,

pleura more coarsely, punctate; notaulices faint; propodeum finely, granu-

larly mat medially and apically, basal lateral areas somewhat shining and

shallowly punctate; only lateral carinae distinct; legs moderately stout,

hind femur less than six times as long as deep.

Abdomen rather slender; first tergite less than half as broad basally as

apically and hardly broader at apex than distance from spiracles to apex,

with a median sulcus on postpetiole flanked by prominent, posteriorly di-

vergent ridges; tergite 2 hardly as broad at base as long; abdomen alutaceous

and almost mat, impunctate, compressed apically.

Head and thorax black and yellow, abdomen and legs largely ferruginous;

yellow are the face, broad frontal orbits, cheeks and malar space, clypeus,

mandibles, palpi, underside of- scape and pedicel, anterior margin and

humeral angles of pronotum, large cuneiform spots on mesoscutum, scutel-

lum largely, postscutellum, tegulae, subalar tubercles, posterior margin of

prepectus, mesosternum largely, mesometapleural suture, front and middle

coxae and trochanters and the extensor surfaces of their tibiae, basal half

of hind tibia, and ventral plica including hypopygium; tergite 1 black, with

broad apical margin extending laterally to include spiracles ferruginous,

median carinae near base yellowish; apical half of hind tibia and its tarsus

black; flagellum black above, reddish below; wings hyaline, venation black.

Male.—Similar to female, but malar space shorter, postocellar line longer

than ocellocular line or than diameter of ocellus, the latter two equal, ab-

domen more slender; yellow markings, especially on thorax, more extensive,

with pronotum largely, mesosternum, prepectus and lower half or more of

mesopleuron, metapleuron largely, and sometimes part of pleural area of

propodeum yellow; mesoscutal markings frequently extending backward

along notaulices and meeting on disk; black of thorax and abdomen fre-

quently more or less, and sometimes entirely, replaced by ferruginous. An-

tenna with 35-36 joints.

Host.—Neodtiprion tsugae Middleton.

Type locality—Sweet Home, Oreg.

Holotype, allotype, and paratypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 53349.

Paratypes——Canadian National Collection; California Academy of Sci-

ences.

One female and 16 males, all reared at the Northeastern Forest Insect

Laboratory from cocoons of the host collected at the type locality, under

nos. 51.201.36.2 (June 14, 1937) and 51.201.35 (June 17, 1986). The holo-

type female and allotype male are selected from the first-mentioned series.

The males vary greatly in color, as stated above, and from 4 to 8 mm in

length.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 403

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

NEW MEMBERS ELECTED

- The following were recently elected to active resident membership in the

Academy:

Harry G. BarBeEr, associate entomologist, U. S. Bureau of Entomology

and Plant Quarantine, in recognition of his work on the taxonomy and

biology of the Hemiptera.

LutHeER A. Buack, professor of bacteriology, University of Maryland, in

recognition of his researches in dairy and food bacteriology, especially the

physiology of bacteria and thermophilic bacteria.

JUAN BREWER DEMAREE, senior pathologist, U. 8. Bureau of Plant In-

dustry, in recognition of his contributions on the diseases of nut trees and

small fruits. |

Witiiam W. DIEHL, associate mycologist, U. S. Bureau of Plant Indus-

try, in recognition of his work on the taxonomy of fungi, particularly the

Ascomycetes. )

ApDOLPH EICHHORN, superintendent in charge, Animal Disease Station,

U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry, Beltsville, Md., in recognition of his con-

tributions to veterinary science and comparative pathology.

CHESTER W. Emmons, senior mycologist, National Institute of Health,

in recognition of his contributions to systematic mycology and in particular

his researches on fungi pathogenic to man.

Ira N. GaBRIELSON, chief, U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey, in recogni-

tion of his accomplishments in biological research, especially his work on the

distribution and economic importance of birds and rodents.

ANNA EK. JENKINS, associate mycologist, U. 8. Bureau of Plant Industry,

in recognition of her contributions to taxonomic mycology and in particular

her researches on the orders Myriangiales and Exoascales.

Epmunp B. LAMBERT, pathologist, U. 8. Bureau of Plant Industry, in

recognition of his work on the culture and diseases of mushrooms.

Hans LINEWEAVER, chemist, U.S. Bureau of Agricultural Chemistry and

Engineering, in recognition of his work in biochemistry.

JoHN H. MartTIN, senior agronomist, U. 8. Bureau of Plant Industry, in

recognition of his investigations in the genetics of sorghum.

JOHN B. MurRTIE, JR., senior geologist, U. 8. Geological Survey, in recog-

nition of his work on the geology of Alaska.

Mark L. Nicwots, acting chief, Division of Research, U. 8. Soil Conser-

vation Service, in recognition of his researches in soil physics relating to till-

age machinery and his contributions to improved soil conservation practice.

Dorotuy Nickerson, color technologist, U. S. Bureau of Agricultural

Economics, in recognition of her contributions to optics, particularly to the

colorimetric grading of agricultural products.

FRaNcISs WILTON REICHELDERFER, chief, U.S. Weather Bureau, in recog-

nition of his work on the development of aeronautical meteorology and air

mass analysis.

JOHN A. SCHERRER, chemist, National Bureau of Standards, in recogni-

tion of his work on the development of methods in the chemical analysis of

nonferrous materials.

404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29 NO. 9

JOSEPH F’. SiumR, director, Army Medical School, in recognition of his

achievements in the fields of sanitation and hygiene, and particularly for his

work on the transmission of dengue fever and the prevention of typhoid

fever.

Maurice I. SmitTH, principal pharmacologist, National Institute of

Health, in recognition of his researches in drug and vitamin standardization,

particularly his contributions on the pharmacology of phenol esters and the

toxicology of selenium.

EARLE QO. WHITTIER, senior chemist, U. 8. Bureau of Dairy Industry, in

recognition of his researches on the chemistry of milk, particularly its buffer

action.

The following were recently elected to active nonresident membership in

the Academy:

WaLTER J. Youna, head of the Department of Psychology and Philoso-

phy, Mary Washington College, Fredericksburg, Va., in recognition of his

researches in psychology, philosophy, and education.

The following were recently elected to honorary membership in the

Academy:

GrorGES PERRIER, Major General Retired, formerly chief, Division of

Geodesy of the French Army, Paris, France, in recognition of his contribu-

tions in the field of geodesy.

PEDRO SANCHEZ, director, Pan American Institute of Geography and

History, Tacubya, D. F., Mexico, in recognition of his cooperation with

the United States Government in the field of geodesy.

EpwarRbD RuHopDEs StiTT, Rear Admiral, U.S. Navy (retired), Washington,

D. C., in recognition of his achievements in the fields of bacteriology and

animal parasitology and particularly his contributions to tropical medicine.

CuEmistry.—Some problems i in attaining adequate nutri

Hi TOW Be. i SE i eee

BIopHysics. Speaved killing oF maize Be Dees) ‘at

temperature. Louis R. MaxWweELi and J. H. KEMPTE

Botany.—A second United States species of Bernardia.

Berry. Pee ee

ahi

ZooLocy.—A new allocreadiid i ieatode, Pees shavwi

from the silver salmon. aed McInTOsH........... .

ON es tsugae we Middistony R- A. CUSHMAN. . ee

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

e Vou. 29 OcroBeER 15, 1939 No. 10

GEOCHEMISTRY.—The radium content of an ocean-bottom core.

C. S. Piggor and W. D. Urry, Geophysical Laboratory, Car-

negie Institution of Washington.

The data in the literature on the radium content of ocean-bottom

sediments have been summarized by C. 8. Piggot in connection with

the presentation of the radium determinations made by him on 28

samples secured by the Carnegie on her last cruise.? With two or three

exceptions, all the samples, including the Carnegie suite, were obtained

from the surface of the ocean bottom or at a depth of only a few cen-

timeters. It is obvious that a detailed radioactive study of material

extending to greater depths is necessary in order to discover the

mechanism by which the high concentration of radium was produced

and in order to evaluate its geological significance.

The apparatus to secure core samples from the ocean bottom, de-

veloped primarily to fill this demand, has been fully described in

previous publications.*? Several cores obtained with this apparatus

have been examined lithologically and chemically in detail,* so that

they can now be sampled for radium determinations in such a manner

as to facilitate the interpretation of the results.

DESCRIPTION OF THE CORE

A radium analysis of core No. 3, which was obtained by Piggot

aboard the Western Union Cable Ship Lord Kelvin in 1936, has now

been completed. The core was taken at a position roughly east of

Halifax, Nova Scotia, off the Newfoundland Banks, and is 2.85

meters long.® It differs entirely from the rest of the suite taken across

the Atlantic Ocean in exhibiting no characteristic alternating zones

of sediments deposited in warm and in cold water. The volcanic

shards are scarce throughout the length of the core and show little

1 Received September 20, 1939.

2 Piecot, C.S. Amer. Journ. Sci. 25: 229. 1933.

3 Precot, C. 8. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 47: 675. 1936; Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc.

gee 50. 1938.

4 This examination of the Atlantic suite of cores has been carried out by the U. 8.

Geological Survey. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper. (In Press.)

5 Pigcot, C. S. Core samples of the Ocean-bottom and their significance. Sci.

Monthly 47: 201. 1938.

405

OGT 20 1939

406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

to no variation in concentration.* Core No. 3, in all its major aspects,

is of very uniform composition both lithologically and chemically.

It consists of roughly 50 percent calcium carbonate and 50 percent

clay and silt and exhibits a somewhat higher clay content in three

places, although the only major departure from uniformity is a thin

band of silt at about 15 em from the bottom.’

METHOD OF RADIUM DETERMINATION

The radium is determined by measuring the ionization current

due to the disintegration of the radon in equilibrium with the radium

and comparing it with the ionization current sustained by the radon

from a known amount of radium. Recent developments in the tech-

nique of this method are discussed by Urry.* The present apparatus,

which was constructed for obtaining precision, convenience, and speed

in the radium determinations, with samples as small as 1 gram in

weight, contains a compensating chamber system as described by

Urry but differs in several important respects from the earlier ap-

paratus. It will be fully described in a subsequent paper. The ioniza-

tion current is recorded automatically by the use of a Lutz elec-

trometer operating in the second manner of measurement previously

described.’ The laborious chemical method,!° formerly used for ob-

taining the equilibrium amount of the radon—which is necessary

when measuring other quantities on the same sample—has been re-

placed by the fusion-furnace method developed by R. D. Evans."

The crushed or powdered specimen is heated to about 2,000°C., thus

releasing all the radon. The solid samples from the core were scraped

on all sides to a depth of 1 to 3 mm and finely powdered with no

separation by sieves or tabling. It is, of course, important to insure

that there is no diffusion of the radon out of the specimen prior to the

heating. The results in Table 1 indicate a loss of radon when the

samples are left exposed to the atmosphere for 30 days after powder-

ing. Hence the powdered core specimens were stored for this period in

sealed glass tubes and the radon from the gas phase added to that ob-

tained from the fusion of the powder. Prior to sealing, the specimens,

except where otherwise stated, were heated to 600°C. in a stream of

radon-free nitrogen for one hour.

6 U. S. Geological Survey. Op. cit.

7U. 8. Geological Survey. Op. cit.

8 Urry, W. D. Determination of the radium content of rocks. Journ. Chem.

Phys. 4:40. 1936.

Ue Vo ID COs Giese 233%.

10 Urry, W. D. Determination of the thorium content of rocks. Journ. Chem.

Phys. 4:34. 1936; see p. 36.

11 Evans, R. D. Rev. Sci. Instr. 4: 223. 1938.

OcTOBER 15, 1939 PIGGOT AND URRY: RADIUM OF OCEAN-BOTTOM CORE 407

RESULTS

The results in Table 1 are expressed on an air-dried basis. Judging

by the 17 calcium-carbonate analyses at various depths, reduction

to a carbonate-free basis would change but little the relative varia-

tions in Table 1. Nevertheless, for more complex cores it is expedient

to make CO, and “‘water minus” analyses for each sample investi-

gated, the “‘water minus” being determined on the actual sample

taken. The present results are based on a standard radium solution

prepared by the Denver Fire Clay Co., standardized by 8. C. Lind

and used by Piggot in former radium determinations. It is planned to

base the results finally on a radium standard now in the course of

preparation by the Bureau of Standards. Any change in the calibra-

tion constant of the apparatus will affect only the absolute and not the

relative values given here.

TABLE 1.—TuHeE Rapium ConTENT OF AN OcEAN-BoTTOoM CORE

Core No. 3=P-124. Depth of water 4,700 meters.

Latitude 46°03’0’’ N. Longitude 43°23’0”’ W.

: Radium in

Specimen No. Depth IO=2 meagA er peat

(Pol MLA) oo otceis See 0-2 IA Se (US)

G06 2020)a5

Po LADS 5 6 cee re 25-28 Th 15s), O)IU74

a Aa ee 74-77 24 OG

FeO ee es 130-134 Peon 026

Re DOM! eS 207-211 Some 4020

G22 O23))os

iP =| D-DD R 0o e 283-285 14s ONS

BaWA-268 (silt) ....2...0004... 268-270 OF O08

* Somewhat higher clay content.

** Samples taken from the same powdered specimen, stored for 30 days after pow-

dering, but not sealed.

DISCUSSION

Any discussion of these results must, at present, pertain only to

this specific core. If one rightly excludes the silt result, the reason for

which is given later, two points of major interest are:

A. The radium content does not diminish with depth in the core.

B. The radium content, on an air-dried basis, is close to the general

run of the radium content of granites. (The average radium content

of four groups of Finnish granites is ca. 1.6 by 10-" grams Ra per

gram.)”

Since the core apparently failed to reach the first glacial zone which

ZaPTIEcor Cao.) Amer: Journ. Sci. SDA. 227. 1938:

408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

was reached in 29 cm at the next station, No. 4, * it can not very well

represent a period greatly in excess of a few thousands of years. In

such a short period the presence or absence of uranium I and its

isotope uranium II has no measurable effect on the radium. The

variation of radium with depth in the core, if there is a constant source

at the surface of the ocean bottom, is controlled by ionium, which is

lo= I.6x equilibrium lo.

jo = equilibrium lo.

lo= 0.6 x equilibrium lo.

0.55

lo ebsent |

1600 2000 4000

Fig. 1.—The fraction F of the radium content at the top of the core (surface of the

ocean bottom) to be expected at a depth in the core representing a given time, under

various assumptions regarding the state of radioactive equilibrium between ionium

and radium.

the immediate parent of radium. Were ionium to be completely ab-

sent, the radium content would diminish with time, as shown in

Fig. 1 (curve I). The 285 em core can hardly represent less than 2,000

years, which is greater than the half life of radium (ca. 1,600 years).

If half the equilibrium ionium amount corresponding to the radium

13 U. S: Geological Survey. Op. cit.

OcToBER 15, 1989 PIGGOT AND URRY: RADIUM OF OCEAN-BOTTOM CORE 409

at the surface of the bottom were present, we still would have a meas-

urable decrease in radium with depth (curve II). If ionium and ra-

dium were deposited in equilibrium, the radium content would be

constant if uranium is present (curve III) and practically constant

even if uranium is absent. An excess of ionium over the equilibrium

amount would yield an increasing radium content (curve IV).

A constant radium content at the present time, as 1s exhibited par-

ticularly in the first 77 ecm of this core, would be possible even with

a complete or partial absence of ionium, provided that there was a

decreasing deposition of radium with time in the past following curve

V or the corresponding complement of some such curve as II. Since

this is entirely improbable, the original assumption of a roughly con-

stant source of radium at the surface of the bottom is not without

foundation.

Ionium, an isotope of thorium, is so different from radium in its

chemical properties that a purely chemical deposition requiring ap-

proximately the amounts in radioactive equilibrium to be deposited

by independent chemical processes seems unlikely in this case.

The narrow band of silt near the bottom of the core gives a result

more nearly comparable with the continental sediments. There is

some evidence that its origin may be due to submarine slumping."

It appears to be wholly foreign to the conditions of formation of the

rest of the core.

In addition to a systematic examination of the radium content of

the Atlantic cores, experiments are in progress to determine uranium,

thorium, and ionium independently in these cores.

SUMMARY

The development of the new ocean-bottom sampler has made

available a number of cores, one of the objects of the apparatus being

to probe below the ocean-bottom surface and to determine the radio-

active relationship between the ocean troughs and the continents.

One of the Atlantic cores is extremely uniform in composition both

chemically and lithologically and was chosen as the most suitable

core to examine preliminarily in order to ascertain, if possible, the

radioactive equilibrium relations before proceeding to the more com-

plex cores exhibiting wider variations in composition.

Determination of the radium content at various depths in the core

shows: (A) no decrease in the radium content with depth; (B) a ra-

dium content corresponding approximately to that of the granites.

144U. 8. Geological Survey. Op. cit.

410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

The conclusions based on this exploratory investigation, which

must be limited to this particular core, are: (1) that, with regard to

the tength of time here represented, the presence or absence of ura-

nium has no bearing on the radium content; (2) that the ionium is

probably present in an amount corresponding roughly to radioactive

equilibrium with the radium; and (3) that in view of the widely dif-

ferent chemical properties of ionium (thorium) and radium, chemical

deposition plays no role in the radioactivity ‘of this particular core.

This does not exclude the possibility that chemical deposition may be

important in other instances.

PHYSICS.—An instrument for the reproduction, regulation, and con-

trol of variable temperature? W. EH. Stone,’? U. S. Bureau of

Entomology and Plant Quarantine. (Communicated by C. F. W.

Muesebeck.)

One of the most important considerations in research on insect

and other pests is the factor of temperature, especially in relation

to the possibility of survival and of establishment outside the present

limits of distribution. The need to determine experimentally in

Mexico the possible range of distribution in the United States of the

Mexican fruitfly [Anastrepha ludens (Loew)]| and related species, as

conditioned by temperature, led to the invention and development

of an instrument for the laboratory reproduction of field tempera-

tures as recorded by thermographs.

DESCRIPTION

The essential details of the construction are shown in Fig. 1. The

motivating unit consists of a clock-driven cylinder A, a, of the type

in general use on thermographs and mounted in the same manner on

a base b. A temperature pattern c cut from fiberboard is fastened to

the cylinder like a thermograph chart by a flexible metal band d.

The regulating unit is mounted on a vertical shaft e, which supports

a movable stage f, adjustably fixed by means of a collar and setscrew.

Two pairs of vertical brackets B, a, a, and }, b, are placed at the ends

of the movable stage. Only one of each pair appears in the side ele-

1 Received April 17, 1939.

2 Application for public-service patent pending.

’ The author wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. A. C. Baker, chief of the

Division of Fruitfly Investigations, for helpful suggestions during the development of

the instrument especially with regard to the elimination of gears to reduce play and

the use of fiberboard for chart patterns; to Mr. Juan Ramirez, of the same division,

for making drawings of the instrument; and to Mr. Albert J. Kramer, of the Solicitor’s

Office of the Department of Agriculture, from whose draft of the formal patent applica-

tion much of the present description has been taken. °

OcToBER 15, 1939 STONE: CONTROL OF VARIABLE TEMPERATURE 411

vational view A, g and h. The brackets a, a support an adjustable

tracing arm A, 7, fulerumed between them on a threaded horizontal

shaft by means of simple point and socket bearings. The arm is lat-

erally adjustable on the threaded horizontal bar and adjustable in

length, being composed of two parts fitted together with a slot and

two setscrews. At the outer end of the tracing arm a tracing point

of steel wire is attached by means of a connecting wrist and is de-

signed to follow the contour of the chart pattern. Near the outer end

the arm is slightly twisted and bent toward the cylinder so that the

Scale 0f A,B,CD ZG2/

Seale OF LAz3.071

Fig. 1.—Essential details of construction of an instrument for the reproduction,

regulation, and control of variable temperature: A, side elevational view; B, a plan

view; C' and D, end views.

tracing point, in following the contour of the temperature pattern,

is not interfered with by the peaks. In a manner similar to that of the

tracing arm, a lever 7 is fulerumed between the brackets B, b, 6. The

longer arm of the lever extends upward and is joined to a segmental

are A, k, of approximately 115 degrees. At the upper end of the seg-

mental arc a wire / is attached; preferably No. 37 insulated copper

magneto wire should be used. The wire rests in a fine groove extending

the entire length of the arc segment in the middle of its periphery. A

weighted, platinum-pointed contact drop m is suspended from the

lower end of the wire and extends to a toluene-mercury thermostat n.

An insulator of hard composition board or other suitable insulating

412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

material is fixed at the lower end of the drop about an inch from the

point. The tracing arm and lever are mechanically linked by means

of a main adjustment rod o and a minor adjustment rod p. The major

adjustment rod is shown in greater detail in Fig. 1, H. One end of the

major adjustment rod is fixed at right angles to the tracing arm at

a point between its ends, the free end being pivoted to one end of

the minor adjustment rod. The other end of the minor adjustment

rod is pivoted to the short arm of the lever 7 substantially as shown in

the drawings. Both rods are adjustable in length by means of threaded

spacers set in threaded sockets. One-half of each of the spacers is

threaded in one direction and the other half, in the opposite direction.

In order to balance this instrument delicately, a counterweight q is

adjustably mounted on the bearing shaft of the lever 7 by means of a

collar and setscrew. A vertical guide bar r is fixed to a lever with a

handle and is pivotally mounted at the base of the instrument near

the cylinder. The guide bar holds the point of the tracer arm in proper

operating position with respect to the fiberboard pattern. Threaded

legs at the four corners of the base are provided for the purpose of

making placement adjustments for the instrument.

PREPARATION OF CHART PATTERNS

In the preparation of a chart pattern for the reproduction of daily

or weekly recorded temperatures, a heliographic copy of the original

thermograph chart is made. A clearer print will be obtained if the

temperature record is inked with black India ink and the chart

treated with a preparation to make it translucent. Light, colorless

lubricating oils will serve the purpose if standard preparations are not

available. Printing with a treated chart requires approximately one-

tenth of the time needed for an untreated chart. When the print is

dry, it is glued or pasted on fiberboard 1 mm or slightly less in thick-

ness with the back toward the board. The contour of the tempera-

ture record is then cut as accurately as possible with shears, and the

finishing is done with an assortment of files. A graphite pencil should

be run over the contour to facilitate the movement of the tracing

point. The cutting of a chart pattern of a weekly temperature record

requires about 20 minutes. Patterns of daily temperature records

can be cut in considerably less time.

Patterns of gradually rising or falling temperatures, which are

plotted in the form of a straight line or of gradually increasing or

decreasing rising or falling temperature plotted in the form of a curve,

may be cut quickly with a sharp knife.

OcTOBER 15, 1939 STONE: CONTROL OF VARIABLE TEMPERATURE 413

In fastening the chart to the clock cylinder a better fit will be

obtained if the pattern is held for a short time over a vessel of boiling

water.

ADJUSTMENT AND OPERATION

After the preparation and placing of the chart pattern, the instru-

ment is adjusted for the particular type of pattern. The initial adjust-

ment consists in lengthening or shortening the tracing arm so that the

are described by the tracing point is of the same radius as the temper-

ature arcs on the chart pattern. The movable stage is then raised or

lowered until the arc of the tracing point, when in motion, exactly

coincides with the arcs of the chart pattern at a point on the front

and near the center of the pattern.

The major adjustment rod is then lengthened or shortened until

the distance traversed by the contact drop, as a result of the move-

ment of the tracer point through a given number of degrees on the

pattern, is equivalent to the change in the thermostat for an equal

number of degrees. The minor adjustment rod is then lengthened or

shortened to rectify the position of the arc segment so that the maxi-

mum range of operation may be maintained under all adjustments.

The clock is regulated to rotate the cylinder slightly faster than the

recorder to allow for the difference caused by the thickness of the

fiberboard of the pattern.

When the instrument is once adjusted for a particular type of chart

pattern, it will operate indefinitely without further adjustment.

In operation the tracing point rests on the top edge of the fiber-

board pattern, and as the cylinder rotates it follows the contour of

the pattern, raising or lowering the tracing arm. The tracing arm

actuates the adjustment rods, which, in turn, actuate the arc seg-

ment. Thus the drop contact is raised or lowered in the thermostat

tube, with the movement of the tracing point cutting on or off the

heat by means of an ordinary electric relay connected through the

thermostat and the wire extending from the upper end of the are

segment.

THERMOSTAT

A glass mercury-toluene thermostat made of 50 inches of 6/16-

inch bore tubing, with an 8-inch neck of 3/16-inch bore tubing fused

together and bent into a convenient form, has proved to be a good

size for use with this instrument. A thermostat of this size used inter-

mittently for 3 years has shown no apparent change in volume during

that time.

414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

When the mercury column recedes in the thermostat with a de-

creasing temperature, a thin film of mercury may be left on the wall

of the tube for some time. As the contact drop is necessarily freehang-

ing, the point would at times make contact with the film causing the

relay to operate prematurely, except for the insulator near the end

of the drop, which keeps the point away from the film.

Fig. 2.—Photograph of original thermograph charts (A, D), chart patterns (C, F,

H), records of temperature reproductions (B, #), and records of a produced gradually

rising and falling temperature (G) and constant temperature (J).

There is no reason why other types of thermostats than mercury-

toluene cannot be used with this instrument if they possess the neces-

sary range.

TEMPERATURE CABINETS

Standard well-insulated temperature cabinets can not be used with

this instrument when producing or reproducing highly variable tem-

peratures unless they are equipped with cooling coils, because cooling

is too slow. The need for a rapid heat exchange to obtain variable

temperatures necessitates considerably larger heating elements to

reach high temperatures than in constant-temperature apparatus.

Air circulation must be such that the thermostat is completely en-

veloped in the moving air stream.

ACCURACY

The accuracy obtained in the operation of this instrument may be

seen from the photograph of the charts shown in Fig. 2. A is an origi-

OcTOBER 15, 1989 STONE: CONTROL OF VARIABLE TEMPERATURE 415

nal daily thermograph record, May 28, 1933, from Cuernavaca, State

of Morelos, Mexico. B is a record of the reproduction of the tempera-

ture made in a cabinet at Mexico City from the chart pattern C. The

upper part of the chart B has been trimmed to allow a closer compari-

son of the original and the reproduced temperature. An original rec-

ord of a weekly temperature, June 29 to July 6, 1936, at Santa

Engracia, State of Tamaulipas, Mexico, is shown in D. The record of

the -reproduced temperature, HL, made from the chart pattern F,

shows the accuracy with which weekly temperature records can be

reproduced in the laboratory. G is a record of a gradually rising and

falling temperature made from the chart pattern H. J is a constant-

temperature record which was obtained by stopping the clock of the

instrument.

SUMMARY

An instrument has been developed to permit the laboratory repro-

duction of field-recorded temperatures in experiments at Mexico City

to determine the possible range of distribution of the Mexican fruitfly

and related species in the United States. A description of the instru-

ment showing the essential details of construction is given.

The method of preparation of the chart patterns, showing the dif-

ferent steps in the operation and the time consumed, and the methods

of making adjustments and of operation are discussed.

A mercury-toluene thermostat made of 50 inches of 6/16-inch bore

tubing with a neck of 3/16-inch bore tubing has been used with the

instrument intermittently for 3 years without apparent change in

volume.

Standard well-insulated temperature cabinets can not be used with

the instrument when producing or reproducing highly variable tem-

peratures unless they are equipped with cooling coils, because cooling

is too slow.

The accuracy obtained in operation is shown in a photograph of

charts of reproductions of daily and weekly temperature records and

of the production of a gradually increasing and decreasing tempera-

ture as well as a constant temperature.

416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.—The assignment of uncertainties to the

data of chemistry and physics, with specific recommendations for

thermochemisiry.!. FREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of

Standards, and W. Epwarps Dermine, U. 8. Department of

Agriculture.

CONTENTS

I. Introduction

II. Some notes on the theory of probability

1. The single sample or set of observations

2. A pair of samples or sets of observations

3. Functional concordance

III. Propagation and combination of errors

IV. Application to measurements in general |

V. Specific recommendations for thermochemistry

1. General remarks

2. Procedure for combining standard deviations

3. Discussion of the procedure

4. The uncertainty interval

VI. References

I. INTRODUCTION

In order that the results of measurements made in different labo-

ratories may be compared and appraised for the purpose of estimat-

ing the uncertainty or confidence interval to be attached to the pub-

lished value of a physical or chemical constant, it is desirable that

experimenters adopt a uniform procedure for expressing the consist-

ency of their data, or be explicit in their statements regarding such

consistency. Anyone to whom the experimental details and the origi-

nal numerical data are available can form his own opinions by what-

ever method he likes, but since full details are often too extensive for

publication, understanding among workers in different laboratories

and in different countries will be promoted if all the investigators in

any field will be careful to give the information that is essential for

evaluating the consistencies of their final values. The purpose of this

paper is to present some discussion on this subject and to offer some

specific recommendations in connection with the experimental data

of thermochemistry.

Precision and accuracy are terms invented for convenience in dis-

cussing errors of observation, uncertainties, and related matters. The

precision of a set of observations is measured by the consistency or

internal agreement reached as the series is extended under controlled

conditions. Precision measures the ability of an investigator to repro-

1 Received August 26, 1939. The numbers in brackets throughout the text indicate

the references at the end of the paper.

OcTOBER 15,1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 417

duce his observations. If they fluctuate widely, his precision is low;

but if they fluctuate within a narrower range, his precision is higher.

In contrast to precision and internal agreement, accuracy is re-

lated to the discrepancy between the mean of a set of observations

and the true but “unknown” value of whatever quantity is being

measured. A piece of experimentation may be at once extremely pre-

cise yet hopelessly inaccurate because of constant or systematic

errors, unpredictable or even unsuspected. There are three ways of

going about the problem of discovering the existence of constant or

systematic errors: first, by investigating the physical principles in-

volved in the action of the apparatus; second, by ascertaining whether

there exists any unnatural trend of the final values with any one of

the variables involved in the measurements; and third, by comparing

the results obtained in different laboratories. Incompatible discrepan-

cies between the results obtained by two different laboratories may

convince one that constant errors are present in the work of one or

both of them, but the actual recognition of the errors must be made

by an investigation of the principles of the measurements. It is of

course possible, by accident, for the means of two sets of experiments

to be in good agreement even though one or both sets are afflicted

with systematic errors. Moreover, if the number of experiments is

small, the two sets of data may be in disagreement and yet free from

constant errors; poor agreement merely suggests but does not prove

the presence of constant errors.

In speaking of incompatible discrepancies between two sets of

observations supposed to measure the same quantity, one must have

in mind some measure of internal consistency for the two sets of ob-

servations and some way of comparing these internal consistencies

with the difference between the means from the two sets. The impor-

tant consideration is not how large the discrepancy is, but rather how

the discrepancy compares in magnitude with the internal consistencies

of the two sets of data. Statisticians have set up mathematical models

for calculating odds against discrepancies between two means ex-

ceeding different multiples of a certain function of the measure of

uncertainty of the two sets of observations, and these odds will be

correct if the experiments fit the assumptions on which the calcula-

tions are based. The existence of this concordance between experi-

ments and assumptions is difficult to ascertain in actual physical and

chemical experimentation, because any one series of observations is

rarely extended long enough to be compared with the mathematical

model (cf. Shewhart [9]). Nevertheless, probability considerations

418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

are helpful on the whole, and increasing use is being made of some of

the simpler statistical charts and calculations.

II. SOME NOTES ON THE THEORY OF PROBABILITY

1. The single sample or set of observations

In the theory of errors, a set of n equally reliable observations is

considered as a sample of nm drawn at random from an indefinitely

large supply (parent population) of observations that theoretically

might be made if time and opportunity would permit. In the state of

statistical control or randomness, the observations behave as if they

are numbers being drawn from a hat, after thorough mixing and

blindfolding. This limiting state is a goal toward which the efforts of

experimentation are always directed, but the requirement for its full

attainment, as judged by Shewhart’s ‘Criterion I’’ [9], is much more

exacting than that in the experimenter’s judgment the observations

have all been taken under ‘“‘essentially the same conditions.”

If there were no constant errors, and if randomness were attained,

the mean of the parent population of observations would be the true

value of the quantity being measured. The effect of a constant error

is to displace the mean of the parent population above or below the

true value; the correction, if ever isolated and evaluated, can be

added to or subtracted from the mean of the parent population to

obtain the true value.

The object of making observations is to estimate the limits within

which various percentages of the next hundred or thousand observa-

tions will lie; that is, statistically, to estimate the position (value) of

the mean of the parent population. Because the number taken must

necessarily remain finite, the exact value of the mean of the parent

population can only be approached, even in controlled experiments,

where randomness exists, and one becomes increasingly interested

in the probabilities associated with certain propreties of the observa-

tions that are actually made. That is to say, if z is the mean of n

observations and yu is the (unknown) mean of the parent population,

one might be interested in knowing the proportion of means in sets of

n observations each that will differ from u by a stated amount, or the

proportion in which an interval such as ¢+A will cover un.

In the present discussion the observations will be considered ran-

domly drawn from a parent population that is normal (Gaussian) or

nearly so. There are four reasons for this choice: First, mathemati-

cally, the normal error curve is the easiest to deal with; second, it is

usually an excellent approximation when control exists; third, several

OcTOBER 15, 1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 419

investigations on nonnormal populations have shown that even con-

siderable departures from normality do not produce appreciable al-

terations in many important deductions based on the normal curve;

and, fourth, it has been established that the distribution curve formed

by the means of samples drawn from a nonnormal parent population

~ is usually much more nearly normal than the population itself. While

there exist several types of measurement that by nature do not have

normal parent populations, deductions based on the normal law will

rarely fail to be valid, provided control exists.

It is to be understood that the extreme tails or ends of the normal

error curve do not represent probabilities for large errors. By the

nature of the apparatus, extremely large errors may be absolutely

impossible, yet the approximating normal curve attributes to these

large errors a finite chance of occurrence. The normal curve is an ap-

proximation not expected to hold for large errors; it is the main por-

tion of the curve that contributes most to the calculations: if the

tails of the curve were cut off, the mathematical difficulties would be

exceedingly complex, but with results, in moderate and large samples,

practically not different from those obtained by the customary and

simpler theory which includes the tails.

If wu denotes the mean of the parent population, then the true

error of an observation x; drawn therefrom will be

CE = 665 — Me (1)

Since vw is unknown, the error e; is also unknown. So, instead of deal-

ing with the true but unknown errors e;, we shall find it advisable to

work with the known reszduals or apparent errors v;, which are meas-

ured from the known mean Z of the sample rather than from the un-

known mean up of the parent population. The definition of the residual

corresponding to the observation x; is mathematically

Oe A) ae iG, (2)

where < is the mean of the sample, defined mathematically as

= (UG ae eee) (3)

Xi, T2,---, L, constituting the sample of n observations.

The only difficulty in replacing » by # and thus passing from the

unknown errors (e) to the known residuals (v) is that z itself fluctu-

ates from one sample to another, and in any particular sample (set of

observations) the discrepancy u between Z and up is in practice not

known. This unknown error in < we shall denote by wu, writing

420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

= B= fo, (4)

Most of the deductions made from experimental data, by probability

theory or any other method, are mainly concerned with the magnitude

of u, the unknown error in the sample mean Zz.

For laying odds concerning the error uw in the mean Z, the most

important piece of information provided by the sample is the stand-

ard deviation for single observations of the set, denoted by s and

defined by

s? = (1/n) B(x; — #2 (5)

The standard deviation received its name from Karl Pearson. It is

not standard in the sense of being fixed, since it fluctuates from one

set of observations to another. It does, however, provide a standard

measure for expressing the consistency of a set of observations, for

comparing their consistency with that of another set, and for judging

statistically from the results obtained at two laboratories whether

constant errors are present in one or another of them.

In the usual form of probability theory, which applies when con-

trol has been attained, it is assumed that as the number of observa-

tions is increased indefinitely, the mean z approaches statistically the

limit uw, and also that the standard deviation, s, approaches a limit

g, called the standard deviation of the parent population. In symbols,

[binant and Whim s; 67 (6)

Under these conditions, the experiments are “‘under control.’’ When

the assumption of such limits does not lead to useful results, the prob-

ability theory in the usual form is not applicable.

The standard deviation, s, as defined in eq. 5, or any multiple

thereof, possesses two important properties that make it the most

desirable function to use as a measure of consistency. The first of

these arises from the theorem known as Tchebycheff’s inequality,’

which has been stated in a variety of forms, one corollary being that

of the n observations, 41, %2, --- , X,, not more than 1/)? of them can

be outside the interval +s, when X}\>1. The second is Gauss’s

discovery that when the observations have a normal distribution, the

standard deviation, s, is more efficient for estimating o than any

other function. For example, the standard deviation is 14 percent

more efficient than the average residual taken without regard to sign,

and 9 percent more efficient than the mean cube of the residuals.? That

2 See pp. 95-98 and elsewhere in Shewhart [3], and pp. 579-587 of Smith [4].

3 See p. 201 of Whittaker and Robinson [5].

OcToBER 15, 1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 421

is to say, the standard deviation of 100 observations provides as

statistically reliable an estimate of o as the average residual, taken

without regard to sign, from 114 observations; etc.

When an observer performs a number of sets of measurements of

the same quantity with the same apparatus, he will find that the

standard deviation fluctuates from one set of measurements to an-

other, as has been stated. These fluctuations will occur even under the

best controlled conditions. The larger the number n of observations

in a given set, the smaller are the fluctuations in s. When n is large,

considerable confidence may be placed in the precision of a set of

experiments estimated from their standard deviation. The num-

ber of observations n enables one to judge the reliability of the

estimates of the precision of the observations from their standard

deviations. The number n tells how many figures are significant in

recording s, a good rule being to remember that the standard devia-

tion of s itself is about o//2(n—1). For example, if n=9,

1/./2(n—1) =1/4, and therefore one need record not more than two

figures in s and, at that, the second figure is barely significant. More

than two figures in s will hardly ever be required, though one extra

figure will avoid errors of rounding off.

Various tests have been proposed by statisticians for determining

the probability that a sample of n observations will reproduce the

properties of the parent population within stated limits, that is to

say, how well the mean < and the standard deviation, s, of a finite

number of observations n will represent the mean uw and the standard

deviation o that would be obtained by continuing the measurements

indefinitely. Also, calculations have been made for evaluating the

odds on the occurrence of given differences between the means of two

sets of observations.

The normal curve showing the distribution of the mean values of

samples or sets of n observations has for its standard deviation

a/+/n, which is smaller than o because of the denominator \/n. This

quantity o/./n can be used to compute the probability that expresses

the chance P, of the occurrence of an error u in < greater than some

stated amount, say H. The graph in Fig. 1 shows P, as a function of

T, where

t= E/(o//n). (7)

This quantity 7 is the “standardized error,’’ or the stated error H ex-

pressed in units of the standard deviation of the error u in z. In the

long run of repeated sampling under controlled conditions the stand-

422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

Sa Pe eee

| sence

NORMAL CURVE OF S.D. o/%n

B-= SHADED AREA TO INFINITY ON BOTH

SIDES = CHANCE OF AN ERROR IN X

GREATER THAN A PROPOSED VALUE oF E

SCALE FOR T

Pde

| PETIA SEE

aaa

Ol 0 04 O06 i 74 4 681

SCALE FOR a

Fig. 1.—Areas under the normal curve. P; is the area in both tails beyond the

abscissas +7. The whole area under the curve is unity, i. e. P; =1 when 7 =0.

ard deviation of the error u is ¢/\/n, as has already been mentioned,

and P, is the fractional number of times that the error wu in @ will in

the long run exceed the stated error LE. The calculation of 7 and the

corresponding P, is called the normal test for the significance of @.

Reliable estimates of o for the normal test can sometimes be made

antecedently from a long series of previous observations, or from

several short series,‘ and it is to be noted that in the absence of a

reliable estimate of o, one can not compute 7 and hence can not look

up P, in the tables. The best one can do in such circumstances 1s to

use the Student ‘‘?’”’ test [1, 6], which involves the fluctuating stand-

ard deviation, s, of the single sample, in place of the steady (but now

supposedly unknown) o. The ‘‘t’”’ test is made by estimating o from

the one sample according to the formula

4 See Deming and Birge [1], eq. 67, p. 158.

OcTOBER 15, 1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 423

S—7S\/ 10) i) — \/—— (8)

n—I1

and then measuring EH in terms of s’/1/n, calling the result t. Now

if s’ is an estimate of oc, then s’/./n is an estimate of o/./n, where-

fore, if we write

; 3 Ge = 2)

ee LON SID) ef eee (9)

n(n — 1)

we may look upon ¢ as an estimate of 7, the only distinction being that

7 in eq. 7 is the stated error HE measured in units of o/\/n, whereas f¢

in eq. 9 is measured in units of an estemate of ¢/./n. In words, ¢ is

the stated error # measured in units of the estimated standard devia-

tion of the error uv in z. Otherwise written, we may say that

t = (E/s)/k, (9a)

wherein k =n —1, and s is computed according to eq. 5. In place of the

probabilities P, in terms of 7 in Fig. 1, we now have the probabilities

P, in terms of ¢ and & in Nekrassoff’s nomograph shown as Fig. 2. P,

is to be used when a is known; P; when g is not known.

It is to be kept in mind that P,, when we are able to calculate it,

may be found different from P,; in fact, the two will agree only when

the observed s happens to be an “‘average’’ s. If s is unusually high or

low, as it will be once in a while, then P, will be correspondingly low

or high compared with P,. It is to be remembered also that neither

the normal test nor the “‘?’’ test is valid except in statistical control,

and by the time this state is attained the experimenter usually knows

his o and has no need of the ‘‘?’’ test.° In statistical control, as n

increases indefinitely, s’ approaches o, ¢ approaches +r, and P; ap-

proaches P,.

2. A pair of samples or sets of observations

The following information will be available from the recorded data

of the two sets of observations:

1st set 2d set

Mean X1 Le

Standard deviation $1 So

Number of observations nv, Ne

In examining the concordance of two sets of measurements sup-

> For some critical remarks, see the 1937 and 1938 editions of Deming and Birge

[1], especially the ‘“‘additional notes” and pp. 131-139.

424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 29, No. 10

0.6

NOMOGRAPHIC EVALUATION

OF R 0.6000

0.5800

0.5600

0.5400

0.5200

R = DEGREES OF FREEDOM

0.5000

: 0.4800

0.4600

0.4400

0.4200

0.4000

0.3800

0.3600

0.3400

0.3200

0.3000

0.2800

2 0.2600

0.2400

0.2200

8 0.2000

9 0.1800

10 0.1600

0.1400

0.1200

0.1000

is 0.0800

0.0600

0.0400

0.0300

0.0200

0.0 100

FROM A NOMOGRAPH PUBLISHED 0.0060

0.0040

BY V. A. NEKRASSOFF IN 0.0020

METRON 8, NO. 3, 95-99 (1930)

— KEY —

)

R SCALE

to SG Ale

k SCALE

3.0

0.0002

PUBLISHED BY PERMISSION OF THE BELL TELEPHONE LABORATORIES, INC.

Fig. 2.—Nomographic evaluation of P,.

OcTOBER 15,1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 425

posedly made on the same magnitude, the important fact to keep in

mind is that if both sets are under control, then, in repeated sampling,

the difference <:—%Z2 between the two means will be distributed nor-

mally about 0 with standard deviation (o:?7/ni+o2?/n2)'”, o1 and oz

being the precisions of single observations in the two samples. To

discover the probability of a difference as great as or greater than that

actually observed, we need only calculate

7 = | i = £ | /(o17/m ++ o2?/N2)"!?, (10)

and then look up P, in Fig. 1 or in any table of the normal integral.

In the case of the single sample we ran into the difficulty that o is

sometimes unknown, and we were forced to the ‘‘t”’ test. So it is with

a pair of samples also; when o, and a2 are both unknown, we can not

compute 7 in eq. 10 and hence can not look up P,. But if, as fre-

quently happens, it can be asserted that o, and oz have a common

value, say co, then we may apply the ‘‘?’’ test by calculating

iI 1 1/2

t=| 4-4] /'(—+—) - (11)

ny No

with

2 2

Bi Mes mle (12)

Ny a WD? == 2

and then looking up P; on Nekrassoff’s nomograph (Fig. 2) with

k=n,+n2.—2. It is to be noted that s’ is an estimate of o obtained

by pooling both samples, and that ¢ as defined in eq. 11 is the differ-

ence |%,—42| divided by s’(1/ni+1/n2)!/2, which is the estimated

standard deviation of the sampling fluctuation of #,—Z. We may

therefore look upon ¢ in eq. 11 as an estimate of the 7 in eq. 10, the

relation between them being similar to that between the ¢ and 7 of

eqs. 9 and 7.

In the state of statistical control, P; represents the relative fre-

quency of occurrence, in the long run, of values of ¢ as large as or

larger than that calculated in eq. 11, the presumption being that

both sets of observations were made on the same thing, i. e., that both

sets were afflicted with the same constant errors. A large value of f,

giving a low value of P,;, is an indication that the two means #, and

2. are unduly discordant compared with their internal consistencies

as measured by s; and sg. Since unequal constant errors in the two

experiments would separate 7; and Zz, on the average, leaving s; and

S, and s’ unaffected, we may regard a low value of P; as statistical

426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

“evidence” of unequal constant errors. A low value of P,, e. g., 0.01,

is of course no proof of the existence of constant errors, but rather an

indication that an investigation into the possibility should be made.

On the other hand, a high value of P; is no assurance that constant

errors are absent or operating equally. One can only assert that an

unequal distribution of constant errors causes low values of P, to

occur more frequently than would happen by chance under ideal

conditions.

When, because of unavoidable circumstances, the numerical data

of a given investigation can not be published in complete detail, the

procedure of estimating and reporting the measure of the precision

should preserve as much as possible of the information contained in

the full series of observations. In those cases where complete publica-

tion is not possible, condensation of the numerical data becomes

necessary, and the investigator should report at least the three fol-

lowing pieces of information

(i) The number of observations, n.

(ii) The mean <¢ of the observed values, calculated to as many

figures as are judged significant in consideration of the standard

deviation.

(iii) The standard deviation, s, given to as many figures as are

judged significant in consideration of the number of observations.

The number of significant figures to which the mean value Z is

reported should be dictated by the internal consistency of the obser-

vations, that is, by the magnitude of the standard deviation, and not

by what one may consider to be the accuracy of the experiments. If

one or more decimals are dropped from a mean, it may be impossible

to correct it to a more accurate value later on when one or more

constant errors may be traced and evaluated. Furthermore, a com-

parison of the discrepancy between two means with the internal

consistencies of the two sets of observations is hardly possible unless

each mean is carried out to as many significant figures as are war-

ranted by the standard deviation.

3. Functional concordance

Hitherto the n measurements were all supposed to have been made

on a single magnitude. Quite commonly, however, one has to deal

with a more complicated case of curve fitting; some measurements

may be here, and others there, as happens for example when a vapor

pressure is observed as a function of the temperature. As the tempera-

ture changes, so does the vapor pressure, and one may wish to ob-

OcTOBER 15, 1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 427

serve the vapor pressure at several different temperatures, and after-

ward fit a curve to the observed points. Sometimes only one measure-

ment is taken on y for a given 2, or on « for a given y, but it is highly

desirable that repeated observations be made whenever possible, in

order to see how well the curve fits (see, for example, pp. 20-25 of

Deming’s Least Squares [12]). Sometimes only y is subject to error;

but more generally x and y may both be in error, in which case the

problem of adjustment is still easily taken care of (cf. Deming [12],

Xo x

Fig. 3.—Here y is observed for several values of z, none of which is far from 2p. If

one knows the slope dy/dz of the functional relation between x and y at 20, or knows the

shape of the relation in that vicinity, he can easily project the observations to find the

concordance at %, i. e., to find what might have been obtained if x had been held at 2.

pp. 82 and 83 ff). In any event, when the curve has been fitted, an

estimate of the precisions of the observations on y and x can be made.

Occasionally, y is observed for several values of x within a range

close of x. One can then, in effect, move the points graphically to the

abscissa x, as shown in Fig. 3. The standard deviation of y at 2,

can easily be computed by taking the root mean square deviation of

y from its mean value at 2, according to eq. 5.

III. PROPAGATION AND COMBINATION OF ERRORS

If the quantity F is a function of z, y, and z, and these are in error

by the amounts Az, Ay, and Az, respectively, then F will be in error

by an amount AF whose value is given approximately by the linear

terms of a Taylor’s series:

428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

Mares faiap tb igNgr He TUNG Eo ss , (13)

Here the higher powers and products of Az, Ay, and Az have been

neglected, since it is assumed that the errors are small. (F,, F,, and

F, stand for dF /dxz, dF /dy, and dF/dz, respectively, and each deriva-

tive is to be evaluated at or near the correct values of x, y, and 2.)

Eq. 13 is the equation of propagation of error.

In practice, one does not know the individual errors in 2, y, and 2,

but may have some knowledge regarding their standard deviations

from long series of measurements. These standard deviations, denoted

by oz, oy, and o,, are respectively the square roots of the averages of

(Ax)?, (Ay)?, and (Az)? in very long series of observations.

Upon squaring both sides of eq. 13 we have

(AF)? = (FAx)? + (RAy)? + (BAz)? + 2RR Ardy

+ 2h, FAvhke + 2FFAyAz. oe

Assuming that F,, F,, and F, remain substantially constant while

Az, Ay, and Az vary over their allowable ranges, and that the averages

of the cross products AvAy, AxvAz, and AyAz are zero, as will be true

if Av, Ay, and Az are uncorrelated, one may average each term of

eq. 14 and obtain

Oi == lio Se bo ce Mos, (15)

This is the equation of the propagation of the standard deviation,

when the errors are independent. Two examples of its application to

various simple functions follow.

(i) If

F=ar+by+ ce, (16)

where the errors in x, y, and z are independent of one another, then

the standard deviation of F, resulting from the errors in 2, y, and 2,

is given by the relation

ov = {aor)? + (bay)? + (co.)?} 1/2. | (17)

Here o,, o,, and a, are the standard deviations of the errors in 7, y,

and z. It is to be noted that this formula remains unaltered if a, ),

or c changes sign.

Gi) If

eyes ye (18)

where the errors in 2, y, and z are independent of one another, then

the resulting standard deviation of F is

or = F\(a0z/x)? + (Boy/y)? + (yoe/2)?} 1. (19)

OcTOBER 15, 1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 429

This formula remains unaltered if a, 8, or y changes sign.

Separately obtained mean values, if within reasonable accord with

one another, may be combined by weighting them inversely as the

squares of their standard deviations. (Just whether two sets of ob-

servations are in accord with one another is a matter that can not be

decided objectively, but the normal test or the ‘‘t”’ test will at times

be of assistance.) If, for example, three sets of measurements of a

certain quantity yield the three means 7%, #2, and #3, the resulting

weighted mean will be

MX /o1? + NX2/o2” + nstz/o3"

7 a (20)

m/o? =e N»/ 9? =- n3/ 03°

wherein 7,1, N2, and n3 are the numbers of measurements in the three

sets, and oi, o2, and o3 express the standard deviations of single

observations. ,

The standard deviation to be assigned to the resulting weighted

mean Z will be

Eg = 1/(m/o1? 35 N2/o2? =F N3/ 032) 1/2, (21)

The bar over the o is a reminder that the character refers to a mean.

If in the same symbolism «,, a, and c; refer to the standard devia-

tions of the three separate means Zi, Z2, and #3, eqs. 20 and 21 take

the forms

os E1/o1? + 2/2” + £3/e3° (22)

1/o;? + 1/oo? + 1/6;

ae = (Bee ee ss 1 ee. (23)

These formulas are easily extended to any number of sets of observa-

tions.

IV. APPLICATION TO MEASUREMENTS IN GENERAL

The calculations outlined on the preceding pages may be applied

to any experiment that is in statistical control;i. e., when the data

are known to be random.® Possible examples that can be developed

in general physical and chemical measurements are the determina-

tions of heats of chemical reactions, heat capacities, heats of fusion

and vaporization, freezing and boiling points, volumes, molecular

weights, densities, refractive indices, solubilities, and various chemi-

cal analyses.

Physical and chemical measurements may be divided roughly into

6 See, in particular, chapter 11 of Shewhart [9].

430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

two classes, of which the second is further subdivided into two parts :’

A. Absolute or primary measurements.

B. Comparative or secondary measurements.

a. By successive comparison.

b. By simultaneous comparison.

In physicochemical measurements, the investigator must carefully

distinguish between the precision and the accuracy of his results,

and, furthermore, he must establish beyond reasonable doubt that

the purity of the chemical substances upon which the measurements

are being made is sufficient for the purposes of the investigation.

Methods for establishing the purity of chemical substances have been

discussed in detail by a number of authors (for example, see Wash-

burn [8]).

There are relatively few investigations that in themselves com-

pletely determine the final value of a desired property. Usually the

final value is a function of a number of quantities, only one of which

will be evaluated in the investigation, the others being “accepted”

from other sources. For example, the final value Q may be a function

of the quantities A, B, and C, of which C is the only one that is

evaluated in the investigation: thus, it might be that

Q = ABC. (24)

The precision of the measurements on C is a measure of the precision

of C but not of Q. The precision of C(=Q/AB) may be considered the

‘Immediate’ precision of the measurements, and this is to be con-

trasted with the “‘overall’”’ precision of Q, which must include the

precisions of A and B as well as of C. The standard deviation to be

assigned to A and B should be estimated, in a manner similar to that

used in estimating the standard deviation of C’, from measurements

made in the laboratories where A and B were determined. When no

systematic errors exist in A or B or C, then the “‘overall’”’ standard

deviation, estimated by the propagation of the standard deviations

of the various component parts, gives an idea of the accuracy of the

experiment. It is only through the concordance of different methods

of measurement that a measurable characteristic is ever said to have

an existence that is operationally verifiable; but no matter how close

this concordance appears to be, there is always the possibility that

future experimental or theoretical work may reveal the presence of

constant errors, whereupon our ideas concerning the accuracy of a

7 For further definition and discussion of absolute and relative measurements, see

Swietoslawski [7].

OcToOBER 15, 1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 431

measured quantity will need to be revised (cf. Shewhart [9], chapter

IV).

Absolute or primary measurements are those in which the result-

ing magnitude is measured in terms of fundamental or absolute stand-

ards. Examples of this class include the determination of the density

of water in terms of the fundamental units of mass and volume; the

heat of formation of water in terms of the fundamental unit of

energy; and the absolute viscosity of water in terms of fundamental

units. For such measurements the finally determined value of Q will

be the resultant of sets of measurements on one or more magnitudes.

The standard deviation of the magnitude resulting from each of the

component sets of observations may be estimated according to the

procedure discussed in Section II, these separate standard deviations

then being combined by the procedure given in Section III for the

propagation of errors. Strictly, the formulas developed there are valid

only for the true values of the standard deviations involved, but they

will be sufficiently close for the purpose when used with estimated

standard deviations.

Comparative or secondary measurements are those in which the

resulting magnitude is determined by comparison with a selected

standard or reference substance, in terms of a ‘‘best’’ value more or

less arbitrarily assigned or accepted for the standard. For such

measurements, it is to be emphasized that the evaluation of the

“overall” standard deviation of the resulting value entails a con-

sideration not only of the errors in the immediate experiment, but

also of the uncertainty in the value selected for the standard sub-

stance in terms of the fundamental units. This latter uncertainty

must be inferred from absolute or primary measurements made in a

laboratory adequately equipped to determine the value for the stand-

ard substance in terms of the fundamental units.

Secondary measurements involving successive comparison with the

standard or reference substance include, for example, the determina-

tion of the viscosity of a liquid with a viscosimeter standardized with

water (using an “accepted” value for the latter) and the determina-

tion of the heat of combustion of an organic substance with a bomb

calorimetric apparatus standardized with benzoic acid. In such

measurements, the final value Q is the resultant of two sets of meas-

urements with the same apparatus under as nearly the same condi-

tions as possible. In one set the reference substance is measured, and

in the other the experimental substance. This type of measurement

determines the ratio of the property for the one to that for the other,

432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

as for example, Q.,/Q,. If the estimated standard deviations (Section

IJ) are respectively oc, and oa,, then for Q.,/Q,, which measures Q,,

in terms of the units and value accepted for the standard, the result-

ing standard deviation is that obtained by combining o,, and a, in a

manner indicated in Section III. It should be noted that this result

takes no account of the uncertainty in the value selected for the

standard substance.

Secondary measurements involving simultaneous comparisons of

the given substance with the standard or reference, include, for ex-

ample, the determination of relative heat capacities with “twin”

calorimeters, of relative P-V-T data with ‘“‘twin’’ bombs, and of rela-

tive densities with ‘‘twin’”’ pycnometers. In such measurements, the

final value Q is usually the result of measurements with a ‘‘twin”’ ap-

paratus containing both the given substance and the reference or

standard. This type of measurement substantially determines the

difference between the value of the property for the experimental

substance and that for the reference substance, as for example,

@,,—Q,. In practice the reference substance is selected to make the

observed difference Q., —Q, small in comparison with Q,. The result-

ing standard deviation for the value of Q., expressed in terms of the

units and value adopted for the reference substance, will be simply the

standard deviation for the value Q,,—Q,, evaluated from the data

according to the procedure given in Sections II and III. This standard

deviation likewise takes no account of the uncertainty in the value

selected for the reference substance.

V. SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THERMOCHEMISTRY

1. General remarks

In thermochemical investigations, systematic errors may arise from

a number of sources, including the evaluation of the energy equiva-

lent of the calorimeter, the determination of the amount of reaction,

etc.® Such systematic errors, which affect the accuracy but usually

not the precision of the results, may preclude agreement among differ-

ent laboratories as to the results of measuring what is supposedly the

same thing, even though the consistency of the measurements in each

of the laboratories by itself is entirely satisfactory.

The standard deviations associated with the ‘‘accepted’”’ constants

and other constant factors entering into the reduction of the data

should be incorporated, so far as they are significant, into the final

“overall” standard deviation assigned to the quantity being evalu-

8 For a detailed discussion of such factors, see reference [10].

OcToBER 15, 1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 433

ated. In the report of an investigation, such constants and their as-

signed standard deviations should be identified and the reasons for

their selection given.

The standard deviation that is to be associated with the mean #

of a set of n observations in a state of statistical control is 1/V/n

times the standard deviation (for single observations) of the parent

population from which the observations are drawn (see Section IT).

An estimate 5’ of the standard deviation of z can therefore be ob-

tained by multiplying s’ in eq. 8 by 1/./n, whence

B= BA = 0/ 207/ = 10), (25)

where dv,” is the sum of the squares of the deviations, each deviation

being measured from 7, that is, v;=2;—Z, as in eq. 2. (It will be

recalled that s’ is the estimated standard deviation for single observa-

tions of a given set, and that S’ is the estimated standard deviation

of the mean 7.)

It is again emphasized that the procedure described here for treat-

ing the observations of experimental thermochemistry statistically

is applicable only if the observations are in a state of statistical con-

trol (see Section IT).

2. Procedure for combining standard deviations

Following the general classification already given in Section IV,

calorimetric investigations of the heats of chemical reactions may be

divided into those involving (A) absolute or primary measurements

and (B) comparative or secondary measurements.

A. Absolute or primary measurements

In thermochemical investigations involving absolute or primary

measurements, the heat evolved by a measured amount of chemical

reaction is compared with the heat evolved by a measured amount of

electrical energy, using the calorimeter system as the absorber and

comparator of the two kinds of energies. In the ideal case, both a

fixed calorimeter system and a fixed temperature rise would be used,

so that a direct equality would be obtained between a measured

amount of electrical energy and a measured amount of chemical

reaction [10].

In actual practice it is easy to use a fixed calorimeter system but

impracticable to try to obtain exactly the same temperature rise in

all experiments. Instead, with the fixed calorimeter system, the tem-

perature rise is made substantially the same in all experiments, and

434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No: 10

the small differences from one experiment to another are measured

in order to effect the correction to a common temperature rise. In

most cases the amount of electrical or chemical energy added to the

calorimeter can be so regulated that the differences in the tempera-

ture changes in the various experiments will differ from zero by at

most several percent of the total change. Since the small differences

can be measured as precisely as necessary, the advantage of the sub-

stitutional nature of the method is retained, and the experimenter

- gains some needed flexibility in operation. 7

For the given calorimeter system, it is convenient to determine a

quantity called its energy equivalent.® This quantity A is the amount

of electrical energy E added to the fixed calorimeter system divided

by the temperature rise Atz, the amount of energy added being regu-

lated so that Atz differs little from the selected ‘“‘standard’’ tempera-

ture rise. The relation used in computing the energy equivalent of

the calorimeter is

A/f = E/Atz, (26)

where EF is the observed electrical energy, Atz is the observed temper-

ature rise, A is the energy equivalent of the calorimeter, and f is a

constant whose value is the resultant of the various calibration fac-

tors associated with the instruments used in measuring the electrical

energy, such as the standard resistances, standard cell, resistance

coils of the potentiometer, timing apparatus, etc. The product fH

gives the electrical energy in terms of fundamental units. In the ex-

periments with electrical energy, the quantities actually observed are

E and Atz, and for each experiment there is determined a value of the

ratio H/Atz. From a series of n such determinations of E//Atz, there

is obtained an average value of H/Atz, this average being the experi-

mental determination of A/f according to eq. 26. By applying eq. 25

to the measurements of H'/Atz one may calculate

SA/s => a/z0;2/n(n = 1) (27)

as an estimate of the standard deviation to be assigned to the deter-

mination of A/f.

9 This quantity is substantially the same as that which has been called by many

writers the heat capacity of the calorimeter, but the latter designation is not recom-

mended because it implies that the investigator has a knowledge of the actual physical

boundaries of the material system to which the heat capacity is ascribed, and that the

heat capacity of the calorimeter may be evaluated by a summation of the heat capaci-

ties of its component parts. As has already been pointed out [10], this latter procedure

is not admissible in modern thermochemical investigations.

OcToBER 15,1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 435

In a series of calorimetric reaction experiments, there is measured

the amount of chemical reaction that produces, in the calorimeter, a

temperature rise substantially equal to the selected ‘“‘standard”’

temperature rise. The relation used in reducing the data of these

experiments is

Bg = Atr/We, (28)

where Ate is the observed temperature rise, Wz is the observed mass

of the substance (either reactant or product) that is used to deter-

mine the amount of reaction, B is the temperature rise per unit mass

of the selected substance that determines the amount of reaction,

and g is a factor whose value is the resultant of the various factors

required to convert the observed mass of the selected substance to the

number of moles of the desired pure reaction, which conversion in-

volves the molecular weight of the selected substance, a correction for

any impurity in the reaction, etc. In the experiments with chemical

energy, the quantities actually observed are Ate and We, and for each

experiment there is determined a value of the ratio Atr/Wr. From a

series of n such determinations of Atr/Wer, there is obtained an aver-

age value of Atr/We, this average being the experimental determina-

tion of Bg according to eq. 28. By applying eq. 25 to the measure-

ments of Atr/We one calculates

Spae— \/ 202 na — 1) (29)

as an estimate of the standard deviation to be assigned to the deter-

mination of Bg.

The experimental value of the heat Q of one mole of the reaction

being studied is obtained from the relation

which can be written

Q = (£/Atz) (Atr/We)f/g. (31)

The ratios H/Atz and Atrz/We are evaluated in the electrical

energy and the chemical reaction experiments, respectively, and the

‘ratio f/g includes all the constant factors involved in the reduction

of the data. In the experiments, Atz and Atr are made as nearly alike

as possible, and since these temperature rises occur in eq. 31 only as

the ratio Atr/Atz, the thermometer need not be calibrated in an

absolute sense. In fact, the substitutional nature of the experiments

can be further emphasized by reporting the values of Atz and Ate

436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

in the units in which they are actually measured (microvolts if the

thermometric device is a thermoelement and ohms if it is a resistance

thermometer) without conversion to degrees on the temperature

scale.

By an appropriate analysis of the information supplied by the

standardizing and other laboratories, the investigator may be able to

estimate the magnitude of the standard deviations associated with the

constant factors f and g used in reducing the data. If these estimates

are denoted by Ss; and 5%, then, by comparing eqs. 18 and 31 and

applying eq. 19, the final ‘“‘overall’’ standard deviation to be assigned

to the experimental value of Q is found to be

36 = QV [S4i7/(A/f)]? + [52/Bo]? + [5//f]? + [5¢/o. (82)

The value of 59 given by eq. 32 is seen to be derived from a combi-

nation of four terms, the first from the experiments with electrical

energy, the second from the experiments with chemical energy, and

the third and fourth from the constant factors used in reducing the

data. In the actual practice of thermochemical investigations, the

uncertainties in the calibration factors to be applied to the nominal

values of the standard resistances, standard cells, etc., are nearly

always negligible, or can be made so by appropriate calibration at

the national standardizing laboratory. Likewise, the correction for

an impurity in the reaction, if any is present, can usually be made

with negligible uncertainty by application of the appropriate analyti-

cal technic in the chemical analysis of the reaction [10]. It appears,

therefore, that by adequate calibration and chemical techniques, the

uncertainties in the factors f and g in eq. 31 can usually be made

negligible in comparison with those of A/f and Bg. Under such cir-

cumstances the last two terms under the radical in eq. 32 may be

neglected, and the final ‘‘overall” standard deviation to be assigned

to the experimental value of Q becomes simply

36 = QV [34/(A/N)? + [8'20/ BaF. (33)

B. Comparative or secondary measurements

In thermochemical investigations comparative or secondary meas-

urements have so far been made only by successive comparison. In

such experiments the heat evolved by a measured amount of the

given chemical reaction is compared with the heat evolved by a

measured amount of a selected “standard’’ or reference reaction,

using a fixed calorimeter system with a substantially constant tem-

OcTOBER 15,1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 437

perature rise. The heat evolved per unit amount of the selected refer-

ence reaction, which is chemically similar to the one being investi-

gated, has been determined, in terms of fundamental units for the

reaction occurring under certain standard conditions, in an appropri-

ate standardizing laboratory. These comparative or secondary ther-

mochemical measurements are the same as the absolute or primary

ones except that the energy equivalent of the calorimeter is deter-

mined not with electrical energy but with the heat evolved by a

measured amount of the standard or reference reaction taken under

“standard” conditions.

The relation used in computing the energy equivalent of the calo-

rimeter from the data of the experiments with the reference reaction

is where W, is the observed mass of that reactant or product of the

standardizing reaction which is used to determine the amount of

reaction, At, is the observed temperature rise, C'is the energy equiva-

lent of the calorimeter in terms of the value and units assigned to the

standardizing reaction, and D is the value assigned to the standardiz-

ing reaction for the heat evolved per unit mass of the reactant or

product that determines the amount of reaction when the reaction

occurs under the conditions maintained in the experiments in the

standardizing laboratory. In the experiments with the reference reac-

tion, the quantities actually observed are W, and At,, and for each

experiment there is determined a value of the ratio W,/At,. From a

series of n such determinations of W,/Ait,, there is obtained an average

value of W,/At,, this average being the experimental determination

of C/D according to eq. 34. By applying eq. 25 to the measurements

of W./At,, one may calculate

Sopp = ~/ 202/n(n — 1) (35)

as an estimate of the standard deviation to be assigned to the deter-

mination of C/D.

In a series of calorimetric reaction experiments, the reaction whose

heat is to be determined is carried out under conditions substantially

identical to those maintained in the experiments with the standardiz-

ing reaction. The relation used in reducing the data of these experi-

ments is

Bg = Atr/We, (36)

where Afr is the observed temperature rise, Wr is the observed mass

438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 10

of the reactant or product of the given reaction that is used to deter-

mine the amount of reaction, B is the temperature rise per unit mass

of the selected substance that determines the amount of reaction, and

g has the same significance as in eq. 28. In these experiments, the

quantities actually observed are Atz and We, and for each experiment

there is determined a value of the ratio Atr/We. From a series of n

such determinations of Atr/We, there is obtained an average value of

Atr/Wer, this average being the experimental determination of Bg

according to eq. 36. By applying eq. 25 to the measurements of

Atr/Wr one may calculate

Shy = \/ D0;2/n(n — 1) (37)

as an estimate of the standard deviation to be assigned to the deter-

mination of Bg.

The experimental value of the heat Q of one mole of the reaction

under investigation is obtained from the relation

OQ = OB. (38)

which can be written

Q (W,/Ats) (Atr/Wr)D/g. (39)

The ratios W,/At, and Atrz/Wr are measured in the two series of

calorimetric reaction experiments, the first with the standardizing

reaction and the second with the reaction whose heat is to be deter-

mined. The ratio D/g contains all the constant factors involved in the

reduction of the data, including the value assigned for the heat of a

unit amount of the standardizing reaction. As in the absolute or pri-

mary measurements, the temperature changes are made substantially

the same in all experiments. The statement concerning the calibration

of the thermometer following eq. 31 is also applicable here.

The value assigned to D, the heat of a unit amount of the stand-

ardizing reaction, has been previously determined in a standardizing

laboratory and carries with it a standard deviation Sp estimated ac-

cording to the procedure outlined under absolute or primary meas-

urements. Then the final ‘‘overall’”’ standard deviation to be assigned

to the experimental value of Q that is obtained from these compara-

tive or secondary measurements is

36 = QV [Sep/(C/D) |? + [5h/Ba]? + [5>/D]? + [54/9], (40)

where g and S/, have the same significance as in eqs. 28 and 32.

OcTOBER 15,1939 ROSSINI AND DEMING: ASSIGNMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES 439

If, as in the previous case, the uncertainty in the factor g is negligi-

ble in comparison with the others, then this equation may be simpli-

fied to

39 = QV [5¢)n/(C/D) |? + [58./Bg]? + [55/D]?, (41)

where the first two terms under the radical arise from the two kinds of

experiments performed by the investigator, and the third arises from

the experiments made in the standardizing laboratory.

3. Discussion of the procedure

In connection with the foregoing procedure for evaluating the final

“overall” standard deviations to be assigned to thermochemical

values obtained either from absolute (primary) or comparative

(secondary) measurements, the following points are to be noted:

(a) If more than one set of measurements of a given kind is made,

the means and their respective standard deviations may be combined

according to the procedure given in Section III, eqs. 15 ff;

(b) The number of experiments in any one set should be made

sufficiently large to insure that the estimated standard deviations ob-

tained for the magnitudes A/f, Bg, or C/D (see above) reasonably

represent the behavior of the apparatus?°;

mistake or gross error has obviously been made, or in which an

extraordinarily large deviation can be accounted for by purely physi-

cal means.

It is important to note also that the following assumptions have

been made in estimating the standard deviations according to the

procedure outlined here:

(a) The experiments are performed under conditions corresponding

to a state of statistical control;

(b) The customary theory of probability, when applied to data in

statistical control, gives in the long run the relative frequency with

which intervals + )s (based on the observed mean value # and the

consistency of the data, past or present) Roum overlap the mean

of a large number of observations;

10 In the investigations carried on in the thermochemical laboratory at the National

Bureau of Standards (see reference [11] for a summary of most of them), the practical

optimum number of experiments per set appears to be in the neighborhood of 8 to 12,

depending upon the particular substance being studied, its availability in adequate

quantities of the sufficiently pure material, etc. It is, of course, presupposed that the

apparatus has been brought into a state of control by previous experimentation so

that the observations recorded on the substance under investigation can be considered

truly random.

440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

measurement is the purpose of the experiments.

4. The uncertainty interval

To each experimental value determined in the thermochemical

laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards there is assigned a

number representing the uncertainty interval, within which future

determinations of the given experimental quantity may with reason-

able certainty be expected to lie." The value adopted for this un-

certainty interval is twice the final “overall” standard deviation, i.e.,

Uncertainty interval = 250, (42)

where 5 is given by eq. 32 for the absolute or primary measurements,

and by eq. 40 for the comparative or secondary measurements.

When two investigations yield, for a given thermochemical con-

stant, values which differ by more than the sum of the two assigned

uncertainty intervals, it is probable, but not at all certain, that a

systematic error or combination of errors exists in one or both of the

investigations. Conversely, when the two values are in accord within

their assigned uncertainty intervals, it is probable, but not at all cer-

tain, that systematic errors are absent. When two such values differ

by more than the sum of the assigned uncertainty intervals, it is de-

sirable to reexamine the data of the experiments and ascertain

whether all the necessary constant factors (see Section V-2) have been

included and properly evaluated, and whether the standard devia-

tions assigned to these constant factors have been properly estimated.

Need of revision may be discovered either in the numerical values of

the constant factors, or in the standard deviations assigned to them,

or in both.

This assignment of uncertainty intervals to thermochemical values

has, as a matter of record, been found to be of considerable practical

usefulness in a number of thermochemical laboratories, and with

appropriate limitations, their use is reeommended to others engaged

in similar work of determining thermochemical quantities.

The authors wish to acknowledge the benefit of discussion with

L. W. Tilton.

VI. REFERENCES

1. Demine, W. E., and Bires, R. T. On the statistical theory of errors. Rev. Mod.

Physics 6: 119-161. 1934. (Revised and enlarged edition published by the

Graduate School of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 1938.)

11 See references [3] and [9] for an extended discussion of uncertainty intervals.

OcTOBER 15, 1939 EATON: A PALEONISCID BRAIN CASE 441

2. Neyman, J. Lectures and conferences on mathematical statistics. 1938. (Graduate

School of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

3. ee W. A. The economic control of quality. 1931. (Van Nostrand, New

York.

4. Smitu, D. E. Source book in mathematics. 1929. (McGraw-Hill, New York.)

5. ey and Ropinson. Calculus of observations. 1924. (Blackie & Son,

ondon.

6. Fisoer, R. A. Statestecal methods for research workers. 1932. (Oliver & Boyd,

Edinburgh.)

7. SWIETOSLAWSKI, W. Definition of absolute and comparative measurements. Proc.

12th Conf. Int. Union Chem., Paris, p. 87. 1936.

8. WasHBurRN, E. W. The problem of establishing the identity and purity of a hydrocar-

bon obtained from petroleum. Ind. Eng. Chem. 22: 985—988. 1930.

9. SHEwHART, W. A. Statistical methods from the viewpoint of quality control. 1939.

(Graduate School of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

10. Rossini, F. D. Modern thermochemistry. Chem. Reviews 18: 233-256. 1936.

11. Rossint, F. D. Heats of formation of simple organic molecules. Ind. Eng. Chem.

29: 1424-1430. 1937.

12. Deminc, W. E. Least squares. (Graduate School of the U. 8S. Department of

Agriculture.)

PALEONTOLOGY .—A_ paleoniscid brain case. THroporRE H.

Eaton, Jr., Union College, Schenectady, N. Y. (Communi-

cated by C. Lewis GaAZIN.)

Present sources of information on the paleoniscid neurocranium

are principally three: Stensid (1921, Birgeria mougeott from the

Spitzbergen Triassic), Watson (1925, ‘“‘Paleoniscid A’”’ and “ Paleonis-

cid B”’ from the Kansas Carboniferous), and Case (1937, a paleoniscid

similar to Watson’s ‘“‘A,” from the same horizon, Upper Pennsyl-

vanian, Kansas City, Mo.). A specimen of the latter type, very

kindly lent to me by Dr. Case, is the material for the present study.

It is no. 18565, Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan.

Important characteristics of the paleoniscid neurocranium, as

shown in the papers cited, are these:

1. The brain case is tropibasic, an actinopterygian feature; that is,

the large eyes have encroached on the interorbital wall until it dis-

appeared, and the brain retreated accordingly to a position behind

the eyes and between the auditory capsules.

2. Also associated with tropibasy is a myodome, a recess for the

cranial attachment of the rectus eye muscles; this has eaten still

farther into the brain case, beneath the anterior part of the auditory

region on each side.

3. The endocranial ossifications are few but extensive, particularly

a single anterior “‘sphenoid,”’ paired “‘autosphenotics’’ forming the

postorbital processes, and ‘‘prootico-occipitals’’ enclosing the auditory

capsules (Stensid, 1921). Watson (1925) found a narrow zone of

chondrification separating the prootic from the occipital parts. This

was confirmed by Case and is readily visible in the present specimen.

1 Received April 27, 1939.

442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, Ne. 10

A distinction between the parasphenoid and basioccipital may be seen

ventrally, but in general it is extremely difficult to recognize separate

centers of ossification.

4. An enclosed aortic canal occurs in Watson’s and Case’s speci-

mens but was not observed by Stensi6, who could give little informa-

tion about the occipital region of Birgeria.

5. The spiracle is enclosed in a short canal.

6. Two large median fontanelles occur on the dorsal side, one

anterior, the other posterior to the synotic tectum.

Stensid made certain comparisons with other Actinopteri and with

Crossopterygii; Watson carried the comparisons much farther, having

better material; Case described a nearly perfect case of the brain

and labyrinth, but regarding externals he simply noted a close

agreement with Watson. My study adds several details of the soft

anatomy, by restoration, and certain interpretations not previously

made, while the publication of Romer’s (1937) study of the brain

case of Megalichthys improves greatly the possible comparisons with

crossopterygians.

Specific features.—Since the genus and species can not be deter-

mined from the brain case alone, the more significant differences

between brain case 18565 and that of Watson’s paleoniscid A, the

nearest to it, may be summarized here (see figures):

1. Aortic canal: tapers caudad in 18565, expands caudad in “‘A.”’

2. Second efferent branchial artery: shows no sign of a groove in

18565 but has a definite groove outside the foramen in “A.”

3. Groove for lateral radix of dorsal aorta: runs more anteriorly

than laterally in 18565, but much more laterally in “A.”

4. Spiracular groove: continues far ventrad, nearly to the basi-

pterygoid process, in 18565, but Watson shows none at all on the

ventral side of “A.”

5. Basipterygoid process: close against ascending process of para-

sphenoid in 18565, but separated from the ascending process by at

least the latter’s width in Watson’s “‘A.”’

There are other less significant differences of proportion of parts,

but these show that the specimens are at least specifically distinct.

The specimen described here is remarkably good, but not perfect,

and it will be impossible to discuss adequately the orbit, myodome,

snout, or anterior part of the roof of the cranium. Other parts show

well and with little apparent distortion. For the brain and labyrinth

see Case (1937).

Spiracular region.—A ventral or dorsal view (Figs. 1, 2) shows a

OcToBER 15, 1939 EATON: A PALEONISCID BRAIN CASE 443

large blunt projection on the side of the postorbital region. This is

formed, ventrally, by the ascending process of the parasphenoid and

is penetrated dorsoventrally by the spiracular canal. The jugular

canal passes through more internally, in a nearly longitudinal direc-

tion, and a troughlike facet marks the position of the hyomandibular

articulation, externally and behind the spiracular canal (Fig. 3). The

spiracular canal opens dorsally into a fossa, which spreads caudad to

a peculiar deep pit located just above the horizontal semicircular

canal. This pit in the present specimen (18565) closely matches the

position of the external opening of the spiracle in such a form as

Cheirolepis (Devonian), and it may be, therefore, that the dorsal

course of the spiracular duct was drawn backward. In Ama, which

likewise has the spiracle enclosed in a canal, there is no such dorsal

trough in the neurocranium, and the external opening is directly

upward, behind the eye. In Polypterus, without an enclosed spiracu-

lar canal, there is also no such trough or more posterior pit. Yet the

smooth and definite continuity of the trough in the paleoniscid makes

it very difficult to imagine any other function than carrying the

dorsal part of the spiracular duct.

From the ventral opening of the spiracular canal a narrow but

distinct groove runs down and forward, approaching the midventrai

line. Clearly this carried the lower part of the spiracular duct to the

roof of the pharynx.

The anterior face of the postorbital process forms a triangle facing

outward, and the roofing bones must have attached to it along its

dorsal rim. Judging from Ama (Allis, 1897) and Polypterus (Allis,

1922) the external division of the adductor mandibulae, or a part

of that division, originated on this triangular face. The internal

divisions would, of course, have originated on the palatoquadrate.

Then the distinct excavation behind this triangle, and lateral to the

spiracular canal, housed the origin of the levator palatoquadrati

and the smaller, more posterior dilator operculi. The levator palato-

quadrati descends fanlike in Amia and Polypterus to insert on the

dorsal edge of the palatoquadrate and anterior face of the hyomandi-

bular. In all probability this arrangement had been established in the

-paleoniscids, since the amioids and Polypterini are known to repre-

sent divergent lines of descent from them. All these muscles are in-

nervated by the trigeminus and are therefore properly jaw muscles.

But the dilator operculi reaches back (in Amia, Polypterus, and other

Actinopteri) across the head of the hyomandibular and inserts,

usually by a tendon, on the inner face of the operculum. In most of

444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

these fishes the distance to reach is considerable, and the muscle is

nearly horizontal. In the paleoniscids, however, consideration of the

parts involved suggests a fairly short muscle, and there is no evidence

of a distinction, at the origin, between this and the levator palato-

quadrati. (In the development of the embryo in modern Actinopteri

the two arise as one, but take different insertions.) In a previous

paper (Eaton, 1939) written before seeing the paleoniscid neuro-

cranium, I suggested that the operculum of “‘higher’’ fishes, including

Actinopteri, might have been derived from a mandibular type of

operculum like that found in acanthodians. If so, the trigeminus in-

nervation of the dilator operculi would be explained easily by sup-

posing that this muscle attached to the operculum when the latter

articulated with the mandibular series of bones; it would then have

ABBREVIATIONS FOR FIGURES

A.—Canal for dorsal aorta

A. M.—Adductor mandibulae

B.—Basioccipital

B. M.—Segmental body muscles

B,, B-—Branchial efferent arteries 1 and 2

B. P.—Basipterygoid process

C.—Common carotid artery

D. F.,,.—Dorsal fontanelles 1 and 2

D. O.—Dilator operculi

E. C.—External carotid artery

F. M.—Foramen magnum

H. E.—Hyoidean efferent artery

Hm.—Facet for hyomandibular

I. C.—Internal carotid artery

J.—Jugular canal

L. A.—Lateral dorsal aorta

L. P.—Levator palatoquadrati

L-p, d-o.— Origin of levator palatoquadrati and dilator operculi

M.—Location of myodome

M. R.—Ridge probably at edge of body muscles

N.—Notochord canal

F.—Otico-occipital fissure

P.—Parasphenoid

C.—Parotic crest

O.—Postorbital process

P.—Paroccipital process

S.—Spiracular canal

F.—Supraotic fossa

G.—Spiracular groove

. T.—Synotic tectum

. F.— Vestibular fontanelle

I, II—Probable locations of first branchial articulations

VII, p—Palatine branch of facial nerve

X—Vagus foramen

Bo ACH Ach = fC)

ST Dnn

OcTOBER 15, 1939 EATON: A PALEONISCID BRAIN CASE 445

Figs. 1—5.—Paleoniscid brain case. 1, Ventral aspect, with certain details restored.

Length 27 mm. 2, Dorsal aspect, anterior part incompletely preserved. 3, Lateral

aspect. 4, Lateral aspect, with certain parts restored. 5, Posterior aspect. All

figures about three times natural size.

446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

followed the operculum back in a short migration to the hyomandib-

ular after the hyoid cleft was reduced to a spiracle. The apparent

shortness and obliqueness of the muscle in the paleoniscid seems to

lend a new support to this idea, and might even have been predicted,

since it means that the operculum was, morphologically, nearer to the

jaw than in later types. This also shows externally in the apparent

relations of the operculum to the dermal jaw bones.

Running back from the facet for the hyomandibular is a strong,

- uneven parotic crest, which extends as far as the fissure between the

otic and occipital divisions of the cranium. This crest is more promi-

nent than in any other fishes, but it is also distinct in Dipnoi (Neo-

ceratodus) and Crossopterygii (Megalichthys; see Romer, 1937, Figs.

1, 2, 5). Watson (1925) says, ‘‘It is difficult to see any reason for the

development of the lateral ridge on the otic region, which is, however,

quite constant in its occurrence in Actinopterygians, and forms a

very marked distinction between these fish and the Osteolepids,

Dipnoi and Tetrapods.” But it seems to me that the function of the

ridge, and its presence in osteolepids and Dipnoi, may be made out

quite clearly by considering muscle origins. In each of these groups,

but not the tetrapods, several muscles originate behind the hyo-

mandibular on the otic region, and the larger of these, the levator

hyoidei and levator operculi (or opercularis) come from just such a

ridge. In the Dipnoi, with the operculum and hyomandibular reduced,

the muscle from this ridge is the constrictor hyoidei only, which acts

in effect as the whole operculum. The parotic crest, then, forms

the dorsal boundary of the gill chamber, and is continued back in the

form of a paroccipital process or wing, to connect by a sheet of liga-

ment with the supracleithrum and thus furnish also the median wall

of the gill chamber. Above the ridge on the neurocranium is a recess

for the origin of a part of the epaxial muscles. In Crossopterygii there

is a similar ridge, but shorter, in the same place, and with a smooth

lateral edge which doubtless provided for the origin of the levator

hyoidei and the anterior part of the constrictor. The photograph

published in Time (April 3, 1939) of a living coelacanth recently

caught off the coast of South Africa shows a broad opercular flap ex-

tending far back, so that the constrictor (or opercularis) muscle must

originate largely on the fascia of the body muscles of the neck, and

only a little on the skull. This condition is much like Neoceratodus.

Above the parotic ridge (Megalichthys) is a supraotic fossa, as in

Dipnoi, obviously for epaxial muscles. In the paleoniscid there may

have been no distinction, at their origin, between the levator hyoidei,

OcTOBER 15, 1939 EATON: A PALEONISCID BRAIN CASE 447

going to the hyomandibular, and the levator operculi (the reduced

homologue of the constrictor above mentioned), but both must have

been present and have originated on the lateral face of the prominent

parotic crest. The shiny surface here indicates a large muscle origin.

_ In Polypterus the two are scarcely distinct except at their insertions,

~ but in Ama they are more so, and the levator operculi apparently

forms two separate muscles. In addition, more posteriorly and ven-

trally in the same region, there are levator muscles for the branchial

arches, but these leave no apparent marks on the paleoniscid neuro-

cranium. The only essential difference left, then, between the parotic

crest of paleoniscids and that of other fishes seems to be that there

was no room for any epaxial muscles to reach forward into the supra-

otic fossa, mentioned before as the probable dorsal opening for the

spiracular duct.

Ventral aspect—The ventral surfaces of the parasphenoid and

basioccipital together have the shape of a cross, the arms of which are

the ascending processes of the parasphenoid, each marked by a shal-

low groove for the ventral end of the spiracular duct. Anterior to the

ascending process is the orbit and the short but prominent basiptery-

goid process, while behind, on each side, is a deep jugular fossa. At the

side of the basioccipital occurs a small oval pit, the vestibular fonta-

nelle (Watson) from which the otico-occipital fissure runs postero-

dorsally (Figs. 1, 3). This fontanelle and fissure mark, evidently, the

embryonic distinction between the otic region and the occipital

segments added to the cranium behind it. Except during early de-

velopment such a gap does not occur in the cranium of other fishes.

The fissure continues up to the second fontanelle on the dorsal side,

behind the synotic tectum (Fig. 2).

The dorsal aorta was enclosed in a canal within a prominent

median ridge of the basioccipital (Figs. 1, 5). At the anterior end of

the canal there are two pairs of foramina, the first being for the lateral

radices of the aorta. A groove leads anterolaterally from each of this

first pair of foramina, indicating the course of the arteries. Just in

front of the vestibular fontanelle a slight smoothing of the surface

suggests the location of the hyoidean efferent; anterior to this the

artery would be, of course, the common carotid. A small foramen

somewhat mediad from the arterial groove is for the internal carotid;

the external carotid would not have entered the cranium, and its

further course can not be seen. Returning to the aortic canal, the

second pair of foramina would, then, have been for the first branchial

efferents. Halfway between these and the posterior end of the aortic

448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 10

canal a very small pair of foramina emerge from the canal, which

could only have carried the second branchial efferents, but they

seem disproportionally reduced. Polypterus is the only living actinop-

teran that is known to have an aortic canal enclosed in the neuro-

cranium. It differs from the paleoniscid in that only the hyoidean and

first branchial efferent arteries enter the canal, the others being

behind the limits of the brain case. Megalichthys shows a pair of

divergent aortic grooves in the base of the cranium, but they are

not enclosed, and their union to form the dorsal aorta was more pos-

terior than the end of the cranium. Otherwise, to my present knowl-

edge, Stensi6’s (1927) cephalaspid cyclostomes are the only verte-

brates in which the aorta was enclosed in the neurocranium.

A distinct oval foramen at the base of each parasphenoid wing,

behind the spiracular groove, and lateral to the internal carotid

foramen, is evidently for the palatine branch of the seventh nerve.

Watson shows a foramen on the side of the otic region, postero-

dorsal to the vestibular fontanelle and just below the parotic crest,

for the ninth nerve, but it is not possible to see this in the present

specimen. The surface there is partly disintegrated. The tenth

(vagus) nerve evidently emerged from an expanded part of the otico-

occipital fissure, also just below the parotic crest; the opening is

double.

In Amia the first two branchial arches attach to the cranium at

points just in front of the proximal ends of their respective efferent

arteries. The first one, only, articulates with the cranium in Polyp-

terus. The articulating end of the first branchial in each case is

forked. The levator muscles for the arches originate laterodorsally to

the gill chamber near the vagus foramen. In the paleoniscid it seems

probable that the first two arches connected with the basioccipital

close to the two pairs of anterior openings of the aortic canal, as in-

dicated in Fig. 1. The location for the first one is indistinguishable,

but that for the second seems to show as a faint ligament scar just

behind the foramen for efferent artery 1. Presumably the levator

muscles originated on the parotic crest just anterior to the vagus

foramen and the otico-occipital fissure, thus being in line with the

serially homologous levator hyoidei plus levator opercul.

Occipital region.—At the lateral extremity of the occiput occurs, on

each side, a prominent knob projecting posteriorly, which has not

been described before. This shows most clearly in the posterior view

(Fig. 5). Comparison with other Actinopteri identifies it as a par-

occipital process, from which a ligament extended to the post-

OcToBER 15, 1939 EATON: A PALEONISCID BRAIN CASE 449

temporal. This comparison also clears up the interpretation of the

paroccipital area in other groups of fishes. In Actinopteri, Dipnoi, and

Crossopterygii the shoulder girdle is connected with the skull. In

Actinopteri the connection is not only by a dermal articulation of the

_posttemporal with (usually) the epiotic, but also by a ligament run-

ning from a ventral process of the posttemporal to a process on the

pterotic (teleosts) or opisthotic (more primitive types). The latter

process is the one described here as paroccipital. The true opisthotic

bone, homologous with that in tetrapods, is a cartilage bone, but ap-

parently in the higher Actinopteri it tends to be crowded out by

the dermal pterotic, sometimes erroneously called opisthotic. The

process in question, with its ligament (which may ossify) remains in

place regardless of which bone may form it.

In Dipnoi (Neoceratodus) the parotic crest previously described

continues back to connect by a short broad ligament with the supra-

cleithrum, forming the median wall of the gill chamber. In this case

the end of the crest from the neurocranium is obviously the paroc-

cipital process, functionally the same as in Actinopteri. It has the

same relation to the branchial chamber and to the occipital face of

the cranium, besides attaching to the shoulder girdle.

In Megalichthys (Romer, 1937, p. 12 and Fig. 5) there occurs a

small knob whose morphological relations to the rest of the cranium

are much the same as in the paleoniscid; that is, it faces posteriorly in

line with the parotic crest, below the supraotic fossa and lateral to the

area of greatest muscle attachment. This Romer termed provisionally

the paroccipital process, remarking that it was “obviously an im-

portant point of attachment.” I do not hesitate to identify it with the

paroccipital process in the paleoniscid, which carried a ligament to

the shoulder girdle, and I infer that it did likewise in Megalichthys.

The process would be rather out of the way for a branchial arch

articulation, as only the first one or two arches probably reached the

skull and they would have been fairly near the hyomandibular facets

and far more ventral than this process.

In tetrapods the arrangement of parts changes markedly on ac-

count of the loss of a shoulder girdle connection with the skull and

because the loss of the operculum and the reduction of the hyomandib-

ular eliminates the levator operculi and modifies the levator hyoidei;

the latter changes its insertion to the mandible and becomes the de-

pressor mandibulae of amphibians, reptiles, and birds. There is still

a parotic crest, essentially as in fishes, above the jugular vein. Any

process developed on this crest or near it would be, probably, a new

450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

one; such, for example, as the process to which the dorsal arm of the

stapes articulates in some reptiles. The term ‘‘parotic process’’ would

perhaps be more satisfactory here. It is sometimes, but not always,

used.

The area of attachment of muscles to the occipital face of the brain

case seems to be as follows: from the dorsal rim down to the sides and

lower corners of the foramen magnum and, ventrally, reaching for-

ward nearly as far as the second pair of aortic canal foramina (first

branchial efferent arteries); laterally the muscle area reaches to a

curious low ridge near the paroccipital process. This ridge probably

served for attachment of the external fascia of the epaxial muscles.

The area as a whole, including the ventral extension forward, cor-

responds very closely with that in Amia. The posterior end of the

parotic crest forms a knob which may have provided the most

dorsolateral attachment for the muscle.

Finally, turning to the dorsal aspect of the neurocranium, it is

worth noting that the two median fontanelles are practically the

same as in the chondrocranium of Acipenser, but narrower. Polyp-

terus has the anterior one divided by an “‘epiphysial bar,” and lacks

the posterior one.

SUMMARY

1. The more important ways in which the paleoniscid brain case

shows relationship to that of other Actinopteri are these:

A. General. The skull is tropibasic and from the ventral side the

parasphenoid and basioccipital appear as a cross. There is a

pair of median dorsal fontanelles, one or both of which usually

appear in the chondrocranium of modern Actinopteri. The

muscles of the palatoquadrate, hyomandibular, and operculum

appear to have been closely similar to those of Amza and

Polypterus. A strong paroccipital process is present, indicating

a ligament to the posttemporal as in most modern forms.

B. Resemblance to Polypterus. The aorta occupied a closed

canal in the basioccipital; this canal, however, formed a pro-

jecting median ridge, absent in Polypterus. In connection with

Polypterus De Beer (1937) shows that its lack of a myodome is

evidently secondary, and is correlated with retention of the

embryonic hypophysial foramen through the parasphenoid.

Such a foramen is lacking in the paleoniscid, and the myo-

dome, as with most other Actinopteri, is well developed.

C. Resemblance to Amia. The spiracle is enclosed in a short

OcToBER 15, 19389 EATON: A PALEONISCID BRAIN CASE 451

canal. In general the features of the brain case are sufficiently

near to those of Amza to make detailed comparison useful, but

this seems to be the only exclusive agreement between Amia

and the paleoniscid.

D. Resemblance to Aczpenser. The two dorsal fontanelles of the

paleoniscid are far more like those of Acipenser than of any

others.

E. Special peculiarities. There is a deep supraotic pit connected

by a trough with the spiracular canal, and the only interpreta-

tion the writer can make is that this carried the dorsal end of

the spiracular duct. On the ventral side there is a groove for

the spiracle, going toward the middle line. No supraotic fossa

for the epaxial muscles is present. The otic and occipital por-

tions are separated by a narrow fissure occupied by cartilage.

The parotic crest, for the levator hyoidei and levator opercull,

is much more conspicuous than in other Actinopteri. The ridge

containing the aortic canal, in the basioccipital, projects down

like a keel.

2. Points of particular interest in comparison with Dipnoi and

Crossopterygii are these: The parotic crest is shown to be present in

the latter two classes also, and to have the same morphological rela-

tions to the otic region, gill chamber, and the muscles of the hyo-

mandibular and operculum. The paroccipital process of the paleonis-

cid is identified not only with that of the Actinopteri but with a simi-

lar process in Dipnoi and Crossopterygil, and the relations of the

skull to the shoulder girdle are shown to be similar. The greatest

contrast of the paleoniscid with these two classes is in its tropibasic

skull, but tropibasy was achieved independently in the coelacanths.

LITERATURE CITED

Auuis, E. P. The cranial muscles and cranial and first spinal nerves in Amia calva.

Journ. Morph. 12(3): 487-808, pls. 20-38. 1897.

The cranial anatomy of Polypterus, with special reference to Polypterus bichir.

Journ. Anat. 56(8, 4): 189-294, pls. 3-24. 1922.

Casz, E.C. The brain and skull of a paleoniscid fish from the Pennsylvanian of western

Missourt. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 78(1): 1-10, 2 pl. 1937.

De Besr, G. R. Development of the vertebrate skull. Oxford. 1987.

Eaton, T. H., Jr. Suggestions on the evolution of the operculum of fishes. Copeia,

1939(1): 42-46. 1989.

Romer, A. 8S. The braincase of the Carboniferous crossopterygian Megalichthys

nitidus. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 82(1): 1-73, 16 figs. 1937.

Stensi6, E. A. Triassic fishes from Spitzbergen. Pp. i-xxviii, 1-307, 35 pls., 90 figs.

Vienna. 1921.

The Downtonian and Devonian vertebrates of Spitzbergen. Part I. Cephalaspidae.

Skrifter om Svalbard og Nordishavet. Det. Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo.

No. 12, 391 pp., 1 map, 103 figs., 112 pls. 1927.

WATSON, D. M. 8.” The structure of certain paleoniscids and the relationships of that

group with other bony fishes. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1925, pp. 815-870, 2 pls.,

30 figs. 1925.

452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

ENTOMOLOGY .—Notes and descriptions of United States scarab

beetles.! LAWRENCE W. Sayuor, U. 8. Bureau of Biological

Survey. (Communicated by Epwarp A. CHAPIN.)

Since it is probable that within the near future another supplement

will be added to Leng’s catalogue of the Coleoptera, I wish to bring to

attention certain synonymy as well as additions to knowledge of

southwestern scarabs.

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) rossi, n. sp. . Fig. 6

Male.—Oblong-oval, wider behind; above rufocastaneous and pilose; head

and thorax shining, elytra slightly to moderately densely pruinose. Head

with the clypeus transverse and flat, its apex truncate and angles rounded;

disk with coarse, regularly placed punctures, not pilose; punctures of the

front quite large, dense, contiguous, and scabrose, with long erect hair.

Antenna 9-segmented, club testaceous and subequal to funicle in length.

Thoracic disk with scattered and sparse, umbilicate punctures, each with a

very long erect hair; these punctures on the apical half of the disk are nearly

twice as large as those on the basal half; lateral margin coarsely crenate and

with very long cilia; basal margin obsolete; front thoracic angles acute, hind

angles obtusely angulate. Elytra with very fine and moderately dense punc-

tures, without traces of striae except for the weakly indicated sutural striae;

punctures with very small, procumbent hairs; there are longer and erect

hairs scattered along the scutellar area and at the apex, the lateral margins

also have a dense fringe of cilia. Pygidium convex, polished, with moderately

dense, coarse, umbilicate punctures, at the sides and along the base the punc-

tures are smaller and contiguous; disk with a moderately dense covering of

small semierect hairs and also numerous very long erect hairs. Abdomen

flattened, faintly concave at center and with sparse, fine punctures; fifth

sternite somewhat rugose at middle and with much coarser punctures at

sides, apical half varying from flat to slightly longitudinally sulcate; sixth

sternite short, transversely impressed, basal margin slightly carinate, center

of disk with a short longitudinal sulcus. All claws with a sharp median tooth,

base hardly dilated. Hind tibial spurs free; first tarsal segment shorter than

the second. Except for submarginal rows of ciliate punctures, the entire

surface of the posterior femur is highly polished and impunctate. Length

12-13.5 mm. Width 6—7 mm.

The holotype and paratypes are from Patagonia, Ariz., and were collected

in July 1937 by E. S. Ross. I take pleasure in naming the species after Mr.

Ross, of the University of California, to whom I am indebted for many

favors and specimens in the past. Two additional paratypes taken at the same

time and place by M. A. Cazier also are in my collection. The type will be

placed in the United States National Museum on permanent loan, and one

paratype will be deposited in the collection of Dr. M. A. Sanderson, of Fay-

etteville, Ark.

This species runs to Group XV of Horn’s tables, but it is not at all close

to any of the included species, or to any other known from the United States.

Its closest relative appears to be the Mexican P. porodera Bates, known from

Guanajuato and Peras, but P. rossi differs from that species in many details

among them the nonelevated and nonsinuate clypeal apex, the 9-segmented

antennae, and the abdominal characters.

1 Received April 25, 1939.

OcTOBER 15, 1939 SAYLOR: UNITED STATES SCARAB BEETLES 453

Phyllophaga submucida LeConte

Phyllophaga submucida LeConte, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 3:

260. 1856.

I have three specimens of this species from Rancho La Golondrina, Rio

Sabinas, Coahuila, Mexico, collected June 2, 1938, by Rollin H. Baker of

College Station, Tex., and very kindly presented to me by him. Not previ-

ously recorded outside of the United States.

Phyllophaga torta LeConte

Phyllophaga torta LeConte, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 3: 239. 1856.

Lachnosterna dampfi Arrow, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 11: 148. 1937. (New

synonymy. )

G. J. Arrow, of the British Museum, has kindly compared Mexican and

Texan examples of this species with the types of P. dampfi and reports that

the two are the same. Thus the known range of P. torta is extended a good

distance into Mexico, where it has not previously been recorded.

Phyllophaga ignava Horn

Phyllophaga ignava Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 15: 280. 1887.

I have a specimen of this species from Rancho La Golondrina, Rio Sabi-

nas, Coahuila, Mexico, June 2, 1938, collected by R. H. Baker, and another

from Nuevo Leon, Mexico, June. Not previously recorded from Mexico.

Phyllophaga crinita (Burmeister)

Trichestes crinita Burmeister, Hand. Ent. (2) 4: 359. 1855.

I have a good series of this species taken at Buena Vista, Coahuila,

Mexico, July 7, 1938, by R. H. Baker, and also some from Monterrey.

Recorded by Bates from Mexico.

Phyllophaga vetula Horn

Phyllophaga vetula Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 14: 274. 1887.

Lachnosterna longipilosa Bates, Biol. Centr. Amer. (2) 2: 209. 1888. (New

synonymy).

I have cotypes of Bates’s species, and they are the same as P. vetula. The

range of P. vetula is thus extended into Mexico, where the species has not

been previously recorded.

Phyllophaga lenis Horn

Phyllophaga lenis Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 14: 287. 1887.

Lachnosterna anodentata Bates, Biol. Centr. Amer. (2) 2: 208, 405. 1888.

(New synonymy.)

I have compared cotypes of Bates’s species with lenis and the two are the

same.

Phyliophaga fucata Horn

Phyllophaga fucata Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 15: 278. 1887.

Phyllophaga linsleyi Saylor, Pomona Journ. Ent. and Zool. 1936. (New

synonymy. )

Phyllophaga (Tostegoptera) lanceolata (Say)

Phyllophaga lanceolata Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 3: 242. 1824.

Phyllophaga lanceolata arizonae Von Bloeker, Bull. Southern California

Acad. Sci. 35: 4. 1936.

454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

Fig. 1.—Serica searli, n. sp. Fig. 2.—Serica alleni,n. sp. Fig. 3.—Serica mendota,

nisp. Fig. 4—Serica cuyamaca, n. sp. A, En face view of male genitalia; B, lateral

view of.same; C, same.

OcTOBER 15, 1939 SAYLOR: UNITED STATES SCARAB BEETLES 455

Phyllophaga grisiana Von Bloeker, l. c., p. 5.

Phyllophaga caziert Von Bloeker, l. ¢., p. 6.

I have dissected paratypes of all of Von Bloeker’s “‘species”’ and find that

there is nothing to validate the names, even subspecifically. In Von Bloeker’s

description of P. cazierz he says: “‘The golden yellow scales and globosity of

the female readily distinguish the species.’’ It is well known that in species

(e.g., Thyce fieldi Fall) ordinarily clothed with white scales the vestiture

may frequently be yellow. This color variation, however, does not have sub-

specific or even racial significance. Variability in gibbosity of the female of

any species having short or obsolete wings also must be recognized. Striking

evidence of this and of the color variation may be seen in almost any large

series of P. lanceolata even if collected at the same time and place. The male

genitalia of all the forms described by Von Bloeker are exactly like those of

P. lanceolata, as indeed his sketches show.

Phyllophaga chippewa, n. sp. Fig. 5

Male.—Elongate-oval, slightly wider behind, above polished, nearly or

quite glabrous. Clypeus and front very densely, somewhat coarsely punctate,

clypeus flat, apex broadly and not deeply emarginate and hardly reflexed,

angles broadly rounded. Antenna 10-segmented, club a little longer than the

funicle. Puncturation and shape of thorax, elytra, and pygidium and ab-

dominal characters exactly as in P. knochi Horn. Fixed spur of the hind

tibia three-fifths as long as the free spur. Tarsal claw with the tooth long

and sharp, slightly more apical in position than in P. knochi. Length 18 mm.

Width 9 mm.

The unique male type bears the data: “‘Schley, Minn., Chippewa National

Forest, taken by L. W. Orr’s collection crew on June 13, 1935 from Quaking

Aspen (Populus tremuloides), Unit 1, Plot 3.’’ The type was presented to the

United States National Museum by R. H. Nagel and is deposited in that

collection.

P. chippewa belongs in Horn’s Group IX and is with difficulty separable

externally from P. knochit Horn; the most obvious external difference be-

tween the two is the slightly more apical tarsal claw in the new species. The

male genitalia are quite different, those of chippewa approaching closely

the groups having bilaterally symmetrical claspers while knochz is representa-

tive of those species having strongly asymmetrical genitalia.

Serica laguna Saylor

Serica laguna Saylor, Pomona Journ. Ent. and Zool. 27(1): 1. 1935.

This species was described from a unique male, and I have since seen two

males from Idyllwild, Riverside County, Calif., collected July 4, 1929.

Serica elongatula Horn

Serica elongatula Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 3: 77. 1870.

_ This species is one of the rarer forms of the genus; I have a goodly series

collected by W. C. Reeves, at light, on May 26, 1937, at Independence,

Inyo County, Calif. The fact that the species inhabits this semiarid region

seldom visited by collectors may account for its rarity in collections.

Dichelonyx vicina Fall

Dichelonyx vicina Fall, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 27: 291. 1901.

Dichelonyx deserta Hopping, Can. Ent. 63: 236. 1931. (New synonymy.)

456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

8-8 9-E

Fig. 5.—Phyllophaga chippewa, n. sp. Fig. 6.—Phyllophaga rossi, n. sp. Fig. 7.—

Serica chicoensis, n. sp. Fig. 8. — Serica sandiegensis, n. sp. Fig. 9. Serica mendota,

n. sp. <A, En face view of male genitalia; B, lateral view of same; C, same; D, dorsal

view of male genitalia; H, male antenna.

)

OcToBER 15, 19389 SAYLOR: UNITED STATES SCARAB BEETLES 457

The examination of paratypes of both of Hopping’s species indicates that

D, deserta is a straight synonym of vicina; the dark hairs on the head that

Hopping mentions in the description are white hairs that had been covered

with grease, as degreasing showed.

Dichelonyx vicina columbiana Hopping

Dichelonyx columbiana Hopping, Can. Ent. 63: 236. 1931.

D. columbiana is probably valid as a northern subspecies of D. vicina,

since it has more coppery reflections on the elytra and thus can usually be

picked from a series of the typical form.

Diplotaxis falli Saylor

Diplotaxis falli Saylor, Pan-Pacific Ent. 11: 35. 1935.

This species was described from two males from Victorville, Calif. I have

recently seen specimens from Coalinga, Calif., collected May 14 by M. A.

Cazier and in his collection. Through Mr. Cazier’s kindness I now have the

female represented in my collection.

Pachyplectrus laevis LeConte

Pachyplectrus laevis LeConte, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 5: 54. 1874.

I have two specimens of this rare and little-known species, both collected

in Mason Valley, San Diego, Calif., on March 27. Early spring emergence

may account in part for its apparent rarity.

Serica alleni, n. sp. Fig. 2

Male.—Piceous to piceocastaneous, moderately shining, apparently

glabrous above except for a few short elytral hairs. Clypeus with moderate to

coarse, rugose punctures, clypeal suture hardly indicated; apex truncate,

widely and shallowly emarginate, lateral margins entire. Front with coarse

irregularly placed punctures, vertex impunctate. Antenna castaneous, club

slightly longer than the funicle. Thorax moderately densely punctate, with

a small median impunctate area. Elytra with coarse, irregularly placed punc-

tures.

Female.—Slightly more robust, antennal club a little shorter, and abdo-

men strongly convex in lateral view, but otherwise similar to male. Length

8-9.5 mm. Width 5-5.5 mm.

The holotype male and allotype female are from Lake Arrowhead, Calif.

(Saylor collection), collected by Paul Allen at light on June 30, 1932, and

will be deposited on loan in the U. 8. National Museum. Ten paratypes with

the same data remain in the Saylor collection. The genitalia of alleni are

close to laguna Saylor, but are distinct, and the body in the present species

is more elongate and less coarsely punctate.

Serica mendota, n. sp. Figs. 3 and 9

Male.—Piceocastaneous, elytra strongly pruinose, clypeus and elytra

with a few scattered hairs. Clypeus polished, slightly tumid, disk smooth

at sides of apex, center with coarse and dense punctures; apex truncate, with

the center margin reflexed and (viewed from directly in front of the clypeus

and on a plane with the clypeal surface) raised into a moderate peak, lateral

angles rounded, the sides entire. Front pruinose, with moderately dense

punctures. Antenna 9-segmented, testaceous, club of 33 segments, the fifth

segment produced inwardly into a short spine and the sixth segment pro-

duced into an antennal leaf a little more than one-half as long as the seventh;

458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

segments 7—9 inclusive slightly longer than the entire antennal stem.

Thoracic and elytral puncturation very fine but obscured by the pruinosity

of the surface. Abdomen in lateral view somewhat flattened. Length 8-8.5

mm. Width 4-5 mm.

The holotype male, also numerous paratypes, are from ‘‘Mendota, Calif.,

collected by G. T. York on April 10, 1936, and May 1, 1937” and are in the

United States National Museum. Designated paratypes are also in the Say-

lor collection.

This species is abundantly distinct from all other described species in our

fauna by the 4-segmented antennal club, shape and puncturation of the

clypeus, and the male genitalia.

Serica chicoensis, n. sp. Fig. 7

Male.—Light buff-testaceous, head and thorax more brownish, surface

faintly pruinose, glabrous except for a few scattered and inconspicuous

short hairs on the elytra, sides of thorax, and clypeus. Clypeus tumid,

densely and finely punctate, apex moderately sharply reflexed, lateral

margins with a faint indication of a notch. Front finely, not densely punc-

tate, vertex nearly impunctate. Antenna testaceous, club subequal to funicle.

Thorax very finely and densely punctate, lateral margins ciliate. Elytra

very sparsely and irregularly punctured between the lightly-impressed

striae. Pygidium lemon-yellow, finely densely punctate, with short erect

hair, and some longer intercalated hair before the apex. Length 7.5 mm.

Width 4 mm.

The unique male holotype is in the United States National Museum and

bears the data ‘‘Chico, California, collected June 24, 1937 by F. W. Turner.”

The genitalia are quite distinct from those of any described species of the

genus.

Serica sandiegensis, n. sp. Fig. 8

Male.—EHlongate, piceocastaneous above, faintly shining and with a very

light pruinose bloom, glabrous except for a few scattered hairs on the

elytra. Antennal club subequal to funicle. Clypeus slightly tumid at middle,

disk finely and very densely punctate; apex truncate, faintly, widely and

shallowly emarginate at the center, the angles narrowly rounded, lateral

margins entire. Front sparsely and somewhat regularly punctate. Thorax

finely and entirely punctate. Elytra moderately densely punctate between

the lightly impressed striae. Pygidium with short erect hair. Abdomen

slightly convex in lateral view. Claws cleft, the lower tooth much the widest

of the two. Length 7.5 mm. Width 4 mm.

The holotype male is from ‘‘San Diego, Calif., collected by Ricksecker”’

and is deposited in the Casey collection at the United States National

Museum; a paratype male from ‘San Diego, Calif. (Saylor collection)”’

remains in my collection. The symmetrical genitalia are not closely allied

to those of any other described species in the country. Two other specimens

in the Saylor collection, a pair from ‘San Diego, Calif., El] Monte Oaks,”

are apparently this species though possessing slight differences which make

it seem advisable to leave them without type designation. In external char-

acters they are somewhat different, since the color is light lemon-yellow,

the clypeus is more acuminate apically and the lateral edge of the clypeusis

slightly though distinctly notched. The color may have been in part due to

their specimens being collected in alcohol, though this is doubtful; the lateral

clypeal notches are known to be somewhat variable within a species. Larger

series of these El Monte Oaks specimens may well indicate a closely allied

OcToBER 15, 19389 SAYLOR: UNITED STATES SCARAB BEETLES 459

but distinct species based on the color and clypeal differences as well as the

slightly different male genitalia.

Serica searli, n. sp. Jarre. 1!

Male.—Piceocastaneous, robust, slightly shining, elytral apex slightly

pruinose, dorsal surface apparently glabrous. Clypeus slightly tumid, disk

~ with very dense and coarse punctures; lateral margins rounded and slightly

notched near the angles; apex widely and very shallowly emarginate. Front

with irregularly placed, somewhat dense punctures. Antennal club subequal

to funicle. Thorax with coarse, dense punctures, those punctures of central

basal area the most coarse and those areas near the hind angles the most

densely punctate. Elytra with coarse, moderately dense punctures. Pygid-

ium with dense and very coarse punctures in basal two-thirds, the punc-

tures a little more fine apically.

Female.—Antennal club shorter than funicle, otherwise similar to male.

Length 7.5-8 mm. Width 4.5-5 mm.

The holotype male and allotype female (Saylor collection) are from ‘‘Idyll-

wild, Riverside, County, Calif., collected April 28, 1928, by C. C. Searl”’

and will be deposited on loan in the United States National Museum. A male

paratype from the same locality, collected on June 24, 1929, remains in the

Saylor collection. S. searli is closest to S. laguna Saylor, but the male geni-

talia will readily separate the two.

Serica cuyamaca, n. sp. Fig. 4

Male.—Dull piceocastaneous, with slight pruinose vestiture, the dorsal

surface with sparse, erect, and scattered hair. Clypeus slightly tumid, very

coarsely and rugosely punctate; lateral margins entire, apex moderately

reflexed widely and shallowly emarginate, the angles rounded. Front opaque,

with fine and moderately dense punctures. Antenna testaceous, club slightly

longer than the funicle. Thorax with very fine, dense, and regularly placed

punctures. Puncturation of elytra very fine, strial intervals impunctate or

with a few scattered and fine punctures. Pygidium very finely, regularly,

moderately densely punctate. Abdomen convex, with moderately dense,

subprocumbent hairs.

Female.—Apparently the same in all essential characters as the male.

Length 7—8.5 mm. Width 4—5 mm.

The holotype male and allotype female (Saylor collection) are from ‘‘Cuya-

maca, San Diego County, collected by Albert Watson on July 18, 1934” and

were presented to me by the collector; these types will be deposited on loan

in the collections of the United States National Museum. A paratype with

the same data remains in the Saylor collection. S. watson Saylor is the closest

described relative of S. cuyamaca, and the two may be most readily sepa-

rated through the male genital characters.

460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

ANTHROPOLOGY .—A new type of artificial cranial deformation

from Florida! T. DaLE Stewart, U.S. National Museum.

In his Anthropology of Florida (1922) Hrdlitéka states that—

The majority of Floridian skulls show artificial moulding. There is but

one type of this: the fronto-occipital flattening; but in instances the frontal

parts have been so little affected that the occipital compression alone is

perceptible.

The degree and frequency of the deformation differ from locality to

locality, both diminishing in general, it appears, from north to south... .

(pp. 83-85)

A review of the material available to Hrdlicka in 1922 shows clearly

that the majority of skulls was from the northern part of the State,

especially the Gulf coast portion. Newer collections from the central

and southern parts of the peninsula contain very few deformed skulls.

From this fact, together with the evidence of recent archeological

investigations, it seems evident that fronto-occipital cranial deform-

ity, like many another culture trait (Stirling, 1986), represents a

late culture thrust into the State from Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi,

and elsewhere. Further analysis of cranial deformity in the Southeast,

in connection with associated traits, will undoubtedly indicate the

particular culture center from which this custom spread to Florida.

In contrast to the fronto-occipital type of deformity characteristic

of the skull collections from north and northwest Florida is a new

type from southern Florida with which this report is primarily con-

cerned. This new type, for which I propose the name “‘obelionic,’””

neither fits into the usual classifications of cranial deformation nor

shows relationship outside of Florida. For these reasons it seems de-

sirable to record briefly the circumstances of its discovery.

In 1929 Mr. S. H. McCrory, of the U. 8. Bureau of Public Roads,

informed the Division of Physical Anthropology, U. 8. National

Museum, of the discovery of human remains near Canal Point, Fla.

A letter to Mr. Howard Sharp, editor of The Everglades News,

elicited the information that the bones had been exposed by an ex-

cavating machine on the property of the Southern Sugar Co. Mr. C.

Greenwood, the company’s superintendent of cultivation, subse-

quently sent in a collection of the bones, including three reconstruct-

1 Part of a paper read at the tenth annual meeting of the American Association of

Physical Anthropologists, Philadelphia, April 4, 1939. Published by permission of

the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received April 26, 1939.

2 Von Bonin has used this term in connection with a similar type of deformity

occurring in the Pueblo area (Southwestern United States), but in that case the term

“lambdoid”’ has precedence and is well established in the literature.

OcToBER 15, 1989 STEWART: CRANIAL DEFORMATION FROM FLORIDA 461

able undeformed skulls, which Dr. Hrdli¢ka described as “‘in all prob-

ability the type of the pure Calusa.’”®

In response to a request for additional material a second shipment

was received, which is described as follows in Mr. Greenwood’s letter

_of February 7, 1930:

. it gives me pleasure to remit to you two packages of additional remains.

[The contents of] one of these was collected from the same location as that

of the previous remittance from which the Calusa type came. [The contents

of] the other package was dug out of a shell mound from another part of

the plantation, several miles distant from where the Calusa type was dis-

covered.

he ie

% MG

oy” BURIAL

MOUND

Canal Point) gX

Pahokee LN

\=— N Soost|

LZ ‘Dunn fas

% Ba (prone

+ Bacom Ptif | Piokain| ost | |S

VP kreamers ppt Poa

ee) “Bay Hh | |

Bey H

ee | OT

vis

Fig. 1.—Location of shell mound containing deformed skulls.

There is nothing in the correspondence to show that Dr. Hrdli¢ka

saw this material when completely reconstructed, for at the time the

second shipment was acknowledged (February 19, 1930) he said

merely: ‘“‘We have reconstructed in part about seven of the skulls

from the first locality and they all show the same type. . .’’ Perhaps

as a result of this statement all the material constituting the second

shipment was accessioned together, with no indication that it was

derived from two sites.

Recently I had occasion to examine this material and was surprised

to find a number of the skulls (10) exhibiting a strange kind of de-

3 Letter to Mr. pr conmedd of January 17, 1930. The contour of one of these

(345768) is shown in Fig. 2

462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

formity. Upon segregating the deformed specimens it was at once

apparent that they were all shell encrusted, whereas the remainder of

the collection under this accession (with one exception) showed evi-

dence of burial in ‘‘“muck.”’ Then it was that Greenwood’s statement

regarding two sites, several miles apart, was noted in the corre-

spondence.

USN M.

345889

-~--- 345768

Fig. 2.—Superimposed lateral contour drawings of deformed (345889) and undeformed

(345768) skulls. About one-half natural size.

I immediately wrote to Mr. Greenwood, asking for the precise lo-

cation of the shell mound (second site). Although Mr. Greenwood had

left the sugar company’s employ in 1930, Mr. W. P. Jernigan was

able to give me the desired information. A map (Fig. 1) is supplied

to aid in understanding the following extract from Mr. Jernigan’s

letter of January 2, 1939:

The first material . . . sent you I believe came from the southwest corner

of Section 14, Township 42, South; Range 37, East. It was found about

six feet below the surface when a ditch was dug on the section line. The

surrounding material was the same type as all the soil in this locality, i.e.,

IMUCKVOR peatas 4.

The other specimens came from a point about one third of a mile from the

northwest corner of Section 10, Township 42, South; Range 37, Hast, and

about 200 feet from the north line of the section. The mound was of shell

and marl and the bones were in the upper three or four feet. It is located on

lie al ard iol

OcToBER 15, 1939 STEWART: CRANIAL DEFORMATION FROM FLORIDA 465

US NM. 345885

US.NM 345868]

Fig. 3.—Lateral contour drawings of three skulls with obelionic deformation.

About one-half natural size.

464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, wo. 10

the edge of a ridge of soft rock and marl which extends for several miles in

a general northeast and southwest direction. ... Most of the material has

been used for road building.

On my request for potsherds from the site of the shell mound, Mr.

Jernigan sent in a collection from the surface of a canal bank located

on the north section line of Section 10. All of these sherds are of plain

undecorated ware characteristic of the area (Stirling, 1935), and none

shows shell encrustation, so the culture relationship remains

undetermined. |

As for the skulls, the characteristic alteration in lateral contour is

illustrated by line drawings in Figs. 2 and 3.4 Fig. 2 shows one of the

deformed skulls (845889) superimposed on an undeformed skull from

the same locality (site 1). The deformation occurs between bregma

and lambda, and this area appears as a plane inclined approximately

30° to the horizontal. Compensatory changes include a broadening

of the vault and bulging of the forehead. Presumably some recovery

from the original degree of deformity has taken place during adult

life. In all cases the deformation has produced symmetrical changes.

Unfortunately, the specimens with deformation are all fragmentary

and anthropometric comparisons can not be instituted.

The National collections contain at least one specimen with obe-

lionic deformation from another locality. This skull (293090) was

collected by Dr. Hrdlicka in 1916 on Demere Key, Pine Island Sound

(West coast). Here, as at Canal Point, the bone is encrusted with co-

quina, and the culture is unknown.

These finds raise a number of questions that can not be fully

answered at the present time: (1) How was this deformity produced?

(2) Did this type of deformation have an independent origin in

Florida? (8) Is it limited to southern Florida? (4) Does it represent

a population older than the Calusa? Obviously, before most of these

questions can be answered satisfactorily it will be necessary to locate

and carefully excavate other sites containing these deformed skulls.

In view of the fact that the answer to the first question will always

remain speculative, I may be permitted an opinion thereon. Theo-

retically, except where deformation is caused simply by the weight of

the head upon a hard surface, some intentional pressure must be

exerted to hold the head against the deforming surface. In the present

case the point of counter pressure appears to be the chin or some part

of the anterior trunk. Perhaps, therefore, the child was bound to the

cradleboard in such a way that the head was pressed against an

4 T am indebted to Mr. Georg K. Neumann for making these drawings on his stereo-

graph (Schwarz).

OcTOBER 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 465

inclined endpiece. This view seems more logical than that which

envisions a bandage passed under the chin, for the simple reason that

the latter mechanism would have deformed the jaw also, and—there

is no evidence of this in the present collections.

As already indicated (footnote 2), the so-called “lambdoid” type

~ of deformity in the Pueblo area of the Southwest is somewhat similar

to the obelionic type. The difference is mainly in the degree of inclina-

tion of the plane of flattening. In the lambdoid type this plane is

steeper, being about 50—60° to the horizontal. This being the case, the

flattened plane does not extend so far forward as bregma, and on the

other hand involves the occiput down to about inion. The method of

production is unknown but is probably the same as that suggested

above for the obelionic type.

LITERATURE CITED

Bonin, G. von. Cranial deformity in the Pueblo area. Amer. Anthrop. 39 (4): 720—

f2i2 1937.

GREENWOOD, C. Correspondence filed under U. 8S. National Museum accession

numbers 108647 and 109112.

HrouicKa, A. Trip to Fort Myers, west coast of Florida. Explorations and Field-Work

of the Smithsonian Institution in 1916. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 66 (17): 28-29.

1917

The anthropology of Florida. Publ. Florida State Hist. Soc., No. 1. 1922.

JERNIGAN, W. P. (See GREENWOOD).

Stewart, T.D. Two new types of cranial deformity in the Southeast: (a) Fronto-parieto-

occipital, (b) obelionic. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop. 25, Suppl. to No. 1, Abs.

5 and 6. 1939.

Stirrting, M. W. Smithsonian archeological projects conducted under the Federal

Emergency Relief Administration, 1933-34. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1934,

pp. 371-400. 1935.

— Florida cultural affiliations in relation to adjacent areas. Essays in anthropology

present to A. L. Kroeber, pp. 351-357. Berkeley, Calif. 1936.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

506TH MEETING

The 506th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Thurs-

day, January 12, 1939, President Kracrx in the chair. This meeting was the

55th annual meeting of the Society and the 45th annual meeting of the

Washington section of the American Chemical Society. After the reading of

the minutes of the preceding meeting the annual reports of the Secretary and

the Treasurer, followed by that of the Auditing Committee (W. H. Ross,

chairman, P. H. Grocerns, C. E. WuitTE), were read and accepted. The

following committees were appointed to serve during 1939: Communica-

tions: S. B. Henpricks (chairman), M. M. Harine (deputy chairman for

divisional meetings), L. W. Butz, Micnar. FLEerscHEer, G. E. HILBert, J.

I. Horrman, Hans LINEwEAVER, R.S. McBrips, 8. N. Wrenn. Entertain-

ment: 8. T. ScuicktTanz (chairman), M. A. BrapsHaw, S. BRUNAUER, W.

L. Haut, E. L. Jackson, FLORENCE B. Kine, W. B. Kunz, W. L. Lamar,

O. H. Loerrier, J. McLaren, C. M. Situ, E. R. Smitu, W. J. SVIRBELY,

466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

H. G. Wisemann. Membership: J. J. Fanry (chairman), E. O. HaEnnt,

ELIZABETH Heaty, W. B. Hotton, H. W. Howarp, R. J. MAwHINNEY, C.

R. Nasspr, R. D. Remuny, N. K. Ricutmyrr, W. G. Scuuecut, L. A.

SHINN, Louise STaNuey, J. B. Tomuinson, C. E. Wuitn, K. T. WituiaMs.

Budget: J. H. H1inBEen (chairman), R. M. Hann, E. R. Situ, and Norman

BEKKEDAHL (ex officio). Finance and Investment: RaLErcH GILCHRIST

(chairman), M. X. Suuuivan, E. G. Zrss.

The Society was addressed by the retiring President, NatHan L. Drak,

who spoke on Cerin and friedelin, two pentacyclic triterpenoids. The speaker

discussed the results of a long series of researches designed to elucidate the

structures of these compounds, particularly in relation to the structures of

the polyterpenoids in general. The research papers are published in recent

volumes of the Journal of the American Chemical Society.

507TH MEETING

The 507th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, January 26, 1939, President Kracex presiding. This was a special

meeting, addressed by F. Lonpon, of the Institut Henri Poincaré, Paris,

who spoke on Supraconductivity in aromatic molecules. The speaker discussed

the nature of the chemical bond, with particular application to aromatic

molecules.

OO08TH MEETING

The 508th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, February 9, 1939, President Kracrx in the chair. After the read-

ing of the minutes it was announced that the Hillebrand Prize Award for

1938 was to be presented at the March meeting to RALEIGH GILCHRIST and

Epwarp WIcHERs for their work on a new system of analytical chemistry for

the platinum metals. The Society was then addressed by Professor HELLER-

MAN, of the Department of Physiological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins Uni-

versity:

LESLIE HELLERMAN: Some recent developments concerning the constitution

and mode of action of enzymes.—Enzyme chemistry is a crossroads—a meet-

ing ground for several fields of chemistry and of biology, nutrition, and

medicine. Enzymatic mechanisms are concerned with most of the reactions

of biochemistry, and modern work is developing some surprises. The en-

zymes that recently have been most intensively studied are found to be pro-

tein in character. This seems to have defined sharply the proposition that

enzymatic catalysis is catalysis superimposed upon the complexities of pro-

tein chemistry; it also provides a more rational basis for the control of

enzyme actions in experimental work. The older speculations regarding the

nature of enzymes are finding limited support in current investigations upon

the enzymes and coenzymes (“pyridine and flavin nucleotides,’’ pyrophos-

phorylated vitamin Bi, adenosine phosphates) concerned in biological oxi-

dation-reductions. Modern work seems to be clarifying the role of the coen-

zymes; also the nature of the catalysts concerned with the action of oxygen.

The several recognizable factors underlying the control of biological cataly-

sis are well illustrated on the one hand by the process of formation from their

inactive precursors of the erystallizable protein-enzymes of digestion, and

on the other by the behavior of certain hydrolytic enzymes and other prin-

ciples with respect to reversible chemical processes, such as oxidation-re-

duction and probably metal-complex formation. The nature of enzyme spe-

cificity is well illustrated by the arginine-splitting enzymes. (Author’s ab-

stract.) Raymond M. Hann, Secretary

OctToBER 15, 1939 OBITUARIES 467

@bituartes

JAcOB GooDALE Lipman died at New Brunswick, N. J., on April 19,

1939. He was born at Friedrichstadt, Russia, November 18, 1874, but spent

his early youth on a New Jersey farm. His undergraduate studies were made

_at Rutgers University, where he obtained his B. 8. degree in 1898. For the

“next two years he served the New Jersey Experiment Station as assistant

chemist and then entered Cornell University for his graduate studies, re-

ceiving his Ph. D. degree in 1903. For his distinguished services to agricul-

ture he was awarded an honorary degree of D. Sc. by Rutgers University in

1923 and an honorary Ph. D. by the Catholic University of Santiago, Chile,

in 1930.

After serving his alma mater in various capacities as soil chemist and bac-

teriologist, he was appointed director of the New Jersey Agriculture Experi-

ment Station in 1911 and dean of agriculture in 1915, both of which positions

he occupied at the time of his death. Although charged with heavy admin-

istrative duties, Dr. LipMAN not only remained actively engaged in research

but found time to serve as editor-in-chief of Sozl Sczence, a journal he found-

ed in 1915. He was editor also of the Agricultural Series published by John

Wiley & Sons and contributing editor of Annales Agronomiques, Pennsyl-

vania Farmer, Chronica Botanica, and Wissenschaftliches Archiv fiir Land-

wirtschaft.

Dr. LipMaAn’s publications constitute a long list of technical papers on

soils, soil bacteriology, and agronomy. He was a corresponding member of

the Swedish Royal Academy of Agriculture, French Academy of Agricul-

ture, and the Czechoslovakian Academy. In 1922, 1924, and 1926 he was a

delegate to the International Institute of Agriculture at Rome and in 1927

was president of the International Congress of Soil Science. He held mem-

bership in the Academy and the following organizations: American Chemical

Society, American Society of Agronomy, Association of Official Agricul-

tural Chemists, American Society of Bacteriology, American Public Health

Association, Association of Land Grant Colleges and Universitites, Ameri-

can Academy of Political Science, American Academy of Arts and Sciences,

Société de Chimie Industrielle, Reale Accademia dei Georgofili di Firenze,

and International Society of Soil Science.

JOSEPH GRINNELL, director of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and

professor of zoology at the University of California in Berkeley, died at his

home in Berkeley, Calif., on May 29, 1939. Dr. GRINNELL was born on

February 27, 1877, at Old Fort Sill, Indian Territory, in what is now Okla-

homa, where under frontier conditions he lived during childhood. He at-

tended high school in Pasadena, Calif., and in 1897 received an A.B. degree

from Throop Polytechnic Institute. This was followed by graduate work at

Stanford University for which he received the degrees of A.M. in 1901 and

Ph.D.in 1913. He was an instructor at Stanford from 1900 to 1902 and taught

at Throop from 1903 to 1908, during the last three years as professor.

To his colleagues and students of this present day JosEPH GRINNELL is

associated always with the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, founded at the

University in Berkeley in 1908 by Miss Annrr M. ALEXANDER and sup-

ported generously by her in the years that have followed, both in funds and

in personal interest. Dr. GRINNELL was chosen director at the beginning and

continued in this post with attendant professorial duties until his death. For

468 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 10

years he was active in the Cooper Ornithological Club and from 1906 was

editor of its journal, The Condor. As his field for research GRINNELL chose

western North America, from Alaska to Baja California, and to taxonomic

and ecological studies of the vertebrates of this region he devoted his active

life. While best known for his work in birds, partly perhaps because of his

editorship of The Condor, he was an authority as well on amphibians, reptiles,

and mammals of this vast region. The museum established under his charge

has grown until it is today the most important research center in vertebrate

zoology in the West, and for many years it has been a place for training

graduate students in this subject. GRINNELL himself became the outstand-

ing figure in the Western United States in this field, with international repu-

tation. His published works number about 550 separate titles.

JOSEPH GRINNELL was a scholarly man of quiet tastes and sensitive na-

ture, with which he combined firmness of mind and constant industry in the

field of his interests. He cared little for honors demanding public appearance

and avoided them under ordinary circumstances. He was exacting and me-

ticulous of detail in his work, and his influence has been potent in the devel-

opment of his chosen field, both through his own considerable contributions

and through his training of others.

WENDELL CLay MANSFIELD, geologist of the Geological Survey, died at

his home in Washington, July 31, 1939. He was born at Charlotte Center,

N. Y., June 9, 1874. He received the degrees of Bachelor of Science from

Syracuse University in 1908, Master of Science from George Washington

University in 19138, and Doctor of Philosophy from the same institution in

1927. He came to Washington in 1910 as a preparator of fossils in the Geo-

logical Survey, by which organization he was employed continuously until

his death. Doctor MANSFIELD, whose chief field of work was in paleontology,

was an authority on the late Tertiary Mollusca of the Southeastern States,

particularly of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida. He contributed many

articles about fossils to this and other journals, and was the author of two

professional papers of the Federal Geological Survey and of four bulletins of

the Florida Geological Survey. Doctor MANSFIELD was a member of the

Academy, the Paleontological Society, the Geological Society of America,

and of the Geological, Biological, and Paleontological Societies of Washing-

ton.

_ PrysicaL CHEMISTRY. ike sri of uiieotkaaies

of chemistry and physics, with specific reeommendati: as for

mochemistry. FREDERICK D. Bee seaT: and baie Eom ws D

PaLEontToLocy.—A paleoniscid brain es Tironon H.

sis

i Rasowolocy. —Notes and descriptions of United Stee scarab

LAWRENCE W. BMLOHS ce

Florida.

Procrrpines: Cummican Socimry:...0:.-...,.0. 620 a oe a

ay A nen type of aratcal oat

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

“Vou. 29 NoveEMBER 15, 1939 No. 11

PALEONTOLOGY.—Two new genera of Carboniferous inadunate

crinoids.| Epwin Kirk, U. S. Geological Survey.

In a former communication to this Journal (Kirk, 1938) several

crinoid genera were discussed. These genera centered about Zeacrinus,

either through genetic affinity or because of assignment of some of

their species to that genus by authors. Two new genera, closely relat-

ed to some of the crinoids dealt with, were omitted owing to nomen-

clatorial uncertainties. The location and examination of the type

specimen of an early and obscure species resolved these difficulties.

In the meantime, a new genus, Xystocrinus, has been made by

Moore and Plummer. The type species chosen, Cyathocrinus depressus

Troost, is a typical Zeacrinus. Following a long series of errors by

authors, Moore and Plummer seem to have had an erroneous idea of

the species they chose as type, confusing it at least in part with Tholo-

crinus spinosus (Wood).

The name Zeacrinus depressus (Troost) has had a curious history.

The type specimen of Zeacrinus depressus during Wachsmuth’s life-

time was in Hall’s Museum at Albany and inaccessible. The only

means of identification were the description and excellent line draw-

_ ings in the lowa report. Someone, perhaps Wachsmuth himself, de-

cided that certain crinoids from Sloans Valley, Ky., were Zeacrinus

depressus and referred them to Hydreionocrinus. Thus, when Wether-

by (1881, p. 325 (2), pl. 9, figs. 1-4, 6) figured the species he called it

H. depressus under protest, citing Wachsmuth as authority. In the

meantime the large series of similar specimens in the Wachsmuth and

Springer collection carried the depressus label in Wachsmuth’s writ-

ing, which has remained to this day. Springer (1926, pp. 88, 90, pl.

26, figs. 1-12) briefly described and very fully illustrated this species

as H. depressus. This work was done away from the collection and

with limited access to the literature. Springer had the type specimen

of Zeacrinus depressus in the same drawer and must have known that

the two forms were neither conspecific nor congeneric. It was a most

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Re-

ceived June 2, 1939.

469

Nay 16 1939

470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

unfortunate mistake. Moore and Plummer (1938, p. 271) proposed a

new genus Xystocrinus, with Zeacrinus depressus (Troost) (‘‘Hall’’)

as genotype. As illustrations of the species they gave pen and ink

was examined by both Moore and Plummer, and it is strange they

followed the lapsus of Springer.

Thirty years ago Wood (1909, pp. 92, 93, pl. 11, figs. 6-8) gave

excellent illustrations and description of the type specimen of Zea-

crinus depressus, referring it to Hydreionocrinus. For Wetherby’s spe-

cies referred to H. depressus by Wachsmuth, the history of which has

been outlined above, Wood gave the new name H. spinosus.

There has appeared recently a much-needed revision of the genus

Zeacrinus by Sutton and Hagan (1939). A few species referred by — |

them to Zeacrinus will have to come out. In particular, the species re-

ferred by me to my genus Fratocrinus, to which they take exception

(p. 87), are certainly not referable to Zeacrinus. They do, however,

agree very well with EF. elegans (Hall). It should be noted that two of

the ‘‘species”’ listed by Sutton and Hagan, E. ramosus (Hall) and £.

troostanus (Meek and Worthen), are based on immature individuals

and might possibly fall into synonymy.

The ascription by Sutton and Hagan and most authors of the geno-

type of Zeacrinus, Zeacrinus magnoliaeformis, to Owen and Norwood

1847 (not 1846 as cited) is incorrect. In this paper Owen and Norwood

figured a specimen of Zeacrinus magnoliaeformis but in the text (1847,

p. 5) merely called it “‘the beautiful Encrinite, fig. 18.’’ The correct

citation is that given by me (1988, p. 160). The authority for the ge-

nus and species as of Troost can not be got around. The footnotes of

Hall (1858, p. 544) seem to have escaped authors generally and vali-

date Troost’s names under any prevailing code.

The species here referred to the two new genera proposed are those

in regard to which I feel reasonably certain, either from examination

of the types or well-authenticated specimens. Daszocrinus spinosus

(Owen and Shumard) is of special interest. The original figure was

very poor, and the species was cited by Wachsmuth and Springer as

‘“undeterminable.’’ The type specimen has been found at the Walker

Museum of the University of Chicago and proves to be a splendidly

preserved crinoid.

Tholocrinus, n. gen.

Genotype.—Hydreionocrinus spinosus Wood.

Generic diagnosis.—

Crown. Subcylindrical, short.

Dorsal cup. Depressed, bowl-shaped, with invaginated base.

NovEMBER 15, 1939 KIRK: TWO NEW CRINOID GENERA 471

IBB. Small, within basal pit, and concealed by column.

BB. Of approximately equal width and height, except post B, which is

proportionally higher. Proximal portions of BB take part in basal pit.

RR. Large. Articulating suture extending full width of R, slightly curved,

not gaping.

IBr. One in all rays, except the anterior, which is variable. Here there may

be one, or a IBr;, separated from the [Ax by a set of biserial or inter-

locking Br. In such case the structure is essentially that of the IJBr

series and is probably homologous, the structure of the anterior ray rep-

resenting a suppression of one-half the division usually taking place on

the IBr,. The IBr tend to be nodose or spinose.

Arms. The arms are short, stout, and endotomous. The axillaries are rela-

tively large and tend to be nodose. Following each Ax the first brachial

is relatively large. Between it and the succeeding Ax the brachials inter-

lock or have a biserial arrangement. The Br of the admedian rami are

biserial or nearly so.

Post IR. Three anal plates in cup. RA large, not penetrating deeply be-

tween post B and R post B, meeting R post B on narrow face and post

B on a much longer one. X meets post B on a wide, horizontal face and

rises above the level of the RR. RT is large and extends well above the

level of the RR.

Ventral sac. The ventral sac is proportionally very large. Distad it con-

tracts somewhat to about one-half its height, then expands, giving the

sac an elongate hourglass shape. The opening lies about one-half the

height of the sac. The sac is capped by a low-arched structure, consist-

ing either of spinose plates alone or spinose marginal plates separated

at the margin by smaller nonspinose plates and by a central group of

smaller plates.

Characteristic species of the genus.—

Tholocrinus armiger (Meek and Worthen), n. comb.

Poteriocrinites (Zeacrinus?) armiger Meek and Worthen, p. 27, 1870.

“‘Chester, Pope County, Illinois.’”,—Meek and Worthen, p. 547, pl. 21,

Hes. oa, D, 13873.

Hydreionocrinus armiger Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 131 (856), 1880.

Tholocrinus spinosus (Wood), n. comb.

Hydreionocrinus spinosus Wood, in Troost, p. 93, 1909.

In error

Hydreionocrinus depressus (Troost) Wetherby (‘‘Wachsmuth non Wether-

by’’), p. 326 (2), pl. 9, figs. 1-4, 6, 1881.—Wachsmuth and Springer, p.

245 (169), 1886.—Springer, pp. 89, 90, pl. 26, figs. 1-12, 1926. -

A ystocrinus depressus Moore and Plummer (part), p. 269, fig. 21, 1938.

Tholocrinus wetherbyi (Wachsmuth and Springer), n. comb.

Hydreionocrinus wetherbyz Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 245 (169), 1886.

In error

Hydreionocrinus armiger (Meek and Worthen) Wetherby (‘‘Wachsmuth non

Wetherby’’), p. 328 (5), pl. 9, figs. 7-11, 1881.

Geological and geographic distribution.—The genus is widely distributed in

Mississippi Valley and Kentucky, where beds of upper Chester are found.

472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

Relationships.—Tholocrinus probably has its nearest relationships with

Linocrinus. It differs chiefly from Linocrinus in the flattened, spinose mush-

room-shaped distal portion of the ventral sac, the smoothness of plates, the

more advanced stage of evolution of the anal plates, and in having biserial

or nearly biserial arms. From Hydreionocrinus it chiefly differs in the

smoothly ‘rounded cup with invaginated base and in its endotomous arm

structure as against what may be called the ectotomous arms of Hydreiono-

CTINUS. :

| Dasciocrinus, n. gen.

Genotype.—Cyathocrinus florealis Yandell and Shumard.

Generic diagnosis.—

Crown. Subcylindrical, high.

Dorsal cup. Depressed-turbinate, with invaginated base.

IBB. Small, concealed by column within small basal pit.

BB. Relatively small, the proximal portions taking part in the basal pit.

RR. Large. Articulating suture extends full width of R; linear, gaping.

IBr. One in all rays, tending to be nodose or spinose.

Arms. Long, slender, endotomous, with few divisions. The first division

above the main dichotom is high above the IAx, giving a large number

of IIBr. In the ant R there tend to be fewer divisions, which are more

nearly isotomous. All axillaries tend to be nodose. Br cuneate.

Post IR. Three anal plates in cup. RA large, elongate, penetrating deeply

between and resting upon post and r post BB. X relatively small, nar-

row, meeting post B on a narrow face or separated from it. RT small,

meeting RA on a very narrow face.

Ventral sac. The ventral sac is as long as the arms or extends somewhat be-

yond them. Spinose processes commonly occur on a few of the distal

plates of the sac, three or four being the usual number. The anal open-

ing is lateral in position and lies near the distal end of the sac.

Characteristic species of the genus.—

Dasciocrinus florealis (Yandell and Shumard), n. comb.

Cyathocrinus florialis Yandell and Shumard, p. 24, pl. fig. 1, 1847.

“Grayson Springs, Kentucky.”’ (Upper Chester, Glen Dean.)

Poteriocrinus florealis Shumard, p. 217, 1855.

Zeacrinus florealis Shumard, p. 399, 1866.—Wachsmuth and Springer, p.

128 (353), 1880.

Pachylocrinus florealis Springer, p. 72, pl. 16, figs. 8, 9, 1926.

Dasciocrinus spinifer (Wetherby), n. comb.

Scaphiocrinus spinifer Wetherby, p. 157 (14), pl. 5, fig. 5, 1880.

“Pulaski County, Kentucky, Kaskaskia (Chester) Group.” (Glen

Dean.).—Wachsmuth and Springer, p. 236 (160), 1886.

Dasciocrinus spinosus (Owen and Shumard), n. comb.

Poteriocrinus spinosus Owen and Shumard, p. 91, pl. 11, fig. 4, 1852.—-Owen

and Shumard, p. 596, pl. 5b, fig. 4, 1852a. ‘‘Archimedal layers of the.

carboniferous limestone of Kaskaskia, Illinois.’’ Associated with ‘‘Pen-

tremites florealis, P. pyriformis, ... and Poteriocrinus (Zeacrinus) mag-

noliaformis Troost.”’

Zeacrinus spinosus Shumard, p. 399, 1866.

NovEMBER 15, 1939 KIRK: TWO NEW CRINOID GENERA 473

Geologic and geographic distribution.—The genus is widely distributed in

the Mississippi Valley and in Kentucky in beds of Chester age. There is an

undescribed species in the Ste. Genevieve near Huntsville, Ala.

Relationships.—Dasciocrinus is related to Tholocrinus, from which it

differs chiefly in its long, slender crown and arms; lack of a pronounced

terminal mushroom expansion of the ventral sac; and the depressed turbi-

nate cup as compared with the smoothly rounded cup of Tholocrinus.

LITERATURE CITED

Hau, JAMES. Paleontology. Iowa Geol. Survey Rept., vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 473-724,

pls. 1-29. 1858.

Kirk, Epwin. Five new genera of Carboniferous Crinoidea Inadunata. Journ. Wash-

ington Acad. Sci., vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 158-172. April 15, 1938.

MEEK, F. B., and WORTHEN, A. H. Descriptions of new species and genera of fossils

from the Paleozoic rocks of the Western States. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,

1870, pp. 22-56. April 1870.

Meek, F. B., and WortuHen, A. H. Descriptions of invertebrates from Carboniferous

system. Illinois Geol. Survey, vol. 5, pt. 2, pp. 321-619+ pp. i-v, pls. 1-32. 1878.

Moore, R. C., and Phummer, F. B. Upper Carboniferous crinoids from the Morrow

subseries of Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Denison Univ. Bull. Sci. Lab.

Journ., vol. 32, pp. 209-313, pls. 12-16. Feb. 21, 1938.

Owen, D. D., and Norwoop, J. G. Researches among the Protozoic and Carboniferous

rocks of central Kentucky made during the summer of 1846. 12 pp., 1 pl., 1 geologic

section. St. Louis, Mo. (privately printed), 1847.

Owen, D. D., and SHUMARD, B. F. Descriptions of seven new species of Crinoidea from

the Subcarboniferous limestone of Iowa and Illinois. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philadelphia, ser. 2, vol. 2, pp. 89-94, pl. 11. 1852.

Owen, D. D., and Suumarp, B. F.,7n Owen, D. D. Descriptions of one new genus and

twenty-two new species of Crinoidea from the Subcarboniferous limestone of Iowa.

Report of a geological survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota and incidentally

of a portion of Nebraska Territory. Appendix, art. 2, pp. 587-598, pls. 5a, 5b.

1852a.

SuumarpD, B. F. Paleontology and Appendix B. Missouri Geol. Survey 2d Ann.

Rept., pp. 185-208, pls. A-C, pp. 213-220. 1855.

SHumMARD, B. F. A catalogue of the Palaeozoic fossils of North America. Trans. St.

Louis Acad. Sci., vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 334-407. 1866.

SPRINGER, FRANK. Unusual forms of fossil crinoids. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 67,

art. 9, pp. 1-137, pls. 1-26. Feb. 15, 1926.

Sutton, A. H., and Hagan, W. W. IJnadunate crinoids of the Mississippian—Zea-

crinus. Journ. Pal., vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 82-96, pl. 15. January 1939.

Troost, GERARD. A critical summary of Troost’s unpublished manuscript on the cri-

noids of Tennessee. (Edited by Wood, Elvira.) U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 64, pp. i-xi,

1-150, pls. 1-15. 1909.

WACHSMUTH, CHARLES, and SPRINGER, FRANK. Revision of the Paleocrinoidea. Pt. 1,

pp. l- 153, pls. 1- 3. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1879, pp. 226-376, pls.

15-17. Jan.—Mar. 1880.

WACHSMUTH, CHARLES, and SPRINGER, FRANK. Revision of the Paleocrinoidea. Pt. 3,

sec. 2, pp. 1389-302. (One unnumbered page inserted after p. 302. One inserted

page ‘‘Note to page 255.’ The latter appeared in two different forms.) Index to

pts. 1-3, pp. 303-334. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1886, pp. 64-226.

Mar.—July 1886.

WeTHERBY, A. G. Remarks on the Trenton limestone of Kentucky, with descriptions of

new fossils from that formation and the Kaskaskia (Chester) group, Subcarboniferous.

Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. History, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 144-160, pl. 5. (Reprint,

ppt.) sauly S80:

WETHERBY, A. G. Descriptions of crinoids from the upper Subcarboniferous of Pulaskt

County, Kentucky. Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. History, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 324-

330, pl. 9. (Reprint, pp. 1-8.) Jan. 1881.

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script on the crinoids of Tennessee. (Edited by Wood, Elvira.) U.S. Nat. Mus.

Bull. 64, pp. i-xi, 1-150, pls. 1-15. 1909.

YANDELL, its 1 eae and. SHUMARD, B. F. Contributions to the geology of Kentucky. Pp.

1- 36, pl. 1847.

474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO.11

BOTAN Y.—Anzona plants: New species, varieties, and combinations.

Tuomas H. KearnEY and Ropert H. Persuss, U. 8. Bureau

of Plant Industry.

The writers have in preparation an account of the flowering plants

and ferns of the State of Arizona, to which specialists in some of the

more difficult families and genera are contributing treatments of the

groups with which they are familiar. The object of the present paper

is to publish in advance such new species, varieties, and combinations

as it has seemed advisable to recognize. Several of our collaborators

have contributed descriptions of new forms, or new names and com-

binations, but unless it is otherwise stated, the present writers are

responsible for the novelties enumerated in this paper.

Agave parryi Engelm. var. couesii (Engelm.), comb. nov.

Agave couesit1 Engelm. in Trelease, Ann. Rep. Missouri Bot. Garden 22: 94.

1911.

Similar to A. parryi except for the less closely imbricate rosette, the nar-

rower, more gradually pointed leaves, and usually smaller flowers. |

Agave schottii Engelm. var. treleasei (Toumey), comb. nov.

Agave treleasexc Toumey, Ann. Rep. Missouri Bot. Gard. 12: 75. 1901.

A rare form, distinguished from A. schottit by the dark-green, exception-

ally wide, and nearly flat leaves.

Sisyrinchium demissum Greene var. amethystinum (Bicknell), comb. nov.

Sisyrinchium amethystinum Bicknell, Bull. Torrey Club 28: 581. 1901.

Apparently differs from typical S. demissum only in size of plant, width

of leaves, and size of flowers; and the intergradation seems to be complete,

in Arizona.

Sisyrinchium longipes (Bicknell), comb. nov.

Hydastylus longipes Bicknell, Bull. Torrey Club 27: 382. 1900.

In the writers’ opinion, Salisbury’s genus Hydastylus is entitled to only

subgeneric rank.

Phoradendron bolleanum (Seem.) Eichler var. capitellatum (Torr.),

comb. nov.

Phoradendron capitellatum Torrey, in Trelease Monogr. Phoradendron 25,

pl. 17. 1916.

The more copious pubescence and the greater reduction of the first (or

only) internode of the fruiting spike seem to be the only characters by which

this form can be distinguished from typical P. bolleanum.

Eriogonum mearnsii Parry var. pulchrum (Eastwood), comb. nov.

Eriogonum pulchrum Eastwood, Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 4, 20: 139.

1931.

The variety differs from typical LH. mearnsii only in the persistence of

loosely lanate pubescence on the upper leaf-surface.

1 Received June 10, 1939.

NovEMBER 15, 1989 KEARNEY AND PEEBLES: ARIZONA PLANTS 475

Eurotia lanata (Pursh) Mogq. var. subspinosa (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Eurotia subspinosa Rydb., Bull. Torrey Club 39: 312. 1912.

This form differs from typical H. lanata in having more pronouncedly

woody stems, more spreading branches, and hairs with few or no greatly

elongate rays, but these characters are not closely correlated and many of

the Arizona specimens are intermediate.

Mirabilis longiflora L. var. wrightiana (A. Gray), comb. nov.

Mirabilis wrightiana A. Gray,in Britton & Kearney, Trans. New York Acad.

14: 28. 1894.

Typically, this form is distinguished by the merely puberulent, scarcely

viscid herbage and in having all of the leaf-blades distinctly petioled, but

these characters are not always associated and there is complete intergrada-

tion in Arizona material.

Oxybaphus linearis (Pursh) Robinson var. decipiens (Standley), comb. nov.

Allionia decipiens Standley, North Amer. Flora 21: 223. 1918.

Var. decipiens intergrades freely with typical A. linearis but is more or

less distinguishable by the more distinctly petioled leaves, broader leaf-

blades, and less glaucous stems.

Boerhaavia erecta L. var. intermedia (Jones), comb. nov.

Boerhaavia intermedia Jones, Contr. West. Bot. 10: 41. 1902.

The variety has somewhat smaller fruits and usually more compact and

more umbelliform inflorescences than typical B. erecta, but there is too much

intergradation to justify maintenance of B. intermedia as a species.

Abronia angustifolia Greene var. arizonica (Standley), comb. nov.

Abronia arizonica Standley, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 12: 319. 1909.

Differs from typical A. angustifolia of New Mexico in the broader leaf-

blades and usually more copious pubescence. Specimens without fruit are

sometimes difficult to distinguish from A. villosa 8. Wats.

Cerastium nutans Raf. var. obtectum, nom. nov.

Cerastium sericeum 8. Wats., Proc. Amer. Acad. 20: 354. 1885. (Non Pourr.,

1788. )

In its extremely sericeous aspect, this form appears distinct from C. nu-

tans, but the intergradation in pubescence is complete in Arizona specimens.

The two forms are not constantly distinguishable by the seed-characters

mentioned by Robinson (in Gray, Syn. Flora N. Amer. 1: Pt. 1, 230. 1897).

Arenaria saxosa A. Gray var. mearnsii (Woot. and Standl.), comb. nov.

Arenaria mearnsit Woot. and Standl., Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 16: 121. 1913.

Var. mearnsii is characterized normally by a longer-stemmed and more

open plant with longer, narrower leaf-blades than in typical A. saxosa, but

specimens of intermediate character are of frequent occurrence.

Arenaria eastwoodiae Rydb. var. adenophora, var. nov.

A forma typica A. eastwoodiae caulibus et sepalis plus minusve glanduloso-

puberulentibus distinguitur.

Type: Peebles & Fulton 11856, Tuba, Coconino County, Ariz., altitude

5,000 feet (U. 8. National Herbarium No. 1634508). This form grows in

476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, Wo. 11

sandy soil in northeastern Arizona, where it is more common than typical

A. eastwoodiae.

The presence of glandular puberulence on the stems, especially in the in-

florescence, and on the sepals, at least toward base, seems to be the only

character differentiating this variety from the typical form of the species.

Delphinium andesicola Ewan, sp. nov.?

Herba perennis caulibus strictis robustis, 1-2 m altis, e radice elongati

lignosa, simplicibus vel ad basim paucis, caesiis, puberulentis; foliis impri-

mis caulibus, tri- vel quinquepartibus segmentis amplis, 15-20 cm latis,

cuneato-rhomboidis vel -obovatis dentatis longioribus deinde subglabris,

mediis petiolis 6-9 cm longis; racemis elongatis atque remotifloribus, 25-35

em longis; floribus numerosis, pedicellis puberulentis ascendentibus vel di-

varicatis 2-3 em longis, sepalis atro-caeruleis atque ovalibus subacutis, 9-12

mm longis, extus cinereo-puberulentis, petalis superioribus azureis vel fere

pallidis, inferioribus oblongo-ovatis, emarginatis, subniger, albo-villosis; fol-

liculis oblongibus, 10-14 mm longis, cuspide setoidiis, seminibus 2.5-3 mm

longis angulatis angustis alatis.

Type: J. C. Blumer 136, Sept. 13, 1906, Barfoot Park, Chiricahua Moun-

tains, Cochise County, Ariz. (Herb. Univ. Ariz.). One sheet in flower, an-

other in ripe fruit, both bearing same data.

A medium to tall stout erect perennial, 1-2 m high, from a stout woody-

fibrous deep-seated rootstock; stems simple or few from the rootcrown, leafy

to the racemes, purplish, with a uniform fine puberulence; leaves predomi-

nantly cauline, the basal similar, withering at flowering time, appearing

glabrous but thinly microscopically puberulent, the principal cauline leaves

of 3 or 5 cuneate-rhomboid or -obovate divisions, these again pinnatifid dis-

tally into narrowly oblong few-toothed long pinnae, the teeth acute, the

proximal half of the division-blade entire and gradually narrowed below,

the segments 10-15 mm wide at base of the lobes, the midcauline petioles 6—

9 cm long; racemes elongate, open, 25-35 cm long; flowers numerous, on as-

cending or spreading puberulent pedicels 2—3 cm long, their sepals dull ashy-

or dark-blue, ovate, barely acute, 9-12 mm long, cinereous-puberulent thinly

so at anthesis, the upper petals pale blue, the lower petals oblong-ovate,

notched (sinus 1 mm deep), blue-purple, moderately white-villous; follicles

oblong, obscurely venulose, 10-14 mm long, with short thin pricklelike cusp;

seeds 2.5-3 mm long, the angles narrowly winged.

Grows in swales on slopes covered with open forest of Pinus ponderosa, in

the Chiricahua, Huachuca, and Santa Rita Mountains, at elevations of 5,000 —

to 8,500 feet. Other collections examined: Topotype, Blumer 1373; Hua-

chuca Mountains: Garden Canyon, Harrison and Kearney 5770; Ramsey

Canyon, Jones 24847 (sheets vary widely among herbaria). Santa Rita

Mountains: Wooton, Sept. 30, 19138; Madera Canyon, Peebles and Harrison

2958; Stone Cabin Canyon, Thornber, July 15, 1903.

Delphinium sierra-blancae Wooton subsp. amplum Ewan, subsp. nov.’

A D. sierra-blancae {. typico caulibus subglabris stramineis, foliis triparti-

bus segmentis ampliore atque latiore cuneato-obovatis dentatis brevioribus

ad basim integris differt.

Type: Kearney and Peebles 12274, White Mountains, 6 miles south of Han-

2 Contributed by Joseph Ewan, University of Colorado.

3’ Contributed by Joseph Ewan.

NoveEMBER 15, 19839 KEARNEY AND PEEBLES: ARIZONA PLANTS 477

nigan Meadow, 9,500 feet, Greenlee County, Ariz., August 11, 1935 (U. S.

National Herbarium No. 1651077).

Stems subglabrous at least below, usually light colored; leaves darker

green, more ample, 3-parted into broader segments, these cuneate-obovate,

again pinnatifid distally into short few-toothed or entire pinnae, the teeth

abruptly or barely acute, the proximal portion nearly oblong, entire and less

_ abruptly narrowed, the segments 18-27 mm wide at base of the lobes.

~ Wet creek bottoms of mountains about the headwaters of the Salt River

and along the upper Gila River, from Mount Graham north to White Moun-

tains, at elevations of 6,500 to 9,500 feet. Other collections examined: Mount

Graham, 8,000 ft., Kearney and Peebles 9810 ; same loc., 9,000 ft., Kearney

and Peebles 9868; Thompson Ranch, Black River, White Mountains, Good-

ding 564.

Delphinium andesicola, most often identified as ‘“D. scopulorum”’ or “D.

scopulorum stachydeum,”’ is apparently more closely related to the poorly

known D. tenuisectum Greene of the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico than

to D. scopulorum Gray. Delphinium andesicola has a natural floristic range in

southeastern Arizona. Delphinium scopulorum is in reality afairly local spe-

cies though currently misinterpreted as a widespread paludose larkspur of

ae the whole of western North America. So far as known it is confined

to New Mexico in its typical form.

Delphinium sierra-blancae Wooton is based on E. O. Wooton’s collection

from Gilmore Ranch, White Mountains, Lincoln County, N. Mex., at 7,500

feet, July 27, 1901; the type (New Mexico Coll. Agr. and Mech. Arts, State

College, N. Mex.) has been studied. The subspecies amplum occupies the

White Mountains of Arizona where it replaces the species. From D. andest-

cola of more southerly distribution, D. sierra-blancae may be recognized by

its acute unhooded sepals.

Aconitum columbianum Nutt. var. glaberrimum (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Aconitum glaberromum Rydb., Bull. Torrey Club 29: 151. 1902.

The glabrous stems and glabrous or nearly glabrous leaves are apparently

the only distinguishing characters of this form.

Berberis harrisoniana, sp. nov.

Frutex 0.5-0.7 m altus; folia palmate-trifoliolata, foliolis sessilibus rhom-

boideo- vel triangulari-cuneatis coriaceis laete-viridibus non glaucis subtus

vix pallidioribus dentibus spinosis magnis triangularibus 1 vel 2 utroque

latere, foliolo terminali 8-5 em longo 2.5—-3.5 cm lato petiolum aequante vel

subaequante; inflorescentia brevis corymbiformi-racemosa; sepala interiora

petalis majora plus minusve 6 mm longa; filamenta apicem versus bidentata

dentibus divergentibus calcaribus similibus; baccae globosae vel subo-

voideae nigro-coeruleae subglaucae 5-6 mm diametro.

Type: Peebles and Loomis 6768, in a canyon of the Kofa Mountains, Yuma

County, Ariz., March 31, 1930, in fruit (U. 8. National Herbarium No.

1468221). Known only from the type locality, where it was collected in

flower on February 26, 1932, by R. E. Beckett (No. 9079).

The outer bark is pale brown on the branchlets, gray on the older stems

the inner bark bright yellow. The veins are inconspicuous in fresh leaves.

This plant resembles B. trifoliolata Moric. in the palmately trifoliolate leaves

with petiole not articulated below the junction of the leaflets, but differs in

the toothed filaments and the blue-black color of the berries.

The writers take pleasure in dedicating this species to their colleague,

478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

George J. Harrison, whose activity in collecting plants during his residence

in Arizona contributed materially to our knowledge of the flora.

Streptanthus arizonicus 8. Wats. var. luteus, var. nov.

A forma typica S. arizonicz calyce luteo, stylo longiore, siliquis ad apicem

magis attenuatis et rostratis distinguitur.

Type: Kearney 10813, Canyon Diablo, Ajo Mountains, Pima County,

Ariz. (U. 8. National Herbarium No. 1634074). Known only from the type

collection.

The bright yellow color of the calyx soon fades, in dried specimens, to the

normal ochroleucous hue of S. arzzonicus. The style is 1 to 2 mm. long,

whereas in most specimens of S. arizonicus it is less than 1 mm long.

Descurainia obtusa (Greene) Schulz var. adenophora (Woot. and

Standl.), comb. nov.

Sophia adenophora Woot. and Standl., Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 16: 127. 1913.

Descurainia obtusa Schulz, Pflanzenr. IV, 105: 321. 1924.

This form apparently differs from typical D. obtusa only in the presence

of glandular hairs in the inflorescence, and in having the pods often glabres-

cent.

Arabis tricornuta Rollins, sp. nov.‘

Herba perennis; caulibus erectis singulis superne ramosis, 3-6 dm altis,

inferne sparse pubescentibus superne glabris; foliis radicalibus ignotis; foliis

caulinis infimis petiolatis oblanceolatis pubescentibus 3-5 em longis, ca. 1

em latis, pilis ramosis, supremis linearibus vel lanceolatis glabris; inflores-

centils racemosis laxis gracilibus; sepalis glabris oblongis 3-4 mm longis, 2—

3 mm latis; petalis albis lingulatis vel spathulatis 4-5 mm longis, ca. 1.5 mm

latis; pedicellis gracilibus recurvatis glabris 1—-1.5 cm longis; siliquis angustis

plano-compressis patentibus vel pendulis glabris inferne 1-nervatis, 3-7 em

longis, ca. 2 mm latis; seminibus uniseriatis orbicularibus alatis ca. 1.5 mm

latis. |

Perennial; stems single, branched above, pubescent below with simple or

branched trichomes, glabrous above, 3-6 dm high; basal leaves caducous,

unknown; lower cauline leaves petiolate, oblanceolate, pubescent with harsh

2- or usually 3-pronged trichomes, 3—5 cm long, ca. 1 em wide; upper cauline

leaves linear to narrowly lanceolate, glabrous; inflorescence racemose, lax,

slender, greatly elongated; sepals glabrous, oblong, 3-4 mm long, 2-3 mm

wide, unequal, not saccate, inner pair tapering at base; petals white, lingulate

to nearly spatulate, thickened toward base with edges rolled outward, erose

to entire along petal margin, not differentiated into blade and claw, 4-5mm

long, ca. 1.5 mm wide; stamens slightly shorter than petals, filament of short

stamen curved, filament of long stamen straight; nectar glands surrounding

short stamens, only subtending long stamens; pedicels slender, gently curved

downward, glabrous, 1—1.5 cm long; siliques linear, flattened parallel to sep-

tum, glabrous, l-nerved to middle or above, spreading at right angles to

widely pendulous, 3-7 em long, ca. 2 mm wide; style ca. 1 mm long; stigma

entire; seeds flat, orbicular, conspicuously winged all around, ca. 1.5 mm

broad, uniseriate; cotyledons obliquely accumbent.

Arabis tricornuta is particularly interesting because at anthesis it is very

difficult to distinguish from Thelypodium micranthum. In habit, inflorescence,

flower, and type of pubescence they are almost identical. One minor feature

‘ Contributed by Reed C. Rollins, Gray Herbarium, Harvard University.

NovEMBER 15, 19389 KEARNEY AND PEEBLES: ARIZONA PLANTS 479

of flower similarity is particularly striking. In both species the short stamen

arises at right angles to the ovary and then curves upward. This particular

characteristic has not been observed in other species of Arabis, but it is not

of major importance as a diagnostic character, since there is considerable

variation in stamen insertion throughout the genus. The definitely winged

seeds, accumbent coryledons, and markedly flattened siliques of A. tricornuta

_ leave little doubt about its being properly placed in Arabzs, in spite of the

_ striking similarity it shows at the flowering stage to another species of a dif-

ferent genus.

Arabis tricornuta is not closely related to any North American species of

Arabts, but the flower, inflorescence, and upper parts of the plant are similar

to A. laevigata. The new species is somewhat like A. repanda, particularly as

regards the petiolate cauline leaves, but the similarity is only superficial. A.

tricornuta is apparently restricted to the mountains of southern Arizona,

where it has been collected at elevations between 7,000 and 9,000 feet.

ARIZONA: Eastview, Rincon Mountains, Oct. 13, 1909, J. C. Blumer 3478

(Gray Herb., type); Rincon Mountains, 1891, G. C. Neally 120 in part (U.

S. Nat. Herb.); Santa Rita Mountains, Aug. 23, 1936, Robert Darrow and J.

Arnold (Gray Herb.). There is a Blumer collection in the U. S. National

Herbarium labeled Castilleya minor, which is partly Arabis tricornuta and

partly Thelypodium micranthum. This specimen supposedly came from the

Chiricahua Mountains, but the label is obviously a transposed one; hence

the data cannot be trusted.

Sedum wootoni Britton var. griffithsii (Rose), comb. nov.

Sedum griffithsii Rose, North Amer. Flora 22: 71. 1905.

There seems to be no character that distinguishes var. griffithsiz from typi-

cal S. wootoni except the more distinctly papillate basal leaves.

Echeveria bartramii (Rose), comb. nov.

Graptopetalum bartramii Rose, Addisonia 11: 1, pl. 353. 1926.

The characters on which were based the genera Graptopetalum Rose and

Dudleya Britton and Rose are, in the opinion of the writers, of subgeneric

rather than generic value.

Echeveria arizonica (Rose), comb. nov.

Dudleya arizonica Rose, Addisonia 8: 35, pl. 274. 1923.

This species evidently is related to EF. pulverulenta Nutt. of southern Cali-

fornia but is perhaps sufficiently distinguished by the smaller size of the

plant, less pulverulent herbage and smaller flowers.

Echeveria collomae (Rose), comb. nov.

Dudleya collomae Rose, in Morton, Desert [Plant Life] 6: 68. 1934.

Closely related to several forms of southern California that have been de-

seribed as species, EH. collomae is presumably the Arizona plant referred to

Dudleya parishit Rose in North American Flora (22: 41. 1905). Specimens

of this species collected in Arizona by M. E. Jones were identified by him

as Cotyledon saxosum M. E. Jones (Dudleya saxosa Britton and Rose, Eche-

veria saxosa Nels. and Macbr.), the type of which, a smaller plant, was col-

lected in the Panamint Mountains, Calif.

Saxifraga rhomboidea Greene var. franciscana (Small), comb. nov.

Micranthes franciscana Small, North Amer. Flora 22: 144. 1905.

Sazifraga franciscana Fedde, in Just, Bot. Jahresb. 33: pt. 1, 613. 1906.

480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

S. rhomboidea var. typica f. franciscana Engler and Irmscher, Pflanzenr. IV.

I, 2x35 QING,

The filaments of var. franciscana are described as clavate by Small but tb

not appear to be so in specimens from the type locality.

Heuchera versicolor Greene var. leptomeria (Greene), comb. nov.

Heuchera leptomeria Greene, Leaflets 1: 112. 1905.

Apparently this form differs from typical H. versicolor only in the narrower

hypanthium and lower part of the ovary and there is too much intergrada-

tion to warrant maintenance of H. leptomeria as a species.

Philadelphus microphyllus A. Gray var. argenteus (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Philadelphus argenteus Rydb., North Amer. Flora 22: 171. 1905.

The variety differs from typical P. microphyllus only in the copious to

dense pubescence of the hypanthium and upper surface of the leaves, these

being glabrous or sparsely pubescent in the typical form.

Fendlerella utahensis (S. Wats.) Heller var. cymosa (Greene), comb. nov.

Fendlerella cymosa Greene, in Woot. and Standl., Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 16:

129. 1913.

The leaves are normally narrower and more acute in var. cymosa than in

typical F. utahensis and the two forms are widely separated geographically,

typical utahensis occurring in southern Utah, southern Nevada and north-

ern Arizona, whereas var. cymosa is found in the mountains of southern New

Mexico, southern Arizona, and northern Mexico.

Fendlera rupicola A. Gray var. tomentella (Thornber), comb. nov.

Fendlera tomentella Thornber, in Woot. and Standl., Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb.

16: 129. 1913.

In this variety the leaf-blades are rather densely white-pubescent beneath

and are usually narrower and more strongly revolute than in typical F’. rupz-

cola.

Crossosoma bigelovii S. Wats. var. glaucum (Small), comb. nov.

Crossosoma glaucum Small, North Amer. Flora 22: 232. 1908.

Although intergradation with the typical form is complete, var. glaucum

normally has the follicles broader (ovoid or obovoid) and more glaucous than

in typical C. bigelovit.

Rubus strigosus Michx. var. arizonicus (Greene), comb. nov.

Batidaea arizonica Greene, Leaflets 1: 2438. 1906.

Rubus arizonicus Rydb., North Amer. Flora 22: 446. 1913.

The Arizona form apparently differs from eastern specimens of #. strigosus

merely in having the leaves of the shoots 5- to 9-foliolate (instead of 3- to 5-

foliolate) and those of the flowering branches mostly 5-foliolate but occa-

sionally 3-foliolate.

Potentilla crinita A. Gray var. lemmoni (S. Wats.) comb. nov.

Ivesia lemmoni S. Wats., Proc. Amer. Acad. 20: 365. 1885.

Potentilla lemmoni Greene, Pittonia 1: 104. 1885.

The variety differs from typical P. crinita in its stiffer, more erect stems,

leaflets toothed only at or very near the apex, and petals usually not sur-

passing the sepals.

NovEMBER 15, 1939 KEARNEY AND PEEBLES: ARIZONA PLANTS 481

Potentilla subviscosa Greene var. ramulosa (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Potentilla ramulosa Rydb., Bull. Torrey Club 23: 430. 1896.

There is little to distinguish this variety from typical P. subviscosa except —

that the leaflets are usually only coarsely toothed, whereas in the typical

form of the species they are cleft more than halfway to the midvein. The

basal leaves in var. ramulosa are occasionally subpinnate rather than strictly

digitate.

Potentilla multifoliolata (Torr.), comb. nov.

Horkelia? multifoliolata Torr., Sitgreaves Rep. Zuni & Colo. 159. 1853.

Comarella multifoliolata Rydb., Mem. Bot. Columbia Univ. 2: 156. 1898.

Ivesia multifoliolata Keck, Lloydia 1: 125. 1938.

Potentilla thurberi A. Gray var. atrorubens (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Potentilla atrorubens Rydb., Bull. Torrey Club 24: 11. 1897.

The variety seems to be distinguishable only in having the lower surface

of the leaflets rather densely silvery-sericeous whereas in typical P. thurberz

it is only sparsely sericeous, not silvery.

Potentilla thurberi A. Gray var. sanguinea (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Potentilla sanguinea Rydb., North Amer. Flora 22: 324. 1908.

This form differs from typical P. thurberi in having the leaves subpinnate

with a very short rachis between the pairs of leaflets, instead of strictly digi-

tate or very nearly so.

Geum ciliatum Pursh var. griseum (Greene), comb. nov.

Erythrocoma grisea Greene, Leaflets 1: 178. 1906.

Sieversia grisea Rydb., North Amer. Flora 22: 409. 1913.

From typical G. ciliatum the variety differs in having the bracts less con-

spicuously surpassing the sepals and the leaflets less deeply dissected.

Geum strictum Ait. var. decurrens (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Geum decurrens Rydb., North Amer. Flora 22: 404. 1913.

This is the common form of the species in the southern Rocky Mountain

region, with the upper divisions of the leaves decurrent on the rachis and

more or less confluent.

Cercocarpus montanus Raf. var. flabellifolius (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Cercocarpus flabellifolius Rydb., North Amer. Flora 22: 422. 1913.

Differs from typical C. montanus in the more appressed pubescence of the

leaves and hypanthium-tube.

Rosa arizonica Rydb. var. granulifera (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Rosa granulifera Rydb., North Amer. Flora 22: 517. 1918.

As compared with typical R. arizonica, var. granulifera has the leaflets

more or less double-serrate (the smaller teeth often reduced to glands), the

lower surface of the leaflets more copiously granuliferous, and stipitate

glands more constantly present on the backs of the sepals.

Prunus emarginata (Dougl.) Walp. var. crenulata (Greene), comb. nov.

Cerasus crenulata Greene, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 18: 56. 1905.

Prunus crenulata 'Tidestrom, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 40: 119. 1927.

Characterized, in comparison with the typical form of the species, by the

narrower, elliptic or oblanceolate, more acute leaf-blades.

482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

Acacia hirta Nutt. var. suffrutescens (Rose), comb. nov.

Acacia suffrutescens Rose, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 12: 409. 1909.

Acaciella suffrutescens Britton and Rose, North Amer. Flora 23: 103. 1928.

The variety is scarcely distinguishable from typical A. hirta except that

the plant is commonly distinctly suffrutescent. Lateral veins are scarcely

perceptible in the leaflets of the type specimen of A. suffrutescens.

Acacia hirta Nutt. var. shrevei (Britton and Rose), comb. nov.

Acaciella shrever Britton and Rose, North Amer. Flora 23: 105. 1928.

As compared with typical A. hirta and var. suffrutescens, this form has

leaflets with distinct lateral veins, some of these often branching from the

midrib far above the base of the leaflet. There is complete intergradation

among these three forms of A. hirta.

Mimosa dysocarpa Benth. var. wrightii (A. Gray), comb. nov.

Mimosa wrightii A. Gray, Pl. Wright 2: 52. 1853.

Typically this variety is characterized by somewhat narrower, unarmed

pods (pods usually with a few marginal prickles in M. wrightiz), glabrous or

glabrate upper leaf-surface, and longer inflorescences than in the typical

form, but there is much variation in both forms, and the intergradation

seems complete.

Mimosa grahami A. Gray var. lemmonii (A. Gray), comb. nov.

Mimosa lemmoni A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 19: 76. 1883.

Mimosopsis lemmonii Britton and Rose, North Amer. Flora 23: 176. 1928.

The variety has copiously pubescent young twigs, leaves, flowers, and

pods, whereas in typical M. grahami these parts are normally glabrous or

sparsely pubescent. There appear to be no other distinguishing characters.

Sophora formosa, sp. nov.

Frutex 1-2 m altus; folia sempervirentia pinnata, foliolis 7-13 ellipticis

obtusis 15-80 mm longis 10—12 mm latis coriaceis, primo utrinque argenteo-

sericels deinde supra strigosis; inflorescentia dense racemosa plus minusve

4 em longa; calyx 8-9 mm longus sericeus brevidentatus; corolla purpurea

vel violacea plus minusve 16 mm longa, vexilli lamina late-ovala 14-18 mm

longa fere tam lata quam longa, alarum lamina paullo breviora, carinae

petalorum lamina 10-13 mm longa quam unguibus vix duplo longiora; legu-

men usque ad 14 em. longum 11—13 mm latum planum plus minusve torulo-

sum; semina 2—5 rubro-fusca 6-11 mm longa 6—7.5 mm lata.

Type: Bassett Maguire 10993, below Frye Mesa, northern foothills of the

Pinaleno Mountains, Graham County, Ariz., April 1985 (U.S. National

Herbarium No. 1731764).

The bark of the twigs is gray-green, that of the old stems dark gray, rough

and furrowed. The mature leaflets are dark green and slightly glossy above,

with only the midvein prominent beneath. The pods are acuminate at apex

and are sparsely strigose (more densely so at the constrictions). The seeds

average 9.2 mm long and 6.5 mm wide. S. formosa closely resembles S. ari-

zonica 8. Wats., but the latter has a larger corolla (about 22 mm long), an

oblong-obovate (instead of broadly oval) banner-petal 18 to 20 mm long and

only two-thirds as wide as long (four-fifths as wide as long in S. formosa),

keel-petals with blades 2.5 times as long as their claws (1.5 to 2 times as long

in formosa); and slightly larger seeds, averaging 9.9 mm long, 7.4 mm wide

(averaging 9.2 and 6.5 mm in formosa). All the petals are relatively broader,

NovEMBER 15, 1939 KEARNEY AND PEEBLES: ARIZONA PLANTS 483

in S. formosa, the leaflets of that species are usually longer, broader, and

more obtuse, and the pubescence is denser and more persistent on the upper

leaf-surface and on the pods.

At a second station for S. formosa, also in the northern foothills of the

Pinaleno Mountains, about 13 miles southwest of the town of Pima, at about

3,000 feet altitude, C. J. Humphrey collected mature seeds on June 11, 1937.

The writers visited the type locality, about 43 miles south of Thatcher, on

April 25, 1939, and found the plant locally abundant on eroded slopes with

northern exposure, extending from the lower edge of Frye Mesa, at about

3,700 feet altitude, where it is associated with Quercus turbinella, Yucca,

Dasylirion, and Fouquieria, down to the base of the escarpment at about

3,400 feet, where Covillea, Prosopis, and Fouquieria are the principal woody

species. These, the only known stations of S. formosa, are 250 to 300 miles

southeast of the only known stations of S. arzzonica, in Mohave County,

along the eastern foothills of the Hualpai Mountains and on Big Sandy

Wash, 60 miles south of Kingman. Both species give the impression of being

relict forms, suggesting that they may have had a common ancestor of much

wider distribution.

Lotus greenei Ottley, nom. nov.°

Hosackia mollis Greene, Bull. California Acad. 1: 185. 1885. |

Lotus mollis Greene, Pittonia 2: 148. 1890. (Non Balf. f. 1882.)

Lotus oroboides (HBK.) Ottley, nom. nov.®

Tephrosia oroboides HBK., Nov. Gen. et Sp. 6: 462. 1823.

Hosackia puberula Benth., Pl. Hartweg. 305. 1849.

Lotus puberulus Greene, Pittonia 2: 142. 1890.

Psoralea mephitica Wats. var. retrorsa (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Pediomelum retrorsum Rydb., North Amer. Flora 24: 22. 1919.

The variety differs from typical P. mephitica in its larger leaflets, longer

central peduncle and inflorescence, and larger corolla.

Amorpha fruticosa L. var. occidentalis (Abrams), comb. nov.

Amorpha occidentalis Abrams, Bull. New York Bot. Garden 6: 394. 1910. |

This form apparently differs from the variable and widely distributed A.

fruticosa only in its usually more elongate spikes, these, more frequently

than in the typical form, only 1 or 2 on the branchlet.

Dalea leporina (Ait.), comb. nov.

Psoralea leporina Ait., Hort. Kew. 3: 81. 1789.

Parosela leporina Rydb., North Amer. Flora 24: 78. 1920.

Dalea nana Torrey var. carnescens (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Parosela carnescens Rydb., Fl. Rocky Mts. 483. 1917.

_ Differs from typical D. nana in having the upper surface of the leaflets

green and glabrescent rather than sericeous, and in having usually stouter

stems.

Dalea polygonoides A. Gray var. laevituba, var. nov.

A D. polygonoides f. typica calycis tubo externe glabro distinguitur.

In typical D. polygonoides the whole of the calyx is silky-villous externally.

5 Contributed by Alice M. Ottley, Department of Botany, Wellesley College.

484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

Type: Harrison, Kearney, & Fulton 8089, Santa Catalina Mountains,

Pima County, Ariz., August 23, 1931, growing on rocks at an altitude of

7,500 feet (U. S. National Herbarium No. 1530853). The variety was col-

lected previously in the same locality (Shreve 5408) and occurs also in the

Chiricahua Mountains, Cochise County, Ariz., at an altitude of 8,200 feet

(Blumer 1652, 1653) and in southern New Mexico.

Dalea whitingi, sp. nov.

Frutex intricate ramosus interdum 0.8 m altus; rami spinescentes pilis

retrorsis canescentes glandulis aurantiacis pustulati denique straminei gla-

brique; stipulae cartilaginosae subulatae glanduliferae 1 mm longae; folia

oblonga imparipinnata 12-24 mm longa antrorse strigosa, stipellis glandulo-

sis, foliolis 11-19 crassis involutis 2-4 mm longis oblongis vel oblanceolatis

obtusis vel truncatis subtus pustulatis in petiolulis brevibus contractis; in-

florescentia racemosa spinescens 1—3 cm longa, pedunculo 7-20 mm longo,

floribus 1-8, bracteis parvis cartilaginosis, pedicellis adscendentibus 1 mm

longis; calyx externe villosus, tubo turbinato 2.5-3 mm longo 10-costato

inter nervos glandulis 1-5 aurantiacis obsito, lobis rotundis vel obtusissimis

fere tam latis quam longis glandulam apicalem munitis, lobo maximo 2 mm

longo; petala hypanthio ad basin tubistaminum inserta, laminis longitudine

subaequalibus fere 5 mm longis glandulam unicam apicem versus interdum

munitis, vexilli lamina suborbiculari emarginata, laminis ceteris oblique-

oblongis basi lobatis, vexilli et alarum unguibus 2 mm longis, carinae peta-

lorum unguibus 3 mm longis; stamina monadelphia supra medium connata;

ovarium 2-ovulatum villosum lateribus pustulatum 3.5 mm longum stylo

villoso 3.5 mm longo attenuatum; fructus ignotus.

Type: Whiting & Jones 916/3277, Wupatki National Monument on Little

Colorado River, Coconino County, Ariz., August 9, 1938 (U. 8. National

Herbarium No. 1732120).

Related to Dalea thompsonae (Vail) L. O. Williams, from which it is dis-

tinguished mainly by the greater number of leaflets (these only 5 to 9 in

thompsonae), narrower leaflets (these elliptic or slightly obovate in thomp-

sonae), and in having the calyx-tube villous externally and with less promi-

nent ribs. Both species have the petals inserted on the hypanthium, appear-

ing in this and other respects to be closely related to the species Rydberg

placed in his genus Psorothamnus.

Dalea wislizeni A. Gray var. sanctae-crucis (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Parosela sanctae-crucis Rydb., North Amer. Flora 24: 103. 1920.

Herbage glabrous or nearly so, not villous or villous-canescent as in typical

D. wislizent.

Robinia neomexicana A. Gray var. subvelutina (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Robinia subvelutina Rydb., North Amer. Flora 24: 227, 1924.

This variety is distinguished from the typical form of R. neomexicana by

the glandular-hispid pubescence of the pods and from var. luxurians Dieck

by the rather loose, somewhat spreading pubescence of the herbage and by

the usually more copiously glandular-pubescent young stems and petioles.

Astragalus egglestonii (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Tium egglestonit Rydb., North Amer. Flora 24: 396. 1929.

This species evidently is closely related to A. rusbyi Greene, although

Rydberg (ibid., p. 380) placed the latter in a different segregate genus, Atelo-

NovEMBER 15, 1989 KEARNEY AND PEEBLES: ARIZONA PLANTS 485

phragma. Astragalus egglestoni differs chiefly in its glabrous, shorter-stipi-

tate pods.

Astragalus sonorae A. Gray var. tenerrimus (M. E. Jones), comb. nov.

Astragalus humistratus var. tenerrimus M. E. Jones, Proc. California Acad.

11, 5: 649. 1894.

- Batidophaca tenerrima Rydb., North Amer. Flora 24: 316. 1929.

This seems to be only a form of A. sonorae with smaller leaflets and shorter

fewer-flowered racemes.

Hedysarum mackenzii Richards. var. pabulare (A. Nelson), comb. nov.

H. pabulare A. Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 15: 185. 1902.

This form has relatively narrow leaflets and relatively small flowers as

compared with specimens of H. mackenzz from farther north.

Desmodium metcalfei (Rose and Painter), comb. nov.

Meibomia metcalfer Rose and Painter, Bot. Gaz. 40: 144. 1905.

Galactia wrightii A. Gray var. mollissima, var. nov.

A forma typica G. wrighti: caulibus et foliis velutino-tomentosis pilis fere

omnibus patentibus distinguitur.

In typical G. wrightii the pubescence is sericeous and most of the hairs are

appressed.

Type: Peebles, Harrison & Kearney 4657, near Patagonia, Santa Cruz

County, Ariz., August 7, 1927, in flower (U. 8. National Herbarium No.

1368950). Also has been collected at Paradise, Cochise County, 5,500 feet

(Blumer 1799, in fruit); in the Pinaleno Mountains, Graham County, 5,100

feet (Kearney & Peebles 14103); and “‘in Arizona” (Rothrock 387).

Phaseolus wrightii A. Gray var. grayanus (Woot. and Standl.), comb. nov.

Phaseolus grayanus Woot. & Standl., Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 16: 139. 1913.

The variety intergrades with typical P. wrightit but usually has larger

leaflets, longer peduncles, and more persistently pubescent pods.

Geranium atropurpureum Heller var. furcatum (Hanks), comb. nov.

Geranium furcatum Hanks, North Amer. Flora 25: 16. 1907.

This differs from the typical form apparently only in the presence of glan-

dular hairs, at least on the pedicels.

Linum aristatum Engelm. var. australe (Heller), comb. nov.

Linum australe Heller, Bull. Torrey Club 25: 627. 1898.

The variety is characterized by usually shorter sepals and petals and by

having the inner sepals dentate rather than merely denticulate; also by the

commonly more branched stems and serrulate leaves, these being mostly en-

tire in the typical form. There is, however, much intergradation.

Kallstroemia californica (S. Wats.) Vail var. brachystylis (Vail), comb. nov.

Kallstroemia brachystylis Vail, Bull. Torrey Club 24: 206. 1897.

As compared with typical K. californica, this form has usually fewer leaf-

lets and shorter, blunter tubercles on the carpels, but there is too much inter-

gradation to warrant specific distinction.

Ptelea angustifolia Benth. var. cognata (Greene), comb. nov.

Ptelea cognata Greene, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 10: 62. 1906.

486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

This form is distinguished by the glabrescent, instead of permanently

pubescent, lower leaf-surface.

Acer glabrum Torrey var. neomexicanum (Greene), comb. nov.

Acer neomexicanum Greene, Pittonia 5: 3. 1902.

This form differs from typical A. glabrum and resembles A. glabrum var.

tripartitum (Nutt.) Pax in having at least some of the leaves 3-parted instead

of merely lobed. From var. tripartitum it differs in the more deeply and

acutely toothed leaf-margins and in having the terminal division longer-

cuneate at base.

Rhamnus betulaefolia Greene var. obovata, var. nov.

Laminae foliorum obovatae crassiusculae 5-8 em longae 4—5.5 em latae.

Type: Peebles & Smith 13930, south end of Navajo Mountain, Coconino

County, Ariz., at an altitude of 6,300 feet (U. S. National Herbarium No.

1732315). Occurs also in San Juan County, Utah, in Armstrong and White

Canyons, 5,000 to 5,500 feet (Rydberg & Garrett 9411) and in Cottonwood

Canyon, 4,200—4,500 feet (Maguire et al. 5750). A collection in the Charles-

ton Mountains, Nev. (Clokey 727) has less pronouncedly obovate blades.

In typical R. betulaefolia the leaf-blades are elliptic or oblong, usually

narrower, thinner, and with veins slenderer and less prominent beneath than

in var. obovata. The variety occurs considerably to the north and northwest

of the main range of R. betulaefolia.

Sphaeralcea spp.

The following combinations, previously published as subspecies, are here

renamed as varieties in conformity with the practice of most American bota-

nists. The references in parentheses are to pages in the publication in which

the subspecies were published.® S. coulterz var. californica (Rose) Kearney

(p. 32); S. coulterz var. margaritae (Brandegee) Kearney (p. 33); S. azillaris

var. rosacea (Rose) Kearney (p. 36); S. emoryz var. variabilis (Cockerell)

Kearney (p. 39); S. emoryi var. nevadensis Kearney (p. 40); S. emoryz var.

arida (Rose) Kearney (p. 41); S. ambigua var. rosacea (Munz and Johnston)

Kearney (p. 46); S. ambigua var. monticola Kearney (p. 47); S. ambigua var.

rugosa Kearney (p. 49); S. ambigua var. versicolor Kearney (p. 50); S. rusbyz

var. gilensis Kearney (p. 54); S. rusbyi var. eremicola (Jepson) Kearney (p.

56); S. ncana var. cuneata Kearney (p. 59); S. fendlerz var. elongata Kearney

(p. 62); S. fendlerz var. albescens Kearney (p. 62); S. fendlerz var. tripartita

(Woot. and Standl.) Kearney (p. 63); S. fendleri var. venusta Kearney (p.

63); S. angustifolia var. lobata (Wooton) Kearney (p. 69); S. subhastata var.

connata Kearney (p. 75); S. subhastata var. martii (Cockerell) Kearney (p.

76); 8. subhastata var. latifolia Kearney (p. 77); S. subhastata var. thyrsoidea

Kearney (p. 77); S. subhastata var. pumila (Woot. and Standl.) Kearney (p.

78); S. munroana var. subrhomboidea (Rydberg) Kearney (p. 85); S. grossu-

lariaefolia var. pedata (Torrey) Kearney (p. 88); S. digitata var. tenuipes

(Woot. and Standl.) Kearney (p. 91); S. coccinea var. dissecta (Nutt.) Kear-

ney (p. 96); S. coccinea var. elata (Baker) Kearney (p. 97).

Koeberlinia spinosa Zucc. var. tenuispina, var. nov.

Frutex ramulis spinosis elongatis tenuis plerumque 5-9 cm longis ad ba-

sin, 1.5-3 mm erassis; cortex coeruleo-viridis; sepala deltoide-ovata 1.5—2 mm

6 Kearney, Thomas H. The North American species of Sphaeralcea, subgenus

Eusphaeralcea. Univ. California Publ. Bot. 19: 1-102. 1935.

NovEMBER 15, 1939 KEARNEY AND PEEBLES: ARIZONA PLANTS 487

longa longiora quam lata distincte denticulata; petala 4.2-6 mm longa; fila-

menta 2.5-5 mm longa.

Type: Kearney & Peebles 10969, Horse Tank, Castle Dome Mountains,

Yuma County, Ariz., March 25, 1935 (U. S. National Herbarium No.

1634130). Has been collected in Yuma County, Ariz., near Wenden (Peebles

& Loomis 6740) and in the Kofa Mountains (Peebles & Loomis 6772), and

between Mesquite and Altar, Sonora (F. Long 27). Flowers in March.

Typical K. spinosa, which apparently occurs nowhere west of Tucson,

Ariz., is usually lower-growing than var. tenuzspina, which reaches a height

of 3.6 meters. The typical form normally has shorter and stouter spines (3 to

6 cm long and 2.5 to 4 mm in diameter at base), yellowish-green bark, del-

toid-orbicular sepals 1 to 1.5 mm long, wider than long, obscurely denticu-

late, petals not more than 4.5 mm. long, and filaments not more than 3.5

mm long. It flowers later than var. tenuzspina, from July to October (excep-

tionally in May). There is an early-flowering form in Texas (var. verniflora

Bogusch), but this has much shorter spines than var. tenuzspina.

Viola nephrophylla Greene var. arizonica (Greene), comb. nov.

Viola arizonica Greene, Pittonia 5: 33. 1902.

This form differs, apparently, from typical V. nephrophylla only in having

sparsely pubescent or at least ciliolate leaf-blades.

Chimaphila maculata (L.) Pursh var. dasystemma (Torrey), comb. nov.

Chimaphila dasystemma Torrey, in Rydb., North Amer. Flora 29: 32. 1914.

This form differs from most eastern specimens of C. maculata in its shorter

and relatively wide leaf-blades, these 2 to 4 cm long, one-third to two-thirds

as wide.

Monotropa hypopitys L. var. latisquaama (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Hypopitys latisquama Rydb., Bull. Torrey Club 40: 461. 1913.

Compared with M. hypopitys as represented in the Eastern United States,

this form differs in the usually pink or red color of the plant, taller and stout-

er stems, broader leaves (scales) and more numerous and larger flowers, with

petals 10 mm long or longer.

Lysimachia ciliata L. var. validula (Greene), comb. nov.

Steironema validulum Greene, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 16: 158. 1913.

Differs from most eastern specimens of L. ciliata, and from Stezronema cili-

atum var. occidentale Suksdorf, in having the leaf-blades at most obscurely

ciliolate, rather than distinctly short-ciliate. The blades also are narrower

than they are commonly in L. ciliata. The petioles are conspicuously ciliate,

as in other forms of the species.

Amsonia tomentosa Torrey and Frém. var. stenophylla, var. nov.

Folia 5-8 mm lata, inferiora distincte brevi-petiolata lamina rhomboideo-

lanceolata, superiora lineari-lanceolata fere sessilia; folliculi maturi pubes-

centes vel glabrescentes.

Type: Peebles & Fulton 11944, Monument Valley, Navajo County, Ariz.,

altitude 5,300 feet, in flower June 4, 1935 (U. S. National Herbarium No.

1634559). Occurs also in the ‘‘Colorado Canyon” (Mrs. Thompson in 1872),

and at Cameron, Coconino County, altitude 5,000 ft. (Hanson 160).

The Hanson collection was referred to A. arenaria Standley by Woodson

488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO: 11

(Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden 15: 424. 1928), but the writers believe it to be

nearer A. tomentosa, since the leaves of A. arenaria are all very narrowly lin-

ear-lanceolate and sessile or subsessile. From typical A. tomentosa this variety

differs in its narrower leaves and in the less copiously pubescent, or glabres-

cent, mature pods. |

Mellichampia sinaloensis (Brandegee), comb. nov.

Roulinia sinaloensis Brandegee, Zoe 5: 243. 1908.

This species differs from M. ligulata (Benth.) Vail (M. rubescens A. Gray)

in having smaller, ochroleucous flowers, narrower and less pubescent corol-

la-lobes, corona-segments subquadrate at base and abruptly contracted into.

the subulate terminal portion (not gradually attenuate as in M. ligulata),

and rounder, suborbicular or reniform anther-tips, these not or but slightly

surpassing the stigmatic disk.

Gilia aggregata (Pursh) Spreng. var. macrosiphon, var. nov.

A G. aggregata {. typica corolla pallide purpureo-incarnata, lobis purpureo-

maculatis, tubo cum fauce 3.5—4 cm longo, siccitate fauce ad apicem minus

quam 3 mm lato, lobis caudato-acuminatis, distinguitur.

Type: Peebles, Kearney, & Harrison 2522, Santa Catalina Mountains,

Pima County, Ariz., altitude 7,500 feet (U. S. National Herbarium No.

1367907). Known only from the type locality, where it is fairly abundant

and where no other form of G. aggregata has been observed.

The very long narrow corolla and its purplish-pink color distinguish this

variety from other forms of G. aggregata, in which the corolla rarely exceeds

3 cm. in length, is 3 to 4 mm wide at the throat in pressed specimens and

varies in color from bright (spectrum) red to eosine pink.

Scutellaria tessellata Epling, sp. nov.’

Herba perennis altitudine plerumque 30-50 cm caulibus paucis e caudice

lignoso ramoso ascendentibus utrimque pilis decurvis vix tamen appressis

quam 8S. wrightit majoribus nisi glandulis sessilibus inconspicuis nullomodo

glandulosis; calycibus rarius pilis extensis capitatis sparse conspersis; foliorum

laminis ovatis, mediis 11-24 mm longis, 6-17 mm latis, petiolis 1-6 mm longis

elatis, in apice obtusis in basi cuneato-angustatis etiam truncatis pilis ex-

tenso-decurvis hirtellis; calycibus glandulis inconspicuis sessilibus conspersis

et pilis extensodecurvis rarius glandulosis hirtellis, labia inferiore 3—4.5 mm

longa in maturitate paulo aucto, squama circiter 4.5 mm alta; corollarum

violacearum galea cum tubo 12.5-19 mm longo, galea intus sparse piloso,

tubo ad calycis os piloso-annulato, staminibus supra tubi basim 4-8 mm

magnam partem circiter 5 mm positis, labia inferiore sparsissime pilosa;

nuculis fuscis tessellatis quam wrighti etiam restnosae majoribus.

Type collected in the Huachuca Mountains by Marcus E. Jones, Sept. 3,

1903 (U.S. National Herbarium No. 856971). The species occurs in southern

New Mexico and in central and southern Arizona, ranging in the latter state

from near Ash Fork, Yavapai County, to the mountains of Cochise and

Pima Counties, where it is especially abundant.

This species is distinguishable from S. resinosa and S. wrightit by the

taller, more diffuse habit, the coarser pubescence, the ovate leaves, which are

usually distinctly petioled, and the hairy annulus in the corolla tube. The

nutlets are larger and the protuberances are flattened, giving a tessellate

7 Contributed by Carl Epling, University of California at Los Angeles.

NovEMBER 15, 1989 KEARNEY AND PEEBLES: ARIZONA PLANTS 489

appearance somewhat as in S. canescens. It is readily distinguished from S.

potosina by the small decurved hairs.

Agastache barberi (Robinson) Epling, comb. nov.’

Brittonastrum barbert Robinson, Proc. Amer. Acad. 43: 24. 1907.

Agastache breviflora (A. Gray) Epling, comb. nov.’

Cedronella breviflora A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 20: 309. 1885.

Brittonastrum breviflorum Briq.; Engler & Prantl Pflanzenfam. Nachtr. 1:

291. 1897.

Monardella arizonica Epling, sp. nov.’

Herba perennis saxicola suffruticosa 30-50 em alta caulibus numerosis

assurgentibus pilis brevibus decurvis et praesertim longioribus ad 1 mm

longis extensis vestitis; foliorum laminis subsessilibus magnam partem lance-

olatis 12-25 mm longis, 5-12 mm latis acutis integris, utrimque pilis extensis

sparse conspersis et brevibus capitatis glandulosis; capitulis subnudis, brac-

tels angustioribus acutis calyces vix aequantibus; calycibus extus capitato-

glandulosis et pilis longioribus extensis conspersis; corollis albis purpureo-

maculatis.

Type collected by the author and Mrs. Epling in the Sierra Estrella, Mari-

copa County, Ariz., deposited in the herbarium of the University of Cali-

fornia at Los Angeles. The species has been collected also in the Kofa Moun-

tains, Yuma County, Ariz. (Kearney & Peebles 14220).

In an earlier paper (Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 12: 1-106. 1925) for want of

sufficient evidence to do otherwise, the author referred to M. linoides A.

Gray several species proposed by E. L. Greene: M. anemonoides, M. epilo-

bioides, M. oblonga, and M. viminea. Since this time evidence has been ac-

cumulating to suggest that each of these proposed species, as well as M.

robisoni Eling, the species here proposed, and two other probable entities

not as yet named, form a complex of closely related localized species. Each

apparently is ecologically different, inasmuch as the associations in which

they occur are different, and each is morphologically different, although

these differences are slight and not always constant. Under cultivation, these

distinctions are usually increased. When further evidence has accumulated

as to the range of variation of each, as well as their cytology, it is hoped to

present their relationships and distribution more fully.

The plants from the Kofa Mountains and the Sierra Estrella seem cer-

tainly to be the same. They occur there, growing from under large granitic

boulders in much the same way as M. robisonii, which is confined to the re-

gion of Key’s Ranch near Twenty-nine Palms, Calif., and which they most

closely resemble. They are found in the Larrea climax associated with En-

celia farinosa, Fouquieria splendens, Salvia mohavensis and Hyptis emoryt.

In habit they are characterized by the rather broad leaves (for this species

group), which tend to spread. The spreading pubescence is similar to that of

M. robisoni but more pronounced.

Plants from the Ute Mountains, Ariz., however, more nearly suggest M.

eptlebioides, which is confined to the San Bernardino Mountains, Calif.

They, too, grow from under boulders in the stream bed, with much the same

habit as the plants from the Sierra Estrella, but the leaves are narrow, sel-

dom more than 5 mm broad, and are ascendent, similar to those of M. epilo-

bodes. The pubescence is shorter and that of the calyces is wholly glandular;

in this respect also they are more like M. epilobioides. Their associates are

somewhat different, as they occur at the margin of the juniper belt with

490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No: 11

Salvia carnosa subsp. argentea, Salvia mohavensis, Yucca mohavensis, Rhus

anisophylla, Quercus turbinella, Garrya flavescens, and Rhamnus sp. Both

forms are found growing with Salvia mohavensis, which is known from Ari-

zona from only one other locality. But these are the associates of M. robisonit

rather than those of M. epilobsoides, which is usually found at the lower

margin of the yellow pine belt, on the desert side, often growing amongst the

pine needles.

Penstemon angustifolius Nutt. ex Pursh subsp. venosus

Keck, subsp. nov.

Subsp. caudatus similis; bracteis lanceolatis ovatisve utrinque venosis nec

nigrescentibus pallidis glaucis: corolla roseo-lilacina venis intus purpureis

15-20 mm longis; capsula 10-15 mm longa.

Type: R. H. Peebles & H. J. Fulton 11877, from 12 miles northeast of

Tuba City, Coconino County, Ariz., at 5,300 feet elevation, June 3, 1935

(United States National Herbarium).

Specimens examined: Arizona: Apache County: 20 miles northeast of St.

Johns, Hope, King, & Harlan 9321 (US); 4 miles northeast of Sweetwater,

Peebles & Smith 13552 (CI, US); 9 miles northeast of Rock Point, Peebles &

Smith 13530 (US). Navajo County: Jeddito Mesa, 1934, Bartlett & Colton

(CI); Keams Canyon, Hope, King, & Harlan 9377 (US): Oraibi, Whiting

1272 (CI); Polacca-Winslow road, Whiting 795 (Mus. N. Ariz.). Coconino

County: Klethla Valley, Eastwood & Howell 6505 (CAS); 23 miles north of

Red Lake, Peebles & Smith 13894 (Sacaton); 6 miles east of Tuba City,

1901, Ward (US); Moencopi Sand Hill, 1934, Colton & Bartlett (CI). New

Mexico: San Juan County: Cedar Hill, Standley 7955 (US); Aztec, Baker

603 (GH, NY, RM, US); Bloomfield, Waring In (SPA) 2 Farmington, Standley

6963 (US); plains west of Farmington, Osterhout 6960 (RM). Urau: Grand

County: between Moab and Castleton, Cottam 5618 (CI, Univ. Utah). San

Juan County: Between Blanding and Bluff, Stanton 1021 (Ph); Bluff, Cot-

tam 5585 (Univ. Utah), 5786 (CI, Univ. Utah); San Juan River, 10 miles

northwest of Mexican Hat, Maguire 16260 (CI, Utah State). Garfield Coun-

ty: Escalante, Cottam 4385 (CI, Univ. Utah), Stanton 1022 (Ph). Millard-

Juab County: Millard Sand Dunes, Stanton 5281 (Univ. Utah).

This subspecies is a rather constant plant of sand dunes. It grades over by

fine steps into subsp. caudatus in western New Mexico, but it may usually

be distinguished by the smaller, often pinkish flowers and the more venose

bracts, which do not turn blackish in drying.

Penstemon angustifolius subsp. caudatus (Heller) Keck

Penstemon caudatus Heller, Minnesota Bot. Stud. 2: 34. 1898.

P. angustifolius var. caudatus Rydb., Bull. Torrey Club 33: 151. 1906.

P. secundiflorus caudatus A. Nels., in Coult. & Nels., New Man. Bot. 444.

1909.

Penstemon pachyphyllus A. Gray ex Rydb. subsp. congestus (Jones) Keck

Penstemon acuminatus Dougl. (var.) congestus Jones, Proc. California Acad.

1, 5: 714. 1895.

Penstemon congestus Pennell ap. Graham, Ann. Carnegie Mus. 26: 331. 1937.

® This and the other new subspecies and combinations in Penstemon contributed

by David D. Keck, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Stanford University, Calif.

NovEMBER 15, 1939 KEARNEY AND PEEBLES: ARIZONA PLANTS 491

Penstemon virgatus A. Gray subsp. arizonicus (A. Gray) Keck

Penstemon hallit A. Gray var. arizonicus A. Gray, Syn. Fl. 2(1): 263. 1878.

Penstemon strictus Benth. subsp. strictiformis (Rydb.) Keck

Penstemon strictiformis Rydb., Bull. Torrey Club 31: 642. 1905.

Penstemon ambiguus Torr. subsp. laevissimus Keck, subsp. nov.

Planta undique glaberrima nitida.

Type: I. W. Clokey 8113, from Wilson’s Ranch, Charleston Moun-

tains, Clark County, Nev., at 1,180 m. elevation, in gravelly soil, with brush,

in the Larrea belt, June 7, 1938 (Dudley Herbarium of Stanford University).

Typical P. ambiguus comes from Colorado. Its stems and usually the leaves

are finely puberulent in contrast to the present subspecies in which the herb-

age is glabrous throughout. The two forms occupy adjacent ranges; the typi-

cal form is found on the plains of eastern Colorado, adjacent Kansas and

southward through the panhandle of Texas, while subsp. laevissimus ranges

from southwestern Texas northwesterly across central New Mexico and

northern Arizona to southern Utah and Nevada.

Penstemon eatonii A. Gray subsp. undosus (Jones) Keck

Penstemon eatonii var. undosus Jones, Proc. California Acad. 11. 5: 715. 1895.

P. coccinatus Rydb., Bull. Torrey Club 36: 691. 1909.

Penstemon eatonii subsp. exsertus (A. Nels.) Keck

Penstemon exsertus A. Nels., Amer. Journ. Bot. 18: 438. 1931.

P. amplus A. Nels., zbid. 25: 115. 1938.

Penstemon barbatus (Cav.) Roth subsp. torreyi (Benth.) Keck

Penstemon torreyi Benth. in DC., Prodr. 10: 324. 1846.

P. barbatus var torreyi A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 6: 59. 1862.

Penstemon barbatus subsp. trichander (A. Gray) Keck

Penstemon barbatus var. trichander A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 11: 94. 1876.

P. trichander Rydb., Bull. Torrey Club 33: 151. 1906.

Mimulus cardinalis Dougl. var. verbenaceus (Greene), comb. nov.

Mimulus verbenaceus Greene, Leaflets 2: 2. 1909.

This form apparently differs from typical M. cardinalis only in having the

corolla-tube more exserted (often nearly twice as long as the calyx) whereas

in the typical form the tube is scarcely to moderately exserted; but the inter-

gradation between these forms is practically complete.

Castilleja patriotica Fernald var. blumeri (Standley), comb. nov.

Castilleja blumeri Standley, Muhlenbergia 5: 46. 1909.

Seems not to differ from typical C. patriotica except in the smaller size of

the flowers: calyx about 20 mm long, corolla less than 30 mm long, galea less

than 20 mm long. Specimens intermediate in size of flower also occur.

Cordylanthus wrightii A. Gray var. pauciflorus, var. nov.

A C. wrightii f. typica caulibus et foliis obscure puberulentibus vel glabres-

centibus, capitulis uni-vel bifloris distinguitur.

Type: Kearney & Peebles 12884, 14 miles northeast of Tuba, Coconino

County, Ariz., altitude 5,400 feet, September 27, 1935 (U. S. National

492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

Herbarium No. 1651321). Occurs also in Navajo County, Ariz., in Keam

Canyon (Hough in 1897, Monson in 1937), and on Jedito Mesa (Zuck in

1897).

Sambucus racemosa L. var. microbotrys (Rydb.), comb. nov.

Sambucus microbotrys Rydb., Bull. Torrey Club 28: 503. 1901.

The glabrous or nearly glabrous branchlets and leaves and the more fre-

quent occurrence of 7 leaflets seem to be the only characters distinguishing

this form of the Rocky Mountain region from the form of S. racemosa (S.

pubens Michx.) that occurs in the Eastern United States.

Sambucus neomexicana Woot. var. vestita (Woot. and Standl.), comb. nov :

Sambucus vestita Woot. and Standl., Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 16: 175. 1913.

The writers can find no character except the persistently puberulent or

tomentulose herbage to distinguish vestita from neomezxicana.

BOTANY.—A new variety of the willow Salix glaucophylla Bebb.

CARLETON R. Batu, U. 8. Department of Agriculture.

Recently the writer received from Dr. Otto E. Jennings, curator

of botany in the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburgh, their Pennsyl-

vania Salices for determination and verification before use on the

State distribution maps. Among the specimens were some 40 sheets,

mostly from Erie County, which represent a hitherto unrecognized

variety. Curiously enough, the earliest collection had been made 60

years ago, in 1879, and nearly all are more than 30 years old.

At first glance the plant seems to be a robust and very hairy S.

cordata, with the broad, cordate leaves of Muhlenberg’s type. In

fruiting characters, however, it is like S. glaucophylla Bebb, a sand-

dune plant of the western Great Lakes area. This new form is re-

garded as a variety of that species.

Salix glaucophylla Bebb, albovestita Ball, n. var.

Straggling, divaricately branched shrub, 1—2.5 or 3 meters high; branch-

lets stout, yellowish brown to reddish brown to darker, often drying black,

the seasonal shoots densely white-pilose, the 1-year and 2-year branchlets

more or less gray-pubescent or puberulent to glabrous, dull; bud scales stout,

ovoid or ovoid-lanceolate, 5-7 or 10 mm long, colored and clothed as the

subtending branchlets; stipules semiovate to broadiy reniform, 0.5-2 cm

long, to 1 cm. wide, rounded to acutish or acute at apex, subentire to shal-

lowly crenulate-serrulate, colored and clothed as the leaf blades.

Leaves stipulate, petiolate, unfolding with the aments; petioles 7-15 or

20 mm long, stoutish, channeled, pubescent; blades lanceolate to broadly

lanceolate, ovate-lanceolate, or sometimes ovate, rounded to deeply cordate

at base, short-acuminate to acuminate at apex (narrowly to broadly ellip-

tical and acute at both ends while unfolding), 7 or 8 to 10 or 12 cm long and

1 Received July 22, 1939.

NovEMBER 15, 19389 BALL: A NEW VARIETY OF WILLOW 493

2-3 or 4 em wide on ordinary seasonal shoots, averaging smaller on fruiting

twigs and much larger up to 15 cm on vigorous shoots and sprouts, closely

(6-10 projections per cm) to less closely (2—5 projections per cm) and sharply

to shallowly crenate-serrate to subentire (all on one shoot), dark green and

dull above (or darkening in drying) and glaucous to white-glaucous beneath

when fully unfolded, thickish, finely to coarsely reticulate with raised veins

on both surfaces at maturity (as in S. cordata and S. glaucophylla), densely

to thinly white-pilose on both surfaces when unfolding, becoming less so by

expansion, and finally glabrate at maturity except for pubescent petioles,

midveins, and sometimes the laterals, on both surfaces and especially above.

Aments short-pedunculate, ascending to spreading, appearing with the

leaves.

Staminate aments 2.5-3.5 or 4 cm long, 1—1.3 or 1.5 em wide, dense, decid-

uous when the leaves are half grown; the peduncles stout, densely pilose,

0.5-1.0 em long and bearing 2—4 or 5 oblong or elliptical, entire or subentire,

glabrate, green, leaflike bracts 1-2 cm long; flower scales obovate or the

lower oval, obtuse, 1.3-2 mm long, dark brown or blackish, densely pilose

with straight hairs longer than the scale; stamens 2, filaments free, about

5 mm long, sparingly pubescent on the lower fifth to half; anthers oval, yel-

low, the stamens sometimes browning in drying.

Pistillate aments 3 or 3.5—5 cm long and 12-16 mm wide in anthesis, rather

lax, becoming 4 or 5-7 or 8 cm long and 2.0—2.4 cm wide in fruit; peduncles

as in the staminate but 0.8-1.5 cm long and bearing 2-4 elliptical, entire

to shallowly crenulate-serrulate, leaflike bracts 1—2.5 or 3 em long and 0.6-

1.0 cm wide; flower scales brownish to black, 1.3-2 mm long, narrowly to

broadly obovate, obtuse or occasionally acutish, densely clothed with

straight hairs exceeding the scale in length; gland 1, filiform, capitate, 0.7—

1 mm long; capsules lanceolate and 4-5 mm long in anthesis, becoming 6-9

mm long, broadly lanceolate from a round base, and brown in fruit, gla-

brous; pedicels 1.5—2.5 mm long in anthesis, 2-3 mm long in fruit, glabrous,

stoutish, becoming brown; styles stoutish, 0.5—0.8 mm long, stigmas short,

divided.

Variety albovestita differs from S. glaucophylla in broader, more cordate,

and more acuminate leaves, and in hairiness. The blades are more definitely

lanceolate, with rounded to deeply cordate bases and short-acuminate to

acuminate apexes. In the species the leaves mostly are oblanceolate or ellip-

tic-lanceolate, acutish to rounded but seldom cordate at base (except in var.

latifolia), and are merely acute to short-acuminate at apex. In var. alboves-

tita the young shoots are more or less densely white-pilose. This applies to

branchlets and bud scales and to the petioles, midribs, and sometimes the

lateral veins of full-grown leaves. During expansion both stipules and leaf

blades usually are covered with white hairs. In the species the young branch-

lets often are gray-pubescent, but the other organs named usually are gla-

brous or glabrate. The filaments likewise are hairy in the variety and gla-

brate or glabrous in the species.

From S. cordata the new variety is separated by larger aments and cap-

sules, longer scale hairs, and longer styles, as well as by broader leaves, and

denser hairiness. From S. adenophylla this variety is readily separated by

the longer and more acuminate leaves, loosely crenate-serrate, and becoming

—————

494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

glabrate except on the midveins. In S. adenophylla the leaves are more

nearly ovate, closely beaded on the margin with small, almost perpendicular,

gland-tipped teeth, and permanently densely hairy.

DISTRIBUTION AND HISTORY

This variety occurs along the south shore of Lake Erie at least from north-

western Pennsylvania to north-central Ohio. A single typical collection has

been made in Beaver County, Pa., near the Ohio River northwest of Pitts-

burgh and about 100 miles south of the lake. Sterile specimens from Lake

Huron and from the mountains of southwestern Virginia are very similar.

Possibly this represents a relic of a once wider distribution.

This variety is the Cedar Point, Ohio, willow listed by Werner (4) and

Kellerman and Werner (3) as “intermediate between S. cordata and S.

adenophylla’”’ and the Erie County, Pa., willow discussed and illustrated

by Griggs (1) as S. adenophylla and by Jennings (2:348—56) as S. syrticola.

Griggs’s description and right-hand shoot in plate 14 are true adenophylla

(but not from Lake Erie), but his final paragraph, the left-hand figures in

plate 14, and the enormous leaf in the center of plate 13 (S. cordata) are of

this variety.

Specimens examined are listed below. Containing herbariums are desig-

nated by initials, as follows: CM, Carnegie Museum; CRB, Carleton R.

Ball; OES, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station; OSU, Ohio State Uni-

versity; USN, U. 8. National Herbarium; VPI, Virginia Polytechnic Insti-

tute.

PENNSYLVANIA: Erie County: Presque Isle (unless otherwise stated), all

CM.

Staminate flowering: Otto E. Jennings, May 15, 1905 (2 sheets, Acc. No.

2898); Jennings, May 8-9, 1906 (8 sheets, Acc. 3130, STAMINATE TYPE), Gus-

tave Guttenberg, see below.

Pistillate flowering: Gustave Guttenberg 2621a, Cummins’s Bank, Apr. 28,

1879 (Acc. 251, bearing both staminate and pistillate twigs); Jennings, May

8-9, 1906 (5 sheets, Acc. 3130, PIsTILLATE TYPE).

Pistillate fruiting: Guttenberg 2621, May 28, 1879 (Acc. 251); Jennings,

May 15, 1905 (Acc. 2898); Guttenberg (old fruit), June 11, 1881 (Ace. 251);

Jennings (old fruit), June 8-9, 1906 (Acc. 3130; Jennings (old fruit), June

2-3, 1908 (6 sheets, Acc. 3711).

Foliage: Gustave Guttenberg 2626?, Big Bend, Presque Isle, Aug. 4, 1882

(Ace. 251); J. A. Shafer, Sept. 9 (2 sheets), Sept. 10 (enormous ovate leaves

to 5.7X13 em.), Sept. 11 (4 sheets, one with enormous ovate leaves to

6.315 em), Sept. 12, 1900 (all Acc. No. 1560); Otto E. Jennings, Aug. 24,

1905 (Acc. No. 2898); Jennings, Sept. 20-22, 1906 (2 sheets, Acc. No.

3130); James R. Farrell, just back of Winter Wave Strand, July 15, 1930 (as

S. rostrata, glabrate, Acc. No. 10127); B. H. Patterson, Northeast, Erie

County, Aug. 22, 1908 (2 sheets, glabrate, Acc. No. 6210).

Beaver County: Ravine, Beaver, abundant in woods and roadsides, W. Rf.

Van Dersal 1229, May 8, 1930 (Acc. No. 10571, CM).

NovEMBER 15, 1939 BISHOPP: TRANSMISSION OF ENCEPHALOMYELITIS 495

Out10: Erie County: Castalia, R. F. Griggs 638a, July 10, 1900 (OSU, as

S. cordata X candida). Cedar Point, A. D. Selby 1449, 1450 (‘‘7 ft, densely

woolly’’), 1451 (‘‘4 ft., densely woolly’), 1456 (‘‘4-5 ft’’), 1458 (‘‘8-10

ft’’), all May 18, 1900 (all OES); on a sand dune, Griggs, Aug. 14, 1900

(OSU, as S. cordata, sprout with leaves up to 6.5—-7 cm wide and more than

15 cm long; also in CRB); F. O. Grover, June 9, 1902 (OSU, as S. cordata);

Griggs, June 28, 1904 (2 sheets, as S. adenophylla, OSU).

‘The following sterile specimens are referred somewhat doubtfully to the

new variety, pending collection of fruiting material from these or other

localities remote from Lake Erie:

Micuican: Huron County: Single clump of small sprouts 3-4 ft high on

land side of second row of dunes on Sand Point, Bay Port, C. R. Ball 70b,

Sept. 17, 1902 (CRB, as S. glaucophylla).

ViRGINIA: Roanoke County: Back Creek, near Starkey, ‘‘much whiter

looking than ordinary willow,” J. Fauntleroy 663, Aug. 8, 1914 (USN, as S.

cordata). The leaves are rather large, lanceolate, cordate at base, closely be-

set with incurved teeth, branchlets white-pilose, also the bud scales, petioles,

midribs, and blades of younger leaves.

Montgomery County: Norris Run, near New River, A. B. Massey, Sept.

28, 1938 (VPI, as S. cordata), the leaves white pubescent and white-glaucous.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Griaes, Ropert F. The willows of Ohio: A monograph. Proc. Ohio State Acad.

Sci. 4: 257-314, pls. 1-16. 1905.

JENNINGS, Orto E. A botanical survey of Presque Isle, Erie County, Pennsylvania.

Ann. Carnegie Mus. 5: 289-421, pls. 22—51. 1909.

KELLERMAN, W. A., and WERNER, Wm. C. Catalogue of Ohio plants. Geol. of

Ohio 7(2): 56—406. 1895.

WERNER, Wu. C. New phaenogams for the Ohio flora. Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat.

Hist. 16: 170-172. 1894.

ee Coe

MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY.—Mosquito transmission of encephalo-

myelitis, or brain fever, of horses.1 F. C. BisHopp, U. 8. Bureau

of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

The well-recognized economic importance of mosquitoes has been

further emphasized by the recent discovery that these insects are ca-

pable of transmitting equine encephalomyelitis, or brain fever, of

horses. This malady has appeared periodically for many years in

outbreak proportions in various parts of the United States, although

until recently the disease has not been clearly differentiated from

forage poisoning.

The disease is caused by a minute organism so small that it can not

be seen with the highest-power microscopes, and it passes through the

clay filters that catch and hold the germs responsible for most diseases.

1 Read before the 13th Annual Meeting of the Florida Anti-Mosquito Association,

Daytona Beach, Fla., April 17, 1939. Received May 27, 1939.

496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No; 11

There are recognized at present two rather distinct types of the dis-

ease, usually spoken of as the eastern and western. The former is con-

fined to the Eastern Seaboard and is generally acute, producing a

mortality of 80 to above 90 percent. The western type is less severe,

the mortality usually being about 20 percent.

The economic losses due to the disease are very heavy, and prac-

tically all parts of the country have felt the blow. For instance, the

Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agricul-

ture, has collected records of 184,662 cases in 1938 in 39 States, with

a mortality for the entire country of 21.4 percent, or a death loss of

about 39,518 horses and mules. Florida was among these States. The

cases reported in this State were few but the mortality was high. The

loss due to the occurrence of the disease among horses during 1938

may be conservatively placed at $10,000,000. In 1937, 173,889 cases

were reported in 37 States, with a mortality in different areas ranging

from about 20 percent in most western States to 100 percent in some

eastern and southern States.

One of the most severe and widespread epizootics of the disease oc-

curred in 1912. This outbreak reached its most devastating propor-

tions in central and western Kansas and Nebraska, where the death

loss was estimated at 35,000 head. Epizootics appear to recur at

intervals of 10 to 15 years, with numerous sporadic or enzootic ap-

pearances between. The losses are intensified by the fact that work

animals are often stricken in the midst of harvest, and in not a few

cases a farmer has lost every animal at that critical period.

The importance of the disease and of mosquitoes that might serve

as carriers of it was further emphasized by the determination last

year that encephalomyelitis of horses is transmissible to man. L. D.

Fothergill and associates? demonstrated the presence, in the brain

of a child who had died of acute encephalitis, of a virus indistinguish-

able from the eastern type of encephalomyelitis which appeared

among horses in Massachusetts during the summer of 1938. This

identification was confirmed by L. T. Webster and F. H. Wright,’

who described similar findings in four other fatal human cases. The

diagnosis of the first case referred to above was further confirmed by

H. W. Schoening, L. T. Giltner, and M. 8. Shahan.*

R. F. Feemster,’ of the Massachusetts Department of Public

Health, published a general account of the outbreak in Massachusetts

2 New England Journ. Med. 219: 411. 1988.

3 Science 88: 305-306. 1938.

4 Science 88: 409-410. 1938.

5 Amer. Journ. Public Health 28: 1403-1410. 19388.

NovEMBER 15, 1939 BISHOPP: TRANSMISSION OF ENCEPHALOMYELITIS 497

with comment on its relation to the epizootic among horses in that

State. He points out that there is ‘‘a universal history of mosquito

bites” among the cases investigated. He states also that no connection

between cases indicating contact infection has been traced and that

no contact at all with horses could be discovered in some of the cases.

~ The incidence was high among children, 37 percent being under 2

years of age and 69 percent under 10 years. The mortality was high.

Death occurred in 25 of the 38 cases definitely diagnosed as being

caused by the eastern virus of encephalomyelitis or strongly suspected

of being that disease.

In November 1938, C. M. Eklund and Alex Blumstein® reported

the occurrence in 1937 of six cases of encephalitis in farmers in Min-

nesota, the serum from one neutralizing equine virus of the western

type. One of the farmers had had no contact with sick horses. Two

of the men died.

The occurrence of the disease in horses has attracted most atten-

tion, but a number of other animals and birds have been shown to be

susceptible to artificial exposure. Among these are sheep, cattle,

rabbits, guinea pigs, pigeons, monkeys, rats, mice, and ducks.

Recently E. E. Tyzzer, A. W. Sellards, and B. L. Bennett’ demon-

strated the occurrence of the disease in pheasants in nature, and many

other species of birds have been found to be susceptible to virus dis-

eases of this group. L. D. Fothergill and J. H. Dingle*® found the dis-

ease in common wild pigeons not in confinement.

The onset of the disease in horses and man is sudden, and nervous

symptoms are apparent almost immediately and become progres-

sively more pronounced, clearly showing involvement of the central

nervous system.

Although it was suspected that some insect might be responsible

for the sudden appearance and rapid spread of the malady in a given

locality, it was not until 1933 that R. A. Kelser® announced experi-

ments in which the western strain of the disease was transmitted from

guinea pigs to numerous other guinea pigs, and to a horse by the bite

of the yellow-fever mosquito [Aedes aegypti (L.)]. He showed that the

virus was picked up by the mosquitoes only when they were fed on

the artificially inoculated animals 48 to 120 hours after these animals

had been injected, or during the fever period.

6 Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc. 111: 1734-1735. 1938.

7 Science 88: 505-506. 1938.

8 Science 88: 549-550. 1938.

® Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 82 (n.s. 35): 767-771. 1933.

498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, Nc. 11

In 1934 M. H. Merrill, C. W. Lacaillade, Jr., and Carl Ten Broeck!”

reported experiments in which they had repeatedly transmitted the

disease to healthy guinea pigs with the salt-marsh mosquito [Aedes

sollicitans (Walk.)]. When the mosquitoes were fed on a guinea-pig

brain, western virus suspension, and normal horse blood, they did

not become infective until the seventh day. This mosquito trans-

mitted the eastern type of the disease to healthy guinea pigs 11 days

after the infective feeding and subsequently at least up to the thirty-

third day. The authors also succeeded in transmitting the western

virus with Aedes aegypti but failed to transmit the eastern type. They

reported that a few tests with the brown salt-marsh mosquito [Aedes

cantator (Coq.)| indicate that it will transmit the eastern virus. The

northern house mosquito (Culex pipiens L.) and the common malaria

mosquito (Anopheles quadrimaculatus Say) failed to transmit either

type of the disease. These authors showed that in order to become

infective the mosquitoes must feed on animals when the virus content ~

of the blood is high and that the virus multiplies greatly in the-

mosquito. It has been shown that the virus is present in body fluids

and in all parts of the body and even in the legs of mosquitoes.

In 1936 J. S. Simmons, F. H. K. Reynolds, and V. H. Cornell™

published an account of the transmission of the western type under

experimental conditions by Aedes albopictus Skuse, a preliminary

announcement having been made in the Annual Report of the

Surgeon General of the United States Army for 1934. This is an

Asiatic species and hence can not have any part in the transmission

of the disease in this country.

D. E. Madsen and G. F. Knowlton” proved that two common

western species of mosquito, Aedes dorsalis (Meig.) and A. nzgro-

maculis (Lud.), were capable of transmitting the western type of

encephalomyelitis. The period during which the former species was

infective was from 9 to 19 days after feeding on an infective animal,

and in the latter from 4 to 10 days.

In 1937 R. A. Kelser!® added the southern salt-marsh mosquito

[Aedes taentorhynchus (Wied.)] to the list of mosquitoes demonstrated

to be capable of carrying the disease under experimental conditions.

It is well known that this is the dominant salt-marsh mosquito in

Florida.

10 Science 80: 251-252. 1934.

11 Amer. Journ. Trop. Med. 16: 289-302. 1936.

12 Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 86 (n.s. 39): 662-666. 1935; zbid. 89 (n.s. 42):

187-196. 1936.

13 Science 85: 178. 1937.

NovEMBER 15, 1939 BISHOPP: TRANSMISSION OF ENCEPHALOMYELITIS 499

The following year Dr. Kelser™“ described some experiments with

Aedes vexans (Meig.) in the transmission of the western type. He

experienced difficulty in keeping the mosquitoes alive for a sufficient

period to make a satisfactory test, but one guinea pig out of three

exposed to the mosquitoes during a period of 8 or 9 days after an

infective meal was stricken.

Thus a total of 8 species of mosquitoes have been proved to be

capable of transmitting the disease; and it should not be concluded

that others may not be involved, as relatively few other species have

been tested.

The experimental results indicate that the period in which the

virus is present in the blood and can be picked up by mosquitoes is

distinctly limited. This period is very early in the course of the dis-

ease, and in the case of horses it is mainly prior to the appearance of

marked clinical symptoms.

Although infective mosquitoes have not been found in nature and

many attempts to transmit the disease with these insects have failed,

circumstantial evidence, as well as experimental results, point

strongly to mosquitoes as carriers. It is noteworthy that the disease

outbreaks occur mainly in summer and early in fall and are usually

associated with great mosquito abundance and in the East with rainy

or humid weather. The disease in the East is rather closely limited to

the areas where salt-marsh mosquitoes occur. In the arid West it is

closely associated with irrigated areas where mosquitoes abound.

Some cases in winter have been reported, but diagnosis, at least in cer-

tain of these, is open to question, and in some of these instances it had

not been possible to debar mosquitoes, for, as is well known, mosqui-

toes may be active in winter in warm barns and during warm periods.

In this connection attention is directed to a case in a horse at Ocala,

Fla., which died. on January 13, 1939. The brain of the animal was

submitted by E. F. Thomas, of Ocala, to the U. 8. Bureau of Animal

Industry, and O. L. Osteen,” of that Bureau, confirmed the diagnosis

as encephalomyelitis of the eastern type. During the period im-

mediately preceding the appearance of this case the weather was very

warm, several degrees above normal, and mosquitoes were un-

doubtedly active.

With reference to the human cases of this disease it can be said

definitely that several that occurred in 1938 in Massachusetts were

in individuals who had not had any direct or indirect contact with

14 Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 92 (n.s. 45): 195-203. 1938.

15 Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 94 (n.s. 47): 441-442. 1939.

500 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

horses, and some of them had had no association with any animal or

bird. Some of the children, however, were reported as being ‘‘covered

with mosquito bites’? when admitted to the hospital.

The fact that a few cases of the disease appear among horses in

May or June and a period of absence or practical absence of the

malady intervenes, followed by a severe outbreak in August and

September, leads one to wonder why the cases do not continue to

increase right through the summer, and to raise the question as to

where the disease holds over during such periods and also through

the winter. Some have suggested that this carry-over may take place

in some bird. As is well known, birds and poultry are freely attacked

by mosquitoes. There is also the possibility that the virus may be

kept alive in the mosquito or that it may be carried through the egg

and larva from one generation to another. The tests with hereditary

transmission conducted by L. T. Giltner and. M. 8. Shahan" have,

however, been negative.

The fact that the virus is short-lived when exposed and that it will

remain viable and multiply in mosquitoes also favors the mosquito

theory of transmission. In cooperative tests carried on by the Bureau

of Animal Industry and the Bureau of Entomology and Plant

Quarantine’ yellow-fever mosquitoes when fed on healthy guinea

pigs produced the disease 7 to 74 days after being engorged on an in-

fected animal.

The comparatively low incidence of the disease among horses

kept in stables at night and among those which are sprayed with

insect-killing or repelling materials has been noted by several

authors, and fits in with the mosquito theory.

No species of mosquito has a distribution and a seasonal prevalence

that coincide with the incidence of the disease. However, there is no

reason to attach responsibility to a single species when several have

been shown to be effective vectors. Aedes vexans is the most widely

distributed of the proved vectors, and it is often very abundant and

attacks horses and people viciously late in summer, when the peak

of the disease usually occurs. Its presence in large numbers, however,

is by no means restricted to late summer and fall. A. dorsalis is an

extremely abundant species over much of the area in the central

and western States where the disease has been prevalent. A. nzgro-

maculis is much more restricted in distribution, being confined to the

plains and irrigated areas from Texas to Canada and New Mexico

to Idaho. It is a severe biter and at times becomes abundant. A.

16 Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 88 (n.s. 41): 363-374. 1936.

NovEMBER 15, 19389 GURNEY: NOTES ON CORRODENTIA 501

sollicitans, as has been indicated, is often extremely abundant at the

peak of an epizootic of the eastern strain and largely covers the area

where that type is prevalent. The disease has been less prevalent in

the area where the southern salt-marsh mosquito (A. taeniorhynchus)

is abundant, and A. sollicitans is usually present along with that

species. A. aegyptz might play an important part in the transmission

of the malady in the South, but this mosquito does not occur where

the disease has been most prevalent. Since only one positive case of

transmission of the eastern virus by this species occurred out of many

attempts, it may be assumed that Aedes aegypti is not likely to be of

importance as a vector, except in the South where the western virus

is present, notably in Texas and Oklahoma. The reported lower

incidence of the disease among stabled horses does not fit in with the

building-inhabiting tendencies of this mosquito.

There is obviously much to be learned about this dangerous

malady and the relation of insects to its transmission. However, while

this information is being sought it seems logical to take action against

mosquitoes and as far as practical to protect man and horses from

mosquitoes and other biting insects, especially when the disease is

present in the region.

ENTOMOLOGY .—Nomenclatorial notes on Corrodentia, with de-

scriptions of two new species of Archipsocus.:! ASHLEY BUELL

GurRNEY, U. 8. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

(Communicated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK.)

For the past several years Dr. T. E. Snyder, of the Division of

Forest Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology and Plant

Quarantine, United States Department of Agriculture, has noticed

unsightly psocid webs on the trunks of trees at New Orleans, La. The

psocid responsible for the webs belongs to a genus hitherto known,

among living species, only in tropical regions, and probably it is an

established adventive in this country. As the species does not seem

to agree with the description of any previously known species, it is

here described as new. A second new species of Archipsocus, collected

in Panama by James Zetek, is also described.

The opportunity is taken to present various notes on the nomen-

clature of Corrodentia. While certain of these matters may remain

open to debate until definitely settled by the International Commis-

sion on Zoological Nomenclature, it seems worth while to place the

facts on record.

1 Received May 28, 1939.

502 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, Ne. 11

Genus Archipsocus Hagen

Archipsocus Hagen, Stettin. Ent. Zeit. 43: 222-225, pl. 1, fig. x, 1-10. 1882.

(Genotype, A. puber Hagen, by monotypy.)

The genus Archipsocus was based upon a single fossil species, puber, from

East Prussian amber. At the time of the original description only long-

winged specimens were known. Enderlein (1911a) has since recorded a short-

winged female of puber and has redescribed the genus (1908a, 1911a). Among

the important generic characters are the following: Head subquadrate in

dorsal view; compound eyes with many facets; antennae 13-segmented;

prothorax distinct and free; wings rudimentary or as long as body, bearing

setae and fine pubescence, venation of type illustrated by nomas (Figs. 4-6) ;

tarsi 2-segmented; claws 2 in number, each with a ventral appendage. The

excellent preservation obtainable in amber allows the close comparison of the

structural details of the fossil genotype and the recent species. Details of

the antennae and tarsi of puber illustrated in 1882 are remarkably like those

of living species.

Temporarily, at least, the writer follows Banks (1929) in placing Archipso-

cus in the family Empheriidae (not Empheridae), but the latter’s classifica-

tion does not agree with those of Karny (1930) and Pearman (1936a), and a

future change is anticipated.

The following recent species of Archipsocus have been described: A.

recens Enderlein 1903a (Ceylon to Formosa); A. brasilianus Enderlein,

1906 (Brazil); A. textor Enderlein, 1911b (Africa); A. neens Enderlein, 1914

(West Africa); A. fernandi: Pearman, 1934 (Ceylon); A. biguttatus Pearman,

1936b (Ceylon).

Archipsocus nomas,’ n. sp. Figs. 1-14

Short-winged female.—General form (Fig. 1) typical of genus. Head with

coronal suture and frontal sutures feebly indicated. Caudolateral angles of

head with long curved setae. Compound eyes each with more than 20 facets.

Median ocellus slightly smaller than lateral ocelli. Apical segment of maxil-

lary palpus thrice as long as wide, twice as long as penultimate segment.

Lacimia (‘“‘pick’’) (Fig. 8) curved at base, flattened and expanded in apical

third, apex forked. Length of antennal segments 1—13 (Fig. 3) in the follow-

ing ratio: 1:2:1.6:0.8:1:1:1:1:1:0.9:0.9:0.8:1.5. Laterocervical sclerite

(Fig. 14) with articulatory projections along margin. Pronotum transverse,

lateral margins rounded; each caudolateral angle bearing several curved

setae. Front wing (Fig. 6) extending beyond tergum 1; venation much re-

duced. Hind wing reduced to a tiny lobe about as long as first tarsal segment.

Legs (Figs. 10-12) as illustrated. Tibiae clothed with short setae, those at

apex (Fig. 9) stout and spurlike. Each claw with a curved ventral appendage.

Abdomen clothed with fine setae, unsclerotized except terga 1-2 and

genital segments. Genitalia as shown in Fig. 2 in ventral view. Sclerotized

area of subgenital plate emarginate at base. Anterolateral lobes of tergum

9 strongly sclerotized and curving hooklike about bases of gonapophyses.

2 From the Latin word meaning a nomad, in allusion to the fact that the present

species is probably introduced from its original home.

NOVEMBER 15, 1939 GURNEY: NOTES ON CORRODENTIA 903

Figs. 1, 2.—Archipsocus nomas, new species: 1, Short-winged female, general view;

2, same, apex of abdomen, ventral view.

004 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

Gonapophysis (Fig. 7) with middle third unsclerotized and in distinet con-

trast to well-sclerotized remainder, a heavy curved bristle borne near medial

margin, setae borne on disk and posterior margin as illustrated. Posterior

margins of paraprocts broadly rounded ventrally, dorsal margin less broadly,

so that an acute apex of the latter appears when seen in ventral view.

Supraanal plate broadly rounded, unspecialized.

Coloration: General color dark brown; compound eyes and ocellar triangle

black; palpi, antennae, tibiae, and tarsi pale. Wing transparent, gray.

Measurements: Length of body 1.6 mm, of antenna 0.51 mm, of wing

0.42 mm, of hind tibia 0.42 mm; width of head 0.45 mm.

Long-winged female.—Differing from short-winged female only in struc-

ture of mesothorax and metathorax and in the presence of fully developed

wings. Lateral tergal lobes of mesonotum and metanotum well developed to

accommodate muscles of flight. Wings with venation as illustrated (Figs. 4,

5). Front wing entirely covered by setae; setae of hind wing not extending

basad of apical half except along posterior margin. |

Coloration: Dorsal sutures of thorax conspicuously dark, otherwise agree-

ing with short-winged female.

Measurements: Length of front wing 1.8 mm, of hind wing 1 mm; other

measurements as in short-winged female.

Short-winged male.—Differing from female mainly in smaller size, vestigial

ocelli, and genitalia. Ocelli not distinct, present only as tiny spots in same

location as those of female. Front wing scarcely reaching posterior margin

of tergum 1. Tergum 9 irregularly and feebly emarginate along anterior

margin; lateral extremities broadly joined to lateral margins of posterior

sclerite of subgenital plate (Fig. 13). Anterior sclerite of subgenital plate

transverse, broadly emarginate anteriorly, deeply emarginate at lateral

extremities. Phallic armament dorsad of subgenital plate visible through

the latter as illustrated. Anterior ends of lateral arms flattened and joined;

lateral arms entirely separated from posterior portion, which is V-shaped

and pointed at the apex. Paraprocts well sclerotized dorsally only, so that

when seen in ventral view (Fig. 13) the concave surface of the supraanal

plate and the inner surface of tergum 9 are visible through the transparent

ventral portion of the paraprocts.

Coloration: As in female.

Measurements: Length of body 1.4 mm, of antenna 0.43 mm, of wing

0.20 mm, of hind tibia 0.36 mm; width of head 0.37 mm.

Nymphs.—Ten immature specimens, representing both long-winged and

short-winged forms, are at hand. The antennae are 13-segmented and tarsi

2-segmented in the specimens, which range from 0.7 to 1.5 mm in length.

The smallest individuals have no wing pads. The coloration averages lighter

than in the adults. The compound eyes are black.

Variation.—A few short-winged females intergrade in wing length with

the long-winged form. The wings of 18 of these intergrading specimens are

longer than normal for the short-winged condition, ranging from slightly

longer than normal to 0.75 mm in length. Body size is remarkably constant

in short-winged females; a few varying specimens range from 1.54 to 1.75mm

in body length. Throughout the series the female genitalia are constant

in all important respects. The arrangement of setae on the gonapophyses

varies slightly, but the total number of setae is seldom greater than illus-

trated (Fig. 2) and a condition corresponding to the description of braszlzanus

has not been found. Long-winged females range in body length from 1.6

to 1.9 mm and in wing length from 1.1 to 1.3 mm. The lateral margins of the

NovEMBER 15, 1989 GURNEY: NOTES ON CORRODENTIA 905

basal sclerite of the male subgenital plate vary in outline from a simple curve

(Fig. 13) to a broken, irregular condition. No other noticeable variation has

been seen in the paratypic series.

Type locality—Audubon Park, New Orleans, La.

Type—vU. 5S. N. M. No. 53218.

Holotype.—Short-winged male collected at the type locality by T. E.

Snyder about October 5, 1938.

Allotype.—Short-winged female with same data as the holotype.

Paratypes.—Nine nymphs, 130 short-winged females, 16 long-winged

females, and 18 males with same data as the holotype; 1 nymph, 115

short-winged females, 4 long-winged females, and 1 male taken at the type

locality September 28, 1938; 9 short-winged females, 2 long-winged females,

and 2 males taken by T. E. Snyder at the type locality August 22, 1938.

Of the above paratypes, 10 short-winged females, 2 long-winged females,

and 2 males are deposited in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cam-

bridge, Mass. With the exception of a few slide-mounted specimens treated

with potassium hydroxide, and potassium hydroxide plus stain, all the

material is preserved in alcohol. |

The previously described species most likely to be confused with nomas

is brasilianus. The latter differs from nomas in the larger number of setae

on the gonapophyses of the female and in the proportions of the antennal

segments. The basal emargination of the anterior margin of the subgenital

plate, the division of each gonapophysis into a sclerotized and an unsclero-

tized portion, and the presence of a large bristle on the median margin of

each gonapophysis are conspicuous features of nomas. On the basis of Ender-

lein’s figures of brasilianus, that species lacks these characters.

Archipsocus panama, n. sp. Fig. 15

The most noticeable difference between panama and nomas is found in

the male genitalia (Figs. 13, 15). Other important differences in panama are

smaller size and proportionally longer antennae as compared to other body

structures. Unfortunately, the male of brasilianus has not been described,

but, on the basis of Enderlein’s measurements, this is a larger species than

panama; the description of the female differs from that of panama as from

that of nomas.

In color panama is slightly ligher than nomas. The following description is

abbreviated because of the great similarity, except as noted, to nomas:

Short-winged female.—General form as in nomas. Lacinia with apical fork

slightly more acute than in nomas. Length of antennal segments 1-13 in the

following ratio: 1:1.6:1.4:1:1.1:1.1:0.8:1:0.7:0.9:0.7:1:1.3. Setae on ab-

domen little developed, less noticeable than in nomas. Gonapophysis of

genitalia with curved bristle near medial margin less strongly sclerotized

than in nomas.

Measurements: Length of body 1.48 mm, of antenna 0.57 mm, of wing

0.19 mm, of hind tibia 0.33 mm; width of head 0.37 mm.

Long-winged female.—Differing from short-winged female only in same

way as nomas. Wings as in nomas.

Measurements: Length of antenna 0.61 mm, of front wing 1.07 mm, of

hind wing 0.93 mm, of hind tibia 0.36 mm; other measurements as in short-

winged female.

Short-winged male.—Differing from female as in nomas. Phallic armament

(Fig. 15) horseshoe-shaped; anterior ends of lateral arms expanded and

flattened, but not united; separation between lateral arms and posterior

006 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

Figs. 3—14.— Archipsocus nomas, new species: 3, Short-winged female, left antenna;

4, long-winged female, right front wing; 5, same, right hind wing; 6, short-winged

female, right front wing; 7, same, right gonapophysis, ventral view; 8, same, right

lacinia; 9, same, tarsus and apex of tibia of middle leg, side view; 10, same, front leg;

11, same, middle leg; 12, same, hind leg; 13, short-winged male, apex of abdomen,

ventral view; 14, short-winged female, laterocervical sclerite.

Fig. 15.—Archipsocus panama, new species: Short-winged male, ventral view of

genitalia, anterior portion uppermost.

All drawings made by the author from paratypes except that of panama (Fig. 15),

which is from the holotype.

NovEMBER 15, 1989 GURNEY: NOTES ON CORRODENTIA 507

portion indicated by weakened sclerotization, but not entirely separated as

in nomas; apex of posterior portion broad and platelike, unlike nomas (Fig.

Measurements: Length of body 1.05 mm, of antenna 0.53 mm, of wing

0.14 mm, of hind tibia 0.31 mm; width of head 0.32 mm.

Nymphs.—There are three nymphs, apparently females, in the instar

immediately preceding maturity. The three specimens are of uniform size,

1.2 mm long, and very pale except for the black compound eyes. The wings

* are well developed and extend one-half the length of the abdomen.

Variation.—As the measurements indicate, the antennae and hind tibiae

of the long-winged female appear to be proportionately longer than those

of the short-winged female. Since only two of the latter have been studied, -

the differences may represent normal variation.

Type locality Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, Panama.

Type.—vU.S. N. M. No. 58375.

Holotype.—Short-winged male collected at the type locality, March 24,

1939, by James Zetek.

Allotype —Long-winged female with same data as the holotype.

Paratypes——One_ short-winged male, three short-winged females, 17

long-winged females and three nymphs with same data as the holotype. Six

paratypes are mounted on slides; the remaining material is in alcohol.

HABITS OF ARCHIPSOCUS

Dr. Snyder has kindly furnished the following notes concerning

Archipsocus nomas:

‘“‘Early in July and August 1934 the extensive webs of this psocid attracted

considerable attention in the parks and streets of New Orleans, and we

received many inquiries with regard to it. The entire trunks of large live

oak and hackberry trees were covered by tough webs, and this included

some of the larger branches 20 or 30 feet above ground. Apparently the

psocids were feeding on lichens which grow luxuriantly on the moist tree

trunks in this damp climate.

“Tt was interesting to note how these extensive webs began. They first ap-

peared as small islands on the trunks of trees, which islands of web gradually

coalesced until the whole surface of the trunk completely around the tree

was covered.

“The superintendents of various city parks and the Federal cemetery

requested information as to how to control these insects which were making

such unsightly webs on the trees. We recommended that the larger branches

and trunks of the trees be scrubbed with oil emulsions. By the use of ladders

and long-handled brushes, these control measures were adopted by the

various city parks. Similar webs were found on shade trees along the nearby

Gulf coast of Mississippi, and we received several calls from this region as

to how to control the insects making the webs.

“No further webbing was observed until September 1937, when the same

conditions as in 1934 prevailed. It is quite possible that the insect was

present in small numbers during the interval, but if so it was not in sufficient

008 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

numbers to be noticeable. In August 1938 this psocid again became so abun-

dant that its webs became noticeable. Toward the end of September 1938

the insects became less numerous under the webs, the webs had become

broken, and Argentine ants were carrying away quite a few of the insects.”

The specimens of Archipsocus panama were associated with scale

insects on twigs of “‘sigua’”’ (either Nectandra globosa or Ocotea cernua,

identification uncertain), one of the laurel family. More detailed

information is lacking.

It is evident that the web-spinning habit of nomas closely parallels

that of other species of Archipsocus. Enderlein (1903a) quotes a cor-

respondent, Ludwig Biré, at length regarding the habits of recens

at Singapore. Webs, about 15 to 30 centimeters broad and up to 6

to 8 meters long, were observed on tree trunks, and colonies of the

psocids lived beneath the web, feeding mainly on algae, lichens, and

other plants occurring on the bark enclosed by the web. Green (1912)

has discussed Archipsocus webs found covering in profusion an orange

tree in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Colombo, Ceylon. Pearman

(1936b) states that the species reported by Green was recens. Accord-

ing to Green, the web serves mainly for protection, though he has

observed an hemipteron and a thrips attacking the psocids. The silk

comes from the mouth, and as the insects wander around, with no

apparent design, a tangle of threads results. Enderlein (1912) discusses

the webs of recens in detail, as described by a correspondent in Java.

On citrus bushes and other plants the webs are frequent and extensive.

Judged from photographs, they are similar to those of the eastern

tent caterpillar (Malacosoma americana (F.)) in the United States.

They envelop small branches, and hundreds of the psocids, mostly

short-winged females, live beneath the webs. Protection from the

attacks of ants was considered an important function of the web.

When a web was partially removed, passing ants fell upon the help-

less psocids at once.

Enderlein (1906) says that brasilianus has been collected from

webs spun in the corners of the walls on a veranda of a house at Para,

Brazil. The species textor, fernandi, and biguttatus are web spinners

(see Enderlein, 1911b; Pearman, 1934, 1936b), and fernandz is said to

spin webs on the under surfaces of decaying leaves on the ground.

It is well known that many psocids cover their eggs with a thin,

transparent layer of silk. Borgmeier (1928) has reviewed the principal

literature of web-spinning psocids and described in detail the webs of

Epipsocus borgmeiert R. Karny.

Two species of Archipsocus, fernandi and biguttatus, are of special

NoveEMBER 15, 1939 GURNEY: NOTES ON CORRODENTIA 509

interest since they are viviparous; according to Pearman (1936b) they

are the only viviparous psocids known, and the females lack gona-

pophyses. Fernando (1934) has studied the embryology of fernand1.

NOMENCLATORIAL NOTES ON CORRODENTIA

Almost since the time of Linnaeus there has been a confused state

of the nomenclature centering about two common and widespread

species of book-lice, Trogium pulsatorium (L.) and Liposcelis divina-

torius (Miill.). This confusion has had a bearing upon the nomen-

clature of certain psocids which are members of families other than

the Trogiidae, as for instance the genus Lachesilla Westwood. For

some years the name Troctes divinatorius (Miill.) has been employed

by the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, and as the

name J'roctes apparently can no longer be held valid it seems worth

while to review in detail the facts concerned in the confusion. The

information below is arranged chronologically under the genera in-

volved.

Genus Trogium Illiger, 1798

1758 (p. 610), Linnaeus described Termes pulsatorium.

1761 (p. 474), Linnaeus treated Termes pulsatorium, with a reference to

the work of 1758.

1775 (p. 311), Fabricius treated Hemerobius pulsatorius, with references to

Linnaeus and other workers.

1778 (pp. 41-47, 868-869, pl. 4, figs. 1-4), Degeer described Termes lig-

narium and listed pulsatorum L. as an equivalent. Degeer’s description

applies mainly to the true pulsatorium L., but his figures make it evi-

dent that he had a mixed series. Of Degeer’s illustrations, only fig. 1

represents pulsatorrum L.

1781 (pp. 394-395), Fabricius treated pulsatorius and included a reference

to ‘“‘Degeer Ins. 7. 1. tab. 4. fig. 1.”

1798 (p. 500), Illiger proposed Trogiwm as a new genus with one included

species, Hemerobius pulsatorius F.

1928 (p. 179), Pearman objected to the name T’rogiwm, saying that Fabri-

cius’s diagnosis of pulsatorzws was insufficient and was followed by

citations referring to both pulsatorius and divinatorius.

Conclusion.—Trogium is a valid genus, with pulsatorium L. as its type.

Discussion.—Fabricius’s characterization of pulsatorius, though brief,

certainly constitutes a description. In both publications he lists definite

citations to Linnaean works. The reference in 1781 to “Degeer Ins. 7. 41.

1. tab. 4. fig. 1.’ is significant, for this figure depicts the true pulsatorium L.,

whereas Degeer’s other figures are of certain other species. Thus Fabricius

designated the particular figure which correctly represented pulsatorzum.

Under the circumstances Illiger’s ‘“‘pulsatortus Fabr.’’ appears clearly to

refer to the true Linnaean species, and a genotype of Trogium is considered

to have been properly established.

510 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

Genus Atropos Leach, 1815

1758 (p. 610), Linnaeus described Termes pulsatorium.

1778 (pp. 41-48, 868-869, pl. 4, figs. 1-4), Degeer described Termes

lignarvum and listed Termes pulsatorium L. as an equivalent.

1815 (p. 139), Leach erected the genus Atropos with one species definitely

included, Termes lignarium Deg. Leach considered that Psocus fatidicus

F. was doubtfully a member of the genus Atropos. Termes pulsatorium

L. and the Psocus pulsatorius of Fabricius, Latreille, and Coquebert

were listed as equivalents of Termes lignarium.

Conclusion.—The type of Atropos is lignarium Deg. (a synonym of pul-

satorrum L.); accordingly, the genus is isogenotypic and synonymous with

Trogium Illiger, 1798.

Discussion.—Degeer’s description applies to true pulsatorium L. (judged

from remarks describing the eyes and the reddish abdominal spots), and

the first species cited is Termes pulsatorium L. Figure 1 is clearly pulsato-

rzum, but the other figures and certain features presented in discussion are

of both dzvinatorius and nymphs of certain winged psocids. While it is

evident that Degeer possessed a mixed collection, his clear intention of

basing lignartum on the same species as Linnaeus’s pulsatorium and his

citation of the Linnaean name fix his species as a synonym of pulsatoriwm.

Thus the type of Atropos is the same as that of Trogium (see under that

genus) and the former generic name falls as a synonym.

Genus Troctes Burmeister, 1839

1758 (p. 610), Linnaeus described Termes pulsatorium and Termes fatidicum.

1776 (p. 184), Miller described Termes divinatorium.

1798 (p. 500), Illiger proposed the genus Trogium with one included species,

Hemerobius pulsatorius F.

1839 (pp. 773-775), Burmeister proposed the genus Troctes with two in-

cluded species, Termes pulsatorium L. and Termes fatidicum L.

1840 (Syn., p. 47; text, pp. 19-20, fig. 59: 13, 16-18), Westwood proposed

the genus Lachesilla with genotype and only species Termes fatidicum L.

1866 (p. 220), Hagen listed both pulsatorius Burm. and fatidicus Burm. as

synonyms of divinatorius Mill.

1880a (pp. 132-134), Kolbe discussed Troctes divinatorius and listed both

pulsatorius and fatidicus of Burmeister as synonyms. The present writer

has found no genotype designation in Kolbe’s paper.

1905 (pp. 386-38), Enderlein selected divinatorius Mill., with fatzdicus

Burm. a synonym, as type of Troctes Burm. Enderlein considered that

Burmeister applied the name fatidicus L. to specimens of dzvinatorius

Mill. He accepted Burmeister’s identification of pulsatorzus L. as correct.

191la (pp. 353-354), Enderlein said (apparently incorrectly) that Kolbe,

1880a, designated divinatorius as type of Troctes.

Conclusion.—No valid genotype of Troctes Burmeister, 1839, appears to

have been yet designated, and the present writer hereby selects Termes

pulsatorium L., 1758, as genotype. Troctes then falls as a synonym of Trogium

Ilhger, 1798, because of identical genotypes.

Discussion.—Some workers may feel that Westwood (1840) fixed the

NOVEMBER 15, 1939 GURNEY: NOTES ON CORRODENTIA 511

genotype of Troctes, by elimination, as pulsatorzus L. This interpretation,

if correct, would effect the same result as above, but the interpretation ap-

pears questionable. Opinion 6 of the International Commission on Zoological

Nomenclature says, ‘‘When a later author divides the genus A, species Ab

and Ac, leaving A, only species Ab, and genus C, monotypic with species

-Ce, the second author is to be construed as having fixed the type of genus

A.”’ For the present case to be entirely comparable to the hypothetical case

of Opinion 6, Westwood should have indicated that he knew of the descrip-

tion of the genus T'roctes. Because of this departure from the hypothetical

case, and the fact that the Commission has three times rejected a proposal

to raise type designation by “Elimination” (Article 30k) (see Stiles, 1929)

from the status of a recommendation to that of a rule, the writer does not con-

sider that Westwood fixed a type of Troctes.

The designation of dzvinatorius Mill. as genotype of Troctes by Enderlein

(1905) is not acceptable because divinatorius was not one of the originally

included species (see Article 30e). Had Enderlein listed fatidicus L., 1758,

instead of fatedicus Burm., 1839, as a synonym the case might be altered,

but it is evident that Enderlein included in the synonymy only Burmeister’s

misidentification of fatzdicus L.

The writer’s selection of pulsatorius L. as genotype may meet with objec-

tion on the ground that Burmeister misidentified the material referred to

pulsatorius. Burmeister states, under pulsatorius, ‘‘Man findet Individuen

mit sehr dicken Hinterschenkeln, welche gut springen, und andere ohne so

starke Schenkel ... ,’’ and later, under fatzdicus, ‘‘Bei den von mir unter-

suchten Individuen mit verdickten Hinterschenkeln waren die Augen

schwarz, daher die Definition von T. fatidicus besser auf diese passen

wurde.” From these statements it appears that Burmeister considered the

thick-legged individuals with black eyes (which probably were divinatorius)

to represent fatidicus, and the remaining individuals were assigned to

pulsatorius. Opinion 65 of the International Commission on Zoological

Nomenclature states, “If an author designates a certain species as genotype,

it is to be assumed that his determination of the species is correct; if a case

presents itself in which it appears that an author based his genus upon cer-

tain definite specimens, rather than upon a species, it would be well to sub-

mit the case, with full details, to the Commission. At the present moment,

it is difficult to lay down a general rule.’”’ Burmeister’s case is not entirely

comparable to the one represented by Opinion 65, since he did not designate

a genotype, but the writer infers that misidentifications cannot be assumed

unless there is strong evidence of a name having been based upon wrongly

identified specimens. In the present case, there is no proof that true pulsa-

torzus L. was not included in the series assigned to that name by Burmeister,

and specimens of divinatorius apparently were referred to fatidicus. The

bibliographic reference to ‘‘Termes puls. Linn. Fn. suec. 1937” is the first

citation listed and the writer considers Burmeister to have made pulsa-

torzus available for genotype designation.

512 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

Genus Lachesilla Westwood, 1840

1758 (p. 610), Linnaeus described Termes fatidicum.

1840 (Syn., p. 47; text, pp. 19-20, fig. 59: 13, 16-18), Westwood proposed

the genus Lachesilla with genotype T. fatidicum L. by monotypy.

1866 (p. 202), Hagen suggested that Linnaeus’s descriptive expression

‘‘Simile praecedenti, sed duplo majus,’”’ when comparing fatidicum to

pulsatorium, was in error and that fatidicum L. really represented

divinatorium Miller, 1776.

1867 (p. 196), McLachlan stated that he believed Westwood’s specimens

were a form of Lachesilla pedicularius.

1880a (pp. 118-120), Kolbe proposed the subgenus Pterodela, including

Hemerobius pedicularius L. and Caecilius quercus, n. sp.

1883 (p. 315), Hagen referred fatedicum L. to the genus Hyperetes.

1884 (pp. 84-87), Kolbe doubted that fatidicum L. belonged to Hyperetes

and emphasized the fact that he had immature specimens of Pterodela

(equivalent of Lachesilla), which fitted the original description of

fatidicum and which were found between dried plants, the source of

Linnaeus’s material.

1933 (p. 81), Pearman stated that he preferred to use the generic name

Pterodela Kolbe, ‘‘since Westwood’s generic diagnosis is erroneous and

misleading, and his type specimens are in part defective and in part

aberrant.”

1935 (p. 106) Badonnel discussed the biology of Lachesilla pedicularia (L.),

and mentioned the variety fatidica L. of which the female is totally

apterous.

Conclusion.—Lachesilla is a valid genus, with Termes fatidicum Linnaeus

its type.

Discussion.—That Linnaeus’s expression, ‘‘Simile praecedenti, sed duplo

majus’’ was not an error is indicated by its repetition (Linnaeus, 1761, p.

475) and by reference to the figures of Frisch (1734, Tom. 11, Tab. 10) cited

by Linnaeus. The latter figures are not characteristic of divinatorius. Though

Frisch’s work is pre-Linnaean, it is of value in giving an understanding of

Linnaeus’s concept of the species. The fact remains that Westwood named

his genotype which has been associated with the original Linnaean species;

for this reason Lachesilla is valid. Pterodela Kolbe (genotype, Hemerobius

pedicularius L.) is a synonym of Lachesilla (genotype, Termes fatidicum L.)

because the genotypes are conspecific.

Genus Clothilla Westwood, 1841

1798 (p. 500), Illiger proposed the genus Trogium with one included species,

Hemerobius pulsatorius F.

1841 (p. 480), Westwood described a new genus and species, Clothilla

studiosa, without literature citations or references to other species.

1865 (p. 122, 124), Hagen examined the type of studzosa and indicated its

identity with ‘‘the true Termes pulsatorium of Linnaeus, and T.

lignorum of DeGeer.”’

Conclusion.—Clothilla is a synonym of Trogium, through synonymy of

the genotypes.

NovEMBER 15, 1939 GURNEY: NOTES ON CORRODENTIA O13

Genus Liposcelis Motschulsky, 1853

1776 (p. 184), Miiller described Termes divinatorrvum.

1853 (pp. 19-20), Motschulsky described Liposcelis brunneus in such a way

that it is clearly congeneric with divinatorrwm Miller. Motschulsky

also proposed the name Liposcelis museorum for a species to which he

referred only as follows: ‘“‘N’ayant pu trouver le nom et la description

du soit-disant Psoque des boites 4 insectes, je crois pouvoir le signaler

sous celui de Liposcelis museorum, vi que ce n’est pas dutout un

Psoque.”’

1905 (p. 38), Enderlein listed both brunneus and museorum as synonyms of

Troctes divinatorius (Mill.).

191la (p. 353), Enderlein listed museorum as a synonym of divinatorius and

indicated museorum as type of Liposcelis, with the result that divina-

torius was considered the type by him. The species brunneus was con-

sidered valid, with silvarum Kolbe, 1888, a synonym.

1927 (p. 12), Enderlein treated szlvarum as a valid species, without mention

of brunneus.

Conclusion.—The species museorum was not sufficiently characterized by

Motschulsky to constitute description, and brunneus is genotype of Lipo-

scelis. The identity of brunneus is uncertain, but it 1s congeneric with

divinatorius, so that divinatoriws may be properly included in the genus

Liposcelis.

NOMENCLATURE OF HIGHER CATEGORIES

For some time the family name Atropidae has been in rather general

use. Since Atropos is invalid, the name must be changed. Trogiidae

is available, and, following Enderlein (1919, p. 30), it is now being

adopted.

During recent years many workers have used Psocoptera or

Copeognatha as the ordinal name of the psocids, rather than Cor-

rodentia. Corrodentia was used by Burmeister (1838, 1839) as a

tribal name including termites, embiids, coniopterygids, and psocids.

Brauer (1885), in proposing the classification that is generally ac-

cepted as the forerunner of all modern systems, used Corrodentia as

an order for termites, psocids, and biting lice. In 1895 Comstock and

Comstock restricted the order Corrodentia to psocids alone. Ender-

lein (1903b) proposed the name Copeognatha, and Shipley (1904)

proposed Psocoptera for the psocids. The latter suggested that the

suffix ‘‘ptera”’ be added to each ordinal name not already bearing it

for the sake of uniformity. The ordinal names which he proposed

for apterygotan orders and wingless pterygotan orders have not been

generally accepted, but Psocoptera, Embioptera, and Ephemeroptera

have met with considerable acceptance. Paraneuroptera, for Odonata,

has not appeared in general use.

Imms (1924) and Wilson and Doner (1937) have reviewed the

514 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

different ordinal classifications used by various writers. Chapman

(1930), Comstock (1930), Handlirsch (1930), and Brues and Melander

(1932) are among those using Corrodentia in the ordinal sense. On

the basis of priority this is preferred to either Copeognatha or

Psocoptera. Inasmuch as Shipley’s system has not been followed in

entirety, it does not seem important to use Psocoptera for the sake of

uniformity. It may be argued that the names rejected, except for

Odonata, are those of wingless orders, so that ‘‘ptera’’ does not

properly apply to them. However, Odonata is still in general use, and,

as Mickel (1934) has shown, the name is based upon the toothed

maxillae of dragonflies. The name Corrodentia is derived from a

Latin name meaning ‘‘gnawing,’’ which is characteristic of the often

injurious feeding habits of psocids. Because of priority, general usage,

and fitting derivation it seems best to retain Corrodentia in preference

to other names.

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115, 5 figs. 1935.

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Comstock, J. H. An introduction to entomology. Pp. 1-1044, illus. 1930. Ithaca.

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ENDERLEIN, G. Die Copeognathen des Indo-Australischen Faunengebietes. Ann. Hist.-

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Uber die Morphologie, Gruppierung und systematische Stellung der Corrodentia.

Zool. Anz. 26: 423-436, figs. 1-4. 1903b.

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menstellung aller bisher bekannten recenten und fossilen Formen. Results Swed.

Zool. Exped. Egypt White Nile, 1901, 18: 1-58, 11 text figs., 4 pls. 1905.

Aussereuropdische Copeognathen aus dem Stettiner Museum. Zool. Jahrb.

24(1): 81-90, 1 pl. 1906.

Die Copeognathenfauna der Insel Formosa. Zool. Anz. 33: 759-779, figs. 1-3.

1908.

Die fossilen Copeognathen und ihr Phylogenie. Palaeontographica 58: 279-360,

18 text figs:, G pls. 191 1a.

Archipsocus dextor nov. spec., eine Gespinste anfertigende Copeognathe aus

Ostafrica. Zool. Anz. 37: 142-144, figs. 1-2. 1911b.

Uber die Gespinnste von Archipsocus recens Enderl. 1903. Notes Leyden Mus.

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Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Copeognathen IIT. Ueber einige von Professor Silvestri

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Copeognatha, in collections zoologiques du Baron Edm. de Selys Longchamps,

fase. 3, pt. 2; 1-55, 10 text figs., 5 pls. 1919.

NovEMBER 15, 19389 GURNEY: NOTES ON CORRODENTIA 915

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gs. 192

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Sci. 77(pt. 1): 99-119, 19 figs. 1934.

Frisco, J. L. Von den langlichen Nag-Mieten. Beschreib. Insect. Teutschl. 11: 1-3,

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PEARMAN, J. V. On sound production in the Psocoptera and on a presumed stridulatory

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London 5: 58-62. 19386a.

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516 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 11

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

THIRTY-FIRST EDITION OF THE DIRECTORY OF THE ACADEMY

In accordance with a custom only occasionally broken, the Academy

issued in September its biennial directory of affiliated societies and members,

familiarly known as the Red Book. The editorial work and responsibility for

this directory were borne by H. G. Avers and Natuan R. Smiru, who con-

stituted the committee appointed for the purpose.

In addition to the subject matter that has come to be associated with this

work, such as the calendar of meeting dates of the affiliated societies and the

thumbnail sketches of their history, this directory contains three new fea-

tures. Lest these departures from past practice escape attention they are

noted here.

For the first time, or at least for the first time within recent years, the

directory contains a table of contents. This table lists the affiliated societies

in the order in which they entered the Academy. There are 19 of these socie-

ties, 8 of which have been affiliated with the Academy since its organization

in 1898.

On page 17 the directory lists the honorary members and patrons. These

are arranged alphabetically and not in the order of their election. These

names appear also in their proper place in the text.

Following the regular directory of Academy members, and members of the

affiliated societies, the editors have compiled and listed alphabetically those

of our members who have died. This latter listing is limited to those who

were members in good standing at the time of their death.

In compiling a work of this nature it would be miraculous if no errors

crept in. Only one has thus far come to attention, which, for purposes of the

record, should be corrected. Under the general heading of Standing Commit-

tees, there are listed erroneously as members of the Meetings Committee

the following: J. E. McMurtrey, Jr., Curtis P. CLausen, W. D. LAMBERT,

and Francis M. Dreranporr. These gentlemen are the members of a special

committee of which W. T. ScHALLER is the chairman. The Meetings Com-

mittee is composed of FRanK M. SerzuEr, chairman, and Jams F. Coucn,

JOHN E. Grar, CLEMENT L. GARNER, and FreD L. MonueEr.

The members are asked to sean their copies and notify the corresponding

secretary of corrections.

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% _ BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY a

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ie :

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; _ WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES |

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JOURNAL

OF THE

~ WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 29 DECEMBER 15, 1939 No. 12

BOTANY.—Four southwestern subspecies of Phlox. Epecar_ T.

Wuerry, University of Pennsylvania.

Study of the Phloxes of Arizona in the preparation of a treatment

of the genus in Dr. T. H. Kearney’s forthcoming flora of that State

has indicated the occurrence there of four plants that seem best re-

garded as subspecies but have never been assigned to that status.

In the present note these are formally described and named.

Phlox diffusa Bentham?

This species has already been divided into two subspecies, longistylis

Wherry? of British Columbia to northern Oregon, and typica Wherry? of

southern Oregon to south-central California. A third subspecies has now

been found to occur on mountains and plateaus of the Great Basin region

and may be known as:

Phlox diffusa subcarinata Wherry, subsp. nov. Fig. 1

Clumps averaging 7 cm high, with the densely leafy shoots 4 cm long.

Deep-green linear-subulate leaves averaging 10 mm long and 1.25 mm wide,

surficially glabrous or sparse pubescent, basally ciliate. Cyme of 1 to 3

flowers on pedicels 1 (rarely 2 or 3) mm long. Sepals averaging 9 mm long,

united for one-half to two-thirds their length into a tube, with somewhat

carinate intercostal membranes, sometimes glabrous but usually basally

pubescent, often more densely so than in the other two subspecies. Corollas

white to lavender, the tube averaging 11 and lobes 7 mm long. Styles 3 to 6

or rarely 7 mm long, united to within 1 mm of the tips.

P. diffusa typica similis sed compactior; calycis membranis intercostalis

subcarinatis.

Type.—In herbarium of Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,

from Mount Rose, Washoe County, Nev., Heller 9910a, July 29, 1909. A

sketch of one of the plants on the type sheet is reproduced herewith.

Range.—Washington and Idaho to California and Arizona, chiefly at alti-

tudes of 5,000 to 10,000 feet in the Great Basin, and rarely in the Sierras.

Localities represented in the larger eastern herbaria:

WasuHintTon: Mount Spokane (n. limit, lat. 47° 53’), Tumwater Mountain,

Klickitat Hills.

1 Received August 28, 1939.

2 Pl. Hartw.: 325. 1849.

3 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 90: 139. 1988.

517

OEE 19 iby

518 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

OrEGON: Maupin, Strawberry Lake, Crane Mountain.

IpaHo: Brundage Mountain.

CALIFORNIA: Bray, Mount Shasta, Truckee, Pine City, Mount Kaiser,

Mineral King, Mount Pinos (s. limit, lat. 34° 48’).

Nevaba: Mount Rose, Franktown, Carson City, Kings Canyon.

UraH: Virgin River Valley.

AR1zONA: Jacobs Lake and points southward, north rim of Grand Canyon.

"75 92"BY

PNG

SPATS

~~.

Fig. 1.—Phlox diffusa wuheoriala Wherry, subsp. nov. Drawn by

Miss Inez Renninger.

Phlox austromontana Coville?

The acerose-leaved plant with markedly carinate calyx-membranes to

which this name was originally applied has short-decumbent or erect stems

forming a compact clump, its longest leaves 12 to 20 mm, its corolla-tube 8

to 14 mm, and its styles 2.5 to 5 mm in length. The subspecies represented

may be known as P. austromontana vera Wherry, nomen novum.

A variant of the species with long-decumbent stems forming an open

clump, longest leaves 15 to 30, corolla-tube 12 to 18.mm, and styles 4.5 to 6

mm in length has been named by E. Nelson® var. prostrata. Its differences

from the original subspecies are so marked, however, that it is here raised to

subspecies rank: P. austromontana prostrata (EK. Nelson) Wherry, status

novus.

In his monograph of the genus, Brand® segregated from P. austromontana

a supposedly distinct species, which he named P. densa. He noted that this

had the aspect of an alpine form of the earlier species but considered its long-

er style to be distinctive. Study of a series of specimens of both indicates

4 Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 4: 151. 1898.

5 Rev. W. N. Amer. Phlox: 19. 1899. Also named Phlox acerba by A. Nelson,

Amer. Journ. Bot. 25: 114. 1938.

6 Engl. Pflanzenr. IV. 250: 83. 1907.

— a ee

DECEMBER 15, 1939 KRULL: ORIBATID MITES O19

that no correlation exists between style-length and any other character, and

as extensive intergradation is shown the two can scarcely be maintained as

independent. The plant with especially compact habit, longest leaves 8 to

12 mm, corolla-tube 8 to 14 mm, and styles 3 to 6 mm in length is therefore

here made a subspecies: P. austromontana densa (Brand) Wherry, status

novus.

All three of these subspecies were first described from southwestern Utah;

subsp. vera is now known to occur in all the Western States south of lat.

45°. Subsp. prostrata extends to southern California, where it is especially

frequent, and to southeastern Arizona. Subsp. densa apparently occurs only

from west-central Utah to middle Arizona.

ZOOLOGY .—Observations on the distribution and ecology of the oribatid

mites... WENDELL H. Kru, U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry.

The oribatid mites have been incriminated only recently as inter-

mediate hosts of economically important tapeworms of livestock.

Stunkard (1937) reported recovering from experimentally infected

mites, Galumna sp., cysticercoids of the common sheep tapeworm,

Moniezia expansa. Later Stunkard (1939) reported in detail the ex-

periments leading to this discovery and noted that “‘all the mites used

fall within the generic concept of Galumna.”’ He did not, however,

identify definitely the infected mites as to species. Stunkard’s work

has subsequently been confirmed by Stoll (1938) and by the writer

(Krull, 1939). Stoll reported infecting two kinds of mites, Galumna

sp. and Galumna nigra (Ewing), by feeding to these arthropods eggs

of Moniezia expansa, while the writer recovered infective cysticer-

coids of this tapeworm from mites, G. emarginata (Banks), which

had been collected on pastures. The cysticercoids collected by the

writer were administered to a tapeworm-free lamb, and specimens of

M. expansa were recovered from this host animal at necropsy.

Although extensive studies on the oribatid mites have been pub-

lished by Michael (1884, 1898), Banks (1915), Ewing (1917), and

Jacot (1937), very little is known of their distribution and ecology.

In order to obtain information on these points, which is needed before

control measures for the anoplocephaline tapeworms of livestock can

be formulated, a preliminary investigation was undertaken to deter-

mine under what conditions these mites occur, and the influence of

climatic and other factors on their distribution and abundance. The

results of this investigation are given herein. Some preliminary ob-

servations on the food habits of these mites and attempts to culture

them are also included.

1 Received June 27, 1939.

520 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

METHOD OF COLLECTING ORIBATID MITES

Conventional methods of collecting free-living mites were of limited

value because in this study mites were required in large numbers,

and from grass collected under all weather conditions, therefore, the

following method was devised: Grass from which oribatid mites were

to be collected was cut with ordinary grass shears and transferred in

buckets to the laboratory. The grass was then washed immediately

by transferring it, not over one pound at a time, to a parallel-sided

glass jar, having a capacity of about 14 liters. The jar was filled to

within several inches of the top with tap water having a temperature

of not more than 60° F. The grass was plunged up and down several

times in the water, then removed, a small amount at a time, after it

had been agitated again in the water to remove any mites that might

have remained attached. When all the grass had been removed, the

washings were poured into a similar container through a screen having

34 meshes to the linear inch. The jar in which the grass had been

washed was rinsed with water of the same temperature at least once

and the washings poured through the screen, care being taken to

cover most of the screen surface in order to remove any remaining

mites. While the contents of the jar settled, the surface was examined

for mites and any that appeared there were removed. After 2 or 3

minutes the water, except for 1 to 2 liters, was very carefully and

quickly decanted. The remaining portion with the sediment was

agitated and transferred to a 4-liter battery jar. The larger jar was

rinsed with enough cold water to fill completely the smaller jar to

within about an inch of the top. During sedimentation the surface

of the water was examined again for mites, and any that were present

were removed. As soon as the solid contents had settled the water

was carefully and quickly decanted, leaving in the jar about 150 cc,

which, after being agitated, was transferred to a 250-cce cone-shaped

graduate, filling it to near the top. After the contents had settled

and any mites coming to the surface had been removed, about 200 ce

of the water was very carefully decanted and replaced by water

having a temperature of 113° F. The addition of warm water changed

the density of the medium and forced the mites to the surface and

through the film formed by the surface tension so that they could be

removed. For this procedure two teasing needles were held crossed

and close together near the mites. When the needles were raised

slowly the mite or mites adhered to one of the two needles. By

touching the needle with the mite to a drop of water in the center of

a watchglass the mite was released and would slide down the film

DECEMBER 15, 1939 KRULL: ORIBATID MITES 521

formed by the surface tension to the edge of the drop, where it be-

came imprisoned. When all the mites had been transferred to the

drop and while under observation through a binocular microscope

they were drawn to one side and out of the drop with a teasing needle.

The drop of water was then removed with a pipette. As soon as the

- water around the mites dried, one part of a gelatin capsule was slipped

over them and while this was held in place the dish was inverted to

transfer the mites; the remaining part of the capsule was then re-

placed. The mites were retained in the closed capsule until needed.

Though this method may appear somewhat unwieldy and un-

practical, it will be found after a little practice to be quite efficient.

However, certain details must be observed in order to obtain satis-

factory results. In collecting the grass care must be taken to prevent

loss of mites through undue disturbance, especially when the grass

is dry. It is best to carry the washing process to its completion in the

least possible time to prevent loss of mites. When the washings are

sedimenting in the larger jar immediately after being screened, it is

only rarely that a mite will be found on the surface. However, while

the material is in the smaller jar a few of the mites may come to the

surface, and these should be removed immediately. The number of

mites coming to the surface in the smaller jar is usually an index to

the final count, since 3 to 5 percent of the mites for each pound of

grass seem to appear on the surface at this time. A few mites may be

found on the surface of the cold water in the small graduate, but the

limited surface makes it easy to remove them quickly. When the

water at higher temperature is added, the majority of mites come to

the surface; this has been verified by examination of the debris. To

make sure that the mites were not imprisoned in the debris, the con-

tents of the cone were agitated several times with a steel knitting

needle.

Oribatid mites on the surface of the water are very distinctive in

appearance and resemble tiny black or brown glistening pearls. It

is only rarely that enough debris, including various organisms, comes

to the surface to interfere seriously with the removal of the mites;

should this happen, jarring the container or agitating the surface

slightly with a needle will cause the debris to sink.

The heat of the water does not destroy the mites, although some-

times it seems to reduce their vitality. If it is desired to keep the mites

alive for some time, the hot water should be omitted, leaving the

cold water in the graduate. As the water temperature increases, the

mites rise slowly and continue to rise for periods up to 3 hours.

522 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

Any attempt to shorten the process by omitting the second or bat-

tery-jar stage of washing, which involves decanting enough water

from the large container to transfer the remaining contents directly

to the small graduate, will lead to unsatisfactory results.

In order to obtain the maximum number of mites from grass from

a given area, the samples should be collected in the morning following

a rain sufficient to saturate the ground. The grass at the time col-

lected should be only slightly moist, the day cloudy, and the collection

made as soon after daylight as possible. When the number of mites

per pound of grass is large, it is well to wash the grass a second time

in order to obtain the maximum number present.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE ECOLOGY OF ORIBATID MITES

The data so far obtained are based on the study of mites from

October 18, 1937, to May 27, 1938. The conclusions relative to

abundance, distribution, and conditions affecting the mites were

reached from a study of the mites collected from359 samples represent-

ing a total of 618 pounds of grass. The samples varied in weight from

1 ounce to 3 pounds, with an occasional larger sample; these samples

were collected from 12 stations at the Agricultural Research Center,

Beltsville, Md. A total of 18,238 oribatid mites were recovered from

the grass collected and examined; this represented an average of

about 30 mites per pound of grass.

The following species of mites? were collected: Dameosoma minuta

Ewing, Galumna curva (Ewing), G. emarginata (Banks), G. minuta

(Ewing), G. rugosala (Ewing), Notaspis spinipes (Banks), Oribatula

minuta (Ewing), Oripoda elongata Banks and Perg., Phthiracarus

americanus Ewing, Zygaribatula clavata (Ewing), unidentified species

of Ceratozetes, Fuscozetes, Galumna, Liebstadia, Neoribates, Oribatella,

Pelops, Scheloribates, Sphaerobates, and Zygaribatula, and new species

in at least two new genera. The species collected from an old, perma-

nent, open sheep pasture were Galumna emarginata (Banks), G.

minuta Ewing, Galumna sp., Oribatula minuta (Ewing), Oribatula sp.,

Pelops sp., Scheloribates sp., and Sphaerobates sp.

Factors affecting distribution of oribatid mites.—The mites in the

area studied were rather general in distribution, and an occasional

one could be found almost anywhere, even in areas that were quite

barren. In certain grassy areas, however, which, judged from all

known data concerning their habitat, should have had mites in

2 The identifications were made by Dr. H. E. Ewing, of the U. S. Bureau of Ento-

mology and Plant Quarantine.

DECEMBER 15, 1939 KRULL: ORIBATID MITES 523

abundance, these arthropods were found only with difficulty. The

mites were more apt to be found in abundance and retained the great-

est constancy in areas where moisture was plentiful enough to prevent

limitation of the growth of grass.

_ The mites were found in considerable numbers under almost any

- pasture condition. In open pastures having only occasional deciduous

trees, the shaded areas did not influence to any extent the distribution

of the mites, except that during the winter months a few more mites

were always collected from around the isolated trees. The mites were

much more apt to be abundant in pastures shaded by coniferous

trees, where the organisms were protected throughout the year from

the effects of sudden and excessive changes of environmental condi-

tions. In the area studied the mites were most abundant in a heavily

shaded flat pasture surrounded by coniferous and deciduous trees

and containing grass of a soft texture and about 6 inches high. The

mites were not reduced excessively by prolonged cold wet weather

of a week’s duration or by a prolonged dry spell of a month, if these

changes occurred during spring and early summer.

The relative number of mites found on the grass in a given location

varied tremendously with conditions of environment, the influence

of some factors having been ascertained. Those factors that have been

more or less definitely established as influencing the vertical distribu-

tion of the mites are water, light, wind, and food.

The mites seem to have a very delicate adjustment to water, and

succumb readily at room temperature if they are not protected from

evaporation; they may be floated on water, without taking food, for at

least 18 hours. In their native habitat the mites apparently maintain

their relationship to proper moisture conditions by their movements

in and on the ground and on the grass, and in this respect they have

considerable latitude with regard to moisture, as well as to other

conditions. The proportion of mites on the grass in a given area ap-

parently depends to a large extent on moisture conditions. They were

the most abundant the day after a heavy rain sufficient to saturate

the ground thoroughly, and this was found to be the only time that an

estimate could be obtained from grass samples of the number of mites

in any location. Since the mites respond negatively to excessive

moisture, it may be assumed that their presence in large numbers in

the grass after heavy rains is an attempt on the part of the mite to

escape this moisture. In accordance with this response it has been

found that light rains, heavy fogs, and dew do not change materially

the distribution of the mites, and of these conditions the light rains

524 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 12

affect them most. Their response to snow was not studied, but it was

possible always to collect them from grass covered with snow.

The mites avoid excessive light, and on clear days very few if any

could be collected from grass; they were most abundant immediately

after daybreak. On cloudy days they remained somewhat more

numerous and constant throughout the day. They appear to leave

the grass when there is a high wind. The number of mites on the

grass increased immediately when a cloudy day with light rains

succeeded a period of 2 or 3 days without rain. :

Just what effect temperature has on the mites has not been defi-

nitely determined, but from the observations made it seems to have

little or no effect. As previously mentioned, mites were collected

from grass cut in snow; moreover, they were as abundant on grass at

a temperature of 20° F., the lowest encountered during the period

covered, as they were at higher temperatures.

Seasonal distribution—The mites were found to be much more

abundant in spring than in winter, and there is a very sudden and

striking increase in numbers when the new spring growth of grass

is about 3 inches tall. It is possible that a part of this increase in mites

is the result of the accumulation of eggs and young during the winter

months, when periods of warm weather are not of sufficient duration

to allow the mites to mature but are long enough for the adults to

feed and lay eggs. The relative number of mites present during

fall and winter as compared with the number present in spring after

the new growth of grass appears may be deduced roughly from the

following data: From 406 pounds of grass collected from October 18

to March 17, a total of 4,898 mites were obtained, whereas 13,340

mites were recovered from 212 pounds collected from March 18 to

May 27. From 226 pounds of grass collected in a sheep pasture from

October 18 to March 17, 1,821 mites were recovered as compared

with 59 pounds of grass collected in the same pasture from March 18

to May 27, which yielded 4,527 mites.

Prevalence of mites on grass.—On the basis of the data so far ob-

tained, it appears that the actual number of mites on grass varies

considerably, and that there are times, even in spring, when no mites

can be recovered. The largest number of mites per pound of grass

recovered from an open sheep pasture was 619; these were obtained

from 15 ounces of grass taken on May 20. The largest number prior

to the time of the spring growth of grass was 100 per pound, which

were obtained from a 23-pound sample collected on February 18.

The largest number per pound of grass was from samples taken

DECEMBER 15, 1939 KRULL: ORIBATID MITES 525

from a shaded pasture, where 2,547 mites were obtained from 2 pounds

of grass collected at 9 a. m. on May 19. From this same pasture

1,158 were taken from 1 pound 10 ounces of grass at 11 a. m. on March

31. Because of excessive grazing, not enough collections were made

prior to the time that the spring growth appeared to give a com-

parison. In an area frequented by wild rabbits, on the edge of a

pond, the largest number of mites per pound of grass was 325 from a

1 pound 4 ounce sample collected at 9 a. m. on March 18; the largest

number prior to the spring growth of grass was 187 from 1 pound

4 ounces of grass taken on October 29.

Under ordinary dry conditions, beginning on the fourth day after

a rain, it was unusual to find the mites in greater abundance than 5

per pound of grass after 9 a. m. The variation in the numbers of mites

present in a given area on different, yet not widely separated, days

is shown by the following data: From a collection of 1 pound 13

ounces of grass taken at 8 a. m. on May 16, 168 mites were obtained.

In the same area a collection of 1 pound 4 ounces of grass taken at

9 a. m. on March 28 yielded 12 mites, whereas 1 pound 10 ounces of

grass collected at 11 a. m. on March 31 yielded 1,158 mites.

Response to artificial change of conditions.—After the abundance

and distribution of the mites in a pasture had been ascertained,

certain selected portions were fenced. These areas were used for the

purpose of encouraging the multiplication and growth of the mites.

Pellets from two sheep contaminated with eggs of Moniezia expansa

were spread on the areas during fall and winter months. This ground

was never without water for more than 3 days; in the event that rain

did not fall in the allotted time the ground was sprinkled. In the

spring the excess debris was raked off and the areas were kept free

from weeds. Grass samples from which the mites were collected were

taken throughout the period of investigation, and during that time a

few mites, rarely in excess of the general average, could always be

collected. The record number per pound of grass, 115 mites, was taken

from a 1 pound 10 ounce sample collected on April 15. The interesting

fact about these areas was that the mites did not respond to this kind

of treatment, as indicated by the small number collected from the

grass samples. The reason for this indifferent response is not apparent.

After it had been determined that the maximum number of mites

on grass could be collected after rains extensive enough to saturate

the ground, it was assumed that the same results could be obtained by

sprinkling areas and cutting the grass the following day. However,

the results were not as anticipated. Usually the sprinkling increased

526 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

slightly the number of mites on the grass, the maximum results

achieved comparing favorably with those following light rains.

Relative abundance of species—Beginning in March mites were

separated into several distinguishable types, some of which repre-

sented distinct species; consequently, comparisons as to abundance

and distribution can be given. The total number of mites collected

and separated from all localities studied was 11,310, and of these

568 were Galumna emarginata, which had been determined by the

writer (Krull, 1939) to be an intermediate host of the sheep tapeworm,

Moniezia expansa.® The mite was found to be generally distributed,

having been collected at all seasons studied; however, it was more

variable as to relative numbers when compared to the rest of the

mites. These mites were most abundant during April and May, and

at this time more abundant in an open pasture than in one that was

heavily shaded. In an open pasture in which there was a single

deciduous tree, the mites were most numerous during fall and winter

in the grass around the tree than in the rest of the pasture; in spring

the conditions were reversed. During the winter months this mite

was found to be commonest on an area near a pond where moisture

conditions were the most constant of any area studied. In spring the

mites were the most numerous in an open, low-lying, flat, under-

grazed pasture in which the grass was rather high. Galumna emargi-

nata was rarely more abundant than 5 per pound of grass at any time

or in any plot, although in one exceptional case 89 were taken from 15

ounces of grass collected on May 20 from the low-lying pasture.

Galumna minuta was the commonest mite found, and of the 11,310

mites already mentioned 7,270 were of this species. This species was

generally distributed and was collected from all stations in all

seasons studied.

Nymphs of oribatid mites could be found at all seasons but were

commonest during the last week in March and during the last week

in May.

3 During April and May, 286 specimens of Galumna emarginata collected from

pastures contaminated with eggs of M. expansa were dissected and examined for larval

tapeworms. Five were found to be infested, each containing one fully developed

cysticercoid; one of the mites had, in addition, two undeveloped cysticercoids that had

attained nearly maximum size. One other mite collected in November contained a fully

developed larva. Four of the 5 cysticercoids were measured without pressure in water

and averaged 178u long by 147p wide, the largest being 200u by 150u and the smallest

160u by 145u. During the same months 2,606 specimens of G. minuta were examined

for cysticercoids and all were negative. Of the other species of oribatid mites, 623 were

examined and all were negative.

DECEMBER 15, 1939 KRULL: ORIBATID MITES 527

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD HABITS OF ORIBATID MITES

The oribatid mites in general eat hyphae and spores of fungi,

debris, anoplovephaline tapeworm eggs, and cellular material of

blades of dead grass in certain stages of decomposition. They exhibit

_ considerable choice as to the fungi they eat, devouring only certain

_ of the white fungi and their black spores, ignoring completely any in

which the hyphae are colored. The fungi are eaten in a moist or dry

state. The mites have gluttonous appetites and devour an enormous

amount of material. In feeding them eggs of the tapeworm M.

expansa, it was found the debris surrounding the eggs as well as the

eggs was desired as food. Eggs that were moist were not accessible

to the mites and were merely pushed around by them. Eggs that were

accessible had to be well anchored and apparently dry. Since the

mouth parts of the mites are such as to prevent the ingestion of the

egg in its entirety, the mites gain entrance to the eggs by making a

hole in the outer dry membranes and ingest the contents which are

freed in this manner. The remaining parts of the membranes are

usually ignored. Mites have been observed to work for considerable

periods of time before succeeding in making an opening in an egg.

The observations concerning the reactions of the mites to tapeworm

eggs may be easily demonstrated by applying eggs to pieces of agar

dispersions which are dried and placed in a container where the mites

have access to them.

CULTURING ORIBATID MITES

Attempts were made to culture the various oribatid mites in

covered stender dishes of several sizes and in various larger containers.

For substratum substances soil, sand, paper, filter paper, and agar

dispersions have been used, and pebbles, grass leaves, decaying plant

material, and pieces of agar and paper have been employed to give

them retreats and cover. Fungi in addition to those transferred

accidentally to the habitat were supplied on pieces of grass leaves

and pieces of agar. Numerous mites have been raised in this way, but

no method has been found that could be depended on to give con-

sistent results. The number of nymphs sometimes appearing in an

experimental habitat was exceedingly large in view of the number of

adults supplied for stock and the small number of eggs carried by

the mites at one time.

The individual species varied considerably in their response to

artificial culture. Species of the genus Galumna were the most difficult

528 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 12

to handle. G. minuta was raised to maturity in several cultures. G.

emarginata although the largest and most robust mite encountered

was the most difficult to handle and could be kept at most only a

couple of weeks. Nymphs of G. emarginata hatched under artificial

conditions lived only a few days.

SUMMARY

A method for collecting oribatid mites under all weather SOLIS AIS

has been described.

Oribatid mites in the region studied were most abundant on grass

after rains sufficient to saturate the ground, and they retained their

greatest constancy in areas where moisture was plentiful enough to

prevent limitation of the growth of grass. Numerous mites of the

various species recorded could be collected from sheep pastures.

Water, light, wind, and food are factors that were found to be im-

portant in influencing the vertical distribution of the mites on grass.

A striking increase in the number of mites on grass was observed at

the time the spring growth of grass was 3 inches tall. Mites kept

under controlled conditions ate hyphae and spores of fungi, debris,

cellular material of blades of dead grass, and anoplocephaline tape-

worm eggs.

Numerous mites of the various species recorded were dissected and

examined for cysticercoids of Moniezia expansa, which were found

only in Galumna emarginata. This mite was generally distributed,

could be collected at all seasons during which the investigation

was in progress, and was taken only rarely in greater numbers than

REFERENCES

Banks, N._ The Acarina, or mites. U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Rep. No. 108. 1915.

EwIna, H.E. A synopsis of the genera of beetle mites, with special reference to the North

American fauna. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 10: 117-132. 1917.

Jacot, A. P. Evolutionary trends, ecological notes, and terminology of the large-winged

mites of North America. Amer. Midl. Nat., 18: 631-651. 1937.

Kruiu, W. H. On the life history of Moniezia expansa and Cittotaenia sp. (Cestoda:

Anoplocephalidae). Proc. Helm. Soc. Washington 6(1): 10-11. 1939.

MicwakL, A. D. British Oribatidae. Roy. Soc. 1: 1-833. 1884.

Acarina. Oribatidae. Das Tierreich, Leif. 3: 1-98. 1898.

Stott, N. R. Tapeworm studies. VII. Variation in pasture infestation with M. expansa.

Journ. Parasitol. 24(6): 527-545. 1988.

SrunkarD, H. W. The life cycle of Moniezia expansa. Science 86: 312. 1937.

The development of Moniezia expansa in the intermediate host. Parasitology

30(4): 491-501. 1939.

DECEMBER 15, 19389 OMAN: REVISION OF CERATAGALLIA 529

ENTOMOLOGY .—Revision of the genus Ceratagallia Kirkaldy

(Homoptera: Cicadellidae).1 P. W. Oman, U.S. Bureau of En-

tomology and Plant Quarantine.

The monobasic genus Ceratagallia was established by Kirkaldy?

_ for Agallia bigeloviae Baker. Because the name was published without

a formal description, subsequent authors have considered it a nomen

nudum. However, the inclusion of the previously described species,

bigeloviae Baker, satisfies the requirements of the International Rules

of Zoological Nomenclature, and Ceratagallia is available for the spe-

cies treated in this paper. Attention is called to the fact that Ceratagal-

la Kirkaldy is an older name than Aceratagallia Kirkaldy,’ although

the latter name appeared in Bulletin 3 and the former in Bulletin 4.

Ceratagallia and Aceratagallia may be distinguished from other

North American agallian leafhoppers by the character of the pro-

notum, which is transversely striated, and the styles of the male geni-

talia, which are not forked. In addition, the nymphs are without

cephalic processes. Ceratagallza is differentiated from Aceratagallia by

the 4-lobed posterior margin of the seventh sternite of the female and

the V-shaped aedeagus of the male. The males may usually be recog-

nized also by the shape of the plates, which are usually about 2 to 23

times as long as their combined basal width and have the lateral and

distal margins turned strongly upward, thus forming a trough-shaped

cavity in which lie the distal extremities of the styles. Representa-

tives of typical Aceratagallia are widely distributed in the Nearctic

region, whereas the species of Ceratagallia are confined to the semi-

arid portions of the United States and adjacent Mexico. Representa-

tives of the latter genus are at hand from Lower California, California,

Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Idaho, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, and

Kansas.

Ceratagallia includes the species treated by the writer? in 1933 as

the bigeloviae group of the genus Aceratagallia. At the time those

studies were made, relatively little material belonging to this group

was available. The accumulation of additional material, especially

from California, has brought to ight a number of new species, as well

as specimens which alter somewhat the specific concepts established

in the previous work. It seems desirable, therefore, to review the

group again in order to incorporate the new species into the scheme

1 Received June 15, 1939.

2 Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Assoc. Expt. Sta., Div. Ent. Bull. 4: 61. May 1907.

ee auan Sugar Planters’ Assoc. Expt. Sta., Div. Ent. Bull. 3: 11, 30. Sept.

1907.

4U.8. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 372: 46.

530 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

of classification, and to make such changes as are necessary in the

interpretation of the previously described forms.

In order to avoid repetition in the specific descriptions that follow,

a résumé of certain general characters is given at this point. The bases

for the differentiation of Ceratagallca from other agallian leafhoppers

have already been given. Thus defined, the genus constitutes a re-

markably homogeneous group. The species are all rather robust, the

slenderest being lobata (Oman), which resembles closely Aceratagallia

gillettec (O. & B.) in general appearance. An accurate idea of the gen-

eral habitus of the species may be gained by examination of Figures

G, H, and I of Plate 2 of the writer’s 1933 paper. Although color mark-

ings may be either present or absent, and vary from fuscous to brown

within a species, when present they form a pattern that is very uni-

form throughout the genus. In the approximate order of their fre-

quency of appearance in the adults, the color markings are as follows:

A pair of round or ovate spots on the crown above the ocelli; a pair of

triangular marks at the base of the scutellum; the veins of the corium,

with the exception of the base of R+M, which is white, and the base

of Cui, which is usually sordid yellowish white; a pair of slender stripes

along the commissural line in the outer cells of the clavus, these usu-

ally fused with fainter markings which occur in the cells of the clavus

and parallel the claval veins; irregular and frequently interrupted

stripes along the claval suture, and indefinite elongate marks in the

cells of the clavus and corium adjacent to the claval suture basally; a

pair of narrow stripes along the median line, extending across the

pronotum and crown, and fusing, on the face, with the stripes along

the base of the clypeus; an interrupted arc on each side of the prono-

tum basally, this frequently connected with the median stripes, and

usually connected with a broad inner vitta and a narrow outer vitta

extending from the arc to the posterior margin of the pronotum; an

irregular mark in each ocellocular area, with an extension toward the

adjacent ocellus and one along the antennal pit; the facial sutures, an-

tennal pits, and transverse bars on the clypeus laterally; the trans-

verse suture of the scutellum, and a pair of small spots just anterior

to it; various indefinite areas, which tend to be darker on the dorsum

of the abdomen, the distal portions of the female pygofer and oviposi-

tor sheath, the median line of the male plates, and the lateral portions

of the sternites.

The nymphs normally have the spots on the crown reduced to ob-

lique dashes. The paired median dorsal stripes are broader than in the

DECEMBER 15, 19389 OMAN: REVISION OF CERATAGALLIA = seul

adult and continue to the apex of the abdomen, while the lateral por-

tions of the dorsum are occupied with more or less continuous longi-

tudinal marks which serve to accentuate the unmarked yellowish

portion of the dorsum laterad of the median stripes. Other markings

on the nymphs are somewhat similar to those of the adults, although

~ the nymphs are more frequently entirely without markings.

Of the various structures of the internal male genitalia, that portion

of the style caudad of its point of attachment to the genital capsule

seems to be the only part furnishing characters reliable for specific dif-

ferentiation. This part of the style is frequently boot-shaped in out-

line, and consists of a relatively slender basal portion, the shank, an

expanded distal portion which is usually foot-shaped and hence con-

veniently termed the “‘foot’’ of the style, and usually a ventral pro-

jection called the ventral tooth. Of the parts of the foot of the style,

the “‘heel”’ is formed by the angle adjacent to the serrated margin of

the shank, and is usually distinctly less produced than the ‘‘toe.”’ Al-

though subject to some variation, the gross outline of the style is

usually sufficiently characteristic to permit specific identification from

this structure alone. The number and arrangement of the setae on the

style and the minute details of the serrations on the inner margin are

only helpful in a general way, but in the accompanying drawings they

have been portrayed as accurately as possible for the sake of com-

pleteness.

The diagnostic characters of the styles of the males are most con-

veniently studied and illustrated if removed from the genital capsule.

Consequently, in this study, following the customary treatment with

caustic potash, the styles, connective, and aedeagus have been care-

fully dissected out and mounted in balsam on microscope slides. The

cover glass should be pressed down sufficiently to orient the broadened

distal portion of the style in a horizontal plane. These structures are

best studied with a compound microscope at magnifications of from

60 to 120 diameters, although less magnification is satisfactory for

most purposes.

The illustrations accompanying this paper were made on coordi-

nate paper with the aid of a micrometer scale placed in the ocular of a

~ compound microscope. All drawings show the outline-of the distal

portion of the right style in dorsal view, and since they are drawn to

the same scale they give an accurate idea of the relative size of these

structures in the various species.

532 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

CONCERNING A KEY

With the exception of the characters presented by the styles of

the internal male genitalia, the differences between the various species

of this group are usually such that they do not lend themselves well to

use in a key. It seems impossible to indicate reasonably positive

characters for the separation of the species without relying almost

entirely upon the characters of the styles, and there seems no point

in presenting a key when equally satisfactory results may be ob-

tained, probably more efficiently, by comparing these structures with

the accompanying illustrations. In the absence of a key it is perhaps

well to indicate that the most reliable external characters are the size,

relative robustness, and presence or absence of markings. Of the in-

ternal characters, the general outline of the foot of the style, the size

and position of the ventral tooth, and the width and curvature of the

shank have proven most useful in differentiating closely related spe-

cles.

Ceratagallia lobata (Oman), n. comb. Fig. 1

Aceratagallia lobata Oman, U. 8. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 372: 67. 1933.

A relatively slender, dark-colored species. Heel and toe of style of ap-

proximately equal size; style obliquely subtruncate distally. Length

2.8-3 mm.

External characters —General ground color sordid cinereous; markings of

brown and fuscous sufficiently extensive to give the entire insect a fuscous

appearance. Male plates rather short, tapering slightly from base to apex.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style short and comparatively broad.

Ventral tooth small and situated at about narrowest part of shank. Posterior

margin of style slightly sinuate; inner margin distally finely serrate. Distal

part of aedeagus flattened dorsoventrally, apex sagittate in outline.

Localities —Type locality, Glendale, Nev. Type, U.S.N.M. no. 44650.

Other material from the following localities examined. Arizona: Ashfork,

Oak Creek Canyon, Prescott, Sacaton, Santa Rita Mountains, Yarnell

Heights, and Yavapai County. Cauirornia: Alpine, Big Bear Lake, Mint

Canyon, and San Jacinto Mountains. Nrvapa: Glendale, Las Vegas, and

Mesquite. Uran: St. George.

Host.— Unknown.

Ceratagallia nubila, n. sp. 7 Fig. 2

Resembling dark specimens of dondia in general appearance, but with the

male plates broader distally and the styles more like those of lobata, with

the heel and toe of nearly equal size. Length 3.25-3.5 mm.

External characters.—General ground color sordid yellowish white; brown

and fuscous markings much more clearly delimited than in lobata. Male

plates long and nearly parallel margined, proportionally wider than those

of lobata.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style slender, rather long, and distinctly

sinuate. Ventral tooth very small, and located as in lobata. Posterior margin

of style obliquely subtruncate, inner margin distally finely serrate. Aedeagus

with a blunt tooth on dorsal margin just before apex.

DECEMBER 15, 19389 OMAN: REVISION OF CERATAGALLIA

|-LOBATA 3-PUDICA 4-LOCA

2-NUBILA

-B/ Le

6-BIGELOVIAE 7-SOCALA

3-OVATA 9-NEOVATA

/ 1-LONGIPES /4-APLOPAPP/

/7-TRISTIS

22-D0NDIA 23-LOMA

2/-CALIFA 24-GRISEA

Figs. 1-25.—Leafhoppers of the genus Ceratagallia Kirkaldy:

views of distal portion of right style.

10-TERGATA

25-LUPINI

Dorsal

534 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No: 12

Locality.—Type locality, Wickenburg, Ariz. Holotype male, allotype fe-

-male, and 2 male and 1 female paratypes taken August 20, 1938, and 2 male

paratypes taken June 16, 1937, all collected by D. J. and J. N. Knull. Holo-

type, allotype, and 2 paratypes in collection of Ohio State University; 3

paratypes in U. 8. National Museum, no. 53350.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia pudica, n. sp. Fig. 3

More robust than nubila and without extensive fuscous markings. Style

resembling that of lobata but with a relatively more slender shank and a

less produced heel. Length 2.8-3.2 mm.

External characters —General ground color sordid yellowish white; fone

ings mostly pale yellowish brown or brown. Head tumid, distinctly longer

medially than next the eye. Male plates rather short and broad, tapering

slightly from base to apex. Median lobes of seventh sternite of female

much shorter than lateral lobes. :

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style nearly straight. Ventral tooth

small and situated nearer apex than in lobata. Heel distinctly shorter than

toe. Posterior margin of style obliquely subtruncate; inner margin finely

serrate distally. Apex of aedeagus recurved, forming a slight hook.

Localities —Type locality, Tucson, Ariz. Holotype male, allotype female,

and 1 female paratype collected June 18, 1933, P. W. Oman, U.S.N.M. no.

53351. Also 2 male paratypes from Hualpai Mountain, Ariz., July 4, 1937,

and August 6, 1938, D. J. and J. N. Knull, in Ohio State University col-

lection.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia loca, n. sp. Fig. 4

A robust species, resembling pudica in form but with a less tumid head

and fewer markings. Apex of style not obliquely subtruncate. Length

2.8 mm.

External characters.—General color pale sordid yellow; markings very

pale or absent except for fuscous veins of corium, ovate fuscous spots on

crown, and traces of arcs on anterior margin of pronotum. Male plates

short, tapering slightly from base to apex. Median lobes of seventh sternite

of female divergent, rather sharply pointed, and with margins brown.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style relatively stout and straight.

Ventral tooth large and pointed, situated just basad of apex of style. Pos-

terior margin of style slightly sinuate and curving cephalad toward attenuate

toe; heel short and stout; inner margin finely serrate. Apex of aedeagus

recurved, forming a small hook.

Locality —Type locality, Lancaster, Calif. Holotype male, allotype

female, and 1 nymph, June 8, 1935, P. W. Oman, U.S.N.M. no. 53352.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia artemisia, n. sp. Fig. 5

Aceratagallia bigeloviae Oman (in part, not Baker), U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech.

Bull37Z, ple 21. 19383)

Previously confused with bigeloviae, but with much darker markings and

with the heel of style more produced. Length 2.5-2.7 mm.

External characters—General color pale cinereous; markings of fuscous

or brown mostly distinct and sharply delimited. Form very robust, head

somewhat tumid. Male plates short and comparatively broad. Median lobes

DECEMBER 15, 1939 OMAN: REVISION OF CERATAGALLIA 535

of seventh sternite of female nearly as long as lateral lobes, longer and more

slender than those of bigeloviae.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style slightly sinuated and more slender

than that of bzgeloviae. Ventral tooth small and situated more basad than

in bzgeloviae. Posterior margin of style curving less gradually to apex of toe

than in bigeloviae; heel, although variable in size, usually strongly produced;

inner margin irregularly serrate distally. Apex of aedeagus distinctly hooked.

Note.—This is the species represented by Plate 2, I, of the writer’s 1933

paper on the group. At that time only a few specimens were available, and

they were believed to be dark-colored examples of bzgeloviae.

Localities —Type locality, Twin Falls, Idaho. Holotype male, allotype

female, and 2 male and 8 female paratypes, May 6, 19387, J. A. Gillett. Also

the following paratypes from Idaho. Hollister: 1 male and 1 female, August

27, 1928, D. E. Fox; 2 females, May 19, 1931, D. E. Fox; 1 male, July 24,

1931, DL Fox; 1 male, August 23, 1933, D. E. Fox. Wendell: 1 male, May

19, 1933; 2 females, June 9, 1938. Hagerman: 1 male, September 13, 1932.

Berger: i female, May 20, 1937, J. A. Gillett. Castleford: 1 female, Novem-

ber 14, 1936. There are also at hand 2 males and 1 female from Salt Lake

City, April 25, 19386, C. F. Smith. Types in U. 8S. National Museum, no.

53353, paratypes in collection of J oseph A. Gillett.

Host.—Presumably Artemisia tridentata, since most of the above speci-

mens are recorded as being from that plant.

Ceratagallia bigeloviae (Baker) Fig. 6

Agallia bigeloviae Baker, Psyche 7(suppl. 12): 26. 1896.

Ceratagallia bigeloviae (Baker), Kirkaldy, Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Assoc.

Expt. Sta., Div. Ent. Bull. 4: 61. 1907.

Agallia (Aceratagallia) bigeloviae Baker, Van Duzee, Check List Hemiptera,

p. 64. 1916.

Aceratagallia bigeloviae (Baker), Oman, U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 372: 66.

1933.

A small, robust species marked with brown or fuscous. Style without a

prominent heel and with the ventral tooth located distad of narrowest part

of shank. Length 2.5-2.75 mm.

External characters.—General color sordid yellowish white; markings,

except the pair of fuscous spots on crown, usually pale brown and indefinite

but sometimes fuscous. Median portion of face often tinged with pink. Male

plates comparatively large, tapering gradually from base to apex. Median

lobes ef seventh sternite of female shorter than lateral lobes and bluntly

pointed.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style rather stout, inner margin nearly

straight. Ventral tooth small and located distad of the constricted portion

of shank. Posterior margin of style evenly curved from heel to toe; heel

usually forming a right angle; toe slightly attenuated. Apex of aedeagus

slightly hooked.

Localities—Type locality, Albuquerque, N. Mex. Type, U.S.N.M. no.

44014. Other material examined from the following localities. Texas: Marfa

and Taylor County. Kansas: Phillips County. Cotorapo: Fort Collins.

Utau: Leeds, Provo, Salt Lake City, Santa Clara, and St. George. ARIZONA:

Congress Junction, Grand Canyon, Prescott, and Yavapai County. New

Mexico: Carlsbad, Colfax County, Las Cruces, Organ Mountains, Roswell,

and White Sands.

536 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

Host.—Probably Chrysothamnus.

_ Notes.—There still remains some doubt as to the exact identity of bzge-

loviae. The type is a female and consequently difficult to identify with cer-

tainty; other specimens from the type locality are needed. Furthermore, the

material studied and here treated as bigeloviae shows some variation around

a mean which seems best exemplified by specimens from southern New

Mexico. Specimens at hand from California are uniformly darker colored

than material from other localities and may constitute a distinct form, but

at present seem inseparable on the basis of structural characters.

Ceratagallia socala, n. sp. Fig. 7

Related to artemisia but less robust and with a more tumid head. Ventral

tooth of style larger than that of artemisia and located on foot. Length

2.60—2:9 mm.

External characters.—General color pale cinereous; markings mostly very

variable, the most constant being those on the pronotum and forewings.

Spots on crown above ocelli usually distinctly ovate, occasionally absent.

Head tumid, distinctly longer medially than next eye. Male plates pro-

portionally smaller than those of artemisia. Median lobes of seventh sternite

of female short and blunt.

Internal male genitalia. Shank of style rather short and straight, tapering

gradually from base to narrowest part, then abruptly expanded into the

footlike distal part. Ventral tooth rather large and pointed, located on the

foot of the style. Inner margin of shank rather coarsely serrate distally ; heel

scarcely produced; toe broad basally, apex slightly attenuate. Apex of

aedeagus pointed.

Localities —Type locality, Santa Maria,-Calif. Holotype male, allotype

female, and 16 male and 17 female paratypes collected July 19, 1933, R. H.

Beamer. Also 13 male and 8 female paratypes from San Jacinto Mountains,

Calif., June 30, 1933, R. H. Beamer. Types in collection of University of

Kansas, paratypes in U. 8. National Museum, no. 53354.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia ovata (Oman), n. comb. Fig. 8

Aceratagallia ovata Oman, Journ. Kansas Ent. Soc. 8: 14. 1935.

A robust species, larger than bzgeloviae. Shank of style much broader

basally than distally; ventral tooth broad. Length 2.75-3 mm.

External characters —General ground color pale yellow; markings mostly

faint or absent except for oval spots on crown, basal triangles on scutellum,

and markings on forewings. Clypeus usually tinged with pink. Male plates

about twice as long as their combined basal width,tapering rather abruptly.

Median lobes of seventh sternite of female shorter than lateral lobes, but

well produced and bluntly pointed.

Internal male genitalia—Shank of style broad basally, but tapering

sharply to a rather slender median portion. Ventral tooth broad basally,

located just basad of foot of style. Inner margin of shank finely serrate dis-

tally; heel scarcely produced; toe large, broader than narrowest part of shank

and with tip slightly attenuate. Aedeagus with a blunt tooth near apex.

Locality.—Type locality, Yarnell Heights, Ariz. Type, U.S.N.M. no.

50368. There are also specimens at hand from Mojave, Calif.

Host.—Unknown.

DECEMBER 15, 1939 OMAN: REVISION OF CERATAGALLIA 537

Ceratagallia neovata, n. sp. Fig. 9

Resembling socala in general appearance, but with a less tumid head.

Style similar to that of ovata, but more slender basally. Length 2.7-2.9 mm.

External characters——General ground color pale cinereous; markings on

pronotum faint, others usually distinct but not sharply delimited. Male

plates as in lobata. Median lobes of seventh sternite of female bluntly pointed

and nearly as long as lateral lobes.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style much more slender basally than

in ovata, slightly sinuate and tapermg gradually to footlike extremity.

Ventral tooth small and bluntly pointed. Inner margin of shank finely ser-

rate distally; heel small; toe slenderer and tip more attenuate than in ovata.

Aedeagus with blunt tooth near apex.

Localities—Type locality, Warner Springs, Calif. Holotype male, allotype

female, and 1 male paratype, June 3, 1935, P. W. Oman, U.S.N.M. no.

53355. Also 1 male paratype from Beaumont, Calif., July 26, 1933, R. H.

Beamer, in collection of the University of Kansas.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia tergata (Van Duzee), n. comb. Fig. 10

Agallia tergata Van Duzee, Proc. California Acad. Sci. (4) 12: 172. 1923.

Aceratagallia tergata (Van Duzee), Oman, U. 8. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 372:

69. 1933.

A comparatively large, robust species, usually without markings. Male

plates short and broad. Length 3-3.25 mm.

External characters —General ground color pale, sordid cinereous; mark-

ings usually entirely absent but sometimes present, particularly those along

median line of head and pronotum and veins of corium. Clypeus sometimes

suffused with pale orange. Entire body sometimes with a whitish bloom.

Male plates broad, scarcely tapering from base to blunt apex. Median lobes

of seventh sternite of female rather short and bluntly pointed, median

emargination between these lobes unusually wide and deep.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style distinctly sinuate. Ventral tooth

rather small, situated well basad of apex of style. Inner margin of shank

finely serrate distally; heel small; toe rather long, with apex curved slightly

cephalad. Apex of aedeagus hooked.

Localities.—Type locality, Tortuga Island, Gulf of California. Type in

collection of the California Academy of Sciences. Other material from the

following localities examined: CaLIFoRNIA: Beaumont, Coachella, Riverside,

and Soboba Springs. Arizona: Sabino Canyon, Santa Rita Mountains, and

Tucson.

Host.—Encelia.

Ceratagallia longipes, n. sp. Ones JUL

Closely related to tergata, but with ovate spots on crown always present,

_ and shank of style not sinuate. Length 3-3.25 mm.

External characters.—General ground color pale cinereous. Spots on crown

small, other markings usually absent, although the basal triangles on

scutellum and faint marks on distal portions of forewings are occasionally

present. Clypeus usually very faintly tinged with pink. Male plates more

slender than those of tergata, and tapering slightly from base to apex. Median

lobes of seventh sternite of female as in tergata.

538 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, no. 12

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style relatively straight. Ventral tooth

small, located basad of narrowest part of shank. Inner margin of shank ser-

rate distally; heel but little produced; toe greatly produced and slender,

thus making the foot of the style very long. Apex of aedeagus hooked.

Localities.—Type locality, Mojave, Calif. Holotype male, allotype female,

and i1 male and 5 female paratypes collected July 7, 1933, R. H. Beamer.

Other paratypes: 2 males and 5 females from Kelso, Calif., June 9, 1908,

E. D. Ball; 1 male from Big Bear Lake, Calif., July 26, 1932, R. H. Beamer;

1 male from Palm Springs, Calif., May 23, 1917, E. P. Van Duzee; and 2

females from Palm Springs, Calif., May 21, 1917, E. P. Van Duzee. Holo-

type, allotype, and paratypes in collection of the University of Kansas, para-

types in collections of the U. 8. National Museum, no. 53356, the California

Academy of Sciences, and E. D. Ball.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia delta, n. sp. Fig. 12

A rather robust, well-marked species with very broad male plates and

long median lobes of the seventh sternite of the female. Length 3.1-3.25 mm.

External characters.—General ground color sordid yellowish white; mark-

ings mostly of brown or fuscous and distinct, the oval spots on crown com-

paratively large. Head distinctly produced and tumid medially. Male

plates very broad and scarcely tapering from base to apex, caudal opening

of pygofer unusually large. Median lobes of seventh sternite of female

nearly as long as lateral lobes, rather slender and slightly divergent distally,

the median emargination between them narrow.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style long and rather slender, with a

distinct bend near base. Ventral tooth blunt, located on base of foot of

style. Inner margin of shank minutely serrate distally; heel small; toe

slender and pointed. Apex of aedeagus blunt.

Localityi—T ype locality, Delta, Calif. Holotype male, allotype female,

and 41 male and 23 female paratypes collected June 28, 1935, P. W. Oman,

U.S.N.M. no. 53357.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia vastitatis (Oman), n. comb. Fig. 13

Aceratagallia vastitatis Oman, U. 8. Dept. Agr. Tech. Buil. 372: 69. 1933.

Less robust than deléa, with male plates smaller and the shank of the style

nearly straight. One of the largest species in the genus. Length 3.5—-3.75 mm.

External characters.—General ground color pale sordid yellow; markings

mostly brown and rather indefinite except for the pair of fuscous spots on

crown. Head scarcely produced medially. Male plates broad, but not so

broad as those of delta, tapering slightly from base to apex. Median lobes of

seventh sternite of female bluntly pointed, nearly equal to lateral lobes in

length.

Internal male. genitalia—Shank of style nearly straight, not tapering

distally. Ventral tooth small, located on base of foot. Posterior margin

evenly rounded; inner margin of shank very finely serrate distally; heel

scarcely produced; toe well produced and bluntly pointed. Apex of aedeagus

slightly hooked.

Localities —Type locality, Lund, Utah. Type, U.S.N.M. no. 44017.

Material from the following localities examined: UTaw: Dixie, Leeds, and

bee

DECEMBER 15, 1989 OMAN: REVISION OF CERATAGALLIA 539

Lund. Nrvapa: Glendale, Las Vegas, and Overton. Cauirornia: Indio,

Fort Yuma, and Potholes. Artzona: Littlefield and Yuma.

Host.—Pluchea sericea.

Ceratagallia aplopappi (Oman), n. comb. Fig. 14

Aceratagallia aplopapp: Oman, U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 372: 67. 1933.

A robust species, easily separated from other species of the genus by the

strongly arched male plates. Length 2.75-3 mm.

External characters.—General ground color pale yellow; markings, except

the pair of fuscous spots on crown, varying from pale yellowish brown to

fuscous. Male plates strongly arched downward, broad basally, tapering

gradually to the rounded and slightly divergent apices. Male pygofer with

numerous fine, white hairs laterally. Median lobes of seventh sternite of

female as long as lateral lobes, pointed and closely appressed to the pygofer,

which is usually shallowly grooved for their reception.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style slightly sinuate, not tapered dist-

ally. Ventral tooth absent. Inner margin of shank finely serrate distally;

heel rounded and serrate, with the adjacent surface of the foot finely den-

tate; apex of toe bluntly rounded. Apex of aedeagus slightly hooked.

Localities—Type locality, Pima County, Ariz. Type in collection of the

University of Kansas. Material from the following localities examined:

ARrIzONA: Baboquivari Mountains, Benson, Coconino County, Maricopa

County, Mescal, Phoenix, Pima County, Red Rock, Sabino Canyon, Santa

Rita Mountains, Sasabe, Tempe, Tucson, and Yarnell Heights. NEw

Mexico: Belen.

Host.—A plopappus.

Ceratagallia ludora, n. sp. Fig. 15

A robust species with a short, broad head. Shank of style more slender

basally than distally. Length 3-3.2 mm.

External characters ——General ground color pale cinereous, head tinged

with pale yellow; markings, except the pair of fuscous spots on crown, mostly

indefinite. Male plates rather large, about as in vastitatvs. Median lobes of

seventh sternite of female as long as lateral lobes, tips rounded.

Internal male genttalia.—Shank of style with base rather strongly curved

and more slender than distal portion. Ventral tooth located on foot of style.

Inner margin of shank finely, irregularly serrate distally; heel scarcely pro-

duced; toe broad, apex attenuate. Aedeagus with a small tooth near apex.

Localities —Type locality, Perris, Calif. Holotype male, allotype female,

and 3 male and 2 female paratypes collected June 5, 1935, P. W. Oman,

U.S.N.M. no. 53358. Also the following paratypes from San Diego County,

Calif., collected by E. P. Van Duzee: 1 male, April 22, 1913; 1 male and 1

female, October 3, 1913(?); and 1 male March 11, 1914. In collection of

California Academy of Sciences.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia canona, n. sp. Fig. 16

A rather slender species with head slightly produced. Shank of style

nearly straight, foot of style slender. Length 3-3.5 mm.

External characters—General ground color pale cinereous, head often

tinged with pale yellow; markings frequently indistinct, the pair of fuscous

spots on crown usually ovate and oblique. Male plates comparatively large

540 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

tapering gradually from base to apex. Median lobes of seventh sternite of

Sere gos a shorter than lateral lobes, diverging slightly, tips bluntly

pointed.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style rather slender. Ventral tooth

slender and sharply pointed, located on foot of style. Inner margin of shank

finely serrate on distal half; heel well produced and ending in a sharp point;

toe rather slender and sharply pointed. Apex of aedeagus blunt.

Localities —Type locality, Mint Canyon, Calif. Holotype male, allotype

female, and 6 male and 5 female paratypes collected June 7, 1935, P. W.

Oman, U.S.N.M. no. 53359. Also 4 male and 10 female paratypes from

Beaumont, Calif., July 26, 1933, R. H. Beamer, in collection of University

of Kansas, and the following paratypes from California, collected by E. P.

Van Duzee, and deposited in the California Academy of Sciences: 2 males,

San Diego County, June 18, 1913; 1 male, Alpine, September 13, 1923; and

1 male and 1 female, Mint Canyon, April 20, 1932.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia tristis, n. sp. Fig. 17

A rather slender species, related to canona, but darker colored and with

the shank of the style more slender and curved. Length 3.2-3.4 mm.

External characters.—General ground color sordid yellowish white, head

and anterior portion of pronotum tinged with pink; markings mostly fuscous

usually not sharply delimited on fore wings, and sufficiently extensive to

give the entire insect a fuscous appearance. White mark on base of R+M

conspicuous. Male plates rather slender, tapering gradually from base to

apex. Median lobes of seventh sternite of female short and blunt, the

median emargination separating them broadly V-shaped, the lateral

emarginations narrow.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style broadly curved, tapering slightly

from base. Ventral tooth prominent, located just basad of outer point. Inner

margin of shank irregularly serrate on distal two-thirds; heel well produced

and usually bifid; apex of toe slightly attenuate. Apex of aedeagus hooked.

Localities—Type locality, Perris, Calif. Holotype male, allotype female,

and 2 male and 6 female paratypes collected June 5, 1935, P. W. Oman,

U.S.N.M. no. 53360. Other paratypes from California as follows: 1 male,

San Francisco, April 27, 1908, E. D. Ball, in collection of E. D. Ball; 1

male, San Francisco, April 18, 1917, W. M. Giffard, in collection of Cali-

fornia Academy of Sciences; 3 males, Beaumont, July 26, 1933, R. H.

Beamer; 1 male, Winters, August 5, 1929, R. H. Beamer; 1 female, Alpine,

July 9, 1929, R. H. Beamer, in collection of the University of Kansas.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia arroya, n. sp. Fig. 18

A robust species, usually heavily marked with fuscous. Style similar to

that of fristis but stouter and with shank less strongly curved. Length 3.1—

3.4 mm.

External characters—General ground color pale cinereous; markings un-

usually dark, especially those on the crown and pronotum, the white areas

on fore wings thus conspicuous in contrast. Head slightly produced medially.

Male plates much wider basally than distally. Median lobes of seventh

sternite of female rather short, diverging and bluntly pointed.

Internal male genitalia—Shank of style slightly curved. Ventral tooth

prominent and pointed, located a little more basad than that of trzstzs. Inner

DECEMBER 15, 1939 OMAN: REVISION OF CERATAGALLIA 541

margin of shank finely and irregularly serrate on distal half; heel bifid but

proportionally smaller than that of trzstzs; toe slightly attenuate. Apex of

aedeagus slightly hooked.

Localities —Type locality, Saugus, Calif. Holotype male, allotype female,

and 17 male and 17 female paratypes collected June 7, 1935, P. W. Oman,

U.S.N.M. no. 53361. Also 17 male and 12 female paratypes from Mill

Creek Canyon, San Bernardino Mountains, Calif., collected September 23-—

25, 1923, by E. P. Van Duzee, in collection of California Academy of

Sciences. There are also specimens at hand from the following California

localities: Lompoc, Ontario, Pasadena, and San Diego County.

Host.—Eriodictyon.

Ceratagallia neodona, n. sp. Fig. 19

Closely related to dondia, but style with a longer toe and a much smaller

ventral tooth. Length 3.6-3.9 mm.

External characters—General ground color pale yellowish cinereous;

markings, except the pair of small fuscous spots on crown, usually faint or

absent, when present brown veins of the forewings and the traces of the

lateral arcs on pronotum are most prominent. Male plates rather slender,

tapering distally. Median lobes of seventh sternite of female rather small,

bluntly pointed and diverging, the lateral emarginations separating them

from the lateral lobes very narrow.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style stout. Ventral tooth pointed,

_ located just basad of foot of style. Inner margin of shank serrate on distal

half; heel small; toe comparatively large and considerably longer than that

of dondia, apex slightly attenuate. Apex of aedeagus slightly hooked.

Locality —Type locality, Nixon, Nev. Holotype male, allotype female,

and 5 female paratypes collected June 20, 1927, 7 female paratypes collected

June 30, 1927, by E. P. Van Duzee. Types in collection of California Aca-

demy of Sciences, 4 paratypes in collection of U. S. National Museum, no.

53362.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia pera, n. sp. Fig. 20

Closely related to arroya and dondia, but with toe of style very large and

ventral tooth of style larger than in either of those species. Length 3.6—3.9

mm.

External characters—General ground color pale yellow or yellowish

cinereous; markings very faint or absent, except the pair of small fuscous

spots on crown and sometimes the brown veins of forewings. Male plates

comparatively small, tapering sharply from base to apex. Lobes of seventh

sternite of female short, median lobes blunt.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style stout and of nearly uniform width.

Ventral tooth very large and angular, located just basad of foot of style.

Inner margin of shank coarsely and irregularly serrate on distal two-thirds;

heel rather small; toe very large, apex pointed but not attenuate. Apex of

aedeagus blunt.

_ Locality—Type locality, Perris, Calif. Holotype male, allotype female,

and 14 male and 20 female paratypes collected June 5, 1935, P. W. Oman,

U.S.N.M. no. 53363.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia califa, n. sp. Figs 21

Related to pera, which it resembles in general appearance, but style with

a smaller ventral tooth and a larger heel. Length 3.2-3.75 mm.

542 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

ELaternal characters.—General ground color yellowish white; markings

usually either very faint or entirely absent, the pair of spots on crown, when

present, small and elongate-ovate in shape. Male plates similar to those of

pera, but slightly longer. Lobes of seventh sternite of female short and blunt.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style more slender and more curved

than that of pera. Ventral tooth prominent and angular, located just basad of

inner point. Posterior margin of style very shallowly emarginate; inner mar-

gin of shank irregularly serrate on posterior two-thirds; heel well produced

and pointed; toe large and blunt, with a nipplelike projection at latero-

cephalic angle. Apex of aedeagus slightly hooked.

Localities.—Type locality, Califa, Calif. Holotype male, allotype female,

and 22 male and 36 female paratypes collected June 12, 1935, P. W. Oman,

U.S.N.M. no. 53364. Also 4 male and 5 female paratypes from Selma, Calif.,

June 4, 1929, E. P. Van Duzee, in collection of California Academy of

Sciences. Other specimens from Los Banos and Pa eeHe Le Calif., examined.

Host.—Probably Dondia.

Gsatarellie dondia (Oman), n. comb. Fig. 22

Aceratagallia dondia Oman, U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 372: 68. 1933.

A large, rather robust species. Style with a relatively short toe and a large,

angular, ventral tooth, Length 3.4—3.75 mm.

External characters:—General ground color pale yellow; markings, with

the exception of the pair of fuscous spots on crown, frequently faint or

absent, when present usually brown but occasionally fuscous. Male plates

comparatively slender, width basally about twice the apical width. Median

lobes of seventh sternite of female shorter than lateral lobes and bluntly

rounded.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style nearly straight and rather broad

basally. Ventral tooth large and angular, located just basad of foot of style

at narrowest part of shank. Posterior margin of style broadly and rather

uniformly rounded; inner margin of shank finely and irregularly serrate;

heel well produced and angular; toe rather short, about as long as greatest

width of shank, apex angled but not attenuate.

Localities.—Type locality, Thermal, Calif. Type, U. 8S. N. M. no. 44016.

Other material from the following localities examined. CALIFORNIA: Catalina

Island, Coachella, Fort Yuma, and Panamint Mountains. Nevapa: Bunker-

ville, Las Vegas, and Overton. UtaH: Delta, Grantsville, and Leeds.

ARIZONA: Sacaton, Tucson, and Yuma. CoLorapo: Grand Junction and

Rocky Ford. Texas: El Paso.

Host.—Dondia. :

Ceratagallia loma, n. sp. Fig. 23

Resembling artemisia and bigeloviae in size and general form, but more

closely related to grisea on the basis of the shape of the style. Smaller than

grisea and with the shank of the style more coarsely serrate. Length 2.6—

2.7 mm.

External characters.—General ground color sordid cinereous, head tinged

with yellow; markings mostly fuscous and sharply delimited, the median

stripes on crown diverging posteriorly. A robust species with head slightly

tumid. Male plates comparatively large, very little narrowed distally.

Median emargination in posterior margin of seventh sternite of female broad

but not angular; median lobes short and blunt.

DECEMBER 15, 1939 OMAN: REVISION OF CERATAGALLIA 543

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style slightly sinuately curved, broader

basally than near foot. Ventral tooth rather large and angular, located just

distad of narrowest part of shank. Inner margin of shank coarsely and ir-

regularly serrate except basally; heel well produced and slightly bifid; toe

rather broad, with anterolateral angle attenuated. Apex of aedeagus slightly

hooked.

Locality.—T ype locality, Warner Springs, Calif. Holotype male, allotype

female, and 1 male paratype collected June 3, 1935, P. W. Oman, U.S.N.M.

no. 53365.

Host——Unknown.

Ceratagallia grisea (Oman), n. comb. Fig. 24

Aceratagallia grisea Oman, Journ. Kansas Ent. Soc. 8: 13. 1935.

A robust gray species marked with fuscous. Style with shank rather

slender and toe broad and short. Length 3 mm.

External characters —General ground color pale gray, clypeus tinged with

pink; markings usually sharply delimited. Pronotal markings variable,

those most often present being the two median stripes and a spot near each

lateral margin which represents a trace of the lateral stripe. Male plates

rather long and slender, tapering gradually from base to apex. Median emar-

gination in posterior margin of seventh sternite of female broadly V-shaped,

median lobes bluntly pointed and nearly as long as lateral lobes.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style slightly sinuate, becoming nar-

rower distally. Ventral tooth blunt, located at base of foot of style. Inner

margin of shank irregularly serrate; heel well produced and usually bifid;

toe broad and relatively short, the anterolateral angle less attenuated

than in loma. Apex of aedeagus slightly hooked.

Locality—Type locality, Ramsey Canyon, Huachuca Mountains, Ariz.

Type, U.S.N.M. no. 50367.

Host.—Unknown.

Ceratagallia lupini, n. sp. Fig. 25

A robust species, related to grisea but larger and paler, the style with

shank more strongly curved and toe broader. Length 3.4-3.9 mm.

External characters.—General ground color sordid white to pale gray,

head sometimes tinged with pale yellow. Markings frequently entirely

absent, always considerably reduced and usually faint. Head slightly

tumid. Male plates as in grisea. Male pygofer with numerous fine white

hairs laterally. Median lobes of seventh sternite of female bluntly pointed

and slightly shorter than lateral lobes, the median emargination separating

them not angular.

Internal male genitalia.—Shank of style strongly, sinuately curved. Ven-

tral tooth located on base of foot of style. Inner margin of shank irregularly

serrate on distal two-thirds; heel well produced; toe very broad and blunt,

the antero-lateral angle not attenuated.

Localities.—T ype locality, Three Rivers, Calif. Holotype male, allotype

female, and 19 male and 28 female paratypes, collected June 9, 1935, P. W.

Oman, U.S.N.M. no. 53366. Other paratypes, 14 males and 14 females from

San Francisco, Calif., June 20, 1935, P. W. Oman, and 5 males and 13

females from Santa Maria, Calif., July 19, 1933, R. H. Beamer.

Host.—Lupinus.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY =

NEW MEMBERS ELECTED

The following have recently been elected to membership in the Academy:

Active resident members:

CHARLES ARMSTRONG, senior surgeon, U. 8. Public Health Service, in

recognition of his ‘contributions in the fields of medical bacteriology

and immunology and particularly for his studies on poliomyelitis

and lymphocytic chorio-meningitis.

Raymonp McGeary Hann, chemist, National Institute of Health, in

recognition of his contributions to the eles cy of sugars and re-

lated compounds.

WILLIAM VINCENT LAMBERT, senior animal hucbanclnen in charge,

Genetics Division, U. 8. Bureau of Animal Industry, in recognition

of his contributions to avian and mammalian genetics, especially

in the field of inheritance of disease resistance and of inbreeding.

HaraLtD ALFRED REHDER, assistant curator, Division of Mollusks,

U.S. National Museum, in recognition of his scientific attainments

in the field of malacology.

FRANCIS OWEN Rick, head of the Department of Chemistry, Catholic

University of America, in recognition of his contributions to the

study of the kinetics of organic reactions, in particular his re-

searches on free radicals.

IRL CorLEY SCHOONOVER, associate chemist, National Bureau of

Standards, in recognition of his contributions to potentiometric

methods of chemical analysis and the properties of silver and

dental materials.

J. LEon SHERESHEFSKY, chairman of the Department of Chemistry,

Howard University, in recognition of his work on capillarity,

adsorption, and surface tension.

WiuuiamM R. Van Dersat, biologist, U. S. Soil Conservation Service,

in recognition of his work on food plants of native game.

Mitton VictorR VELDEE, surgeon, U. 8. Public Health Service, in

recognition of his contributions to medical bacteriology, immunol-

ogy, and epidemology, in particular his studies on scarlet fever.

ERNEST PILLSBURY WALKER, assistant director, National Zoological

Park, Smithsonian Institution, in recognition of his attainments in

biology, with special reference to mammals.

Active nonresident members:

CarL JOHN Drakgs, head of the Department of Zoology and Ento-

mology, Iowa State College, and State Entomologist, Ames,

Iowa, in recognition of-his contributions to the taxonomy of the

Hemiptera, especially the families Tingitidae and Gerridae.

Wiiu1amM ALBERT HorrMan, assistant professor of parasitology, School

of Tropical Medicine, San Juan, P. R., in recognition of his con-

tributions to medical ‘entomology and parasitology.

Rosert Marueson, professor of entomology, Cornell University,

Ithaca, N. Y., in recognition of his researches in medical ento-

mology, particularly his work on the taxonomy of mosquitoes.

544

DECEMBER 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 545

Honorary members:

CARLOS DE LA TORRE Y DE LA HuERTA, School of Sciences, University

of Havana, Havana, Cuba, in recognition of his scientific attain-

ments.

Henri F. Pirrier, botanist and administrator of Agriculture, Caracas,

Venezuela, in recognition of his contributions to the botany of

South and Central America.

LEONHARD STEJNEGER, head curator of biology, U. 8. National Mu-

seum, in recognition of his contributions to herpetology, ornithol-

ogy, and mammalogy.

INCREASE IN RESIDENT MEMBERS VOTED

As a result of the balloting ending July 4, 1939, the membership of the

Academy overwhelmingly voted to increase the number of resident active

members from 400 to 450. There are, therefore, approximately 50 vacancies

in the resident membership. This is brought to the attention of the members

with the suggestion that they nominate those from among their associates

who are eligible for membership. Nomination blanks may be obtained from

the Corresponding Secretary and should be returned to the present Chair-

man of the Membership Committee, E. W. Pricz, U.S. Bureau of Animal

Industry.

AWARDS FOR SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENT

At its meeting on October 20, 1939, the Board of Managers of the Acad-

emy voted the establishment of awards for noteworthy discovery, accom-

plishment, or publication in the physical, biological, and engineering sci-

ences, respectively. An award will be presented in each of these three fields

not oftener than once in any calendar year. The awards, which will take

the form of suitably inscribed certificates and be appropriately presented,

will be limited to persons 40 or less years of age who are members of the

Academy, resident or nonresident, or to members of societies affiliated with

the Academy resident in the Washington area. The Committee on Awards,

which has been appointed by the President of the Academy, will make

recommendations each year to the Board of Managers not later than the

annual meeting of the Academy, and the first awards may be made for the

calendar year 1940. President CHamBuiss has divided the Committee on

Awards (Jamss F. Coucu, temporary chairman) into three subcommittees,

one for each of the three fields of science concerned: Brological Sciences,

AusTIN H. Ciark, FREDERICK A. Con, JoHN M. Cooprr, Howarp A.

Epson, E. A. GoLpMAN (temporary chairman), H. W. ScHorENnING, Gortt-

HOLD STEINER, ALEXANDER WETMORE; Physical Sciences, ARNOLD K. BALLs,

Oscar 8. ADAMS, FERDINAND G. BRICKWEDDE, JAMES F. CoucH (temporary

chairman), W. Epwarps DeEmING, OLIvER H. GisH, Oscar E. MEINZzER,

FreD L. MonLer, WALDEMAR T. SCHALLER, GEORGE TUNELL, ROGER C.

Weis, Epcar W. WoouarpD, OLIVER R. WuLF; Engineering Sciences,

Witu1aM Bowie, Harvey L. Curtis (temporary chairman), Francis M.

DeEFanporF, HerBert G. Dorsty, JonN W. McBurney, H. L. Wuitte-

MORE, PauL C. WHITNEY.

PUBLICATION OF MONOGRAPHS

It has been felt for some time that much valuable scientific material has

been lost for want of publication and that the Academy should undertake

the publication of scientific monographs to care for part of this problem

546 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

Accordingly, at its meeting on October 20, 1939, the Board of Managers of

the Academy approved the establishment of a Committee on Monographs,

whose functions will be to select appropriate manuscripts and arrange for

their publication in the form of monographs. Preference will be given to

manuscripts prepared by members of the Academy. The Committee on

Monographs consists of six members, each appointed to serve a term of

three years, except that of the first appointees, two are for one year, two are

for two years, and two are for three years, and that the retiring Senior

Editor of the JouRNAL is one of the two new members annually appointed

to this committee. To carry out the work of the Committee on Monographs,

the Academy has established a revolving fund of $1,000, which will be used

to underwrite the publication of the first monographs. Receipts from the

sale of monographs will be credited to this fund and used to finance the

publication of future monographs. President CHAMBLIss has appointed the

following to serve as the Committee on Monographs: for one year, FRED-

ERICK D. Rossini, Joun A. STEVENSON; for two years, RoLAND W. Brown,

Espen H. Tooun; for three years, Hnnry B. Couuins, Jr. (chairman),

Emmett W. Price. Proposals from authors concerning the publication of

such monographs should be sent to HEnry B. Couuins, Jr., Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, D. C.

CUSTODIAN AND SUBSCRIPTION MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS

On May 5, 1939, the Board of Managers of the Academy created the

office of Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications. This officer,

appointed for a term of three years, shall handle correspondence with new

subscribers and subscription agencies, shall have charge of all reserve stocks

of the Academy’s publications, shall inaugurate a program to increase the

sale of back numbers and complete sets of the JOURNAL, shall fill orders for

the purchase of back numbers and sets, shall maintain at all times a detailed

inventory of reserve stocks of back literature, and shall submit to the

Board of Managers at the end of each year a detailed account of his activi-

ties. President CHAMBLIss has appointed W. W. Drirut, of the U. 8. Bureau

of Plant Industry, to this new office.

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

S09TH MEETING

The 509th meeting and the annual dinner of the Society were held in the

auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Thursday, March 9, 1939, with President

KRaAcEK acting as toastmaster. Following the dinner, Past President N. L.

DRakE was introduced. He briefly reviewed the past history of the Hille-

brand Prize Award, spoke of some of its objectives, and introduced the 1938

recipients. President Kracrx then presented the award in a brief and dig-

nified ceremony to RaLEIGH GILCHRIST and Epwarp WicuHeERs for their

contribution entitled A new system of analytical chemistry for the platinum

metals. The next speaker was Professor JamEs Lewis Howe, of Washington

and Lee University, who spoke in a delightful manner of the early history

of research in platinum metal chemistry in this country, leavening his re-

marks with many personal reminiscences. The two recipients were next in-

troduced. EpwaRpD WICHERS spoke on Glimpses of platinum metal chemistry,

outlining the basic problem, and the mode of attack that has led to its solu-

tion in the laboratories of the National Bureau of Standards. RALEIGH GIL-

CHRIST gave Reminiscences of the research, which has, incidentally, led to the

DECEMBER 15, 1989 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 547

production of platinum metals of known and controllable purity, for it is

found that many of the analytical procedures, when employed on large scale

lots, lead to the economical production of the pure metals in competition

with the methods that formerly led to relatively impure products.

510TH MEETING

The 510th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, April 13, 1939, President Kracex in the chair. After the reading

of the minutes the Society was addressed by WARREN E.. EMueEy, chief of the

Organic and Fibrous Materials Division, National Bureau of Standards:

WaRREN E. EMuery: Testing of plastics and the significance of the results.—

The variety of plastics commercially available is now very large. Manu-

facturers have sufficient control of their processes to vary the properties of

their products within large limits. If a prospective consumer can tell the

manufacturer just what properties he desires, he can probably find some

manufacturer willing to undertake to make an article having those proper-

ties. Before this can be done, however, it is essential that accepted test meth-

ods be available. Otherwise the consumer will not be able to make his wants

known in a manner intelligible to the manufacturer. The development of

such test methods is now the major objective of the work of Committee

D-20 on Plastics, of the American Society for Testing Materials. (Author’s

abstract. )

OLITH MEETING

The 511th meeting was held at the University of Maryland, College Park,

Md., on Thursday, May 11, 1939, President Kracnx presiding. The meeting

was preceded by an informal dinner in the University Dining Hall. After

the reading of the minutes the Society divided into three sections for the

reading of papers.

Section of Analytical Chemistry, C. EK. WHITE presiding:

A. Keita Brewer: The application of the mass spectrograph to the study of

isotope abundance and atomic weights.—Two types of mass spectrographs are

in use at the present time. The Aston combined energy and momentum ana-

lyzer is used for accurate determinations of mass, and the Dempster 180°

momentum analyzer for determinations of abundance ratios. Within the

past few years mass spectrograph design and technique have been so simpli-

fied and perfected that high precision instruments can now be built at com-

paratively moderate cost.

The principal use of the mass spectrograph at the present time is for the

determination of isotope abundance ratios. From such measurements on

lead and uranium an estimate of the geological age of the rocks can be ob-

tained, while from similar measurements on potassium and calcium, or rubid-

ium and strontium minerals, the age of matter itself can be computed. Atom-

ic weights of most of the elements can be determined directly from the

abundance ratios; the accuracy is comparable with the best chemical tech-

nique for absolute weights and materially better for comparative values.

Abundance measurements have shown that the atomic weights of several of

the elements are not constant in nature but vary between appreciable limits.

Very small quantities of material are needed in determining isotope abun-

dance ratios. In the case of potassium, 10-4 gms of any potassium containing

material is all that is required, while 10—!° gms of potassium can be detected;

no chemical treatment is necessary.

548 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No.12

New uses for the mass spectrograph are continually being found. Doubt-

less the most important application is in the analysis of biological tissues for

natural isotopes used as “indicators” in metabolic studies. Recent develop-

ments of methods for concentrating isotopes and the phenomenal results

that have been obtained bid fair to make the mass spectrograph a necessary

instrument for the biochemist. The mass spectrograph has great possibilities

in the field of analytical chemistry; this is especially true in the analyses of

trace elements where extreme sensitivity is necessary. (Author’s abstract.)

Louis L. MapsEen and RussE.u E. Davis: Studies on the determination of

carotene and vitamin A in blood plasma with the spectrophotometer.—Spectro-

photometric examinations have been made on extracts containing the non-

saponifiable fraction of cattle blood plasma. Extracts from carotene deter-

minations were made to volume in a mixture of equal parts absolute ethyl

alcohol and a higher boiling petrolic ether (B. P. 90°—-98° C) after being ex-

tracted according to the principle of the Willstatter and Stoll procedure. By

definition, the material corresponding to the theoretical beta-carotene ab-

sorption measured at 430, 436, 450, and 480mzy is listed as carotene, while the

nonsaponifiable material of blood plasma which was soluble in cold methyl

alcohol and had a selective absorption maximum at 328my was called vitamin

A. In general, extracts from blood plasma which are high in carotene and

vitamin A give absorption characteristics more nearly equal to theoretical

values than extracts from blood plasma from animals that are low or defici-

ent in these factors. Methods for the preparation of extracts that are free

from compounds causing interfering absorption have not been developed.

Data are presented on determinations made on the blood plasma of beef

heifers fed normal and carotene-deficient rations and a relation between the

carotene intake and the carotene and vitamin A content of the blood plasma

was demonstrated. Uncorrected values are recorded showing the carotene

content of the plasma of normal animals to be as high as 11.7 micrograms per

ec, while the highest vitamin A value found was 0.58 microgram per ce. For

deficient animals the lowest blood carotene recorded was 0.06 microgram per

ec, while the lowest vitamin A value found was 0.03 microgram per ce. It

appears that the degree of carotenemia depends upon the exogenous supply

and storage of carotene and therefore varies within wide limits, while the

vitamin A content of the plasma reaches a less variable physiological level,

which it maintains as long as the supply of carotene or vitamin A is ade-

quate but which also decreases in the state of deficiency. (Authors’ abstract.)

GrorGE M. Macuwart and Marriott W. BREDEKAMP: Acidity in pe-

troleum oils: Electrometric titration method.—A study of acidity in an oxidized

petroleum oil by electrometric titration has indicated that: (1) Rate of for-

mation of acidity may be independent of the rate of formation of sludge; (2)

the amount of acidity present was found to be greater with certain inhibitors

present in the oil than in the absence of these inhibitors. The apparatus used

was found to be very sensitive to external factors and several recommenda-

tions were made to minimize the effect of these factors. It is believed that the

electrometric titration method for the determination of acidity may be valu-

able in the development of the mechanism of inhibition and deterioration of

motor lubricants. (Authors’ abstract.)

Section of Organic and Biological Chemistry, N. L. DRaxe presiding:

Lewis W. Butz, ApaAmM M. Gappis, and ELEANORE W. J. Butz: The syn-

thesis of substances related to steroids—The steroids that have been synthe-

sized from simpler nonsteroid compounds have contained one or more ben-

zenoid rings. Of the 70 or 80 steroids that have been found in nature, 6 con-

DECEMBER 15, 1939 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 549

tain a benzenoid or naphthalenoid system; the others are alicyclic. We have

studied some addition reactions of 1,3,5-hexatriene with a view to the

development of synthetic methods for the preparation of the alicyclic type.

Hexatriene would be expected to add by a Diels-Alder reaction to unsatu-

rated carbon-carbon bonds to give compounds containing a 3-vinylcyclo-

hexene system. Although other types of addition can be foreseen, the Diels-

Alder type occurs very generally with polyenes. If the 3-vinylecyclohexene

derivative is formed, it will show a tendency to rearrange to isomers in which

the two double bonds have become conjugated, although the experimental

conditions under which such isomerization occurs have not been precisely de-

termined. By migration of a single hydrogen atom, two secondary products

can result, a 3-ethylidenecyclohexene and a 2-vinyleyclohexene. The latter

is a reactive diene type and should add a mol of olefin to give a product

which contains an 8-octalin system. The 3-ethylidenecyclohexene type has

been found not to participate in the Diels-Alder reaction, but it might con-

ceivably isomerize by migration of another hydrogen atom to an ethylcy-

clohexadiene which is a reactive diene type. It should therefore be possible,

by supplying an active addend to the 3-vinyleyclohexene derivative, to diret

isomerization preponderantly in the direction of formation of the 2-vinyley-

clohexene and obtain in good yield a product which is essentially the result

of the successive addition of two mols of olefin to hexatriene.

The synthetic route under investigation then consists of three steps:

I. hexatriene + olefin———> 3-vinyleyclohexene

II. 3-vinyleyclohexene———> 2-vinylcyclohexene

III. 2-vinyleyclohexene- olefin——— 8-octalin

For the synthesis of a steroid the olefins in this, the shortest reaction series,

must be a cyclopentene and a cyclohexene derivative. Other series consisting

of addition of open chain compounds to a triene or dienyne system, followed

by ring closure of the Diels-Alder or other type, may prove of greater prac-

tical importance.

Aside from one failure to add 1-methyleyclohexen-3-one to hexatriene,

only one Diels-Alder addition to hexatriene has been reported. E. H. Farmer

reported the synthesis of 6-ethylidene-1,2,3,6-tetrahydrophthalic anhy-

dride from hexatriene and maleic anhydride at 100°. Since 6-vinyl-1,2,3,6-

tetrahydrophthalic anhydride would be the expected product, isomerization

was nearly complete. We have found, however, that by allowing hexatriene

and maleic anhydride to react at 30°, a quite different adduct is obtained

which is isomeric with Farmer’s ethylidene-anhydride.

Naptho-1,4-quinone and hexatriene at 50° gave two products, a liquid and

a solid. Present evidence indicates that the liquid is the expected vinyltet-

rahydroanthraquinone, that the solid is the ethylidenetetrahydroanthra-

quinone or ethyldihydroanthraquinone. Hexatriene and 4-acetoxylo-2,5-

quinone gave two solid isomers of the expected empirical constitution. Hexa-

triene and p-xylo-2,5-quinone gave a liquid 1:1 adduct and a mixture of

solid products from which a fraction with the composition of an adduct of

one mol hexatriene with two mols xyloquinone was obtained. A similar prod-

uct was obtained from the 1:1 adduct by heating with xyloquinone. In

contrast to the other solid adducts reported here, which were crystalline,

this interesting fraction from xyloquinone appeared to be amorphous and

individual batches melted at different temperatures. Cyclopentene-1-alde-

hyde and 1-methyleyclopenten-5-one gave liquid adducts of the expected

composition (hydroindenes) with hexatriene. (Authors’ abstract.)

M. Harris and A. Sooxne: Electrophoresis studies of fiber (protein and

cellulose) surfaces —No abstract available.

990 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No..12

R. M. Hann, W. D. Machay, and C. 8. Hupson: The structure of diace-

tone dulcitols.—It is shown that the properties of the a- and 6-diacetone dul-

citols, as well as those of several new derivatives of these substances, exclude

the possibility that they can be enantiomorphic substances and prove that

they are structural isomers. Evidence has been obtained from periodate and

lead tetraacetate oxidations that neither a- nor 6-diacetone dulcitol contains

a glycol grouping. The results of a study of the ditosyl, di-iodo, and ditrityl

derivatives of 6-diacetone dulcitol indicate that it contains two free prinary

hydroxyl groups, and a study of the oxidation of the diacyl dulcitols, deriva-

ble from it, proves that its structure is that of 2,3,4,5-diacetone dulcitol. The

results of a study of the ditosyl, monotosyl monoiodo, and monotrityl mono-

acetyl derivatives of a-diacetone dulcitol indicate that it contains one free

primary hydroxyl group and one free secondary hydroxyl group, and a study

of the oxidation of the dibenzoyl dulcitol derived from it proves that it is

2,3,0,6-diacetone-D,L-galactitol. An acyl migration by which 1:4-dibenzoyl-

D,L-galactitol (a racemic form) passes to 1:6 dibenzoyl dulcitol (a meso

form) has been demonstrated.

A cyclic acetal shift has been shown to be the cause of the interesting and

unusual changes which Fischer and Bergmann noticed upon acetylation of

a-diacetone dulcitol. The shift occurs as a stage in the benzoylation of a-

diacetone dulcitol with benzoyl chloride and quinoline or pyridine at ele-

vated temperatures. In structural terms it is represented as the passage of

1:4-dibenzoyl-2,3,5,6-diacetone-D,L-galactitol to 1:6-dibenzoyl-2,3,4,5-diac-

etone dulcitol. (Authors’ abstract.)

Section of Physical Chemistry, M. M. Harine presiding:

R. E. Gipson and O. H. Lorrrusrr: The effect of pressure and temperature

on the absorption of light by solutions of aromatic amines in nitrobenzene—No

abstract available.

J. F. Scoarrer: The chemical composition of the rock-forming pyroxenes.—

The rock-forming pyroxenes constitute one of the most important mineral

groups of the igneous rocks. They present exceptional complexity both of

crystalline modifications and chemical composition, and are a series of solid

solutions, some of the molecules of which are completely miscible and others

only partly miscible. The important chemical molecules that enter into the

composition of the rock-forming pyroxenes are: CaSiO;, wollastonite,

pseudowollastonite; MgSiOs, enstatite, clinoenstatite ; CaSi0;: MgSiOs, diop-

side; FeSiO;, ferrosilite, clinoferrosilite; CaSiO3:FeSiO;, hedenbergite;

MnSiO0;, rhodonite, bustamite; CaSiOs-MnSiO;, johannsenite; molecules

containing Al,O3, augites; Fe.O3, augites and babingtonite;TiOks, titaniferous

augites; NaeO- Al,O3-48i0O>, jadeite; NazO- FesO3: 48102, acmite, aegirite.

The three most important molecules are the metasilicates CaSiOs, MgsSiOs

and FeSiO;3. Data for the stability relations between CaSiO;—FeSi0; and

MgSiO;—FeSiO; have been given by Bowen and Schairer in papers on the

systems CaQO—FeO—SiO, and MgO—FeO—SiOz, respectively. The rela-

tions between diopside (CaMgSi.O,) and MgSiO; are given by Bowen and

Andersen in their paper on the system forsterite—diopside—-silica. Data are

presented here for the binary system CaSiO;—diopside (CaMgSieO¢). In

order to find the stability relations of the pyroxenes containing Al,Os, it will

be necessary to study two quaternary systems: CaO—FeO—AI,0;—Si10,

and MgO—FeO—AI,0;—SiOs». The first of these is in progress and complete

data for the ternary system, FeOQ—A1l,0;—Si0Os, are presented. The incongru-

DECEMBER 15, 1989 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 551

ent nature of the melting of acmite (Na2.O- Fe.,03-48i102) and complete melting

relations for this mineral have been given by Bowen, Schairer, and Willems

in their paper on the system Na2Si0;—Fe.0;—SiOz. Data are at hand show-

ing that jadeite (Na2Q-Al,03;-48102) near liquidus temperatures breaks

down into nepheline and albite. (A uthor’s abstract.)

WALTER J. Hamer: Variation of hydrogen-ion concentration with tempera-

ture.—Although considerable information is available on the variation of

ionization constants with temperature, little is known of the variation in

hydrogen-ion activity or “‘active acidity’? with temperature. In order to

learn whether the variations of ‘“‘active acidity” are similar to the variations

in ionization constants and whether there is a general relationship between

hydrogen-ion activity and temperature, measurements were made at 5° C

intervals from 0° C to 60° C of the pH values of different types of solutions

by means of galvanic cells without liquid junctions, using hydrogen and sil-

ver-silver chloride electrodes. This method of measuring the acidity is inde-

pendent of Soret effects and liquid junction errors, common to the usual

electrometric method of measuring acidity. The solutions studied were po-

tassium acid phthalate, sodium‘acid malonate-sodium malonate, sulfamic acid,

boric acid-potassium hydroxide, glycine-hydrochloric acid, glycine-sodium hy-

droxide, hydrochloric acid, and potassium hydroxide. From the pH data

obtained for these solutions, it was observed that with an increase in temper-

ature the pH values of alkalies decrease, the pH values of strong acids in-

crease and that the pH values of weak acids exhibit a minimum in the pH-

temperature curve, the minimum occurring at different temperatures for

different pH values. The degree of change in pH with temperature is smaller

the closer the pH is to neutrality. It was also observed that the changes are

independent of the concentration of the solution but depend slightly upon

the valencies of the ions in the solutions. The difference in the variations of

alkaline and acid solutions with temperature may possibly be explained by

the differences in the apparent partial molal volumes of alkalies and acids

and by the differences in the variation of this quantity with temperature and

by the large change in the pH of water with temperature. It was also ob-

served that the variations are different for ampholytes such as amino acids

than for other types of solutions. They exhibit smaller changes in the acid

range and larger changes in the alkaline range than the other types of solu-

tions. This may be explained by the fact that the entropy of ionization of

amino acids is about half that for other acids and bases and by the fact that

the charges on ampholytes are widely separated, giving rise to a strong elec-

trostatic field. (Author’s abstract.) Raymonp M. Hann, Secretary.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

292D MEETING

The 292d regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club, November 1, 1938, President Gravatt presiding; attendance 85.

GEORGE EH. HAuuipay was elected to membership.

Notes and reviews—Witu1aM A. DayTON called attention to a mono-

graph on lupines being prepared by Charles Piper Smith of Saratoga, Calif.,

for which subscriptions would be welcome. Hugo Gliick of the University

of Heidelberg has made a request for specimens of Micranthemum nuttalliz,

an aquatic plant. RoBEert Cook called attention to the fact that some

patents had been issued recently on chemicals for growth of roots to the

Boyce Thompson Institute.

002 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

Program.—Howarp W. JoHNSON: Mycological and pathological observa-

tions on Crotalaria. Crotalaria, a new summer cover and green manure

crop, 1s proving to be especially well suited to the sandy lands of the South.

Two species, C. striata and C. spectabilis, already have become of agricultural

importance. In plantings made to date these species have been found im-

mune from nematodes. This fact is of great economic importance in con-

nection with any crop throughout the South. However, diseases are already

proving a factor in the growth of Crotalaria in the United States and in this

paper attention is called to three diseases attacking the crop at Arlington

Experiment Farm, Arlington, Va. These are: (1) powdery mildew (Micro-

sphaera diffusa), (2) gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) and (3) mosaic (virus).

Perithecia of the powdery mildew develop on Crotalaria species in both

field and greenhouse at Arlington Farm. This is apparently the first report of

perithecia of Microsphaera diffusa on this host in the Western Hemisphere

and confirms earlier records of this powdery mildew on Crotalaria from

Puerto Rico, where identification was based on the oidial stage only. The

mosaic on Crotalaria causes dwarfing and mottling of the leaves and extreme

proliferation of lateral buds (witch’s brooming) on some species. The virus

is readily transmissible mechanically to horsebean (Vicia faba), red clover

(Trifolium pratense), crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum), garden peas

(Pisum sativum), and field pea (Pisum arvense). It apparently does not at-

tack garden bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), soybean (Soja max), alfalfa (Medicago

sativa), cowpea (Vigna sinensis), or Petunia hybrida. Host range and

property studies completed to date show this virus to be similar in many

respects to the known strains of pea mosaic but it differs in other respects

and further work is necessary to determine whether it shall be described as

a strain of pea mosaic or as a distinct entity to be known as Crotalaria

mosaic.

E. D. McAuuister: New facts in photosynthesis. Experimental evi-

dence was presented indicating the formation, during the actual process of

photosynthesis, of a material in relatively large quantities which combines

with or absorbs carbon dioxide. The experiments establishing the existence

of this carbon-dioxide-combining intermediate are entirely new in type, and

the intermediate bears no evident relationship with any plant material

previously described as combining with carbon dioxide, being produced,

as it is, only during the actual process of photosynthesis, and apparently

surviving thereafter for a short time. Its presence during photosynthesis can

be measured by a “pick-up” of carbon dioxide in darkness immediately

following a high rate of photosynthesis. That chlorophyll is intimately re-

lated to or associated with this intermediate is suggested by a simple

stoichiometry of the order of unity that is found to exist between the number

of carbon dioxide molecules taken up and the total number of chlorophyll

molecules present in the plant.

AuicE M. AnprERSEN, Secretary.

INDEX TO VOLUME 29

An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Botanical Society of Washington.

Chemical Society of Washington.

Geological Society of Washington.

Philosophical Society of Washington.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

230, 270, 551.

138, 183, 465, 546.

350.

302.

44,178, 403, 544

AUTHOR INDEX

ANDERSON, WituiAM H. A key to the

larval Bostrichidae in the United

States National Museum (Coleop-

tera). 382.

ArcHER, W. A. *Plant exploration in

Latin America. 231.

Batt, CARLETON R. A new variety of

the willow Salix glaucophylla Bebb.

492.

BartscuH, Paut. A new intermediate

host of the Asiatic blood fluke, Schis-

tosoma japonicum Katsurata. 173.

Beams, J. W. *Some applications of high

rotational speeds. 304.

Berry, Epwarp W. A Meliosma in the

Wilcox Eocene. 377.

Fossil plants from the Cretaceous

of Minnesota. 3831.

BisHorp, F. C. Mosquito transmission

of encephalomyelitis, or brain fever,

of horses. 495.

Bramury, A. *A thermal method for

the separation of gases and isotopes.

314.

BREDEKAMP, Marriott W. See GEORGE

M. Macuwart. 548.

Brewer, A. KeitH. *The application of

the mass spectrograph to the study

of isotope abundance and atomic

weights. 547.

BrRIESE, REINHOLD R. See James F.

CoucH. 146, 219.

Brown, Rotanp W. Some American

fossil plants belonging to the Isoe-

PaAlesHasZ oil:

and Epcar HounpswortrH. The

fruit of Trapa? microphylla Lesque-

reux. 36.

BurRLEW, JoHN S. See GrorGE W.

Morey. 140.

Butz, ELEANORE W. J. See Lewis W.

Butz. 548.

Burz, Lewis W., Apam M. Gappis, and

ELEANORE W. J. Butz. *The syn-

thesis of substances related to ster-

oids. 548.

Capy, R. C. *Erosional history of the

North Platte Valley in Nebraska.

303.

CasH, Epita K. Some Georgia Dis-

comycetes. 47.

Curisti£, J. R. Predaceous nematodes

of the genus Aphelenchoides from

Hawaii. 161.

Cootmr, fF. lL. See H. L. Curtis. 3138.

Coucu, James E., and REINHOLD R.

Briese. The destruction of hydro-

cyanic acid by prunase and the influ-

ence of sugars: on the _ reaction.

219.

, REINHOLD R. BrRiEsE, and J. H.

Martin. Hydrocyanic acid content

of sorghum varieties. 146.

Curtis, H. L., C. Moon, M. Sparks,

F. Wenner, J. L. TuHomas, I. L.

CootTEeR, and F. R. Kotrser. Ab-

solute measurements in electrical re-

sistance. 313.

CusHMAN, R. A. New ichneumon-flies

parasitic on the hemlock sawfly (Neo-

diprion tsugae Middleton). 391.

Dayton, Witu1AM A. *Ecology of west-

ern range plants. 271.

Davis, Russett E. See Louis E. Map-

sen. 548.

Dricnan, H. G. Two new races of birds

from the Indo-Chinese sub-region.

LZ.

See H. FRIEDMANN. 287.

Demine, W. Epwarps. See FREDERICK

D. Rossini. 416.

DERMEN, Hatc. *Cytological analysis of

polyploidy induced by colchicine and

extremes of temperature. 270.

Dorsty, HERBERTG. “*Sono radio buoys

for hydrographic surveying. 305.

553

554 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

Eaton, THEODORE H., JR.

cid braincase. 441.

—— The crossopterygian hyomandibu-

lar and the tetrapod stapes. 109.

Ecxeu, E. B. *Abutment problems at

Zuni dam, New Mexico. 350.

EMLEY, WARREN E. *Testing of plastics

and the significance of the results.

547.

FESSENDEN, G. R. “*Preservation of

plant color in plant specimens. 272.

Figser, Lovis F. *Cancer producing

hydrocarbons. 184.

Foster, A.C. *The effect of environ-

ment on the metabolism and blossom-

end rot disease in tomato. 230.

FRIEDMANN, H., and H. G. D8IGNAN.

Notes on some Asiatic owls of the

genus Otus, with description of a new

form. 287.

Gappis, ADAM M. See Lewis W. Burz.

548.

Gazin, C. Lewis. A further contribu-

tion to the Dragon Paleocene of cen-

tral Utah. 273.

Gipson, R. E. *Effect of pressure and

temperature on the transmission of

light by certain solutions. 307.

GinsBuRG, Isaac. The measure of pop-

ulation divergence and multiplicity

of characters. 317.

— Twenty one new American gobies.

oie

Girty, GrorcE H. Certain pleuroto-

mariid gastropods from the Carbonif-

erous of New Mexico and Texas.

21.

— Setigerites nom. nov. a subgenus of

Productus. 141.

GoLpBERG, MicHaEL. *Linkage mecha-

nisms in three dimensions. 310.

GoutpMaAN, E. A. A new badger from So-

nora. 300.

—— Two new pocket gophers of the

genus Heterogeomys from Mexico.

Goranson, R. W. *On the electrical

properties of multilayers. 302.

GREEN, CHARLES K. *Submarine topog-

raphy in the pilot house. 311.

Grices, Ropert F. The course of evo-

hutionm: =< wells:

GuRNEY, ASHLEY BUELL.

A paleonis-

Nomenclator-

ial notes on Corrodentia, with de-

scriptions of two new species of

Archipsocus. 6501.

Haic, Irvine T. *Silvicultural history

of the western white-pine type. 231.

HaAMER, WaLTeR J. “*Variation of hy-

drogen-ion concentration with tem-

perature. 551.

Hann, R. M., W. D. Maclay, and C. 8.

Hupson. *The structure of diace-

tone dulcitols. 550.

Hayes, H. C. *Sap flow and pressure in

birch trees. 309.

Hecx, N. H. From the center of the

earth tothesun. 189.

HELLERMAN, LESLIE. *Some recent de-

velopments concerning the constitu-

tion and mode of action of enzymes.

466.

HENDRICKS, STERLING B.

structures and water sorption in

clays. 302.

HovuLpswortuH, EDGAR.

Brown. 36.

Howe, Paut E. Some problems in at-

taining adequate nutrition. 357.

Hupson, C.S. See R. M. Hann. 550

Huwsert, E. O. *The brightness of the

twilight sky. 307.

IsBELL, Horace 8S. *The nomenclature

of the sugars and their derivatives.

139.

Jacospson, R. P. *Structure of sarsa-

sapogenin. 1389.

Jenkins, ANNA E. New species of Taph-

rina on red maple and on silver ma-

ple. 222.

Jounson, E. A. *Measurement of small

magnetic sound. 306.

Jounson, Howarp W. *Mycological

and pathological observations on

Crotalaria. 552.

JoHnson, THomas H. Recent advances

in the investigation of cosmic rays.

233.

JongEs, J. Lesuie. *Kinetics of the ther-

mal isomerization of cis-dichloro-

ethylene. 140.

Kearny, Tuomas H., and Ropert H.

Prrsies. Arizona plants: New spe-

cies, varieties, and combinations.

A474,

See Rouanp W.

*Random —

DECEMBER 15, 1939

Kempton, J. H. See Louis R. Max-

WELL. 368.

Kirsy, 8.S. *The sporadic-E layer of

theionosphere. 303.

Kirk, Epwin. Two new genera of Car-

boniferous inadunate crinoids. 469.

Kuen, E. L. *Radiation pressure and

its measurement. 312.

Kottrer, F. R. See H. L. Curtis. 313.

KwneEcuTEL, M. M. *Large boulders and

glacial striae near Little Rocky

Mountains, Mont. 354.

KrRuiu, WENDELL H. Observations on

the distribution and ecology of the

oribatid mites. 519.

Loomis, H. F. A new palm from Costa

Rica, Astrocaryum alatum. 141.

Lynn, W. GarpNER, and A. M. MEL-

LAND. A fossil catfish (Felichthys

stauroforus) from the Maryland Mio-

cene. 14.

Macuwart, Grorce M., and Marriotr

W. BrepEKAmp. “*Acidity in petro-

leum oils: Electrometric titration

method. 548.

Maclay, W. D. See. R. M. Hann.

550.

Mapsen, Louis L., and Russeitu E.

Davis. *Studies on the determina-

tion of carotene and vitamin A in

blood plasma with the spectropho-

tometer. 548.

Mair, B. J. *The chemical composition

of the lubricant fraction of a Midcon-

tinent petroleum. 183.

MANSFIELD, W. C. Note on unreported

Oligocene in Citrus County, Florida.

45.

Martin, L. F. *Proteins in healthy and

mosaic tobacco. 271.

Martin, J. H. See James F. Coucu.

146.

MAaxweELt., Louis R.,and J. H. Kempron.

Delayed killing of maize seeds x-

rayed at liquid-air temperature.

368.

McAuuister, E. D. *New facts in

photosynthesis. 552.

McIntosu, ALLEN. A new allocreadiid

trematode, Podocotyle shawi, n. sp.,

from the silver salmon. 379.

McNisu, A. G. *The residual magneti-

zation of rocks. 306.

INDEX

555

Meuuanp, A. M. See W. GARDNER

Lynn. 14.

Miser, HucH D. Our petroleum sup-

ply. 983.

*Our petroleum supply. 355.

Moon, C. See H. L. Curtis. 313.

Morey, GEorGE W., and Joun S. Bur-

LEW. *A filter autoclave for solubil-

ity measurements at elevated tem-

peratures and atmospheric pressure.

140.

Morton, C. V. A second United States

species of Bernardia. 375.

O’Brien, Brian. *The problems of solar

variability and new methods of at-

tacks] Si:

Oman, P. W. Revision of the genus

Ceratagallia Kirkaldy (Homoptera:

Cicadellidae). 529.

PaRDEE, J.T. *Post-Tertiary faulting of

intermontane basins, western Mon-

tana. 354.

PEEBLES, RopertT H. See Tuomas H.

KEARNEY. 474.

Precort, C. S., and W. D. Urry. The

radium content of an ocean-bottom

core. 405.

Prick, Emmett W. North American

monogenetic trematodes. III. The

family Capsalidae (Capsaloidea).

63.

RAMBERG, WatrTEeR. *Flexural vibra-

tions of rotating propeller blades.

303.

Reppy, A. RAMAKRISHNA. Crabs as

foodin India. 41.

REHDER, HARALD JX A new Nenia from

Haiti and some notes on this genus.

ilidale

Riutey, J. H. A genus and three new

forms of birds from Borneo. 39.

Roserts, Richarp B. *The splitting of

uranium and thorium nuclei by neu-

trons. 310.

RoppEn, C. J. *Some observations on

the chemistry of the rare earths. 138.

Ross, C. P. *Some comments on the

geology of quicksilver. 350.

Rossini, FREDERICK D., and W. EpwarpDs

Demine. The assignment of un-

certainties to the data of chemistry

and physics, with specific reeommen-

dations for thermochemistry. 416.

556 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, Ne. 12

Saytor, LawreENcE W. Notes and de-

scriptions of United States scarab

beetles. 452.

ScRIBNER, Bourpon F. *The operation

of a spectrographic laboratory. 138.

ScHAIRER, J. F. *The chemical compo-

sition of the rock-forming pyroxenes.

550.

SmitH, N. *Regular characteristics of

the ionosphere during half a sunspot

cycle. 302.

SparRKs, M. See H. L. Curtis. 318.

Spizs, J. R. *Chemical study of some

constituents of the croton bean (C.

tigium L.). 189.

STEWART, T. Date. A new type of arti-

ficial cranial deformation from Flor-

ida. 460.

Stimson, H. F. *The measurement of

the specific heat and the latent heat

of water from 0° to 100°C. 308.

Stone, ALAN. A new genus of Trypeti-

dae near Anastrepha (Diptera). 340.

Stonze, W. E. An instrument for the re-

production, regulation, and control

of variable temperature. 410.

Swainson, O. W. *Problems of the

modern hydrographer. 311.

SwINGLE, Water T. *New methods

utilized in studying the taxonomy of

the orange subfamily. 270.

TELLER, E. *Report on the theoretical

conference on low temperature phe-

nomena. 309.

THomas, J. lL. See He b. Curricamsikess

TRESSLER, WiuLIs L. Onychocythere, a

new genus of marine ostracod from

Florida, with a description of one

species. 336.

TUCKERMAN, L. B. *Heterostatic load-

ing and critical astatic loads. 304.

*Mathematics as she are taught.

Bs,

Urry, W.D. See C.8S. Pragor. 405.

WALKER, Ecpert H. Concerning Ardi-

sia cripa (Thunb.) A. DC. and A.

crenata Sims, confused species of

Myrsinaceae from eastern Asia.

256.

Warp, Henry B. Salmon psychology.

WHEELER, Nancy H. The North Amer-

ican empoascan leafhoppers of the

radiata group (Homoptera: Cicadel-

lidae). 292.

WENNER, F. See H. L. Curris. 3138.

Wuerry, Epcar T. Four southwestern

subspecies of Phlox. 517.

Wuitr, Puitip R. *Root cultures and

root pressures. 232.

Wiutiams, J. S. *Lower Permian of the

type area, U.S.S.R. 351.

SUBJECT INDEX

Anthropology. A new type of artificial

cranial deformation from Florida.

T. DALE STEWART. 460.

Biochemistry. *New facts in photosyn-

thesis. E.D. McAuuister. 552.

*Some recent developments con-

cerning the constitution and mode

of action of enzymes. LESLIE

“HELLERMAN. 466.

*Studies on the determination of car-

otene and vitamin A in blood plas-

ma with the spectrophotometer.

Louis L. MapsEn and Russe. EH.

Davis. 548.

Biology. The measure of population di-

vergence and multiplicity of char-

acters. Isaac GinsBuRG. 317.

Biophysics. Delayed killing of maize

seeds x-rayed at liquid-air temper-

ature. Louis R. Maxweuu and

J. H. Kempton. 368.

*Sap flow and pressure in birch trees.

Botany. A new palm from Costa Rica,

Astrocaryum alatum. H. F. Loo-

Mis. 141.

A new variety of the willow Salhz

glaucophylla Bebb. CARLETON R.

Bauu. 492.

Arizona plants: New species, varie-

ties, and combinations. THOMAS

H. Krarney and Rosert H. PEsE-

BLES 474,

A second United States species of

Bernardia. C.V. Morton. 375.

Concerning Ardisia crispa (Thunb.)

A. DC. and A. crenata Sims, con-

fused species of Myrsinaceae from

eastern Asia. Eapert H. WALK-

ER. 256.

*Cytological analysis of polyploidy

induced by colchicine and extremes

of temperature. Hata DERMEN.

270.

*“Keology of western range plants.

Wiuuiam A. Dayton. 271.

Four southwestern subspecies of

Phlox. EpcarT. WuHerry. 517.

*Mycological and pathological ob-

servations on Crotalaria. Howarp

W. Jounson. 552.

“New methods utilized in studying

the taxonomy of the orange sub-

family. WatteR T. SWINGLE.

270.

New species of Taphrina on red ma-

ple and on silver maple. Anna E.

JENKINS. 222.

*Plant exploration in Latin America.

W. A. ARCHER. 231.

Preservation of plant color in plant

specimens. G. R. FESSENDEN.

272.

*Proteins in healthy and mosaic to-

bacco, 1. Fh. Marring 9271:

Root cultures and root pressure.

Puitip R. WHITE. 232.

Some Georgia Discomycetes.

K. Casn. 47.

*The effect of environment on the

metabolism and blossom-end rot

EpItH

disease in tomato. A. C. Foster.

230.

Chemistry. *A filter autoclave for solu-

bility measurements at elevated

temperatures and atmospheric

pressure. GEorGcE W. Morey and

JoHN 8. BurRLEW. 140.

*Cancer producing hydrocarbons.

Louis F. Freser. 184.

*Chemical study of some constitu-

ents of the croton bean (C. tiglium

.). J.&. Seres. 139:

*Kineties of the thermal isomeriza-

tion of cis-dichloroethylene. J.

Lesuiz Jones. 140.

*Some observations on the chemistry

of the rare earths. C.J. RODDEN.

138. :

Some problems in attaining adequate

nutrition. Paut E. Hower. 357.

*Structure of sarsa-sapogenin. R.

P. Jacospson. 1389.

*Testing of plastics and the signifi-

cance of the results. WARREN HE.

Emuny. 547.

*The chemical composition of the lu-

bricant fraction of a Midcontinent

petroleum. B.J. Marr. 183.

*The chemical composition of the

rock-forming pyroxenes. J. F.

SCHAIRER. 550.

557

598 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, No. 12

The destruction of hydrocyanic acid

by prunase and the influence of

sugars on the reaction. Jams F.

CoucH and REINHOLD R. BRIESE.

219.

“The nomenclature of the sugars and

their derivatives. Horace S. Is-

BELL. 139.

“The operation of a spectrographic

laboratory. Bourpon F. Scris-

NER. 188.

*The structure of diacetone dulcitols.

R. M. Hann, W. D. Maclay, and

C. 8. Hupson. 550.

*The synthesis of substances related

to steroids. Lewis W. Butz,

Apam M. Gappis, and ELEANORE

W.J. Butz. 548.

Engineering. *Abutment problems at

Zuni dam, New Mexico. E. B.

Eckeu. 350.

Entomology. A key to the larval Bos-

trichidae in the United States Na-

tional Museum (Coleoptera).

WiLLIAM H. ANDERSON. 382.

A new genus of Trypetidae near Ana-

strepha (Diptera). ALAN STONE.

340.

New ichneumon-flies parasitic on the

hemlock sawfly (Neodiprion tsugae

Middleton). R. A. CUSHMAN.

391.

Nomenclatorial notes on Corroden-

tia, with descriptions of two new

species of Archipsocus. ASHLEY

BuELL GuRNEyY. 501.

Notes and descriptions of United

States scarab beetles. LAWRENCE

W.Sayuor. 452.

Revision of the genus Ceratagallia

Kirkaldy (Homoptera: Cicadelli-

dae). P. W. Oman. 529.

The North American empoascan leaf-

hoppers of the radiata group (Ho-

moptera: Cicadellidae). Nancy

H. WHEELER. 292.

Evolution. The course of evolution.

Ropert F. Griaes. 118.

Forestry. *Silvicultural history of the

western white-pine type. IRvING

Te SEbATG =. 2311)

Geochemistry. The radium content of an

C. S. Pigeor

405.

ocean-bottom core.

and W. D. Urry.

Geology. *Erosional history of the North

Platte Valley in Nebraska. R. C.

Capy. 353.

*Large boulders and glacial striae

near Little Rocky Mountains,

Mont. M. M. KnecuTen. 354.

*Lower Permian of the type area,

U.S.S:R: J. S: WitnrAmsoals

Note on unreported Oligocene in

Citrus County, Florida. W. C.

MANSFIELD. 45.

Our petroleum supply. Huen D.

Miszer. 98.

*Our petroleum supply. H. D. Mis-

ER. 895.5.

*Post-Tertiary faulting of intermon-

tane basins, western Montana. J.

T. ParpEr. 354.

*Some comments on the geology of

quicksilver. C.P. Ross. 3850.

Geophysics. From the center of the earth

tothesun. N.H.HercKk. 189.

*Problems of the modern hydrog-

rapher. O. W. Swainson. 311.

*Submarine topography in the pilot

house. CHARLES K. GREEN.

311.

*The residual magnetization of rocks.

A. G. McNisxH. 306.

Ichthyology. Salmon psychology. HEN-

RY B. Warp. 1.

Twenty-one new American gobies.

Isaac GiInsBuRG. 51.

Malacology. A new intermediate host of

the Asiatic blood fluke, Schisto-

soma japonicum Katsurata. PAuL

BartscH. 173.

A new Nenia from Haiti and some

notes on this genus. Hara.p A.

REHDER. 171.

Mammalogy. A new badger from So-

nora. E.. A. GoupmMan. 300.

Two new pocket gophers of the genus

Heterogeomys from Mexico. HE. A.

GoLpDMAN. 175.

Mathematics. *Mathematics as she are

taught. L.B. Tuckerman. 312.

Medical entomology. Mosquito transmis-

sion of encephalomyelitis, or brain

fever, of horses. F. C. BisHopp.

495.

DECEMBER 15, 1939

*The brightness of the twi-

307.

DELL.

Meteorology.

light sky. E. O. HULBERT.

Obituary. BickLow, WILLARD

356.

Girty, GEoRGE HERBERT. 187.

GRINNELL, JOSEPH. 467.

Lipman, JACOB GooDALE. 467.

MANSFIELD, WENDELL Cuiay. 468.

Munroz, CHARLES EDWARD. 187.

SHOREY, EpMUND CrciL. 188.

Ornithology. A genusand three new forms

of birds from Borneo. J. H.

RinEy. 39.

Notes on some Asiatic owls of the

genus Otus, with description of a

new form. H. FRIEDMANN and H.

G. DEIGNAN. 287.

Two new races of birds from the In-

do-Chinese sub-region. H. G.

DEIGNAN. 177.

Paleobotany. A Meliosma in the Wilcox

Eocene. Epwarp W._ BrrRY.

Bi) Ohe

Fossil plants from the Cretaceous of

Minnesota. Epwarp W. BErry.

331. .

Some American fossil plants belong-

ing to the Isoetales. RoLanp W.

Brown. 261.

The fruit of Trapa? microphylla Les-

quereux. Rotanp W. Brown

and EpGar HouLDSwoRTH. 36.

Paleontology. A fossil catfish (Felichthys

stauroforus) from the Maryland

Miocene. W. GARDNER LYNN and

A. M. Mgeuuanp. 14.

A further contribution to the Dragon

Paleocene fauna of central Utah.

C. Lewis Gazin. 278.

A paleoniscid brain case.

DORE H. Eaton, Jr. 441.

Certain pleurotomariid gastropods

from the Carboniferous of New

Mexico and Texas. GrorcEe H.

Gurnye Qi)”

Setigerites nom. nov. a subgenus of

Productus. GrorcE H. Girry.

141.

The crossopterygian hyomandibular

and the tetrapod stapes. THEO-

DORE H. Katon, Jr. 109.

Two new genera of Carboniferous in-

THEO-

INDEX

559

adunate crinoids. Epwin KIRK.

469.

Physical chemistry. *A thermal method

for the separation of gases and iso-

topes. A. BramMury. 314.

*The application of the mass spectro-

traph to the study of isotope abun-

dance and atomic weights. A.

Keiru Brewer. 547.

The assignment of uncertainties to

the data of chemistry and physics,

with specific reeommendations for

thermochemistry. FrRrEpERIcK D.

Rossini and W. Epwarps DEm-

ING. 416.

*Variation of hydrogen-ion concen-

tration with temperature. WaAt-

TER J. HAMER. 551.

Physics. *Absolute measurements of

electric resistance: H. L. Curtis,

C. Moon, M. Sparks, F. WENNER,

J. L. THomas, I. L. Cootsr, F. R.

Korrrer. 313.

An instrument for the reproduction,

regulation, and control of variable

temperature. W.E. Stone. 410

*Effect of pressure and temperature

on the transmission of light by cer-

tain solutions. R. E. GrIsson.

307.

*Flexural vibrations of rotating pro-

peller blades. WaAttTER RAMBERG.

303.

*Heterostatic loading and critical

astatic loads. L. B. TucKERMAN.

304.

*Linkage mechanisms in three di-

mensions. MIcHAEL GOLDBERG.

310.

*Measurement of small magnetic

moments. E. A. JoHNnson. 306.

*Radiation pressure and its measure-

ment. E. L. Kien. 312.

Recent advances in the investigation

of cosmic rays. THomas H. JoHN-

SON. 2383.

*Regular characteristics of the iono-

sphere during half a sunspot cycle

N. Smitu. 302.

*Report on the theoretical conference

on low temperature phenomena.

E. TELLER. 309.

060 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 12

Some applications of high rotational Scientific notes and news. 516.

speeds. J. W. Beams. 304. Zoology. A new allocreadiid trematode,

*The measurement of the specific

heat and the latent heat of water

from 0° to 100° C. H. F. Srim-

son. 308.

*Sono radio buoys for hydrographic

surveying. Hrrspert G. DorsgEy.

305.

*The problems of solar variability

and new methods of attack. Bri-

AN O’BRIEN. 315.

*The splitting of uranium and thori-

um nuclei by neutrons. RicHarD

B. Roperts. 310.

*The sporadic-E layer of the iono-

sphere. S§.S. Kirspy. 303.

Plant physiology. Hydrocyanic acid con-

tent of sorghum varieties. JAMES

F. Coucu, REINHOLD R. BRIESE,

and J. H. Martin. 146.

Podocotyle shawi, n. sp., from the

silver salmon. ALLEN McINTOosH.

379.

Crabs as food in India. A. RAMa-

KRISHNA ReEeppy. 41.

North American monogenetic trema-

todes. III. The family Capsalidae

(Capsaloidea) Emmett W Price.

63.

Observations on the distribution and

ecology of the oribatid mites.

WENDELL H. Kru. 519.

Onychocythere, a new genus of marine

ostracod from Florida, with a de-

scription of one species. WILLIS

L. TRESSLER. 336.

Predaceous nematodes of the genus

Aphelenchoides from Hawaii. J.

R. Curistiz. 161.

CONTENTS

Page

Botany.—Four southwestern subspecies of Phlox. Epcar T.

WHERRY 9 oe ee oe ee ee ee siatahe eeu YS eee

ZooLocy.—Observations on the distribution and ecology of the oriba-

tid mites. ° WENDELL FL. KRULL... 3.5.05. 10 6 POLO

EntTomMoLoGy.—Revision of the genus Ceratagallza Kirkaldy (Homop-

tera: Cicadellidae).. P. W. OMAN... 0 2.5 3 529

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY... 225.60 0n aes sss tae 00 oe

PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY... ...i 000s. s0seecececune ooh ae

PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY. 2.0.05 oc. cic as cesses eee eee

INDEX 70. VORUME 29.050 oo oh ole ee Pr i

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