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pew 23

Vou. 31

JANUARY 15, 1941 No. 1

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Vou. 31 | JANUARY 15, 1941 No. 1

PALEONTOLOGY.—The role of the «individual in_ evolution.!

GEORGE GAYLORD SIMPSON, American Museum of Natural His-

tory. (Communicated by C. Lewis Gazin.)

“All ts for individuals.”

Whatever happens in organic evolution, or indeed within the whole

realm of the biological sciences, happens to an individual. Genetic

mutations occur in individuals. Individuals struggle for existence and

fail or succeed according to their equipment and circumstances. It is

individuals that reproduce and that exercise such selection of a mate

as may be possible to them. These facts are so evident that it may not

seem worth while to state them, and similar statements so exhaust

the basic aspects of evolutionary theory that it may seem impossible

to say more about the role of the individual in evolution. Nevertheless

such statements of the obvious are not needless, because the obvious

is so often forgotten, nor do they exhaust the subject, because it has

scientific, philosophical, and social ramifications that are both subtle

and complex. :

Difficulty is encountered at the outset in attempts to define an indi-

vidual. I am sure that I am an individual, and I am willing to grant

the same status to a dog, an oyster, or a pine tree. This apparently

simple concept, however, begins to encounter difficulties if a colonial

coral is considered and to break down altogether on the problem of

whether a lymphocyte is an individual. There are different categories

of individuals and different degrees of individuality. Their classifica-

tion and definition could be discussed for hours, and the discussion

would probably produce more obscurity than light. Let us avoid this

confusion by using the word “‘individual”’ in a commonplace sense as

an organically continuous living structure capable of reacting inde-

pendently and as a whole.

There has been evolution toward more and toward less individual-

1 Address delivered before the Paleontological. Society of Washington, November

20, 1940. Received November 30, 1940.

* The section epigraphs are all from Walt Whitman’s poem “As I Sat Alone by Blue

Ontario’s Shores.”

1 a

JAN 22 1941

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 1

ity. A solitary protozoan, such as an amoeba, is fully individual under

our definition, but one cell of a protozoan colony, as in Volvoz, is less

individual. As metazoans arise by cellular differentiation, the pro-

tozoan individuality of the single cell is effectively lost, and the meta-

zoan structure becomes itself fully individual in the same sense as the

solitary protozoan but on a new and different level. In colonies of

essentially similar but organically continuous metazoans, as in many

corals, the metazoan individuality begins to merge into one of differ-

ent level. Finally a stage may be reached, as in Physalza and its allies,

in which the united metazoan zooids are differentiated in function

and structure and have almost entirely abdicated their individualities

in favor of what might be called a hyperzoan individuality. Here

there appears to be a true emergence of individuality belonging to

the colony rather than to the zooids, in the same way that metazoan

individuality belongs to the animal and not to its constituent cells.

Hyperzoan individuality is a rare evolutionary development. The

vast majority of living things have stopped short at the metazoan

level, and their further progressive evolution has been an intensifica-

tion of individual integration and complication on that level. This is

preéminently true of the vertebrates and among them of the line

leading to man, which has shown neither the trend nor the potential-

ity of developing hyperzoan individuality. Certain social groups, par-

ticularly among insects, present evident analogies with hyperzoan

individuals, and there has been a strong recent tendency to consider

human society as possessing this sort of individuality, but in a biolog-

ical sense this is wholly false except as a figure of speech. One level

of individuality can arise only to the degree that the subordinate level

is suppressed. Most animal and all human social groups are collectiv-

ities the members of which retain complete metazoan individuality.

This distinction between group and individual is fundamental and

has implications of the greatest importance, extending even into the

political sphere. The subject will be developed further in the following

pages, and these implications will be explored when a broader basis

for them has been laid.

THE INDIVIDUAL, DARWINISM, AND GENETICS

‘“‘For the great idea, the idea of perfect and free individuals.”

In a Lamarckian view of evolution, the individual is all-important.

He is the master of his fate in the broadest sense, and individual activ-

ities may wholly determine the course of evolution. The individual

acts, learns, and strives; his characteristics are thereby altered, and

JAN. 15, 1941 SIMPSON: THE INDIVIDUAL IN EVOLUTION 3

some part of this modification is transmitted to the next generation.

This theory dies hard, and paleontologists seem inclined to cling to

some aspects of it more than neobiologists, but it probably must be

abandoned. No means for the transmission of such individually ac-

quired modifications have been discovered, and long experimentation

has failed to reveal unquestionable evidence of its real occurrence. It

now appears that new characters can arise only in the germ plasm

and that their rise is little or not influenced by any purely individual

factor.

Under more strictly Darwinian theories and the genetic theories

that partly supplement and partly supplant Darwinism, new char-

acters in phylogeny arise at random, at least in the sense that their

appearance is sporadic and that the present state of our knowledge

does not enable us to predict them individually. The individual seems

at first sight to have little to do with evolution under these circum-

stances, which make the emergence of novelty seem as impersonal as

the fatality of a bolt of lightning striking a crowd. It may be only

ignorance that makes us think that this is true, but even if it be

granted, the individual is still left an essential role in evolutionary

theory. The fate of mutations and their genetic combination and

segregation are aspects of evolution quite as important as their origin

and more approachable, and here the individual is highly important.

The Darwinian theory of natural selection is often presented as

primarily a pruning process. Given the fact that hereditary varia-

tion occurs, whatever its basis and origin, this viewpoint is that the

direction of evolution is largely controlled by negative factors: by the

elimination of some variations, singly or in combination. Even those

geneticists who are least neo-Darwinian usually recognize selective

elimination as one crucial factor in evolution. Here the individual’s

role is stellar but tragic. His essential part in evolution is to die. If

selection is operative, death is not a random occurrence in which the

individual counts for nothing, but must be correlated with individual

characteristics and the study of the selective process must be di-

rected toward individuals.

Some individuals are always less fit than others, or carry genes that

are deleterious under the environmental conditions available to the

species. As Dobzhansky says, ‘‘It is the loss of these individuals that

guards the species as a whole from extinction.”’ And he adds, ‘‘The

general picture of the mechanism of evolution thus arrived at will

certainly be far from pleasing to those who regard nature as an em-

bodiment of kindness. The writer must confess that this picture is

+ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 1

not pleasing to him either. The words good or ‘bad’ are not to be

found, however, in the scientific lexicon.”’ :

The selective process, however, is not concerned vith elimination

only, and gloomy concentration on the death of the individual and

the extinction of the species leaves out what Darwin himself so well

emphasized as the essence of natural selection, that is, the survival

of the fittest. It is no truer to say that the individual’s role is to die

than to say that its role is to survive. The species is a sum or collec-

tivity of individuals, and it is an entity only in this sense, not in the

sense of having a sort of superindividuality. Its survival similarly is

the sum of individual survivals. Survival, along with reproduction,

which is an aspect of survival, is the individual’s business.

The individual’s role here, one might say his duty if the word can

be used without anthropomorphic implications, may be represented

in terms of striving to obtain satisfaction. On the lowest level, active

bodily metabolism and reproduction have come to be basic satisfac-

tions, simply because they do have this survival value. It may be

objected that satisfaction is an emotion and that the vast majority

of living organisms feel no such thing, but the difficulty is semasiolog-

ical rather than conceptual. In every living thing there is at least an

impulsion or need that is eased by such fulfillment, and satisfaction

is as good a word as any to use for this phenomenon. The connotation

is not necessarily emotional any more than in saying that a certain

value of x “‘satisfies” an equation. It is legitimate to speak of a tree,

for instance, as satisfied by maintaining its organism in the vital state

and by producing fertile seeds. On the higher animal levels these bio-

logical satisfactions, although fundamentally the same, tend to be-

come conscious and finally do acquire truly emotional value.

From this point of view, it can be said that the species prospers to

(and only to) the extent that individuals attain satisfaction, and that

the species is modified because some heritable characteristics assist

more than others in the striving for individual satisfaction. The na-

ture of the satisfactions operative within a given species is also herit-

able and subject to evolution. This appears to be quite the opposite

of the view that the greatest thing individuals do for a species is to

die, for death is the antithesis of individual satisfaction. Some may

declare with Tennyson that nature (or evolution) does not really act

this way,

So careful of the type she seems,

So careless of the single life.

Entomologists may insist that social insects habitually behave for

Jan. 15, 1941 SIMPSON: THE INDIVIDUAL IN EVOLUTION 5

the good of the group and not for individual satisfaction, and some

sociologists maintain that the sacrifice of individual satisfaction is the

highest human trait and the only hope for human progress. It is, I

think, a mistake to suppose either that insects do or that humans

should prefer group satisfaction to individual satisfaction. The ap-

parent anomaly is explicable by the fact that two distinct broad

categories of individual satisfaction have survival value. In one case

the satisfaction lies in belonging to and serving the group. It arises

in the individual but as the result of an extrinsic or environmental

situation.

Mutations tending to make individuals prefer extrinsic to intrinsic

satisfaction have been called altruistic, for instance by Haldane, who

has studied them from a neo-Darwinian genetic point of view. As

Haldane has pointed out, however, what we call altruism in man

frequently is not altruistic in this biological sense, nor is such biolog-

ical “‘altruism’’ necessarily eugenic and its opposite dysgenic. The

biological factor is not forgetfulness of self in service to others, nega-

tion of the individual, as altruism is supposed to be, but is self-

satisfaction on an individual basis by means which do, as result rather

than intention, tend to sacrifice the individual to the group.

Genetic emphasis on extrinsic satisfaction is unlikely to arise in

large or in cross-breeding groups, and it is unlikely to have survival

value for the species unless it is confined to one caste, like the neuters

among social insects, while another caste, like the queens among these

insects, is dominated by intrinsic satisfactions. A species in which only

extrinsic factors gave individual satisfaction would be doomed to

almost immediate extinction under any ordinary conditions and such

a species probably could not arise. On the other hand, individuals

dominated by intrinsic satisfaction, or belonging to species in the evo-

lution of which this has the major survival value, frequently also

experience extrinsic satisfactions and the conflicts and coordinations

of the two give rise to some of the most elaborate forms of behavior

and to some of the most complex evolutionary developments, includ-

ing those of men.

In another respect the individual is a fundamental factor in the

fate of genetic modifications once these have arisen. The spread of a

mutation through a species (or interbreeding group), its survival or

extinction, its equilibrium point, and its combination with its various

allelomorphs are all functions of the number of individuals comprising

the group, as has been well demonstrated by Wright, Fisher, and

Haldane, among others. This aspect of the subject is somewhat aside

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 1

from the main theme of the present discussion, but in passing it is

desirable to emphasize one point, familiar to geneticists but less so to

paleontologists, whom it most directly concerns.

Rapid evolution and evolution involving complex new structures or

fundamental reorganizations of structure depend on many factors.

Some of these factors are still quite unknown, but it seems certain

that the number of interbreeding individuals is one of them. It is

theoretically probable and as far as observation is possible it appears

to be the fact that large groups of individuals evolve relatively slowly

and are less likely than smaller groups to develop any fundamental

structural changes. If a paleontologist has a large number of speci-

mens of a given group, this is usually in itself evidence that the group,

when alive, was rich in individuals. Such groups do, of course, give

legitimate evidence of some of the modes of evolution, but these

modes may be quite different both quantitatively and qualitatively

from those of groups that included fewer individuals and that are

therefore rare or absent in paleontological collections. It is, then, nec-

essary to be cautious in generalizing from such groups as the known

fossil horses. It is probable that “laws of evolution’’ deduced from this

series do not apply to the individually less abundant (and in this case

still quite unknown) animals that first acquired the basic perissodac-

tyl structures. This numerical factor may be the real reason for many

of the sudden breaks and supposed leaps in the paleontological record,

often explained in very different ways. It is almost surely the reason

why many paleontologists have believed that evolution normally

progresses with great regularity and in straight lines.

THE INDIVIDUAL AND EVOLUTIONARY FATALISM

“We are executive in ourselves—We are sufficient in the variety of ourselves.”

Whatever the personal philosophy of the student, the usual ap-

proach to the practical study of evolution has been deterministic and

mechanistic, or physical in a sense that has been abandoned by many

physicists. In its extreme expression, as developed by some nineteenth

century workers, this attitude is that if the distribution and state of all

the matter and energy in the universe at a given instant were known

and if all the immutable physical laws of causation were likewise

known, then everything that would ever occur after that instant could

theoretically be predicted. This stern creed is emotionally distasteful

to most men, and it involves a number of serious logical and philo-

sophical difficulties. It has been subject to repeated attack, and in vari-

ous spheres there has been a strong reaction against it.

JAN. 15, 1941 SIMPSON: THE INDIVIDUAL IN EVOLUTION 7

As far as these attacks have originated in theology, in vulgar mis-

apprehension, or solely in emotionalism they do not concern us here,

but in many cases they have been led by scientists and have taken the

form of alternative scientific theories. In the physical sciences deter-

minism has tended to give way to “‘uncertainty relations’”’ and to a so-

called statistical view of natural law. Some physicists have strayed so

far from the field of the determinate and the classically mechanical

that they have imagined themselves face to face with God and have

set up as scientific theologians, as which they cut rather sorry figures.

In the biological sciences a somewhat similar position has been

reached by different paths. Life activities are superficially so unlike

most inorganic activities that it is tempting to think of life as some-

thing fundamentally nonmechanical. From this it is an easy step to

the conviction that the essence of life, its real distinction from the

nonliving, does not reside in any feature of physical organization but

in something nonphysical or metaphysical. So the biologist reaches a

conclusion suggestive of the theological distinction of body and soul,

although he demands his own definition of ‘‘soul”’ and generally re-

fuses to give it that name. If this distinction is valid, then there is no

reason for believing that evolution and the life processes in general

are mechanical sequences, and it is possible to maintain that they are

modified or controlled by impalpable forces without any material

basis or directly material manifestation. One eminent paleontologist

has endowed these forces with some degree of personality and serious-

ly maintains that evolution has been directed by spirits of limited in-

telligence and diverse intentions. This miscegenation of modern sci-

ence and medieval demonology is perhaps the most extraordinary

recent development of scientific philosophy, but it is an extreme, not

wholly illogical, toward which much recent biological thought tends.

A related line of development of evolutionary theory has in some re-

spects been curiously opposite to the drift of physical theory from de-

terminism to indeterminism. A basic premise of Darwinian evolution

was the existence of random variation. A more recent school of thought

insists that random variations (even if heritable) have had little or no

significance in evolutionary history and that evolution has followed

definite predetermined and theoretically predictable lines regardless of

random fluctuation. Such a descriptive theory of the course of evolu-

tion is capable of a mechanistic or even of a purely Darwinian causal

explanation, but as it has been most energetically advanced (espe-

cially by Osborn) it is essentially metaphysical. When the conception of

a goal is added, this metaphysical basis becomes still more evident,

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 1

and the extreme is reached with teleological judgments of the goodness

or badness of mutations.

These two broad trends of thought, one maintaining that causation

in evolution may be largely nonphysical and the other that evolution

is a continuous, nonfluctuating sequence with a predetermined out-

come, contrast in many ways but they are compatible (frequently be-

ing combined in the theoretical conclusions of a single student) and

they are alike in this: that they lead to a sort of evolutionary fatalism.

They reject the conclusion of Darwinism and of various other theories

that the products of evolution are the results of a sequence of acci-

dents—not accidents in the sense of things happening entirely at ran-

dom but in the sense of occurrences mechanically produced by com-

plex concatenations of circumstances, not intended and not foreor-

dained and subject to change of direction with any change in the

circumstances. In the place of this concept, the adherents of entelechy,

aristogenesis, and the like maintain that evolution consists of progres-

sion toward some ideal. They feel that the products of evolution were

intended, in some metaphysical sense, and they replace accident by

fate.

The bearing of these philosophical considerations on the role of the

individual in evolution is direct and crucial. It has been shown that

under the Darwinian and the usual genetic theories, the activities and

satisfactions of the individual are determining factors in the course of

evolution. According to the theories of evolutionary fatalism, on the

other hand, the individual does not matter unless, possibly, to him-

self. The direction and rate of evolution should be independent of in-

dividual factors. The transition from Hohippus in the Eocene to Hquus

in the Recent is considered as an orthogenetic inevitability, and all

that the myriads of individuals in the sequence had to do with it was

to exhibit the structures involved and to produce the succeeding gen-

erations. The same attitude toward the individual arises, a fortzorz, in

the still more metaphysical theories that assume a universal organiz-

ing force, a sort of world-soul, or spiritual guides and innovators.

As purely philosophical problems, these questions are as complex

and as nearly insoluble as the question of free will, and their discussion

on that basis would be as futile. As scientific theory, I find that I have

here called fatalistic evolution quite untenable. Its strongest: evidence

has been drawn from the field with which I am most familiar and 1s

seen in the phenomenon commonly called orthogenesis. As straight

verbal description of what has happened in a few particular instances,

orthogenesis and similar paleontological inferences are valid and use-

JAN. 15, 1941 SIMPSON: THE INDIVIDUAL IN EVOLUTION 9

ful. As theoretical generalizations of the mode of evolution, and still

more as bases for metaphysical speculation on the causes of evolution,

they are not valid, or at least not in the sense of justifying fatalistic

placing of the individual in the scheme of things. The lines that give

evidence of orthogenesis are all individually abundant groups, regard-

ing which necessary caution has already been enjoined. The structural

changes involved are all genetically very simple in comparison with

those involved in the major events of evolutionary history. They can

be well explained in purely mechanistic genetic terms, with no re-

course to orthogenesis in any metaphysical sense.

The individual is a pawn of fate only to the extent that his inherit-

ance is not. and his environment is only in part of his own making.

These come to him as a result of past causes, not as presage of future

destiny. Within this framework, so largely wrought by the actions and

interactions of previous individuals in the enormous web of life, the in-

dividual makes his own fate and that of the species composed of him

and his fellows.

THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE FOURTH DIMENSION

“T swear nothing is good that 1gnores individuals.”

Among the most significant trends in zoology and paleontology are

the increasing use of dynamic concepts and study of dynamic prob-

lems. The most limited and formerly the most common sort of work in

these fields consisted of the examination and comparison of a sup-

posedly representative, dead individual of any given species. The zool-

ogist studied animals that had been dead for a few months or years

and the paleontologist studied animals that had been dead for hun-

dreds of thousands or millions of years: the technique is different, in

part, but the approach is the same. Now both zoologists and paleon-

tologists, each in the ways permitted by their materials, are more like-

ly to study animals as functional, active organisms and not only as

static morphological exhibits. This shift in emphasis has given rise to

a new concept of the individual and to a new orientation of the indi-

vidual in the scheme of things.

The dynamic concept of the individual is four-dimensional. An

individual is not a certain combination of tissues arrested at a moment

in time, but is the whole sequence of states and forms through which

one animal passes from the fertilized ovum to death. That this seem-

ingly obvious fact really represented a new viewpoint in the biological

sciences is shown by the radical changes brought about by it in the re-

capitulation theory during the past 20 years. Although based on the

VOL. 31, No. 1

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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superficially dynamic idea of a succession of structural stages, Haeck-

el’s so-called biogenetic law was fundamentally static. It really

conceived of the individual as a motionless and timeless adult struc-

ture and achieved the illusion of motion (like a moving picture) by a

succession of stills. Garstang has shown the true nature and limits of

recapitulation in terms of a dynamic individual, inheriting not merely

its adult structure but its whole life cycle from its ancestors and show-

ing modifications in every part of that cycle effected by the same sort

of hereditary and evolutionary factors as those influencing the final,

static form.

Analogous dynamic concepts have been applied in the consideration

of groups and of the relationships of individuals to groups. The philo-

sophical zoologists of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth cen-

turies, such as Goethe, Oken, and Owen, developed the theory of

archetypes as ordained patterns more or less closely followed by indi-

viduals. As a thousand freehand sketches from the same model would

vary, so do individuals vary from the archetype, but the variations

have no significance for the study of the essential, the philosophical

reality, which is the model and not the individual sketch of it.

The spread of evolutionary zoology led to the abandonment of the

philosophical concept of archetypes, but the static point of view in-

volved in it was not immediately discarded and indeed persists to con-

siderable degree today. The diagnosis of taxonomic groups by state-

ment of a combination of fixed characters believed to be common to

all members of the group is almost exactly the same process as the de-

lineation of an archetype, however different in intention and interpre-

tation. It relegates the individual to the same insignificant role, at-

tempting, not the simultaneous description of a group of individuals,

but the abstraction from them of all that is not individual.

A newer and, I think, incomparably truer and more profitable point

of view is making rapid headway although still far from universal rec-

ognition. This is that the group is best definable as a collection of indi-

viduals and not as an abstraction of the nonindividual. This does not

mean that the group is to be defined on the basis of one or a few indi-

viduals, a fault rather of the old, static, pseudo-archetypal taxonomy

than of the new, dynamic, statistical taxonomy. On the contrary, full

definition in the newer sense requires the examination and use of more

individuals. If only one is available, the group definition or concept

derived from it must be more loosely drawn; the unique specimen is

not an example of an archetype but one of a collectivity of individuals

JAN. 15, 1941 SIMPSON: THE INDIVIDUAL IN EVOLUTION 13

and due allowance must be made for the probable varying character-

istics of the unknown individuals of the group.

According to this concept, the differences between individuals are as

much characters of the group as are their resemblances and may be

more important from an evolutionary point of view. The ‘‘characters

in common”’ of static group concepts are replaced by determinations

of central tendency and importantly supplemented by the study of

dispersion. These concepts are essentially statistical, although it

would be dangerous to give them that name before an audience inade-

quately acquainted with them. Some zoologists still think of statistics

as a rather mysterious and very complicated mathematical game

played with long lists of measurements. Statistical concepts, as the

term is used here, involve a point of view that may be quite as perti-

nent to one observation as to a thousand and to a purely qualitative

character as to a measurement.

It may be said that the statistical procedure is to describe the group

as such rather than in terms of the individual, and it is superficially

paradoxical to say that this restores the individual to the basic and es-

sential position denied it in the older group concept, which often was

expressed in terms of the individual. The paradox is, however, easily

resolved. The statistical group concept seeks to take into account all

the characteristics of all the individuals of the group, while reducing

their description to collective terms. The archetypal group concept

seeks to eliminate all characteristics by which individuals are distin-

guished, even though it may describe the residuum in individual terms.

Especially in the hands of paleontologists (although not yet by all

of them), group concepts are also coming to have a fourth dimension

analogous to the four-dimensional concept of the individual. To non-

evolutionary zoologists, the archetype was divinely ordained and im-

mutable except by subsequent divine renovation. The archetype-like

group definitions of evolutionary zoologists had, of course, to be muta-

ble, but the expression of phylogeny was really a succession of static

pictures, like the Haeckelian concept of ontogeny. A phylum in time

was recognized and defined primarily in terms of the common char-

acters of all its species, just as the species was discussed in terms of the

common characters of its individuals. But the particular sorts of

groups to which the name phylum may be applied in a general sense

include a time dimension. The secular changes that occur in them are

as essential and characteristic as are their common or immutable

features, and from an evolutionary point of view considerably more

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 31, No. 1

important. Thus the concept of a phylum (or of any taxonomic group

with perceptible extension in time) becomes dynamic, and it is better

defined in terms of the changes that occur within it than in terms of its

constant differences from other groups.

For the present subject the most important conclusion from this

dynamic approach to taxonomy and phylogeny is corroboration and

extension of the conclusions already drawn from evolutionary theory.

The group is not an entity in the sense that the individual is an en-

tity. A group achieves adaptation and progresses only in the sense

that the individuals composing it do so. Satisfaction is an individual

compulsion and not a group achievement. Evolution is not a thread

on which individuals are strung, but a structure composed of indi-

viduals. A species is not a model to which individuals are referred

as more or less perfect reproductions, but a defined field of varying

individuals. A phylum is not a supermodel that abstracts the immu-

table features of a group of specific models, but a flowing river of ever-

changing individuals.

THE INDIVIDUAL AND TOTALITARIANISM

“The only government is that which makes a minute of individuals.”

“There arises a four-dimensional picture of the totality of life, with

time as the fourth dimension, just as the individual gradually develops

by growth from one cell all the organs that finally compose the com-

plete body. The organs do not arise at random, but in the frame of the

whole and some also degenerate before the whole body reaches ma-

turity. In the development of the individual which in turn is only a

subordinate part of the totality, an item is dominated by the unity of

the whole, and in the same way the general evolution of life also ex-

hibits a higher level of organization, an organic course of life.”’

‘And now a final word about the future of society, the further evo-

lution of the epiorganism. Unless the consistent indications of a great

range of biological knowledge are all erroneous, the epiorganism will

move toward increasing integration. . . . Units will become more spe-

cialized and interdependent, present epiorgans will improve in func-

tion and new ones will appear. The individual will be more and more a

part of the whole state, though it will remain meaningless to ask the

question, ‘Does the citizen exist for the state or the state for the citi-

zen, Since reciprocal influence is the essence of an org.”’

These passages were published at about the same time, in 1940, the

first by a great German paleontologist, F. von Huene, and the second

by a great American physiologist, R. W. Gerard. Both men, like others

Jan. 15, 1941 SIMPSON: THE INDIVIDUAL IN EVOLUTION 15

before them, are comparing the individual within his society or group

and an organ within the individual. Converging on this end from dif-

ferent directions, both reach the conclusion that the individual is part

of a higher organism in the same sense that a cell or an organ is part

of an individual. Both at least imply the proposition that the welfare

of the higher organism, the epiorganism of Gerard, is of paramount

importance in evolution and that the individual is to be viewed pri-

marily as a subordinate unit. As far as his scientific work shows, the

German quoted is as nonpolitical as one can be in Nazi Germany, and

the American is outspokenly anti-Nazi, but the conclusions of both

are sound totalitarian ideology. The question arises whether these

conclusions are also sound biology, and in the world today considera-

tion of the role of the individual in evolution can have no greater hu-

man value than by answering this question.

The transfer of knowledge and of judgment from one field to an-

other is notoriously difficult, and one need not look far to find men

eminent in one field who have made themselves ridiculous by posing as

oracles in another. The biologist as sociologist, still more as political

prophet or propagandist, runs a similar risk, but we are all necessarily

concerned with social evolution. Whether or not they are really per-

tinent, biological theories are being used in this field, and the biologist

necessarily has a part in the discussion, if only as critic.

The physical sciences have been accused of providing the material

resources of war and oppression and their students have lately been on

the defensive and most vociferous in endeavors to prove the accusa-

tion unjust. Now the biological sciences are being used to provide the

more insidious and still more menacing moral implementation of to-

talitarianism. If this use is wrong, scientifically, and if free biologists

support it or even tacitly permit it, then they will deserve an accusa-

tion stronger than any that can be brought against physical science

and they will be contributing to their own destruction.

The analogy between the individual and society, or between organ-

ism and epiorganism (an a posteriori terminology that assumes the

full validity of the analogy), is very old. Everyone has heard it, and

most of us have used it as a figure of speech. When it ceases to be a

figure of speech and becomes a basis for advice and action, it enters a

new and more dangerous sphere and becomes subject to more critical

examination and limitation. In this extended form the reasoning runs

as follows: Cells and organs compose an individual. Individuals com-

pose a society. The functional relationships of part to whole are analo-

gous in the two cases. The evolutionary principles involved in the

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 1

integration of cells and organs into complicated individuals of increas-

ingly higher type can and should be transferred to the political field

as guides for the evolution of increasingly complex and higher types of

society.

The biologist who accepts this argument soon finds that he is en-

visioning, perhaps even recommending, a society in which the indi-

vidual is a specialized organ in a superindividual organism, in which,

indeed, he is not an individual in the usual sense. The evolutionary

analogy suggests to him that the epiorganism will and should evolve

in the direction of greater integration (i.e., less individual freedom and

responsibility), and that its units (i.e., you and I) should become more

specialized (with less scope for activity and change), more interdepend-

ent (less self-reliant), and more a part of the whole state (less indi-

vidual). (These conclusions, exept for the parenthetical expressions,

are paraphrased from Gerard). Then the biologist finds himself face to

face with the fact that this is the totalitarian ideal. Of course, the po-

litically totalitarian biologists accept the conclusion gladly and are

strengthened and comforted by it. If, however, a biologist happens

not to be politically totalitarian, he is likely to be shocked and to look

for a way of avoiding his own conclusion.

The most obvious escape from this dilemma is to decide that totali-

tarianism is good or “‘basically progressive,’’ as Gerard says, but that

Nazism, for instance, is bad totalitarianism. The point is important

enough to warrant brief examination of the more essential arguments

given by Gerard and others.

Democracies are said also to be progressing toward integration, but

aside from this general direction to be doing so in a biologically eugen-

ic way while the existing totalitarian states are advancing in a dys-

genic direction. That democracies are advancing toward integration

in a totalitarian sense, except as they may be moving toward actual

totalitarianism (for better or for worse), is open to question. Even sup-

posing it true, their integration is different both in degree and in kind

from an epiorganic structure. It is not at all in the direction of what I

have called hyperzoan individuality and it is not totalitarian accord-

ing to current ideologies.

The wrongness of direction of the existing totalitarian states is said

to be shown by overspecialization, by isolation, by reversion to rule of

force, and by deliberate excision of episense organs. That the direction

is wrong I most heartily agree, but these arguments are so easily re-

futed, if their analogical basis be granted, that they can only comfort

the nations that they are meant to confound. Gerard gives the saber-

JAN. 15, 1941 SIMPSON: THE INDIVIDUAL IN EVOLUTION 17

tooth tiger and the king-crab as analogies for overspecialization and

as evidence that the Nazi epiorganism is doomed to extinction. The

sabertooth specialization was, in fact, one of the most successful ever

developed by a mammal. The machairodonts maintained their high

level of specialization for conflict over a period of at least 30,000,000

years. True, they are extinct now, but the most probable reason for

their ultimate extinction was the extinction of their accustomed prey.

The analogy certainly does not favor the democracies! The king-crab

is a worse example. This group has survived almost unchanged since

the Triassic and is thriving now. Far from dooming it to extinction,

its specializations seem almost to be a recipe for group immortality.

But the example really has nothing to do with the case, because the

totalitarian nations unfortunately are not withdrawing into a figura-

tive shell.

As regards isolation, the argument seems to be going off at a tan-

gent, because this does not really involve the organism-epiorganism

analogy on which the rest of these conclusions are based. Moreover, it

is not the totalitarian nations that are tending toward isolation in an

evolutionary sense. Quite the contrary. They are the exponents and

the present practitioners of expansion, migration, conquest of hostile

environments, and competition with other epiorganisms—the very sort

of activities that have produced the most potent and successful or-

ganisms in biological evolution. It is our own democratic country that

shows a tendency toward isolation, the biological analogue of which

has dysgenic results.

The integration of an organism is,necessarily one of compulsion.

What higher organism could function if a muscle reacted by its own

free consent? Integration is only achieved by the fact that a muscle

must react when told to and can have no choice in the matter. If so-

ciety should be integrated in these organic terms, it is therefore mean-

ingless to say that rule by force is bad. On these premises, it is not

only inevitable and necessary but also biologically good. A truly in-

tegrated epiorganism can only function by force.

By the excision of episense organs, Gerard means ideological limita-

tion and official control of scientific and other intellectual activities.

But from the totalitarian point of view there is no excision in this but

only integration. The totalitarians can and do use the same analogy to

demonstrate that they are not gouging out the eyes but are only mak-

ing them focus and direct themselves in accordance with the will and

needs of the whole organism. In an integrated organism there can not

be any individual freedom of the parts. Only a diseased eye looks

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 1

where it will rather than where it is told to look. So in a perfect to-

talitarian epiorganism there should be neither freedom of action nor

of thought, except in the unique leader, for these are symptoms of epi-

organic disease. The biologist may conclude that he and his fellows

should be the directive organs of the epiorganism and that the lesser

breeds then do not need any freedom of thought or action, but experi-

ence shows that an epiorganism is more likely to differentiate its

brains from housepainter-tissue than from scientist-tissue, and there

is no evidence that the results would be very different in either case.

If totalitarianism is good, in itself, I see no escape from the conclu-

sion that the present totalitarian states of Europe are fundamentally

good and are on the best course of human evolution, whatever mis-

takes they may make on the way. (Democracies are not characterized

by inability to make mistakes.) The organism-epiorganism analogy

does logically and inevitably commend basic structures and principles

of the states, whether Nazi, communist, fascist, or shinto, that accept

totalitarian theories or practices. The democratic biologist who adopts

this analogy in all its extension has no valid escape from the dilemma

and no logical choice but to shift his allegiance.

The other alternative is to recognize that this use of the analogy is

completely unsound. The relationship of the individual to society is

fundamentally unlike that of the organ to the individual. The two re-

lationships involve entirely different orders of things and do not be-

long in the same field of thought. As well say that electrons and their

fellow particles compose silver, that silver analogously composes a

photographic image, and then criticize the photograph because its

pictorial composition is unlike the organization of a silver molecule.

It is obvious that an individual is not an organ of society in the sense

that a liver is an organ of an individual, but the very boldness of the

metaphor and its wide applicability have made intelligent men forget

that it is only a metaphor.

Such analogies are valid only as far as the two terms are well known

and their analogical relationship is a matter of observation. Thus far

they have descriptive value, but they warrant no extension to infer-

ences beyond the field of observation. They have no predictive value

and they do not permit transfer of knowledge and principles from one

field to another. The biologist who elevates the organism-epiorganism

metaphor into a standard for social interpretation and recommenda-

tion is guilty of the most reckless, unjustified, and nonscientific extra-

polation.

A hyperzoan individuality, such as was mentioned in the introduc-

Jan. 15, 1941 SIMPSON: THE INDIVIDUAL IN EVOLUTION 19

tory remarks, does not and can not possibly exist among mankind. A

social group has no individuality according to the biological concept

of the individual, and the extension to it of the same term is more

likely to be confusing than enlightening. While exploring the analogy

at least to, and I think somewhat beyond, the full extent of its valid-

ity, Julian Huxley has noted this essential limitation. ‘“‘But,’’ he wrote

in the same journal as Gerard (Scientific Monthly) and in the same

year (1940), ‘‘whereas the individuality of the body of a higher animal,

cuttlefish, insect or vertebrate is far more developed than that of its

constituent cells, that of a human society is far less so than that of its

individual units. This fact, while it makes the analogy between cell

and human individual almost worthless, is of great value itself as a

biological analogy, since it immediately exposes the fallacy of all social

theories, like those of Fascism and National Socialism, which exalt the

state above the individual.’’

There is a true biological-sociological analogy, in part a true homol-

ogy, and that is between the relationship of the individual to the evo-

lution of species and to the evolution of social groups. I have failed

in my purpose if the bearing of this analogy on the present state of

human affairs is not now becoming clear. The group is a collectivity

of individuals. It has no entity except as derived from the relationships

of individuals. It does not evolve except as individuals change. It does

not prosper except as individuals prosper, and it is incapable of satis-

faction but is modified and perpetuated by individual desires and at-

tainments of satisfactions. ,

The integration that has been progressive in evolution, that has led

to higher types of life and that has been ‘‘good”’ biologically, or eugen-

ic, has been integration of the individual. The ability of the individual

to function freely, and in increasingly complex and varied ways has

had survival value and has been progressive. Development of indi-

vidual dependence and loss of individual versatility have usually been

degenerative. In the line leading to man, the ability to form and to

manage complex social structures has certainly followed the develop-

ment of ever greater individual capacities and adaptability and, so-

cially, a growing awareness of the rights of other individuals, which is

the opposite of social subordination of individuals.

In this evolution it is clear that intrinsic satisfactions, as I have de-

fined them on a previous page, have been dominant although extrin-

sic satisfactions have also played an important part. In addition to

the profound error of supposing satisfaction to affect groups in a way

different from the sum of the satisfactions of the individuals compos-

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 1

ing the groups, it is a characteristic of the totalitarian nations to em-

phasize extrinsic individual satisfactions at the expense of intrinsic.

This is opposite to the emphasis that led to human evolution, physical

and social, and if successful it seems biologically probable that it

would lead not to a continuation of evolution to higher human levels

but to a change of direction from human to nonhuman. The end of

that different direction is exemplified for us by the social insects. I

doubt whether even the most rabid myrmecophiles really want to live

in a society patterned along those lines. In fact, it seems biologically

impossible that the experiment can succeed, simply because we are

mammals and were evolved as we were. We have neither the inherit-

ance nor the genetic potentiality for making extrinsic satisfactions

superior to intrinsic in survival value.

Biological justification for the totalitarian development of society

has also been sought in the doctrines of evolutionary fatalism. Re-

gardless of such labels as ‘‘right,’”’ ‘‘wrong,”’ ‘‘good,” or “‘bad,’’ it is

argued, this is the inevitable future. Mankind is going this way Just

as horsekind was going toward Equus throughout the Tertiary. Oppo-

sition is as futile and foolish as if the little Hohippus had said, “I am

going to be a dinosaur,’’ instead of ‘‘“—a horse.”’

Even aside from the fact that this is another false use of analogy,

it has been shown that a fatalistic view of evolution has little scien-

tific support. It is not a probable hypothesis, still less a necessary one.

A poet like Mrs. Lindbergh may urge submission to ‘‘the wave of the

future,’ but a scientist may still believe that we are making our own

future and that we have the capacity to make it to our liking and for

the good of all of us as individuals.

The essence of democracy is belief in the importance and inde-

pendence of the individual, and in the progress of society through the

satisfactions of the individuals composing it. The essence of totalitar-

lanism is belief in the unimportance of the individual and his subordi-

nation to the state, and in the progress of society as a thing in itself

regardless of the satisfactions of the individuals in it. I believe with all

my heart and head that the democratic principles are biologically

sound and humanly eugenic, the totalitarian principles unsound and

dysgenic. I believe that it is our duty, not as citizens of a democracy

but as among the dwindling number of citizens of the world still

privileged to live and think as individuals, to oppose the totalitarian

fallacy and to maintain the true place of the individual in our social

and in our biological philosophy.

JAN. 15, 1941 BASSLER: OSTRACODA FROM TENNESSEE 21

PALEONTOLOGY .—Ostracoda from the Devonian (Onondaga) chert

of west Tennessee. R.S. BassuEeR, U. 8. National Museum.

In the vicinity of Camden, Benton County, Tenn., along the line

of the N. C. & St. L. Railroad, are large quarries exposing the Devon-

ian formation that J. M. Safford and Charles Schuchert in 1899? de-

scribed as the Camden chert of Lower Oriskany age, judging from the

macrofossils. Then, as outlined in Miss Wilmarth’s Lexicon of Geo-

logic Names of the United States,* Professor Dunbar in 1918+ restricted

the term Camden chert to the upper 200 feet of the original formation,

which he determined as of Onondaga age, and subdivided the lower

part into the Harriman chert (0-55 feet thick) underlain by the Quall

limestone (0-10 feet thick), both of Oriskany age, and at the base, the

Decaturville chert (0—6 feet thick) of Helderbergian age. The ostracod

fauna here described from the true Camden chert is of special interest

for the beauty of the specimens and the unusual way in which they

have been preserved. Only the strongly marked species are here de-

seribed; the smooth forms remain for some future work.

The cherty beds of the Camden as well as most other chert forma-

tions were originally limestones that during long weathering had been

replaced by silica. In the resulting cherts the fossils are usually repre-

sented by molds or by an internal cast separated by a space from the

wall of the mold. The porous cherts of the Camden formation afford

excellent gutta-percha squeezes not only of the larger fossils but also

of such microscopic ones, as the Ostracoda. In addition, quite perfect

free silicified Ostracoda may be found by washing the white clays re-

sulting from the final decomposition of these cherts. Such specimens

reproduce the original ostracod shells with exact fidelity, although

they are in reality siliceous pseudomorphs formed as a result of several

replacements. First, the original caleareo-chitinous shells are replaced

by lime; next by silica, when the enclosing limestone is changed to

_chert; then the silicified fossils are leached out leaving molds that

later are filled by another infiltration of a different form of silica; and

finally, the silicified limestone is reduced by weathering to a white

clay, a form of tripoli, leaving the fossils, now siliceous pseudomorphs

_ for the second time, unchanged.

More study is necessary upon the various Early Devonian ostracod

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived October 10, 1940.

Amer. Journ. Sci. (4) 7: 429-430. 1899.

* 3U.S8. Geol. Surv. Bull. 896. 1938.

4 Amer. Journ. Sci. (4) 46: 732-755. 1918.

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 31, No. 1

faunas, but the present assemblage seems to be related to that from

the Lower Oriskany Shriver chert of Maryland and Pennsylvania and

the Onondaga of the same States. A small sample of the Clear Creek

chert from the vicinity of Jonesboro, IIll., shows good casts of many of

the species herein described from west Tennessee, so that there ap-

pears to be no doubt of the equivalence of these two formations.

The following descriptions have been much abbreviated not only

to save space but also because the author believes that the long

discussions of Paleozoic Ostracoda so often printed are more confusing

than helpful and that an accurate photographic figure clearly showing

the characters combined with a few remarks as to the specific features

is sufficient for most purposes. All the specimens illustrated on the

plate are from clay beds resulting from the decomposition of chert

layers near base of the Camden formation at the quarry half a mile

south of Camden, Tenn. Collections at this point were made by Pro-

fessor Schuchert for the National Museum many years ago, then by

the writer later, and finally in more abundance by Dr. G. A. Cooper

and R. D. Mesler in recent years. The types are the property of the

U.S. National Museum. Measurements are omitted throughout this

article because they can be easily determined from the illustrations.

DESCRIPTIONS OF GENERA AND SPECIES

Paraparchites mesleri n. sp. (Leperditellidae Ulrich and Bassler) Fig. 1

Carapace similar to P. subrotunda Ulrich from the Onondaga (Jefferson-

ville) limestone of the Falls of the Ohio, but differing in that the ends of the

valves are almost equally rounded. The specimen figured by Kindle in 1912

from the Onondaga of Little Moccasin Gap, W. Va., as Leperditia subrotunda

Ulrich, has the ends similarly rounded and in spite of its imperfect preserva-

tion should probably be referred to this new species.

Halliella pulchra n. sp. (Primitiidae Ulrich and Bassler) Fig. 2

Although related to the genotype H. retifera Ulrich from the Onondaga

(Jeffersonville) limestone at the Falls of the Ohio, this beautiful new species

may be distinguished by its equally ended, more evenly elevated, coarsely

reticulated valves, with a thin crestlike border around the free edges and a

slightly curved carina above the hinge line. A faint median sulcus terminates

in a small, deep, almost central pit.

Parabolbina loculosa n. sp. (Hollinidae Swartz) Fig. 3

Similar to P. limbatus Swartz, 1932, from the Oriskany (Shriver) chert of

Pennsylvania, but differing in the more prominent well-rounded node on

each side of the dorsal median sulcus, in the long narrow anterior spine, and

the frill along the posterior half of the ventral margin composed of four

folds forming well-marked loculi.

Ctenoloculina n. gen. (Tetradellidae Swartz)

Tetradella-like shells with valves crossed transversely by four flat-topped,

JAN. 15, 1941 BASSLER: OSTRACODA FROM TENNESSEE 23

finely reticulated ridges separated by narrow furrows and with the free

margins surrounded by a false border, which in the female is swollen to form

4 to 6 loculi or brood chambers. Right valve grooved on free margin to re-

ceive edge of the left.

Genotype.—Tetradella cicatricosa Warthin, 1934. Hamilton of Michigan,

Ontario, etc.

Ctenoloculina cristata n. sp. Fig. 4

In this new species the four reticulated ridges are not as regularly arranged

as in the genotype, the posterior one being crossed by a furrow dividing it

into two; the next one being irregularly triangular in outline; and the third

and fourth, the two anterior ones, being separated only by a sharp crestlike

line. This crest is joined by one bounding the anterior ridge and proceeds

posteriorly along the free margin above the true edge of the valve. In the

female form three loculi are found in the posterior half between this crest

and the true margin.

Bollia ungulata n. sp. (Drepanellidae Swartz) Fig. 5

Like B. ungula Jones but differing in the shorter, higher valves with a more

pronounced bulb occupying the anterior limb of the inner ridge.

Bollia tribolbina n. sp. Figs. 6, 7

Characterized by its small, elongate carapace with narrow uniformly de-

veloped outer ridge closely following the entire free margin, and a sharply

angulated inner ridge composed of a bulbous anterior part and narrower ven-

tral and posterior portions, each ending in a slight expansion.

Bollia obesoides n. sp. Figs. 8, 9

Similar to B. obesa Ulrich from the Onondaga (Jeffersonville) limestone of

the Falls of the Ohio, but differing in the more developed and rounded mar-

ginal ridge and the minute spines along both ridges but particularly along

the ventral edge.

Bollia burgeneri Swartz, 1932 Fig. 10

This species, which is quite similar to B. sagittaformis Swartz, 1932, differs

in that the posterior limb of the inner ridge is quite enlarged to forma

somewhat rounded, flattened knob. The Tennessee specimens vary from the

typical Shriver chert Pennsylvania form in the greater thickness of the pos-

terior limb, a character apparently not of varietal importance.

Bollia sagittaformis Swartz, 1932 Fig. 11

The large size, the well-rounded and uniformly developed outer ridge,

the equally obtuse cardinal angles, the U-shaped inner ridge with triangular

harpoon-like knob forming the anterior portion, and the narrow posterior

limb, characterize this fine species, which is one of the commonest ostracods

in this fauna.

Ulrichia crassimuralis n. sp. (Drepanellidae Swartz) ‘Fig. 12

Although much like the genotype U. conradi Jones, from the Hamilton

at Thedford, Ontario, in outline, minute punctation, and arrangement of

the nodes, this species is readily distinguished by its well-developed, more

pronounced marginal ridge.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, ol, Noms

Aechmina longior n. sp. (Aechminidae Swartz) Fig. 13

Very similar to A. cuspidata Jones from the Wenlock of England, but the

dorsal spine is relatively longer and narrower and the free edges of the valves

are furnished with very delicate spicules.

Aechmina equilateralis n. sp. Fig. 14

Although quite similar to several species of this genus, this one is distin-

guished by the short blunt spine arising from about the middle of the upper

edge of the valve which in addition is equal ended and bears minute spines

along its ventral edge.

Amphissites ulrichi n. sp. (Kirkbyidae Ulrich and Bassler) Fig. 15

Although obviously related to A. subquadrata Ulrich of the Onondaga

(Jeffersonville) limestone at the Falls of the Ohio, etc., the marginal free

edge in this new species is distinctly raised but the coarse reticulation con-

tinues to the border of the valve. Moreover, the dorsal angles are more ob-

tuse and equal, the carapace is larger, and the surface markings are coarser.

Amphissites lunatus n. sp. Fig. 16

This beautiful species is readily recognized by the broad, crescentic, ele-

vated band crossing the carapace parallel but at some distance from the

ventral edge, covered with scalelike reticulations. A well-developed central

pit occurs just above this band, and the entire surface in general is marked

by finely reticulate ornamentation. Rising just above the free margins of the

valve is a sharp linear crest.

Thlipsura furcoides n. sp. (Thlipsuridae Jones) Figs. 17, 18

This fine, abundant species differs from T. furca Roth of the Helderbergian

Illustrations X20 of Camden chert (Onondaga) Ostracoda from Camden, Tenn.

The catalog numbers are those of the U. 8S. National Museum.

Fig. 1.—Paraparchites mesleri n. sp. (holotype, right valve probably, No. 101021).

Fig. 2.—Halliella pulchra n. sp. (holotype, right valve, No. 101022). Fig. 3.—Para-

bolbina loculosa n. sp. (holotype, imperfect left valve, No. 101023). Fig. 4.—Cteno-

loculina cristata n. gen. and sp. (holotype, male, right valve, No. 101024). Fig. 5.—

Bollia ungulata n. sp. (holotype, right valve, No. 101025). Figs. 6, 7.—Bollia tribolbina

n. sp. (cotypes, right and left valves, No. 101026). Figs. 8, 9—Bollia obesordes n. sp.

(cotypes, two left valves, No. 101027). Fig. 10.—Bollia burgenert Swartz, 1932

(plesiotype, right valve, No. 101028). Fig. 11.—Bollia sagittaformis Swartz, 1932

(plesiotype, left valve, No. 101029). Fig. 12.—Ulrichia crassimuralis n. sp. (holotype,

right valve, No. 101030). Fig. 13.—Aechmina longior n. sp. (holotype, left valve, No.

101031). Fig. 14—Aechmina equilateralis n. sp. (holotype, right valve, No. 101032).

Fig. 15.—Amphissites ulricht n. sp. (holotype, right valve, No. 101033). Fig. 16.—

Amphissites lunatus n. sp. (holotype, right valve, No. 101034). Figs. 17, 18.—Thhp-

sura furcoides n. sp. (cotypes, left valves of a mature and a young specimen, No.

101035). Fig. 19.—Thlipsurella laevis n. sp. (holotype, left valve, No. 101036). Fig.

20.—Thlipsurella cooperi n. sp. (holotype, right valve, No. 101087). Figs. 21 22.

Thliipsurella secoclefta Swartz, 1932 (plesiotypes, two right valves, No. 101038). Figs.

23, 24.—Thlipsurina elongata n. gen. and sp. (cotypes, right and left valves, No.

101039). Fig. 25.—Thlipsurina simplex n. sp. (holotype, right valve, No. 101040).

Fig. 26—Thlipsurina similis n. sp. (holotype, right valve, No. 101041). Figs. 27,

28.—Ranapeltis typicalis n. gen. and sp. (cotypes, right valves of a mature and a young

specimen, No. 101042). Fig. 29.—Ranapeltis unicarinata n. sp. (holotype, left valve,

No. 101043). Figs. 30, 31.—Octonariella clavatula n. sp. (cotypes, left valves, No.

101044). Figs. 32, 33.—Octonariella bifurcata n. sp. (cotypes, right valves, No.

101045). Figs. 34, 35.—Octonariella bispinosa n. sp. (cotypes, left valves, the latter

slightly broken, No. 101046). Figs. 36, 37.—Octonariella typica n. gen. and sp. (co-

types, left and right valves, No. 101047).

Jan. 15, 1941 BASSLER: OSTRACODA FROM TENNESSEE 25

Figs. 1-37.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 1

(Haragan marl) of Oklahoma in its more robust elongate carapace, flatter

valves, its shorter and more bulbous median ridge, and its sharper, more pro-

jecting ventral protuberance.

Thlipsurella laevis n. sp. (Thlipsuridae Jones) Fig. 19

Valves reniform in outline with narrow posterior end. Surface gently

rounded with a flat margin along dorsal two-thirds of anterior end bounded

by a sharply elevated, narrow, diagonally direct ridge behind which is a

broad furrow irregularly triangular in outline extending to the middle of the

valve along the midlength. Right and left valves with similar surface markings.

Thlipsurella cooperi n. sp. Fig. 20

Valves elongate oval, with gently rounded surface marked at the posterior

end by a slightly curved sulcus and at the anterior end by a flattened margin

along the dorsal two-thirds bounded by a curved ridge, which in turn is suc-

ceeded by a narrow, somewhat triangular furrow.

Thlipsurella secoclefta Swartz, 1932 Figs. 21, 22

The Tennessee specimens here figured agree with the Pennsylvania Shriver

chert types in all respects except that the submedian cleft is better developed

and the two pits behind it are often united.

Thlipsurina n. gen. (Thlipsuridae Jones)

Similar to Thlipsura in general shell characters but differing in the ab-

sence of a posterior sulcus and in the presence of a broad, shallow, transverse,

median depression and of a flattened anterior end bounded by a sharp ridge

which in turn is followed typically by a broad, deep, curved sulcus expanding

in width from the hinge line to the ventral margin. Surface markings alike

on both valves.

Genotype.—T. elongata new species.

Thlipsurina elongata n. sp. | Figs. 23, 24

The elongate carapace, the flattened anterior marginal area succeeded pos-

teriorly by a well-developed sulcus increasing in width toward the ventral

edge, and the broad median transverse shallow depression, characterize this

new species.

Thlipsurina simplex n. sp. ~ Fig. 25

Similar to T. (Thlipsura) primitiva (Roth) from the Helderbergian (Hara-

gan) of Oklahoma, but differing in the oval instead of wedge shape of the

valves and the narrow, flattened anterior border.

Thlipsurina similis n. sp. Fig. 26

Similar to the genotype but differing in the less elongate, higher carapace

with the central depression better developed. Both sides of the carapace are

known and are similar to each other.

Ranapeltis n. gen. (Thlipsuridae Jones)

Hinge, without overlap, but right valve seems slightly to overlap left

along the ventral margin. Valves subtrapezoidal to subreniform marked in

the type species by two narrow ridges developed parallel to the ventral

margin and turning upward at an acute angle towards the dorsal edge and

in the second species by only a single ridge. A large eye spot or muscle scar

is centrally located within the inner ridge and the free edge of valves bears a

spine at the angular anterior end.

JAN. 15, 1941 BASSLER: OSTRACODA FROM TENNESSEE 27

Genotype.—R. typicalis new species.

Ranapeltis typicalis n. sp. Figs. 27, 28

The two parallel ridges bent abruptly toward the dorsal but reaching only

about half the distance, the muscle spot, and the angular anterior ventral

margin with its pointed spine, are characters that make this ostracod easy

to identify.

Ranapeltis unicarinata n. sp. Fig. 29

Although similar in general features to the genotype, this species has but

a single ventral ridge, which, however, in turning toward the dorsal margin

bends abruptly toward the center, each end terminating in a decided bulb,

with the strongly marked muscle impression midway between them. The

anteroventral spine is as well marked as in the type species.

Octonariella n. gen. (Thlipsuridae Jones)

Inequivalved shells with the larger left valve overlapping the right on the

free edges, the surface pattern of opposite valves sometimes different and

the typical U-shaped annular ridge of Octonaria replaced by a single ridge in

the anterior half and a bifurcated ridge posteriorly, the latter terminating

in two prominent spines one at each end of a sharp transverse connecting

bar. Spaces between ridges marked by a series of pitlike depressions.

Genotype.—O. typica new species.

Octonariella clavatula n. sp. Figs. 30, 31

Anterior and posterior ridges so joined that valve appears traversed

lengthwise by three parallel elevations, the outer two united at the anterior

end and terminating in a bar with spines at the posterior. Two rows of pits

developed between the three elevated areas. Although related to O. (Octo-

naria) clavigera (Ulrich) of the Onondaga at the Falls of the Ohio, the central

ridge in the present species does not stand out like a club.

Octonariella bifurcata n. sp. Figs. 32, 33

This well-marked ostracod may be recognized by its narrow elongate form

and very prominent posterior spines. In the distribution of the ridges and

depressions it resembles O. bzspinosa a broader species of which it might

be considered the opposite valve. This is not the case, however, since both

right and left valves with the characters here figured are known.

Octonariella bispinosa n. sp. Figs. 34, 35

Both valves of this common species are known and differ little from each

other. The characteristic features are the shorter, higher form of the valve

and the consequent increase in the number of depressions between the ridges,

which as usual end in two well-marked spines.

Octonariella typica n. sp. Figs. 36, 37

This very abundant ostracod is represented by both valves and complete

examples leaving no doubt that the two somewhat different aspects figured

represent the same species. The smaller (right valve lacking the broad over-

lapping border of the left bears a row of large coarse pits next to the anterior

free margin and two rows of two and of three pits, respectively, parallel to

the ventral margin. The latter rows are joined by a crest at each end of which

is a small sharp spine. The larger overlapping valve has the same general

arrangement of pits but broad posterior and anterior borders distinguish it.

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. |

PALEOBOTAN Y.—Notes on the Pleistocene of Maryland.1 Ep-

WARD W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

The idea that the Pleistocene deposits south of the terminal moraine

were due to changes in relative level of land and water and were to be.

interpreted by their topographic height and form we owe to Shattuck,

who, after setting forth his hypothesis in several earlier papers, gave

it its final form in 1906 in the volume discussing the Pliocene and

Pleistocene deposits of Maryland. Shattuck was a brilliant worker,

but not a sustained and persevering detailist. Having published his

interpretation he apparently lost interest in it and never during the

rest of his life returned to the subject. It was, however, adopted by a

number of younger men and extended throughout the remainder of

the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain. There have always been physiog-

raphers who have been violently critical, although on the whole I

think it is fair to say that Shattuck’s interpretation, with, of course,

modifications of detail, has been generally accepted by geologists. One

of the difficulties for many minds has been the problem of visualizing

a complex series of events in terms of a rather rigid scheme of changes

of level, or of differentiating the episodes in an actual exposure from

the final event that controlled the surviving topographic form. There

was, too, the difficulty in many minds of visualizing the marine con-

trol, which changes of level exercised in stream valleys even though

the sediments were not actually marine and did not contain marine

fossils. The time involved is inconsiderable as geologic time is reck-

oned and such fossils as have been found, either animal or plant, have

in consequence had but slight if any stratigraphic value, and reflect

shifting environments and changing geographical distribution among

groups of organisms whose specificity was, for the most part, un-

changed throughout the whole interval from early Pleistocene to

modern times.

It is not my purpose to attempt a history of opinion of the Coastal

Plain terrace formations or to discuss them formally within even the

limits of Maryland, and the foregoing remarks are made as intro-

ductory to a consideration of certain local observations.

Dr. C. W. Cooke, who has written considerable on the Coastal

Plain terrace formations, advocates a revised terminology for the

younger ones? and proposes that the name Talbot terrace, which de-

rives from Talbot County on the Eastern Shore, be retained for the

1 Received October 4, 1940.

2 Cooke, C. W. Journ.Washington Acad. Sci. 21; 508-513. 1931.

JAN. 15, 1941 BERRY: NOTES ON THE PLEISTOCENE OF MARYLAND 29

42-foot level and that for a younger Talbot stage observed in some

places in Maryland the name Pamlico be extended from North Caro-

lina, where this stage is beautifully developed. The Pamlico has an

altitude of about 25 feet and has been recognized in Prince Georges

County and the District of Columbia at both of which it has furnished

a considerable flora.? C. K. Wentworth‘ recognized a still lower level

in Virginia for which he proposed the name Princess Anne, which has

an altitude of about 12 feet. Cooke dissents from this proposal of

Wentworth’s. If accepted, both the Airport deposits and those at

Wagners Point, which are discussed in the following pages, would be

referred to the Princess Anne stage of the late Pleistocene, although

it is possible, but not demonstrable, that traces of older Pleistocene

deposits are shown in the test borings at the Airport.

MUNICIPAL AIRPORT

Through the cooperation and intelligent interest of W. Watters

Pagon, consulting engineer on the Baltimore Airport, I am indebted

for samples and for the records of a series of test borings. The former

have furnished a few identifiable plants from the deposits and the lat-

- ter some interesting data on changing conditions and less clear indica-

tions of past changes of level. They show, for one thing, considerable

erosion in the Cretaceous surface previous to the deposition of the

Pleistocene. At the Airport the Cretaceous is encountered about 60

feet below tide, whereas on the opposite shore of the Patapsco and a

couple of miles down the dip near Hawkins Point the Cretaceous rises

to a height of 24 to 28 feet above tide.

The borings show also considerable thicknesses of carbonaceous

clays with plant remains, possibly marsh deposits, separated by two

or three intervals of coarser water laid and presumably stream de-

posits. These might be interpreted as due to alternating times of ele-

vation and depression and as referable to different-named stages in

the Pleistocene, but since exact lithological correlations are impossible

between adjacent borings I am inclined to think that the major factor

is Shifting conditions—what might be called ‘‘scour and fill’’—rather

than changes in level, although minor changes must inevitably have

occurred.

The plants found in the clays (mud) include (1) badly decayed di-

cotyledonous wood, otherise unidentifiable; (2) leaf fragments and an

3 Brown, R. W. op. cit. and Berry, E. W. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 23:

1-25. 1933.

4 WentTWoRTH, C. K. Virginia Geol. Survey Bull. 32. 1930.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 1

acorn cupule of Quercus sp.; (3) a seed and numerous leaf fragments

of Fagus americana.

WAGNERS POINT

On the south bank of the Patapsco between Wagners and Fishing

Points, directly across from the Airport, the land surface is only a few

feet above tide. Excavations for a WPA sewer project have thrown

out a large amount of material. Its lithologic similarity to that en-

countered in the borings at the Airport led to its careful examination,

although no information was obtainable as to its stratigraphic rela-

tions. Considerably more identifiable plants were found in these de-

posits. The material is a very silty uncompacted dark grayish, often

very micaceous clay, with scattered quartz pebbles, full of leaf frag-

ments mostly very much broken and thoroughly macerated. Obvi-

ously stream lain and apparently in a backwash or eddy on a tidal

flat. An occasional seed, small broken sticks and fragments of bark,

pieces of acorns or cupules, husks and nuts of a hickory, etc.

I have seen innumerable cove beaches in the estuaries around Ches-

apeake Bay where the material is of the same silty texture and where

at low tide one observes fragments of oak or similar coriaceous leaves,

occasional sticks or hard fruits and pine cones that seem to me to

duplicate the conditions during the Pleistocene in this general region.

This is especially true of the sediments as well as the plant contents in

the material from Wagners Point.

The plant material consists of the following:

Pinus virginiana (Mill.) A single small cone-scale. This is still a common

species hereabouts and according to Chrysler forms both pure stands and

mixed pine-oak associations in southern Maryland. In its wider range it

extends from Long Island, N.Y., to South Carolina in the Coastal Plain. It

has not previously been found fossil.

Taxodium distichum (L.) L. C. Rich. The bald cypress is found in the

Coastal Plain Pleistocene at innumerable localities from New Jersey to

Florida and Louisiana. These are usually of Talbot or Pamlico age, but

some very large stumps were encountered in excavating for the Mayflower

Hotel in Washington,®> which are referred to the Wicomico formation. It is

present in the clays at Wagners Point by detached leaves, which are very

characteristic when first collected. At the present time the bald cypress

reaches its northern limit in southern Charles County, but during the Pleisto-

cene it ranged northward as far as New Jersey and in this latitude it ranged

inland to the Fall Line, or even beyond.

Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton. A single nut and many nearly complete

sections of the very thick husks. In general this is now a rich soil species

ranging from Canada to western Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Accord-

6 Berry, E. W. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 14: 15, pl. 1, figs. 37-42, pl. 3.

1924.

JAN. 15, 1941 BERRY: NOTES ON THE PLEISTOCENE OF MARYLAND ol

ing to Chrysler it is frequent in what he calls Oak-Hickory association in

southern Maryland. Hicoria ovata has a large number of Pleistocene records

including Pennsylvania, Maryland, District of Columbia, and North Caro-

lina. It occurs in deposits correlated with the Pamlico formation both in the

District of Columbia and Prince Georges County, Md.

Alnus rugosa (Du Roi) K. Koch. A leaf. The alder is common on wet soil

in Maryland, ranging northward to Maine and southward to Florida and

Texas. Alnus rugosa has been recorded from the Talbot of Drum Point,

Md., and the Pamlico of the District of Columbia.

Fagus americana Sweet. Many leaf fragments and an immature fruit. The

beech is widespread in the Coastal Plain Pleistocene from Pennsylvania to

Texas. Its modern range is from Ontario to Florida, and it is not uncommon

in tidewater Maryland.

Quercus sp. Small fragments of bristle-tipped lobes of oak leaves are rather

common. They are too incomplete for specific determination but represent

rubra, velutina, or digitata. The first of these has been recorded from the

Pamlico of Prince Georges County.

Vitis cf. cordifolia Michaux. A single characteristic seed, probably of this

species. Grape seeds are common in the Coastal Plain Pleistocene from New

Jersey to Louisiana and are widespread in the Talbot of Maryland.

- OSTREA VIRGINICA IN THE COLGATE DISTRICT OF EAST BALTIMORE

An interesting specimen is a large fragment of ‘‘coquina’’ made up

of fragments of the common Ostrea virginica collected at the borrow

pit from which the City of Baltimore is taking fill for the Municipal

Airport. The specimen was turned over to the consulting engineer by

a workman, and the approximate depth was 8 or 9 feet below the sur-

face at the base of the gravels, which are supposed to be of Sunderland

age and close to the contact with the underlying Upper Cretaceous.

The altitude is about 100 feet. The location is at the corner of the pro-

posed extensions of Boston Street and the Broening Highway.

There are a number of considerations that can not now be verified

before the authenticity of the find can be accepted. If we assume that

it was collected in place, the oyster bed should be more extensive.

Oyster spat would hardly set and grow to maturity in a rapidly form-

ing gravel deposit. It might be concluded that the pieces were torn

from a contemporaneous oyster bed and deposited with the gravel.

The depth at which the specimen was found precludes its having

come from a refuse dump of some oyster cannery or old shell road or

Indian kitchen midden. The last would hardly be likely to occur at a

distance from the present shores; an old road fragment would hardly

be so cleanly washed.

If the specimens are actually indigenous in the Sunderland it is the

first record of marine or estuarine fossils in any of the Maryland ter-

race formations older than the Talbot. Ostrea virginica occurs abun-

o2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 31, No. 1

dantly in the Talbot of Calvert, St. Marys, Talbot, and Caroline

Counties, Maryland. The present record is much more remote from

modern marine waters and, if authentic, goes a long way toward sub-

stantiating the accepted theory of the marine origin of the Pleistocene

terrace deposits.

WHITE OAK FROM BED OF CARDIFF AVENUE

I am indebted to W. W. Pagon for a specimen of a small stump of

some species of the white-oak section of Quercus collected from the

bed of Cardiff Avenue, 250 feet east of the Broening Highway. This

was found 12 feet below the present surface and may be of Wicomico

age. The specimen is of the extreme base of a stump and is about 84

inches high, worn to a pointed top and rotted to a hollow on the under

side.

Anatomical features afford no satisfactory basis for differentiating

species among the white oaks. Of the recent species of white oaks in

the Coastal Plain of this latitude Quercus alba occurs abundantly in

the Pleistocene from the Interglacial of Canada (Don River) to North

Carolina and Tennessee. In Maryland it is found in the Sunderland

of Calvert County and the Pamlico of Prince Georges County; Quer-

cus lyrata occurs in the Pleistocene of North Carolina, Louisiana, and

Texas.

HEMLOCK FROM BRIGHTSEAT, PRINCE GEORGES COUNTY

Perfectly characteristic cones of J’suwga canadensis (L.) Carriere

were collected by Dr. Charles T. Berry from the Pleistocene overlying

the Monmouth Upper Cretaceous at the well-known Monmouth fos-

siliferous exposure near Brightseat, Prince Georges County.

Previous fossil records of hemlock are from peat deposits in south-

eastern Canada‘ and from Pamlico deposits along Northwest Branch

Anacostia River in Prince Georges County, Md., where both wood

and cones have been found.’

In the modern flora this tree is found from Nova Scotia to eastern

Minnesota, southward to northern Delaware and along the Appalach-

ians to northwestern Alabama (Sargent). In Maryland it is known

naturally from but a single locality in the Coastal Plain (Watts Creek,

Caroline County) (Chrysler), a doubtful record; it is sparing in the

Lower Midland Zone (Shreve), frequent in the Upper Midland Zone

(Blodgett), and abundant in the Mountain Zone (Shreve).

6 AuER, V. Geol. Surv. Canada Mem. 162: 32. 1930.

‘ Brown, R. W. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 25: 443. 1935.

JAN. 15, 1941 LUCKER: A NEW SPECIES OF NEMATODE 30

ZOOLOGY.—Contracaecum quincuspis, a new species of nematode

from the American waterturkey.1 Joun T. Lucksr, U.S. Bureau

of Animal Industry. (Communicated by E. W. Prick.)

A female Contracaecum with lips and interlabia of remarkably com-

plex structure. was observed among some nematodes from the

waterturkey (Anhinga anhinga) deposited in the U. 8. National

Museum Helminthological Collection. The only known species in

which these structures vary conspicuously from the pattern usual in

the genus is C. tricuspis? (Gedoelst, 1916) Baylis, 1920; but it was

immediately apparent that the lips and interlabia of the specimen

from the waterturkey differed from those described and figured for

that species by Gedoelst (1916). Some specimens labeled ‘“‘Contracae-

cum tricuspe”’ from Anhinga anhinga were available for comparison;

but the lips and interlabia of these specimens and of the one originally

examined by the writer were identical morphologically.

Other less striking discrepancies were also noted between the Amer-

ican specimens and C. tricuspis, which was originally described as

Kathleena tricuspis, from a ‘“‘Héron”’ from Belgian Congo. The species

has subsequently been recorded by Baylis and Daubney (1922) from

Anhinga melanogaster from India and by Baylis (1933) from the same

host from Java.

It seems odd that two species of Contracaecum having elaborate lips

and interlabia as their principal feature of difference from the pattern

typified by such species as C. microcephalum and C. punctatum should

occur in closely related hosts, even though the latter are from regions

widely separated geographically. Nevertheless, the American speci-

mens must be regarded as distinct from C. tricuspis on the basis of

the present characterization of that species. Certainly there is no

existing objective evidence, and no reason to assume or believe, that

Gedoelst overlooked obvious and readily observed morphological fea-

tures of the lips and interlabia of his species. From the nature of Bay-

lis and Daubney’s (1922) paper, which included descriptions of new spe-

cies and redescriptions of previously known species of Anisakinae, it

seems likely that these authors would have called attention to impor-

tant discrepancies between Gedoelst’s description and the Indian

specimens identified by them, had any existed. Hence, the specimens

from the American waterturkey are here described as a new species.

1 Received September 24, 1940.

? Baylis (1920) emended the spelling of the cern name to “tricuspe,”’ but as the

reason for this is not clear, the original spelling is used in this paper.

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 31, No. 1

Contracaecum quincuspis n. sp. Figs.1—7

Description.—Lacking a distinct collar between anterior limit of cervical

region and head, but with definite encircling groove marking junction of

these regions (Fig. 1); posterior superficial margins of lips and interlabia

discrete from anterior limit of cervical region. Cuticle of cervical region

immediately behind lips not presenting ‘‘shirred’’ appearance. Lips and

interlabia of complicated structure as follows: Each lip, viewed from with-

out, with lateral margins deeply incised a short distance anterior to base,

the notches or furrows extending nearly to median line of lip (Fig. 1). Out-

line of basal portion of lip, posterior to furrows, resembling a pair of wings

connected to main body of lip by median construction or neck produced

by incisions. Main body of lip, bearing papillae of external circle, appear-

ing more or less elliptical in outline; posterior and posterolateral margins

formed by basal furrows; lateral extremities convexly rounded, anterolat-

eral margins converging toward median line, but not meeting. Internal

and anterolateral to anterior curvatures of main body of lip, winglike proc-

esses, more or less acutely pointed at their lateral extremities, visible in this

view (Fig. 1). En face view (Figs. 3, 4) shows that these processes represent

lateral extremities of internal, more or less heart-shaped apex of lip; an an-

terior pair of incisions, passing from lateral extremities of lip toward median

line and somewhat posteriorly, at first, then curving internally toward mouth

axis and terminating some distance from tip of lip, separate heart-shaped

apex from main body of lip, with only a narrow neck connecting the two.

Apical process considerably narrower than main body of lip, its straight

anterolateral margins meeting at tip to form obtuse angle; its posterior

portion, bounded by anterior pair of furrows, in form of an auricle-like lobe

on each side of connecting neck. Base of interlabium, viewed from without,

comparatively narrow, discreet from base of neighboring lips (Fig. 2). Inter-

labium with a pair of slender, laterally directed processes originating just

above base, each cusp fitting into complementary basal incision of neighbor-

ing lip. Superficial margins of interlabium anterior to basal pair of cusps,

narrow, elongate, stemlike, passing between lateral margins of main body

of neighboring lips. Stem broadening internally, with internal portion lying

below lateral extremities of neighboring lips, and branching distally to form

three cusps, an anterolaterally directed pair and a single short internally

directed terminal cusp. Distal lateral cusps shorter than basal pair, fitting

into complementary anterior incisions between main body and apex of

neighboring lips. Terminal median process rounded at tip, usually not de-

tectable from without or in en face view, but readily seen if head is dissected

(Fig. 3). Cuticular expansions passing from terminal cusp to distal lateral

pair and from latter internally along stem. Muscular esophagus long. and

very slender; ventriculus small, more or less rounded, or slightly elongate,

Figs. 1-7.—Contracaecum quincuspis n. sp.: 1, Subventral view of head (female)

tilted slightly upward; 2, ventral view of head (female) showing interlabium and its

relationships with adjacent subventral lips; 3, en face view of dorsal lip and subdorsal

interlabia from a dissection of head (female); 4, en face view of head (female), slightly

oblique aspect; 5, lateral view of posterior extremity of female; 6, ventral view of pos-

terior extremity of male tilted slightly toward the right, showing postanal caudal pa-

pillae and a few papillae of the preanal series (the protruding portions of the spicules

had been cut off); 7, lateral view of posterior extremity of male, showing postanal

papillae and a few papillae of the preanal series on the left side. (Figs. 5 and 7 are

drawn to one-half the indicated scale.)

JAN. 15, 1941

LUCKER: A NEW SPECIES OF NEMATODE

Figs. 1-7.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 1

depending on state of contraction; appendix about one-sixth to one-fourth

as long as esophagus; intestinal cecum long, extending almost to region of

nerve ring, voluminous at origin, tapering to rounded anterior tip. Deirids

slightly posterior to region of nerve ring. The principal size relationships of

three male and three female specimens are shown in table 1.

TABLE 1.—PRINCIPLE S1zZE RELATIONSHIPS OF CONTRACAECUM QUINCUSPIS N. Sp.

(All measurements in millimeters)

Female Male

Measurement Speci- | Speci- Speci- Speci- Speci- Speci-

men men men men ' men men

il 2 3 1 ® 3

Body:

Ben gthy ca eee eee arate kr ini seen arene 23.0 23.0 15.0 12.1 12% 10.0

IMiesaraoITboN- THC v5 55605 GoooeodobudGoacoKes 0.87 0.97 | . 0.48 0.50 0.43 0.50

Distance from anterior end to nervering......... — — 0.29 0.388 |. — 0.28

Muscular esophagus:

JOP So¥ ad obs a nto arty MPM ines Sea dean ane 1a cay A 5.34 6.43 AN PATS 4.06 3.82 3.98

AveragenwiG th mca issn acta aati ce anne 0.16 0.15 — 0.08 0.08 0.08

Esophageal ventriculus:

1 L(SaV a Oates ch amc ne fine ee tag ti Ae a eR i 0.18 0.19 0.15 0.10 — 0.13

WV 5 Gh Ga ie Se Ee ern Shy a nt Re er rae eee 0.20 0.25 0.18 0.15 — 0.13

Esophageal appendix

TV OG Teri 8 Sv em TR CI a pe Re ea a 0.86 1.18 1.05 0.95 12a 0.64

Ratio of length to length of esophagus......... 1:6.4 12355 1:4.2 1:4.4 12836 iL 1a:

Intestinal cecum

GY ag os dr ee Ta ear UV ea NEL alae Me Ren te 5.10 6.07 3.97 3.34 3.47 2.97

Ratio of length to length of esophagus......... ei i Wea a eisai ei A i3it i 1:1.4

ene tlnotitaile teal: hun eae eee Ua in eee Os Os | Os | O.23) — 0.28

Vulva:

Distance from anterior extremity........... 8.15 10.27 Wot — — —

Ratio of distance to body length............ 1:2.8 1139) 12 — — —_—

Mengthvofispiculesininee 5 asec loon ieee — — — 2.83 2.03 2.24

Male.—Maximum length about 14 mm. Tail conical, curving ventrally,

terminating in a small, more or less bluntly pointed ventral process. About

40 pairs of sublateral preanal caudal papillae, consisting of a single more or

less linear series in each sublateral field, the posteriormost papilla of each

series adanal in position; six pairs of postanal caudal papillae consisting,

of a subterminal group of two lateral and two subventral pairs and two

prominent subventral double papillae in region between terminal group and

posterior lip of cloaca (Figs. 6, 7). Spicules approximately equal, about 3.7

to 4.25 mm. long in apparently fully grown specimens; minimum observed

length in smaller specimens slightly more than 2.0 mm.

Female.—Maximum length about 23 mm. Tail conical, tapering gradu-

ally to rounded tip, lacking cuticular or hypodermal processes (Fig. 5).

Vulva slightly prominent, distance from anterior end of body about 35 to

49 percent of body length. The available specimens did not contain fully

developed eggs.

JAN. 15, 1941 LUCKER: A NEW SPECIES OF NEMATODE od

Host.—Anhinga anhinga.

Distribution.—Florida, Arkansas, District of Columbia (National Toollort

cal Park).

Specimens.—U. S. Nat. Mus. Helm. Coll. no. 44559 (holotype; male),

44560 (allotype), 30591 (paratypes), 30592 (paratypes).

Remarks.—Contracaecum quincuspis differs from C’. tricuspis, as described

and figured by Gedoelst (1916), in the following respects: The lateral mar-

gins of the lips are deeply incised near the base and also anteriorly between

the main body of the lip and the internal apical process; in C. tricuspis the

lips are notched anteriorly between the apex and the remainder of the lip,

only. In C. quincuspis the superficial basal margins of the lips and interlabia

are discrete; the basal margins of the lips and interlabia are figured as con-

tinuous in C. tricuspis. In C. quincuspis, each interlabium gives rise to five

cusps or branches, a prominent long slender lateral pair, originating near

the base, a shorter anterolateral pair, and a terminal internal one; the inter-

labium of C. tricuspis bears only the three distal cusps. In C. quincuspis two

double subventral caudal papillae occur a short distance behind the cloaca

of the male; the corresponding papillae are not described as double in

C. tricuspis. In both species the preanal series of caudal papillae terminate

posteriorly laterally to the cloaca so that one or two pairs of these papillae

are actually adanal in position. In C. tricuspis, however, a subventral papilla,

median to the preanals and not aligned with them, is present close to each

side of the cloacal opening; such an adanal pair is lacking in C. quincuspis.

In some specimens of C. guincuspis the preanal series were observed to curve

toward the median line as they neared the cloaca, the most posterior pair

of papillae being more or less subventral in position, although clearly part

of the preanal series. In C. quincuspis about 40 pairs of papillae comprise

the preanal series; in C. tricuspis about 56 pairs are said to be present. In

cases of convergence in all other important characteristics, these differences

in the arrangement of the adanal and postanal papillae and in the number of

preanal papillae would be regarded as normal intraspecific variations or as

merely representing differing interpretations. But, in this instance they

deserve emphasis because they are correlated with the presence of lips and

interlabia which, so far as can be judged, are of characteristically divergent

structure. Finally, in C. quincuspis, the esophageal appendix is about

one-sixth to one-third as long as the esophagus; Gedoelst’s measurements

indicate that in C. tricuspis the appendix is about one-half as eee as the

esophagus.

LITERATURE CITED ©

Baytis, H. A. On the classification of the Ascaridae. 1. The systematic value of certain

characters of the alimentary canal. Parasitol. 12(3): 253-264. 1920.

.On some parasitic worms from Java, with remarks on the acanthocephalan genus

Pallisentis. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 10, 11: 615-633. 1933. __

Bayuts, H. A. and DausBney, R. Report on the parasitic nematodes in the collection of

the Zoological Survey of India. Mem. Indian Mus. 7(4): 263-347. 1922.

GEpDoELsT, L. Notes sur la faune parasitaire du Congo Belge. Rev. Zool. Africaine 5(1):

1-90. 1916.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 1

EN TOMOLOGY.—Butterflies of Farmville, Virginia. Austin H.

CuiarK, U.S. National Museum, and Frank W. Trainer, Uni-

versity of Virginia.1

Farmville, the county seat of Prince Edward County, is in south-

central Virginia, approximately in the middle of the Upper Austral or

Carolinian Zone between the Lower Austral Zone to the east and the

Transition or Alleghanian Zone, which includes the mountainous re-

gions in the western part of the State. The country about Farmville

has been under intensive cultivation, and all the original forest cover

has long since disappeared. Patches of second-growth woodland and a

few boggy areas may be found.

There are no published records of butterflies for the region in which

Farmville is situated with the sole exception of a notice of the occur-

rence of Neonympha areolatus septentrionalis at Lunenburg.” The pres-

ent paper is based upon intensive studies made by the junior author

in the spring and summer of 1940, supplemented by collections made

in 1937, 1938, and 1939, when a few species were taken that were not

found in 1940. The senior author has in different years collected and

taken notes in 3 localities in Prince Edward County and at 26 locali-

ties in the surrounding counties—Charlotte, 2; Appomattox, 2; Buck-

ingham, 7; Cumberland, 4; Amelia, 3; Nottoway, 4; and Lunenburg,

4—and these notes have served as a background for the interpretation

of the Farmville fauna.

The number of species recorded from Farmville in the following

list is 73, to which are added three from nearby regions that are quite

likely to be found at Farmville. The total number of species is about

half the number known from Virginia. But many species in Virginia

are confined to the Transition Zone or Canadian Zone in the western

mountains, or to the Lower Austral Zone on the Coastal Plain. It is

possible that several species have been extirpated by the intensive

cultivation of the land. Future collecting will undoubtedly add a num-

ber of species, some of highly localized occurrence, but most more or

less casual visitors, especially from the south.

In the following list only the earliest and latest dates are given

unless there is a significant gap in the records, or unless records are

few. When no year is mentioned 1940 is understood. ,

Family NYMPHALIDAE: Subfamily Satyrinar: Neonympha gemma

(Hiibner), 1V.25 to V.8; VII.5; VIII.4 to [X.8. Neonympha areolatus sep-

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Received October 3, 1940.

2 Jour. Washington Acad. Sci. 27: 212. 1937.

JAN. 15, 1941 CLARK AND TRAINER: BUTTERFLIES OF FARMVILLE, VA. 39

tentrionalis (Davis), not found at Farmville but taken by the senior author

at Lunenburg, IX.2.1936 and IV.23.1939, and at Nottoway Falls, IV.23.

1939. Neonympha eurytus (Fabricius), V.26 to VII.30. Neonympha sosy-

bius (Fabricius), V.12 to VI.16; VII.14 to IX.8. Muznois pegala alope

(Fabricius), VII.3 to IX.9; also VI.20.1937 and IX.19.1939. Satyrodes

eurydice (Linné), VII.4 to [X.1.

Subfamily NyMPHALINAE: Polygonza interrogationts (Fabricius), III.16 to

V.14; VII.14 to IX.8; one of the dark form V.14. Polygonia comma (Har-

ris). III.17 to V.7.. Nymphalis antiopa creta (Verity), IV.1 to V.26; also

111.26 and X.10.1939. Vanessa atalanta (Linné), V.11 to V1.3; VI.28 to

IX.8. Vanessa virginiensis (Drury), IV.11 to V.26; VI.19 to ITX.8. Vanes-

sa cardui (Linné), VII.10 to 23; VIII.20 to 1X.17; not found in 1937, 1938,

or 1939. It was not found anywhere in Virginia by the senior author in these

three years. Precis coenia (Hiibner), VI.1 to I[X.8. Basilarchia arthemis

astyanax (Fabricius), V.22 to 1[X.9. Basilarchia archippus (Cramer), VII.6

to I[X.1; not common. Phyciodes nycteis (Doubleday and Hewitson), not

found at Farmville but taken by the senior author at Lunenburg, IX.2.1936.

Phyciodes tharos (Drury), V.2 to [X.10. Argynnis cybele (Fabricius), V.31 to

VIII.31; in 1937, V.28. Euptoieta claudia (Cramer), VII.26; [X.1, 7.

Subfamily DanatNaE: Danaus plexippus (Linné), V.27 to 1X.10; more

common in early and midsummer than usual.

Subfamily LinyTHEINAE: Libythea bachmani (Kirtland), VIII.3, 23; TX.14.

Family LYCAENIDAE: Subfamily Spaueinae: Feniseca tarquinius

(Fabricius), 1V.17; VII.4, 5.

Subfamily LycaENntInaE: Lycaena phlaeas hypophlaeas (Boisduval), IV.25

to VII.7; in 1937, 1V.8. Lycaenopsis argiolus pseudargiolus (Boisduval and

LeConte), III.31 to VII.14; also VIII. 12,1939. Hveres comyntas (Godart),

MVE7 to LX. 9)

Subfamily THrciinaE: EHupsyche m-album (Boisduval and LeConte)

IV.17, two on redbud; IV.29, one on apple blossom. Strymon titus mopsus

(Hubner), VI.14 to VII.14. Strymon liparops (Boisduval and LeConte),

V1.30. Strymon falacer (Godart), VI.9 to VII.22. Strymon melinus (Hiibner),

IV.25 to IX.8. Calycopis cecrops (Fabricius), V.5 to [X.8; also IV.30. 1939.

Mitoura gryneus (Hiibner), V.5 to VIII.11. Incisalia niphon (Hiibner), VI.30

(only one seen); in 1937, in April.

Family PAPILIONIDAE: Subfamily Prerinaz: Pieris rapae (Linné),

III.28 to [X.10. Prerts protodice Boisduval and LeConte, III.29 to VIII.17.

Anthocharis genutia (Fabricius), 1V.4 to 5.V. Phoebis eubule (Linné), IV.24.

1939; 1X.19.1937; not seen in 1940. The senior author found it at Farmville,

IV.24.1939, at Goochland Court House on the same date, and at Blackstone,

Nottoway County, IV.23.1939. It is unusual to find this butterfly in Virginia

in spring. Colias philodice philodice Godart, 1V.16 to V.16; IX.8, 9; also

III.27.1939. Colias philodice eurytheme Boisduval, form ariadne, IV.3 to

V.26; form eurytheme, V.5 to 1X.9; in 1939 to X1.29. Hurema nicippe (Cramer),

IV.16; [X.1. Hurema lisa (Boiduval and LeConte), VII.19 to IX.10; also

X-30.1938.

Subfamily PaPILIoNINAE: Papilio philenor Linné, 1V.17 to IX.7. Papilio

polyxenes astertus Cramer, IV.10 to 1X.10. Papilio cresphontes Cramer, IX.4

(seen). Papilio glaucus Linné, IV.4 to IX.7; in 1939, III.26. Papilio troilus

Linné, [V.10 to [X.10. Papilio marcellus Cramer, IV.10 to VIII.24; seldom

more than a few seen each season; more frequent than usual in 1940.

Family HESPERIIDAE: Subfamily Pyreinas: Epargyreus clarus (Cra-

mer), I[V.29 to [X.10; in 1939, IV.26. Achalarus lyciades (Geyer), V.26 to

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 31, No. 1

VIII.26. Rhabdoides cellus (Boisduval and LeConte), VIII.11. Thorybes

bathyllus (Smith), V.5 to [X.10; in 1939, IV.30. Thorybes pylades (Scudder),

V.25 to VIII.6. Thorybes confusis Bell, VI.6 to VIII.8. Pyrgus communis

(Grote), V.16 to IX.9; in 1937, V.9. Pholisora catullus (Fabricius), V.7 to

1X.1. Erynnis icelus (Scudder and Burgess), not found at Farmville; the au-

thors took it at Morven, Amelia County, IV.28.1940. Erynnis brizo (Bois-

duval and LeConte), IV.29; V.5, 138; also ITI.27.1938. Erynnis martialis

(Scudder), V.19; VII.7, 21 26; VIII.9, 18; also V.16 and VII.10.1937. Erynnis

juvenalis (Fabricius), [V.7 to V.5; also III.27.1938. EHrynnis horatius (Scud-

der and Burgess), V.5. Hrynnis zarucco (Lucas), V.19; VII.7. This butterfly

has not heretofore been found in spring in Virginia.

Subfamily Hrsprrunar: Ancylorypha numitor (Fabricius), V.21, 28;

V1.3, 12; VII.11 to IX.9. Hesperia metea (Scudder), V.5 to 26; not common.

Hesperia attalus (W. H. Edwards), form semznole (Scudder), V1.9; one fe-

male. This is the first record for Virginia. An earlier record (Proc. Biol. Soc.

Washington 51: 5. 1938) was based on a misidentification. A specimen quite

similar to the one from Farmville was taken by the senior author at Clarks

Gap, Loudoun County, [X.22.1940. Both specimens are now in the U. 8.

National Museum. Hylephila phylaeus (Drury); not found in 1940; VIII.30.

1939. Atalopedes campestris (Boisduval), V.31; VII.7 to IX. 9. Polites verna

(W. H. Edwards), V1.2; VIII.11, 18; in woods. Polites manataaqua (Harris),

VI.2,-23; VIII.18; aan 9; also V.29.1937. Polites themistocles (Latreille),

V.26 to [X.10. Polites peckius (Kirby), VIII.18. Wallengrenia otho egeremet

(Scudder), VII.30 to [X.1; also VI.13.1937. Poanes zabulon (Boisduval and

LeConte), V.15 to VI.2; VIIL11 to IX.1. Atrytone ruricola (Boisduval),

V1i.30; VIII.11, 18. Atrytonopsis hianna (Scudder), V.12 to VI.2; in waste

fields. ‘Amblyscirtes vialis (W. H. Edwards), V.17, 26; VI.6; VIII. me Lerodea

Vhermimer (Latreille), VI.9, 23; VIII.11 to IX. 8. also Ve 27. 1938.

CONTENTS

PaLEonroLocy.—The role of the individual in evolution. GroreE

GAYLORD SIMPSON....... EE Fal ee Se eee oe

PaLEONTOLOGY.—Ostracoda from the Devonian (Onondaga) chert of

west Tennessee. RK. 8. BASSLER.../.000.. 00005. 1. ees.

Patzosotany.—Notes on the Pleistocene of Maryland. Epwarp W.

ZOoLoGy.—Contracaecum quincuspis, a new species of nematode from —

the American waterturkey. JoHn T. Lucker................. 33

EntTomMoLocy.—Butterflies of Farmville, Virginia. Austin H. CLARK

aOR AN KR: We DRAIN ERE 2k oe ee ay Ba:

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

iF.

A Ff hat

Frepruary 15, 1941 No. 2

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VoL. 31 FEBRUARY 15, 1941 No. 2

GEOCHEMISTRY.—Time and temperature effects in the formation

of colloidal dispersions.1 P. G. Nuttine, U. 8. Geological

Survey.

Many colloids disperse in water much after the manner of salts

going into solution. There is commonly a concentration limit or solu-

bility, affected by temperature and by the presence of other salts or

colloids. The rate of dispersion depends upon the same factors affect-

ing rate of solution. The concept of peptization is evidently too nar-

row to deal with colloidal dispersion. On the other hand, dispersions

may be treated as solutions if their common tendency to reaggregate

in micellae of a wide size range (comparable to polymerization in

ordinary chemistry) be kept in mind. With complex colloids in acid

solution, dispersion and solution may occur together, and the study

of such solutions throws much light on many soil and geologic prob-

lems.

The writer has investigated at some length the behavior of various

montmorillonite clays in acids of various concentrations and various

ratios of acid to clay.? In these studies a 48-hour digestion at 90° C.

was commonly used. Here reported are digestions at 90°, 3 hours to

11 days, and at 28°, 1 to 128 days, each in 8 steps. The latter shows

an interesting case of recombination of ions with colloidal micellae

well worth recording.

The clay used was the purest montmorillonite bentonite known,

from the Vicksburg formation near Polkville in central Mississippi.

It is practically 100 percent crystalline, and most of the crystals

(montmorillonite) are assembled in shard relicts indicating that no

reworking had occurred. For use it was withdrawn from storage in a

saturated atmosphere and room-dried to permit grinding to 150 mesh

(0.1 mm). Twenty grams of this clay was put in 4 liters of 0.4 percent

HCl previously brought to temperature (28° for one run, 93° for the

other) and vigorously stirred at intervals. At the stated time inter-

1 Published by permission of the Director, Geological Survey, U. 8S. Department of

the Interior. Received November 20, 1940.

2 Nutting, P. G., A study of bleach clay solubthty. Journ. Franklin Inst. 224: 339.

1937. Also, Study of a magnesium clay. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 30: 233. 1940.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

vals, 400 ce of solution was withdrawn and filtered for analysis. The

filtration, through the clay itself on Whatman 42 paper, was con-

tinued until the filtrate showed little or no scattered light (Tyndall

beam) in a very strong light beam. This means an upper Ta to par-

ticle size of less than 0.1 micron.

These 400-ce portions of filtrate were evaporated to dryness in

TABLE 1.—SOLUBILITY OF CLAY AT 93° C.

; SiO Combined

Time of Water Soluble Soluble : Combined R:0O3;

treatment insoluble R203 CaO SiO; R20; I

nsoluble ;

SiO.

3 hours 0.2572 None 0.0630 0.1652 0.0343 0.642 0.208

7 hours 0.4732 None 0.0951 0.2962 0.0979 0.626 0.330

24 hours 0.8588 None 0.0961 0.4918 0.1912 0.573 0.389

2 days 1.2500 0.0238 0.0966 0.6295 0.2932 0.504 0.465

4 days 1.5671 0.1518 0.1071 0.8628 0.3748 0.551 0.434

6 days 1.7648 0.1786 0.1280 0.8484 0.4754 0.481 0.560

8 days 1.7639 0.2036 0.1424 0.8472 0.5106 0.480 0.603

11 days Wace 0.2425 0.2019 0.8492 0.5808 0.479 0.684

SiO, and RoOz in Filtrate - g/!

Doys at 93°

Fig. 1.—Solubility of clay at 93° C.

150-cce pyrex beakers, then put in an oven at 160° for an hour to re-

move all free moisture. Check tests showed no appreciable vaporiza-

tion or insolubilization of the mixed chlorides (chiefly of Al, Fe, and

Ca with traces of Na and K) present by this treatment. After the

total residue was weighed, water soluble chlorides were removed by

boiling 10 minutes in distilled water, decanting, and the residue again

dried at 160°. This water-insoluble residue, after weighing, is wet with

Fes. 15, 1941 NUTTING: COLLOIDAL DISPERSIONS 43

concentrated HCl, then treated with about 15 cc of hot 20-percent

HCl for 30 minutes to separate bases from silica.

The results obtained at 93° are given in Table I and graphed in

Fig. 1, expressed in grams per liter.

As regards silica and water-insoluble residue, the solution appears

to approach saturation in about 4 days, half saturation in about 1

day. Silica approaches 0.85 gram per liter as a limit, water-insolubles

1.8. Water-soluble R.O; first appears in the 2-day digestion but com-

bined R.O; appears in 3 hours. Both forms of R.O; appear to be still

increasing after 11 days. The CaO in this clay is not all removed at

the start as with some clays, but only about a third in the first 3

hours. Calcium does not recombine (like part of the R.O;) in this

dilute acid solution. A pH of 1.56 was taken after 8 days. After 5

months at room temperature (28°) the pH of this solution was 0.93,

and the water soluble R.O; had decreased to nothing.

In the original clay, SiO. was about 68 percent of the total solids.

In these solutions that ratio starts at 64 and drops toward 48, which

is below the Al.O3-2S8i0, ratio. In the clay, R2O3/SiO2 is about 0.40,

while in the washed residue that ratio ranges from 0.2 to nearly 0.7

and is still rising in the 8-11 day interval. Pure silica is soluble in

water at 90° to the extent of 0.418 gram per liter, less than half the

maximum (0.85) here attained. Acid depresses the solubility of silica

in water, but by dissolving bases from the clay it releases silica to go

into solution in the water and there recapture the bases previously

associated with it. MgO constitutes 4.5 percent of this clay, but no

more than traces were ever found in solution. The chlorides of alumi-

num and iron undoubtedly hydrolize in solution, thus setting free more

acid as these bases reunite with silica. Until these chlorides leave the

clay, the associated water is insufficient for hydrolysis.

At 28° the solution of clay in 0.4 percent HCl is not only very much

slower, but an essentially different process. As before, 20 grams of

150-mesh Polkville clay was put in 4 liters of 0.4 percent hydrochloric

acid in a pyrex flask. The temperature of the room (air conditioned)

seldom rose above 29° or fell below 27° and then only for brief pe-

riods. At intervals, 400-ce portions were withdrawn, filtered, and

analyzed as described above. The results (in grams per liter) are

shown in Table 2 and graphed in Fig. 2.

No trace of water-soluble R20; was found in any of the first resi-

dues; all that is dissolved from the clay recombines with the silica in

solution. There is no indication of any saturation limit being ap-

proached in 128 days. Silica apparently passes through a minimum

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

TABLE 2.—SOLUTION OF CLay IN AcID aT 28° C.

Days of Water

pace ae ere CaO_soluble SiOz Insoluble R:Os

I era. | 0.0220 0.0837 0.0141 0.0007

Pte Mie ae 0.0337 0.0751 0.0066 Trace

ABS aki: 0.0425 0.0760 0.0098 None

Shae. 0.0796 0.0727 0.0258 0.0136

LG erie cc 0.1157 0.0929 0.0817 0.0177

BUI ae 0.1984 0.0938 0.1187 0.0281

GE cats 0.4061 0.1026 0.2469 0.0605

TOS ce 0.6508 0.1138 0.3682 0.1492

Solids in Filtrate — g/I

[ss

eee

Doys at 28°

Fig. 2.—Solubility of clay at 28° C.

during the first few days, then rises steadily. Water-insoluble solids

increase from the start. Recombined R2O; appears after 4 days, re-

mains low for a month, then rises rapidly. The ratio SiO:/water-insol-

uble remains approximately constant (average 0.58) instead of de-

creasing to a minimum as it does at 90°. The saturation limit for pure

silica (0.195 gram per liter at 28°) is passed in about 50 days and is

nearly double this in 128 days.

The adsorption of ions on colloidal micellae is well known to chem-

ists. The results here reported afford a quantitative view of the

mechanism of one such process familiar to geologists in which the

micellae are submicroscopic and approach true solution. |

In soils, alternately wet (with slightly acid water) and dried, con-

ditions are evidently very favorable for the formation of montmoril-

lonitic particles from the mother rock substance. Soil acids dissolve

the bases while water dissolves the silica. In solution, the salts hydro-

lyze (as they could not in the rock), and the bases recombine with the

Fes. 15, 1941 NUTTING: COLLOIDAL DISPERSIONS 45

silica. Drying precipitates the colloid. The occurrence of montmoril-

lonitic clays in rock seams or filling cavities in quartz crystals and as

replacements of shells and decomposed granite is readily understand-

able. Elements not needed in the recombination are excluded; thus

dendrites of manganese oxide and specks of chromite and biotite are

commonly found associated with clays of this type.

Many possible disturbing factors were investigated and may be

briefly mentioned. Adding excess acid to the filtrate before evapora-

tion does not affect the analysis, nor does the addition of ammonia up

to the point where precipitation begins. If excess pure silica solution

is added, that silica remains uncombined with the bases. In one series

of tests, sodium fluosilicate, Na.SiFs, was added in varying amounts

from 0.01 to 0.14 gram in 400 cc of clay solution, but no effect on the

silica or on either soluble or insoluble R2O; was found. The anion

effect in solution analysis is large. Oxalic, phosphoric, and sulphuric

acids depress or inhibit recombination (of RO; with silica) in solu-

tion, while nitric acid forces all R.O; into combination with silica,

despite the high concentration reached during evaporation. The be-

havior of clays in different acids will be reported in a later paper.

SUMMARY

Solutions of montmorillonitic clay in dilute hydrochloric acid, at

either 28 or 90° C., may contain more than twice the silica of a sat-

urated solution of pure silica in water.

Part of the sesquioxides leave the clay and combine with silica to

form submicroscopic colloidal particles recoverable by evaporation.

At 90° equilibrium is approached in 4 days; at 28° solution curves

are still rising after 128 days.

The possible bearing of these results on the formation of clay col-

loids in rock cavities and soils is discussed.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 2

BOTANY.—Naming the cultivated rubber tree Siphonia ne

O. F. Coox. U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry.

As indicated in Science,” historians of the rubber industry are

seriously misled by confusion among the names of different trees in

South America. The usual designation of the cultivated rubber tree is

Hevea brasiliensis, but this is ambiguous on account of being borrowed

from two other rubber trees. The generic name Hevea was transferred

from a tree found by La Condamine in 1736 on the Pacific coast of

Ecuador, and the specific name brasiliensis from a tree that Humboldt

and Bonpland collected on the upper Orinoco in 1800. The generic

name Siphonia has historic warrant for replacing Hevea, as will be

explained. The specific name Szphonia ridleyana is suggested to com-

memorate the discovery by Henry N. Ridley of the method of extract-

ing the rubber-bearing latex of this tree, which may be reckoned

among the major events of history. No other domestication or intro-

duction of a plant has such marked reactions on human affairs. The

rubber discovery was made at the Singapore Botanic Gardens in

1889, as recounted by David Fairchild in the Journal of Heredity for

May, 1928, from notes of a visit to Ridley in 1896.

Giving the cultivated rubber tree a name of its own may assist in

clarifying some of the problems of production. This tree has been the

subject of intensive investigation in the East Indies, but has had

relatively little study in tropical America. The cultural problems are

not the same in America, and a different approach is necessary on

account of the Castilla or Central American rubber tree being much

better known in most of the American countries. The original habitat

of the cultivated rubber tree was in the lower Amazon Valley, while

Castilla extended through tropical America from Mexico to Peru,

Bolivia, and Brazil, several species being recognized. |

Without Ridley’s discovery there would have been no commercial

planting of Szphonia in the East Indies, higher prices would have

ruled, and some of the Castilla plantations in Mexico and Central

America would have been profitable. In that event the planting of

Castilla might have extended through tropical America and our pres-

ent dangerous dependence on the East Indies would not have occurred.

Markham’s project of cultivating rubber in the East Indies would

have miscarried, and Wickham’s rape of the Brazilian rubber tree,

dramatized by so many historical writers, could have had little sig-

nificance. The industrial utilization of rubber doubtless would have

1 Received December 30, 1940.

2 Science 85: 406—407. 1937.

Fes. 15, 1941 COOK: NAMING THE RUBBER TREE | 47

gone forward but in different courses and much more slowly. The

exploitation of wild rubber in Brazil would have been carried into

more remote forests, with increasing difficulty and hardship among

the laboring people, till cost limits were reached, or demands could be

met from planted Castilla rubber. Planting Szphonza in Brazil was not

feasible under the native method of tapping, and the native leaf dis-

ease is another obstacle not yet surmounted.

CASTILLA THE ORIGINAL RUBBER TREE

A general priority may be claimed for Castzlla as a source of rubber,

not only in Mexico and Central America, but also in South America.

The labor required for gathering Castzlla rubber is much less than with

Szphonia, on account of the latex being more abundant and flowing

more freely, but the trees are destroyed. It was not till the middle of

the nineteenth century, after Castilla had been exhausted along the

Amazon, that the Para rubber tree began to be exploited on a large

seale. The extinction of Castilla is explained by the method of tapping,

the trees being felled and ringed with tapping cuts at frequent inter-

vals along the whole length of the trunk and the larger branches.

Fifty pounds of rubber may be obtained from a large Castilla tree,

though most of the latex remains in the bark. Castilla rubber is

essentially the same as Szphonia rubber, but requiring different treat-

ment, like cane sugar and beet sugar.

The idea of replacing the natural resources of wild rubber with cul-

tivated trees was entertained much earlier in Mexico, some of the

planted Castilla trees dating back to 1867, nearly 30 years in advance

of the commercial planting of Szphonia in the Malay Peninsula.

Thousands of acres were set with Castilla trees in southern Mexico

near the end of the last century, before the East Indian rubber indus-

try was developed. But Ridley’s method of tapping could not be

applied to Castilla, and the Mexican rubber plantations became a

complete failure.

The differences between the two principal types of rubber trees

need to be clearly understood, and also the nature of Ridley’s dis-

covery, before the problems of utilization can be approached to full

advantage in tropical America. The Sizphonia tree, because it was

limited in nature to Brazil and as yet has been cultivated chiefly in the

Kast Indies, comes to most of the American countries as a new intro-

duction, and inevitably is viewed from the standpoint of experience

with the local Castilla tree, which proved disappointing. Siphonia

often appears less promising than Castilla, until the differences are

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 2

appreciated. In early plantings of the two trees, in Haiti and in

Panama, Szphonia was reckoned as a complete failure, and the trees

cut down, on account of the smaller flow of latex, before Ridley’s

method of repeated tapping of Szphonia became known. The secret

lies in the latex tubes of Szphonza uniting into a network. The latex

tubes of Castilla do not form a connected system, the flow of latex

does not continue, and the Castilla trees are soon killed by severe tap-

ping. Mechanical extraction is possible by harvesting the entire

Castilla tree as a forest product, as explained in Science, April 23,

1937, but Szphonia is superior as a plantation tree, producing rubber

in a few years and yielding regularly.

CONFUSION OF THE NAMES

The cultivated rubber tree is known to have been carried to the

East Indies from the lower Amazon Valley, and often is called “‘the

Para rubber tree,” but is stated in many reference works to have been

discovered in the forest of Esmeraldas on the Pacific coast of Ecuador

by the French engineer-astronomer La Condamine in 1736. In reality,

neither this tree nor any related species has been found in any locality

west of the Andes, all the species of S:phonia being confined to the

Amazon Valley or to the Atlantic watershed in Guiana and Venezuela.

The rubber tree of the Pacific coast district of Esmeraldas is a

species of Castilla, like the Mexican and Central American rubber

trees. The genus Castilla belongs to the. breadfruit family, related to

the fig and the Osage orange, while the Para rubber tree belongs to the

spurge or euphorbia family, with the castor bean and cassava. Cas-

tilla is very widely distributed in tropical America, from Mexico to

Brazil, had numerous uses among the natives, and furnished the early

exports of rubber to Europe, not only from Mexico and Central

America, but also from South America, including the Amazon Valley.

The error of supposing that the Para rubber tree was discovered in

Ecuador arises from the fact that the native name heve, relating in

EKeuador to the Castilla tree, was carried to Guiana and erroneously

used as the name of a genus, to which the Para rubber tree later was

referred. The modern preponderance of the Brazilian rubber tree has

left the error unrecognized. :

La Condamine was the first European to foresee a commercial

future for the strange elastic substance that others had passed as a

curiosity. Two centuries earlier Sahagun had described the Mexican

ulli as a very pliable resin (resina muy correosa) made into bouncing

balls, and another century was to pass before Hancock and Goodyear

Fes. 15, 1941 COOK: NAMING THE RUBBER TREE 49

undertook its industrial development. La Condamine’s interest in

rubber was expressed in a report to the Royal Academy of Sciences at

Paris in 1736, and led at Esmeraldas to a personal friendship with a

capable young Spaniard named Maldonado, familiar with the native

uses of rubber. Maldonado accompanied La Condamine on the return

journey but died soon after reaching France, so that the rubber in

Ecuador received no further attention.

Rubber was in demand, chiefly for candles and torches, and was

being gathered in the upper Amazon Valley when La Condamine

descended the river in 1743. Small objects modeled of rubber were seen

at Para, and some of these were carried to French Guiana, where a

search for rubber trees was started. Fresneau, an engineer who spent

14 years in this colony, found several latex-bearing trees, as reported

through La Condamine to the Paris Academy in 1751. One of the

Guiana trees was supposed from native information to be the kind

that furnished rubber in Brazil, and this was described by Aublet in

1775 as Hevea guianensis. Several localities were noted, and the nuts

were said to be gathered and eaten by the natives, the ‘“‘almond”’ hav-

ing a pleasant taste. La Condamine and Fresneau are not mentioned,

but a reference is given to the ‘‘poor figure’”’ of the Guiana tree in the

memoir of 1751. The name “Hevea peruviana’”’ engraved on Aublet’s

plate 335 leaves no doubt that the Guiana tree was supposed to be

the same that La Condamine had found on the coast of Esmeraldas,

“northwest of Quito,’ where Castilla grows, and the name heve was

recorded.

Thus it came about that the name heve, used by the natives of Es-

meraldas for the Castilla tree, was employed by Aublet as a generic

designation for the Guiana rubber tree, and by later botanists it was

extended to the Para rubber tree. Some writers have compromised by

placing Esmeraldas in Brazil or in Venezuela, instead of in Ecuador,

showing another kind of confusion that a misleading name may gener-

ate. Ducke says in a footnote of his Revision of the Genus Hevea, in

1935: “I do not know why Aublet attributed the origin of the name

heve to Esmeraldas on the Pacific coast of Ecuador, where the genus

Hevea is unknown.” The reason is that the trees were assumed to be

the same, since both produced rubber.

Aublet followed Plumier in using many native vernacular names as

generic designations. Dozens of such names were adopted, some of

them much alike and easily confused, as Couepia, Coupout, Couratart,

Courbari, Couroupita, Coumarouna, and Coutoubea. Linnaeus and his

followers often rejected such vernacular names as “‘barbarous,”’ but a

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 2

more serious objection may be seen in the lack of distinctive meaning,

and the difficulty of remembering them as merely arbitrary colloca-

tions of letters or sounds. An authentic aboriginal name for an out-

standing type, like Mammea for the mamey or mammee-apple of the

West Indies, has meaning and historic interest, at least in its native

country, but a misplaced aboriginal name, carried to a distant region

and applied to a different plant, inevitably generates confusion.

SIPHONIA AN ALTERNATIVE NAME

To avoid the confusion thus inherent in the use of Hevea as a generic

name for the cultivated rubber tree, the name Siphonia may be re-

sumed, which had been the accepted name of the genus during three-

quarters of a century and should have been retained. The return to

Hevea by Mueller von Aargau in 1865 apparently was taken on

grounds of priority alone, without considering that Hevea had been

discarded as a homonym. The principle of priority, with its promise of

greater stability in nomenclature, was coming into prominence in the

time of Mueller, but priority alone is not a solution. It is only one of

the principles that affect the utility of names. Under guise of priority

many obscure names were taken up, which more careful study would

have left in oblivion. The method of types, for fixing the original

applications of generic names, received little attention from botanists

until the last decade of the nineteenth century.

Specious arguments are made that rules of nomenclature should be

set aside in dealing with names of important plants, to avoid trouble-

some changes. There is equal need to reflect that plants of special

utility are more likely to receive historical study, and there is no

assurance that ‘‘technical botany” will be appreciated for any special

dispensations that would tend to confuse and obscure the early rec-

ords. With the economic plants there is greater need of unequivocal

names, not borrowed from other species. The taxonomic problems

need to be studied with more care than has been customary, and with

better appreciation of the various functions of botanical science in

human welfare. Needless complications in codes of nomenclature are

evidence of inadequate study. Our International rules of botanical

nomenclature have a rather elaborate section on ‘‘Gender of Generic

Names” but overlook an elementary rule of Latin grammar that has

governed botanical usage, the rule that tree names and plant names

take feminine adjectives, to agree with arbor or herba as an implied

appositive.

The difficulties of changing names often are exaggerated, since

Fes. 15, 1941 COOK: NAMING THE RUBBER TREE 51

botanical workers are accustomed to the use of alternative names.

The notion of new names being entered at once and old names sum-

marily discarded, is found among indexers, cataloguers, or even her-

barium assistants, rather than among experienced botanists, familiar

with the use of names in the study of plants. The ‘‘old’”’ names are not

“wrong,” unless they are given to the wrong plant. A familiar long-

current name may continue for years to serve reference purposes,

botanic, bibliographic, or commercial, better than a new name, unless

both names can be given. The older names never are completely dis-

carded, but remain in reference use among students of botany who

have sufficient interest to follow the history of a plant to the original

sources.

Changes of names necessarily are made gradually, since there is no

escape under scientific methods from the fact that the acceptance of

new names is determined eventually by knowledge of the plants. Like

‘patents applied for,’’ new names obtain formal recognition when the

descriptions are published, but general currency is not attained until

other botanists have studied the plants and are convinced that the

groups in reality are distinct from others previously known, or that

the earlier names were not properly used. Practical tests of usage are

not made unless suitable alternatives are available for names that are

equivocal or confusing. A tree that has only an ambiguous, misleading

name is less accessible to study.

Some of the changes of names result from new plants being dis-

covered or mistakes corrected, while others arise from progress in

classification through the discovery of new characters or relationships.

It is a mistake to suppose that a completely uniform nomenclature is

possible, or that a fixed system would be desirable in the present state

of knowledge. All the names are provisional in the sense of requiring

continued approval, and subject to change with increased knowledge.

The notion of disregarding the names that were considered by their

authors as provisional is one of the strange proposals in recent efforts

to reform the system of nomenclature that would generate needless

complications. In science as in other activities the tendency is for

public interests to be treated casually, with the arguments often

drifting away from the facts. The danger of science disintegrating into

sterile specialties is not imaginary. Constructive reforms are needed

to keep taxonomy as a part of the study of plants and to open this

field of natural interest to a wider public. George Santayana’s Dia-

logues in Limbo satirize botany as a trivial, overtechnical science with

a peevish insistence on “‘the right names for flowers.”

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 2

RIDLEY’S FATEFUL DISCOVERY

A more fateful discovery than Ridley’s method of harvesting the

rubber of the Szphonia tree would be difficult to adduce from the

pages of history. Many ‘“‘epoch-making inventions” are recounted,

but none that so promptly affected so many millions of people. In all

civilized countries living conditions and social relations were pro-

foundly changed in a few years. Even among primitive tribes in re-

mote and backward regions of the Tropics, rubber cultivation had

almost immediate effects. Thousand of Malays, Hindoos, and Chi-

nese soon were engaged as contract laborers on the rubber planta-

tions, while other thousands of even more primitive people were

released from the gathering of wild rubber in forest regions of both

hemispheres, and in effect were reprieved from extinction through

Ridley’s discovery.

A parallel may be seen in Eli Whitney’s invention of the saw gin for

short-staple cotton, which had social and political significance in the

rapid expansion of Negro slavery in the Southern States, eventuating

in the Civil War, but these effects were relatively local, while the

rubber reactions are world-wide. The ascendancy of the northern

nations of Europe may be ascribed to the introduction of the potato,

but centuries were required for the potato sequence to work out,

while less than half a century has elapsed since the first commercial

planting of the S:phonia tree, in 1896.

To open new sources of rubber, the tropical world of both hemi-

spheres was being ransacked before the first plantations began to pro-

duce. Hundreds of localized rubber-bearing plants had been found,

trees, shrubs, and vines, and many of these were being intensively

exploited, through natives enlisted as rubber-gatherers. Although

commercial and industrial advantages are reckoned from such utili-

zation of natural resources in primitive countries, the general effect is

that the native populations are rapidly disorganized, depleted, and

destroyed. The older rubber and chicle districts in southern Mexico

and Central America were completely depopulated, and much of the

rubber country in South America. Rubber-gatherers were recruited in

the coast districts of Brazil and carried hundreds of miles to the rubber

forests, where thousands perished. This period of frantic rubber-

gathering reached an end when plantation rubber came into the mar-

ket, and lower prices were in prospect. Gruesome chapters of exploi-

tive savagery are outlined in the book entitled Rubber, a story of glory

and greed, by Howard and Ralph Wolf, 1936.

Fes. 15, 1941 COOK: NAMING THE RUBBER TREE od

Rubber production offered such immediate advantages that only a

few years were required for a new agricultural industry to be created

in the East Indies, and new manufacturing industries in Europe and

America, providing new systems of communication and transporta-

tion in all civilized countries. Rubber and gutta-percha as insulating

materials made it possible for electricity to be utilized. Our highly

mechanized civilization often is symbolized as ‘‘the Rubber Age.”

Riding on rubber has become our “standard of living.”’ A vast ex-

tension of the human environment has taken place.

Hundreds of chemical and physical discoveries have contributed to

“modern scientific progress,’ but rubber in thousands of tons was

necessary for the endless new applications to be developed. Ridley’s

biological observation was the critical point in quantity production,

making it possible for our industrial and cultural transformations to

go forward with such amazing speed. It might be said that Ridley

turned on the rubber, and caused an industrial deluge. Even our

“World Wars” and our ‘‘economic chaos”? may be reckoned as con-

sequences of Ridley’s discovery, from facilities of transportation and

communication being increased too rapidly for social adjustments to

be made. Industrial populations ‘‘demand continuous prosperity’’ in

order to furnish regular employment. Commercial rivalry is readily

intensified to savage competition and national conflict.

RIDLEY A NATURALIST

It should not detract from our appreciation of Ridley’s discovery

that it was made under pioneer conditions and was not reported for

several years, as Ridley explained in a letter to Fairchild, published in

November, 1928, in the Journal of Heredity. Only a beginning was

made, and scientific interest is not competitive. Ridley was not an

inventor or an intensive specialist, but a naturalist, and the rubber

tree with him was one of many concurrent interests. The tapping

method was discovered casually, as a simple observation of latex

flowing repeatedly from the same wound, and in larger quantity,

after paring the cut.

It was known from Brazil that the first tapping drew little latex

and was referred to as “calling the rubber.’”’ Hatchets were used for

tapping in Brazil, gashing and scarring the trees, so that the surface in

a few seasons became too rough for tapping to continue. The period of

production would have been too short for plantations to have been

practicable under the Brazilian method of tapping. Ridley’s method

replaced the many gashes with a single knife-cut, thus greatly reduc-

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

ing the labor of tapping, avoiding injury to the bark, and extending

the period of production through many years.

Caring for the rubber trees at Singapore, as superintendent of the

botanic gardens, did not make Ridley directly responsible for a study

of methods of tapping. The extraction of rubber was viewed officially

as a physiological problem and was being investigated at a laboratory

in Ceylon. Notions of professional property might have kept Ridley’s

volunteer interest from being exercised. It was assumed in Ceylon

that the Brazilian method of tapping with many small cuts would be

followed, and on that basis there could be little outlook to commercial

planting.

The theory of the wound response, as inducing a greater intensity of

physiological action in the bark of the tree and thus increasing the

flow of latex, has been reckoned as a scientific contribution from the

work in Ceylon, but in reality it was erroneous and misleading. The

underlying facts were determined by later investigators, that the latex

system is continuous and that a more liquid latex, with a lower con-

tent of rubber, replenishes the tubes adjacent to the tapping cut,

which explains the freer flow in the subsequent tappings. By virtue of

the minute latex tubes uniting into a network, the entire system

drains to a single outlet. The prompt replacement of the latex and re-

newal of the bark pressure may be viewed as a remarkable provision

of the Siphonia tree against the wound reactions that otherwise

might occur, if the tissues were depleted or were invaded by fungi or

bacteria.

Novelty is not the naturalist’s primary interest, nor is he intent

upon the industrial or commercial utility of any fact that he may ob-

serve. The satisfactions of the naturalist are in seeing what nature

affords. “‘I have never got over may astonishment at this world.’’ Not

only the lands and the landscapes, the towns and the belfries, call the

naturalist, but all the forms of life, that he may ‘‘feast his heart.”

Bates, in The naturalist on the Amazons, recounts his years of unabated

interest: ‘Although now a forest rambler of ten years’ experience, the

beautiful forest which surrounds this settlement gave me as much

enjoyment as if I had only just landed for the first time in a tropical

country.” “The saddest hours I ever recollect to have spent” were in

leaving Brazil. “I felt that the last link which connected me with the

land of so many pleasing recollections was broken.”’

Ridley was an explorer of the Malayan forests, but he also took

account of the South American rubber trees in the Singapore Garden

and became interested in the flow of latex, to the extent of making his

Fes. 15, 1941 COOK: NAMING THE RUBBER TREE 59

simple tests. He wanted to see how close the cuts could be made

together and whether the flow would be affected. Different cuts were

tried and gradually simplified to a sloping groove cut with a sharp

gouge, with a thin layer removed every morning or at intervals of two

or three days, thus obtaining a repeated flow of latex, through weeks,

months, and years.

THE FIRST COMMERCIAL PLANTING

Ridley saw the bearing of his discovery, but its practical importance

still had to be demonstrated by establishing rubber plantations. As

Lamarck once reflected, making a fact known often is more difficult

than discovering it. Although many planters were “strongly advised

to turn their attention to this plant,” several years passed before any

individual was found with sufficient intelligence and courage to make

such an experiment on a commercial scale. Fairchild says, in The

world was my garden, that Ridley ‘“‘complained of the lack of interest

the British planters of the Malay States showed in this Brazilian

rubber tree.’’? How many British planters refused the distinction of

pioneering the rubber industry is not stated, but in 1896, according to

Ridley’s report, “‘Mr. Tan Chay Yan was induced by the Director of

the Botanic Gardens to plant rubber.’ The discovery might easily

have miscarried and been forgotten. An accident to Ridley or to Yan

might have turned the scale. There was only this ‘“‘Chinaman’s

chance”’ of rubber being planted. To Ridley it seemed in order that

the Gardens be used and appreciated, but not that he should turn

aside from botany and make a million out of rubber. ‘‘Reward as such

has nothing to do with the essential act of creating.’’

False impressions are conveyed by much that is written to advocate

science. Special states of mind are supposed to be needed for making

important discoveries. ‘‘Scientific discovery almost always depends

upon a man’s looking at something in the dry light of the intellect and

isolating himself from the previous thoughts both of himself and other

men about it.’’ Forced abstraction, ‘‘supreme attention to one thing,”

may be a mental environment for logical analysis of formal problems

but is no substitute for the naturalist’s interest. ‘“No remarkable dis-

covery is in the power of anyone.”’ Ridley’s discovery was an accident,

but one that could not occur without the trees at hand, and the atten-

tive mind.

Nobody at that time had the idea of a rubber tree with a continuous

latex system, that would provide a repeated flow of rubber milk by

shaving the margin of the same wound every day or on alternate days.

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 31, NO. 2

Such a notion of rubber production would have seemed too fantastic

to be credited, until it took body as a fact, after Ridley’s discovery

and demonstration. Goethe says that we see only what we know, but

with each advance of knowledge somebody must see what has not

been known, or even expected. This is the creative vision, to see things

as they actually are, and to lay aside our former limitations. The ex-

pansion of the rubber industry, after the first plantation had suc-

ceeded, was so immediate and overwhelming that Ridley’s discovery

was generally overlooked and might have remained in oblivion if

Fairchild’s record had not been published.

The need for naturalists now seems greater than ever, on account of

our present civilization being so badly overbalanced on the mechani-

cal and industrial sides, even in the study of the biological sciences.

Researches may be conducted in formal lines and elaborately recorded

by men who are not naturalists, take little notice of outlying facts, and

frame their structures of knowledge as closed systems. A misleading

emphasis often is placed on logical or statistical analysis of facts that

have been reduced to formal records, but without the naturalist’s

interest in the wider relations. The nature and extent of Ridley’s

interest may be followed in his many papers and books on the flora of

the Malay region and in his massive work on The dispersal of plants

throughout the world, published in 1930, a general treatise on the adap-

tive characters that determine the dissemination of plants. A review

of his botanical work appeared in Nature for March 21, 1936, oc-

casioned by his eightieth birthday, December 10, 1935.

Sending the tree abroad to let naturalists study it doubtless would

have seemed a fantastic proposal. Progress is contingent on bringing

the naturalists and the trees together. Brazil and other neighboring

regions may be advantaged in the end from the knowledge obtained in

foreign countries. Several eminent naturalists, as Martius, Wallace,

Bates, and Spruce, spent many years in Brazil, but there the rubber

trees are immersed with thousands of other species in the vast

Amazonian forest, and detailed study is out of the question. Not until

the trees are grown separately do their characters and habits become

known. Even botanical specimens of the forest trees are seldom ob-

tained, except as a good marksman may shoot down twigs or small

branches with a rifle. The forest canopy of the tropical world is less

explored than the polar ice-caps. Doubtless some botanical Byrd will

rig a dirigible with a barge of canvas or wire netting that will rest on

the roof of the forest and allow the treetops to be visited.

The chief discovery in South America regarding Szphonia is the

Fes. 15, 1941 COOK: NAMING THE RUBBER TREE 57

leaf disease caused by the fungus Dothidella ulez, or Melanopsammop-

sis ulet. This disease is a serious obstacle to open planting of Siphonia

in Brazil, on account of many fatalities in the seedlings and juvenile

stages, but Ridley’s method of tapping is being applied to trees of

natural growth in the forests, and systems of permanent production

may be developed, instead of rubber districts producing for only a

few years. Commercial interests suffered when the sending of rubber-

gatherers into the remote forests became unprofitable, but with regu-

lar production of rubber settled populations may be established in

many of the rubber districts, and Brazil again may become the princi-

pal source of rubber.

OTHER VERNACULAR NAMES

The primitive people who inhabited the forested regions of tropical

America lived in small, widely separated groups, each tribe with its

own language and with different names for most of the natural prod-

ucts. The rubber of the Castilla tree had the name cauchuc in the

language of the Incas, now called Quichua. The French spelling is

caoutchouc, and the modern Spanish form is caucho, the word that still

is used as the name of Castilla rubber, not only in Ecuador and Peru,

but also in Brazil. Castilla as well as Siphonia existed in all the rubber

areas of the Amazon Valley, and caucho rubber still is exported in

commercial quantities, especially where new districts are being

opened.

The name caucho is not applied in South America to the rubber of

the Szphonia tree, but a Portuguese name borracha, meaning botile in

the original sense of a leather wine-skin. Some of the tribes along the

Amazon knew how to make bottles and squirt-guns by spreading the

latex over an earthen mold, curing the rubber in the smoke of palm-

nuts, then crumbling and washing out the earthen material. Some

writers have supposed that the Siphonia tree was called syringa by

the Portuguese colonists because syringes as well as bottles were made

of the latex, but a simpler explanation may be that the flowers are

clustered like lilacs and have the same fragrance. The men who gather

the Stphonia rubber are called seringueiros, while the caucheros are

those who collect the Castilla rubber, a different occupation.

The Aztec name for Castilla rubber, ule or hule, was recorded by a

Spanish historian, Sahagun, who arrived in Mexico in 1529, more than

two centuries before La Condamine reached South America. In the

seventeenth century another Spanish writer, Cobo, recorded the

Peruvian name cauchuc, and identified it with the ule of Mexico,

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

“which is well known in all the Indies.’’ The leaves, branches, and

fruits of the tree are described to an extent that leaves no doubt of it

being Castilla. Cobo’s book, Historia del Mundo Nuevo, written in

1653, was published in Seville in 1891. No warrant has been found for

a statement in a recent textbook of economic botany that the name

cahuchu was derived from “primitive Central American Indians.”

Many other names, as sheve, sabac, sabbe, zini, sini1, and seru, are

recorded in Lehmann’s Zentral Amerika as equivalents of wle or

caucho in native languages of Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa

Rica, and Nicaragua. The tunu or bark-cloth tree of the Mosquito

coast is a species of Castilla, said to produce only inferior rubber.

Rubber from some of the “West coast’’ districts still is called jebe

as a trade name. The word is defined in several Spanish dictionaries

as caucho or goma elastica, indicating that the two words were sepa-

rately adopted from different native languages of ‘‘Peru’’ in the colo-

nial period. At the beginning of the nineteenth century Humboldt and

Bonpland reported the name caoutchouc as associated in Colombia

with two species of Ficus, and with a species of Lobelia growing as a

tree 20 to 30 feet tall, at altitudes of 6,000 to 9,000 feet, in the

mountains around Popayan.

TREATMENT OF HOMONYMS

The name Szphonia was substituted for Hevea by Lamarck on plate

790 of the Encyclopédie, but the illustrations did not appear till 1798,

The change was noted in the second volume of the Supplement.

published in 1812, but the volume with Szphonia in alphabetic se-

quence was delayed to 1817. The publication of Szphonia usually is

dated from Schreber’s Genera plantarum, 1791, where the name is

credited to Richard, who probably suggested it to Lamarck. Willde-

now, in 1805, seems to have been the first author to publish a species

under Szphonia, with Richard as the author of the specific name,

Siphonia cahuchu, and Hevea guianensis Aublet as a synonym.

Another generic substitute, Caoutchoua, was proposed by Gmelin

in the same year with Schrader’s publication of Siphonza, 1791, and

was accompanied by a specific name, Caoutchoua elastica. Thus

Caoutchoua appears as technically established 14 years before S:-

phonia was equipped with a species by Willdenow. Rules of nomen-

clature, strictly interpreted, would require this name Coautchoua to be

used, with the type species as Caoutchoua guianensis (Aublet), a new

combination.

The underlying objection to Caoutchowa being accepted instead of

Fes. 15, 1941 COOK: NAMING THE RUBBER TREE 59

Siphonia is the same as against Hevea—the confusion inherent in the

fact that the vernacular name cauchuc or caoutchouc related originally

to the Castilla tree and was not properly available as a name for the

Siphonia tree of the Amazon Valley. Misplacement of vernacular

names in scientific terminology obviously is unwarranted, and doubt-

less will be condemned in codes of nomenclature. If botany stood

entirely alone, arbitrary borrowing of vernacular names conceivably

might be tolerated, but for botanical terminology to remain per-

manently at variance with the neighboring sciences, as philology,

ethnology, and pharmacology, is scarcely thinkable.

Formerly it was considered that homonyms might be revived where

the earlier use of a name had proved invalid. Thus in DeCandolle’s

Prodromus the name Evea Aublet was placed as a synonym of Cepha-

laeis, and this may have been supposed to allow the revival of Hevea,

but later writers have treated Evea as a distinct genus. The instability

of names resulting from such variations of opinion among taxonomists

resulted in the rule against homonyms being revived, after once being

discarded. There is nothing to indicate that Mueller took account of

the early history of Hevea or of the objection to homonyms being

restored.

If the names are not words to be spoken, but only graphic symbols

to be copied on labels and catalogue cards, the difference of a silent

letter may seem sufficient, since it gives a visible difference, if not

vocable. The earlier botanists undoubtedly thought of speaking the

names, so that homonyms quite definitely included homophones.

Thus it is possible to object that the names were not identical, and

that substitution of S¢phonia for Hevea was not warranted, but the

fact remains that the change actually was made and was generally

adopted, and that such rejections of names have been considered as

irreversible, under rules of nomenclature. ‘““Once a homonym always

a synonym.” No object is gained by going back to a doubtful or

debatable name, once it has been challenged and discarded as causing

confusion. Treating one name as dependent on variable opinion

regarding the availability of another name obviously conflicts with

the primary need of stability in nomenclature.

MISLEADING NAMES FOR THE SPECIES

The name brasiliensis, generally associated with the cultivated

rubber tree, was borrowed from a related species, not found in the

lower Amazon Valley but on the southern frontier of Venezuela, along

the streams that connect the head waters of the Orinoco and the Rio

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 31, NO. 2

Negro, a region explored in 1800 by Humboldt and Bonpland. The

description of the tree was published by Humboldt, Bonpland, and

Kunth under the name Szphonia brasiliensis in 1825, in the last vol-

ume of the monumental work on the plants of Humboldt’s travels in

tropical America, Nova genera et species plantarum 7:170. Two locali-

ties were reported and two native names, jaczo for the tree and

dapiche for the white rubber, ‘‘caoutchouc album,” said to adhere to

the roots, presumably as exposed on the banks of the rivers. Pittier

has jyacza as a native name in Venezuela, but not dapiche.

The name brasiliensis seems to have been occasioned by the Hum-

boldt specimen being compared by Kunth with a specimen in the

Willdenow herbarium, to which the name Siphonia brasiliensis had

been attached, but without being published. It is hardly to be main-

tained that the use of this name by Kunth constituted a publication

of the Willdenow species. A name is not authenticated by being men-

tioned in synonymy or by being printed with a description of a differ-

ent species. Instead of basing his description on the Willdenow plant,

Kunth stated in a footnote that the Willdenow specimen had smaller

leaves, paler underneath.

The normal assumption would be that the name belongs to the

Humboldt species, the association that is recognized in the Index Ke-

wensis and other reference works. Since Brazil at that time was a

geographic expression rather than a political entity, the name brasi-

liensis would not have appeared inappropriate for any tree from the

vast central forest of South America. The proposal of Baillon in 1858

that the Humboldt tree be assigned a different name, Szphonia

kunthiana, would avoid for this species the confusion involved in the

name brasiliensis, but for the cultivated rubber tree the name brasi-

liensis would still be ambiguous, leading back inevitably to the Hum-

boldt rubber tree and to the long confusion of the two species.

Lamarck recognized in 1789 that the rubber tree of the lower Amazon

was different from Aublet’s Guiana species, but the Humboldt tree

was accepted by many writers as the source of commercial rubber.

Even in Mueller’s critical revisions of the group in DeCandolle’s

Prodromus, 1866, and Flora Brasiliensis, 1874, the two species were

not separated, Baillon’s Siphonia kunthiana being placed as a syno-

nym of “‘Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.”’ No specimens of the fruits or

the seeds were seen by Mueller.

Owing doubtless to the confusion of the two species, no detailed

account of the lower Amazon rubber tree was furnished, but in 1874 a

description was drawn from specimens grown at Rio Janeiro, which

Fes. 15, 1941 COOK: NAMING THE RUBBER TREE 61

Mueller did not recognize as the Para rubber tree, and published as a

new species under the name Hevea janeirensis. This name may be

transferred to Siphonia as a new combination, Szphonia janeirensis,

but using this name for the cultivated rubber tree would create more

confusion, as if a Florida plant that happened to be grown in Canada

were named canadensis. The case is parallel to the use of Asclepias

syriaca as the name of our New England milkweed, and Simmondsia

chinensis for the jojoba nut of southern California and Arizona, plants

not native in Syria or in China or having any relation to those coun-

tries except as specimens were wrongly labeled. The use of such

names, admittedly erroneous and misleading, marks a phase of pro-

fessionalism among herbarium workers that doubtless will prove

temporary.

For filing pressed specimens in herbaria, one name may serve as

well as another, but in field and garden studies these misleading

names are a permanent handicap, requiring always to be “‘corrected”’

and explained anew to each generation of botanists and plantsmen. If

the name Siphonia janeirensis were used, all future generations of

botanists and writers on rubber would need to be cautioned and

checked against the natural assumption of a native rubber tree at

Rio Janeiro in southern Brazil, hundreds of miles beyond the natural

range of distribution of the species, or of other members of the genus.

The name in itself is of little moment, but avoiding confusion is

important. In writing Siphonia ridleyana we acknowledge our debt to

Ridley and also admit the need of more care in naming plants.

A RIVERINE HYBRID

An extreme variability of the cultivated rubber tree may be con-

nected with the biological status of the wild stock in South America.

Because of the geographic position of the species in the lower Amazon

Valley and the adaptation of the seeds for floating, unusual conditions

for hybridization are afforded, not as a rare contingency but as a nor-

mal occurrence. Swollen currents from the upper river often reverse

the flow of the lower tributaries, so that floating seeds may be

stranded far from the main channel. Thus the stock of Siphonia over

a wide area of the lower valley must have remained continually

accessible to crossing with the several up-river species. Hybridizing as

a preliminary to selection has been accomplished in nature.

The range of variation in Siphonia ridleyana may be found to in-

clude all the characters of the other species, when these are definitely

known, and with endless abnormalities appearing among the seed-

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 2

lings, beyond the range of the parental types, comparable to the extra-

parental diversities shown in perjugate hybrids between different

species of cotton, as described and illustrated in the Journal of Hered-

ity for February, 1915. The same problem is presented, of finding

among the infinite wrack of degenerating forms any lines of descent

with desirable characters in stable patterns, ‘‘coming true” from seed.

High-yielding types are being utilized by budding, but are only a

partial solution of the trading problem. Uniform seed-stocks would

be much more valuable. Comparing progenies of tree-crops in order to

determine uniformity is an experimental undertaking of vast propor-

tions, in which all the rubber-growing countries might well cooperate.

The diversity in the cultivated stock of Siphonia is comparable

with that of some of our animals and plants that have been domesti-

cated for long periods, as cattle, horses, dogs, wheat, cucurbits, and

potatoes. The range of characters in these long-domesticated groups

is supposed not to have been derived from a single wild stock but

from several related species developed in different regions, but

brought together and mongrelized in primitive times. Diversity is

found among the members of all the wild species of plants and of

animals that are studied carefully, but usually the diversity is less

than in the cultivated stock of Szphonia. Other species are considered

in Ducke’s Reviszon to be as variable as “brasiliensis,” and this would

be expected of any stocks similarly exposed to crossing.

The trees are found to differ not only in the stature and growth of

the trees, the leaves, floral characters, and seeds, but also in the bark

texture and in the latex tubes, which determine the yield of rubber.

The surface of the bark may be smooth or finely wrinkled like a beech

tree, or rough and rimose like an elm or an oak, while the texture

may be uniform, soft and cheesy, or brittle and gritty with stone-

cells. Records show some trees yielding scarcely any rubber, and

others only small amounts, with a few far above the general average,

so that 75 per cent of the rubber is produced by 15 to 25 per cent of

the trees. Budding from high-yielding trees raises the average, al-

though yields vary as before, on account of diversity of the stocks.

To exhibit the diversity of leaf-forms many illustrations would be

required. A single example is given in Fig. 1, showing in natural size

two slender leaves from an abnormal plant, compared with a normal

leaf. The closer and more numerous primary veins of the abnormal

pinnae should be noted, as well as the narrow outlines and crenate

margins. Many variations have still narrower pinnae, and the margins

notched to the midrib, while others have curved or twisted pinnae,

Fig. 1.—Siphonia ridleyana, a normal leaf overlain by

two abnormal leaves. Natural size.

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

or funnel-shaped “‘ascidia.”’ The series of foliar aberrations is compa-

rable to that of the familiar ‘“‘crotons”’ or codiaeums, which also belong

to the spurge family.

Pinnae of normal form are only two or three times as long as wide,

while some of the abnormal pinnae are 10 times as long as wide, or

even 20 times as long. Most of the extreme mutants are outgrown by

the normal plants and smothered in the seedbeds, or not transplanted

from the nurseries, but a mature narrow-leaved tree, with flowers and

fruit, was found in Haiti. The pinnae were slender and tapering, simi-

lar to those of the photograph, though not elongate. Some abnormal

plants have the stalks of the pinnae longer than usual, or the stalks

may be very short and grown together, so that the pinnae do not

separate. Leaves with supernumerary pinnae, 4, 5, or 6, are found on

trees otherwise normal.

Heavier texture of the foliage may be a factor of resistance to the

South American leaf disease, and earlier attainment of the adult foli-

age is a character to be regarded in selection. Plantations of Siphonia

are difficult to establish in Brazil and other American countries in-

fested with the leaf disease because many young trees are defoliated

and killed. The juvenile stage is specialized, the branches suppressed

and the foliage more delicate, adapted to shade conditions in the

undergrowth of the forest, as explained in Science.®

SIPHONIA ADAPTED TO SMALL FARMING

The system of large plantations operated by contract labor, as prac-

ticed in the oriental countries, may not be feasible in tropical America,

but other modes of production may be developed that do not require

large undertakings. The momentum of a vast industry makes it diffi-

cult to think of planting trees in hundreds instead of thousands. In

reality the Scphonia tree, under the Ridley method of tapping, is as

well suited to small independent producers as to large estates, thus

avoiding the “‘overhead”’ expenses that often absorb more than half

the outlay in opening plantations. All the tropical American countries

are users of rubber, and all may become regular producers. First

efforts in new districts may fail because the seeds are short-lived and

the seedlings rather delicate, but once the trees are established they

are likely to become a permanent resource. Where beginnings are

assisted and seeds or budded stocks are available, the trees can be

grown among other crops with little labor or expense, merely replac-

3 Science 71: 386-387. 1930,

Fes. 15, 1941 COOK: NAMING THE RUBBER TREE 65

ing some of the nonproductive trees that often serve in tropical gar-

dens or orchards for shade or wind protection.

Castilla often has been used as a shade tree, but a regular yield of

rubber is not obtainable. Because the Castzlla latex flows freely at the

first tapping, there is much more danger of the rubber being stolen

and the trees killed or permanently injured by marauders. More labor

is required to harvest the rubber of Siphonza, but production is regu-

lar. Even a hundred Sizphonia trees, the planting quota of a single

acre, may engage the interest of self-supporting families in all the

countries where the tropical tree-crops are grown, notably coffee and

cacao, where avocados, papayas, guavas, or citrus fruits are grown, as

in southern Florida. The rubber trees would be tapped every second

or third day, requiring an hour of labor and affording a return of a

dollar or more from each hundred trees. The work is Hight and clean

and is done in the cool of the morning.

Experiments in southern Florida, near Coconut Grove, indicate

that Szphonia and other tropical rubber trees, as Castilla, Funtumia,

and Manzhot, are adapted to the local conditions, flowering and seed-

ing abundantly. Rubber produced by Szphonia trees in Florida has

been tested by the National Bureau of Standards, and excellent qual-

ity found. Popular interest may lead to general planting of Szphonia

and the other rubber-bearing types in southern Florida, at least as

garden trees, and with fresh latex at hand new uses of rubber or im-

proved manufacturing processes may be worked out. The stocks may

be improved by selective breeding and through survival of the hardier

trees in periods of unusual cold. Hardier strains developed in Florida

might be of use in Mexico and in many other countries. The extent of

tolerance of low temperatures or other unfavorable conditions is still

to be determined. Apart from any question of producing commercial

quantities of rubber in Florida, the information and experience that

would be gained by planting rubber trees in different localities in

Florida might be of great value in extending the range of rubber plant-

ing among resident populations in tropical America.

The limitation of the genus Siphonia to the Amazon Valley and the

eastern slopes of the Andes carries no implication that planted trees

will not thrive in the Pacific belt of Ecuador and Colombia and in

other parts of tropical America, as they have in Asia and Africa. The

natural distribution of the South American leaf disease is still un-

known. It has not been found in Haiti or in Florida, and it may be

absent from other islands or parts of the mainland, although it has

appeared in Dutch Guiana, Trinidad, and Costa Rica.

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

HERPETOLOGY.—A critical synopsis of the Mexican lizards of the

Uta ornata complex and a description of a new species from Chi-

huahua.!| M. B. Mirrneman, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio.

(Communicated by LEONHARD STEJNEGER. )

Since Schmidt (1921) published his brief paper containing diagnoses

of new forms and a key to the entire genus, no one paper has appeared

dealing with the Utas as a cohesive whole, or in entirety. Neither has

any paper dealt with all the forms within any one group of the genus.

Smith (1935) published the description of a new species (Uta caerulea)

from Mexico and included in his paper some notes on certain other

Mexican Utas, which up to that time had been largely neglected in the

literature. In his lengthy work on the reptiles of western North Amer-

ica, Van Denburgh (1922) treated only those forms coming within

the scope of his studies, namely, the species and subspecies occurring

in the United States, extreme northern Mexico, Baja California, and

the islands within the Gulf of California. The notes and diagnoses

herein deal with the Mexican representatives of the Uta ornata com-

plex and are offered until a longer paper dealing with the entire com-

plex is published.?

Uta ornata lateralis Boulenger Figs. 1A, 2

Uta (Phymatolepis) lateralis Boulenger, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 5) 11: 342.

1883.

Type locality—Tres Marias Islands and Presidio de Mazatlan, Sinaloa.

Cotypes—BMNH 81.10.91—4 and 82.12.5.2.

Diagnosis.—One to three vertebral rows of enlarged, imbricate, carinated,

irregularly arranged scales, extending from the nape of the neck onto the

base of the tail for a distance equal to slightly more than half the length of

the femur; bordered on either side by one, and then two series of enlarged,

prominently carinated, imbricate, regularly arranged scales, those of the

inner series being approximately twice as large or larger, than those of the

outer series; largest of the dorsal scales superior in size to the largest of the

enlarged, carinated scales of the femur and tibia; two or three elongated

series of thoracic tubercles; a dorsolateral series of enlarged, mucronate, and

tubercular scales, extending from the supra-axillary or thoracic region to the

1 Received November 22, 1940.

2 For the loan of comparative material, much useful information, and innumerable

other courtesies, I express my gratitude and obligation to: Drs. Leonhard Stejneger,

Alexander Wetmore, and Doris M. Cochran, of the United States National Museum;

Dr. G. K. Noble and Charles M. Bogert, of the American Museum of Natural History;

Joseph R. Slevin, of the California Academy of Sciences; Dr. Angus M. Woodbury, of

the University of Utah; Dr. Howard K. Gloyd, of the Chicago Academy of Sciences;

Dr. Edward H. Taylor, of the University of Kansas; Dr. Hobart M. Smith; H. W.

Parker, Esq., of the British Museum; Karl P. Schmidt, of the Field Museum of Natural

History; Dr. Thomas Barbour and Benjamin Shreve, of the Museum of Comparative

Zoology; and Dr. E. Raymond Hall, of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. I am es-

pecially indebted to Dr. Herschel T. Gier, of Ohio University, who has been a constant

source of advice and inspiration. Contribution No. 19 from the Department of Zoology,

Ohio University, Athens, Ohio.

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68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

basal portion of the tail; several lateral series of enlarged, granular, spinose

scales; ventrals abruptly differentiated from the scales of the lateral areas;

scales of belly and gular region strongly imbricate and submucronate;

frontal typically divided transversely; a postfemoral dermal pocket regu-

larly present. Coloration (alcoholic male topotype): A series of six to nine

dark spots on the dorsolateral line extending from axilla to groin; a vertebral

series of smaller, alternating spots extending from the nape to the basal por-

tion of the tail; dorsolateral and vertebral spots of both sides usually joined

by undulating light brown bands, which are occasionally broken medially;

general dorsal coloration of body and limbs light gray or brown, or occasion-

ally a uniformly rufescent dark brown which completely obliterates any

semblance of pattern; limbs barred above with dark brown; dorsum of tail

similar to dorsum of body, and lightly ringed with pale brown; lateral areas

a light blue-gray, irregularly streaked with brown; abdomen with two elon-

gate, light blue patches which may or may not be fused medially; rostral

and supralabials white, this color extending posteriorly in a narrow streak

to the insertion of the fore limbs; infralabials flecked with gray; gular region

anterior to the fold, light blue; underside of limbs, tail, interhumeral and

interfemoral areas, whitish. Measurements of fifty adults, both sexes, insular

and mainland: Snout to posterior border of ear, 12.6 mm; head width, 9.6

mm; snout to vent, 49.5 mm; hind leg (insertion to tip of 4th toe, exclusive

of nail), 35.90 (these figures represent the weighted arithmetic means).

Distributton.—Tres Marias Islands; Tiburon Island; Sinaloa (Boulenger,

loc. cit.); Sonora, south of the line Caborca—Magdalena.

Remarks.—Although my findings concerning the intergradation of lateralis

and linearis (of southern Arizona) agree in substance with those of Van

Denburgh (1922, p. 199), I have not been able to detect any signs of that in-

tergradation in several hundred specimens from extreme southern Arizona

as he did. I find, rather, that this intergradation occurs in the belt bordered

on the north by the line Reforma—Cananea, and on the south by the line

Caborca—Magdalena. Quite typical lateralis are taken regularly south of the

Caborca—Magdalena line. Boulenger’s record (loc. cit.) for the subspecies

from Presidio de Mazatlan, Sinaloa, may be open to question on the grounds

that Taylor and Smith, as well as other workers have failed to take any

additional specimens of this form from that locality, while related species

have been taken in the vicinity. Indeed, lateralis is known from no state

except Sonora; extensive field studies should reveal this lizard in northern

Sinaloa, at least.

Comparisons made between large series of insular and mainland specimens

reveal only slight mensural differences, which are neither constant nor

marked enough to warrant a subspecific distinction being made between the

two populations. | ;

U. 0. lateralis may be quite easily separated from linearis on several scores.

In the former, the enlarged dorsals commence well craniad of a line joining

the anterior points of insertion of the fore limbs; in the latter race, these

commence either slightly craniad of a line such as this, or else distinctly

caudad of it. In lateralis the scales of the inner series of enlarged dorsals are

Frs. 15, 1941 MITTLEMAN: MEXICAN LIZARDS 69

at least twice the size of the scales of the outer series; lateralis also possesses

a prominent dorsolateral series of spots. U. 0. linearis possesses no regular,

distinct series of dorsolateral spots, nor is there a very appreciable difference

in size between the scales of the outer and inner series of enlarged dorsals.

Uta auriculata Cope Figs. 1C, 2

Uta auriculata Cope, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 14: 303. 1871.

Type locality—sSocorro Island, Revillagigedo Archipelago.

Type —vU. 58. N. M. no. 7027.

Diagnosis.—Unique among the members of the ornata complex in possess-

ing the enlarged femoral scales uncarinated; two vertebral rows of small,

enlarged scales, these weakly carinated, imbricate, and fairly regularly dis-

posed; bordered on each side by a single series of enlarged, imbricate, weakly

carinated, rather flat scales, which are about twice as large as those of the

vertebral series; a few scattered, slightly enlarged scales on the dorsolateral

line; frontal transversely divided; postfemoral dermal pocket probably pres-

ent (type in too poor a condition to accurately determine this); general ap-

pearance not all rugose. Cope (loc. cit.) describes auriculata as having a row

of spots on the dorsolateral line, on a blue ground color. Measurements of

type: Snout to posterior border of ear, 17.0 mm; head width, 11.5 mm; snout

to anus, 75.0 mm; hind leg (insertion to tip of 4th toe, exclusive of nail,

49 mm.

Distribution.—Restricted to the type locality.

Remarks.—Of this species, I have examined only the type specimen. As

far as this specimen goes, it is quite distinct from other known members

of the genus.

Uta clarionensis Townsend Figs. 1B, 2

Uta clarionensis Townsend, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 13: 148. 1890.

Type locality.—Clarion Island, Revillagigedo Archipelago.

Type.—U.S8. N. M. no. 15904.

Diagnosis.—Enlarged vertebral scales distinctly carinated, in two irregu-

lar series commencing on the nape of the neck and extending posteriorly onto

the base of the tail for a short distance; bordered on either side by two series

of enlarged, strongly carinated, imbricate scales, which are larger than the

vertebrals, and of which the scales of the outer series are smaller than those

of the inner series; scales on thighs enlarged and prominently carinated;

dorsolateral tubercles and spinose scales well developed, and in clusters,

forming an almost unbroken ridge; frontal transversely divided; postfemoral

dermal pocket absent. Measurements of type: Snout to anus, 53 mm; hind

leg (insertion to tip of 4th toe, exclusive of nail), 41.0 mm; snout to posterior

border of ear, 14.0 mm; head width, 10.0 mm.

Distribution.—Restricted to the type locality.

Remarks.—Because of its closer affinity to lateralis than to the neighboring

auriculata, clarionensis presents several important and interesting phylo-

genetic features. These will be later discussed under the phylogeny of the

several forms.

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

Uta bi-carinata bi-carinata (Duméril) Figs. 1F, 2

Phymatolepis bi-carinatus Duméril, Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 8: 549, pl.

23, figs. 2, 2a, 2b. 1856.

Type locality.—‘‘Mexico.”’

Type.—Not designated; if in existence, probably in the Muséum d’ Histoire

Naturelle de Paris.

Diagnosis.—Two or three vertebral series of enlarged, imbricate, weakly

to prominently carinated scales, extending in a continuous or a broken line

from the nape of the neck or the shoulders to the basal portion of tail, on

which it continues for a distance subequal to the length of the femur; external

to the vertebral series and bordering them on each side, is a single series of

greatly enlarged, strongly carinated, imbricate scales which are occasionally

unequal in size, irregular of arrangement, and frequently interrupted; the

largest of the dorsal scales smaller than the largest of the femoral and tibial

scales, which are imbricate and strongly carinated; external to the enlarged

dorsals, which border the vertebrals, there is on each side a series of enlarged

scales almost equaling them in size and rugosity; these sometimes in contact

with the enlarged dorsals, but more often separated by two to four of the

granular, convex scales of the back; these enlarged scales are also irregular in

size and disposition, often commencing anterior to the enlarged dorsals; two

or three enlongated series of enlarged tubercles on the neck; a prominent se-

ries of enlarged, spinose scales on the dorsolateral line, and ventral to these

are four more, somewhat less prominent series, the lowest of which is in con-

tact with the ventrals; ventrals mucronate, and occasionally somewhat spi-

nose; as they progress laterally there is a slight tendency towards carination,

which becomes most noticeable in the lateral scales; scales of the chin granular

and pavemented medially and laterally ; elongated, flattened, spinose and im-

bricate posteriorly; frontal variable, but most often entire; a postfemoral

dermal pocket usually absent, but sometimes rudimentarily present. Colora-

tion (alcoholic male): Grayish ground color on dorsum of body, head, limbs

and tail; body dorsum with four or five dark cross bands, which may or may

not be visible, due to an occasional suffusion of dark pigment throughout the

skin, these bands often being broken medially; entire forsum of body and

limbs often flecked with dark gray, pale gray, or brown; lateral areas of body

usually similar in color to dorsum, but more often tinted with a bluish wash;

venter of limbs, interhumeral and interfemoral areas, of varying shades of

gray, and often heavily mottled with brown; ventrally, the basal portion of

the tail a light gray, occasionally spotted with dark brown; a broad blue

patch on the belly, which is slightly more intense anteriorly, and which may

or may not be overlaid with a heavy stippling of gray or brown; except for

an occasionally light medial area, the entire chin, including the infralabials,

is heavily mottled with black or brown. Smith (1935, p. 170), reporting on

freshly collected specimens says ‘‘the entire gular region is orange, coarsely

reticulated or diagonally barred with black except in a large, round median

area just anterior to the gular fold.’”’ Measurements of fifty adults, both

sexes: Snout to posterior edge of the ear, 12.56 mm; head width, 10.6 mm;

snout to anus, 52.5 mm; hind leg (insertion to tip of 4th toe, exclusive of

nail), 29.6 mm (these figures represent the weighted arithmetic means).

Distribution.—Michoacan, Morelos, Puebla, and Guerrero west of Aca-

pulco.

Remarks.—Much of the confusion surrounding the status of this form is

Fes. 15, 1941 MITTLEMAN: MEXICAN LIZARDS wel

undoubtedly due to the fact that Duméril designated simply “Mexico” as

the type locality for his species, and this only through inference. Conse-

quently, the several authors who have had occasion to deal with bi-carinata

and its affiliates, especially prior to the separation by Schmidt (1921) of the

then composite species, have cluttered the literature with erroneous locality

records based on misidentified specimens. Both Schmidt (op. czt.) and Smith

(1935) have contributed to the clarification of the status of bz-carinata, and

to these authors credit is largely due for bringing a measure of order to the

state of chaos.

The Utas from the southern periphery of the range of bi-carinata, notably

from a point just southeast of Acapulco and extending through Guerrero to

Tierra Colorada, exhibit certain tendencies which are not in accord with the

attributes to be noted in more northerly examples. As the population con-

tinues in the direction of the Oaxacan border this trend becomes more no-

ticeable, so that in eastern Guerrero and Oaxaca, the lizards can no longer

be considered identical with their more northerly relatives, and clearly

possess the status of a separate biological entity. Since the population from

Michoacan, Puebla, Morelos, and western Guerrero more closely fits the

original description than does the southern form, I have retained the name

be-carinata for it, and described the southern population as a distinct sub-

species.

Uta bi-carinata anonymorpha Mittleman Figs. 1G, 2

Uta anonymorpha Mittleman, Herpetologica II, 2: 34, pl. 3, fig. 2. 1940.

Type locality Tehuantepec, Oaxaca.

Type —vU. 5S. N. M. no. 46988.

Diagnosis.—Enlarged vertebral series of scales and the scales external to

them, which are larger in size, commencing on the shoulders only slightly

craniad of a line joining the anterior points of insertion of the fore limbs; en-

larged dorsals in a continuous series or but barely encroached upon by a few

of the small, granular scales of the back; enlarged dorsals regularly arranged

and not too strongly carinated; external to the enlarged dorsals is a sparse

series of enlarged scales, a trifle larger in size than the scales of the vertebral

series, but never approaching size the larger enlarged dorsals; this outermost

series of enlarged scales never in contact with the primary series of enlarged

scales, but in contact at several points with the rather sparse and poorly

developed tubercular and submucronate scales of the dorsolateral line

through the medium of small, elongated clusters of slightly enlarged, granu-

lar scales; thoracic tubercles not well developed and not too prominent;

dorsolateral and lateral tubercles often not well developed, and often not in

clusters, but consisting rather of a single enlarged, spinose, tubercular scale

surrounded by two or three somewhat enlarged, mucronate scales; ventrals

mucronate and spinose, especially posteriorly; laterally these become dis-

tinctly carinated and quite prominently pavemented; scales of the chin

small, rather flat, and generally pavemented, only those scales immediately

anterior to the gular fold becoming elongated, imbricate, and somewhat

spinose; general appearance not very rugose. Coloration (alcoholic male

holotype): Quite similar to that of b7-carinata, save that the ventral blue (or

blue-black) patches are very abbreviated, and restricted to the pectoral area;

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 2

chin usually not as heavily maculated as in bz-carinata; occasional specimens

are uniformly suffused with a deep blue-gray which completely obliterates

any dorsal traces of pattern. Measurements of holotype: Snout to posterior

border of ear, 11.5 mm; head width, 9.0 mm; snout to anus, 50.0 mm; hind

leg (insertion to tip of 4th toe, exclusive of nail), 27.0 mm.

Distribution.—Guerrero, east of Tierra Colorada; Oaxaca, except the

northeastern corner; eastern Chiapas (Tonola). |

Remarks.—I have previously postulated (loc. cit.) on the possibility of a

subspecific relationship existing between bi-carinata and anonymorpha.

Through the kindness of Dr. Hobart M. Smith I have been able to examine

a large series of Utas from Morelos, Guerrero, Michoac4n, and Oaxaca and

Chiapas, which he has just recently returned with, after a protracted col-

lecting trip in southern Mexico. A critical study of these specimens leaves no

doubt that bz-carinata does in fact extensively intergrade with anonymorpha

throughout the entire region from Acapulco east to Tierra Colorada, Guer-

rero. Specimens from the last named locality range from typical anonymor-

pha to typical bi-carinata, with every conceivable degree of arrangement of

the hybrid characters. However, since the largest part of the specimens from

Tierra Colorada are undeniably anonymorpha, I consider this point to be the

westernmost range of this subspecies’ distribution. The extension of the range

of anonymorpha to include eastern Chiapas, is on the basis of two specimens

collected by Dr. Smith at Tonol4; a very large male and an immature female,

both, however, somewhat atypical. There is a strong possibility that speci-

mens from more easterly Chiapas will prove to be distinct from anonymor-

pha, and these two examples may indicate some such tendency.

Generally speaking, anonymorpha is quite easily separated from b2-carz-

nata. In males, the abbreviated blue abdominal patches are quite distinctive

in anonymorpha; while the ventral coloration tends to take on the appear-

ance of an evenly diffused wash in bz-carinata males. In specimens of either

sex, anonymorpha can be told at once by its much less rugose appearance,

and the definitely weaker carination of the enlarged dorsals. More often too,

anonymorpha will possess an evenly mottled chin, whereas bi-carinata has a

tendency to possess a light median area; this has already been noted by

Smith (1935, p. 170). The holotype and paratypes on which the race is based

agree very well with the series of 98 specimens taken by Smith.

Uta bi-carinata nelsoni Schmidt Figs. 1H, 2

Uta nelsoni Schmidt, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 22:4. 1921.

Type locality —Cuicatlam '(=Cuicatlan), Oaxaca.

Type.—U. 8. N. M. no. 46836.

Diagnosis—Most closely allied to bi-carinata and anonymorpha, from

which races it differs only as follows: Ventrals not mucronate; dorsolateral

and lateral series of tubercular scales poorly developed; head narrower pro-

' portionately than in bz-carinata, and broader proportionately than in anony-

morpha; enlarged dorsals smaller. Measurements of type: Snout to posterior

Fes. 15, 1941 MITTLEMAN: MEXICAN LIZARDS 73

border of ear, 13.5 mm; head width, 10.5 mm; hind led (insertion to tip of

4th toe, exclusive of nail), 33.0 mm; snout to anus, 58.0 mm.

Distribution.—Restricted to the type locality.

Remarks.—U. b. nelsoni is designated as a subspecies of bz-carznata for the

following reasons: The marked similarity in structure to the typical form and

anonymorpha; the continuity and contiguity of its distribution with the bz-

carinata—anonymorpha stock, the ranges of all three being juxtaposed; and

the possibility that nelsoni represents an intermediate population in position

between the bi-carinata—anonymorpha stock, and some form, as yet unde-

scribed, from extreme northwestern Oaxaca and possibly southern Vera-

cruz. The range of mountains just north of the city of Oaxaca have un-

doubtedly served to keep nelsoni isolated from anonymorpha; specimens

from the immediate vicinity of this city will do much to clarify the relation-

ships between nelsonz and the more southerly Oaxacan race.

Of this subspecies I have examined only the type specimen. This lone indi-

vidual is distinct enough from anonymorpha and bi-carinata, but only on

the basis of the characteristics given above. Other points of distinction given

by Schmidt (loc. c7zt.) do not seem tenable.

Uta bi-carinata tuberculata Schmidt Figs. 1E, 2

Uta tuberculata Schmidt, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 22:4. 1921.

Type locality — Colima, State of Colima.

Type.—A.M.N.H. no. 13737.

Diagnosis —Most closely related to bz-carinata, from which it differs as

follows: Enlarged dorsals larger, more regularly arranged; equal to, or larger

than, the enlarged femoral and tibial scales; external to the enlarged dorsals

but in contact with them, or separated by only one or two granules, there is a

series of slightly enlarged scales, which are visibly keeled, but neither as

large nor as prominent as the primary series of enlarged dorsals; dorsolateral

and lateral tubercles and enlarged spinose scales very regularly arranged,

but not as prominent as in b7-carinata; lowest series of lateral tubercles in

contact with the ventrals, which are not sharply differentiated from the

granular scales of the sides; ventrals rounded, occasionally submucronate;

slightly keeled laterally; gular scales for the most part elongated and im-

bricate, save for a few immediately adjacent to the infralabials, which are

granular and pavemented; frontal variable, usually divided transversely;

postfemoral dermal pocket variable; coloration similar to bz-carinata. Meas-

urements of type: Snout to posterior border of ear, 12.0 mm; head width,

9.0 mm; snout to anus, 45.0 mm; hind leg (insertion to tip of 4th toe, ex-

clusive of nail), 27.0 mm.

Distribution.—Colima and Jalisco (Schmidt, loc. cit.); Presidio de Mazat-

lan, Sinaloa (Smith, 1935, p. 171); southern Sonora (20 miles southeast of

Alamos).

Remarks.—Other than some slight variation in color and pattern, the spec-

imens I have seen agree rather well with the type, differing only in a few

minor points.

Because of a dearth of Utas from southern Sonora to central Jalisco, the

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

distribution of tuberculata is imperfectly known. First known from Jalisco

and Colima, the type series remained unique until Smith (loc. cit.) reported

on a specimen taken by him just south of Presidio de Mazatlan, Sinaloa,

which extended the range northward for about two hundred miles. In the

course of an examination of Mexican Utas in the collection of the Museum

of Comparative Zoology I came upon two specimens, M.C.Z. nos. 37856-7,

collected near Guirocabo, 20 miles southeast of Alamos, Sonora. These two

specimens are quite typical of the subspecies, and on the basis of their local-

ity, the range of tuberculata is extended northward again for another two

hundred and eighty miles. Dr. Smith tells me in a letter that this closely

corresponds to the distributional pattern of Sceloporus nelsont.

U. b. tuberculata is obviously a member of the neotropical 67-carinata

stock; just what its relationships with the nearctic lateralis might be must

await the discovery of further specimens from Sinaloa, southern Sonora, and

northern Jalisco. |

Uta unica, sp. nov. Figs. 1D, 2, 3

Uta bicarinata Cope, Rept. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1898: 320-322, fig. 43. 1900-

Holotype —U. 8. N. M. no. 14248, female, ‘‘Chihuahua,” collected by

Edward Wilkinson.

Diagnosis —A medium-sized Uta belonging to the Mexican division of the

Uta ornata complex, and characterized by only a single series of enlarged

dorsal scales on each side of the enlarged vertebrals; general appearance not

at all rugose; dorsal and ventral scales with a distinct tendency toward

pavementation.

Description.—Cephalic scales comparatively smooth; frontal entire, sepa-

rated behind from the interparietal by a pair of frontoparietals; rostral

much wider than high; supralabials 5-5, the fourth and fifth subocular

in position; infralabials 7—7; auricular opening anteriorly denticulated by

several enlarged, granular scales; a few scattered enlarged scales on the

nape and shoulders, extending caudad from a point just posterior of a line

joining the insertions of the fore limbs, along the vertebral line onto the base

of the tail for a distance subequal to the length of the femur, is a series of

enlarged scales, bordered on each side by a single series of much larger

scales, which are, however, inferior in size to the enlarged scales of the femur,

but larger than the enlarged tibial scales; enlarged dorsal scales only weakly

carinated, and prominently pavemented; external to the enlarged scales and

in contact with them, or more often separated by the width of the vertebral

series, is another series of enlarged scales, spaced about two scale lengths

apart; these latter equal to or slightly smaller than the enlarged scales bor-

dering the vertebral series; the outer enlarged scales often surrounded by

minutely enlarged tubercular scales; on the dorsolateral, lateral, and ventro-

lateral areas are evenly dispersed four longitudinal series of small clusters

of slightly enlarged, somewhat convex scales, which are not at all rugose;

the lowermost of these rows of clusters barely in contact with the ventrals;

ventral scales imbricate and mucronate anteriorly, but medially, laterally,

and posteriorly, they become rounded and quite pavemented, again becom-

ing spinose and imbricate as they approach the anal region; ventrals ab-

ruptly diminishing in size to meet the lateral scales; gular scales pavemented

and rounded anteriorly, but mucronate and imbricate posteriorly, and no-

Fes. 15, 1941 MITTLEMAN: MEXICAN LIZARDS 75

ticeably increasing in this tendency, until in the region of the gular fold the

scales are longer than wide and distinctly spinose; gular fold extending lat-

erally and dorsally around the anterior edge of the insertions of the fore

limbs, and met by a heavy postauricular fold; caudal scales large, promi-

nently keeled, spinose, and at least basally, in irregular whorls of three ver-

ticils, of which the first is always prominently larger; postfemoral dermal

pocket absent. Coloration of holotype (alcoholic): Dorsum of head and body

greenish gray, the head finely reticulated with light brown, and the body with

two light brown bands which are narrow on the vertebral line and widen as

Fig. 3.—Uta unica, sp. nov.; type, U.S.N.M., no. 14248, female, Chihuahua,

Mexico. Edward Wilkinson, collector. Actual length, snout to vent, 50.0 mm. (A) Dor-

sal view; (B) ventral view.

they progress laterally; dorsum of the body irregularly flecked and barred

with dark brown; axillary, inguinal, lateral, prehumeral, postfemoral, and

postanal regions washed with dark brown; an irregular, dark brown pectoral

blotch; gular area and the remainder of the venter of body and tail a very

pale greenish gray; limbs narrowly barred with light brown. Cope (loc. cit.)

describes the specimen which was then fresh, as having “limbs and tail

shaded with reddish brown,’’ and says further that the ‘inferior regions

tinted yellow lightly stippled with brown; males have the entire abdominal

region a bluish gray.’’ Measurements of holotype: Snout to posterior border

of ear, 11.5 mm; head width, 9.0 mm; snout to vent, 50.0 mm; hind leg (in-

sertion to tip of 4th toe, exclusive of nail), 26.5 mm; tail 52.0 mm.

Distribution.—At present known only from the southwestern (probably)

corner of the state of Chihuahua.

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 2

Remarks.—This unique species is quite different from any other known

Uta, and insofar as it can be determined, represents a dwarf offshoot of a

probable pre-tuberculata stock. Although immediately recognized as being

distinct, formal recognition of it was deferred until such a time as might

bring to light further specimens. Since a careful examination of several

extensive collections of Mexican Utas has failed to reveal any additional

specimens, I have, at the suggestion of Dr. H. M. Smith, described the spe-

cles in the hope that future collectors working in southern Chihuahua may

have the good fortune of taking more specimens. A study of the distributional

patterns of the only other two Utas of the complex occurring in Chihuahua

(U. o. schmidtt and U. caerulea) leaves no doubt that the only suitable

unoccupied ecological niche for this species would occur in the mountainous

southwestern portion of the state, and it is from here that the type prob-

ably emanated. I can only attribute the lack of additional specimens to the

fact that since Wilkinson collectors have largely neglected this part of

Chihuahua.

The distinctness of unica from other known Utas bespeaks quite a re-

spectable age, as well as long separation from other members of the complex.

Uta caerulea Smith

Uta caerulea Smith, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 12(7): 172-178, pl. 26 (3). 1935.

Type locality —Thirty miles north of Chihuahua City, Chihuahua.

Type.—David H. Dunkle—-Hobart M. Smith Coll. no. 132.

Diagnosts.—Two vertebral rows of enlarged, irregularly arranged, weakly

carinated scales, extending from a point slightly craniad of a line joining the

anterior points of insertion of the fore limbs, posteriorly onto the base of the

tail for a distance equal to the length of the femur; vertebrals bordered on

either side by two series of enlarged, imbricate, rather weakly carinated

scales, the outer series slightly smaller; largest of the dorsal scales inferior

in size to the largest of the tibials; dorsolateral tubercles but slightly en-

larged, and dispersed in irregular little clusters; ventrals rounded, smooth,

and imbricate; frontal transversely divided; a postfemoral dermal pocket

present. Coloration of male (from original diagnosis, loc. cit.): Entire ventral

surfaces of body and tail, except chest, base of tail, and an area between the

hind legs, sky blue; dorsum with about seven transverse black bars on each

side; bars usually blue-edged. Measurements of type (Smith, loc. czt.): Snout

to anterior border of ear, 10.0 mm; head width, 10.0 mm; snout to vent,

49.5 mm; hind leg, 30.0 mm.

Distribution.—Within a radius of 30 miles of Chihuahua City, Chihuahua.

Remarks.—I include caerulea as a full species rather than as a subspecies

with some reservations, as I have seen several specimens intermediate in

character between caerulea and the newly described (Mittleman, 1940) U. o.

schmidti from Texas and northern Chihuahua; these, however, bore only the

data “Border,” or ‘“Mexico.”’ I prefer to consider caerulea as a full species

until the precise distribution of both forms in Chihuahua is completely

mapped out.

Uta caerulea is the only species within the ornata complex wholly indige-

Fes. 15, 1941 MITTLEMAN: MEXICAN LIZARDS 77

nous to Mexico, that is a member of the subgroup within the complex which

features two nearly equal series of enlarged dorsals on either side of the en-

larged vertebrals; this condition regularly obtaining in the species indigenous

to the United States. The characteristics of caerulea are such that they ap-

pear to be but newly differentiated from the U. 0. ornata and U. o. schmidti

stock, a population which is in itself quite recent and still undergoing a pro-

liferation as well as loss of numerous traits. Smith (loc. czt.) has distinguished

between caerulea and ornata (=schmidti), and enumerated several salient

points of difference. In the main, the following distinctions will serve to

separate the two forms: in caerulea, the enlarged dorsals extending onto the

base of the tail for a distance equal to the length of the femur; never more

than half this distance in schmidti; largest of the enlarged dorsals inferior in

size to the enlarged tibials, in caerulea; in schmidti, these scales are equal to,

or larger than, the enlarged tibials; caerulea with the blue of the gular region

extending to include the sublabials; in schmidti, the sublabials are white or

gray, but always distinct from the gular region in coloration. Smith also re-

marks that caerulea may be told from lateralis by the commencement of the

enlarged dorsals on the nape of the neck in the latter; also, the inner series

of enlarged dorsals much larger in size than the outer series.

PHYLOGENY OF THE COMPLEX

The Uta ornata complex is defined as that group of lizards within

the genus Uta which is characterized by the possession of one or more

series of enlarged dorsal scales bordering a similar though smaller

series of vertebral scales; the group is so-named because Uta ornata or-

nata was the first described form within it. In the United States, Mex-

ico, Baja California, the islands within the Gulf of California, and at

least two of the islands composing the Revillagigedo Archipelago,

there occur 15 species and subspecies of Utas, which, by reason of the

common bond previously defined, are assigned to this complex.

Smith (1935, p. 177) has postulated that the genera Uta and Scelo-

porus have shared a common ancestor, Uta being possibly a trifle

older than Sceloporus. Smith states further that the ornata group may

be considered the most primitive in the genus Uta, and the mearnsi

group the most highly developed. I find Smith’s hypothesis substan-

tiated, and ascribe to it too. Uta may be fairly well separated into four

groups, these, in the order of their complexity and evolution from old-

est to newest, being ornata—graciosa—stansburiana—mearnsi. The trend,

apparently, in Uta is from a rugose, carinated, enlarged scaled form

to a minutely scaled, smooth form. |

Within the ornata complex, wrighti (=levis of Smith, et auct.) is

probably the most primitive species. The primitive Uta ornata fore-

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 2

bear can be described as a Uta bearing weakly carinated, irregularly

arranged, numerous series of enlarged dorsals; poorly developed series

of enlarged dorsolateral and lateral tubercles; ventrals rounded; of

existing Utas, wrightt most closely approaches this hypothetical form.

Without delving into the ramifications of the proliferation of species

within the United States, let it suffice to say that wrighti gave rise

directly to the more rugose, larger scaled lznearis of southern Arizona.

and northern Mexico. At about the time of the early Oligocene, lin-

earis spread southward into what is now northern Sonora, which ex-

isted in a continuous range of land with the present-day Gulf of

California, Baja California, and western Mexico as far west as the

Revillagigedo Archipelago. This era saw the submersion of the west

coast of Mexico from southern Jalisco to and including the Yucatan

Peninsula. |

The vanguard of the linearis emigration must have been charac-

terized by an extreme genetic instability, for the foremost of these

lizards soon formed the lateralis, or actually pre-lateralis, stock. The

stock must have been of an active, aggressive, and successful nature;

it spread in all possible directions, and soon became established in

numerous ecological situations. That these lizards possessed an ex-

tremely active genetic constitution, and bore several strains, is at-

tested to by the fact that the recession of the southern waters which

formed the Gulf of California, the several islands within the gulf, the

Revillagigedo Archipelago, and left southern Mexico dry, left several

populations comparatively isolated, and these soon differentiated into

distinct forms. The pre-lateralis population promptly continued its

southward trek, while the remaining members evolved into the mod-

ern lateralis. The two small groups of lizards that were isolated on

Socorro and Clarion Islands, respectively, of the Revillagigedo Archi-

pelago, offer remarkable proof of the diversity of this pre-lateralzs

stock; for auriculata of the former island bears a closer resemblance to

bi-carinata and its affiliates than it does to either lateralis or the

neighboring clarionensis of Clarion Island. Conversely, clarionenis is

more nearly related to lateralis than to auriculata or any other exist-

ing form.

The emersion of southern Mexico probably took place during the

early Miocene, and the expansion of the pre-lateralis stock followed

the recession of the waters, hampered only by the high Sierra Madre

on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. This southerly migra-

tion was accompanied by the adoption of variously isolated niches as

well as changing genetics which similarly contributed to the differen-

Fra. 15, 1941 MITTLEMAN: MEXICAN LIZARDS 79

tiation of several new forms. Ultimately, this resulted in the evolution

of the line lateralis—tuberculata—bicarinata—nelsoni—anonymorpha, the

latter two races probably developing simultaneously, with their dis-

tinction being due to the isolation afforded the nelsoni stock by the

high mountains just north of Oaxaca (city). Additional specimens

from more easterly localities in Chiapas may reveal that a still unde-

scribed race exists there, for this region was separated from the Tehu-

antepecan area by a post-Miocene immersion, and did not become

continuous with it again until the Pliocene, thus affording ample time

for the differentiation of another race. This has been found to be the

case with certain Cnemidophori (Burt, 1931, p. 73). Caerulea is quite

probably but a newly differentiated species, sprung from the ornata-

schmidti stock, from which it differs only in degree.

In the study of the evolution and phylogenesis of the Mexican Uta

ornata lizards, certain characteristics lend themselves very well as

salient indicator factors to the examination of such trends. These are:

(1) the number and size of the enlarged dorsals; (2) the form of the

ventral scales; and (3) the absence or presence of a postfemoral der-

mal pocket. The last-named feature occurs in all the forms indigenous

to the United States, is present too in U. caerulea, also in lateralis, is

variable in tuberculata and bi-carinata (although most often absent in

this latter race); is always absent in unica, anonymorpha, and _ nel-

soni, is possibly rudimentary in auriculata, and absent in clarionensis.

The trend from lateralis to anonymorpha is from a smooth, rounded

ventral scale, to a carinated, spinose one. Again auriculata and clari-

onensis reveal their closer affinity to certain mainland forms than with

each other, for auriculata possesses ventrals almost indistinguishable

from those of bz-carinata, while those of clarionensis bear a remarkable

resemblance to the condition obtaining in lateralis. The southward

progression of the races reveals too that there is a steady decrease in

the size and number of the enlarged dorsals, from lateralis to anony-

morpha; clarionensis again resembling lateralis, and auriculata the

southerly races. In all of its traits, wnica, as its name implies, is quite

unique. On the whole, however, it seems to be a specialized offshoot

of the pre-tuberculata stock.

From the preceding discussion it will be readily seen that the mem-

bers of the Mexican division at least, of the Uta ornata complex, define

themselves into a clearcut example of a formenkreis. Although the

races indigenous to the United States have not been included here,

it may be added that they just as readily incorporate into a similar

pattern. Ample opportunity for differentiation through isolation and

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

extreme genetic activity has resulted in the several diverse forms. It

is this hyperactive state of genetics that has produced the innumer-

able mutants which gave rise to the different species and subspecies;

whether the mutants produced will survive and because of a possibly

changed physiology seek an unoccupied ecological niche in which

they may successfully multiply, or whether they will remain within

the genetic scope of the parental stock, and add to the sum-total of

what taxonomists are pleased to call the normal variation of the spe-

cies, is the needle’s eye through which the latent species-in-the-mak-

ing must pass. In the case of the Utas under consideration, at least,

the passage seems to have been successfully navigated several times.

The evolution of the Mexican lizards of the ornata complex can per-

haps be best described as a case of dynamic orthogenesis accompanied

by constantly changing physiologies, and the success or failure of the

ecological niche occupied. This, then, follows the pattern of multipli-

cation of species through the isolation and mutation of older species,

as postulated by Dunn (1934). However, there is no implication that

of necessity any of the ancestral features need survive. Kinsey (1936,

p. 54) has pointed out that within a complex or formenkreis ‘‘each

species gives rise to one or to a limited number of new types without

modifying the specific status or the existence of the older species.”’

Hence, although an older parental species may be well established,

and the newer derivative species equally well established, there is no

implication necessary on the basis of the successful existence of the

newer species, that any traits of the older form must necessarily be

present, or have some survival value. The very existence of the newer

population, regardless of any characteristics common to both stocks,

is ample proof of its success. Neither is there any need for the assump-

tion that within a single cohesive group, as a complex or formenkreis,

there must be a continuity of traits. These traits may well appear in

several members of the complex, but they may equally well be absent.

A genetic change which is sweeping enough to cause the physiology

of a lizard to become so altered that it cannot tolerate the parental

habitat, may in itself cause, or may be accompanied by a change that

will cause an equally sweeping change of form.

In their distribution and evolution, the Mexican Uta ornata com-

plex representatives bear a close resemblence to the patterns worked

out for Ctenosaura, by Bailey (1928); there is an even more marked

similarity in their distribution and specific proliferation with those

worked out for the Mexican wasps of the genus Cynips by Kinsey

(1936).

Fes. 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 81

LITERATURE CITED

Baitey, JoHN WENDELL. A revision of the lizards of the genus Ctenosaura. Proc.

U.S. Nat. Mus. 73(12): 1-55, pls. 1-30. 1928.

BovuLENGER, GEORGE ALBERT. Descriptions of new species of lizards and frogs collected

by Herr A. Forrer in Mexico. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 5) 11: 342-344. 1883.

Burt, Coarues E. A study of the teiid lizards of the genus Cnemidophorus, with special

reference to their phylogenetic relationships. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 154: 1-286,

figs. 1-38. 1931.

Corr, EpwarpD DRINKER. Description of the common lizard of Socorro. Proc. Boston

Soc. Nat. Hist. 14: 303. 1871.

. The crocodilians, lizards and snakes of North America. Rept. U.S. Nat. Mus.

for 1898: 153-1270, pls. 1-36, figs. 1-347. 1900.

Dumérit, A. Phymatolépide deux carenes, Phymat. bi-carinatus A. Dum., espece

nouvelle. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 8: 549, pl. 23, figs. 2, 2a, and 2b. 1856.

Dunn, Emmett Reip. Systematic procedure in herpetology. Copeia 4: 167-172.

1934.

Kinsey, ALFRED C. The origin of higher categories in Cynips. Indiana Univ. Publ.,

sci. ser., 4: 4-334, figs. 1-172. 1936.

MirtteEMAN, Myron B. Two new lizards of the genus Uta. Herpetologica II, 2:

33-38, pl. 3, figs. 1,2. 1940.

Scumipt, Karu Patrrerson. New species of North American lizards of the genera

Holbrookia and Uta. Amer. Mus. Nov., no. 22: 1-6. 1921.

Smiru, Hospart M. Descriptions of new species of lizards from Mexico of the genus

ay with notes on other Mexican species. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 12(7): 157-183,

pl. 26. 1935.

TOWNSEND, Cuarues H. Reptiles from Clarion and Socorro Islands and the Gulf of

California, with description of a new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 13: 148.

1890.

Van Densoureu, Joun. The reptiles of western North America, vol. 1. Occ. Pap.

California Acad. Sci. 10: 1-612, pls. 1-57. 1922.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

364TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 364th meeting of the Board of Managers was held in the Private

Dining Room of the Cosmos Club on Friday, December 6, 1940. President

CRITTENDEN called the meeting to order at 8:00 p.m., with 17 persons

present.

President CRITTENDEN appointed G. W. VINAL, chairman, W. G. Brom-

BACHER, and J. W. McBurney to constitute the Committee of Tellers to

canvass the ballots in the annual election of officers for 1941.

President CRITTENDEN appointed H. E. McComs, chairman, F. 8. Bracx-

ETT, and L. V. BERKNER to constitute the Committee of Auditors to examine

the accounts of the Treasurer for the calendar year 1940.

C. L. GARNER, chairman of the Committee on Meetings, reported that all

the meetings of the Academy through April, 1941, would be held in the

present Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club.

G. STEINER, chairman of the Committee on Membership, presented the

names of 11 persons for membership in the Academy—9 resident and 2

nonresident. :

The Corresponding Secretary presented for R. E. Gipson, chairman of the

Nominating Committee, the report of that committee on their nominations

for officers for 1941:

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

For Presidenticiss sos cusc os ee «5 ees 2 US TEN | Ete) © nates

Hor Se@cretarye ol eee ooh aa eaue es are nana FREDERICK D. ROssINI

Hor -Preasuret::. sc aos ok eee Senne Howarp 8S. RAPPLEYE

For Manager, to fill the unexpired term of two

yeas, OAT amd G42 err es oe cheese nisl era is Frank H. H. Roserts, Jr.

For Manager, for the regular term of three

years, 1941, 1942, and 1943; with two to be

CLECTE Rena, Pe yO errata FERDINAND G. BRICKWEDDE

Henry B. Couns, Jr.

FRANK C. KRAcEK

Pauu A. SmitH

In connection with the awards for scientific achievement, the following

motion was made and carried by the Board: ‘The awards for scientific

achievement announced at the annual meeting of the Academy in January

shall be made for the preceding calendar year, and a candidate shall not

have attained his 41st birthday during the year for which the award is

made.” |

The Corresponding Secretary presented for the Committee of Tellers who

counted the ballots on the three amendments to the bylaws submitted to

the membership in October, 1940, which committee consisted of H. N.

Eaton, chairman, R. 8. Jessup, and B. J. Mair, their report on the 150

ballots cast by the membership:

Amendment For Against

To restore the offices of the two nonresident vice

PRESIGEMUS mee ieee eh See ce eae ee eae 94 50

To modify and clarify the procedure for amending the

yy lewis oe ee Sie cha on amma ean Wie mt ee aaa 133 15

To establish the position of Archivist, to discontinue

the office of Recording Secretary, and to change the

name of the office of Corresponding Secretary to

SOCREEAT Van meat ecoins Con clea a bette Settee TNR ar 144 6

Since a two-thirds majority of the ballots cast is necessary for adoption,

the first listed amendment was lost and the other two were carried.

The Corresponding Secretary reported the following statistics with regard

to the membership: Deaths, 2; acceptances to membership, 11; resignations,

In connection with the report of the Custodian of Publications, W. W.

Dix, the following motion was made and carried: ‘“The President is in-

structed to appoint a committee to consider (a) the number of copies of the

Journal to be printed currently, (b) the limitations to be placed on the sale

of back numbers of the Journal, and (c) the limitations, if any, to be placed

upon the purchase of back numbers of the Journal to complete given volumes

or entire sets of volumes.’’ To constitute this committee, President CRITTEN-

DEN appointed the Custodian of Publications, chairman, the Senior Editor,

and the Treasurer.

The meeting adjourned at 10:00 p.m.

FREDERICK D. Rossini, Corresponding Secretary.

Fes. 15, 1941 OBITUARIES 83

@Pbituaries

WiiiaM Bowig, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, retired, died at Mount

Alto Hospital in Washington, D. C., on the morning of August 28, 1940,

after an illness of less than a month. He was born in Anne Arundel County,

Md., on May 6, 1872, the son of Thomas John and Susanne (Anderson)

Bowie. He received his early education in the public schools and at private

academies and later received degrees at Trinity College, Lehigh University,

University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and George Washington University.

He entered the service of the Coast and Geodetic Survey on July 1, 1895,

and served as a junior officer and later as Chief of Party in the field and was

engaged principally on triangulation and base-line measurements in many

States of the Union as well as in the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Alaska. He

was appointed chief of the Division of Geodesy in 1909 and rendered dis-

tinguished service in this position until he retired on December 31, 1936.

During the World War he was commissioned a major in the Corps of

Engineers, U.S. Army, and served with the Mapping Division of the Office

of the Chief of Engineers.

His development of the theory of isostasy gained him international recog-

nition. He was awarded the Elliott Cresson medal in 1937 by the Franklin

Institute of Philadelphia for his contributions to the science of geodesy. He

was also awarded the Charles Lagrange prize by the Royal Academy of

Belgium, 1932; made an officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau by the Queen

of the Netherlands in 1937; and received the decoration of the Cross of

Grand Officer of the Order of St. Sava from Yugoslavia in 1939.

The first impression of the medal of the American Geophysical Union,

known as the William Bowie Medal and established for award for distin-

guished attainment and outstanding contribution to the advancement of

cooperative research in fundamental geophysics, was presented to Major

Bowie at the meeting of the Union in April, 1939.

Major Bowie was interested in many scientific societies and organizations

to which he contributed much of his time. He was president of the Washing-

ton Society of Engineers, 1914; president of the Philosophical Society of

Washington, 1926; president of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1930;

chairman of the American Geophysical Union, 1919-22 and 1929-32; chair-

man of the Board of Surveys and Maps of the Federal Government, 1922-24;

member of the Committee on Surveying and Mapping, American Engineer-

ing Council; president of the Society of American Military Engineers, 1938;

chairman of the Division of Surveying and Mapping of the American So-

ciety of Civil Engineers since its organization in 1926; president of the Dis-

trict of Columbia chapter of the Society of Sigma Xi, 1935-36; honorary

president of the Pan American Institute of Geography and History, 1929

to 1940; president of the International Geodetic Association, 1919-33; and

president of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, 1933-36.

He was appointed executive secretary of the Society of American Military

Engineers in December, 1939, and served in that capacity and as editor of

the Society’s magazine until his death.

Epwarp Brownine Metres, formerly chief of the Division of Nutrition

and Physiology of the U. 8S. Bureau of Dairy Industry, died on November

0, 1940, after a long illness. He was born in Philadelphia on September 10,

1879, and received an A.B. degree from Princeton University in 1900. He

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 2

was graduated from the Medical School of the University of Pennsylvania in

1904 and remained there for two years as instructor in physiology.

In 1904 he took the course in physiology at the Marine Biological Labora-

tory and spent the following year at the University of Jena, doing research

work in the physiology of muscular contraction. He was instructor in physiol-

ogy at the Harvard Medical School from 1907 to 1910 and in 1910 was fellow

in physiology at the Wistar Institute. He came to the Bureau of Dairy In-

dustry in 1915 to take charge of the laboratory for the study of the nutrition

of dairy cows. This laboratory was situated at Beltsville, Md., but for ad-

ministrative purposes was a part of the Washington laboratories. However,

Dr. Meigs was, from the beginning, entirely responsible for the research work

and when, in 1936, all the work of the Bureau of the physiology of reproduc-

tion, milk secretion, and nutrition was combined he became chief of the

newly created division.

The results of his work previous to entering the Government service were

presented in 15 papers, many of which dealt with problems of muscular con-

traction. In his work at Beltsville he made a notable contribution to the

knowledge of the mineral metabolism of the dairy cow and of the part of

the roughage in supplying minerals and essential vitamins to milking cows.

The results of this work were presented in 27 papers in various journals and ~

Department of Agriculture publications.

The interference with the nutrition investigations by outbreaks of mastitis

in the herd forced Dr. Meigs to give considerable attention to a study of the

factors influencing the incidence of this disease, a problem that he attacked

with characteristic thoroughness and freedom from the bias imposed by pre-

conceived theories. Although this work was curtailed by the onset of im-

paired health, he was able to demonstrate that in the nutrition herd mastitis

could be produced or cured almost at will by the control of physical condi-

tions.

In his last few years his strength was so reduced by the inroads of disease

that he was obliged to give up the administrative work of his position and to

confine his efforts to the preparation for publication of results that had ac-

cumulated in his active years. It was characteristic of his devotion to his

work that one of his last acts was to insure the safety of a manuscript on

which he had been working intermittently as his waning strength permitted

for three years.

As chief of a laboratory he was a leader rather than a director. His interest

was always in the study of fundamental principles rather than in the more

superficial feeding experiments with their practical application. Among his

scientific achievements should be included the organization of the staff that

he gathered about him and in which he inculcated his own high ideals of

service. He will be remembered by those who were fortunate enough to be

among his friends and acquaintances for his scholarly attainments, his gentle

and courteous manners, and his unfailing generosity in thought and action.

Ate aS FOROS) UDA Reet fic ee ial

| Boras.

0; F. Coox.. aoe = ae ee ao) ae : te Pak Bi a

ee ou _ Herperoocy. a critical synopsis of the Mexican “—- :

ote 3 : . : 2 -ornata complex and a description of a new species fror :

Pe M. B. MIrTLEMAN.........-..- oe sou

Si ose Oprruaies: aired Aare pa 7

ng ’ = : pu ets ‘

Maren 15,1941 No. 3

JOURNAL.

Be ncTon ACADEMY

_ OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

H ‘Kempton Raymonp J. SEEGER G. Arruur Cooper

OF PLANT INDUSTRY GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY U. 8S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

- Lewis V. Jupson Austin H. Cuarx

; 2 cam SOCIETY . ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCINTY

. EpwWINn Kirk

ae GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

- . Cxartorre Ex.iott T. Date STEWART

te BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Horace §S. Ispe.n

CHEMICAL SOCIETY we

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(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the A

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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: Austin H. Cuarx, U.S. National Museum:

Secretary: FrepERIcK D. Rossint, National Bureau of Standards.

Treasurer: Howarp S. Rapp.teye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vot. 31 Marcu 15, 1941 No. 3

STATISTICS.—Some thoughts on statistical inference... W. EDWARDS

DEMING, Bureau of the Census.

Definition of a statistician.—In the development of the scientific

method, it is usually assumed that all observations give the same re-

sult; e.g., that F =ma exactly, always. The statistical method is the

scientific method, modified—that is, brought up to date—to take ac-

count of the fact that all nature is subject to variations. The chief

duty of a statistician is to study these variations and to design experi-

ments so that they may provide the maximum knowledge for purposes

of prediction; another is to compile data with the same object in view;

and still a third function is to help bring about changes in the sources

of the data. You can go back and substitute the word scientist for

statistician, and have a good definition of a scientist.

Anyone who is interested in getting the most out of an experiment,

and presenting the data in such form that they can be used for mean-

ingful predictions, is something of a statistician. A qualified statis-

tician, however, in addition to being accomplished in some branch of

science, natural or social, must also be trained in probability and the

mathematics of distribution theory. He must get in and work with

the scientist and be one. Some statisticians, I suppose, are better than

others, but the best statisticians are the best scientists. The statis-

tician and the scientist have the same ultimate object in view, and

they must work together under the same rules. The statistician has no

special license. Often his special training in distribution theory is not

so much help to a statistician as his training in other topics of science.

Hvery interpretation of data involves a prediction.—Scientific data

have no meaning until they are interpreted, and there can be no inter-

pretation except in a predictive sense. There is no such thing as scien-

tific data merely as facts. The interpretation can not be separated

from the prediction. .

1 From a discourse delivered at the National Bureau of Standards on November 22,

1940. Insubstance the same material was presented at the Secchi Academy of George-

town University on February 7, 1940. Received January 27, 1941.

os)

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 3

The idea of presenting experimental results as original data is familiar to all of us.

However, presentation as a prediction may not be so familiar; in fact some scientists

and engineers may prefer to think of only two ways of presenting the results of experi-

mental work, namely, as original data and as an interpretation. Closer examination

reveals, however, that every meaningful interpretation involves a prediction. (Shew-

hart,” Ch. 3.)

Moreover,

... there is no knowledge of external reality without the anticipation of future ex-

perience. ... There is no knowledge without interpretation ... what the concept de-

notes has always some temporal spread. (Lewis,’ p. 195.)

Such simple concepts as blue and round, for example, embrace not an immediate

quale, but some stable pattern of relations ... Feeling the roundness of a marble as

we roll it between thumb and fingers, or measuring a house, is again a temporally ex-

tended and ordered relation of apprehended qualia ... The ascription of a substan-

tive or an adjective is the hypothesis of some sequence in possible experience, or a

multiplicity of such experiences. (Lewis,’ pp. 129 and 132.)

Every set of data, for generalizations and conclusions, is but a sample,

and a sample of the past—One may take datajust for an inventory. There

are times when it is highly important to have an inventory, as for

purposes of taxation. Otherwise one takes data with the object of say-

ing something about future data that will arise from the same cause

systems, or of doing something about the source of the data so that

future data will differ in a certain way from past data. You design and

carry out experiments on the specific heat of steam, the fatigue of

metals, the pitting of metal pipe, the disintegration of leather, not

just to learn something about what the specific heat of steam was, or

‘about those particular specimens, or the particular batches whence

they were drawn, all of which were made in the past, but rather, to

say what the specific heat of steam is going to be next month, or to

help somebody make better or more uniform steel, leather, or pipe, in

the future. 3

Usually you do not run experiments on all the materials and articles

of a particular batch that were made in the past; you do not need to;

you experiment on only part of them. You draw a sample. But even

if you ran experiments on an entire batch, i.e., took a 100 percent

sample of last month’s production, you still would have only a sample

of what would have been produced by the same machines or exactly

similar machines, reoperated under the same essential conditions. You

are obliged to experiment on materials or articles that were made in

the past, with the object of drawing inferences about some that are

to be made in the future.

2 WaLTER A. SHEWHART. Statistical method from the viewpoint of quality control.

(The Graduate School, Department of Agriculture, Washington, 1939.)

3C. 1. Lewis. Mind and the world-order. (Scribners, New York, 1929.)

Marcu 15, 1941 DEMING: STATISTICAL INFERENCE 87

The collection of data, whether by a physicist in the laboratory, by

a government census of population, agriculture, or unemployment, by

a department store on its sales and complaints and quality of goods

placed on the shelves, by a manufacturer who keeps records of the

quality of his products, or by any other person, is for the ultimate pur-

pose of taking some sort of action, or making recommendation for

action. Even a classroom quiz is no exception; it is not given (we hope)

just for the nuisance of it, but to enable the teacher to say, on the

basis of past evidence, whether certain pupils will be able to go ahead

in the future into more advanced work, or to hold a job. The teacher,

if he is scientifically minded, will have still another object in view,

namely, to improve his own teaching; by seeing how well or how

poorly his pupils have picked up certain ideas that he has tried to

instill into them in the past, he can judge his own work to see where he

needs to adopt different methods of teaching in the future.

In taking readings with a galvanometer you can always conceivably

take one more reading, but in actual practice you are satisfied with a

finite number. From these readings taken in the past, you make state-

ments about what someone else will find when he takes readings in

the future. Whatever special studies are pursued by statisticians, the

chief object of learning them is to acquire facility in making predic-

tions from data, and in presenting data in such form that others can

do the same.

What I am saying was voiced more succinctly by Fry of the Bell

Telephone Laboratories, at the University of Pennsylvania Bicenten-

nial Celebration:

The statistical method is used for saying something about data that we are about to

take, not what we have already taken.$

A word on sampling and the census.—So far as scientific generaliza-

tions and predictions are concerned, the distinction between a sample

and a complete count (a perfect census, tests run on all of last month’s

production, all the readings that you might have taken with your

galvanometer but did not), is only one of degree. A complete count of

last month’s production is only a bigger sample than part of it. Both

are samples of what might have resulted, and the kind of results that

are to be expected in the future from the same underlying cause sys-

tem. In population studies, the births, deaths, vocations, migrations,

and educational attainments of a population are changed and directed

by a myriad of chance causes, superimposed on certain underlying

. 4 THORNTON C. Fry. September 19, 1940. The quotation given may not be ver-

atim.

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 3

social and economic cause systems. A census, even if perfect, is subject

to’ the variations of chance because it describes only one of the many

possible populations that might have been found as the result of this

combination of chance causes and main causes. Any generalizations

(i.e., predictions) must recognize the fact that some other population

might have resulted, and in fact must be expected to arise in the fu-

ture, from the same underlying causes.°®

How big a sample? The three components of knowledge.—Seeing, then,

that we must make our predictions about the future from samples of

the past, the question arises: How big must these samples be? How

much data do we need? One distinguishing characteristic of a good

scientist, I should say, is that he knows good data and knows when he

has enough of it.

But how much is enough? 10, 20, 50, 100, or 1,000 readings? The

answer is not a simple yes or no. It is tied up with the idea that a

prediction, if it is to convey knowledge, must be based on evidence.

The degree of belief in any prediction is closely linked with the pre-

diction and the evidence. Shewhart (op. cit., p. 86) exhibits the trian-

gular relation shown below, linking the three components of knowledge:

Evidence Prediction

Degree of belief

Tue THREE COMPONENTS OF KNOWLEDGE

On the basis of certain evidence, you would make certain predic-

tions, and in so doing, convey a certain degree of belief. A prediction

is expressed in terms of data that one would expect to get if he were

to perform certain experiments in the future. A prediction without

any supporting evidence conveys no degree of belief. Thus, if I say

it is going to rain day after tomorrow, I have made a prediction, but

created no degree of belief, because you have no evidence, since I have

no standing as a weather prophet. You would likely not carry your

umbrella or cancel your trip on the basis of my prediction. The results

of experimental work are usually summarized in terms of predictions

and evidence. Shewhart gives a rule for the presentation of data, stat-

§ This topic is pursued in more detail in a paper by W. Epwarps DEMING and

FREDERICK F. STEPHAN in the Journal of the American Statistical Association, March

1941.

Marcu 15, 1941 DEMING: STATISTICAL INFERENCE 89

ing that original data, if summarized, should be summarized in such

a way that the evidence in the original data is preserved for all the

predictions that are thought to be useful. Judgment is of course re-

quired in regard to just which predictions are to be assumed useful,

but this is where scientific judgment must be exercised.

The question before us is how much data does one need? We are

now ready to get back to it and look for an answer. I should say that

one needs enough data—i.e., evidence—to provide some substantial

degree of belief in whatever predictions he chooses to make or expects

others to make. A physicist usually does not commence to record data

for publication or calibration until his apparatus has been perfected

to a state satisfactory to him; and he stops when further data, in his

judgment, would create no greater degree of belief in any prediction

that he may wish to make from that experiment.

Statistical control.—In the state of statistical control or the state of

randomness, the data from an experiment, or the measurements on a

product manufactured, display the characteristics of statistical stabil-

ity. They behave as if they were samples being drawn at random from

a stable universe. The ideal stable universe is a bowl of physically

similar numbered chips. When they are thoroughly stirred and drawn

blindfolded with replacement, the resulting sequence of numbers is the

result of a random operation. (The necessity for extreme care in at-

tempting to carry out any random operation, even in so simple an

experiment as drawing numbers from a bowl, can hardly be overem-

phasized.) In experimental work, and in manufacturing, one can not

form a judgment in regard to the attainment of statistical control un-

til his experiment or process has been continued long enough to be

subjected to Shewhart’s Criterion I, which requires at least 100 read-

ings.®

In the state of statistical control, the distribution theories of mathe-

matical statistics apply, and it is possible to make a valid prediction

concerning the next hundred or thousand observations; it is possible,

for instance, to draw a pair of limits (control limits) such that when-

ever a future observation falls outside these limits, it will be worth

while to look for an assignable cause of variation in the process.

The state of statistical control is the goal of all economic manu-

facture of materials. It is not usually the goal in experimental work

in pure science; but this is only an illustration of the fact that some

6 This criterion for randomness is discussed by SHEWHART in his Economic control

of quality (Van Nostrand, 1931), pp. 304-318. For a description of a ‘‘normal’”’ bowl,

and the results of 4,000 drawings therefrom, see SHEwHART’S Economic control of manu-

factured product (Van Nostrand, 1931), table 22 and Appendix 1.

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 3

requirements of industry are more exacting than the requirements of

pure science. Usually an experimental physicist or chemist is satisfied

to eliminate trends and erratic disturbances in his experiment to a

point wherein he feels confident that he can draw a pair of limits that

include any future observations that he might make by that method.

He may continue making adjustments until he can set these limits

narrower than has been possible in any previous similar experiment. If,

with still further adjustments, his experiment were brought to a state

of statistical control, still narrower limits could be set with even

greater confidence. However, we shall find that the course adopted

by the pure scientist is very often justifiable from the standpoint of

accuracy, for the reason that any limits that he might draw on the

basis of one experiment refer only to what may be expected from that

particular method, but they do not by themselves give any indication

of systematic errors nor of what may be expected from some other

method of measurement.

Accuracy and precision.—Scientists have for long toyed with the

hope of finding some logical method of inferring from a given set of

data what the accuracy of those data may be. The idea is an exciting

one, but it is a vain hope; the data of a single experiment, or even of a

number of experiments, do not by themselves provide all the evidence

that is needed for stating the true value of the thing being measured.

For to say something about the true value, one must predict what

will be the result of all other methods of measurement, not only those

methods that have been tried out, but also all those that are yet to be

devised. He must also be able to explain any discrepancies between

different methods. More methods and more data (good data) add new

evidence to our knowledge, but of knowledge there is no end. The con-

cept of true value arises not from any highly consistent results arising

from one experiment, but from consistent results from many different

kinds of experiments. Think of the different ways of measuring e/m.

When two or three of them had been discovered, and found to give

consistent results, there was reason to begin thinking that something

was known about e/m. But new data and new methods can always

upset predictions, and such has been the history of physics. ‘“‘Knowing

begins and ends in experience; but it does not end in the experience

in which it began.’’’

The objectivity of being able to make a valid prediction of the

limits within which the future data of a single method of measurement

will fall is in contrast with the subjectivity of assigning limits within

7C. 1. Lewis. Hazperience and meaning, Philos. Rev. 13: 134. 1934.

Marcu 15, 1941 DEMING: STATISTICAL INFERENCE 91

which the data of that and all other methods will fall. This contrast

is expressed by the distinction between the words precision and ac-

curacy. The limits set by a single experiment give a measure of the

precision of that experiment, or of that method of measurement, but

they give no objective criterion of the accuracy of the result, because

they refer to the one experiment only, and not to all the other methods

that are or have been devised.

In order to convey knowledge, the Ax in x + Az must have an opera-

tionally verifiable meaning in the form of a prediction. This will be

one sort of a prediction in a statement regarding precision, but a very

different one in a statement regarding accuracy.

To see how these remarks apply in practice, let us think of a cer-

tificate issued by the National Bureau of Standards on a precision

standard.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

W ASHINGTON

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Certificate

for

Standard Resistor

Manufactured by 22 = 2s = = * Serial No.

Submitted by

db cs) eae es Company

The above-described resistor was found in September 1940, at a temperature of 25°C,

to have a resistance of

9.9999 International Ohms.

The value given is correct within 0.005 percent. This statement of accuracy takes

into consideration the uncertainty in the realization of the International Ohm from its

definition and allows for normal changes of resistance with time.

Lyman J. Briaas, Director

Let us try to see the element of prediction in this certificate. Per-

haps we shall agree that a certificate is a prediction. When a piece of

apparatus is of such poor quality that you dare not risk a prediction

on it, you do not issue a certificate, but may instead issue a report.

In issuing a certificate you risk making a prediction regarding the

future behavior of a piece of apparatus that was sent in for test; in a

report you merely record a bit of history—how it behaved, in terms

of your own standards—while it was here. You leave the risk of pre-

diction to the owner of the apparatus.

In the testing of precision standard resistors at the National Bureau

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 3

of Standards, the measurgments can ordinarily be duplicated within

a range of 1 part in 100,000 to 1 part in 10,000,000, depending par-

tially on the magnitude of the resistor, but more particularly on its

quality. In the example given above, the measurements can be dupli-

cated from day to day with variations of not more than one unit in

the fifth decimal place, and the resistance is therefore determined in

terms of the N.B.S. Ohm to within this magnitude. These are state-

ments of precision and are objective. As for accuracy—comparison

with the International Ohm, and behavior after being shipped back

to its owner—you are obliged to depend on intuition. You allow a

wide factor of safety; your certificate risks a prediction that is 50 times

as wide as the latitude of reproducibility of your measurements. You

did not make a direct comparison with the International Ohm, and

you did not run a test. on the change of resistance of this particular

resistor with time, and certainly not after it was sent back to its

owner. But you have had many years’ experience with similar re-

sistors, and you are led by intuition to make statements (predictions)

regarding the accuracy of this particular one. You feel safe in predict-

ing its behavior. For resistors of better quality, you would name nar-

rower limits, and for one of particularly good quality, you might even

make a prediction regarding the variation of its resistance with tem-

perature.

In a certificate you are not talking about your own apparatus: you

are talking about the apparatus that was sent in for test.

Intuition may at times be very helpful, but intuition, like the con-

science, must be trained. The distribution theory of statistics should

be a part of this training. The rest of us may well be satisfied to pin

our faith on the intuition of an expert. And perhaps our own intuition

helps us to distinguish between experts and others whose intuition is

not so reliable.

Pure distribution theory, by itself, is nigh helpless until the state

of statistical control is attained and proved. Since statistical control

seldom exists in experimental work, the interpretation of scientific

data remains, for the most part, a matter of cooperation between the

statistician and the scientist, each assisting the other in the process of

adjusting the apparatus, and finally in making predictions from the

results. The peculiar training of the statistician enables him to help

the physicist or engineer to weed out assignable causes of variation

and to attain uniformity; in fact, as I said, one of the chief duties of a

statistician is to help bring about desirable changes in the source of

the data that he takes. His services are especially useful in industry,

Marcu 15, 1941 FOSBERG: AMARANTHUS, ARTOCARPUS, AND INOCARPUS 93

where the economic advantages of statistical control are coming to be

more and more recognized. Huge financial savings are being effected,

not only in industry, but also in a number of government departments

by the application of statistical methods.

My main theme is that the interpretation of scientific data involves

prediction. Facts, so far as science is concerned, have meaning only in

the predictions that can be made from them. A prediction must be

made in terms of some operation that will prove the prediction either

true or false. The methods of the statistician take into account the

variabilities in nature, and his special training enables him to make

the most efficient use of data for valid predictions when it is possible

to make predictions. He also knows when predictions can not be made.

The statistical method is an aid to the scientist in understanding the

nature of the knowledge that he is continually seeking.

In conclusion, it is a pleasure to express my indebtedness to con-

versations with Dr. Frank Wenner of the National Bureau of Stand-

ards, particularly in regard to the interpretation of certificates.

BOTAN Y.—Names in Amaranthus, Artocarpus, and Inocarpus.'!

F. R. Fossere, U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated

by W. T. SWINGLE.)

To make available the correct names for certain species and to save

other workers the trouble of searching the literature for a solution to

the Amaranthus tricolor problem, it seems worth while to publish the

notes given below.

Amaranthus tricolor L. [Amaranthaceae|

In Species plantarum, ed. 1, p. 989, 1753, Linnaeus described Amaranthus

tricolor, A. melancholicus, and A. tristis, distinguished by trifling differences

in leaf color and outline. In edition 10 of the Systema, p. 1268. 1759, he added

A. gangeticus, also very closely allied to the above three. Various other species

were added to the complex later, but as they have no bearing on the nomen-

clatorial problem, they will not be discussed here. The object of this note

is to establish which of the above names is correct if all four names are con-

sidered synonymous, the opinion held by most modern botanists.

Botanists generally, with the exception of Lamarck and Moquin, up to

the time of Hooker’s Flora of British India (1885), followed Linnaeus without

question in recognizing at least four species. Lamarck, in the first volume of

the Encyclopédie méthodique (p. 115. 1783) made A. melancholicus L. a

variety of A. tricolor L., but recognized A. gangeticus, A. mangostanus, and

A. tristis as distinct species. Poiret, in the Supplement (vol. 1, pp. 311-812.

1 Received November 27, 1940.

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 3

1810) and in the text to the Tableauz (p. 355, text for pl. 767. 1823) restored

A. melancholicus to specific rank.

Moquin, in DeCandolle’s Prodromus 13 (2): 262. 1849, evidently misinter-

preting Poiret’s synonymy, made A. tricolor a variety of A. melancholicus,

citing the Tableaux as authority.

Boissier, in the Flora Orientalis 4: 990. 1879, mentioned only A. gangeticus,

giving neither synonyms nor related species.

J. D. Hooker, in the Flora of British India 4: 719-720. 1885, reduced A.

tricolor, A. melancholicus, and A. tristzs (the latter with some doubt) to the

later A. gangeticus. The reason for this abrogation of the rule of priority is

not clear to me. Perhaps it was simply an oversight due to the unfortunate

custom, then in vogue, of omitting the dates from all reference citations. At

any rate, A. gangeticus can not be the correct name for the aggregate. British

botanists, during the next quarter century, except Hiern in the Catalogue of

Welwitch’s African plants 2: 887. 1900, and Baker and Clarke in the Flora of

Tropical Africa 6 (1): 32. 1909, followed Hooker’s disposition of the matter.

Some other botanists (cf. Kung Hsien-wu in Liou Tchen-ngo, FI. Ill. du

nord de la Chine 4: 15. 1935) even much more recently, are still following him,

in obvious disregard of the rules of nomenclature.

Fiori and Paoletti, in Flora analitica d’Italia 1: 321. 1898, were the first

modern botanists to reduce A. gangeticus, A. mangostanus, and A. melan-

cholicus to A. tricolor. A gangeticus was maintained in a subordinate cate-

gory. No mention was made of A. tristizs.

In this century Hiern (see above), Baker and Clarke (see above), Thellung

(in Ascherson and Graebner, Syn. Fl. Mittel-Eur. 5: 272-280. 1914), Merrill

(Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl. 2: 128. 1923 and other papers), and Bailey (Man. Cult.

Pl. 252. 1924) have followed this course, which seems to be the correct one.

Article 56 of the International Rules (Cambridge) reads, in part: ‘“‘When

two or more groups of the same rank are united . . . if the names or epithets

are of the same date... the author who first adopts one of them, definitely

treating another as a synonym or referring it to a subordinate group, must

be followed.” Strict application of this rule makes it quite clear that the

reduction by Lamarck (Encycl. 1: 115. 1783) of A. melancholicus to a variety

of A. tricolor determines that the latter is the correct name for the aggregate

(unless someone should show that two or more of the species had been com-

bined previous to Lamarck’s publication).

The essential synonymy to establish this point is given below. The exten-

sive post-Linnaean synonymy is largely unnecessary here and may be found

in the intricate treatment of A. tricolor L. by Thellung in Ascherson and

Graebner, Syn. Fl. Mittel-Eur. 5: 272-280. 1914.

Amaranthus tricolor L. Sp. Pl. 989. 1753.

Amaranthus melancholicus L. Sp. Pl. 989. 1753.

Amaranthus tristis L. Sp. Pl. 989. 1753.

Amaranthus gangeticus L. Syst. X: 1268. 1759.

Amaranthus mangostanus L. Cent. I: 32. 1755.

Marcu 15, 1941 FOSBERG: AMARANTHUS, ARTOCARPUS, AND INOCARPUS 95

Amaranthus tricolor L. var. melancholicus Lam. Encycl. 1: 115. 1783.

Amaranthus melancholicus L. var. tricolor Lam. ex. Mog. in DC. Prodr.

13 (2): 262. 1849.

Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg [Moraceae]

In a longer paper, not as yet published, I have discussed the validity of the

names published in Parkinson’s Journal of a voyage to the South Seas in

H.M.S. Endeavour, etc., published in 1773. As it may be some time before

this paper is published, it seems desirable to make the necessary combina-

tions for this and the following well-known species, so that they may be used.

The well-described genus Sztodiwm Parkinson antedates by three years

Artocarpus Forst. I have elsewhere (Amer. Jour. Bot. 26: 231. 1939) pro-

posed Artocarpus for conservation, as it contains well-known economic plants

(breadfruit, jakfruit), but, owing to the European war, there seems little

chance of holding a congress in the near future to vote on such propositions.

In the meantime it seems desirable to go on using the name Artocarpus,

rather than making a temporary shift to the unfamiliar Sztodiwm. Since the

principle of conserved specific names was decisively rejected by the congress

in 1935, it is necessary to transfer Parkinson’s specific epithet to Artocarpus.

EK. J. H. Corner, in a well-thought-out article in Gard. Bull. 8. 8. 10:

280-282. 1939, discussed the reasons why Artocarpus incisus (Thunb.) L. f.

should be used for the common breadfruit rather than A. communis Forst.,

both specific epithets published the same year (1776), with no indication

available as to which was earlier. The problem would have been solved

without the discussion had Corner been aware of the availability of Parkin-

son’s epithet, published three years earlier. The combination and synonymy

follow:

Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg, n. comb.

Sitodium altile Parkinson, Journ. Voy. Endeavour 45. 1773.

Artocarpus communis Forst. Char. Gen. 101. 1776.

Radermachia incisa Thunb. Handl. Vet.-Akad. Stockh. 37: 254. 1776.

Artocarpus incisus (Thunb.) L. f. Suppl. 411. 1781.

Corner’s spelling of Thunberg’s generic name Rademachia instead of

Radermachia is an error that, according to the Index Kewensis, originated

with Steudel.

Inocarpus fagiferus (Parkinson) Fosberg [Leguminosae]

Amiotum Parkinson, as in the case of Sitodiuwm mentioned above, antedates

a well-known generic name, Inocarpus, the Tahitian chestnut, mape (Tahiti),

kopit or kerepit (Malay, cf. Corner, Gard. Bull. 8. S. 10: 269. 1939). As with

Artocarpus, I have proposed Inocarpus for conservation, and for the same

reasons as given above, I am here making the combination for Parkinson’s

specific name under Inocarpus.

Inocarpus fagiferus (Parkinson) Fosberg, n. comb.

Anwotum fagiferum Parkinson, Journ. Voy. Endeavour 39. 1773.

Inocarpus edulis Forst. Char. Gen. 66. 1776.

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 31, NO. 3

Corner (Gard. Bull. 8. S. 10: 269-270. 1939) in his discussion of whether

this species is native in Malaya cast some doubt on the statement of Brown

(Bishop Mus. Bull. 130: 118. 1935) that in the Marquesas this species reaches

a height of 10 meters. He describes it as ‘‘a smallish and slow-growing tree.”

I know nothing about the rate of growth and have not actually measured any

trees. No one, however, who has seen the trees of this species in some of the

deep valleys of Tahiti (Aparé Maué, Papenoo, ete.) could possibly describe

the tree as smallish. It has huge buttressed trunks, many feet in diameter,

that compare favorably with the giant ceiba trees shown in tropical pictures,

and the trees are certainly well in excess of 10 meters tall.

BOTAN Y.—New Acanthaceae from Guatemala.! E. C. LEONARD, U.S.

National Museum. (Communicated by Witut1aAm R. Maxon.)

During the 1938-39 Sewell Avery Expedition of the Field Museum

of Natural History to Guatemala, Paul C. Standley collected a con-

siderable number of Acanthaceae. In the present paper, based on a

study of these specimens, six new species are described, one is trans-

ferred from Hranthemum to Pseuderanthemum, and one is renamed.

Ruellia brittoniana Leonard, nom. nov. Fig. 1

Cryphiacanthus angustifolius Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 199. 1847. Not R. an-

gustifolia Sw., 1788.

Ruellia spectabilis Britton, Ann. New York Acad. 7: 192. 1893; not Nichols,

1886.

Fig. 1.—Ruellia brittoniana Leonard: a, Portion of plant,

half natural size; b, capsule, natural size.

Cultivated near Quirigua4, Department Izabal, Guatemala, altitude 70 to

150 meters, April 26-27, 1939, Standley 72225.

1 Received November 8, 1940.

Marcu 15, 1941 LEONARD: NEW ACANTHACEAE FROM GUATEMALA 97

Ruellia donnell-smithii Leonard, sp. nov. Fig. 2

Herbae, caulibus quadrangularibus superne cano-pilosulis, infra glabratis;

lamina foliorum ovata vel oblongo-ovata, obtusa, basi angustata in petiolum

decurrens, integra vel leviter undulata, cano-pilosula, subtus glandulis ro-

tundatis vestita; flores subsessiles axillares solitarii subterminales; calycis

segmenta glanduloso-pilosula, lineari-lanceolata; corolla purpurella, parce

Fig. 2.—Ruellia donnell-smithit Leonard: a, Portion of plant; b, calyx;

c, capsule. (a, half natural size; b, c, natural size.)

puberula; capsula puberula glandulis rotundatis vestita; semina nigra, plana,

suborbicularia, madefacta dense mucoso-pubescentia.

Erect or decumbent herbs up to 30 ecm high or more; stems simple or

branched, quadrangular, the tips densely gray-pilosulous, the lower portions

often glabrate; leaf blades ovate to oblong-ovate, 2 to 5 em long, | to 2.2 em

wide, obtuse, narrowed at base and decurrent on the petiole, entire or shal-

lowly undulate, grayish-pilosulous, or the older leaves subglabrous, the under

surface with scattered roundish glands; petioles 2 to 4 mm long; flowers

axillary, solitary, subsessile, borne at or near the tip of the stems; calyx

glandular-pilosulous with spreading hairs without, strigose within, the tube

2mm long, the segments linear-lanceolate, 10 to 12 mm long, 1.25 mm wide

at base, gradually narrowed from above the base to a slender blunt tip;

corolla 3 to 4 em long, light purple, sparingly puberulent, the lower half of

the tube slender, about 1.5 mm in diameter, the upper portion obconic, about

1 cm broad at the mouth, the limb spreading, 2.5 to 3 cm broad, the lobes

suborbicular, 10 to 12 mm wide, rounded; filaments glabrous, one of each pair

2mm long, the other 7 mm long: ovary puberulent; style 2 cm long, puberu-

lent; capsule 10 to 12 mm long, 4 mm broad tow ard tip, narrowed to a solid

stipitate base 3 mm long and 2 mm broad, puberulent, with small round

glands; seeds flat, black, suborbicular, 4 mm in diameter, mucilaginous-

pubescent when moistened.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 944013, collected at San Luis,

Department Escuintla, Guatemala, March, 1890, by John Donnell Smith

(no. 2015).

Additional specimens examined:

Mexico: Mount Ovando, Chiapas, March 30, 1935, Matuda 123.

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 3

GUATEMALA: Below Las Lajas, Department Escuintla, altitude 900 to

1,200 meters, in a dry thicket, February 9, 1939, Standley 64807.

Close to R. geminiflora H.B.K. but readily distinguished by its densely

glandular-pilosulous calyx.

Ruellia standleyi Leonard, sp. nov. Fig. 3

Herbae viscidae, caulibus subquadrangularibus, glanduloso-pilosis; lamina

foliorum ovata vel elliptica, pilosula, apice breviter acuminata, basi rotundata

Fig. 3—Ruellia standleyi Leonard: a, Tip of panicle; b, leaf; c, calyx; d, ovary and

style; e, portion of panicle from fruiting plant. (a, natural size; b, half natural size; c,

d, e, natural size.)

vel truncata; petioli glanduloso-pilosi; panicula terminalis, glanduloso-pilosa ;

calycis segmenta lineari-subulata, glanduloso-pilosa; corolla anguste cam-

panulata, lobis parvis; capsula oblonga, glabra vel apice parce pubescens;

semina plana, brunnea, madefacta mucoso-pilosa.

A viscid herb up to 1.3 meters high; stems subquadrangular, glandular-

pilose or the lower portions glabrate; leaf blades ovate to elliptic, up to 15

ecm long and 10 cm wide, short-acuminate, narrowed, rounded or truncate

at the base, pilosulous, the pubescence denser beneath than above, the costa

Marcu 15, 1941 LEONARD: NEW ACANTHACEAE FROM GUATEMALA 99

and lateral veins (5 to 8 pairs) rather prominent; petioles up to 9 cm long,

elandular-pilose; inflorescence a terminal, much branched, glandular-pilose

panicle, the flowers rather numerous, subsessile, axillary or borne in the forks

of the branches of the panicle; bracts lanceolate to subulate, small, or the

lowermost larger and leaflike; calyx 15 mm long at maturity, the segments

linear-subulate, rounded at tip, glandular-pilose, the hairs spreading, rather

scattered, up to 1.5 mm long; corolla up to 18 mm long, finely pubescent,

narrowly campanulate, the lobes about 3 mm long; stamens glabrous, the

filaments of the longer pair about 4 mm long, those of the shorter pair about

2mm long, the anthers about 2.5 mm long; style about as long as the corolla;

capsules oblong, 15 mm long, 3.5 mm broad, glabrous or bearing a few minute

hairs toward the tip, 8- to 10-seeded; seeds brown, flat, 2.5 mm long, a little

more than 2 mm broad, finely gelatinous-pilose when moistened.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

992848, collected on Finca Pireneos, below Santa Maria de Jestis, Depart-

ment Quezaltenango, Guatemala, altitude 1,350 to 1,380 meters, in a damp

forest, March 11, 1939, by Paul C. Standley (no. 68390).

Additional specimens examined:

Dept. QUEZALTENANGO: Damp forest near El Muro, below Santa Maria

de Jestis, altitude about 1,200 meters, Standley 67150.

Dept. SUCHITEPEQUEZ: Wet thicket near Pueblo Nuevo, altitude about

750 meters, Standley 66970.

Dept. San Marcos: Wet thicket along Rio Ixpal, below Rodeo, altitude

about 750 meters, Standley 68720.

This is closely related to Ruellia paniculata L., but it can be distinguished

easily by its large, nearly naked terminal inflorescence and larger capsules,

in Ruellia paniculata the inflorescence being axillary and leafy and the cap-

sules narrowly cylindric and not over 9 mm long. It resembles more closely

R. ochroleuca Mart., but in that species the inflorescence is not glandular.

From herbarium material it is impossible to determine the color of the

corolla.

Pseuderanthemum praecox (Benth.) Leonard, comb. nov.

Hranthemum praecox Benth. Pl. Hartw. 291. 1848.

Stphoneranthemum praecox Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 497. 1891.

Dry oak and pine forest near San Martin Jilotepeque, Department Chi-

maltenango, Guatemala, altitude about 1,800 meters, February 3, 1939,

Standley 64391. Dry rocky hills north of Santa Rosa, Department Baja

Verapaz, Guatemala, March 30, 1939, Standley 69829.

Dicliptera debilis Leonard, sp. nov. Fig. 4

Herba debilis, caulibus parce pilosis; lamina foliorum ovata vel lanceolata,

acuminata, basi angustata, in petiolum decurrens; cymae axillares, subses-

siles, bracteis triangulari-ovatis, cuspidatis, coriaceis, carinatis, ciliatis,

carina strigosa; bracteae floriferae oblanceolatae, obtusae vel rotundatae,

apiculatae; bracteolae lanceolatae, puberulae; calycis segmenta subulata; co-

rolla subrufa, minute pubescens; capsulae parce glanduloso-puberulae.

Weak herb; stems up to 3.3 meters long, sparingly pilose, the hairs

retrorsely curved; leaf blades ovate to lanceolate, acuminate (the tip blunt),

narrowed at base and decurrent on the petiole, sparingly pilose except the

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 3

costa, this densely hirtellous; petioles slender, up to 1.5 cm long, hirtellous,

the hairs curved; flowers borne in subsessile, axillary, 3-parted cymes; bracts

subtending the cyme triangular-ovate, 3 to 3.5 mm long, 1.5 to 2 mm wide,

cuspidate, coriaceous, carinate, ciliate, the keel strigose; bracts subtending

the flowers oblanceolate, obtuse or rounded, apiculate, pilosulous without,

puberulent within (some of the hairs glandular), the larger of the middle pair

about 1.5 em long and 7 mm wide, the larger of the lateral pairs 12 mm long

and 6 mm wide, the smaller bracts of each pair 8 mm long and 3.5 mm wide;

}

Sze

Bat a a eae een pt a

Taipei

Y- ge sf

Fig. 4.—Dicliptera debilis Leonard: a, Portion of plant; b, bracts subtending the cyme;

c, bracts subtending the flowers (inner surfaces); d, calyx segment. (a, natural size;

b, twice natural size; c, natural size; d, twice natural size.)

bractlets lanceolate, the larger pair 6 mm long, slightly over 1 mm wide, the

smaller pair 5 mm long and slightly less than 1 mm wide, all puberulent;

calyx 8 mm long, puberulent, the segments subulate, 6 mm long, 1 mm wide

at the base; corolla 2.5 to 3 cm long, pale red, minutely pubescent, the tube

slender; capsules (immature) 1 em long, sparingly glandular-puberulent.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

992431, collected north of Santa Rosa, Department Baja Verapaz, Guate-

mala, in pine-oak forest on a dry rocky hill, March 30, 1939, by Paul C.

Standley (no. 69823).

Apparently unrelated to any other Central American member of the genus.

The lower leaves, early deciduous and absent in the type specimen, are

probably larger than the uppermost, from which the measurements are taken.

Marcu 15, 1941 LEONARD: NEW ACANTHACEAE FROM GUATEMALA 101

Dicliptera inutilis Leonard, sp. nov. Fig. 5

Suffrutex, caulibus parce et minute pubescentibus, deorsum glabris;

lamina foliorum ovata, acuminata, basi angustata, hirtella; cymae axillares

et terminales breviter pedunculatae, 3-partitae; bracteae floriferae oblongo-

ovatae, subobtusae, basi truncatae, virides, venosae, parce pubescentes;

b At

2 rn BS

Vets ATH Ee 5

9 ws ay

Fig. 5.—Dicliptera inutilis Leonard: a, Portion of

plant, natural size; b, bractlet, twice natural size.

bracteolae lanceolatae; calycis segmenta lanceolata, minute pubescentia;

corolla purpurea, parce pubescens.

Shrubby herb up to 1.3 meters high; stems much branched, sparingly and

minutely pubescent, or the lower parts glabrate; leaf blades (uppermost)

ovate, up to 4 cm long and 3 cm wide, acuminate (the tip blunt), narrowed at

base, hirtellous, the hairs confined chiefly to the costa and veins; petioles

up to 1 cm long, hirtellous; flowers borne in axillary and terminal short-

peduncled 3-parted cymes, the peduncle 1 to 3 cm long, subtomentose;

bracts subtending the middle cluster of flowers oblong-ovate, up to 2 cm

102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 3

long and 1.2 cm wide, subobtuse, truncate at base, green, veiny, sparingly

puberulent, the bracts of the lateral clusters similar but smaller; bractlets

lanceolate, up to 6 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, minutely pubescent beneath,

glabrous above; calyx segments lanceolate, about 5 mm long and slightly

more than 1 mm wide, minutely pubescent; corolla 2 to 2.5 mm long, rose-

purple, sparingly pubescent; capsule not seen.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

993732, collected at Los Llanitos, near San José Acatempa, Department

Jutiapa, Guatemala, altitude about 1,200 meters, in a moist thicket, Decem-

ber 21, 1938, by Paul C. Standley (no. 60579).

Distinct from other Central American species of Dicliptera in its subsessile

3-parted cymes and its rather large, oblong-ovate, green, veiny bracts. The

lower leaves, early deciduous and therefore lacking in the type material,

probably exceed the dimensions here given for the uppermost leaves.

Dicliptera membranacea Leonard, sp. nov. Fig. 6

Herba, caulibus ramosis, glabris vel ad nodos parce et minute pubescenti-

bus; lamina foliorum ovata vel oblongo-ovata, subobtusa, acuta vel breviter

acuminata, basi angustata, in petiolum decurrens, glabra vel subtus parce

pubescens; petioli graciles; cymae sessiles vel subsessiles, flabelliformes,

axillares vel terminales, bracteis ovatis, viridibus, venosis, subtus minute

pubescentibus, basi cuneatis, marginibus angustis albis; bracteae floriferae

inaequales oblanceolatae, parce pilosulae, ciliatae, apice rotundatae apicu-

lataeque vel acutae, virides, margine basi alba; bracteolae lineares, albidae,

acuminatae, ciliatae; calycis segmenta subulata, puberula, subhyalina; co-

rolla pubescens, purpurella, tubo gracili; ovarium pubescens.

Branching herbs up to 1.3 meters high; stems glabrous or sparingly and

minutely pubescent at nodes; leaf blades ovate to oblong-ovate, up to 10 cm

long and 6cm wide, subobtuse to acute or abruptly acuminate (the tip blunt),

narrowed at base and decurrent on the petiole, thin, drying bright green,

glabrous or with a few minute hairs beneath; petioles slender, up to 4 cm

long, glabrous or sparingly pubescent; flowers borne in sessile or subsessile

axillary and terminal fanlike cymes, usually of 4 flowers each; bracts sub-

tending the cymes ovate, up to 12 mm long and 6 mm wide, green, veiny,

leaflike, sparingly and minutely pubescent beneath, glabrous above, the

cuneate basal portion with a narrow white margin; bracts subtending the

flowers unequal, oblanceolate, green with a narrow white border at the base,

sparingly pilosulous, ciliate, the larger pair subtending the middle flower

cluster 12 mm long and 6 mm wide, rounded at apex and minutely apiculate,

the smaller bracts 10 mm long and 3 mm wide, rounded and apiculate, the

bracts subtending the lateral flower clusters successively smaller and more

acute; bractlets subtending the flowers linear, the larger pair 11 mm long

and 1.5 mm wide, the smaller pair 9 mm long and 1 mm wide, all acuminate,

whitish, 1-nerved, ciliate, the costa hirtellous; calyx segments subulate, 6

mm long, 0.5 mm wide, subhyaline, ciliate, 3-nerved, puberulent; corolla 13

mm long, pubescent, pale purple, the tube slender; ovary pubescent; cap-

sule not seen.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1780239, collected between

Rio Jute and Rio Pantaleén, on the road between Escuintla and Santa Lucia

Cotz, Department Escuintla, Guatemala, in a thicket, altitude 540 to 720

meters, January 24, 1939, by Paul C. Standley (no. 63524); duplicate in the

Marcu 15, 1941 LEONARD: NEW ACANTHACEAE FROM GUATEMALA 103

herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History. No. 63515 of Mr.

Standley’s collection, from the same locality, is this species also.

Dicliptera membranacea apparently has no close relatives in Central Amer-

ica. The specific name alludes to its thin, green leaf blades.

Fig. 6.—Dicliptera membranacea Leonard: a, Portion of plant, natural size; b, one

of the bracts subtending the cyme; c, bracts subtending the middle flower cluster of a

cyme; d, bractlets; e, calyx segment. (0, c, d, e, twice natural size.)

Streblacanthus parviflorus Leonard, sp. nov. eR Th

Suffrutex, caulibus teretibus, bifariam pubescentibus; lamina foliorum

elliptica vel late lanceolata, acuminata, basi rotundata, membranacea, inte-

gra, glabra, costa et venis minute pubescentibus exceptis; petioli graciles;

Spicae terminales et axillares; bracteae bracteolaeque filiformi-subulatae,

minute pubescentes; calycis segmenta filiformi-subulata, minute pubes-

centia; corolla alba, minute pubescens, labio superiore oblongo-ovato, emar-

ginato, inferiore trilobo, lobis ovatis, subobtusis; capsulae complanatae,

stipitatae, minute et parce pubescentes; semina pallide brunnea, papillosa.

Suffrutescent herb up to 60 cm high; stems terete, pubescent in two lines;

104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 3

leaf blades elliptic to broadly lanceolate, up to 6 em long and 3.5 em wide,

acuminate (the tip blunt), rounded at base, thin, entire, glabrous except

upon the costa and lateral veins, these minutely and inconspicuously pubes-

cent with curved hairs; petioles slender, up to 4 cm long, glabrous or the

grooves pubescent; flowers borne in terminal and axillary spikes up to 5 em

long; bracts, bractlets, and calyx segments filiform-subulate, about 1.5 em

L NAY YA

OE HZ

SSS DP?

SS == LE Z

NSS

ty X =

\ NEES

\ SS ~ SY Ys

Fig. 7.—Streblacanthus parviflorus Leonard: a, Portion of plant, natural size;

b, bract; c, calyx segment; d, pistil. (b, c, d, twice natural size.)

long, the bracts 1.5 mm wide at the base, the bractlets 0.5 mm wide, the

calyx segments 1 mm wide, all 3-nerved, sparingly and minutely pubescent;

corolla white, 17 mm long, minutely pubescent, the tube slender from base to

middle, about 1 mm in diameter, the upper half obconic, 3.5 mm in diameter

at mouth, the limb slightly 2-lipped, the upper lip oblong-ovate, 3 mm wide

at base, emarginate, the lower lip 3-lobed, the lobes ovate, 4 mm long and

2.5 mm wide, subobtuse; anthers 2 mm long, 1 mm wide; style 6 mm long,

glabrous; capsule 12 mm long, flattenéd, stipitate, 4 mm wide, 4-seeded,

minutely and inconspicuously pubescent, the hairs spreading; seeds flat,

light brown, 4 mm in diameter, minutely alveolate, roughened by short

papillae.

Marcu 15, 1941 DEIGNAN: KENTISH PLOVERS 105

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

990984, collected at Escoba, across the bay (west) from Puerto Barrios,

Department Izabal, Guatemala, in a wet forest near sea level, May 3, 1939,

by Paul C. Standley (no. 72949). Duplicate in U. 8S. National Herbarium,

no. 1780245.

Streblacanthus parviflorus is related to S. cordatus, a species apparently

limited to Panama. The calyx, bracts, and bractlets are similar in both spe-

cies, but in S. cordatus the flowers are much longer and larger and the leaves

are strongly cordate. :

ORNITHOLOGY .—Remarks on the Kentish plovers of the Extreme Ori-

ent, with separation of a new subspecies.1 H. G. Dignan, U.S.

National Museum. (Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

In ascertaining which forms of the Kentish plover (Charadrius

alexandrinus) occur in winter in the Indo-Chinese countries, I have

found it necessary to review the extensive material of this species

from eastern Asia in the U. S. National Museum and have arrived at

conclusions rather at variance from those of the most recent revisers.

Their treatment has recognized two races in the Far East: (1) deal-

batus of Swinhoe, a long-billed bird, described from South China

(type specimen from Amoy, not Hainan) and believed to breed in

Japan, the Ryu Kyu Islands, in Formosa, Hainan, and on the Chinese

coasts from Fukien to Chihli, and to winter in the Indo-Chinese

countries and Malaysia; (2) alexandrinus of Linnaeus, a short-billed

bird, described from Egypt and believed to breed from England

across northern Asia to Korea, and to winter in Africa and all tropical

Asia.

A good series of birds from Amoy (June, July) are decidedly paler

than birds from Europe, have a longer and more massive bill, and in

every case have the upperparts suffused with rufous. Swinhoe’s de

scription of dealbatus as a ‘‘washed-out,’’ rufescent-tinged alexan

drinus fits these specimens perfectly. Another series of badly worn

birds from Chihli (July) are probably dealbatus. In addition, I have

seen examples of this race from Hongkong (October, November) and

Hainan (March). .

Two birds from Thailand (November, March) and two from Ma-

laya (December), all in winter dress, are so remarkably pale above

that they stand out from all other Old World specimens I have seen

and can fairly be compared only with nivosus and tenuzrostris of

North America. However, the wing length and size of bill are like

' Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

October 29, 1940.

106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 3

those of dealbatus, and for the present I take them to represent merely

a plumage phase of that form. If this surmise be correct, they are the

only specimens of dealbatus I have seen from any locality outside of

China.

A series of birds from Japan (January, March, April, May), some

of which are in full nuptial plumage, have the upperparts without the

least rufescent wash and quite as dark as European specimens but

differ from the latter in having the bill as long and as massive as

dealbatus. For the resident bird of Japan, I propose the name Chara-

drius alexandrinus nihonensis subsp. nov., with the type specimen an

adult male, U.S.N.M. no. 95938, taken at Aomori, Hondo, April 23,

1876, by Capt. T. W. Blakiston.

Birds of the Asiatic mainland north of the range of dealbatus are

dark-backed and have the bill somewhat smaller than nihonensis but

nevertheless larger than alexandrinus. There is no doubt an imper-

ceptible change from nihonensis to alexandrinus, and without series

of breeding birds from Siberia and Mongolia a convenient geographic

line of demarcation between the two can not be decided upon.

There is a certain amount of normal variation in bill size in any

given form of this species, and younger birds tend to have shorter

bills than their parents. However, even the shortest-billed examples

from the Pacific coasts of Asia have the bill rather more massive than

European birds of corresponding age and sex—a difference that must

be seen to be appreciated—and are thus better called nzhonensis. Spec-

imens either inseparable from Japanese birds or nearer them than

alexandrinus have been examined from Korea (December), Kiangsu

(January, March, April), Chekiang (February), Fukien (October,

November, January), Hongkong (October), Hainan (October),

Luzon (February, March), Cebu (November), Siquijor (February),

Jolo (March), Thailand (November, May), and Malaya (December).

The easternmost birds seen that, in my opinion, may more or less

safely be called alexandrinus are two specimens from Szechwan (De-

cember) and six from northwestern Thailand (October, November,

January).

The recent discovery of a resident form of the Kentish plover on

the Island of Java (Charadrius alexandrinus javanicus Chasen) con-

firms the correctness of the opinion expressed by Peters as to the

specific distinctness of Charadrius peronii. As Chasen observes (1938)

that he has seen no true peronii from Java, it may be well to note that

the U. S. National Museum has an adult pair, taken in the Province

of Bantam by O. Bryant in December, 1909.

Marcu 15, 1941 CHAPIN: TWO NEW COCCINELLID BEETLES 107

Charadrius peroni is already known to occur on the eastern coast

of the Malay Peninsula as far north as the Sam Roi Yot district of

southwestern Thailand. What appears to be the first record for

this species from the opposite side of the Gulf of Siam is an adult

male (one of a pair seen) with enlarged gonads, collected by me near

Chanthabun, southeastern Thailand, on May 7, 1937.

ENTOMOLOGY.—Two new species of coccinellid beetles from Costa

Rica and Colombia.! Epwarp A. Cuapin, U. 8. National Mu-

seum.

The descriptions of two synonychine Coccinellidae are here offered

in order that their names may be available for use in the literature

of economic entomology. One of the species was submitted by Dr.

Luis Maria Murillo, who reports that it was taken on apple at Bogota,

Colombia; the other has been collected repeatedly in Costa Rica,

sometimes associated with avocado. Both species are somewhat aber-

rant, and the generic assignment of the Cycloneda may eventually

have to be changed.

Cycloneda costaricae n. sp.

_ Similar in form but larger than C. salle: (Muls.) and with two subbasal

spots on each elytron instead of a single humeral spot as in that species. The

genital structures are also distinct from all species known to the writer.

Body pale except that the metasternum is more or less deep piceous. Head

pale yellowish, without maculation in either sex. Pronotum pale yellowish,

with the six spots of deep piceous, almost black. Two of the spots are basal

and roughly triangular and divide the base into nearly equal thirds; two

are discal, somewhat oval and separated by less than the transverse diameter

of either; two are lateral, nearly round and each distant from the lateral

margin by less than its own diameter. Scutellum black. Elytra with a nar-

row elongate spot at the scutellum and a second narrowly oval spot at apical

third common to both. In addition to the spots common to both, each ely-

tron bears eight blackish spots as follows: Two subbasal placed on either side

of the humeral callus, separated one from the other by about one-third of the

diameter of either and each separated from the adjacent margins of the ely-

tron by nearly its diameter; three subquadrate spots in a transverse row just

before the middle of the elytron, the sutural spot being slightly less advanced

than the others; two at apical third, each subcircular and slightly smaller

than any of the preceding row, forming with the common sutural spot a

nearly straight transverse row and finally a single subapical spot, larger than

any of the others and slightly closer to the margins of the elytron. Legs and

other appendages pale. Aedeagus with slender median lobe which is bifurcate

at apex and with slender, hooked parameres (Fig. 1). Receptaculum seminis

slender, hooked, duct entering through a side chamber; duct sclerotized,

simple, straight and slender (Fig. 2). Length: 4.5 to 6 mm.

Type and five paratypes.—U. S. N. M. no. 54927.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived December 3, 1940,

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 3

Type locality— Costa Rica, San José (San Pedro de Montes de Oca).

Material examined.—Type (male) and two paratypes taken at the type

locality December 5, 1932, and January 20, 1933, by C. H. Ballou (Ballou

no. CR 40); one paratype from San José, July 12, 1931, one from Coronado,

May 24, 1925, and one from Curridabat, December 30, 1924, all taken by

Ferd. Nevermann.

Remarks.—This species has been in the past confused with C. sallez

(Muls.), and it is very probable that the Costa Rican record of salle: in the

Junk-Schenkling (Korschefsky) Catalog should be crossed out. The record is

apparently based on the San José (Nevermann) paratype, which carries

Korschefsky’s identification label. Through the kindness of Gaston Vivas-

Berthier, the national collection now contains a specimen of the true C.

Figs. 1-2.—Cycloneda costaricae n. sp.: 1, Aedeagus; 2, receptaculum seminis and

duct. Figs. 3-4.—Neda murilloi n. sp.: 3, Aedeagus; 4, receptaculum seminis and

duct.

sallei, taken by him at or very near the type locality, given by Mulsant as

“environs de Caracas.”

Neda murilloi n. sp.

Similar in form and size to N. amandi Muls. from which it differs in having

a conspicuous apical elytral spot and in the genital structures of both sexes.

Body and appendages (except elytra) deep piceous black. Head rather

coarsely and densely punctured, hairy, black. Pronotum transverse, very

little more than half as wide as the combined elytra at widest point, black

with a quadrate pale spot in each anterior angle, surface finely and densely

punctured, glabrous. Scutellum black. Elytra pale yellowish white with

sutural and lateral margins very finely margined with black. In addition,

there is a transverse oval spot across suture at basal third and a nearly circu-

lar spot across suture at apical third. Further, there is a longitudinal row of

four spots as follows: a nearly circular spot on humeral callus, a subtriangu-

lar spot just beyond basal third, a small spot at apical third which joins the

second sutural spot and an apical spot joining the lateral margin. There are

also two subquadrate spots joining the lateral margin, one at basal third,

the second at apical third. Aedaegus with median lobe acuminate, para-

Marcu 15, 1941 CHABANAUD: GENRE PEGUSA 109

meres straight and slender (Fig. 3). Receptaculum seminis of female slender,

C-shaped, duct sclerotized, flask-shaped (Fig. 4). Length: 9 mm.

Type and paratype.—U. 8. N. M. no. 54928.

Type locality—Colombia: Bogota.

Material examined.—Two specimens, a male (type) and a female, taken on

apple tree by Dr. Luis M. Murillo (Murillo no. 46).

Remarks.—This interesting species closely resembles at first glance Neda

amandi Muls. but differs from any of the color forms of this species by the

presence of the well-defined semicircular apical spot. But of much more im-

portance is the fact that the genital structures of both sexes are very aber-

rant for the genus. N. murilloz is the only species of the genus known to the

author having the median lobe of the aedaegus acuminate or having such a

complicated sclerotization of the duct connecting the bursa and receptacu-

lum in the female. Unfortunately the basal piece of the aedeagus was in-

jured at the time of dissection and cannot be described or figured. The writer

takes pleasure in naming this species in honor of Sr. Dr. Luis Maria Murillo,

director of the Department of Entomology of the National University at

Bogota.

ICHTH YOLOGY.—Pluralité spécifique du genre Pegusa [Plewronec-

toidea Soleiformes].1 Pau CHABANAUD, Muséum National

d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. (Communicated by Austin H.

CLARK and LEONARD P. ScHULTz.)

En 1929,” examen fait de quelque 125 spécimens, j’ai cru bon de

réunir sous un seul et méme nom d’espéce, Pegusa lascaris, tous les

Soleidae dont les caractéres morphologiques répondent a la définition

du genre Pegusa Giinther 1862? a savoir: Pleuronectes lascaris Risso

1810,* Pleuronectes nasutus Pallas 1811, Pleuronectes solea var. c Nardo

1924, Solea pegusa Yarrell 1829, Soleaimpar Bennett 1831, Solea scriba

Valenciennes 1835, Pleuronectes nasutus Rathke 1837, Solea brasiliensis

Kaup 1858 (= Solea kaupi Berg 1895), Solea aurantiaca Giinther 1862,

Solea margaritifera Giinther 1862, Solea triophthalmus Bleeker 1863,

et Solea vermeuleni Metzelaar 1919. A l’exception de Pleuronectes

nasutus Rathke (si ce n’est un paratype de Solea nasuta Nordmann

1840), a Vexception également de toutes celles dont la description a

été publiée avant l’année 1831, j’ai eu sous les yeux le type méme

d’aprés lequel ont été rédigées ces diveres diagnoses.°

1 Received December 14, 1940.

2Ann. Inst. Océan., 7: 23k. 1929.

° Creé a titre de sous-genre (Cat. Fish. 4: 462. 1862).

* Espéce traditionnelle. Cfr. Chabanaud, Les poissons pleuronectes de la Méditerranée

(Riviera Scientifique, mém. 2, p. 34. 1931).

* Ainsi que l’on peut s’en rendre compte par la consultation de la liste contenue dans

mon travail de 1929, p. 240 et seq., travail cité plus haut, le matériel dont je disposais

a cette epoque se trouve disséminé dans sept collections différentes, dont quatre appar-

tiennent 4 des nations étrangéres 4 la France. On comprenda que la douloureuse situa- -

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 3

Nonobstant certaines différences dont il sera question plus loin,

tous les individus examinés présentent un faciés qui, dans son ensem-

ble, demeure identique: forte proéminence du museau; insertion du

1 rayon notoptérygien au niveau de loeil migrateur, lequel est

situé tout entier au-dessous du niveau de la ligne latérale cceliocerci-

que; yeux conservant un contour circulaire, méme lorsqu’ils ne sont

pas exsertés; fausse paupiére énantique non squameuse, d’ow la

possibilité de la délimitation de l’aire squameuse interoculaire, ainsi

que de la mesure pratiquement exacte de la largeur de cette aire

squameuse, dite “espace interoculaire’’®; constance de la position et de

la structure des narines, tant nadirales que zénithales;’ dissimulation

compléte de la commissure maxillo-mandibulaire zénithale par le

revétement cutané; grand développement des lévres mandibulares,

notamment de la zénithale, qui, nullement ciliée, se replie sur elle-

méme extérieurement; constance de la forme du clidoste.® Les cretules

intercanaliculaires des écailles sont entiéres, pour la plupart, mais

trés irréguliéres et fortement onduleuses, manifestant un début de

fragmentation en éléments disto-convexes.

Ceux des caractéres morphologiques qui sont couramment utilisés

en ichthyologie se montrent toutefois susceptibles d’une variabilité

particuliérement étendue: 8 95 4 140. D 60 4 90. A 52 475.P 274 10.

Pn7 4 l0.V 25. V no:

Compté sur 20 individus,® le nombre total des vertébres oscille

entre 42 et 48, mais seul différe le nombre des vertébres caudales, car

celui des vertébres abdominales a été trouvé constamment réduit a

9, sauf chez un seul spécimen, originaire de Douarnenez, qui a, pour

formule rhachiméristique, a 10 [5+5]+c 37=¢ 47.

Envisagé de la sorte, Pegusa lascaris jouit d’une géonémie extréme-

ment vaste, puisqu’elle s’étend de la mer du Nord au cap de Bonne-

tion politique qui pése actuellement sur l7Europe me mette dans l’impossibilité de

revoir les spécimens que ne posséde pas le Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle.

Force m’est donc, en ce qui les concerne, de me contenter de mes notes manuscrites,

sans autre examen direct que celui d’écailles montées entre lame et lamelle et que, par

bonheur, j’ai conservées par devers moi.

6 Mesure impracticable lorsque la fausse paupiére énantique est squameuse et, par

son développement, confére 4 l’oeil non exserté un contour longitudinalement elliptique.

Genres Monochirus Rafinesque 1814, Microchirus [Bonaparte 1832] Chabanaud 1938,

Bathysolea Roule 1916, Dicologlossa Chabanaud 1927, Solea Quensel 1806, et Buglossi-

dium Chabanaud 1930.

7 Structure maintes fois décrite et figurée. Cir. Chabanaud, Bull. Inst. Océan. 488:

44, 48. 1927; Ann. Inst. Ocean. 7: 231 et seq., fig. 21. 1929; Bull. Inst. Ocean. 555:

p. 6. 1930.

§ Ann. Inst. Océan., ft. cit., ic. scripti 30, 31, et 32; tab. 2, ic. 1 et 2:

® Ann. Inst. Océan., t. cit., p. 252. Aux 16 spécimens mentionnés a cette place s’ajoute

celui dont la cathodographie fait l’objet de la fig. 2 de la planche 2 de ce méme travail.

Par la suite, les vertébres de 3 autres spécimens ont été comptées.

Marcu 15, 1941 CHABANAUD: GENRE PEGUSA 111

Espérance et méme 4 la céte du Natal,!° comprenant, avec la Manche

(et lamer d’Irlande?) et la totalité de Atlantique oriental, au sud des

iles Britanniques, la Méditerranée tout entiére, |’ Adriatique, la mer de

Marmara et la mer Noire.

Or il s’agit en réalité d’une espéce composite. Pegusa triophthalmus

[Bleeker 1863] s’isole de l’ensemble par la dimension plus grande et

corrélativement par le nombre plus réduit de ses écailles, par la forme

de celles-ci, mais surtout par celle des nadirales, enfin par le dévelop-

pement réduit de la membrane postradiaire terminale des deux

nageoires impaires précédant luroptérygie. Ces différences n’ont pas

été remarquées par Bleeker, qui, 4 propos de la pholidose, se contente

de cette mention: “‘squamis utroque ctenoidis’’; elles m’avaient

échappé jusqu’ici. Pour autant que je puisse l’affirmer, d’aprés l’exa-

men de 3 spécimens, y compris l’holotype, ce qui, de ce chef, caracté-

rise Pegusa triophthalmus s’ allie constamment 4 la présence de 3 taches

noires zénithales, qui sont 4 |’origine du nom que porte l’espéce.

Les descriptions suivantes permettront de distinguer l’un de l’autre,

maleré leur étroite ressemblance, Pegusa triophthalmus et Pegusa las-

caris.

Pegusa triophthalmus (Bleeker 1863) Figs. 1, 3-5

S 95-105. D 76-80. A 52-64. C (19) 20. P29. Pn (7) 9. Vz5. Vn 5.

Les écailles zénithales sont longuement rectangulaires; leurs bords latéraux

sont subrectilignes et leurs 4 angles sont bien marqués. Le nucleus n’est

qu’a peine plus rapproché du bord proximale que ne le sont les angles dis-

taux. Mesurée entre les angles distaux, la longueur du bouquet de spinules

égale presque la largeur moyenne du pholidoplaxe. Les spinules sont trés

nombreuses; on en compte jusqu’é 30 marginales. La longueur de celle-ci

est relativement faible et n’augmente que modérément des spinules latérales

a la spinule médiane, de telle sorte que l’ensemble de leurs pointes dessine

une courbe large et réguliére.

Les écailles nadirales sont plus courtes que les zénithales correspondantes;

leurs bords latéraux présentent une convexité qui va s’intensifiant des angles

proximaux aux angles distaux. Ces derniers se rapprochent considérablement

l'un de l’autre, réduisant la largeur du bouquet de spinules 4 moins du

quart de la largeur maximale du pholidoplaxe. Le bouquet de spinules

s’enfonce trés profondément dans le pholidoplaxe, atteignant une longueur

au moins égale 4 sa propre largeur; ainsi le nucleus ne se trouve-t-il séparé du

bord proximale du phanére que par une distance beaucoup plus courte que

celle qui existe entre ce méme bord proximale et les angles distaux. Les

spinules sont presque rudimentaires et c’est 4 peine si les marginales se

prolongent au’dela du niveau des angles distaux.

La thoracoptérygie zénithale mesure des 55 aux 60 centiémes de la lon-

gueur de la téte. La thoracoptérygie nadirale a toujours été trouvée sensible-

ment plus courte que la zénithale et ne mesurant que des 47 aux 51 centiémes

de la méme longueur prise comme étalon.

ae VON Bonpg, Rep. Fish. Mar. Biol. Survey South Africa 2: 17. (Solea tmpar).

VOL. 31, NO. 3

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

112

(See opposite page for explanation.)

Figs. 1-10.

Marcu 15, 1941 CHABANAUD: GENRE PEGUSA its

L’uroptérygie est libre; la membrane postradiaire terminale des deux

autres périssoptérygies s’attache 4 l’extréme base de ses deux rayons mar-

ginaux, l’épaxonal et l’hypaxonal.

Le rayon terminal de la notoptérygie et celui de la proctoptérygie s’insérent

respectivement 4 quelque distance de l’uroptérygie. Les deux rayons mar-

ginaux de cette derniére nageoire sont beaucoup plus longs que le rayon

terminal de chacune des deux autres perissoptérygies.

Deux spécimens, autres que l’holotype, ont respectivement pour formule

rhachiméristique: a 9[4+5]+c¢ 34 =¢ 43 et a 9[4+5]+c 39 =t 48.

L’espéce n’est connue que de la céte occidentale de |’Afrique, entre la

Mauritanie et le golfe de Guinée.

Pegusa lascaris (Risso 1810) Figs. 2, 6-10

5S 108-140. D 65-90. A 53-75." C (19) 20. P z 8-9. P n 8-9. V z2-(4) 5.

Vn (4) 5.

La forme générale des écailles est assez variable. Ces écailles sont rec-

tangulaires, tantdét courtes, larges et & bords latéraux convexes (type de

Solea vermeulent Metzelaar), tantdt fortement allongées et 4 bords latéraux

subrectilignes. La distance comprise entre le bord proximal et le nucleus

n’est jamais qu’un peu plus courte que la distance qui sépare ce méme bord

proximal des angles distaux. Mesurée entre les deux angles distaux, la

largeur du bouquet de spinules égale presque la largeur moyenne du pholi-

doplaxe ou, tout au moins, la largeur de celui-ci 4 ses angles proximaux. Les

spinules sont plus robustes et moins nombreuses que chez Pegusa triophthal-

mus: on ne compte guére plus de 15 4 18 marginales. La longueur de celles-ci

augmente rapidement des deux spinules latérales 4 la médiane, de telle sorte

que la courbe dessinée par l’ensemble de leurs pointes se rapproche davantage

de l’ogive que de l’are de cercle.

Les écailles nadirales sont plus courtes que leurs homologues zénithales,

généralement rectangulaires, parfois légérement trapézoidales; leurs bords

latéraux présentent une convexité plus ou moins prononcée, d’ou résulte un

certain effacement des angles proximaux, comme des angles distaux. Ces

derniers ne sont cependant guére plus rapprochés l’un de l’autre que les

angles distaux; assui, mesurée entre ceux-ci, la largeur du bouquet de spinules

demeure-t-elle constamment supérieure 4 la moitié de la largeur maximale du

pholidoplaxe, pouvant méme devenir—comme sur la face zénithale—subé-

gale 4 la largeur moyenne de celui-ci. La distance comprise entre le bord

proximal et le nucleus n’est guére plus courte, par rapport 4 la longueur du

pholidoplaxe, mesurée du bord proximal aux angles distaux, que celle qui

existe sur les écailles zénithales correspondantes. Les spinules sont en nombre

similaire 4 celui des spinules zénithales; les marginales ne sont qu’a peine

moins développées que ces derniéres.

‘1 Les nombres indiqués ici sont ceux que j’ai comptés moi-méme. Sur des exem-

plaires de la mer Noire, Nordmann a trauvé: D. 60 et A 52.

_ Fig. 1.—Pegusa triophthalmus: Schema des nageoires impaires, 4 |’extrémité posté-

rieure du corps. Fig. 2.—Pegusa lascaris: Schema des nageoires impaires, 4 ’extrémité

postérieure du corps. Fig. 3.—Pegusa triophthalmus: Diagramme d’une écaille zénithale

libre. Fig. 4.—Pegusa triophthalmus: Diagramme d’une écaille nadirale libre. Fig.

5.—Pegusa triophthalmus: Diagramme d’une écaille nadirale paragrammique (e, emar-

gination du céte énantique). Fig. 6—Pegusa lascaris: Diagramme d’une écaille

zénithale libre. Fig. 7—Pegusa lascaris: Diagramme d’une écaille zénithale para-

grammique (e, €margination du cote énantique). Fig. 8.—Pegusa lascaris: Diagramme

d’un écaille zénithale pleurogrammique (t, tube organique). Fig. 9.—Pegusa lascaris:

Diagramme d’une écaille nadirale libre. Fig. 10.—Pegusa lascaris: Diagramme d’une

écaille nadirale libre.

114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 3

La thoracoptérygie zénithale est proportionnellement un peu plus courte

que chez Pegusa triophthalmus, ne mesurant que des 38 aux 51 centiémes de

la longueur de la téte. La thoracoptérygie nadirale atteint fréquemment une

longueur égale 4 celle ce la zénithale; lorsque cette nageoire nadirale est plus

courte que son homologue zénithale, la différence reste légére.

La membrane postradiaire terminale de la notoptérygie s’attache plus ou

moins largement au rayon marginal concomitant de l’uroptérygie et il en

est de méme pour la membrane postradiaire de la proctoptérygie.

Le rayon terminale de la notoptérygie et celui de la protoptérygie s’in-

sérent respectivement contre le rayon marginal concomitant de |’uroptérygie.

La longueur des deux rayons marginaux de luroptérygie n’excéde pas, ou

seulement fort peu, celle de rayon des deux autres perissoptérygies.

La formule rhachiméristique la plus basse qui ait été enregistrée se chiffre

par a 9[4+5]+c 33=¢ 42. Les formules les plus hautes se chiffrent par

a 9[4+5]+c 38 =t 47 et par a 10[5+5]|+c 37 =¢ 47. Compté sur 4 spécimens,

le nombre total des vertébres est de 42 et 43, dans la Mer Noire. D’aprés 4

observations, ce nombre oscille entre 42 et 45 dans la Méditerranée occi-

dentale. Dans |’Atlantique, entre la Manche et l’Angola, ce méme nombre

oscille entre 45 et 47 (7 observations). Enfin, 2 spécimens d’origine indéter-

minée, mais qui proviennent vraisemblablement de la Manche (marché de

Paris), possédent 47 vertébres.

A cause de sa grande variabilité morphologique, Pegusa lascaris, dans

immense étendue de son habitat, semble justiciable d’un démembrement

en nations ou en sous-espéces locales, dont seule l’étude approfondie d’une

quantité considérable d’individus permettrait de préciser les caractéres.

Explication des figures——Toute les écailles qui font Vobjet des

figures 3 4 10 ont été prélevées sur la partie moyenne du coeliocerque

(région abdomino-caudale) ; les écailles dites “libres,” 4 2 ou 3 rangées

au-dessus ou au-dessous de la ligne latérale. Celles de ces écaille qui

sont prises comme témoins de la pholidose de Pegusa triophthalmus

(figs. 3, 4, et 5), proviennent d’un spécimen male, de 206 millimétres

de longueur totale et de 177 millimétres de longueur étalon, capturé en

1935, devant Bathurst, par le navire belge Mercator. Celles qui sont

données comme examples de la pholidose de Pegusa lascaris (figs. 6 4

10) proviennent d’un spécimen male, de 248 millimétres de longueur

totale et de 216 millimétres de longueur étalon, capture par le méme

navire et dans la méme localité. Ces deux spécimens appartiennent au

Musée Royal d’Histoire Naturelle de Belgique (Bruxelles).

Marcu 15, 1941 SMITH: CENTRAL AMERICAN SNAKES VG

HERPETOLOGY.—A new genus of Central American snakes related

to TANTILLA.! Hopart M. SmitH.2 (Communicated by Hrr-

BERT FRIEDMANN.)

The peculiar character of the teeth of certain members of the genus

Tantilla (brevissima, lintonz) has been observed previously.’ At the

time the observations were made, it was not possible to determine

whether the more generalized condition obtaining in these two species

was the rule for Central and South American species of the genus, or

whether other species might not show as less significant the apparent-

ly great difference between the two types of dentition. Representa-

tives of most of the important species groups of the United States

and Mexico were then examined, but no members of the several dis-

tinetly different groups of Central and South American species.

Since then I have been able to examine maxillae of most other spe-

cies groups of the genus, including canula, melanocephala, moesta,

vermiformis, and a species related to taenzata, all from Central and

South America. A few more Mexican and United States species and

subspecies that were not previously examined were also checked.

With the exception of brevissima and lintonz, the dentition of the

maxilla holds to a rather well defined pattern, with relatively little

variation. Invariably the teeth are flattened at the tips, and those

anterior to the fangs are of subequal length. Two grooved fangs ter-

minate the tooth series. The grooves are very well defined and the

fangs sharply differentiated from the other teeth by their much larger

size. Usually a small diastema precedes the fangs, but in some species

there definitely is no diastema. Also the fangs are usually slightly or

distinctly offset from the line of the other teeth, but this is definitely

not the case in canula and calamarina, and in some others the extent

of offsetting is negligible. There is no correlation between size of dias-

tema and extent of offsetting of the fangs. The number of teeth, in-

cluding fangs, varies between 12 and 19. 7. calamarina has 12 (checked

in two specimens) ; atriceps, bocourti, nigriceps, and a species related

to evsent have 13; wilcoxi, fumiceps, and vermiformis, 14; eiseni, gra-

cilis, canula, and miniata, 15; coronata, wagneri, and moesta, 16;

species related to taeniata, 17; and melanocephala, 17. Obviously there

is no possibility of tracing relationships by number of teeth, for close

relatives may differ considerably, and likewise species distantly re-

lated may have the same number of teeth. It is easily possible, how-

1 Received October 31, 1940.

2 Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholar, Smithsonian insincere

’ Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 53: 60-61. 1940

116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 3

ever, that in case an intensive study were undertaken, the average

number of teeth in a series of specimens of a species would show some

significance in comparison with the average numbers of other species.

Intraspecific variation was noted in bocourti (some have 10+2, others

1142, others 12+2 teeth) and certain other species, and very likely

occurs to a comparable extent in all species of the genus.

The two species most closely approaching the condition occurring

in lintona and brevissima are calamarina and canula. In these the dif-

ference in size between fangs and the other teeth is less than in other

species. In calamarina the fangs are one and one-half times as long as

the other teeth but are larger at the base, broader throughout their

length, and appear at least twice the size of the preceding teeth. The

grooves are very plain and deep. In canula the fangs are twice as long

as the other teeth, deeply grooved, but their bases are not greatly

larger, and accordingly their size is little more than twice that of the

others.

In total number of maxillary teeth, melanocephala, the southern-

most species of the genus, is the closest to brevissima and lintoni, but

there is no close relationship to them, for the fangs are very large,

offset, deeply grooved, and preceded by a diastema.

In brevissima and lintoni the rear teeth are not offset from the

others, and there is no diastema whatever. In lintonz, there is abso-

lutely no difference between the rear teeth and the others, either in

size or grooving. Furthermore, the teeth do not exhibit the flattened

condition (at the tip) obtaining in other species, but are thick

throughout their length, with dull points. Finally, the teeth number

23 on one side, 25 on the other—considerably more than in other

members of the genus.

T. brevissima is essentially similar to lintoni, but exhibits certain

differences which show close relationship to other species of Tantvlla.

The rear teeth (presumably two, the extreme posterior tooth missing

from its socket, but assumed to be similar to the tooth preceding) are

visibly enlarged, perhaps one and one-third times as long as the

others, their bases slightly larger, but their size apparently less than

twice that of the other teeth. Otherwise, the rear teeth are exactly

like the remainder, so far as I can see. They are somewhat rounded,

with no evidence of grooves. The teeth preceding these are somewhat

flattened at the tips, essentially similar to the teeth of other Tantilla.

Finally, the total maxillary tooth count is 22.

Despite certain differences between the dentition of brevissima and

lintoni, the two species are best associated together, since both have

Marcu 15, 1941 SMITH: SNAKES OF THE GENUS CONOPHIS 7

ungrooved posterior teeth, and a considerably greater number of

teeth than any other of the genus. It is possible that Tantilla brevis

(which I have not seen) has similar dentition, but I think no other

ean be linked with these.

Because of the differences exhibited by these two species, it appears

that they are best segregated from Tantilla. They are placed in

Tantillita gen. nov.

Diagnosis —Hypapophyses absent in posterior part of vertebral column;

scales in 15 rows, smooth, without apical pits; scales of head normal, except

temporals 1+1, and no loreal; teeth on maxilla number 22 to 25, about

equal in size, posterior teeth not at all or but slightly enlarged, not grooved;

head somewhat flattened; size small; tail relatively short.

Genotype.—Tantilla lintont Smith, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 53:

61-62, fig. 1. 1940. (Piedras Negras, Guatemala).

Referred species.—Tantilla brevissima Taylor, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci.

39: 344-345, fig. 4. 1936 (1937) (Tonala, Chiapas).

HERPETOLOGY.—Notes on snakes of the genus Conophis.!_ HoBartT

M. SmitH.. (Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

The identification of a specimen related to Conophis lineatus from

Chiapas, Mexico, has led to a review of available material of that

genus from Central America and Mexico.

While all the members of the genus are pretty closely related, two

major divisons are discernible. One contains vittatus (with its subspe-

cies viduus) and is characterized by (1) the presence normally of seven

supralabials and (2) the absence of pigment on the supralabial border,

chin, ventrals, and first scale row. The second major division contains

lineatus and pulcher and is characterized by (1) the presence normally

of eight supralabials and (2) pigmentation on the supralabial border,

chin, ends of ventrals (usually), and on the first scale row.

The subdivisions within the second division are, of course, specific,

as there are only two species. One species (pulcher, with its subspecies

plagosus) is characterized by (1) a well-defined color pattern, with

10 stripes at least posteriorly, the median pair on the paravertebral

rows; and (2) presence of a dark stripe (actually the edge of the dorso-

lateral stripe) on (including) the second scale row on all the body

(except neck). The second species (lineatus) is characterized by (1)

less well defined stripes, some or all tending to become obsolete; no

stripes or indication of stripes on the paravertebral rows on any part

of the body; pattern essentially of six stripes; and (2) the second scale

1 This study was completed and part of the material utilized was collected during

tenure of a Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholarship of the Smithsonian Institu-

tion. Received November 138, 1940.

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 3

row free of stripes at least anteriorly, at no place involved by dorso-

lateral stripes. The following key contrasts certain differences be-

tween the various forms of the genus:

KEY TO RACES OF CONOPHIS

1. First scale row not pigmented on any part of body; chin and labial border

white; usually seven supralabials...-....:... 72. . oe 2

First scale row pigmented on part or all of body; chin and labial border

pigmented; usually eight supralabials.”. 22. ea 3

2. Four dark stripes posteriorly, the median pair separated by one and two

half Scale rows.) fas Re ee vittatus vittatus

Three dark stripes posteriorly; if a light median area is present in median

dark stripe, it is less than one scale row in width........ vittatus viduus

3. Dorsolateral dark stripe which passes through eye involving upper half of

second scale row; a dark stripe on paravertebral scale rows, at least

posteriorly... 66a ee ee 4

Dorsolateral dark stripe which passes through eye becoming indistinct

on body, or restricted to fourth or third and fourth rows, not involving

second row; no stripes on paravertebral rows on any part of body...5

4. Ends of ventrals with some indication of spots on some part of body;

paravertebral stripes continuous posteriorly; other primary stripes not

spotted in appearance; markings on chin and labial borders distinct. .

Fae Aorta eee Ae ara bean ele, Lata ay ee re ee rr pulcher pulcher

Ventrals completely unpigmented; paravertebral stripes not continuous

on any part of body; other primary stripes spotted in appearance;

markings on chin and labial borders dim............. pulcher plagosus

5. Stripes disappearing on nape, not or but faintly visible posteriorly.....

AST eso argh mas Naat BORA Mere CCAL i. 03 aga a ee lineatus concolor

Stripes visible throughout length of body........2.. 2-455 eeeaeeee 6

6. Dorsolateral stripes becoming extremely narrow on nape, restricted to

fourth: Scale nOweaacs dsm cet ks hse eee lineatus lineatus

Dorsolateral stripes involving adjacent portions of the third and fourth

SCALE! ROW SI: Sse Reo nS Rk SS a ae lineatus similis

The various patterns of pulcher and lineatus are obviously derived

from one similar to that of viduwus, which I believe is nearest the

ancestral type of the genus. It is rather difficult to discern whether

pulcher or lineatus is the more primitive, but I have concluded that

the former probably is, since the pattern of the latter seems to be re-

duction, not from the viduus type, but from the pulcher type. Reduc-

tion of the latter pattern type in lizneatus took place in three directions,

concolor becoming the most strongly modified, 1. ineatus and I. semilis

changing the least. In fact, although the latter two are separated from

each other by lI. concolor and p. pulcher, they resemble each other

closely. I believe these two might be given as examples of parallel

evolution: both (likewise concolor) started on the same trend—toward

loss of the stripes by both vertical and longitudinal breaking; and the

two have now reached nearly the same stage in that process, although

Marcu 15, 1941 SMITH: SNAKES OF THE GENUS CONOPHIS 119

widely separated geographically. Why concolor should have proceeded

along the same trend so much more rapidly than either /. lineatus or

l. stmilis is not readily obvious. The most apparent possibility is

that it was isolated from the other stock during some geologic period,

while the evolution of the other two was retarded through influence

of the ancient pulcher stock, which apparently has no evolutionary

trend toward loss of stripes.

Conophis vittatus vittatus Peters

Conophis vittatus Peters, Monatsb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1860: 519-520, pl.,

fig. 3 (type locality not known).—Smith, Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Zool. Ser.

24: 31. 1939 (type locality restricted to Acapulco, Guerrero).

Conophis sumichrasti sumichrasti Cope (part), Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-

delphia, (2), 8: 187. 1876 (type locality, Tehuantepec and Guadalajara).

—Smith, Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Zool. Ser. 24: 31. 1939 (type locality er-

roneously restricted to Tehuantepec).

Diagnosis —Chin and labial borders white, not pigmented; usually seven

supralabials; first scale row not pigmented; four dark stripes on posterior

part of body, the lateral stripes covering less than two scale rows, the me-

oo pair separated by a light middorsal area one and two half scale rows

wide.

Distribution.—Guerrero south into Oaxaca avoiding areas of considerable

elevation.

Specimens examined.—Five, U.S. N. M. no. 29123, Guadalajara, Jalisco;

U.S. N. M. nos. 31394—7, Colima.

Remarks.—Conophis sumichrasti sumichrasti was described on the basis of

one specimen from “the western part of Tehuantepec” (U. 8. N. M. no.

30258) and another from Guadalajara, Jalisco (U. 8S. N. M. no. 29123). The

type locality was restricted to Tehuantepec by me (loc. cit.), but this can

not stand, for Cope’s very brief diagnosis does not apply to the Tehuan-

tepec cotype, but rather to the Guadalajara cotype. Cope says “second row

not covered by lateral band; dorsal bands distinct”’ for swmichrastz. In the

Tehuantepec specimen the lateral band does involve the second scale row,

and the dorsal bands are scarcely distinct (certainly not as much so as in the

Guadalajara specimen, which is typical vzttatus). Accordingly I designate the

Guadalajara specimen, to which Cope’s diagnosis of swmichrasti refers, as

lectotype.

The Tehuantepec cotype of suwmichrasti is not exactly typical of viduus

but is much nearer it than to typical vittatus, if I correctly interpret the rela-

tive importance of difference between the two subspecies. The differences

appear to be two, both in pattern: (1) In viduus the median dark stripe is

single, covering about three and two half scale rows; if divided, the median

light line is faint and narrow, of less than one scale width; in typical vittatus

the median dark stripe is double, with the middorsal white area covering

about one and two half scale rows; in this the whole median stripe (including

the middorsal white stripe and the adjacent dark stripes on each side) covers

120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 3

five and two half scale rows, while in viduus it covers a maximum of three and

two half (or three-quarters) scale rows. (2) In viduus the lateral stripe is

broader, anteriorly covering all of two, and parts of the adjacent, scale rows;

in typical vttatus it covers less than two whole scale rows.

The cotype of swmichrasti agrees more nearly with typical vittatus in the

character of the lateral stripe, which anteriorly covers a little less than two

scale rows. However, the median stripe is not widely divided as in typical

vittatus but agrees in condition with that shown by three other specimens

from Tehuantepec, secured by me, in the National Museum. In these a nar-

row light stripe, beginning anteriorly shortly behind the neck, or first appear-

ing nearly as far back as the middle of the body, is present on the middorsal

scale row, and disappears at the base of the tail. The light stripe is less than

a scale row wide. In all these the entire median stripe is three and two half

scale rows wide, as in viduus with a uniform middorsal stripe.

I believe that the character of the middorsal stripe is of greater significance

than that of the lateral and accordingly refer the cotype of sumichrasti to

the synonymy of vidwus. However, the intermediate condition shown by the

cotype and the other specimens mentioned above rather strongly indicates

that there may be intergradation between these two. The fact that the co-

type of sumichrasti, which presumably comes from farther west (and nearer

the known range of typical vittatus) than my specimens, approaches more

closely to the characters of vittatus than specimens from near Tehuantepec,

lends support to the belief that the two forms intergrade.

The identity of the type of vzttatus is fortunately fixed by Bocourt, who

published excellent illustrations of it (Mission Sci. Mex., Rept., pl. 38, fig. 7.

1886). The type is not from Tehuantepec, however, as inferred by Bocourt.

It is apparent that Cope considered the name of wttatus applicable to

quite a different species than Peters described, as indicated in his check list

(U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 32: 76. 1887), in which he lists a specimen from Gua-

temala, collected by Dow. This is an intergrade between concolor and ap-

parently lineatus. If this is what Cope interpreted as vittatus, it is apparent

why he described sumichrastz.

Conophis vittatus viduus Cope

Conophis sumichrasti viduus Cope, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia (2)

8: 137. 1876 (type, U.S. N. M. no. 30259); Tehuantepec.

Conophis sumichrasti sumichrasti Cope (part), loc. cit. (the Tehuantepec spec-

imen).

Diagnosis.—Chin and labial borders white, not pigmented; usually seven

supralabials; first scale row not pigmented; three dark stripes, the lateral

more than the equivalent of two full scale rows in width, the median involv-

ing three and two half scale rows; sometimes a narrow light stripe, less than

one scale row in width, extending down part of vertebral scale row, but in

this case the entire median stripe is no wider than in other specimens.

Distribution.—Area about Tehuantepec, Oaxaca.

Specimens examined.—Nine, U.S. N. M. nos. 30258-9, 109709—14; one in

the EHT-HMS collection.

Marcu 15, 1941 SMITH: SNAKES OF THE GENUS CONOPHIS 121

Remarks.—See remarks under vittatus vittatus. The type of viduus (U. 8.

N. M. no. 30259) has been examined and is typical of the form here defined

under that name. There is no evidence in it of a light streak along the ver-

tebral scale row.

Conophis pulcher pulcher Cope

Conophis pulcher Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1868: 308 (Petén,

Guatemala; three cotypes, U. 8S. N. M. nos. 6751, 6803).—Bocourt,

Mission Sci. Mex., Rept., livr. 10: pp. 645-647, pl. 38, fig. 6 (a good il-

lustration). 1886.

Diagnosis.—Chin and labial borders pigmented; usually eight supralabials;

a dark stripe along first scale row, at least posteriorly; lateral dark stripe

(i.e., the continuation of the ocular stripe) involving median half of second

scale row, all of third and outer half of fourth, over all of body; a secondary

dark stripe on paravertebral scale rows (except on extreme anterior part of

body), broken anteriorly (spotted), continuous posteriorly and enclosing a

light area one and two half scale rows wide; ends of ventrals spotted or

slightly pigmented on some part of body.

Distribution.—Known only from ‘“Petén.”’

Specimens examined.—Three, from Petén, Guatemala (U. S. N. M. nos.

6751, 6803).

Remarks.—I have seen no intergrades between this and lzneatus. The

rather sharp difference between these two in position of the lateral stripe and

the presence in pulcher of secondary paravertebral stripes leads me to believe

that intergrades do not occur.

In one specimen of pulcher the lateral stripes are solid throughout their

length; in two others they are light medially, with regular black edges.

The subspecies plagosus is very similar, having the same differences from

lineatus as pulcher.

Conophis pulcher plagosus subsp. nov.

Conophis pulcher Cope (part), U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 32: 77. 1887 (a speci-

men mentioned from ‘‘Chiapas,”’ collected by Montes de Oca).

Holotype-—U. 8S. N. M. no. 109707, female, from Tonola, Chiapas, col-

lected by Hobart M. Smith.

Diagnosis —Chin and labial borders pigmented, but dimly; usually eight

supralabials (?); a dark stripe along first scale row, at least posteriorly; lat-

eral dark stripe (i.e., the continuation of the stripe through eye) involving

median half of second scale row, all of third and outer half of fourth, over

all of body; a series of spots on scales of paravertebral rows, beginning at

middle of body, extending to base of tail; spots elongate toward posterior

end of body, but not forming a continuous line; ventrals completely un-

spotted; all lines on body somewhat spotted in appearance.

Scutellation of type—Ventrals 169; caudals 67; scale rows 19-19-17;

mes 7-8; infralabials 9; one preocular; two postoculars, two tem-

porals.

Remarks.—This form is differentiated from pulcher pulcher by having (1)

the ventrals completely unspotted; (2) secondary lines on paravertebral

rows not continuous posteriorly; (3) all other lines on body also somewhat

122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 3

spotted in appearance; (4) dusky markings on chin and supralabial border

very dim (less distinct than in p. pulcher or any member of the lineatus se-

ries). Very probably this does not now intergrade with p. pulcher, from which

it is pretty well isolated. However, its essential characters definitely link it

with p. pulcher, and the differences between it and the latter are no greater

than those between vittatus and viduus, or between concolor and similis or

lineatus.

Conophis lineatus lineatus (Duméril and Bibron)

Tomodon lineatus Duméril and Bibron, Erp. Gen. 7: 936-938, pl. 73. 1854

(Mexico).—Bocourt, Mission Sci. Mex., Rept., livr. 10: 648, pl. 38, fig. 5

(an excellent illustration of one of the types). 1886.

Diagnosis.—Chin and labial borders pigmented; usually eight supralabi-

als; a dark stripe along first scale row, at least posteriorly; lateral dark stripe

(i.e., the continuations of the stripe through eye) very narrow posterior to

nape, extending along fourth scale row; posteriorly a stripe along third and

eighth (farther posteriorly the seventh) scale rows; a narrow dark stripe

along sixth scale row, continuous throughout length of body; another narrow

dark stripe, more spotted anteriorly, on first scale row; all stripes at least

slightly spotted in appearance; ends of ventrals spotted in at least some part

of body.

Distribution.—The only specimen known with definite locality is from

Paso del Macho, Veracruz.

Specimen examined.—One, from Paso del Macho, Veracruz (U. 8. N. M.

no. 109708).

Remarks.—The character of the lateral stripes easily distinguishes this

from l. semalis; a second prominent difference is the presence of a secondary

line posteriorly along the seventh scale row.

The identity of the types of lineatus is none too well fixed, in spite of Bo-

court’s excellent illustration of one of them. I have concluded that the name

is based upon the Mexican form rather than the Costa Rican, for the follow-

ing reasons: (1) Types said to be from Mexico; (2) no markings on third

scale row shown on types (dorsolateral stripes involve most of third scale

row in semilis; the condition in the types, even to the small spots on the

scales of the second row, is matched by the Mexican specimen available at

least on one part of body); (3) markings on eighth scale row (beginning of

secondary stripe) shown for .types, as in the Mexican specimen (szmilis

shows no such markings).

Conophis lineatus concolor Cope

Conophis concolor Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1866: 318

(Yucatan; two cotypes, U.S. N. M. no. 12368).

Diagnosis.—Chin and labial border pigmented; usually eight supralabials;

no stripes evident on body, dorsal surface gray, ventral surface white, the

dorsal color extending onto first scale row; three stripes on head, the medi-

an poorly defined, all disappearing on neck.

Distribution.—Peninsula of Yucatdn and area at its base, east through

northern Honduras.

Marcu 15, 1941 SMITH: SNAKES OF THE GENUS CONOPHIS 123

Specimens examined.—Five, including the cotypes and U. 8. N. M. no.

4941, Petén (?), Guatemala; U. 8. N. M. no. 20271, Patuca, Honduras; and

U.S. N. M. no. 46395, Chichen Itza, Yucatan.

Remarks.—Several specimens, all typical, are known from the Peninsula

of Yucatan. In addition, a perfectly typical example from Patuca, Hon-

duras, is present in the National Museum (no. 20271).

An intergrade between concolor and probably lineatus is in the National

Museum (no. 4941). The catalog states that this is from El Salvador, col-

lected by J. M. Dow. However, an old paper label, on which is written

“Conophis vittatus, Petén, J. M. Dow,” is in the bottle, and accordingly I

think this is the specimen, from that locality, mentioned by Cope in 1887

(U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 32: 76) under the name vzttatus. It is certain, more-

over, that this specimen is an example of what Cope believed wttatus to be,

for he states in 1876 (Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia (2), 8: 137) that

this species has the “‘body without bands, but faint traces of them on first,

third and seventh rows of scales.’”’ This certainly applies to the specimen in

question.

In this intergrade the median dark stripe on the head is well defined, as

are the lateral head stripes; these disappear on the nape. A dark stripe ex-

tends the full length of the body on the first scale row; anteriorly and in the

middle of the body it is dim, poorly defined. A fine, dotted black line, be-

ginning a little anterior to the middle of the body, extends along the fourth

scale row to the position of scale row drop; from this point to the anus it is

continued on the third scale row; in the extreme posterior part of body a

similar line extends along the fourth scale row to anus. At about the middle

of the body a fine, dotted dark line becomes evident on the seventh scale

row; it becomes more distinct posteriorly, becoming almost continuous near

base of tail; posterior to the position of scale row drop it follows the sixth

scale row.

Conophis lineatus similis subsp. nov.

Conophis lineatus Cope (nec Duméril and Bibron), U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 32:

77. 1887 (San José, Costa Rica; Nicaragua).

Holotype.—U. 8. N. M. no. 79963, female, Managua, Nicaragua, collected

by Lt. H. C. Kellers.

Paratypes.—Three, one a topotype (U.S. N. M. no. 79964); one, in very

poor condition, from “Nicaragua” (U. 8S. N. M. no. 25237); and one from

Ksparta, Costa Rica (U. 8. N. M. no. 37758).

Diagnosis.—Chin and labial borders heavily pigmented; usually eight su-

pralabials; a dark stripe along first scale row; lateral dark stripe (.e., that

which passes through eye) restricted to the third and fourth scale rows

throughout the length of the body, solid (without a broad light median area

between two dark edges); a dark stripe on seventh (sixth posteriorly) scale

row; no secondary dark stripes on either paravertebral rows or those ad-

jacent to them laterally; second scale row white anteriorly, posteriorly with

a dotted secondary line; ends of ventrals pigmented in some part of body.

Scutellation of holotype—vVentrals 170; anal divided; caudals 69; scale

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 3

rows 19-19-17; supralabials 8-8; infralabials 10-11; one preocular; two post-

oculars; temporals 2+2. Total length 553 mm; tail 121 mm.

Variations.—The ventrals and caudals, respectively, of the paratypes, in

the order listed above, are: 169, 67 (9); 174, 69 (2) 170, 64(6 ). Scale rows

19-19-17 in all; supralabials 7-8 in one, 8-8 in others; infralabials 8-9 in one,

9—9 in one, 10-11 in one; oculars and temporals as in type.

The topotypic paratype has the same pattern as the type. The stripes on

the seventh scale rows are composed of small spots; all the stripes on the body

give a spotted effect, although all except those on the seventh scale rows are

continuous at least posteriorly. The chin and labial markings are very

prominent, as are the spots on the ends of the ventrals.

The paratype from “‘Nicaragua”’ is very similar in coloration, except that

the stripes on the seventh scale rows are continuous.

The paratype from Esparta, Costa Rica, does not show such a strong

spotted effect as the others; the stripes on the seventh scale rows are broader;

and the area between these two stripes is generally suffused with darker.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

365TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 365th meeting of the Board of Managers was held in the Board Room

of the Cosmos Club on Friday, January 10, 1941. President CritTTENDEN

called the meeting to order at 8:02 p.M., with 16 persons present, as follows:

E. C. CrittEnDEN, F. D. Rossini, H. 8. Rappieyre, G. Sterner, A. T.

McPuerson, A. H. Ciarx, W. A. Dayton, H. L. Curtis, W. RAMBERG,

EK. W. Price, C. L. Gazin, W. W. DIEHL, and by invitation J. H. KEMpTon,

R. J. SpEGER, and O. H. Gisu.

The minutes of the 364th meeting were read and approved.

President CRITTENDEN announced the appointment of the most recent

past Corresponding Secretary, N. R. Smiru, to the position of Archivist of

the Academy for a term of 3 years.

C. L. GaRNER, chairman of the Committee on Meetings, reported that

negotiations were under way to have WARREN KELCHNER, chief of the Divi-

sion of International Conferences of the U. 8. Department of State, address

the Academy at its meeting in April, with the other meetings as previously

reported. Chairman GARNER also reported that his Committee had an unex-

pended balance of $29.20 from its budget allotment for 1940.

G. STEINER, chairman of the Committee on Membership, presented nomi-

nations for membership for 8 persons (5 resident and 3 nonresident).

The Board considered individually and duly elected to membership the 11

persons (9 resident and 2 nonresident) whose nominations were presented to

the Board on December 6, 1940.

The Committee to Consider the Printing Contract for the Journal, F. G.

BRICKWEDDE, chairman, presented its final report, recommending that the

present contract be continued. In an appendix to its report, the Chairman

presented some information concerning the possibility of saving several hun-

dred dollars a year in the cost of publishing the Journal through the adoption

of a 2-column format and 2 point smaller type, at the same time maintaining

the present standards of quality and workmanship and the same average

number of words to the issue. It was moved and carried that the Committee’s

Marcu 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 125

report be accepted, and further that ‘“‘the Board of Editors shall consider the

desirability of changing the Journal to a 2-column format and report its

recommendations within 3 months.”

The Committees on Awards for Scientific Achievement for 1940 presented

the following recommendations with regard to these awards, which are

limited to persons 40 years of age or less: For the Biological Sciences, A. H.

CuaARK, chairman, reported that his Committee found no elegible candidate

within the prescribed age limit who was considered worthy of the award,

and therefore recommended that no award for 1940 be made for the biologi-

cal sciences. For the Engineering Sciences, the Committee, F. M. DEFANDORF,

chairman, recommended that the award for 1940 be made to Harry D1a-

MOND, principal physicist in the Radio Section of the National Bureau of

Standards, for his work in the development of methods and apparatus for

the “‘blind-landing”’ of aircraft, in the development of methods and appara-

tus for obtaining meteorological data from appropriately equipped balloons

sent into the atmosphere, and in the development of an automatic weather-

reporting station. For the Physical Sciences, O. H. Gisu, chairman, reported

that his Committee recommended that the award for 1940 be made to

FERDINAND G. BRICKWEDDE, chief of the Cryogenic Laboratory at the Na-

tional Bureau of Standards, for his work in assisting in the discovery of

deuterium, in determining the physical properties of the various isotopic

forms of the hydrogen molecule, and in establishing a working temperature

scale for the range 14° to 83° Kelvin. It was moved and carried that the

Board make the awards as recommended by the Committees.

The Committee to Consider Several Problems Relating to the Journal,

W. W. Dieu, chairman, presented a report recommending that (1) the num-

ber of copies of the Journal to be printed currently each month shall always

exceed the membership and subscription list by a margin of at least 75;

(2) for the purpose of ensuring future sales, particularly as a service to new

subscribers, there be authorized a reserve of 25 sets, from which no numbers

- or volumes may be sold except in complete sets, consisting of 8 sets of vol-

umes 1 to 30, 6 sets of volumes 11 to 30, and 11 sets of volumes 16 to 30,

and that a reserve of 25 complete volumes shall be provided each year there-

after; and (3) the first $300 realized from the sale of complete sets of the

Journal shall be retained in the Treasury at the disposal of the Custodian

and Subscription Manager of Publications, to be used at his discretion for

the sole purpose of completing the contemplated 25 reserve sets now only

partially complete. The Board accepted and approved these recommenda-

tions.

The Corresponding Secretary presented the following statistics regarding

the membership: Deaths, 1; acceptance to membership, 1; members quali-

fying by payment of initial dues to the Treasurer, 5; retirements, 3; resigna-

tions, 4.

Adjournment was at 10:20 P.m., at which time the Board partook of re-

freshments provided by President CRITTENDEN, on the occasion of this last

meeting of the Board during his term of office.

FREDERICK D. Rossini, Corresponding Secretary

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 3

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

524TH MEETING

The 524th meeting was held in the Hall of Government, George Washing-

ton University, on Thursday, October 10, 1940, President HANN presiding.

Following the completion of routine business of the Society, the following

communications were presented in three sections:

Organic and Biological Chemistry, S. N. WRENN presiding

A. KossiAkorr and H. SprINGALL, Catholic University of America: A

structural investigation of the Mills-Nixon effect.

L. L. Mapsen and R. E. Davis, U. 8. Bureau of Animal Industry: Caro-

tene and vitamin A in cattle blood plasma.

H. 8S. Ispeti and H. L. Frusu, National Bureau of Standards: Reactions

and properties of the carbohydrates in relation to the Walden inversion.

Physical Chemistry, M. H. VAN Horn presiding

N. BeKKEDAHL and L. A. Woop, National Bureau of Standards: Stark

rubber.

G. R. GREENBANK, U.S. Bureau of Dairy Industry: Photochemical oxida-

tion of fats and oils.

E. J. Jones (introduced by 8. B. Hpnpricks), U. 8. Bureau of Plant In-

dustry: The association of phenol in carbon tetrachloride from infrared data.

Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, D. C. KNOWLEs presiding

R. T. O’Connor, U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry: Spectrochemical methods

for the quantitative analysis of trace elements in phosphate rock.

R. R. WHeEtstone, W. O. Ropinson, and H. G. Bynrs, U. 8. Bureau of

Plant Industry: The distribution of boron in sorls.

G. W. Warp, Portland Cement Association Fellowship at the National

Bureau of Standards: The polarizing microscope: A tool for the semplification

of control and standardization of crystalline compounds.

525TH MEETING

The 525th meeting was held in the Ladies’ Parlor of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, October 24, 1940, President Hann presiding. Following the rou-

tine business, the Society was addressed by W. H. SEBRELL, M.D., of the

National Institute of Health, on Recent developments in vitamin research.

526TH MEETING

The 526th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, November 14, 1940, President Hann presiding. Election of officers

for the Society for 1941 took place by means of preferential ballot. The fol-

lowing officers were elected:

PresiGen tian ease ee eo a ee ee H. L. J. HALLER

IE CRED AY so ersinenes Ree rede na ae De ee NorMAN BEKKEDAHL

PETER SUT CRA aac eres a ume erage EK. R. Smitu

W. D. Couns J. H. HInBEN

Councilors.........]R. E. Grsson G. E. F. LuNDELL

R. M. Hann B. H. NicoLer

Mz. M. Harine

(J. J. Faney McPHERSON

Amal

Managers.........\S. B. Henpricks 4H. P. Warp

la. S. IsBELL C. E

Marcu 15, 1941 OBITUARIES Wall

Following the completion of routine business, the Society was addressed

by Par K. Frouicu, director of the Chemical Division of the Esso Labora-

tories, Standard Oil Development Co., Linden, N. J., who spoke on the sub-

ject Frontiers in petroleum chemistry.

527TH MEETING

The 527th meeting of the Society was held in the Auditorium of the Chem-

istry Building of the Catholic University of America, on Thursday, Decem-

ber 12, 1940, President Hann presiding. After the completion of routine

business, the Society was addressed by Davip Harker, of the Johns Hopkins

University, who spoke on the subject, Water as a reagent in inorganic chemis-

(ry.

NorMAN BEKKEDAHL, Secretary

@Pbituaries

RAYMOND PEARL, biologist, teacher, editor, and student of human popu-

lations and longevity, died suddenly on November 17, 1940, at Hershey, Pa.

Born on June 3, 1879, at Farmington, N. H., the son of Frank and Ida May

(McDuffie) Pearl, he received advanced education at Dartmouth (A.B.,

1899), the University of Michigan (Ph.D., 1902), the University of Leipzig

(1905), and the University College of London (1905-06).

After serving for brief periods as instructor in zoology at the University

of Michigan (1902-06) and the University of Pennsylvania (1906-07), he was

appointed in 1907 as head of the department of biology at the Maine Agri-

cultural Experiment Station. From here he went to Baltimore in 1918 as

professor of biometry and vital statistics—later (1930) professor of biology—

at the School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University.

The basic quality of Dr. Pearl’s research has been recognized by the aca-

demic honors he received (Se.D., Dartmouth, 1919; LL.D., University of

Maine, 1919; Litt.D., St. John’s College, 1935) and by the number of sci-

entific societies to which he belonged, notably the National Academy of Sci-

ences and the American Philosophical Society. Also, he was in frequent

demand as a lecturer.

Dr. Pearl’s publications include the following books: Diseases of poultry,

1915; The biology of death, 1922; Introduction to medical biometry and statis-

lacs, 1923; Studzes in human biology, 1924; Alcohol and longevity, 1636; Con-

stitution and health, 1933; The natural history of popblation, 1939. He was

founder and editor of the journals Quarterly Review of Biology (1926) and

Human Biology (1929).

“The world of science has lost a great leader, a fruitful scholar with wide

experience and rare originality and a colleague always helpful and stimulat-

ing.”

WALTER JORGENSEN YOUNG was born at Owensboro, Ky., on June 27,

1883, and died on November 23, 1940, at Fredericksburg, Va. Valedictorian

of his class in Richmond College, he received his D.D. and Th.M. at Crozier

Theological Seminary and his M.S. and Ph.D. at the University of Pennsyl-

vania. He was, successively, professor of psychology and biology of Hamp-

den-Sydney College (1911-1913), professor of philosophy and head of the

department of philosophy at the University of Richmond (1913-1918), pro-

fessor of social science at the State Teachers’ College at Fredericksburg

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 3

(1919-1926) and at the same time minister at the Massaponax Baptist

Church and Supervisor of Schools, professor of geography at the University

of Tennessee (summer, 1925), professor of education at Winthrop College

(1926-1929), and finally, until his death, head of the department of psy-

chology and philosophy at Mary Washington College at Fredericksburg. He

published a Syllabus of comparative ethics (1918), Outline of general geography

(1925), and Outline of early European history (1925). His original genealogical

research, The Bristol Youngs in America (1937), won him a Fellowship in the

Royal Academy of Arts in London.

He obtained the Crozier Research Fellowship for his investigation of ex-

perimental psychology, A study in practice and habit (1912), introducing new

unit methods of procedure in elementary school teaching. By his treatises

The correlation theory of psychology (1929) and Cause and effect (1929), he

tried to combine the new ideas introduced by Einstein and his successors

with the Gestalt hypothesis of the German philosophers and to build a new

foundation for the methods of psychology and a new psychological termi-

nology. By these original and thoughtful publications he was brought into

international notice.

Dr. Young was not a specialist, although his work, done in so various and

distant fields of science, always had scientific value and was based on scien-

tific methods. He loved God’s colored world and was too much interested in

understanding the whole to confine himself to some little corner. So he did

not become a truly great specialist, but he was a truly great teacher, under-

standing the whole of life and interested in all spheres of science. ;

Dr. Young married Ethel Daniel and had two children: a daughter,

Patricia Ann, the wife of Dr. James King in Fredericksburg; and a son,

Walter J., Jr., chemist at the Sylvania Plant in the same city. Among his

pupils and colleagues the memory of his splendid and lively personality will

be fresh for a long time.

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CONTENTS |

ee - Sratistics. —Some ‘thoughts on statistical inference. .

eos Oe . ee es ee es .

se | Roe Aen from isn E. re

ORNITHOLOGY. —Remarks on the Kentish plovers of Ext

ent, with separation of a new subspecies. oH. G. DEIG

Tec cae ——Two new species of coccinellid beetles fro Costa Rice :

and Satta -Epwarp A. CHAEIN. ; a8 ke

SE a ee

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PROCEEDINGS: THE Acapsmy. coe : Se oes “ re

Apri, 15, 1941 : No. 4

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 31 Apri 15, 1941 No. 4

ECOLOGY.—Adaptive coloration in a single faunal association.'

THEODORE H. Eaton, Jr., Cornell University. (Communicated

by C. Lrwis Gazin.)

The meaning and methods of adaptive coloration are stated so fully

in Cott’s recent book (1940) that a general survey of the subject may

not be needed again for some years. Rather his work, with its large

bibliography, should stimulate special studies and detailed applica-

tions of principles. One such problem that has not yet received ade-

quate treatment is the effect of adaptive coloration on the total

population of a single ecological association.

An association particularly favorable to such study is the rain forest

of Barro Colorado Island in the Canal Zone, now receiving mainte-

nance as a biological reservation from the United States Government.

The writer collected there in the summer of 1939.

Barro Colorado Island, in Gatun Lake, is about 6 square miles in

area, almost entirely covered by climax rain forest. Over 700 species

of trees occur there, the dominant crowns of a few, such as Bombacop-

sis felderi, exceeding 200 feet in height. Most species are broad-leaved

hardwoods. A litter of fallen leaves covers the ground nearly every-

where, averaging 1 to 4 inches in depth, but decomposition of this

litter is so rapid that the red lateritic clay soil begins directly under it

with scarcely any or humus layer. The undergrowth varies in density

but in most places is not thick enough to interfere with walking. Al-

though there is little standing water on the island, numerous small

streams run down to the lake, their beds being generally of blackened

pebbles and boulders.

_ Thus the niches available for the rain-forest fauna (apart from bur-

rowing, subterranean or aquatic forms) are the following:

1. Trees: Foliage, limbs, trunks, crevices.

2. Epiphytic vegetation, including lianas, bromeliads, ferns, mosses, etc.

3. Undergrowth: Foliage, stems.

4. Ground surface, on or under leaf litter.

9. Ravines, stream beds, banks, bare trails, beaches (a relatively small area).

1 Received February 15, 1941.

129

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE TYPES

OF COLOR ADAPTATION

I. Color adaptations among rain-forest animals are numerous and

varied. Cott (1940) groups them as concealment, advertisement, and

disguise. There is a strong correlation between adaptive appearance

and the diurnal-nocturnal rhythm. Species that are quiet by day and

active by night almost invariably show either concealment or disguise

in some form, provided they spend the day in a place exposed to the

view of animals that hunt by sight. Many species that are active by

day, but that spend a part of that time at rest in such places, show the

same thing when they are at rest. Species that mimic others exhibit

this feature by day, although in some cases they are nocturnal as

well. Warning, display, allure, or directive markings function by day,

the species very frequently being active both day and night. Adaptive

coloration apparently does not occur among animals that burrow or

hide out of the ordinary field of vision. It is lacking, for instance, in

certain moths (Pyralidae, Geometridae) and butterflies (Hesperiidae,

Erycinidae) that alight regularly on the under sides of leaves, showing

themselves only while in rapid flight. Thus adaptive coloration is

limited to the species that might be visible by day, and, if seen, ac-

-cessible, whether as prey or as predators.

II. Relationship between adaptive coloration and niches in the

-rain-forest association :

- A. Obliterative or-procryptie coloration occurs in species that rest

‘or pause against a relatively homogeneous background, that is, one in

which separate objects mean little or do not show. This must be inter-

preted in each case from the standpoint of a casual observer. The

animal-comes within the field of vision but is so colored that it is not

noticed as an object. Backgrounds available for obliteratively colored

species on Barro Colorado are these:

-(1) Surfaces of green leaves. For obliterative effect any surface

must ‘be larger than the animals on it, i.e., sufficient to serve as a

background. The eggs, larvae, and chrysalids of many Lepidoptera,

the adults of some (Geometridae especially), many Coleoptera, Hemip-

tera, Homoptera, and Orthoptera, some spiders and some tree frogs

are cryptically colored on green leaves.

(2) Foliage en masse. Certain larger animals shaw an obliterative

green against the background of massed foliage, which from a distance

can be regarded as homogeneous. Such are the green tree-snakes,

lizards like Polychrus gutturosus and Iguana iguana, and many, if not.

all, of the green birds.

Aprit 15,1941 - EATON: ADAPTIVE COLORATION 131

(3) Tree trunks, root buttresses, fallen logs. Procryptic animals

here include Lepidoptera (Noctuidae, Notodontidae, Geometridae,

Sphingidae, some nymphalid and brassolid butterflies), many cater-

pillars, Coleoptera such as cerambycids, elaterids, and some prionids,

certain spiders, tree frogs, and geckos.

(4) Leaf litter, probably 99 per cent of the ground cover in the

forest. Animals deceptively colored like this background include

Lepidoptera (Noctuidae, Notodontidae, Geometridae, Satyridae,

Nymphalidae, and others), some Orthoptera and spiders, many frogs,

toads, lizards, and snakes, ground birds such as tinamous and (by

day) nighthawks. Many of the Lepidoptera show a partial leaf-vein

pattern on their wings, but the shape of the wings is usuallynot leaflike,

since obliteration rather than object-imitation is the result achieved.

Satyrid butterflies of the genus Prerella are common examples of this.

While the leaf litter is relatively homogeneous as a background,

enough contrast of light, shade, and sharp edges occurs to cause dis-

ruptive patterns frequently to accompany obliterative coloring in the

species that occupy this niche.

(5) Bare ground, as mud beside streams, open trails, banks, etc. A

dark purple-brown Cicindela is common and procryptically colored

on the trails, so that only careful watching will detect it before it flies.

The tendency of many species of tiger beetles to show the color of

their background is familiar. Dice and Blossom (1937) recently

pointed out that the same is true of local races of Peromyscus living

in open, arid country, but is less likely to occur in covered areas.

B. Disruptive pattern is common in connection with obliterative

background resemblance. Its effect is to add a seeming discontinuity

to the procryptic effect already achieved. An excellent example, one

among many in Lepidoptera, is the large, brown satyrid Antrrhaea

miltiades, in which a white blotch and streak on the hind wings de-

stroy any probable recognition of the butterfly as a separate object

when it alights on dead leaves. The remainder of the pattern is dead-

leaf brown. Most cases of deceptive rupture of pattern will probably

be found to work when the rest of the pattern is obliterative and the

-background moderately heterogeneous. Accordingly the leaf-litter

fauna should be, and is, particularly rich in this kind of adaptive

coloration. Species on pebbly ground and on rough tree trunks often

show it as well.

C. Object resemblance. Cott uses the term “disguise” to cover this

and the usual mimicry between species. ‘‘Object resemblance’”’ ex-

presses somewhat more exactly the meaning of the present category.

132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

This type of deception is found in niches occupied largely by discrete

objects, such as leaves, twigs, or thorns. Species that resemble these

objects do so by adaptation not only of color but of form. The disguise

is most effective while the animal is motionless, except when the ob-

jects in question happen to move, in which case the animal may do

so. Many of the amazingly twiglike Phasmidae (Orthoptera) sway

rhythmically from side to side like twigs in a breeze. Certain Manti-

dae have also become twiglike. Dinopis, a spider, fits its legs together

in line with the body and hangs motionless like a piece of dead twig

on an inconspicuous thread. Among the twig-imitators should also go

the spider that prepares a line of frass with a half-inch gap, into which

it then fits and so completes the artificial twig. Twiglike geometrid

larvae are common, as are the thornlike membracids. It is a rule that

these types occur in places where the particular thorns or twigs they

resemble also prevail.

Examples of leaf-imitation involving the color, pattern, and form

of leaves are: Leaf-mantids (some resembling living, others dead

leaves), leaf-butterflies, and a few large moths, like Ophideres, which

hangs in a most convincing manner like a dead leaf from the stem of

a low bush: phe Blecias | |

' D. Transparency. It is, of course, impossible for a flying insect to

achieve complete transparency, although many aquatic organisms,

including prawns in Gatun Lake, have nearly or quite done so. Yet

a filmy translucence affecting the larger part of the insect has a highly

deceptive function. Sometimes it is combined with a contrasting pat-

tern, as in some of the largest forest damselflies (Zygoptera, Coena-

erionidae), where at the tip of each wing is a yellow, white, or blue

spot, and the insect as a whole is difficult to see in flight because al-

‘most nothing shows but these separated, vibrating spots. Transpar-

ency has developed among butterflies in more than one shade-living

group independently, the most important being Ithomiidae. Jthomia,

Leucothyris, and some other genera are partly transparent and de-

ceptive while flying in the gloom of the forest. They do not occur in

strong light. Cithaerias menander is a transparent satyrid, also occur-

ring in deep shade. Across its wings are faint vestiges of the leaf-vein

lines that are present in some allied brown satyrids with an oblitera-

tive dead-leaf pattern. This suggests that Cithaerias has changed a

former obliterative appearance for transparency, equally deceptive

‘and functioning. in flight as well as at rest.

Ei. Mimicry between unrelated species is a type of deception that

reduces the total number of apparent species in a given ecological as-

Aprit 15, 1941 EATON: ADAPTIVE COLORATION | ne 133 .

sociation. This is accomplished by duplication of color, pattern, form,

and behavior, at least outwardly. A mimetic group of unrelated spe-

cies, consisting of two to six or more species, thus appears to be one by

sharing a particular configuration. |

The term ‘‘configuration”’ is used here to imply a connection with

the Gestalt theory of learning. Each mimetic group, appearing to be a

species, is a configuration or ‘‘Gestalt’’ to the predator, and a response

of avoidance or acceptance is learned on the basis of experimental or.

haphazard encounters between the predator and its prey. A reduction ©

of the number of Gestalten to be recognized can only simplify the’

learning process, by reducing the number of encounters needed to fix —

a given Gestalt in the predator’s memory. Mimicry accomplishes this.

reduction. The learned response to a mimetic group appears in every.

ease to be avoidance, since this kind of Gestalt happens to provide a

disagreeable experience in a large proportion of possible encounters.

Mimicry observed in Panama shows, as a whole, no definite correla- .

tion with ecological niches, except that, like other adaptive coloration,

it functions by day within the field of vision of species that hunt by

sight. Mimetic groups seen were the following:

(1) Mutillid wasp, female, mimicked by cicindelid peetle!

(2) Winged wasps (robable a complex including models for several.

different mimetic groups), mimicked by certain Diptera, staphylinid

beetles, euchromiid moths. ,

(3) Bees, mimicked by numerous Diptera.

(4) Ants, mimicked by spiders (especially attids), by cerambycid

beetles, and by a mantid. Here again more than one mimetic group

occurs, for the ants mimicked by the mantid are ponerids, while those

mimicked by the spiders and beetles are various formicids. ey

(5) Lycid beetles, mimicked by euchromiid moths (Dycladia, Cor-

rebia, Correbidia) and by arctiids (Lycomorphodes, Forbes, .1939).:

Many other insects have been cae as lycid n ‘mimics in Asia and

Africa (Carpenter, 1920).

(6) A lampyrid beetle, mimicked by an aretiid mathe ee iae.

(7) Danaid butterflies, mimicked by ithomiids, pees and ..

female pericopid moths.

(8) Heliconid butterflies, ceked by. svete hd nidtids: Beare

(9) Papilio (some of the Aristolochia-feeding species) ,. mimicked Os

certain pericopid moths (Forbes, 1939). :

F’. Directive (misleading) markings and behavior. In this Le

I include the cases in which a part of the animal looks and acts like -

something it is not, while the remainder is free from any deceptive. -

134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

effect, and may, indeed, be highly conspicuous. This comes under

“advertisement” in Cott’s (1940) work. Many of the hair-streak but-

terflies (Theclinae) have on the under side of the wings a showy pat-

tern of lines and stripes, visible when they alight with wings upright.

At the posterior end of the hind wings is a red or orange spot, beyond

which one or two hairlike tails project. The butterfly, when at rest,

constantly moves the hind wings up and down against each other,

imparting a writhing motion to the spot and active wriggling to the

tails. Whether this is a ‘‘false head” with ‘“‘false antennae” to lure

possible attackers away from the ‘‘vital’’ to some “nonvital”’ part of

the body is a question on which agreement may be difficult; it is a fact

that one is temporarily deceived as to the actual head of the insect,

and that insectivorous birds and lizards usually nesnene to moving

rather than motionless objecis.

G. Warning and display. Deception is a minor factor in this kind

of advertisement, except when the species are already deceptive

through mimicry, as with the color-display and fake stinging motions

of the wasplike staphylinid beetles. A more typical case of simple

“warning” is the bright green and shiny black pattern of the frog

Dendrobates auratus. This species is common in the forest of Barro

Colorado, active by day and night, and a highly conspicuous animal

for its size. Its poisonous skin secretion is quickly associated with the

striking colors.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The kinds of adaptive coloration occurring in the rain-forest

fauna are correlated with particular niches in that association. Oblit-

erative color and pattern occur where the background is relatively

homogeneous. Obliterative-ruptive patterns are correlated with a

more heterogeneous background, yet one in which separate objects

mean little. Object-resemblance is common in an environment com-

posed of discrete details (leaves, twigs, thorns). Transparency occurs

in shade-dwelling, large-winged insects. Mimicry reduces the apparent

number of species to be recognized. Directive markings, warning,

display, and the lack of adaptive coloration show no specific environ-

mental correlation, except that species which burrow or hide out of

the ordinary field of vision are unlikely to be adaptively colored in

any way.

2. The total population, both of species and of individuals, occupy-

ing this faunal association appears to be much greater than would be

possible in the absence of adaptive coloration, because (a) species

ApriL 15, 1941 BLACKWELDER: GENDER OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES 135

with obliterative, disruptive, object-imitative, or mimetic adaptations

are less frequently noticed, or, if noticed, are avoided; (b) those with

misleading markings or deceptive transparency may be noticed but

remain relatively inaccessible; (c) those with warning coloration as-

sociated with disagreeable traits are usually avoided. To express this

in figures would mean little, however, since (a) enormous groups

rather than a few species are involved, (b) relatively few species-deter-

minations of rain-forest insects from any one locality are available,

and (c) the ratio between adaptively and nonadaptively colored

species must be, in the nature of the case, inconstant.

Since the recent literature, very adequately cited by Cott (1940),

contains evidence on nocturnal behavior, on color vision in insects

and other animals, and on the selective value of various kinds of adap-

tive coloration, this material is omitted from the present paper, al-

though much that is pertinent might be taken from it.

LITERATURE CITED

CARPENTER, G. D.H. A naturalist on Lake Victoria. London, 1920.

Cott, H. B. Adaptive coloration in animals. New York, 1940.

Dice, L. R., and BLossom, P. M. Studies of mammalian ecology in southwestern North

America with special attention to the colors of desert mammals. Carnegie Inst.

Washington Publ. 485:iv +129 pp., 8 pls., 8 figs. 1937.

Forses, W. T. M. The Lepidoptera of Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Bull. Mus.

Comp. Zool. 85(4): 99-322, 8 pls. 1939.

ZOOLOGY .—The gender of scientific names in zoology.1 RicHARD E.

BLACKWELDER, U.S. National Museum. ,

The scientific names of animals, according to the International

Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, must be words that are either

Latin or Latinized, or that are considered and treated as such in case

they are not of classic origin. Both generic and specific names are to

be formed according to the principles of Latin grammar and usually

have Latin endings. Specific names must bear the proper modifying

relation to the generic name and may have a variable ending for this

purpose. For example, adjectives must agree in gender with the

generic name, substantives in apposition must be in the nominative

ease, and possessive substantives must be in the genitive case.

Our Zoological Code specifies these principles and some others but

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Received November 25, 1940.

A preliminary sheet showing the two tables included in this paper was distributed

at the Taxonomists’ Conference on Nomenclature at the Philadelphia meetings of the

American Association for the Advancement of Science on December 29, 1940. Discus-

sion at that meeting brought out the necessity for changing Table 1. Copies of the sheet

eo therefore be destroyed or changed to agree with the revised version herein pre-

sented.

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

in general places the responsibility upon the individual to know and

follow the Latin grammar.

Most research in taxonomy has been done by persons of some edu-

cation, and this has very frequently meant in the past a classical one.

A thorough knowledge of both Latin and Greek was considered a

necessity in any education, and nearly every taxonomist of a genera-

tion or more ago had a good working knowledge of both the principles

and the vocabularies of these languages. At the present time, however,

it is quite possible for a student to reach the highest steps of our for-

mal education system without a knowledge of either of these lan-

guages, and in fact few students do in these days receive a really

thorough training in either of them. It has become, therefore, increas-

ingly difficult for modern taxonomists as a group to apply uniformly

the Latin rules that should govern their actions in the choice and for-

mation of names and the use of the proper endings. And this tendency

has had a marked effect on the number of mistakes made by the per-

sons who make use of zoological names.

Perhaps the commonest problem of this sort is the question of what

ending to use when a specific name is transferred from one genus to

another. For example, Cylindropsis polita is transferred to Osorvus and

must be changed to Osorius politus, since polita is an adjective and

must agree in gender with the generic name which is a noun. If the

specific name were rufipennis, it would not change, since the mascu-

line and the feminine endings are the same in this declension. If the

specific name were ajax, it would not change, since it is a substantive

and these are not required to agree with the generic name in gender.

Situations may be much less simple than this, as in the case of Venus,

which is feminine in spite of its masculine ending, and such combina-

tions as: Tenaspis angulosa (3d decl. f. noun and Ist deel. adjective), :

Tenaspis angularis (38d decl. f. noun and 3d decl. adjective), Eros

aurora (3d decl. m. noun and Ist decl. f. noun in appositon), Hrotides

hebes (3d decl. f. noun and 3d decl. f. noun in apposition), Sphex latus

(3d decl. m. noun and 2d decl. m. adjective), Microps fungi (3d decl.

f. noun and 2d. decl. m. possessive noun), Microps minor (3d deel. f.

noun and comparative adjective of 3d decl.).

A person who is not thoroughly familiar with each of the Latin

declensions frequently is at a loss to know what change in ending

should be made. Fortunately a large part of our names end in the

familiar us, a, wm endings and many more in the 7s, 7s, e. But even

when one recognizes these, what about the ger, gera, gerum and ger,

gra, grum endings, the as, es, 0s, ps, 7s, or, x, etc., which never change,

Aprit 15, 1941 BLACKWELDER: GENDER OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES 137

and the a, e, m, zs, etc., which sometimes change and sometimes do not

when the gender of the generic name changes?

Then there are a considerable number of names that defy even the

Latin rules by virtue of a gender inherent in their meanings. Venus

takes feminine specific names and Adonis takes masculine, in direct

opposition to the usual gender of words ending as these do. Many

words ending in a derived from the Greek, such as Conosoma and

Strigoderma, retain the neuter gender which they had in that language.

There is no way to recognize these words from themselves, one must

simply know in advance how they are to be used.

Like many of the younger entomologists I have encountered con-

siderable difficulty in these matters because of my lack of a sufficient

knowledge of Latin grammar and vocabulary. I find that there is a

strong temptation to abandon these requirements and simply use at

all times the exact original form of the specific name regardless of

other considerations. I believe that this will be the result if we con-

tinue to base our procedure on the rules of grammar of a language not

well known to all the people involved, but I also believe that this

would be an unfortunate occurrence and that it can be prevented by

the use of a simpler set of rules.

In the writings of Col. Thos. L. Casey? I chanced upon a suggestion

which seemed to offer hope of a better solution. Col. Casey argued as

follows?: |

As generic and specific words are mere symbols for the designation of a species, it

seems desirable that they should be withdrawn as far as possible from exceptions to

general rules of grammar, and, that in this respect as least, they should be treated in

the abstract as mere aggregations of letters. The rules of gender should be made uni-

form, so that generic symbols ending in a certain manner shall demand a certain defi-

nite and invariable gender in the specific symbol.

The only course left, therefore, is to consider the generic name as a simple harmonious

combination of letters, having a Latin form, constructed without absolutely essential

reference to rigidly correct orthography in the language from which it may have been

derived, whether Greek, Latin, or aboriginal American, and subject to constant rules of

gender which shall be independent of linguistic caprice. The word may or may not have

a meaning in the original language from which it is taken, although in any event, the

meaning is of but little material importance.

An attempt at uniformity involving a suppression of the rules of orthography, and

made in a spirit similar to that which has prompted the above remarks, has recently

come into quite general use—I allude to the growing custom of writing all specific

names, whether proper or common, with a small initial letter. All such rules as this,

which have for their object the attainment of simplicity and uniformity in scientific

nomenclature, are undoubtedly very desirable.

2 One of the most studious and prolific writers on Coleoptera of the past generation.

3 Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 5: 307-308. 1890. .

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 4

Col. Casey proposes that for generic names the endings as, es, os, us,

r, and o be established as masculine, that a, zs, s preceded by a con-

sonant, ys, e, and x be feminine, and that m and n be neuter. These

would be invariable, the ending itself determining the gender of the

name. In using the above rule for several years I have found it very

useful but have wished for a more comprehensive list and also for a

similar aid in determining what endings to use on the specific name in

each case. By compiling lists of names and comparing them with

Latin grammars I have been able to assemble a table of endings which

does seem to make it possible to determine the proper ending in any

case according to set rules and with a minimum of trouble.

Generic names formed by arbitrary combinations of letters may

end with any letter, as Anzac, Coati, Arrup, Biat, and Coendou. These

names appear to be valid under Article 3 of the Rules, but their gen-

der is not a matter to be guessed offhand by anyone except the origi-

nal author. Of the above names Anzac, Arrup, and Coendou were

originally used as masculine, Coat: and Biat were used as feminine.

Although in some respects it would seem proper for an author to de-

termine the gender of a name in such cases, it will lead only to confu-

sion, since all subsequent users of the name will be under the necessity

of referring to the original article to determine the gender. In order to

avoid this and to reduce the matter to a single rule that can be fitted

into the above system, the following has been compiled principally

from Latin usages. Generic names ending in 0, c, d, f, g, h, j, l, p, q, t,

v, Ww, or Zor in2, u, or y Shall be considered to be neuter. When we com-

bine this rule with Casey’s list, we get Table 1, in which the possible

endings of genera are grouped under the appropriate genders. It will

enable one to determine the gender of any generic name by it sending.

TABLE 1

Masculine Feminine Neuter

er, ir a, e, as, es, is, s (preceded b, c,d, te jessie

or, OS by a consonant), k, 1, mm, 7. osp a:

us, eX x (except ex) ar, Ur, t; Wve wee

To determine the proper ending for the specific name one must first

know whether it is a substantive or an adjective. The endings of sub-

stantives can not be changed under any circumstances, but the end-

ings of adjectives generally must be changed if there is a change of

gender in the generic name.

Aprit 15,1941 BLACKWELDER: GENDER OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES 139

Adjectives can end (in the singular‘) only with the following letters

or combinations: a, e, wm, er, zs, us.’ Names ending in these letters are

likely to be adjectives but may occasionally be substantives. If one

does not recognize any particular name as an adjective, resort must

be had to a dictionary. However, unless such a name can be shown to

be a substantive, it is best to treat it as an adjective and change its

ending to agree with the generic name. For example, the name nigrita

has been used at times as a substantive and at other times as an ad-

jective. The derivation of the name is open to question, but much con-

fusion can be avoided by treating it as an adjective.

In Table 2 an attempt has been made to indicate the gender of

every possible ending of an adjective specific name (as herein re-

stricted) and to show the proper endings of this name in the other

genders as well. The gender of any ending in the first columns is indi-

cated by the gender column in which the italics occur.

TABLE 2

Endings G ender

; Example

Sve Preceded by (preceded by) (preceded by) Masc. Fem. Neut.

a r er (e)ra | (e)rum rubra

a (any other) us a um rugosa

e = is is e acre

m u a; er (e)ra | (e)rum | rubrum

m u (any other) | us a um rugosum

T; e ch er ra rum pulcher

FE e NEES A eyonl OF U er era erum tener

r e (any other) a:2 e, 0, U er ra rum sacer

i e (any other) | i,! consonant# er era erum armiger

S i 1s 1s e debilis

S u® Us a um rugosus

1 Except niger and its compounds, and piger, which are ~iger, -igra, -igrum.

2 Except lacer, -era, -erum and acer, alacer, -ris, -re.

3 Except degener, -eris, ere.

4 Except volucer, -cris, -cre, and the alternative masculines of many words, as equester, equestris; paluster,

palustris; and acer, acris.

‘ 5 Except the neuter of comparative adjectives (majus, minus, latius, etc.) which are herein treated as

substantives.

Names with any endings other than a, e, um, er, 1s, us, must be

substantives (or adjectives treated as substantives), but as noted

4 Since the Rules specify that generic names must be in the nominative singular,

the modifying adjectives must also be singular.

® In Latin a few adjectives with imperfect or unusual declension in the singular may

end in such combinations as: 7, am, em, ar, or, as, es, us, os, ps, and rs. Except for the

comparative adjectives (or, ar, us) these generally have the same form in all genders

and they are all therefore herein treated as substantives rather than adjectives. Words

ending in x cannot properly be said to be irregular or imperfect, but, since their end-

ings are the same in all genders, they may be omitted from the table and treated with

the substantives.

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

above substantives may end in any letter (especially a, e, 1, m, n, 0, 7,

s, x). The ending of a substantive does not ever change.

The foregoing statements have been made in part as though they

were principles of Latin grammar and in part as though they were

suggested departures therefrom. This is exactly the case and it will

be well to recapitulate the changes that are proposed. If the names

of animals are considered to be symbols for species and genera rather

than Latin names for them, we find ourselves at once cut off from any

set of rules of orthography. Our International Code specifies that

“the scientific names of animals must be words which are either Latin

or Latinized, or considered and treated as such in case they are not of

classic origin.’’ Our symbols can be included in the latter category. An

improvement can be made, however, over the Latin usages of gender.

Since our names are symbols and no longer have a meaning of their

own, they no longer possess an inherent gender. It has been customary

to assign a gender to them depending on the declension to which they

would have belonged in Latin, but there were exceptions due to inher-

ent gender in the words themselves, for example Venus (feminine) and

Adonis (masculine). In many cases writers have never been able to

agree on the proper gender, one basing his claim on the structure of

the word and the other upon its original meaning. All this could be

avoided in the future by the adoption of a fixed gender for each possi-

ble ending, these being based on Latin grammar but being more com-

prehensive while admitting no exceptions.

The only change then is a standardization of the few variables that

now exist and the addition of a few new factors to cover names which

could not have existed in true Latin. The aim is uniformity in the

agreement of specific names with generic names, and I believe that

the proposals here made can be accepted into our present procedures

without any change in the International Rules. Names will still be

treated as if they were of classic origin, they will still agree gram-

matically with the generic name. We need only interpret the word

“orammatically” to include a more rigid rule of ending than in the

previous use of Latin grammar.

Aprit 15, 1941 DRAKE: NEW AMERICAN TINGITIDAE 141

ENTOMOLOGY.—New American Tingitidae (Hemiptera).| Caru

J. DRAKE, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.

This paper contains the descriptions of seven new American lace

bugs, including one from Guam Island. Two of the species were inter-

cepted at ports of entry into the United States by Federal quarantine

officials; Phatnoma ecuadoris at New York City and P. barber: at

San Francisco from Ecuador. The types of all the new species are in

the U. 8. National Museum.

Phatnoma ecuadoris, sp. nov.

Allied to P. varians Drake, but readily distinguishable by its wider para-

nota, more elevated carinae, and slenderer form. Head with seven spines, the

middle pair stouter at the base than in varzans. Antennae rather long, slender,

segment III about three and one-half times as long as IV, the latter mostly

black. Bucculae longer, more widely reticulated, less excavated on each side

before apex and not so strongly produced downward at apex as in varians.

Rostrum long, testaceous.

Pronotum moderately convex, coarsely pitted, tricarinate; lateral carinae

more elevated, the areolae a little larger; paranota wider and more sharply

angulate at the sides than in varzans, biseriate behind, triseriate in front and

quadriseriate at lateral angle; collar raised, composed of three rows of areo-

lae. Elytra grayish brown, the enlarged, transverse nervures and some of the

nervelets dark fuscous; costal area moderately broad, quadriseriate in basal

fourth, thence to apex largely triseriate; subcostal are a broader, largely five

areolae deep; discoidal area long, about three-fourths the length of the elytra,

five areolae deep in central portion, the outer boundary raised and its ner-

vure for about three-fourths of its length foliaceous and composed of one row of

low, rectangular areolae, the inner boundary also raised, foliaceous and uni-

seriate for almost its entire length; sutural area brownish, without markings.

Length, 2.90 mm; width, 1.30 mm.

Holotype, male, Ecuador, collected in bananas at port of entry, New York

City.

Phatnoma barberi, sp. nov.

Head black, with seven long, slender, pale-tipped spines, the front pair and

median a little longer than the middle pair, the hind pair much longer, slen-

derer, and strongly curved forward. Bucculae long, dark brown, contiguous in

front. Rostral laminae pale testaceous, subparallel; rostrum testaceous, very

long, extending on venter. Legs moderately long, dark-fuscous, the tibiae

and tarsi largely brown. Eyes black. Antennae dark fuscous, moderately

long; segment I much stouter and twice as long as II; III long, a little more

than twice as long as IV, becoming darker apically; IV darker, rather long,

moderately swollen on the distal half.

Pronotum very coarsely pitted, moderately convex, dark ferruginous,

shiny, tricarinate; median carina uniseriate, the areolae rather small; lateral

carinae parallel, not quite extending to calli, each uniseriate, but not quite so

high as median; collar distinctly raised, areolate; paranota similar in form to

P. marmorata Champ., but not quite so wide, mostly three to four areolae

1 Received February 5, 1941.

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 4

deep, the areolae hyaline, the hind margin pale. Scutellum exposed, small.

Elytra strongly overlapping and rounded posteriorly, brown, with whitish

testaceous markings and some of the transverse nervures of costal area dark

fuscous; costal area broad, four areolae deep on basal and apical portions,

three deep in middle, the areolae hyaline; subcostal area broad, finely reticu-

lated, largely five areolae deep, with four, enlarged, whitish, transverse ner-

vures; discoidal area broad, long, extending to the apical fourth of elytra, with

three enlarged, whitish, transverse nervures, the nervure separating it from

subcostal area raised, foliaceous, with one row of moderately large areolae,

the apical margin not raised or reticulate, the inner boundary raised,

uniseriate, not quite so high as outer nervure and extending posteriorly be-

tween subcostal and discoidal area. Wings slightly longer than abdomen.

Length, 2.95 mm; width, 1.25 mm.

Holotype, female, Colombia, South America, intercepted by Federal in-

spectors at Port of Entry, San Francisco, Calif.

This species is very distinct and not easily confused with any other mem-

ber of the genus. It is about the size of P. varzans Drake from French Guiana,

but readily separated from it by the foliaceous carinae and foliaceous ner-

vures bounding discoidal area. P. marmorata Champ. has a much broader cos-

tal area and is differently colored.

Tingis guamensis, sp. nov.

Moderately large, without hairs, testaceous, with inconspicuous brown

markings. Head flat above, testaceous, without spines. Eyes very large, dark

reddish brown. Rostrum extending almost to end of sulcus, brownish, black

at apex; laminae foliaceous, pale, testaceous, becoming more widely sepa-

rated posteriorly, concave within on each side on both mesosternum and pro-

sternum, connected at apex by a low narrow ridge. Bucculae broad, testa-

ceous, areolate, closed in front. Antennae moderately long, slender, testaceous,

the apical segment brownish; segment I short, stouter and a little longer than

IT; II] a little more than two and a half times as long as IV.

Pronotum very coarsely pitted, convex above, subtruncate, tricarinate;

lateral carinae indistinct on disk, obsolete in front, fairly distinct on triangu-

lar process; median carina sharply developed and indistinctly areolate; para-

nota very narrow, linear, slightly broader opposite humeri, there with dis-

tinct areolae. Elytra with outer margin rounded and narrowed posteriorly,

strongly overlapping and jointly rounded behind; costal area rather broad,

with a transverse, fuscous band (veinlets of 6-8 areolae) near middle, mostly

biseriate, triseriate in widest part, the areolae rather small; subcostal area

broader, six areolae deep in widest part, the areolae small; discoidal area

large, reaching a little beyond middle of elytra, eight areolae deep at widest

part near middle, narrow at base and apex, the boundary nervures distinct

but not prominent, nearly triangular in outline; sutural area more widely

areolate posteriorly. Some veinlets of subcostal, discoidal, and sutural areas

brownish to dark fuscous.

Length 3.30 mm; width, 1.50 mm.

Holotype, female, Island Guam, D. T. Fulloway.

This species belongs to the subgenus T7ingis Fabr. and is not easily con-

fused with its congeners.

Acalypta mera, sp. nov.

Small, elongate-ovate, grayish brown. Head black, with two short, blunt,

Aprit 15, 1941 DRAKE: NEW AMERICAN TINGITIDAE 143

porrect, frontal spines. Bucculae open in front. Rostral laminae subparallel,

testaceous, not meeting behind; rostrum brownish, black at apex, extending

almost to hind margin of first venter. Legs dark brown, the tibiae testaceous,

the tips of tarsi black. Antennae moderately long, indistinctly pilose; seg-

ment I dark brown, much stouter and nearly twice as long as II, the latter

dark brown; III testaceous two and one-half times as long as IV; IV almost

entirely black, shiny, fusiform.

Pronotum almost flat, very coarsely pitted, almost reticulate in appear-

ance, distinctly areolate behind; carinae foliaceous, each uniseriate, the me-

dian slightly more elevated, the lateral carinae strongly divaricating poste-

riorly, extending from base of hood to hind margin of triangular process.

Paranota moderately broad, with moderately large areolae, biseriate in

front, uniseriate behind, the outer margins slightly rounded. Elytra with cos-

tal area uniseriate, the areolae rather large; subcostal area much wider, with

four rows of confused areolae; discoidal area large, broad, about three-

fourths of the length of the elytra, bounded by a costate nervure, widest for

some distance at the middle, there five areolae deep, the outer margin dis-

tinctly raised and sinuate.

Length, 1.80 mm; width, 0.50 mm.

Holotype, brachypterous male, British Columbia, Canada, September 10,

1928.

Of the western species, A. mera is probably most closely related to A. van-

dykeit Drake but is slenderer and has strongly divaricating lateral carinae. It

may be also separated from A. barberz Drake of New York by its much small-

er size, longer rostrum and paranota. In the writer’s collection, a long-winged

specimen of Acalypta from Oregon seems to be A. mera.

Leptopharsa papella, sp. nov.

Moderately long, broad, testaceous, with brown to dark fuscous markings.

Head black, convex above, with five, moderately long, testaceous spines, the

median stouter and porrect. Rostrum brownish, dark at apex, extending to

middle of mesosternum; rostral channel with sides parallel on mesosternum,

broader and cordate on metasternum, open behind. Body beneath brownish

black. Legs slender, testaceous, the tarsi dark. Antennae slender, moderately

long; segments I and II brown, the former very much stouter and a little

more than three times as long; III very slender, testaceous, nearly four

times as long as IV, the latter slightly enlarged and brownish black.

Pronotum convex, coarsely pitted, tricarinate, the triangular projection

testaceous and reticulate; carinae foliaceous, testaceous, each uniseriate; lat-

eral carinae strongly constricted near the middle, terminating anteriorly a

little distance behind the hood; hood moderately large, inflated, slightly pro-

duced forward in front, extending backward on pronotum, the crest narrow

and part of hind portion; paranota testaceous, moderately large, widest op-

posite humeri, there broadly angulate and three areolae deep. Elytra broad,

strongly overlapping, testaceous; four or five transverse nervures of costal,

two small spots in discoidal and apical veinlets of sutural areas embrowned;

costal area broad, mostly biseriate, triseriate in widest part; subcostal area

broader, mostly triseriate; discoidal area large, extending slightly bevond

middle of elytra, there five areolae deep, rounded at apex; sutural area closely

reticulated at base, more widely reticulated apically, some of the veinlets

along the inner margin and in apical fourth infuscate. Areolae hyaline, iri-

descent.

144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

Length, 3.30 mm; width, 1.60 mm.

Holotype, female, Ashton, Md., August 27, 1938. P. W. Oman.

This species resembles certain members of the genus Gargaphia Stal, in

general appearance, but does not have an interrupted rostral channel. It

differs from L. velifer (McAtee) in having a narrower paranota and costal

area, smaller hood; the median carina is much less foliaceous and its dorsal

margin not so sinuate.

Gargaphia valerioi, sp. nov.

Large, whitish testaceous, the pronotum black, the oblique, costate ner-

vures of costal area black-fuscous, the margins of paranota clothed with long

pale hair. Head brown, with five slender spines, the median much longer and

porrect. Antennae long, beset with long, pale, bristly hairs, brown, the apical

segment black; segments I and II dark brown, the former larger and two and

one-half times as long as the latter: III about three and three-fourths times

the length of IV, the latter long and slightly enlarged. Rostrum extending to

transverse suture.

Pronotom black, convex, covered with whitish exudation, the triangular

portion reticulate, whitish testaceous, tricarinate; carinae foliaceous, each

uniseriate, the areolae large, the lateral carinae on disk faintly convex within,

the median distinctly arched on disk of pronotum; hood rather small, narrow

to crest, almost conical in form, slightly produced forward at base; paranota

broad, strongly reflexed, obtusely produced, widest opposite humeri, there

four areolae deep. Elytra broad, widening posteriorly, their tips separated

when at rest; costal area very broad, the outer margin broadly rounded and

beset with very fine, moderately long spines; subcostal area narrow, biseriate,

discoidal area not reaching middle of elytra, broadest beyond middle, there

six areolae deep, some of the apical nervelets embrowned; sutural area finely

reticulated at base, becoming widely reticulated distally.

Length 4.65 mm; width, 1.45 mm.

Holotype (male), allotype (female), and paratype (female, broken), La

Gloria, Costa Rica, altitude 900 feet, July 1931, M. Valerio. Named in honor

of the collector.

This species is not easily confused with other North American members

of the genus. The long hairs, shape of paranota and elytra are distinguishing

characters. The lateral margins of elytra are beset with rather stiff bristly

hairs, which are much shorter than the hairs on pronotum and carinae.

Corythucha omani, sp. nov.

Similar to C. unifasciata Champ. but distinctly smaller and with the hood

not so sharply constricted and the tumid elevations of elytra more roundly

inflated. Testaceous, a transverse band near base and some of the veinlets of

hood, paranota, tumid elevation and sutural area and a few transverse ner-

vures near apex of elytrainfuscate. Antennae moderately long, testaceous, be-

set with long bristly hairs; segment I about three times as long as IT; III

nearly two and one-half times as long as IV; the latter swollen toward the

apex and mostly dark brown. Legs brownish, the tibiae and tarsi testaceous;

rostrum extending to the metasternum.

Pronotum brown, finely pitted, moderately convex, tricarinate; lateral

carinae rather short, raised anteriorly, not extending forward beyond base of

triangular process; median carina foliaceous, mostly uniseriate, about one-

half as high as the hood, the upper margin sinuate. Hood moderately large,

strongly inflated, constricted a little in front of middle, the hind portion

Aprit 15, 1941 COLLINS: EARLY INDIAN CRANIAL SERIES 145

subglobose. Paranota large, four areolae deep, the outer margin beset with

spines. Elytra distinctly narrowed posteriorly, beset with spines along the

outer margins from the base to apical fourth; costal area triseriate, the areo-

lae large and hyaline; tumid elevation plump, moderately large, dark. Wing

a little longer than abdomen, whitish.

Length, 3.10 mm; width, 1.10 mm.

Holotype (male) and two male paratypes, Nogales, Ariz., October 23,

1937, P. W. Oman; allotype (female) and paratypes (male and female) Tuc-

son, Ariz., August 1934, C. J. Drake. Named in honor of P. W. Oman, who is

taking a very active interest in collecting and studying hemipterous insects.

ANTHROPOLOGY.—Relationships of an early Indian cranial series

from Louisiana.! Henry B. Couuins, Jr., Bureau of American

Ethnology.

One of the most significant recent developments in Southeastern

archeology has been the discovery in Kentucky, northern Alabama,

and Tennessee of a nonagricultural, nonceramic, shell mound cul-

ture, the earliest thus far known in the area (Webb, 1939; Webb and

Haag, 1939, 1940). The Kentucky sites that have been described are

Indian Knoll and Chiggerville (Moore, 1916; Webb and Haag, 1939)

on the Green River in Ohio County, and the Ward and Kirkland sites

on Cypress Creek, a Green River tributary (Webb and Haag, 1940).

The Alabama-Tennessee sites are situated on the Tennessee River;

Lu° 86 and Ctr 17, in the Wheeler Basin, have already been de-

scribed (Webb, 1939), and reports on the Pickwick and Guntersville

sites are in press or in preparation.

In Louisiana, Ford and Willey (1940) have recognized a similar

early culture complex, the Tchefuncte, which preceded the Marksville

(Hopewellian) stage. Some of the Tchefuncte sites are coastal shell

middens, others are earth mounds in the interior; unlike the Kentucky

sites, they all yield pottery.

The skeletal remains from these rather widely separated sites are of

particular interest. Though by no means identical, the crania from

Kentucky, Alabama, and Louisiana belong to the same general type,

a type that differs in certain important respects from that of later in-

habitants of the same areas. Measurements on Moore’s Indian Knoll

crania have been published by Hrdlitka (1927), and the skeletal ma-

terial from Chiggerville has been described by Skarland (1939). New-

man and Snow are describing the skeletal remains from the Pickwick

and Guntersville Basins and Snow those from the Louisiana shell

middens. What I wish to do here is call attention to certain skulls

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

February 17, 1941. |

146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

from Pecan Island, Vermilion Parish, southern Louisiana, which I

excavated in 1926 (Collins, 1927), and which, from the later archeo-

logical investigations of Ford and others, are shown to have belonged

to the Tchefuncte period.’

The Pecan Island series has been included in Hrdliéka’s latest cata-

log (1940) along with other Louisiana crania. Since they represent a

sample of the earliest known Indian population in the Gulf area, it

seems desirable to separate them from the other Louisiana crania and

point out briefly their relationship to other southern and eastern cra-

nial types.

The skulls were excavated from a burial ground (no village site in

evidence) in a grove of young orange trees on the property of John

Copell. The skulls were undeformed, and like the associated long

bones, showed no evidence of pathology. Some of the bones rested on

layers of red and yellow pigment. The following objects were found

associated with the burials: Chipped stone knives and projectile

points; hollow bone and antler projectile points with asphaltum in

lower end to hold shaft; awls made of raccoon penis bones and deer

cannon bones and ulnae; clam shells filled with asphaltum; distal end

of an atlatl; ‘‘boat-stone”’ and rectangular stones (atlatl weights) ; tu-

bular shell bead; drumfish teeth; large shell vessel (Busycon perver-

sum); inner whorls of conch shells; raccoon and otter penis bones,

some perforated; muskrat jaws; perforated dog teeth; worked pieces

of turtle shell; and worked sections of dog jaws and teeth. No pottery

was found with the burials; a few sherds of crude ware from the sur-

face may represent a later period.

In addition to the Copell place two other sites were investigated on

Pecan Island. (1) A group of low burial mounds on the Veazey place

yielded fragmentary bones including some skulls with slight frontal

flattening and long bones showing lesions apparently produced by

syphilis. Cultural material from the Veazey site in part resembled

Copell (red and yellow pigment with burials; asphaltum; bone awls

and socketed projectile points; tubular shell bead; worked sections of

dog jaws and teeth; raccoon and otter penis bones; and muskrat jaws).

But there were other objects at the Veazey site such as spool-shaped

ear ornaments of sheet copper and of slate covered with copper; woven

textile, potsherds of Marksville type, stone celts, disk shell beads, per-

forated bear teeth, imitation bear teeth in shell, large finely chipped

flint knife, and worked pieces of galena and hematite—traits that are

2 The cultural material from the site has been studied by Ford and Quimby and will

be included in their report on the Tchefuncte culture.

Aprit 15, 1941 COLLINS: EARLY INDIAN CRANIAL SERIES 147

diagnostic of the Hopewell culture, either as it exists in Ohio or in its

southern manifestations, especially the Marksville of Louisiana and

the Copena of northern Alabama. (2) At the third Pecan Island site,

the Morgan place, were several large stratified mounds from which

eame skulls with pronounced fronto-occipital flattening and long

bones showing evidence of syphilis. These highly deformed skulls,

the nature of the mounds themselves, and the different type of pot-

tery clearly indicated a cultural and temporal distinction between the

Morgan and other sites; on the other hand, there seemed at the

time no reason for separating Copell and Veazey, and I assumed them

to have been contemporaneous (Collins, 1927).

Ford’s later excavations in Louisiana and Mississippi and his analy-

sis of potsherds from over 100 aboriginal sites in these States have

thrown clearer light on the chronological relationship of the Pecan Is-

land sites. Pottery analysis showed the Morgan mounds to belong to

Coles Creek-Deasonville (the intermediate prehistoric culture stage in

Louisiana and Mississippi) and Veazey to be somewhat earlier, since

its pottery complex included Marksville sherds in addition to Coles

Creek-Deasonville (Ford, 1936).

The artifacts from the Copell site, according to Ford and Quimby,

are sufficiently like those from the Tchefuncte middens to be included

in that complex. In some respects the Copell material is even closer to

that from the Kentucky middens described by Moore (Indian Knoll)

and Webb and Haag (Chiggerville and Cypress Creek). Without going

into details here, I may state that the most striking and diagnostic

Copell traits are also present at Indian Knoll and/or Chiggerville. The

resemblances are such as to indicate a close cultural relationship, de-

spite the considerable distance between central Kentucky and the

Louisiana Gulf coast.

The exact relationship between the Copell and Tennessee-Alabama

sites can not be known until we have Webb and DeJarnette’s report

on the Pickwick Basin excavations. However, the two sites from this

area thus far described (Lu° 86 and Ct’ 17 in the Wheeler Basin; Webb,

1939) reveal fewer trait correspondences with Copell than do Indian

Knoll and Chiggerville.’

In the first column of Tables 1 and 2 I have listed the means of

3 Webb and Haag (1940) find that the Kentucky shell mound sites share a number

of features with Ritchie’s Lamoka Lake site in New York, for which reason they sug-

gest that the Kentucky shell mound complex be assigned to the Archaic pattern. These

resemblances, it might be pointed out, are of a general rather than specific character;

few really diagnostic Kentucky traits are present at Lamoka and vice versa. The rela-

tionship between Kentucky and Lamoka seems definitely more remote than that be-

tween Kentucky and Copell.

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

measurements and indices of the Copell crania, calculated from the

individual data given in Hrdlitka’s catalog (1940, pp. 434-436, 439-

441). The series comprises 20 males and 13 females. One of the males

listed in the catalog as Copell (No. 334223) came instead from the

Veazey place and so is not included here. It might also be mentioned

that the male skull in the deformed Louisiana series listed in the

catalog as ‘‘Pecan Island” (No. 334251, p. 487) came from one of the

Morgan mounds.

Following tabulation of the Copell means are columns showing the

differences between these and the means of other southern and north-

ern groups. The differences, whether plus or minus, are totaled and

the average difference is given at the foot of the column. Measure-

ments and indices are given separately, a necessary arrangement since

two groups may show pronounced metrical differences and yet be very

close indicially. The frequencies for all measurements and indices are

given only for those series comprising the smallest numbers of skulls—

the two Louisiana series, Chiggerville, the Lenape males, and New

York females. To avoid unnecessary detail the only frequencies given

for the other series are those for cranial length and index.

The groups selected for comparison are: (1) Those nearest geo-

graphically (Arkansas and other Louisiana); (2) the two culturally

related Kentucky groups; and (3) those from Florida (Perico and

Horrs Islands), the middle and upper Mississippi regions (Tennessee

and Illinois), and the East and Northeast (Virginia, New York, New

Jersey) that most closely approach Copell in skull form. The compari-

son brings out significant resemblances and differences with respect

to cranial length and breadth, cranial height, face breadth, and orbital

height.

In length and breadth of skull the Copell males stand midway be-

tween the southern and northeastern groups. They are considerably

longer and with a few exceptions narrower headed than any other

group from the Gulf region, though shorter and wider than the Algon-

kian-Iroquois type of the Northeast. The closest agreement in this

respect is with western Virginia, where, as Hrdlitka (1916) has pointed

out, the skull form is intermediate between that of the North and

South. The Virginia cranial index is identical with Copell, and the

average difference of all measurements (1.98 mm) is smaller than for

any other group.

The female Copell skulls are relatively much broader than the male.

In this respect, and in most others, the females conform rather closely

to the usual Gulf type, from which they differ only in having broader

faces, somewhat broader noses, and lower and broader orbits.

Aprit 15, 1941 COLLINS: EARLY INDIAN CRANIAL SERIES 149

Perhaps the most striking feature of the Copell crania is their great

height. This is of especial interest because of the significance of this

feature in America (Hrdli¢ka, 1916, 1922, 1927, 1940; Stewart, 1940).

Regarding height of the vault in the Southeast, Hrdlicka (1940, p.

454) says:

The rest of the Gulf and neighboring States [except Texas} stand out in this impor-

tant respect as a unit, characterized throughout by a relatively high vault. With that of

some of the Pueblos it is the highest, in crania of similar breadth and cranial index, on

the North American Continent. And we do not know as yet of such a broad high-headed

large human group elsewhere.

If we consider the Louisiana crania alone the situation is even more

striking. In absolute height (basion-bregma) and mean height index

the Copell males are exceeded slightly by the other Louisiana males,

11 in number. The combined total of all the Louisiana males shows a

cranial height of 146.4 mm and a mean height index of 89.65. With

the exception of two skulls from Pensacola Bay, Fla., they are higher

headed than any other group from the Southeast, from the Pueblo

region, Arctic, or Northeast—in fact, the highest of any human group

thus far recorded. If the comparison be restricted to the six Copell

males the results are much the same: two more samples of three skulls

each, from Ross County, Ohio, and Indiana (Hrdlitka, 1927, p. 47)

equal Copell in mean height index (89.6) and the Indiana skulls

slightly exceed them in absolute height (146.3 mm).

Though the Copell males have broad faces they are exceeded in this

respect by most of the Floridians and bysome of the Eskimo and Plains

Indian groups. The face breadth of the five Copell females, on the

other hand, is the largest recorded for females anywhere. The small

size of the sample should be borne in mind, however. In face height,

upper and total, the Copell females fall within the Southeastern

range; they are consistently somewhat higher faced than the Algon-

kian and other Northeastern groups. For the males, measurements of

total and upper facial height are available for only two and three

individuals, respectively. These measurements, and the facial indices,

are given in parentheses, but are not included in the average differ-

ences.

A striking feature of the Copell males is their low orbits. In this

respect they stand entirely apart from the other southern Indians,

while closely resembling the two prehistoric Kentucky groups and

the Lenape. Their orbital height of 33.1 mm and index of 84.65 are

likewise lower than the average for the Northeast where relatively low

orbits prevail. Elsewhere in North America lower orbits than those

of the Copell males are recorded only for the prehistoric Texas cave

150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

dwellers, the two Kentucky series, and Manhattan and Long Islands,

ING AE

The Copell females are less pronounced in this respect, their orbits

being somewhat higher, absolutely and indicially, than those of the

males. However, they are still below the general average for the South-

east in absolute height, and their orbits being unusually broad, the

index falls considerably below the Southeastern average. Most of the

New England and other Northeastern females listed by Hrdlitka

(1927) have orbits that are somewhat lower in absolute height than

those of the Copell females, but again the extreme orbital breadth of

the latter results in a lower index.

It will be seen from Tables 1 and 2 that the Copell crania of both

sexes tend to resemble the Gulf type (Florida, Arkansas, and other

Louisiana) more closely in actual measurements than in indices. In

contrast, the crania from Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, and Virginia,

which are smaller in practically every dimension, are closer to Copell

indicially than metrically. This is especially true of the skulls from

Chiggerville and Indian Knoll, Ky. Since these are the smallest skulls

thus far known east of the Mississippi, it is not surprising that there

should be a sharp metrical contrast between them and the Copell

crania, which in size and massiveness are above the average even for

the Southeast. But despite the fact that the two Kentucky series are

metrically farther removed from Copell than any of the other groups

compared—with average differences of 4.89 mm and 4.01 mm for the

males and 6.58 mm and 5.05 mm for the females—they are still very

close indicially. This close similarity in cranial form would seem to

indicate that the prehistoric Kentuckians and the Copell (Tchefuncte)

people of southern Louisiana, both groups the earliest known in their

respective localities and possessing a common culture, were likewise

closely related physically. The great disparity in size might be ex-

plained, at least partially, on the basis of dietary differences. The food

resources of the Louisiana Indians included both land and marine

animals. According to present archeological evidence neither they nor

the Kentucky shell mound Indians practiced agriculture. From the

sea food they consumed—fish, mollusks, crustaceans—the Copell

people would no doubt have received a more than adequate supply of

calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium, the minerals most essential to

bone development. It is known that marine fishes, oysters, crabs, and

shrimps are excellent sources of these and other necessary minerals

such as lodine, copper, and iron (Nilson and Coulson, 1939). As far as

I am aware there is no information regarding the mineral and vitamin

Apri 15, 1941 COLLINS: EARLY INDIAN CRANIAL SERIES 151

content of the fresh-water mollusks and fishes of the Tennessee-Ken-

tucky region, though deficiency in iodine, at least, may be assumed.

Newman (1939) and Snow (1940) report that the crania from the

shell mounds in Pickwick and Guntersville Basins on the Tennessee

River are very similar to those from Indian Knoll and Chiggerville.

In the Pickwick Basin skeletal material there are two main types represented. The

earliest stratigraphically is an undeformed dolichocranic type representing in unmixed

form the southernmost extension of the general Eastern dolichocranic group, best exem-

plified by the so-called Northeastern Algonkins. The later intrusive deformed type links

most closely with the Southeastern brachycranic group as seen in Tennessee, Arkansas,

Louisiana and Florida skeletal series. . . .

The dolichocranic Shell Mound group in Pickwick Basin, taken as a whole, diverges

somewhat from the pooled Northeastern and East-central Algonkin series in its smaller

size, relatively higher vault, and shorter vertical facial diameters. Within this group

there is some evidence of a more gracile, smaller-headed variant and a more rugged,

larger-headed variant. The latter group more closely resembles the various more north-

erly dolichocranic series, whereas the former shows close affinities to even smaller and

more gracile series from Ohio County, Kentucky. These series are from Shell Mounds

with pre-pottery horizons similar to the Pickwick sites. (Newman, 1939.)

The Copell people, with their low orbits and (in the males) a skull

form bordering on dolichocrany, represent a still further extension into

the South of what may be described as a generalized or modified

Northeastern dolichocranic type. In some respects, however, such as

the relatively broad skull of the females and the extreme cranial height

and facial breadth in both sexes, the early Louisiana population di-

verges sharply from the Northeastern type and conforms to that of

the Southeast. If we regard these southern features as evidence that

the Copell people had already been subjected to local admixture we

must assume that a brachycranic population had preceded them in

the Gulf region. Of this, however, there is no evidence. On the con-

trary, wherever it has been possible to distinguish between earlier and

later peoples in the Southeast, long heads are found to have preceded

the broad heads (Newman, 1939; Snow, 1940) just as they usually

have in other parts of America. Moreover, it seems unlikely that mix-

ture with some hypothetical early population embodying the essential

characteristics of the historic Gulf type should have resulted in a blend

that exhibited such typical southern features as extreme cranial height

and facial breadth in even more pronounced form than they are usu-

ally found today; or, on the other hand, in orbits not only much lower

than those of the southern Indians but lower on the average than

those in the Northeast. |

It seems more likely that in the Copell crania we have a sample of

an early population that, with later admixture, gave rise to the his-

vou. 31, No. 4

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 4

toric Gulf type. Since the males on the whole show closer physical

affinities with Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, Illinois, and the North-

east than with the Southeast, it would seem that the origin of the

early Gulf type should be sought in that direction. The Copell people

should, apparently, be regarded as the southernmost and in some

respects most divergent and specialized representatives of a once

widespread Indian type east of the Mississippi, a long-headed and

rather high-headed type that in one form or another was characteris-

tic of the earliest known culture horizons in the Northeast, Kentucky,

Tennessee, and northern Alabama.

The affinities of the later brachycranic type in the Southeast seem

to lie in the opposite direction, probably in eastern Mexico, as Hrd-

licka (1922, pp. 117, 131) has suggested. Though the paucity of com-

parative data for Mexico prevents demonstration of this point, it

appears not unlikely that herein may lie the explanation of the process

of brachycephalization that seems to have occurred generally through-

out the Southeast. The brachycranic Gulf type would seem best

explained as a blend between the earlier coastal population, of North-

eastern origin, and a later broad-headed strain which probably en-

tered the Southeast from Mexico. Such a hypothesis finds support in

the evidence of strong cultural influences from Mexico, most of which,

as Phillips (1940) shows, have been received in relatively late pre-

historic times. Artificial cranial deformation was doubtless one of the

culture traits thus introduced from Mexico. The custom was not

practiced in the Northeast nor by the early southern groups which we

have been considering (Stewart, 1940; Snow, 1940). It was, however,

present in Mexico, Middle America, and Peru from the earliest known

times, and it was evidently from this direction that it later spread to

the Southeast and Mississippi Valley.‘

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Couuins, Henry B., Jr. Archeological work in Louisiana and Mississippi. In

“Explorations and Field-Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1926,” Smith-

sonian Misc. Coll. 78: 200-207. 1927.

Forp, JAMESA. Analysis of Indian village site collections from Louisiana and Mississippt.

Department of Conservation, Louisiana Geological Survey, New Orleans. 1936.

Forp, J. A., and WILLEY, GorDoN. Crooks site, a Marksville period burial mound in

La Salle Parish, Louisiana. Department of Conservation, Louisiana Geological

Survey, New Orleans. 1940. : .

HrpuicKa, ALES. Physical anthropology of the Lenape or Delawares, and of the Eastern

Indians in general. Bur. Amer. Ethno. Bull. 62. 1916.

. The anthropology of Florida. Publ. Florida Hist. Soc., No. 1, De Land. 1922.

4 The fact that cranial deformity is so rarely encountered in peninsular Florida

would seem to preclude the possibility that the custom had reached the Southeast by

way of the Antilles.

Apri 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 155

. Catalogue of human crania in the United States National Museum collections.

The Algonkin and related Iroquois; Siouan, Caddoan, Salish and Sahaptin, Sho-

shonean, and California Indians. Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 69 (art. 5). 1927.

. Catalog of human crania in the United States National Museum collections.

Indians of the Gulf States. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 87: 315-464. 1940.

Moore, CLARENCE B. Some aboriginal sites on Green River, Kentucky. Journ. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 16: 431-477. 1916.

NewMaNn, MarsHauu T. Physical anthropology of Pickwick Basin. Program, Third

Southeastern Archeological Conference, Birmingham, Ala. (mimeographed).

1930.

Niztson, Hueco W., and Coutson, E. J. The mineral content of the edible portions of

some American fishery products. U.S. Bur. Fish. Investigational Rep. 41: 1-7.

1939.

PuHItuies, Putnip. Middle American influences on the archeology of the Southeastern

Umited States. In “The Maya and Their Neighbors,” pp. 349-367. New York,

1940.

SKARLAND, Ivar. The skeletal material [from the Chiggerville site]. Univ. Kentucky

Rep. in Anthrop. 4(1): 28-49. 1939.

Snow, CHaries E. Preliminary remarks on the types of deformation of Guntersville

crania. News Letter, Southeastern Archeological Conference, 2(3) (mimeo-

graphed). 1940.

Stewart, T.D. Some historical implications of physical anthropology in NorthAmerica.

Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 100: pp. 15-50. 1940.

Wess, WILLIAM 8. An archeological survey of Wheeler Basin on the Tennessee River

an northern Alabama. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 122. 1939.

Wess, WiiuiaM S., and Haae, W.G. The Chiggerville site. Univ. Kentucky Rep. in

Anthrop. 4(1). 1939.

. Cypress Creek villages. Univ. Kentucky Rep. in Anthrop. 4(2). 1940.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

43D ANNUAL MEETING

The 48d Annual Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was

held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, January 16, 1941, with 46

members present. President EUGENE C. CRITTENDEN called the meeting to

order at 9:40 p.m. The minutes of the 42d Annual Meeting were presented

and approved as published in the JouRNAL.

Report of the Corresponding Secretary

The Corresponding Secretary, FREDERICK D. Rossini, submitted the fol-

lowing report on the membership and activities of the Academy:

During 1940, there was a total of 59 persons (31 resident and 28 nonresi-

dent) elected to membership. Of these, 43 accepted membership, 10 declined,

and 6 did not reply. Of those accepting membership, 8 were elected in recog-

nition of their work in plant pathology, 6 in entomology, 5 in forestry, 4 in

biology, 2 in agronomy, 2 in medicine, 2 in zoology, 2 in physics, and 1 each

in botany, chemistry, cytology, dentistry, geology, helminthology, horticul-

ture, parasitology, physiology, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil sci-

ence.

Because of their retirement from active work, 12 members (6 resident and

and 6 nonresident) were placed on the ‘‘retired”’ list to enjoy all the privileges

of membership without further payment of dues. Resignations were accepted

from 14 members in good standing (10 resident and 4 nonresident). One non-

resident member permitted his membership to lapse through nonpayment of

dues for two years and was dropped from the rolls.

156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 4

During 1940, there occurred the deaths of the following 12 members (6

resident and 6 nonresident) :

GrorGE C. Matson, Tulsa, Okla., January 3, 1940.

FREDERICK G. Tryon, Washington, D. C., February 15, 1940.

Davin M. Morrtisrr, Bloomington, Ind., March 25, 1940.

Cyrus ADLER, Philadelphia, Pa., April 7, 1940.

Tuomas A. GRoovER, Washington, D. C., April 20, 1940.

FrEepDERIcK E. Fowiz, Washington, D. C., April 23, 1940.

Francis R. Hacner, Washington, D. C., July 7, 1940.

WILLIAM Bowik8, Washington, D. C., August 28, 1940.

Wiuu1aAM LasH MitueEr, Toronto, Canada, September 1, 1940.

Epwarp B. Merras, WASHINGTON, D. C., November 5, 1940.

RAYMOND PEARL, Baltimore, Md., November 17, 1940.

WALTER J. Young, Fredericksburg, Va., November 238, 1940.

On January 1, 1941, the membership of the Academy was distributed as

follows:

Resident Nonresident T otal

Ve Cala renee Pe eee Rane ede care A417 131 548

COVE GIEE Ose mere eect ls lest os gees 31 13 44

TOMO Aegis oe eh 3 14 Ne

IRAE OMS ea esate IR Ne hemes — 3 3

TRO UMA itunes ers cee 451 161 612

On that date there were 34 vacancies in the resident and 19 in the nonresi-

dent list. Asaresult of elections to membership made by the Board of Mana-

gers on January 10, 1941, and of nominations presented to the Board on that

day, there are potentially only about 20 vacancies in the resident and 14 in

the nonresident list.

During the period from February 9, 1940, to January 10, 1941, the Board

of Managers held seven meetings, with an average attendance of 17 persons.

During the year, the Board authorized the appointment by the President of

the following special committees:

1. Committee to consider revising the bylaws with regard to the two Non-

resident Vice-Presidents: H. L. Curtis (chairman), C. THom, P. C. Wuir-

NEY. Work completed.

2. Committee to consider the printing contract for the JouRNAL: F. G.

BRICKWEDDE (chairman), H. G. Avers, R. W. Brown, C. L. Gazin, J. H.

Kempton, R. J. Srecer, and J. A. Srevenson. Work completed.

3. Committees on awards for scientific achievement, for 1940: Austin H.

CLARK, General Chairman.

For the biological sciences: A. H. Cuarx (chairman), F. O. Con, J. M.

Cooprr, H. A. Epson, E. A. Gotpman, I. T. Hata, C. F. W. MUESEBECK,

H. W. ScHOENING, G. STEINER, and A. WETMORE.

For the engineering sciences: F. M. Deranporr (chairman), C. H. Brrps-

EYE, H. L. Curtis, H. G. Dorsey, H. N. Eaton, A. C. Fretpner, H. C.

Hayes, G. W. Muscrave, and W. N. SpaRHAWK.

For the physical sciences: O. H. GisH (chairman), A. K. Batis, F.S.

Brackett, W. E. Demine, H. E. McComp, F. L. Monurr, W. T. SCHAL-

Ler, J. H. Taytor, O. R. Wutr, and E. G. Zres. Work of the committees

completed.

4. Committee to consider the provision of a meeting place for the Acad-

Aprit 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 157

emy when the Cosmos Club moves: The President (chairman), the Corre-

sponding Secretary, and the Chairman of the Committee on Meetings. Work

not completed.

5. Committee to consider the archives of the Academy: N. R. SmiruH

(chairman) and F. D. Rossinr. Work completed.

6. Committee to consider societies for affiliation with the Academy: F. M.

SETZLER (chairman), R. E. Grsson, and R. R. Spencer. Work not com-

pleted.

7. Committee of Tellers to count the ballots on three amendments to the

bylaws: H. N. Eaton (chairman), B. J. Marr, and R. 8. Jessup. Work

completed.

8. Committee to consider problems of the JouRNAL relating to the number

of copies to be printed and of back numbers and volumes to be bought and

sold: the Custodian of Publications (chairman), the Senior Editor, and the

Treasurer. Work completed.

On motion it was voted to accept the Corresponding Secretary’s report and

to place it on file.

Report of the Recording Secretary

The Recording Secretary, FRANK C. Kracex, presented the following re-

port:

The 43d year of the Academy began with the 296th meeting and ended to-

night with the 302d meeting. All the seven meetings of the year were held in

the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club.

The 296th meeting was held on February 15, 1940. An illustrated address

was given by GEORGE GAYLORD Simpson of the Department of Paleontol-

ogy, American Museum of Natural History in New York City, on the sub-

ject Mammals and land bridges. The address was subsequently published in

the JouURNAL. Attendance 123.

The 297th meeting, which was held on March 21, 1940, was memorable for

being the first presentation by the Academy of awards for scientific achieve-

ment. Three awards were presented on this occasion, in the fields of biological,

engineering, and physical sciences.

The award in Biological Sciences was received by HERBERT FRIEDMANN of

the U. S. National Museum, in recognition of his researches and publica-

tions in the field of Ornithology. Dr. FRIEDMANN was introduced by ALEX-

ANDER WETMORE, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

The award in Engineering Sciences was presented to Pau A. SmiTu of the

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, in recognition of his contributions to

knowledge of the Ocean bottom along the eastern coast of the United States. The

recipient was introduced by Lro Otis CoLBErt, Director of the U. 8. Coast

and Geodetic Survey.

The award in Physical Sciences was received by WitMot H. BRADLEY, of

the U. 8. Geological Survey, in recognition of his contributions on the Oul

shale of the Green River formation in Wyoming. Dr. Bradley was introduced by

GERALD F. LoucuHutin, Chief Geologist of the U. 8. Geological Survey.

Certificates of award were presented by EuGENE C. CRITTENDEN, Presi-

dent of the Academy. The recipients responded by brief addresses concerning

their work. Attendance 83.

The 298th meeting was held on April 18, 1940. The Academy was ad-

dressed on the subject Science and Democracy by WALDEMAR KAEMPFERT,

Science Editor of the New York Times. Attendance 82.

The 299th meeting was held on October 17, 1940. W. F. G. Swann, Mem-

158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

ber of the Academy and Director of the Bartol Research Foundation of the

Franklin Institute spoke on Laws of nature, especially emphasizing the ex-

tent to which the laws of physics are creations of the mind. Attendance 78.

The 300th meeting was held on November 28, 1940. The subject Human

side of the census was discussed by VerRciL D. REED, Assistant Director of

the Bureau of the Census. Attendance 87.

The 301st meeting was held as a joint meeting with the Botanical Society

of Washington on December 19, 1940. An illustrated address on the Conquest

of the land was delivered by W. C. LowDERMILK, Member of the Academy

and Assistant Chief of the U. S. Soil Conservation Service. The speaker em-

phasized the role man’s use of the land plays in its erosion and illustrated his

theme by lantern slides of depleted land in a number of historic areas. At-

tendance 92.

The 302d meeting was held on January 16, 1941. The address was given

by the retiring President of the Academy, EUGENE C. CRITTENDEN, Assist-

ant Director of the National Bureau of Standards, who spoke on the Progress

in the measurement of light, summarizing the steps that have been taken in

recent years toward the establishment of a logical basis for the precise meas-

urement of light, and the relation of such measurements to the usefulness of

light under various conditions of vision. Attendance 59.

On motion it was voted to accept the Recording Secretary’s report and to

place it on file.

Report of the Treasurer

The Treasurer, Howarp 8. Rappinye, presented the following financial

statement of the accounts of the Academy:

CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS

RECEIPTS:

Brom backduesi ry. bet eat ci eee $ 150.00

Krony dues dor O40, es oe oat ee ee 2491.00

Brom ‘duesior VOC. ce a aan ers ce eee 130.00

Brom subscriptions 1onlO30 an. ee ne ae 2.50

Prom/subseriptions ton t940 3) 22. a) se 593 .28

Erom-esubscriptions fomlO4. 2.8 ye 274.80

rom sales Of JOURNALS ce .120.00 2) ok eee 113.15

Nromysales.otdirectOtyes: ss a) ae ee 1.40

Brom payments: for reprimts.. oe...) eg eae 307.71

Hromeimterest, om Geposits.. 70a ee, ee 86.92

From interest on investments................... 896.50

Motalimecemptset. ye ener aes eae 5097 . 26

Cash balance January 1, 1940........ 7... ..- 1018.49

Cash received from Interborough bond...... 25.00

No-be accounted fore i. Mee es ce oe eee ee $6140.75

Apri 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 159

DISBURSEMENTS:

Hor secretary s office, 1939 225 Fe oe os ee $ 66.45

Honmoccretary s oflice,. 194002 6) ee eee. ee 449.99

HoE“reasurer’s office, 1940.2. 22...) oon... - Veen. 223 .04

Ror JOURNAL primting, FO39). ee. 5). ewe. 236.91

Hop OURNAL printings 194072 2 oe a nk ets 2314.23

Hor OURNAL Teprints, 1939: 05. bie) Sci. ees 25.66

Hom JOURNAL reprints, 1940252005. 40. ae. 5 485.29

Hordlustrations, 1940.2). 02. .iais koe a sd 391.21

For Custodian and Subscription Manager........ 41.77

Hom JOURNAT, Oflee; 1939. 6.4 jb aks0 6 ere a ee 20.77

Hem OunRNAT, offices 1940) 02) 2. 8.0. ee aes 241.97

For Meetings Committee, 1939...........0...4... 121.30

Hor Mectines Committee, 1940... 0000... 2. 52. ec. 274.55

For dues returned to retired members............ 10.00

Bank debit memos, as follows:

Wires lO acc hoe ea. 9 0.25

Wires OAT el aR. .80

Subscriptions, 1940........ MO

Subscriptions, refunded.... 3.15

Interest on investment..... 25.22

a ER 30.17

Denostted in Savings account. 9. .2...5 65 86.92

Motaledisoursements. .. 0.6). 6 ou... 2) os 2) 5020 . 23

Cash balance December 31, 1940............ 120852

Mota PACCOUMLEOMORNG ae -e Oe ee dee FE Es oe $ 6140.75

RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE

Balance as per cash book, December 31, 1940........ $1120.52

Bank Balance, American Security & Trust Co.

per statement of December 31, 1940............. 1098 .34

Peeectpis mob GGPOStted <0... eins ee 120.80

1219.14

Checks outstanding, not cashed

No. 170 $21.50

669 8.00

670 9.66

671 2e20

672 5EGs

673 7.34

674 44.29 98 .62

allan e reece ove rate Se erre rans keer $1120.52

Check No. 170 listed as outstanding was issued in May, 1934, but has not

been cashed.

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 4

INVESTMENTS

409 shares stock of Washington Sanitary Improve-

ment Co., par value $10 per share, cost....... $4090. 00

20 shares stock Potomac Electric Power Co., 6 per

COU FE ROT RCOSU op eases ee cos ces es eae 2247 .50

*4 certificates Corporate Stock of the City of New

York, 1 for $500 and 3 for $100, cost. . 800.00

**1 Bond of Chicago Railways Co., No. 1027, inter-

est at 5 per cent, due 1927; par value $1000 less

P25 0 COSY ne eetis ese An TERE lee de aneha in Len 713.87

1 real-estate note of T. Q. Donaldson (No. 6 of 12)

dated June 26, 1937 (extended for 3 years); in-

CEKESCPOWOEH COMtCOShar 42s 4a ese ee ee 1600.00

2 real-estate notes of Yetta Korman et al., dated

October 5, 1938, for 3 years. (No. 7 of 37 for

$500, and No. 8 of 37 for $500); cost........... 1000.00

3 real-estate notes of Ell & Kay Bldg. Investment

Co., dated October 15, 1938, for 3 years. (No.

75 of 165 for $2000, No. 83 of 165 for $1000, and

No. 101 of 165 for $1000) ; interest at 5 per cent;

COSTE Eee ee, arash Le wan Gl cine ocr a 4000.00

Butler notes—property at 1707 L Street NW., bought

in by note holders—Academy’s share 4/250ths;

interest amounting to $20.00 received in 1940;

COSC ck oes Cree ani ne tal hens Seer oe 2000.06

, 15,851.37

Deposited in savings account, American Security &

Must C Omar eee eran ee ae OO 8s Oh eae 8496.86

Cash book balance December 31, 1940.............. 1120.52

Total Assets $25,468 .75

Total Assets Dec. 31, 19389 $25,474.80

Total Assets Dec. 31, 1940 25,468.75

Net change for 1940 $—6.05

* The certificates of the Corporate Stock of the City of New York were received in

exchange for the Interborough Rapid Transit Co. bond as a result of the unification of

the Interborough Rapid Transit Co. and the Manhattan Railway Co. which have both

passed to the public ownership of the City of New York. The amount of $10.00 was

received in interest on the Interborough bond and $25.00 was paid on the investment.

** The bond of the Chicago Railways Co. was not paid upon maturity due to the

expiration of franchise and failure of the Legislature to enact continuing legislation;

interest has been paid to date under the authority of the Courts, and $250 has been

paid on the principal since maturity.

Apri 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 161

ALLOTMENTS

Allotted Expended

meeketaiy s' OMice... 2)... 2 tee: Gea OOROO. thar. O58 $ 449.99

direacumer SOMiCe......)<....05. 22 oa ice ne ee 223 .04

IGHUMRING AI ene is... oak SUC ee 2500 .00-+ receipts

1341 .44=3841.44 3432. 007**

Meetings Committee............. SOO OOM ee oi wacetee 214. 55***

Custodian and Subscription Manager Oi OO es on oe 41.77

Membership Committee........... NOOO Re ee foo ne 2. —_-——

Executive Committee............. OOO; sen aha es. a

Report of the Auditing Committee

The Auditing Committee, H. E. McComp (chairman), L. V. BERKNER,

and F. 8. BRACKETT reported:

“Your committee appointed to audit the accounts of the Thence of the

Washington Academy of Sciences for the year 1940 submits the following re-

port:

‘The Treasurer’s records of receipts and expenditures as shown in his ac-

count books and included in his report have been examined and found cor-

rect.

‘‘All vouchers have been examined and found to be correct and properly

approved.

“The balance sheets submitted by the bank and the securities listed in the

Treasurer’s report have been examined. The statement of the assets of the

Academy was found correct.

“The records of the Treasurer’s office have been carefully and systemati-

cally kept, thus greatly facilitating the work of the auditing committee.

“The auditing committee congratulates the Treasurer on the manner in

which he has carefully conducted his office during his term of office.”

It was moved to accept the reports of the Treasurer and the Auditing

Committee and to place them on file. By vote it was so ordered.

Report of the Board of Editors

The Board of Editors, C. Lewis Gazin, JAMES H. Kempton, and Ray-

MOND J. SEEGER, reported as follows:

Volume 30 for the year 1940 consisted of 12 issues amounting to 548 pages,

12 pages less than Volume 29 but equaling Volume 27. It contained 67 original

articles. Of these 34 were by members of the Academy and 33 were com-

municated. Leading papers of general interest were obtained for 6 issues.

Original papers were illustrated by 64 linecuts and 28 halftones. In several

instances papers contained illustrations in excess of the number allowed and

these were paid for either by the author or by an interested member. Space

in volume 30 was distributed as follows:

2 papers in Anthropology totaling 22.9 pages or 4.2 per cent

2 papers in Biochemistry totaling 13.9 pages or 2.5 per cent

20 papers in Botany totaling 122.6 pages or 22.4 per cent

5 papers in Chemistry totaling 39.4 pages or 7.2 per cent

7 papers in Entomology totaling 46.3 pages or 8.5 per cent

2 papers in Geology totaling 33.2 pages or 6.1 per cent

2 papers in Ichthyology totaling 8.5 pages or 1.6 per cent

*** Bills outstanding, not paid, at end of year (estimated): JOURNAL, $327.72; Meet-

ings Committee, $46.25.

162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

1 paper in Malacology totaling 2.0 pages or 0.4 per cent

1 paper in Mycology totaling 6.5 pages or 1.2 per cent

1 paper in Ornithology totaling 12.5 pages or 2.3 per cent

5 papers in Paleobotany totaling 29.6 pages or 5.4 per cent

6 papers in Paleontology totaling 57.1 pages or 10.4 per cent

13 papers in Zoology totaling 71.8 pages or 13.1 per cent

9 Obituaries with 7.2 pages, Scientific Notes and News with 0.9 page, and Index with

6.9 pages occupied together 15.0 pages or 2.7 per cent. The Proceedings of the

Academy and affiliated societies occupied 60.4 pages, distributed as follows:

Mine ACA enya ey cert serh tinea ccfioproucad ee REN ate ae miner med 22.3 pages

Amthropolovicalesocietyeni. secre er teres rae 1.2 pages

BotanicalySociety.tc- ue ewe nis ices Lis ces oe ee 6.5 pages

ChemicaliSocietynccw. sari (cls. Loe ea eee 2.8 pages

Geological¥Socletiy i a.cacs. nue rie kta tesie Sekeed Sete aaa tee 14.0 pages

PhilosophicaluSociety 4.005.) a ee ee 13.6 pages

The amount allocated by the Academy to printing, engraving, distribution

and for reprints of the JouRNAL was $2200.00 plus receipts. The total of re-

ceipts from the JouRNAL, including subscriptions, sale of back numbers,

charges to authors for excess illustrations, corrections and reprints collected

during 1940 is $1341.44, giving a total income to the JouRNAL for print-

ing, etc., of $3541.44.

The total cost of printing, engraving, and distribution and of reprints of

the JouRNAL for 1940 was $3453.30. The unexpended balance is $88.14.

The amount allocated by the Academy to expenses of the Editor’s office

was $300.00. The amount expended by this office was $262.74, leaving an un-

expended balance of $37.26. The total unexpended balance from printing,

ete., and from the Editor’s office is $125.40.

The report of the Board of Editors was accepted and ordered placed on

file.

Report of the Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications

The following report was submitted by the Custodian and Subscription

Manager of Publications, W. W. D1IEHL:

In this, the first year of the office, the duties have been chiefly that of

custodianship concerned first with locating the stocks, then with their in-

ventory and storage. There is appended herewith a summarized inventory of

stocks on hand.

All the stocks, except those of the JouRNAL, Volumes 22 to 29 inclusive,

at Menasha, Wis., are now stored in Washington. Since March 16 when cer-

tain stocks previously kept in Baltimore, Md., were moved to Washington

there have been no storage costs.

The campaign for new subscribers to the JoURNAL planned for initiation

in September was necessarily deferred until late in December because the

unforeseen shortage of current stocks at that time precluded any possibility

of filling additional subscriptions for Volume 30. This shortage in Volume 30

has been most helpfully alleviated through the aid of the President and of

certain other members of the Academy in obtaining copies by personal solici-

tation. Immediate demands have, therefore, been met thus far.

Because of the deferment of the campaign for new subscribers the amount

actually expended for the necessary work, chiefly postage and correspond-

ence, was $47.77 leaving an unexpended balance of $72.23.

Aprit 15, 1941 | PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 163

Nonmember subscribers in the United States....... 93

Geological Society of Washington................. 23

Nonmember subscribers in foreign countries........ 52

168

SUMMARY OF INVENTORY OF SALABLE STOCKS OF PUBLICATIONS OF

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ON DECEMBER 31, 1940

PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES:

Vols sel stoyeltd omGlis) Aiken 8 see telethon ke 50 sets complete

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

WOlSeelatOml Ds eich 25) Fes sein cae s fons eee 1 set complete

7 sets incomplete

AWOL IMG) reset Wit ny Set hte crea rates tee eget ore 28 complete

LT es a eRe etal i at actor en pees Mme ne 33 complete

Tf) Sesh eee esac a Gal eee ces ese ae Sevier aa 28 complete

1G) ia lee aie alias saree Gare ee ear See RA er 27 complete

DO eit eS te Beene he SP noe pe eat gua 23 complete

DA cies args RR rs Ak tek eg Meter eee aE Eee 68 complete

ah Re Re Ae Mia ae Seta ae AER RO IE 47 complete

DAB os aa lara lea a ates i ae a a 46 complete

AR IR Rae ERO see ees ea tae cee, (eget 40 complete

DAG) at nes ae er ne EEN GM net te 86 complete

TAGS RO A ASS Coe ars ee ae eR See ees 77 complete

DOU sci gk os eae OR gio gta OTC a EE te 51 complete

PROV a 5s soe OR Son ete Neat fe ag carees aN ee Me tan! 30 complete

TARY Uy ea Rot Nae Ae SEE fT ema, So eee 24 complete

S10) Pee een ne He ace trio a te Pee eee 9 complete

A miscellaneous collection of odd numbers of the Proceedings, the JoURNAL, Red Books,

and special publications relating to World War No. 1 is also on hand.

By vote the report of the Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publica-

tions was accepted and placed on file.

Report of the Tellers

The report of the Tellers, GEorcE W. ViNnau (chairman), J. W. McBur-

NEY, and W. G. BROMBACHER was read by the Corresponding Secretary.

The following officers were declared elected:

President ungesc eo ask Austin H. Cuark

Seckretabyec. 5 ose FREDERICK D. Rossini

(TE ASUTCT by issues onde coe Howarp 8. RAPPLEYE

FRANK H. H. Roserts, Jr.

Board of Managers..... FERDINAND G. BRICKWEDDE

Henry B. Cou.ins, JR.

The Corresponding Secretary read the list of nominations for Vice-Presi-

dents submitted by the affiliated societies as follows:

Philosophicalas sas qeer Haroup E. McComs

Biologicals 45 one ERNEST P. WALKER

Chemical............. Raymonp M. Hann

Entomological......... AustTIn H. CLark

164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 4

National Geographic... ALEXANDER WETMORE

Geological some... «os JOSEPH T. PARDEE

Wie dicallymeatesee wits: ac FRED O. CoE

IBHISOMICAL J 4 cub abou ALLEN C. CLARK

Botanicalmers. 200 Go... Me tvin C. MERRILL

Archiologicals.. 2s. ALES HRpDLICKA

Washington Engineers... Paunt C. WHITNEY

Electrical Engineers.... Harvey lL. Curtis

Mechanical Engineers... WALTER RAMBERG

Helminthological....... JESSE R. CHRISTIE

Bacteriological......... LELAND W. ParR

Military Engineers..... CLEMENT L. GARNER

Radio Engineers....... JoHn H. DELLINGER

By vote of the Academy, the Recording Secretary was instructed to cast

one ballot for the list as read. This was done and the Vice-Presidents were

declared duly elected.

Report of the Committees on Awards for Scientific Achievement

The President announced that the Committee on Awards for Scientific

Achievement reported as follows:

The Subcommittee for Biological Sciences reported no nomination for the

year 1940.

The Subcommittee for the Engineering Sciences recommended that a cer-

tificate of award be conferred on—

Harry Dramonp, Principal Physicist in the Radio Section of the National Bureau of

Standards, for his work in the development of methods and apparatus for the ‘‘blind-

landing’’ of aircraft, 1n the development of methods and apparatus for obtaining meteoro-

logical data from appropriately equipped balloons sent into the atmosphere and 1n the de-

velopment of an automatic weather-reporting station.

The Subcommittee for the Physical Sciences recommended that a certifi-

cate of award be conferred on—

FERDINAND G. BrIcKWEDDE, Chief of the Cryogenic Laboratory of the National

Bureau of Standards, for his work in taking part in the discovery of Deuter1um, in

determining the physical properties of the various isotopic forms of the hydrogen

molecule, and in establishing a working temperature scale for the range 14° to 83°K.

As business from the floor, remarks were made by L. B. TuCKERMAN con-

cerning the lack of care exercised by some members in marking their bal-

lots, particularly that portion in which preference is expressed by a nu-

merical choice for election by the Hare system. Remarks were made also by

R. E. Gipson.

President CRITTENDEN announced the appointment of NatHan R. SmitH

as Archivist for the Academy, to serve for 3 years.

President CrirrenpEN, after thanking the officers and committees who

served with him during the year, appointed Past Presidents C. EK. CHAMBLISS

and CHARLES THom to escort President-elect CLARK to the chair. After a

short address President Cuarx declared the meeting adjourned at 10:40

P.M.

FRANK C. Kracek, Recording Secretary.

Aprit 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 165

366TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 366th meeting of the Board of Managers was held in the Library of

the Cosmos Club on Friday, February 7, 1941. President CLARK called the

meeting to order at 8:10 p.m., with 15 persons present, as follows: A. H.

Cuark, F. D. Rossinr, H.S. Rappuryre, N.R. Smita, W. W. Diu,

F. H. H. Rozgerts, Jr., F.G. Brickweppr, H. B. Coins, Jr., R. M.

Hann, M. C. Merri, H. L. Curtis, L. W. Parr, C. L. GARNmER, and, by

invitation, F. M. Srrzuer and F. C. KRaAcrx.

The minutes of the 365th meeting were read and approved.

President CLARK announced the following appointments: Senior Editor

of the JourRNAL, for 1941, J. H. Kempron; Member of the Board of Editors

of the JouRNAL, for 1941, 1942, and 1948, G. A. Coormr; Associate Editor

of the JOURNAL, representing the Biological Society, for 1941, 1942, and 1943

H. A. Renper; Associate Editor of the JouRNAL, representing the Geological

Society, for 1941, 1942, and 1943, Epwin Kirk; Associate Editor of the Jour-

NAL, representing the Botanical Society, for 1941, 1942, and 1948, CHARLOTTE

Exuurortr; Members of the Executive Committee for 1941 (in addition to the

President, Secretary, and Treasurer), H. L. Curtis and J. E. GraF; to the

Committee on Monographs, for 1941, 1942, and 1948, C. L. Gazin and F. C.

BisHopp; to the Committee on Membership for 1941, F. C. Kracrx (chair-

man), W. G. BrompacHER, W. F. FosHac, C. F. W. Mursesecr, J. H.

STEWARD, P. A. SmitH and L. E. Yocum.

The Executive Committee, A. H. CLARK, chairman, presented the follow-

ing proposed budget, with estimated receipts, for 1941:

Proposed Budget for 1941

SOCIEUAINY oo Soh Gs, 6 oe and oe mete ee an or gma eee $ 450.00

LPOAVSULPEIP 5 ocx 'n BS bi Ei CREO RO aPC NPE en Sree ie ie grat rere EE 225.00

Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications......... 120.00

Somnmmibpeerom NreewMGS oie FG eee el oe ke we wees a 350.00

Connmmicecon Membership. 2 cc. 6. ecw ce le ce ee ed 10.00

JOURNAL:

For printing, engraving, mailing, reprints... $3100.00*

For clerical assistance to the Senior Editor. . . 240.00

For postage and miscellaneous expenses... . 60.00 3400.00

Mornenec Mar OUCREG meet Me ye ee oe ae ose. 4565.00

Publication of the Directory of the Academy for 1941......... 350.00

Grand Total $4915.00

Estimated Receipts for 1941

Pienalsership. dues tons OAs ye eee eee ee, 2900.00

Membership dues for previous years. ..-.....0...24... 0505... 100.00

Miberestea mls vided Sie aa et ee Aes cee a a a Gs, 1083 .42

SMO SCE MLONST EO: Gerd OURNAIia Ni eens yk ta Cl 855.80

Total $4939 . 22

* Does not include services to be charged to, and paid for by, authors or their spon-

sors.

166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 4

The Board approved this budget for 1941.

The Executive Committee recommended that the President appoint a

committee of two persons, one to be the Treasurer, to survey the Academy’s

investments and deposits and to make appropriate recommendations to the

Executive Committee.

The Committee on Membership, F. C. Kracrex, chairman, presented

nominations for membership for five persons, all resident.

The Board considered individually and duly elected to membership the

eight persons (five resident and three nonresident) whose nominations had

been presented on January 10, 1941.

The Committee to Consider Societies for Affiliation with the Academy,

F. M. Srerzuer, chairman, recommended that the Committee be dissolved

and that its existing assignment to investigate several societies for affiliation

be abandoned, because the Committee felt that any Society desirous of

affiliating with the Academy should present its request to the Academy on

its own initiative. The Board approved this recommendation to dissolve

the Committee and abandon its assignment.

The Secretary presented the following information with regard to changes

in membership since the last meeting of the Board: Deaths, none; acceptances

to membership, 11; retirements, 1; resignations, 3. The status of the mem-

bership, as of February 7, 1941, was as follows:

Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total

Resident aeas se 415 33 3 0 451

Nonresident....... 125 14 14 3 156

3 607

YC Rea ee en imelabemia sl es 540 47 Le

The Secretary reported receipt of two nominations for Vice-Presidents of

the Academy for 1941: F. M. Srerzuimr, to represent the Anthropological

Society of Washington; W. A. Dayton, to represent the Washington Section

of the Society of American Foresters. The Board elected Messrs. SETZLER

and Dayton to be Vice-Presidents of the Academy for 1941 to represent the

Societies indicated.

The Board authorized the President to appoint a Committee to Consider

the Publication of a Directory of the Academy for 1941.

The meeting adjourned at 9:30 P.M.

303D MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 303d meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Philosophical

Society of Washington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8:15

p.M. on Thursday, February 20, 1941, with President A. H. CLArx presid-

ing. H. EK. McComp, Vice-President of the Academy representing the Philo-

sophical Society, introduced the speaker, P. W. BripGMAn, Hollis Professor

of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at Harvard University, who deliv-

ered an address entitled The changing position of thermodynamics.

Professor Bridgman pointed out that thermodynamics was formulated at

a time when there was no knowledge or experimental control of the details

of atomic or molecular processes, reexamined the fundamental concepts of

energy and entropy, and indicated what is their present status.

There were about 180 persons present. The meeting adjourned at 9:30

p.M. for a social hour.

FrEepERICcK D. Rossint, Secretary.

Aprit 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 167

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held

January 21, 1941, elected the following officers for the ensuing year: Presi-

dent, FRanK M. Serzuer; Vice-President, JULIAN H. SteEWaRD; Secretary,

REGINA FLANNERY; Treasurer, T. DALE Stewart; Members of the Board

of Managers, GEoRGE 8. Duncan, WILLIAM N. Fenton, HERBERT KRIEGER,

RutH UNDERHILL, WALDO R. WEDEL.

A report of the membership and activities of the Society since the last

annual meeting follows.

Membership:

ikeommennnbers te ae oe es See pee i coc 2,

AMBRE) SONELON OVI Seaway eee Past my gee neem ae ee Ue 39

FAGSCOCIATE MMEMMOCTS ee se ey iar me ee rs 2

TICE Uc 2 RR in ae te at ra oe ete ne 53

The members elected during the year were: ANDREW J. Kress, active

member, and Wiuti1Am H. GILBERT, associate member. Lost through death

was Cyrus ADLER, an active member of long standing.

The Treasurer’s report is as follows:

Funds invested in Perpetual Building Association (interest for

lecienativor A940 not included)... 5.0.0.5. .5-- 22. i ee $1542 .36

21 shares Washington Sanitary Improvement Co. (par value

SHLD) TOSSES NTRS) Ae ON ee age Te ae teat a 210.00

2 shares Washington Sanitary Housing Co. (par value $10 per

SPARS). 5 n'a Altos gs Os SVE CSe Sa Oe er were AD Oy er ALR tenet een a 200.00

COSI 11a [oma ce ye ae ea: cet ee Pan 2a Ue ier ah yon nae Ve te MNO oes 647 .45

Credit with American Anthropological Association........... 5.00

$2604.81

Bills outstanding:

To American Anthropological Association................ $ 75.00

EDEL Sd PS A I en $2529 .81

Mia uaecsnOlale/ lt / AQ meee ss ae es ne sn one 2354.36

IGE GIREDISD 6c aAGe ey us bees ok Sp RR me ees San ah te $ 175.45

The supply of the following numbers of the American Anthropologist, old

series, is now completely exhausted: Vol. 1, nos. 1-3; vol. 3, no. 1; vol. 4,

1-4; vol. 5, nos. 1, 2, 4; vol. 9, no. 2.

Papers presented before the regular meetings of the Society were as follows:

January 16, 1940, 690th meeting, Jonn M. Cooprr, The Gros Ventres,

a Plains Indian theocracy.

February 20, 1940, 691st meeting, FREDERICK W. KiLuian, Cultural de-

terminants of the law.

March 19, 1940, 692d meeting, W. H. Giupert, Hastern Cherokee life and

culture.

April 16, 1940, 693d meeting, Henry B. Coins, JR., Some problems of

Eskimo prehistory, the address of the retiring president.

October 15, 1940, 694th meeting, Witiiam N. Fenton, -The place of the

Iroquois in the prehistory of America.

November 19, 1940, 695th meeting, L. 8S. Cressman, Early cultures of

south-central Oregon.

December 17, 1940, 696th meeting, F. H. Doveuas, White influence in

Indian art.

REGINA FLANNERY, Secretary.

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 4

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

580TH MEETING

The 580th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, ee

10, 1940, President J. T. ParpEs, presiding.

i nfor mal communications. —M. I. GoupMaNn compared pits in eroded peb-

bles of diorite porphyry and sandstone from the Henry Mountains, Utah,

with similar phenomena in the granite of Corsica; and reviewed a number of

theories for their origin.

Program.—W. 8. BURBANK: An area of pseudo-landslide topography 1 in the

San Juan Mountains, Colorado. A so-called landslide topography covering

5 to 6 square miles in the Red Mountain mining district was described, and

evidence presented to show that the topography is mainly the result of differ-

ential abrasion by a mountain glacier along a zone of faulted and highly

altered rocks.

The mining district lies along the northwest border of a large voleanic ba-

sin of subsidence. Zones of step-faulting and alteration along this edge of the

basin provided a zone of weakness followed by the main drainage valley and

by one of the trunk glaciers of the Wisconsin stage. The ice of the trunk gla-

cler was moving parallel to the closely spaced faults and fissures, and as a

result of differences in resistance to abrasion between altered and unaltered

rocks, the surface was abraded into a series of troughs and ridges, and typical

roche moutonée. |

Small débris slides or avalanches sliding directly across these corrugations

after the glacial period shattered some of the narrower and weaker ridges,

partly covered them, and generally masked the true nature of the post-

Wisconsin topography.

It was shown that previous interpretations of the extent of landsliding

were untenable, (1) because much of the so-called landslide surface was gla-

ciated and highly sculptured bedrock along the channel of the trunk glacier,

and (2) because at many places numerous shafts and tunnels driven during

mining operations were in solid bedrock and had failed to encounter condi-

tions expectable according to the landslide interpretation.

L. W. Currisr: Geologic features of Lowell quadrangle, M assachusene

F. W. Lue: Contouring bedrock in a glaciated region by sersmic methods.

5818sT MEETING

The 581st meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, January |

24, 1940, President J. T. Pardee, presiding.

Program. —D. F. Hewerr: The appraisal of metal reserves.

R. J. Roperts: Mercury deposits of the Bottle Creek district, Nevada.

E. N. Gopparp: Manganese deposits of the Philipsburg district, Montana.

582D MEETING

The 582d meeting of the Society was a joint meeting with the Washington

Academy of Sciences, at the Cosmos Club, February 15, 1940, the President

of the Academy, E. C. CRITTENDEN, presiding. President J..T. PARDEE, of.

the Geological Society, introduced the speaker.

Program.—GerorGE G. Simpson: Mammals and land bridges. (Published

in this JouRNAL 30: 137-163. Apr. 15, 1940.)

APRIL 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 169

583D MEETING

The 583d meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, February

28, 1940, President J. T. PARDEE, presiding.

Informal communications.—R. W. Brown reviewed The Mizpah coal field,

Custer County, Montana, by F.S. PARKER and Davin A. ANDREwWs, and Rela-

tionship between floras of type Lance and Fort Union formation, by ERLING

Dorr, in their bearing on the Cretaceous-Paleocene boundary problem in

the Rocky Mountain region.

Program.—L. W. STEPHENSON: Summary of faunal studies of the Navarro

group of Texas.

JuLIA GARDNER: The general relationships of the Midway fauna.

W. W. Rusesy and K. J. Murata: Chemical evidence bearing on origin of

a group of hot springs. A compact group of thermal springs 25 miles north of

Auburn, Lincoln County, Wyo., just east of the Idaho line, discharges water

and gas through more than a hundred vents. The mean annual temperature

of the region is about 5°C., but the water ranges from 20° to 60°C. The total

discharge of water is estimated at 2.4 liters per second (88 gallons per min-

ute) and that of gas at 0.86 liters per second under standard conditions of

temperature and pressure.

- The springs rise through old travertine deposits at the edge of valley fill

and along a sharp anticline formed during ‘‘Laramie’’ folding. No igneous

rocks are exposed nearby, but Auburn lies only a short distance south and

east of the extensive Tertiary and Quaternary volcanics of Idaho and Yel-

lowstone Park.

For preliminary study, two water samples, one from a hot and the miler

fom a relatively cold spring; and two gas samples, likewise from a hot and

a cold spring, were collected and analyzed.

The two water samples are very similar in Domiposition but the hotter one

is less concentrated with all components other than dissolved carbon dioxide

and hydrogen sulphide. The large amount (about 3,000 p.p.m.) of sodium

chloride in both samples is probably derived from salt beds in Jurassic rocks

nearby. Small amounts of boron, arsenic, and ammonium compounds, sub-

stances commonly exhaled from volcanic fumaroles, are present in both

waters.

Carbon dioxide is the predominant constituent of both gas samples, and

appreciable amounts of hydrogen sulphide are also present. The sample of

cooler gas contains more nitrogen and oxygen than the hotter one. The ratio

of carbon dioxide to hydrogen sulphide is essentially the same in both sam-

ples. These two gases are common as volcanic emanations and characterize

later phases of voleanism.

Quantitative relationships of water and gas composition and of tempera-

ture in these springs seem to call for a significant contribution (about 5 per

cent) of steam from an underlying magma, such as Allen and Day found

necessary to explain the hot springs of the Yellowstone. Magmatic steam con-

taining minor amounts of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, and volatile

compounds is conceived as condensing upon contact with a cool moderately

saline ground water charged with atmospheric gases. This would account for

cool, relatively concentrated water from some vents and hot, less concen-

trated water from others, for cool gas rich in nitrogen and oxygen from some

vents and hot gas rich in carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide from others.

Estimates of heat dissipated from these hot springs lead to the conclusion

that a small Quaternary intrusion, several cubic miles in volume, along a

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

preexistent fracture zone but reaching no nearer to the surface than a mile or

two, could explain all the observed phenomena.

584TH MEETING

The 584th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, March 13,

1940, President J. T. PARDER, presiding.

Program.—E. L. STEPHENSON: Geophysical and geological investigations of

the Casper Mountain chromite deposit, Wyoming. The Casper Mountain

chromite deposit is located on the summit of Casper Mountain in Natrona

County, Wyo., 11 miles by road south of the city of Casper. A magnetometer

survey of the deposit was made by the Geological Survey in 1938-39, when

8,281 stations were occupied with an Askania vertical variometer. Later in

1939, under the program of strategic minerals investigations, the Bureau of

Mines sampled the deposit by trenching and diamond drilling, and the Geo-

logical Survey prepared detailed topographic and geologic maps and core

logs. The program included 7,432 feet of sampling trenches and 3,624 feet of

inclined diamond drill holes.

The deposit consists of a nearly vertical, roughly tabular body of chromite-

bearing talcose schist 2,500 feet long and 100—450 feet wide, and several near-

by smaller bodies. As shown by drilling, the depth of the schist exceeds 500

feet. The chromite occurs in the schist as irregular lenses and bands of small

crystals and as disseminated small crystals. The surrounding rocks are quartz-

monzonite, pegmatite, metadiorite, amphibolite, and quartz-mica schist. It is

thought that the talcose schist and associated rocks occur as roof pendants in

the quartz-monzonite. ,

Strong characteristic magnetic anomalies occur over the chromite-bearing

schist, and were used to outline the main schist body as well as to select ad-

vantageous sites for diamond drill holes and sampling trenches. Laboratory

studies of the rock samples later were used to make more complete interpre-

tations of the magnetic anomalies. Owing apparently to an excess of iron in

the chromite molecule, the Casper Mountain chromite is found to be much

more paramagnetic than ordinary chromite, some of the specimens closely

approximating magnetite in magnetic permeability. No evidence has so far

been found of magnetite associated with the chromite in the tale schist, un-

less some of the most strongly magnetic specimens are to be regarded as

highly chromiferous magnetites rather than unusually magnetic chromites.

Specimens selected in the field as samples of magnetite were found on analy-

sis to contain 13 per cent or more of Cr2QOs3.

No attempt was made to predict from the magnetic anomalies the amount

of chromite in the schist. However, a close agreement was found between the

shape and dip of the main schist body as predicted from the magnetometer

measurements and as determined by drilling and trenching.

S. B. Henpricxs: Base exchange and properties of clays.

585TH MEETING

The 585th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 27, 1940, Presi-

dent J. T. PARDEE, presiding.

Program.—Earu INeERSON: Fabric criteria for distinguishing pseudoripple

marks from ripple marks.

R. H. JAHNs: Postglacial flood history of the Connecticut River in Massachu-

setts.

T. A. Henpricks: Structure of the western part of the Ouachita Mountains,

Oklahoma.

Aprit 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 171

586TH MEETING

The 586th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 10, 1940, President

J. T. PARDEE, presiding.

Informal communications.—W. J. WoopRING reported that fossils of three

different ages are found in a tar deposit in the Santa Maria district, California.

C. F. Stewart SHARPE reported on a proposed field conference on buried

organic matter under Piedmont soils at Spartanburg, 8. C., April 24, 1940.

Program.—G. R. MANSFIELD: The role of fluorine in phosphate deposition.

In earlier studies of phosphate deposition attention has centered on the ac-

cumulation of phosphorus. Here it is shown that some agent, probably fluor-

ine, Is necessary to render the phosphate insoluble enough to be preserved

through geologic ages. Although fluorine is steadily supplied to the oceans

by the weathering and erosion of rocks containing fluorine-bearing minerals,

additional large supplies are furnished from time to time by volcanism. It ap-

pears significant in this connection that voleanic products accumulated in

great quantity in proximity to the regions where the principal phosphate de-

posits of the United States were laid down and at the time when these de-

_posits were formed. Thus it is thought that volcanism, as a source of fluorine,

may have been an indirect though determinative factor in their origin. Vol-

canism and unconformities are no doubt related to deep-seated causes within

the earth. The principal phosphate deposits of the United States lie above

unconformities of greater or less extent.

J. G. Brouacuton: Structural comparison of pre-Cambrian and Paleozoic

rocks in northwestern New Jersey. The area studied includes a portion of the

most northwesterly of the pre-Cambrian gneiss ridges, as well as the New Jer-

sey extension of the Pennsylvania slate belt (Martinsburg). Field relations

indicate that the gneisses have developed their structures as a result of pri-

mary flowage and that the ridges are elongate domes which pitch to the south-

east. Sander diagrams indicate that the lineation is the ‘‘b”’ axis.

The slate belt has been divided into a northern area in which the structures

are identical with those described from Pennsylvania. South of this is an-

other area in which fracture cleavage is the dominant structure. The writer

believes that this cleavage has been developed as a result of stresses attend-

ant on thrust faulting and that in its strongest development it has become al-

most a new flow cleavage. Yielding of quartz during the formation of cleav-

ages is discussed with Sander diagrams.

R. H. Sargent: Problems in the production of topographic maps.

587TH MEETING

The 587th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 24, 1940. Presi-

dent J. T. PARDEE, presiding.

Informal communications.—T AlsiA STADNICHENKO reported a publication

of the Biogeochemical Laboratory of the Russian Academy of Science giving

analyses of coals and marine organisms showing concentrations of rare ele-

ments. C. S. Ross discussed chalcedony fillings in modular masses from

Madison, Oreg.

Program.—C. B. Hunt: Mode of emplacement of stocks.in the Henry Moun-

tains, Utah, and its significance in the interpretation of laccoliths.

T. P. THayvrer: Chromite deposits of the Strawberry Range, Oregon. The

Strawberry Range in Oregon is eroded from an east-west anticline connecting

the Ochoco and Blue Mountains. The chromite deposits occur in two main

belts of ultramafic rocks intruded into ancient crystalline and Mesozoic sedi-

mentary rocks exposed in the central portion of the range.

172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 4

Chromite has been mined east of Canyon City, where it occurs in compar-

atively fresh unsheared ultramafic rocks in which the original mineralogic

and textural features are preserved. Planar and linear structures are com-

monly present, and are best shown in the chromite deposits. The borders of

the ultramafic mass are pyroxenitic, and the chromite deposits occur as ir-

regular lenses in the less pyroxenitic and more dunitic central portion.

The Cr2O3 content of the chromite ranges from 33 to 52 per cent and is

apparently not the same in any two deposits. Serpentinized dunite most

commonly forms the matrix of the ore, which is probably of early magmatic

origin. In places dikes of gabbro and related pegmatite cut the chromite and

enclose angular fragments of ore. The gabbro seems to have been altered by

the agencies that serpentinized the ultramafic rocks, and therefore probably

antedates the serpentinization.

About 20,000 tons of chromite, a quarter of which was high-grade ore, have

been shipped from the district. Most of the readily accessible deposits of high-

grade chromite have been mined out, and future production will be predom-

inantly of low-grade concentrating ore containing from 15 to 30 per cent of

chromic oxide. The indicated reserve is about 80,000 tons of ore, and with

sufficiently high prices, probably 200,000 tons of concentrating ore can be

mined from known deposits.

W. C. LowpErRMILK: Notes on erosion in North Africa.

588TH MEETING

The 588th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, Novem-

ber 27, 1940, President J. T. PARDEE, presiding.

Informal communications.—J. J. FAHEY reported on two rare minerals in

the Green River deposits of western Wyoming—shortite and bradleyite, the

latter a new mineral.

Program.—W. E. Powers: Multiple glaciation of Mauna Kea, Hawait.

P.S. Smitu: Trends of Alaska mineral production.

W. T. ScHaLuteR: A photographic technique for emphasizing mineral rela-

tions in hand specimens.

589TH MEETING

The 589th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, December

11, 1940, President J. T. ParpsEn, presiding.

Program.—J. T. ParpEe: Unusual currents in Glacial Lake Missoula.

48TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 48th Annual Meeting was held immediately following the 588th regu-

la meeting. The reports of the secretaries, treasurer, and auditing committee

were read and approved.

Officers for the year 1941 were then elected, as follows:

President: J. B. REESIDE, JR.

Vice-Presidents: L. H. Apams, W. W. RuBEY.

Treasurer: AticE 8. ALLEN.

Secretary: W. S. BURBANK.

Council: D. A. ANDREWs, G. A. Cooper, JULIA GARDNER, Ear INGERsoN, K. J.

MURATA.

The Society nominated J. T. PARDEE to be a Vice-President of the Wash-

ington Academy of Sciences for the year 1941.

Rouanp W. Brown, Secretary.

CONTENTS ne

Ecotocy.—Adaptive coloration in a single faunal association. THHO- —

DORE Hy HAVON, JR. se sO A Se 129

ZooLocy.—The gender of scientific names in zoology. RicHarp EH. ,

BLACK WELDER i624. 6 2G a ec 135

EnromoLocy.—New American Tingitidae (Hemiptera) Cari J.

DRAKE. ee a eer eee

ANTHROPOLOGY.—Relationships of an early Indian cranial series from

Louisiana. ~ Henry-B.-Condins;.JR.. 55a a ee 145

PROCEEDINGS: THE ae eS Se Se bb el ie See Oe a oe 155

PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY.........0. 0000s see+ceve 167

PROCEEDINGS: @ OLOGICAL SOCIBEY 0. 2s).20 2 5 168

This Journal is Indexed in the Internationa! Index to Periodicals

Vou. 31 May 15, 1941 | No. 5

JOURNAL

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

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BS ASSOCIATE EDITORS

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* PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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a BIGLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 31 May 15, 1941 No. 5

PALEONTOLOGY.—Generic descriptions of Upper Paleozoic Bryo-

zoa.. R.S. Bassuter, U.S. National Museum.

This is the first of several short contributions in which the writer

proposes to describe and illustrate the genotypes of some new or im-

perfectly known genera of fossil Bryozoa. In the author’s Index and

bibliography of genera and genotypes of Bryozoa, comprising Part 67

of the Fossilium catalogus published by W. Junk at The Hague, 1934,

the systematic position of the described genera was suggested. Since

then special efforts have been made to study either the types or typical

specimens, with the result that in many cases illustrations of their

internal structure can now be offered.

The death of Dr. George H. Girty in 1939 precluded further work

on the many invertebrates he had described without illustration in his

article New genera and species of Carboniferous fossils from the F ayette-

ville shale of Arkansas,’ wherein descriptions only of eight new bryo-

zoan genera of Trepostomata and Cryptostomata from this Mississip-

pian formation were given. Short diagnoses of these genera and notes

upon Stenopora Lonsdale and Nematazis Hall, genera of earlier date,

with illustrations of their internal structure, form the subject of the

present paper. The type specimens of Dr. Girty’s Fayetteville shale

Bryozoa are missing, but the thin sections of the genotypes studied

by him are still available. Thus further work on the various species is

still necessary, but the sections will serve for the illustration of the

generic characteristics. Furthermore, Dr. Girty’s descriptions are so

very detailed that for present purposes short diagnoses emphasizing

the essential generic characteristics in addition to the illustrations are

sufficient.

Order TREPOSTOMATA (family BATOSTOMELLIDAE Ulrich, 1890)

Genus Stenopora Lonsdale, 1844?

The recent discovery of a well-preserved example of the genotype in the

national collections has permitted the illustration of the true internal char-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

February 20, 1941.

a Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 20(no. 3, pt. 2): 189-238. Oct. 1910 (1911).

* Lonsdale in Darwin’s Volcanic islands, appendix, p. 161. 1844.

173

174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 5

acters of this genus, namely, the presence of strongly beaded zooecial walls

and of a large and a small set of acanthopores, the lack of mesopores, and the

practical absence of diaphragms of any nature. Formerly Stenopora was held

for species with perforated diaphragms. Then with Lee’s work in 1912,‘ the

genus was restricted to ramose forms with complete diaphragms, and T'abult-

pora Young, 1883, was recognized for the species with perforated ones. In

1929, the present author, misled by the original illustrations and descriptions

of Stenopora and by the prevailing opinion of authors, proposed the genus

Ulrichotrypa for ramose species in which diaphragms were absent. Now, as

shown here in figs. 5, 6, the internal structure of S. tasmaniensizs is the same

as that described for Ulrichotrypa, thus reducing the latter to synonymy. )

Genotype: S. tasmaniensis Lonsdale, 1844. Permian of Tasmania. (Figs.

5, 6.)

Genus Amphiporella Girty, 1911 (op. cit., p. 199)

Zoarium of large tortuous solid flat fronds in which the zooecia proceed in

opposite directions from a middle plain but not from a median plate as in

typical bifoliate species. Zooecial structure with strongly moniliform (beaded)

walls as in typical Stenopora but differing in the occurrence of perforated

diaphragms and numerous mesopores. In tangential sections acanthopores of

medium size are seen at the junction of the walls and a connecting row of

granules occurs along the line of zooecial contact. The frondose growth and

mesopores alone distinguish Amphiporella from Tabulipora, features perhaps

of no generic importance.

Genotype: A. maculosa Girty, 1911. Fayetteville shale, vicinity of Fayette-

ville, Ark. (Figs. 3, 4.)

Genus Coeloclemis Girty, 1911 (op. cit., p. 201)

Described as a new subgenus under probably Anisotrypa although the ge-

nus is not mentioned, thin sections of the genotype, C. tumida, indicate a

zoarium of hollow epithecated stems formed by a single layer of zooecia, with

internal zooecial structure similar to Anisotrypa except that well-developed

acanthopores occur and diaphragms of all kinds are absent. Vertical sections

show a very short immature region with the tubes bending abruptly out-

ward into an equally short mature zone, a structure so similar to certain

Cryptostomata that it is possible that future discoveries may show that the

genus is incorrectly placed in the Batostomellidae. At present, however,

Coeloclemis is considered the same as Anisotrypa save that clearly outlined

acanthopores occur usually at the zooecial junctions and the walls in tangen-

tial sections show a single or double row of small granules.

‘Lez, G. W., Mem. Geol. Surv. Great Britain, Paleontology, 1(pt. 3): 185-195,

pls. 14-16. 1912.

Figs. 1, 2.—Pycnopora regularis Girty: Tangential and vertical sections, X30,

illustrating the untabulated mesopores and perforated diaphragms. Figs. 3, 4.—

Amphiporella maculosa Girty: Tangential and vertical sections, X30, showing acan-

thopores, beaded walls, perforated diaphragms, and numerous mesopores. Figs. 5, 6.—

Stenopora tasmaniensis Lonsdale: Tangential and vertical sections, X30, showing

beaded walls, absence of diaphragms, and occurrence of two sets of acanthopores are

shown. Figs. 7-9.—Coeloclemis tumida Girty: Vertical section, 4%, and part of the

same X30 (7, 8), and tangential section, X30 (9) exhibiting characters as in Aniso-

irypa save that acanthopores are developed and diaphragms are wanting. Figs. 10-

12.—Syringoclemis bisertalis Girty. Tangential sections (10, 11) the first near the base

of mature region illustrating cryptostomatous shape of mature zooecium, and the

second in the most mature portion, X20, with vertical section, X20 (12) showing ab-

sence of hemisepta and diaphragms,

)

—(See opposite page for explanation.

Figs. 1—

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 5

Genotype: C. tumida Girty, 1911. Fayetteville shale, vicinity of Fayette-

ville, Ark. (Figs. 7-9.)

Genus Callocladia Girty, 1911 (op. cit., p. 212)

As noted by Dr. Girty, the classification of this genus depends upon the

interpretation of the type of structures in the zooecial cavity. Should these

prove to be hemisepta the correct generic position would be in the Rhab-

domesontidae, but if they are perforated diaphragms the genus belongs to the

Batostomellidae. More thin sections are necesssary before this can be deter-

mined with certainty although the large acanthopores and stenoporoid wall

structure indicate relationship to the Batostomellidae. The vertical thin sec-

tion (Fig. 22) although the best observed does not prove that either a supe-

rior hemiseptum is located nearly opposite an inferior one or that these two

plates are only opposite sides of a perforated diaphragm. At present it seems

more correct to regard Callocladia as an Anisotrypa because of its hollow

cylindrical branches and lack of beaded walls, but differing in having meso-

pores and acanthopores.

Genotype: C. elegans Girty, 1911. Fayetteville shale, vicinity of Fayette-

ville, Ark. (Figs. 21, 22.)

Genus Pycnopora Girty, 1911 (op. cit., p. 202)

Dr. Girty states that this group, proposed as a subgenus of Lioclema and

consisting of the genotype P. regularis and two other species, differs in its

thin lamellar zoarial expansion and in its greatly reduced number of meso-

pores and its smaller acanthopores. Semidiaphragms not always opposite

each other but probably representing centrally perforated diaphragms, and

apparently untabulated mesopores with undulating walls, are additional and

more important characters marking the group as one of generic importance.

Callocladia (figs. 21, 22) should be compared in the study of this genus.

Genotype: P. regularis Girty, 1911. Fayetteville shale, vicinity of Fayette-

ville, Ark. (Figs. 1, 2.)

Genus Stenocladia Girty, 1911 (op. cit., p. 204)

This group, likewise proposed as a subgenus under Lioclema, seems to be

worthy of generic rank as it has the wall structure, acanthopores, and meso-

pores of that genus differing, however, in a supposed bifoliate method of

growth and especially with both zooecia and mesopores untabulated. In tan-

gential sections of the genotype and only known species, S. frondosa, meso-

pores are comparatively few in the outer part of the mature region. They are

visible in the lower part of the mature zone but later become filled with stri-

ated tissue and develop rows of small granular acanthopores in the outer part

Figs. 13, 14—Nematazis fibrosus Hall: Tangential and vertical sections, X30,

showing occurrence of hemisepta and parallel rows of granular acanthopores. Figs.

15-17.—Idioclema insigne Girty: Tangential section, 30, illustrating very large acan-

thopores indenting the walls (15); vertical sections of a young (16) and a mature speci-

men (17), 80, showing the superior and inferior hemisepta. Figs. 18-20.—Dyscri-

tella robusta Girty: Tangential sections, X20 (18) through a macula composed of thick

walled mesopores; similar section (19), X30, showing structure of the usual zooecia and

acanthopores; vertical section (20), X20, illustrating absence of diaphragms in both

the mesopores and zooecia. Figs. 21, 22.—Callocladia elegans Girty: Tangential and

vertical sections, X20, with mesopores and acanthopores but otherwise as in Aniso-

trypa. Figs. 23, 24.—Stenocladia frondosa Girty: Tangential section, X30, illustrating

the minute acanthopores (23); vertical section, X30, showing bifoliate growth and ab-

sence of diaphragms in both mesopores and zooecia (24).

Figs. 13-24.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 5

of same. More specimens are necessary to prove that the so-called median

plate exists, namely, that the zooecia arise back to back and proceed out in

opposite directions, or that they simply form flattened fronds. Some of the

acanthopores show tabulae.

Genotype: S. frondosa Girty, 1911. Fayetteville shale, vicinity of Fayette-

ville, Ark. (Figs. 23, 24.)

Genus Dyscritella Girty, 1911 (op. czt., p. 193)

Two ramose species, possessing numerous acanthopores and mesopores

and the unbeaded wall structure of Lzoclema but differing in that diaphragms

are entirely absent in both the zooecia and mesopores, were assigned here by

Dr. Girty who proposed the name as a subgenus under either Batostomella or

Inoclema. The characters are so clearly marked that since then several other

species of the genus have been described by subsequent authors. D. robusta,

the genotype, is based upon solid, cylindrical stems of about 8 mm diameter,

with zooecial apertures circular to oval, averaging 0.1 mm in diameter.

Mesopores are numerous, circular to angular, separated from the zooecia and

each other by thick walls, and forming at regular intervals the aggregations

known as maculae. Acanthopores abundant, of two kinds, one set large and

developed about one to a zooecium, while much smaller ones more like mi-

nute tubules are often abundant but unequally distributed. Diaphragms prac-

tically absent in both zooecia and mesopores although an occasional one may

be noted.

Genotype: D. robusta Girty, 1911. Fayetteville shale, vicinity of Fayette-

ville, Ark. (Figs. 18-20.)

Order CRYPTOSTOMATA (family Rhabdomesontidae Vine, 1883)

Genus Nemataxis Hall, 1886°

The discovery of a partly calcified specimen of the genotype at the type

locality permitted the preparation of thin sections which indicate that the

ramose zoarium, averaging 4 mm in diameter, is composed of thin-walled

zooecia arising from a central filiform axis and diverging obliquely toward

the surface near which they bend abruptly and develop greatly thickened

walls of lamellar tissue pierced by numerous closely spaced acanthopores.

Several superior and inferior hemisepta occur in the outer part of the imma-

ture region and at the bend to the mature a conspicuous superior one pro-

jects into the zooecial cavity. Tangential sections show oval apertures ar-

ranged in longitudinal series, separated by thick walls of dense laminated

tissue, pierced along their mid-line by small closely spaced granular acantho-

pores arranged in regular rows. The genus is therefore a well-developed

member of the Rhabdomesontidae characterized by the central axis, the oc-

currence of both superior and inferior hemisepta, and the development of

numerous small granular closely spaced acanthopores in rows between the

lines of zooecia but not entirely surrounding them.

Genotype: N. fibrosus Hall. Devonian (Onondaga): Walpole, Ontario.

(Figs. 13, 14.)

Genus Syringoclemis Girty, 1911 (op. cit., p. 206)

The thin sections of the genotype, S. biserialis Girty, indicate a hollow

cylindrical zoarium of a single layer lined with an epitheca, with mesopores

5 5th Ann. Rep. State Geol. New York for 1885, expl. pl. 25.

May 15, 1941 cooPpER: NEW DEVONIAN STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS 179

and acanthopores of the Lioclema type. The vertical section, however, indi-

cates relationships to the Rhabdomesontidae in the boxlike form of the im-

mature region and the sudden bending to the mature zone characteristic of

the Cryptostomata. Diaphragms and hemisepta are entirely absent. Tangen-

tial sections (Fig. 10) also indicate that the younger zooecial stages have the

form characteristic of the Cryptostomata, so the reference to this order seems

correct. Callocladia has a similar internal structure but possesses either per-

forated diaphragms or hemisepta. Syringoclemis is an interesting genus but

more information from the study of additional material is necessary.

Genotype: S. bzserzalis Girty, 1911. Fayetteville shale, vicinity of Fayette-

ville, Ark. (Figs. 10-12.)

Genus Idioclema Girty, 1911 (op. cit., p. 210)

This genus described in detail by Dr. Girty requires only the illustrations

of the internal structure of the genotype to complete its definition. The zoa-

rium is of freely branching cylindrical stems of 3mm diameter, composed of

zoo0ecia possessing the family characteristics, namely, occurrence of superior

and inferior hemisepta, of large and small acanthopores and absence of

diaphragms. The superior hemiseptum occurs at the bend to the mature re-

gion and the inferior one below this in the thin-walled immature region. The

acanthopores represent the two extremes of growth in these structures as the

large ones increase often to the size of an ordinary zooecium and are so nu-

merous as to indent the walls and hide the zooecial outlines, while the small

set is represented by minute tubular-like structures perforating the general

lamellar tissue. The large acanthopores of the usual cone-in-cone structure

show the central tube with especial clearness and are composed of lamellar

tissue pierced by dark granular tubules. Altogether the genus represents the

extreme of the development in the simpler types of the family.

Genotype: J. insigne Girty, 1911. Fayetteville shale, vicinity of Fayette-

ville, Ark. (Figs. 15-17.)

PALEONTOLOGY.—New Devonian stratigraphic units. G. AR-

THUR CoopER, U.S. National Museum.

The following names are proposed so that they will be available for

use on the forthcoming ‘‘Correlation Chart of Devonian Formations”’

of the National Research Council. Two names are new, but the others

replace preoccupied terms.

Stony Hollow member of Marcellus formation: A conspicuous layer

of sandstone ranging from 75 to 100 feet in thickness and consisting

chiefly of fine-grained, calcareous sandstone. The type section is lo-

cated at the bend of New York State Highway 28 and along the rail-

road opposite the bend at the entrance to the valley leading up to the

settlement of Stony Hollow, 13 to 2 miles northwest of the bridge over

Esopus Creek on the west side of Kingston, N. Y. This member was

first encountered on U. 8. Highway 209 near Echo Lake, Pa., and on

_1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived February 21, 1941.

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF ‘SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 5

the same road about 1 mile north of Port Jervis, N. Y. It is to be seen

at few places between Port Jervis and Kripplebush, but northeast of

that place it forms conspicuous cliffs and ledges on the west side of

Esopus Creek to Kingston. Northeast of Kingston it appears as cliffs

and ledges from Mount Marion to Leeds and from there to Climax

on the Coxsacki Quadrangle. It appears also in Coeymans Hollow and

was traced to the falls of Onesquethaw Creek southwest of Albany.

Here a few layers of limestone appear in the upper part of the sand-

stone, which has thinned to 24 feet. West of the Onesquethaw these

limestones of the Stony Hollow become the Cherry Valley limestone as

exposed in Stony Creek, Schoharie Valley.

Although none of the large Cherry Valley cephalopods has been

seen in the Stony Hollow member, other fossils were taken that occur

in both the sandstone and the limestone. A species of the trilobite

Dechenella and a small new species of Pentamerella are most abundant

in both facies. Besides these a number of other new species occur,

among them specimens of the brachiopod Kayserella. Absence of the

characteristic goniatites is explained by the facies change from black

limestone to sandstone. In the Middle and Upper Devonian of New

York occurrence of goniatites appears to be controlled by facies, the

shells of these animals seldom occurring outside of the black and gray

shales.

Identification of the Stony Hollow member as the sandstone equiva-

lent of the Cherry Valley limestone helps to elucidate the section along

the Catskill Front. Beds hitherto classified as ‘‘Marcellus”’ shale (Bak-

oven of Chadwick) immediately underlie the Stony Hollow member

and are now proved to be the equivalent of the Union Springs mem-

ber. The Stony Hollow underlies the Mount Marion formation of

Grabau at its type section; consequently the Mount Marion is inter-

preted as the sandy facies of the Chittenango black shale member

overlying the Cherry Valley to the west.

Delphi Station member: Proposed to replace the Delphi shale of

Cooper, 1930 (not Brown, 18838, or Gould, 1902). The name is derived

from Delphi Station, Cazenovia Quadrangle, N. Y., which is about 13

miles northwest of Knights Falls, the type section of the member.

Chenango sandstone: To replace the Colgate sandstone of Cooper,

1930 (not Calvert, 1912): The name is derived from the Chenango

Valley and the type section is the quarry at the top of the hill just

south of the buildings on Colgate University campus and overlooking

Chenango Valley to the northwest.

Butternut shale: To replace Berwyn of Cooper, 1930 (not Richards

May 15, 1941 LINDNER AND ANDERSON: A NEW SOLENOCERA 181

and Birk, 1925) with the type section in the Cascades formed by a

branch of Butternut Creek, southeast of Syracuse, Tully Quadrangle,

INS Y.

Little Rock Creek limestone: Proposed for the gray, brittle, conchoi-

dally fracturing limestone above the Logansport limestone on Little

Rock Creek above the road-crossing a mile above Lockport, Ind. This

formation, 7 feet thick, contains a fauna including a large Chonetes

called C. manitobensis, Emanuella subumbona, and a few other species.

The lithology and fauna suggest possible relationship to the Tully

limestone of New York.

Plum Brook shale: Proposed to replace Plum Creek shale of Grabau,

1917 (not Foerste, 1905, or Ulrich, 1917). Grabau derived his name

from Plum Brook, 2 miles northeast of Prout Station, Sandusky

Quadrangle, Ohio, but erroneously recorded the name as Plum

Creek. The more accurate designation is therefore substituted.

ZOOLOGY. —A new Solenocera and notes on the other Atlantic Ameri-

can species.' Mitton J. LINDNER and WILLIAM W. ANDERSON,

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. (Communicated by WaA.Lpo L.

SCHMITT. )

During the course of the investigation of the shrimp fishery of the

Gulf of Mexico undertaken with the Fish and Wildlife Service ship

Pelican several species of the genus Solenocera were captured includ-

ing the new species that is herein described. The Pelican type and par-

atype have been deposited with the U. 8. National Museum. A key to

the Atlantic American members of this genus has been prepared in

order to provide a means for ready identification of the various species

and to set forth the relationship of the new species with the other

American forms.

We take considerable pleasure in naming this new species for Dr.

Frank W. Weymouth, professor of physiology, Stanford University,

California, in recognition of the invaluable counsel, training, and ad-

vice that we have received from him. We wish to acknowledge our

indebtedness also to Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, of the U. S. National

Museum, for his kindness in furnishing us with material and for his

ready and continued assistance in all matters.

Solenocera weymouthi, n. sp. Fig. 1, a-e

Material exramined.—1 9 , type; Pelican station 137-2; 29°28’ N., 87°30’ W.;

March 1, 1939, trawl 46 fathoms. |

1 Published by permission of the Director, Fish and Wildlife Service. Received

February 11, 1941.

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 5

1, paratype; Pelican station 137-2; 29°28’ N., 87°30’ W.; March 1, 1939,

trawl 46 fathoms.

16’, allotype; U.S.N.M. no. 119885; Tortugas, August 5, 1932, 190-280

fathoms; boat station 74.

713% and 78 @ paratypes; Albatross station 2605; between Cape Hatteras

and Cape Lookout, N. C.; 32 fathoms; U.S. National Museum.

Description.—Antennular flagella flattened and canaliculate but not so

pronouncedly so as in the other six American species. Pterygostomian spine

absent. Pterygostomian angle produced forward into a blunt flaplike projec-

tion. Branchiostegal spine absent. Rostrum rather deep with a convex lower

margin, which curves upward to a sharp tip; with a distinct lateral ridge and

armed above with 7 to 10, usually 8 or 9, teeth of which three lie behind and

one above the orbital margin. Postrostral carina does not extend behind level

of cervical sulcus. Cervical sulcus deep and well marked, the posterior margin

a sharp ridge. Cervical sulcus does not cross dorsum of carapace. Orbital

angle bears a distinct sharp-pointed tooth or spine. Antennal angle pro-

duced into a sharp-pointed buttressed spine, which is but little larger than

the spine in the orbital angle. Postorbital spine large; larger than hepatic, an-

tennal or orbital angle spines and placed about midway between antennal and

orbital angle spines.

Ocular peduncle short and stout, eye large. Antennular flagella very short,

about seven-tenths carapace length in type female, but in the Tortugas male

the antennular flagella is about one-fifth longer than carapace. Inferior flagel-

lum about twice as broad as superior. Antennular peduncle in type female

rather densely coated with pubescence but in smaller specimens this condi-

tion is less marked. Antennal scale short in most cases, however, in the type

female it exceeds the antennular peduncle by about 7.8 per cent of its own

length. In many of the smaller specimens available the antennular peduncle

exceeds the antennal scale. When an average was taken of the 130 specimens

on which measurements were possible, the antennal scale was found to ex-

ceed the antennular peduncle by 1.1 per cent of its own length (length of an-

tennal scale) ; ranging from —4.6 per cent to +8.5 per cent.

In the type female the third maxilliped extends beyond the antennal scale

by about the length of its dactyl. Carpus of third periopods slender for their

distal half, but on proximal half the leg rapidly thickens and attains approxi-

mately the same thickness as the merus. Ischium and basis of first periopods

armed on their distal margins with a large sharp spine. Only basis of second

periopods armed. Third, fourth, and fifth periopods with basis and ischium

unarmed.

In the type female the coxae of the third, fourth, and fifth periopods are

produced medially; those of the third almost uniting, those of the fourth pro-

duced less than the third and not nearly meeting, and those of the fifth pro-

duced even less than the fourth and widely separated. Median projections

of coxae of fourth periopods bear a strong sharp tooth or spine on their prox-

imal margins. These spines project mediad over the plate of the thirteenth

sternite. Coxae of the fifth periopods bear a small toothitke projection on

their anterior margins.

In the Tortugas male the coxae of the third periopods do not appear to be

produced medially, those of the fourth produced only slightly, and those of

the fifth more than the fourth but none so extensively as in the female. An-

terior margins of coxae of fifth legs bear a large toothlike projection.

Although not well adapted for the open type petasma as encountered in

this group we are using Burkenroad’s (1936, pp. 61-62) terminology for

May 15, 1941 LINDNER AND ANDERSON: A NEW SOLENOCERA 183

designating the various petasmal lobes. We do this rather than substitute

additional terminology in order not to make the literature more ambiguous

than it is at present. Distoventral lobe of mature male subrectangular in

shape and equal to or slightly exceeding the cincinnulated median margin of

the endopod. Distolateral lobe consists of three distinct lobules the proximal

of which can be referred to Burkenroad’s lateral lobule of the distolateral

lobe. The two distalmost ones appear to be derived from what Burkenroad

(1939) terms the median lobule in Solenocera atlantidis; the proximal of these

we shall designate as the median lobule and the distal most as the distal

‘ -_—

Fig. 1.—Solenocera weymouthi, n. sp.: a, Carapace, anterior part, lateral view (type

female); b, thelycum, ventral view (type female); c, petasma, posterior view of distal

part (left endopod) (allotype); d, petasma, immature, posterior view of distal part (left

endopod); e, telson and uropods, dorsal view (type female). jf, Solenocera necopina

Burkenroad: Petasma, posterior view of distal portion. Scale =1 mm.

lobule. In the mature male the lateral lobule of the distolateral lobe is semi-

hook shape and curves over approximately the median half of the distoven-

tral lobe. Median lobule of the distolateral lobe bulbous or knob like and su-

perior to both the lateral lobule and the distoventral lobe. Distal lobule of the

distolateral lobe is superior to the other petasmal structures and folds as a

semi-membranous hood over the median lobule in much the fashion of a sun-

bonnet.

Paired teeth on anterior part of fourteenth sternite of female, which in all

other species of Solenocera from both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of North

America are very prominent, are in S. weymouthi very much reduced in size

and appear as a pair of well separated short blunt protuberances. Bilobed

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 5

ridge evident near the center of the fourteenth sternite slightly forward of

median projections of coxae of fifth periopods. Plate of thirteenth sternite

with a deep well marked longitudinal sulcus down the center. A pair of large

blunt projections arise from posterior part of twelfth sternite and project

over anterior portion of thirteenth. Entire thelycum pubescent.

Epipodites through the twelfth deeply bifurcated, shorter ramus one-half

or more the length of longer ramus. E;pipodites of thirteenth somite shallowly

bifurcated.

In the type female the first and second pleonic terga are uncarinated ; pos-

terior two-thirds of the third carinated, the fourth, fifth, and sixth with a

high sharp carina. On smaller specimens carina of third pleonic tergite is less

pronounced or not evident, apparently this varies with age. Posterodorsal

and posteroventral angles of sixth pleonic tergite ending in a spine.

Telson long terminating in a sharp point; bears a large pair of fixed lateral

spines; anterior half of dorsal surface with a median sulcus bordered by two

ridges which terminate in the lateral spines; posterior half bears a distinct

median carina which extends nearly to the sharp tip.

Uropodal endopods slightly exceed tip of telson and exopods of uropod ex-

ceed endopods by approximately the same distance that endopods exceed

telson. Externodistal margins of uropodal exopods armed with a tooth or

spine.

Measurements.—S. weymouthi, like S. atlantidis and S. necopina, appears to

be a comparatively small species of shrimp not attaining a size much larger

than the type female with carapace length of 17.5 mm. S. vzoscaz, on the other

hand, reaches a size much larger. A majority of the specimens of S. weymou-

thi from the North Carolina coast, with carapace lengths ranging from 4.2

to 8.4 mm, which comprises the bulk of available material, was immature.

In the males the petasmal endopods were not united, and the lobes were

poorly developed in most cases. The male from Tortugas with carapace

length of 10.3 mm was mature with the endopods united and the lobes well

developed.

Distribution.—As at present known S. weymouthi occurs from North Caro-

lina to Alabama.

Remarks.—So far as known S. weymouthi differs from all other members of

the genus with the exception of S. melantho De Man and S. stezndachneri

(Balss) in its possession of a tooth or spine on the externodistal margin of the

exopod of the uropod (Burkenroad, 1936, pp. 105, 121).

S. weymouthi is further distinct from S. agassiziz Faxon, S. membranacea

(Risso), S. m. africanus Stebbing, S. comaius Stebbing, S. novae-zealandz

Borradaile, S. vioscai Burkenroad, S. atlantidis Burkenroad, S. necopina

Burkenroad, S. florea Burkenroad, S. mutator Burkenroad, S. faxoni De Man,

S. distincta De Haan, S. (Parasolenocera) annectans Wood-Mason, and pos-

sibly S. crassicornis H. Milne-Edwards (1837) in that it possesses neither a

pterygostomian nor a branchiostegal spine. S. weymouthi further differs from

S. crassicornis in its possession of a pair of fixed lateral spines on the telson;

these spines are reported as absent in S. crassicornis (Burkenroad, 1934, p.

(7).

From those members of the genus that like S. weymouthi possess newer

pterygostomian nor branchiostegal spines, S. weymouthi in addition to the

possession of a spine on the externodistal margin of the exopod of the uropod

(except S. melantho and S. stecndachnerz) differs as follows:

In S. hextit Wood-Mason the postrostral carina extends to the posterior

May 15, 1941 LINDNER AND ANDERSON: A NEW SOLENOCERA 185

margin of the carapace whereas in S. weymouth: the postrostral carina does

not continue beyond the level of the cervical sulcus. In the males of S. hextiz

the cincinnulated median margin of the petasma extends beyond the disto-

ventral lobe whereas in S. weymouthi the cincinnulated median margin of the

petasma falls at about the level of the distoventral lobe. In S. heztzz the pair

of knobs on the fourteenth sternite of the female are placed together whereas

in S. weymouth they are well separated. S. hextiz has a spine on the cervical

carina dorsad the hepatic spine which is not present in S. weymouth.

In S. koelbeli De Man the postrostral carina extends to the posterior mar-

gin of the carapace whereas in S. weymouthi the postrostral carina does not

cross the level of the cervical sulcus. In S. koelbeli the cervical sulcus makes a

notch in the dorsal carina of the carapace whereas in S. weymouth there is no

notch in the dorsal carina.

S. rathbunt Ramadan has no spine at the orbital angle whereas S. wey-

mouth has a large sharp spine at the orbital angle. In S. rathbunz the epipo-

dites through the thirteenth are deeply bifurcated whereas in S. weymouthz

the epipodites through the twelfth are deeply bifurcated with the thirteenth

only shallowly bifurcated.

S. pectinatus (Bate) does not have the orbital angle armed whereas S.

weymouth has a large sharp spine at the orbital angle. The petasma of S.

pectinatus has a series of large comblike spines on the outer surfaces of the

distolateral lobes which are not present in S. weymouth. The petasma of S.

pectinatus is cincinnulated along its median margin much higher than occurs

in S. weymouthi and differs widely from it in structure.

S. melantho De Man has a well-defined postrostral carina extending nearly

to the posterior margin of the carapace whereas in S. weymouth the postros-

tral carina does not cross the level of the cervical groove. The paired knobs on

the fourteenth sternite of the thelycum are placed together whereas in S.

weymouthi they are well separated. The cincinnulated median margin of the

petasma extends much higher in S. melantho than in S. weymouthi.

In S. stezndachneri (Balss) the cincinnulated median margin of the petasma

extends considerably beyond that in S. weymouthi. Furthermore Balss fig-

ures a dorsal carapacic spine posterior to the cervical groove. This is lacking

in S. weymouthi.

The cincinnulated median margin of the petasma of S. weymouthi appears

to resemble more closely those Solenocera possessing branchiostegal or ptery-

gostomian spines than those lacking these spines.

S. weymouthi like other species of the genus from the Atlantic coast of the

United States is variable in the matter of the antennal scale exceeding the an-

tennular peduncle, varying from the antennular peduncle exceeding the an-

tennal scale to the scale exceeding the peduncle by 8.5 per cent of its own

length. In S. atlantidis measurements on 17 specimens from the United

States National Museum show that the antennal scale varies from shorter

than the antennular peduncle to exceeding it by about 7 per cent of 1ts own

length with an average of 1.3 per cent longer. S. vioscai agrees very closely in

this character (Burkenroad, 1939, p. 15) with S. weymouthi and S. atlantidis.

S. necopina, on the other hand, has a longer antennal scale than the other

three Atlantic American species. Measurements on 18 specimens of S. neco-

pina from the United States National Museum reveal that the antennal scale

exceeds the antennular peduncle from over 13 per cent to 24 per cent its own

length with an average of 17 per cent longer. Therefore, this character can be

used to separate S. necopina from the three other species under consideration.

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 5

Solenocera necopina Burkenroad Fig. 4,7

Solenocera vioscat Burkenroad, 1936, p. 122.

Solenocera necopina Burkenroad, 1939, Os Oe

Material—9 oo and 109 and séveral broken shrimps; U.S.N.M. no.

9767; Albatross station 2402; Gulf of Mexico.

Burkenroad, 1939, described this species of Solenocera from a single sub-

adult female taken at the edge of the Continental Shelf in the Northern Gulf

of Mexico in 125 fathoms of water. There were found in the United States

National Museum 19 whole and several broken shrimp that were determined

as this species. As Burkenroad was unable to give an account of the male

petasma there follows a description of this organ.

Median margin of petasma similar to S. vioscaz Burkenroad in that it is

cincinnulated for about two-thirds the length of the petasma and falls con-

siderably below distolateral and distoventral lobes. Distoventral lobe pro-

vided with a rounded projection margined with spines. Distolateral lobe

divided into two lobules. Lateral lobule slightly shorter than median lobule

and distoventral projection; possessing a slender lateral projection which in

posterior view is hidden behind projection of distoventral lobe. Median

lobule of distolateral lobe broad, subrectangular or club shaped, slightly ex-

ceeding lateral lobule and about equal to spinous distoventral projection.

Females in the United States National Museum collection agree with Bur-

kenroad’s description of the thelycum except that the sculpture is much more

pronounced and the teeth and ridges are more developed in the mature speci-

mens

Males in the series of specimens ranged from a carapace length of 9.8 to

13.1 mm and the females from 11.4 to 18.4 mm all of which appear mature.

The largest specimen in the collection, a female, had its carapace so badly

crushed as to make accurate measurements impossible.

The orbital angle was described as marked but not acute or produced. In

the larger specimens the orbital angle while not sharp or spinelike is defi-

nitely produced.

Burkenroad’s statement (1939, p. 7) that the postrostral carina does not

extend behind the level of the cervical sulcus is erroneous for large specimens

as in these there is a definite low carina extending nearly to the posterior

margin of the carapace. Burkenroad (loc. cit.) states that the first through the

third pleonic terga are uncarinated. Here again we find that in large speci-

mens the third pleonic tergite is carinated on its dorsal surface for approxi-

mately the posterior two-thirds of its length.

Burkenroad’s figure of S. necopina does not show a spine or tooth on the

posterioventral edge of the sixth pleonic tergite. Our specimens have a spine

at this point which compares in size and position to a similar spine in S.

atlantidis. |

In large specimens of S. atlantidis the postrostral carina does not extend

beyond the cervical sulcus as stated by Burkenroad (loc. cit.), but we find

that in these same specimens the third pleonic tergite is partially carinate.

This carination is not evident in the smaller specimens.

The pterygostomian spine in S. necopina is much stronger and possesses a

wider base than does this structure in similar sided specimens of S. atlantzdis.

KEY TO ATLANTIC AMERICAN SOLENOCERA

A. Pterygostomian spine present. No spine on externodistal margin of uro-

podal exopod.

May 15, 1941 LINDNER AND ANDERSON: A NEW SOLENOCERA 187

B. Epipodites X through XIII strongly bifurcate, shorter ramus at least

half the length of undivided portion excluding peduncle. Pacific

ETTORE COWS OSLER hE aS ea te a

Mees Ook e agassizit Faxon, mutator Burkenroad, florea Burkenroad

- BB. Epipodites X through XIII only slightly furcate, shorter ramus not

more than one-third the length of undivided portion excluding

peduncle. Atlantic American species.

C. Rostral teeth 8 to 10, usually 9. Postrostral carina high and sharp,

deeply notched at level of cervical groove......vioscat Burkenroad

CC. Rostral teeth 5 to 7, usually 6. Postrostral carina low or absent,

only slightly depressed at level of cervical groove.

D. Antennal scale long, exceeding antennular peduncle by at least

13 per cent its own length. No well defined tooth at orbital angle.

Pterygostomian spine large with wide base, joining carapace in

SUOEIMPLELCUMV-EKI, er es ces cc ations necopina Burkenroad

DD. Antennal scale short, less than antennular peduncle to exceed-

ing antennular peduncle by about 8 per cent of its own length.

A well defined tooth at orbital angle. Pterygostomian spine

small with narrow base, joining carapace at approximately a

THONG Od hee ote ln cu atlantidis Burkenroad

AA. Pterygostomian spine absent. Spine on externodistal margin of uropodal

EXO WOU yn Ree Mees Deol hi ERE N Say weymoutht, n. sp.

LITERATURE CITED

BatsE, C. Spence. Report of the Crustacea Macrura. In Challenger Rept., Zool.

24: xc +942 pp., 150 pls., 76 figs. 1888.

BURKENROAD, Martin D. The Penaeidea of Louisiana with a discussion of their world

relationships. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 68(art. 2): 61-148, figs. 1-15. 1934.

. The Aristaeinae, Solenocerinae, and pelagic Penaeinae of the Bingham Oceano-

graphic collection. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 5(2): 1-151, figs. 1-71. 1936.

. The Templeton Crocker Expedition. XIII. Penaeidae from the region of Lower

California and Clarion Island, with descriptions of four new species. Zoologica

23(pt. 1): 55-91, figs. 1-30. 19388.

. Further observations on Penaeidae of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Bull. Bing-

ham Oceanogr. Coll. 6(art. 6): 1-62, figs. 1-35. 1939.

Dre Man, J. G. The Decapoda of the Siboga Expedition. Part 1. Family Penaeidae.

Siboga-Expeditie, Monogr. 39a: 1-127, pls. 1-10. 1911.

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 5

ZOOLOGY .—New genera and species of millipeds from the southern

peninsula of Haiti. H. F. Loomis, U.S. Bureau of Plant Indus-

try.

- The western end of the southern peninsula of Haiti is an area from

which no millipeds ever have been reported. Indeed, this might be

said for the entire western half of the peninsula, with the single excep-

tion of the high mountain Morne La Hotte, from whose slopes Dr.

P. J. Darlington, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, collected

12 species of millipeds in 1934. Ten of these species proved to be new.’

It is only within the last two or three years that an all-weather

road leading from Aux Cayes to Jeremie and thence to Anse d’Hain-

ault has given ready access to the interior country hitherto reached

only on horseback or afoot from the coastal towns. This road traverses

areas having great scientific interest to naturalists, as they contain

plants and animals not found elsewhere in Haiti, many of them

probably undescribed. A 3-day visit through this country by automo-

bile in the summer of 1940 afforded the writer several opportunities

incidental to the object of the trip, to search the humus layer for mem-

bers of the diplopod fauna. These brief stops, however, resulted in a

collection of nine species of millipeds, four of which were new to

science, three representing undescribed genera. Two of these genera

are of families not previously known from Haiti; in fact, one of them

has not before been found in the West Indies, its closest relatives being

in California. A new species of Rhinocricus, of large size and handsome

coloring, was called to my attention by T. A. Fennell, Agricultural

Adviser to Haiti, who saw it several weeks prior to the writer’s visit

while in company with Andre Audant, of the Haitian Department of

Agriculture, who warned that the animal had the startling ability of

projecting its caustic repugnatorial fluid far from the body and hence

was a dangerous creature to handle. In addition to these new forms,

a fifth species, previously described, is recorded from Haiti for the

first time.

The type specimens of the new species here described are deposited

in the U. 8. National Museum. Paratype specimens are in the Museum

of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

Family SIPHONOPHORIDAE

Siphonophora sp.

Five or six females, not definitely assignable to species from between

Chambellan and Dame Marie, August 1, 1940.

1 Received February 24, 1941.

2 Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 80 (1). 1936.

May 15, 1941 LOOMIS: NEW MILLIPEDS FROM HAITI 189

Family STEMMIULIDAE

Prostemmiulus sp.

A female, the species not identifiable, from between Chambellan and

Dame Marie, August 1, 1940.

Family CAMBALOPSIDAE

Cambalomma, n. gen.

Type.—Cambalomma laevis, n. sp.

Diagnosis.—The smooth, Spirostreptus-like body has the surface of the seg-

ments continuous instead of divided into two parts by a transverse constric-

tion; hence, the segments more nearly resemble those of the order Anocheta,

but in this respect Cambalomma is no more anomalous in the present family

than is the genus Choctella Chamberlin in the Cambalidae. In other charac-

ters Cambalomma falls readily into the Cambalopsidae.

Description.—Body of moderate size and rather slender, from 15 to 17

times as long as broad and scarcely constricted behind the first segment; with-

out longitudinal crests or swellings; surface finely shagreened, dully shining.

Head with eyes very well developed and widely separated, composed of

numerous ocelli in four series; vertex faintly suleate at middle; clypeus with

two setiferous punctures on each side; labrum with about nine setiferous pun-

tures on each side; antennae slenderly clavate, with a sensory patch of tiny

setae at the outer distal end of joints 5 and 6; gnathochilarium with the men-

tum constricted above the basal half but not transversely divided.

First segment with the sides broadly rounded and clasping the sides of the

body; a raised rim proceeding from behind the eye around the lateral limits

to the posterior margin.

Ensuing segments with surface continuous, unbroken by a transverse sul-

cus or constriction dividing each segment into two parts as in other genera;

the anterior portion of each segment, that usually covered by the preceding

segment, with tiny, fine, undulating, transverse striae; remainder of segment

very finely roughened and dully shining; ventral striae pronounced, extend-

ing over the posterior half of each segment less than halfway to the pores on

the anterior segments and even more restricted on the segments thereafter;

pores easily seen, beginning on segment 5 and apparently ending on the ante-

penultimate segment as no pore is visible on the somewhat telescoped penul-

timate segment.

Last segment only slightly produced, much exceeded by the inflated anal

valves, which meet in a deep groove; preanal scale a narrow ellipse with a pad

process at each side projecting from under the margin of the last segment.

Gonopods relatively simple, somewhat resembling those of the genus

Epinannolene but possibly not fully developed as the last two segments of the

largest and oldest male (type) are legless, indicating that the animal lacks

one molt of maturity.

First pair of male legs 5-jointed, the coxae with a long process at the base

of each on the posterior side, the process projecting downward into a special

excavation of the sternum; other male legs normal.

Cambalomma laevis, n. sp.

One male (type) with 61 segments, the last two of which are legless, and

five immature females from Jeremie; one mature female from between Cham-

bellan and Dame Marie, August 1, 1940.

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 5

Description.—Length of mature female 60 mm, diameter 4 mm; number of

segments 62; body very slightly constricted at segments 3 and 4, thereafter

with the sides parallel to the posterior fourth from which it narrows gradu-

ally; surface of body dully shining but with the head, first segment and the

anal segment more brilliantly shining.

Head with antennae slenderly clavate (Fig. 1); joints 2 and 3 thinner and

slightly longer than the others, joints 5 and 6 widest and each with a sensory

spot of setae at the distal end on the outer side; eyes elongate oval, separated

from each other by about twice their longest diameter, composed of 28 to 30

ocelli in four rows with the longest row behind, the rows containing ocelli as

follows: 9, 8, 6, 5 or 8, 9, 7, 6; gnathochilarium as shown in Fig. 2.

First segment broadly and evenly rounded on the sides (Fig. 3) and clasp-

ing the body; the raised rim extending from behind the eye to the posterior

margin, sometimes with two or three tiny rudimentary striae inside it below.

Ensuing segments as described for the genus.

Last segment not much produced, the apex broadly rounded and much

exceeded by the inflated and brilliantly shining anal valves, which meet in a

deep groove.

Legs with the sterna finely roughened like the dorsal surface of the seg-

ments and without striae.

Gonopods as shown in Figs. 4 and 5.

Seventh segment of the male deeply emarginate in front ventrally to re-

ceive the tips of the gonopods, the surface behind the emargination specially

elevated.

First pair of male legs as shown in Figs. 6 and 7.

Family SPIROBOLIDAE

Rhinocricus modestior Chamberlin

Two specimens from between Camp Perrin and Riviére Glace, July 31,

1940. Other specimens from between Chambellan and Dame Marie, August

1, 1940.

Rhinocricus latespargor, n. sp.

One male (type) and four females from between Camp Perrin and Riviére

Glace, July 31, 1940. Collected by T. A. Fennell and H. F. Loomis but first

seen several weeks previously by T. A. Fennell.

Diagnosis.—This species may be recognized instantly by its size and strik-

ing black and yellow coloration, a combination found in no other West In-

dian member of the genus.

Description.—Length of the type 145 mm, width 11.5 mm, females to 159

mm long and 14 mm wide; number of segments 53 to 55; color of living ani-

Figs. 1-7.—Cambalomma laevis, n. sp.: 1, Antenna; 2, gnathochilarium; 3, first

segment and part of head, lateral view; 4, right gonopod with median plate, anterior

view; 5, right gonopod, posterior view; 6, first leg and sternal plate of male, anterior

view; 7, first leg and sternal plate of male, posterior view.

Figs. 8, 9.—Rhinocricus latespargor, n. sp.: 8, Gonopods, anterior view; 9, inner go-

nopod, anterior view.

Figs. 10-12.—Proaspis aitia, n. sp. 10, Head and first two segments, dorsal view;

11, lateral carinae of segments 10 and 11, dorsal view; 12, segments 19 and 20, anal

valves and preanal scale, ventral view.

Figs. 13-17.—Fennellia ovipes, n. sp.: 18, Right hand half of segments 5, 6, and 7,

oblique lateral view; 14, segments 18, 19, and 20, dorsal view; 15, gonopods in normal

position inclosing inner joints; 16, right hand gonopod extended, vertical ventral view;

17, gonopod extended, oblique outer view.

May 15, 1941 LOOMIS: NEW MILLIPEDS FROM HAITI 191

O00

HGvgh9

CSRS

fe)

Figs. 1-17.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 5

mals brilliant shining black with the narrow margin of each segment, the pos-

terior third of the hindbelt, bright lemon-yellow; first segment completely

surrounded by a narrow band of yellow; last segment yellow at apex.

Head with the median line moderately impressed on the vertex, very

deeply impressed on the clypeus immediately above the center tooth of the

labrum; transverse lines of the frontal area faintly impressed; margin of head

below the eye with a broadly raised rim; antennae with numerous sense

cones; joint 2 longest; eyes composed of 33 to 41 ocelli in six, rarely seven,

rows paralleling the margin of the first segment.

First segment with lateral limits sharply rounded, almost angular, the

raised rim short and not well developed, beginning far below the eye and

reaching to the back margin without following the curve of the lateral mar-

gin.

Second segment with a quite prominent shoulder below the limits of seg-

ment 1, its ventral surface slightly concave and coarsely striate.

Ensuing segments have the forebelt impressed with fine, short, undulating

lines; midbelt very smooth and shining; hindbelt much the same but with a

few tiny punctures; transverse sulcus indicated by a faintly impressed line

only on the sides of the body; lateral sulcus also faintly impressed; pores

quite large and placed as in R. lethifer Loomis; scobinae small, deep and close

together, beginning on segment 10 and usually visible to segment 23. 3

Last segment with the tip shghtly exceeding the anal valves, the apex

finely punctate, at base more or less wrinkled transversely.

Anal valves much like those of R. lethifer but the punctations more scat-

tered; preanal scale shorter and more elliptical than in that species, the apex

more broadly rounded with the sides not emarginate.

Gonopods as shown in Figs. 8 and 9.

Seventh segment of the male with an elevated ventral crest directed some-

what backward and broadly but shallowly emarginate at the middle in front,

the face of the emargination and the median part of the crest smooth, the crest

striate elsewhere.

Anterior male legs with coxal modifications much like those of R. lethzfer,

the outer joints similarly without ventral pads.

Remarks.—As in the case of the larger R. lethifer, discovered in 1927 near

the middle of the southern peninsula, this milliped also has the ability of

ejecting its repugnatorial fluid far from the sides of the body and is, accord-

ingly, to be classed as an animal dangerous to man as well as to smaller

creatures that might incite it to discharge its poison toward them. Likewise,

as with R. lethifer, this characteristic is recognized by the natives of the re-

gion for R. latespargor as Mr. Fennell, who first saw the millipeds and told

me of them, was admonished by his Haitian companion to handle them with

care as roughness might induce the discharge. Those collected on my visit

were taken alive in a large humus-filled can to the house where we were to

pass the night. There, on the cement floor of the porch, the animals were

released and, as they began to walk away, were irritated with a long switch

until the repugnatorial fluid was ejected, when the distance attained by it

was measured and recorded. Several of the millipeds ejected the fluid dis-

tances up to 24 inches from each side of the body but the maximum effort

was a double salvo, which sent the discharge 28 inches on one side and 33

May 15, 1941 LOOMIS: NEW MILLIPEDS FROM HAITI 193

inches on the other side of the animal! This same animal had twice, imme-

diately before this maximum effort, ejected fluid distances under 24 inches

from the body, although in both these instances less fluid had been used than

in the third ejection. The fluid, greenish yellow in color, left the body so

suddenly and in such short, fine jets that it scarcely could be seen until it

fell on the cement floor in tiny droplets distributed somewhat fanwise far

from the body.

Azygobolus tumidus Loomis

One mature male was found in a fruit cluster of the palm, Bornoa crassis-

patha (Martius), collected between Cavaillon and Aux Cayes, July 31, 1940.

This is the first record of this milliped in Haiti.

Family PLATYRHACIDAE

Although this family is well represented in Central and South America

only one species previously has been known in the West Indies, Nanorrhacus

luciae (Pocock), from the island of St. Lucia. A Cuban species, which C. H.

Bollman in 1888 included in this family under the name Stenonia maculata,

has recently been shown to belong in the Chytodesmidae and was made the

type of the genus Schzzodira.* With the discovery in Haiti of a new species of

platyrhacid having a combination of characters not found in other American

forms the necessity arises of erecting a genus to receive it.

Proaspis, n. gen.

Type.—Proaspts aitia, n. sp.

Diagnosis.—Apparently differing from all other American members of the

family in the peculiar construction of the preanal scale, which is elevated in

front and projects forward a little, overlapping the posterior margin of seg-

ment 20, a condition to which the generic name alludes. In a combination of

other characters Proaspis differs from previously known American genera

also.

Description.—Body of intermediate size, approximately 40 mm long and

less than one-sixth as wide; dorsum only moderately convex, with lateral

carinae above the middle of the body and projecting a considerable distance

away from it.

Head with median depression of the vertex rather wide and deep; labrum

concave, smooth and shining in contrast to the granular surface elsewhere.

First segment wider than the head but narrower than the second segment;

lenticular in outline; a series of large tubercles along the front and back mar-

gins, a few scattered ones in the median area and a small concentration at

each lateral angle; surface between the large tubercles covered with small

round granules.

Ensuing segments with three transverse rows of large tubercles, the re-

mainder of the surface with numerous smaller tubercles or granules as on seg-

ment 1 but lacking any semblance of polygonal areas or impressed lines; lat-

eral carinae with a prominent shoulder at base in front, the outer margin

thickened, especially on the poriferous segments, and with numerous

rounded or oliviform tubercles, some of which are almost as large as the tu-

bercles of the dorsal rows; pores opening obliquely outward from the margin

on all except the last few segments where they are more nearly dorsal; an-

3 Psyche 48: 35-39. 1941.

194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 5

terior subsegments densely beset with tiny elongate granules; segment 19

with the lateral carinae produced backward, the posterior limits almost acute;

last segment much exceeding segment 19, the posterior margin broadly

rounded; dorsal surface granular, lacking large tubercles but it and the mar-

ein with definitely placed setae.

Preanal scale slightly elevated in front and a little produced forward, cov-

ering the median portion of the ventral margin of segment 20.

Sterna without processes at the base of each leg; surface finely granular.

Segment 3 of the females with the ventral anterior margin emarginate on

each side of the middle, the margin behind the excavations strongly raised

and thickened, especially that between the two emarginations.

Proaspis aitia, n. sp.

Three females, one the type, collected from beneath loose grass at road-

side between Camp Perrin and Riviére Glace, July 31, 1940.

Description.—Length 38 mm, width 6 mm; color dull yellowish white but

with an incrustation of reddish- ‘brown, claylike material almost obliterating

the body color.

Head and first two segments as shown in Fig. 10; antennae resting in a

slight depression laterad of the socket, the depression not sharply limited

above or below; distance from each socket to the side of the head equivalent

to the distance between the antennae.

Dorsum of segments moderately convex, the lateral carinae projecting al-

most horizontally from above the middle of the body, their shape and the

sculpturing of the body as shown in Fig. 11; posterior end of the body nar-

rowing gradually, beginning with segment 17.

Last segment much prolonged beyond segment 19 and with the pcsterior

end very broadly rounded; dorsal surface granular but lacking large tubercles

as on preceding segments, there are, however, two large subterminal dorsal

setae with six similar setae projecting from the apical margin and from two

to four small setae beneath the apex; below the apical projection and near

the margin on each side are two large setae.

Preanal scale, anal valves, and the last two segments are shown in ventral

view in Fig, 12.

Family CHYTODESMIDAE

Docodesmus parvior Chamberlin

A male collected at Jeremie and a female collected between Chambellan

and Dame Marie, August 1, 1940.

Family STIODESMIDAE

Fennellia, n. gen.

Type.—Fennellia ovipes, n. sp.

Diagnosis.—With the same pore formula as Psochodesmus Cook but the

body larger and definitely broader, having lateral carinae more extensive and

obliquely descending nearly to the level of the legs instead of projecting al-

most horizontally high on the sides of the body.

Description.—Body with 20 segments, broad, in outline much as in Doco-

desmus Cook, only four or five times longer than its width and less than 10

mm long; the dorsum strongly arched with the lateral carinae descending at

an oblique angle almost to the level of the sternal plates.

Head broad, extending far outward from the antennal sockets; vertex

May 15, 1941 LOOMIS: NEW MILLIPEDS FROM HAITI 195

scarcely elevated, strongly erose and granular, medianly channeled; frontal

area transversely rugose; clypeal area smooth and shining.

First segment with the thin expanded front margin much as in Docodesmus

but with 10 instead of 12 scalloped quadrate areas along it; surface with two

transverse rows of large tubercles, six in the anterior row, four in the one be-

hind, the surface elsewhere finely granular except the expanded margin,

which is almost smooth.

Ensuing segments with four oblique, ascending, longitudinal rows of large

tubercles, three tubercles in each row; laterad of each outer row from one to

three slightly smaller tubercles usually are present; remainder of dorsal sur-

face of segments dull but not definitely granular; under surface of body finely

and evenly reticulated; posterior margin of segments with a prominent lobe

at the base of each lateral carina; lateral carinae thin, obliquely descending

to near the level of the sterna, the outer margin also oblique with the anterior

corner lower than the posterior one; pores opening from large quadrangular

processes on segments 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, and 15; carinae of segments 2, 3, 4, 6,

8, 11, and 14 with three outer scallops; segments 16 to 19 inclusive with four

outer scallops; segment 5 with a single scallop or lobe in front of the pore cal-

lus; other poriferous carinae with two scallops in front of the pore callus.

Last segment small but visible from above between the two short back-

wardly produced lobes of segment 19; preanal scale triangular.

Gonopods each witha very large hemispherical basal joint capable of wholly

containing the outer joint, the two basal joints usually closely applied to each

other mesially, almost completely hiding the terminal joints within.

Third segment of the female with a low crescentic ventral ridge behind the

genital opening between segments 2 and 3.

This genus is named for T. A. Fennell, my friend and companion on the

journey to the southern peninsula of Haiti.

Fennellia ovipes, n. sp.

Two males, one the type, and two females from Jeremie, August 1, 1940.

Description.—Body from 8.5 to 9 mm long and from 1.8 to 2 mm wide;

color rather dark dull brown, the large pore calluses colorless in sharp con-

trast to the rest of the dorsal surface; head with the roughened vertex almost

black, the remainder of the head, the antennae, legs, and ventral surfaces

colorless.

Body arch high with lateral carinae obliquely descending a considerable

distance from the sides of the body as shown in Fig. 13, which also shows the

sculpturing of the dorsum and the margins of the segments as well as the

shape and position of the pore calluses; posterior end of the body shown in

Fig. 14; the last segment has two dorsal tubercles in front which are not visi-

ble in the figure, being hidden by the penultimate segment; preanal scale of

moderate size, triangular; anal valves flattened, with an indefinite ridgelike

swelling down the middle of each; margins rather thin but strongly elevated.

Gonopods as shown in Figs. 15, 16, and 17.

The females have the thin, flattened genital organs protruding from be-

tween the second and third segments and directed forward, almost covering

the coxal joints of the second legs.

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 5

ICHTHYOLOGY.—The flatfish Cyclopsetta chittendeni Bean from

Texas, a new record for the fauna of North America.! Karu D.

Rep, U. 8S. National Museum. (Communicated by LEONARD

P.ScHauLrT7z,)

A collection of marine and fresh-water fishes from the vicinity of

Galveston, Tex., presented to the United States National Museum

by J. L. Baughman, of Houston, contained two examples of the rare

flounder Cyclopsetta chittendeni B. A. Bean? collected by the donor on

August 11, 1940, near Galveston. Heretofore this species was known

only from five specimens from the vicinity of the Island of Trinidad.

The Galveston specimens are much smaller than those from Trinidad,

being 83 and 91 mm respectively, in standard length. The type,

U.S.N.M. no. 44100, is 172 mm while the remaining four examples are

205 to 230 mm in total length, according to J. R. Norman.’

The following counts were made: Dorsal rays, 87 and 89; anal rays,

66 and 69; pectoral 15, lateral line 78 and 80; gill rakers 4+8 on first

gill arch.

ENTOMOLOGY .—A revision of the parasitic wasps of the genus Ne-

eremnus Thomson (Hulophidae; Hymenoptera).* A. B. GAHAN,

U. 8. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. (Communi-

cated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK.)

The genus Necremnus contains some species that are parasitic upon

insects of economic importance. Hight species, of which four are be-

lieved to be new, are treated in the accompanying key.

Family EKULOPHIDAE

Genus Necremnus Thomson

This genus was said by Thomson to have only one spur on the hind tibia,

and Ashmead, in his Classification of the chalcid-flies (Mem. Carnegie Mus.

1: 358. 1904), placed it in the tribe Hemiptarsenini, which he distinguished

from the tribe Eulophini on the basis of this character. The genotype species,

leucarthros (Nees), however, has two tibial spurs (one very short and difficult

to distinguish), and in the other species two very unequal spurs are discerni-

ble on all specimens in which the hind tibiae are in proper position for obser-

vation. ,

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

March 25, 1941.

2 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 17: 635-636, fig. 3. 1895.

3 A systematic monograph of the flatfishes (Heterosomata) 1: 136-137, fig. 89, British

Museum, London, 19384.

4 Received February 25, 1941.

May 15, 1941 GAHAN: REVISION OF THE GENUS NECREMNUS 197

Antenna inserted well below middle of head, not compressed; 9-jointed

in the female (scape, pedicel, one distinct ring joint, 3-jointed funicle, and 3-

jointed club), apparently 8-jointed in the male (scape, pedicel, apparently

without a ring joint, funicle 4-jointed, and club 2-jointed, the first three

funicular joints usually each with a branch, or, if unbranched, the scape

much enlarged); pronotum short, conical; mesoscutum without parapsidal

grooves; scutellum with two pairs of strong setae and without either longi-

tudinal grooves or a transverse furrow; propodeum usually with a median

carina but without distinct lateral folds and without well defined spiracular

sulci, the spiracles located close to base of propodeum. Wings well developed;

submarginal vein not broken; marginal vein shorter than submarginal and

two or more times as long as stigmal vein; postmarginal vein at least as long

as stigmal, usually distinctly longer. Abdomen subsessile, more or less ovate

in outline; only the apex of ovipositor visible.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF NECREMNUS

1. Funicular joints without rami, scape never much enlarged. Females. .2

Funicular joints 1 to 3 each with a distinct ramus, or, if without rami,

femseapeereathy enlarged. Males. 105.5... 60006. ess Sh a. 9

Denhioreywine, distincetiyamarked with tuscous. 4921.20.00. 50. oe 3

Honey pal MoumbaUSCOUSMankiMnes= fy: lo. Ce nes so eee 5

3. Forewing with a large fuscous cloud across middle enclosing a hyaline

area adjacent to marginal vein and with three fuscous spots near

apical margin; second funicular joint testaceous, rest of flagellum

|SIEROIRTISIOW, Jee > o iatee ns WAG posery eenbst ats Rete geese Penta maculatipennis Ashmead

Infuscation of forewing not as above; second funicular joint concolorous

mp eLesimOle acelluMmmerenenirr Hid ties eter Mie O08 wary Slew ahs 4

4. Forewing with a large fuscous cloud embracing whole area behind mar-

ginal vein; first funicular joint and pedicel subequal................

a oo ei oe re oa californicus (Girault)

Forewing with a narrow fuscous spot or incomplete transverse band from

stigmal vein and a less distinct fuscous band behind base of marginal

vein; first funicular joint nearly twice as long as pedicel.............

apn enmealneereeiias maha ey Nia tas s lS qe aroies hoes wrt sues eg: 6

Dark or blackish green, mesoscutum and scutellum sometimes with a

COMNER BLING Chey ete tee Pt he dois) eerie cmos Lae ieees 7

6. Propodeum very weakly sculptured medially and usually with at least

slight traces of lateral folds behind middle........ breviramulus, n. sp.

Propodeum distinctly though delicately sculptured medially as well as

elsewhere and without traces of lateral folds....... oregonensis, Ni. Sp.

7. Postmarginal vein not longer than stigmal vein... . pwnctifrons Thomson

Postmarginal vein distinctly longer than stigmal vein.............. 8

8. Abdomen about twice as long as broad; marginal vein fuscous or brown-

ISh teEShACCOUGM wr eee Se cue a hveedae bee urls, leucarthros (Nees)

Abdomen about one and one-half times as long as broad; marginal vein

pale yellowish + Gee At eee BU Meo 5,, duplicatus, n. sp.

9. Funicular joints without rami; scape greatly enlarged; second funicular

joint testaceous, rest of flagellum blackish; wings maculated with

HUSCOUSS OS. eae hae eae ene Saree ae maculatipennis Ashmead

198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 5

Funicular joints 1 to 3 with distinct rami; scape usually only slightly

broadened; second joint of funicle not differently colored from the

others; wings hyaline... 0... Bee ee eee 10

10. Rami of funicular joints short, not more than three times as long as the

segments from which they originate and never extending nearly to

apex of club cnt Mes eee kL ES ee 11

Rami of funicular joints long, four or more times as long as the segments

from which they originate and all extending to apex of club or nearly

SOE pla ee gucttie ee Rk OR a A ain Ne ee a sr 12

11. Rami of funicle very short, not twice as long as supporting segments and

much less than half as long as flagellum........ breviramulus, Nn. sp.

Rami of funicle about two and one-half to three times as long as support-

ing segments, the longest approximately half as long as flagellum.....

BT ee ee AINE HT ere ee eM RR IN SeXy “Ur Sa oregonensis, N. Sp.

12. Rami of funicle slender, cylindrical, and clothed with long, slender hairs

Rami of funicle more or less compressed, nearly as thick as funicular

joints, and without long slender hairs, but rather densely clothed with

short coarse and more or less recumbent hairs ... .leucarthros (Nees)

13. Postmarginal vein not longer than stigmal........ punctifrons Thomson

Postmarginal vein distinctly longer than stigmal...... duplicatus, N. sp.

Necremnus maculatipennis Ashmead

Necremnus maculatipennis Ashmead, Fauna Hawaiiensis 1: 331. 1901.

This species, described from Hawaii, is represented in the U. 8. National

Museum by the male and female types. The male differs from typical Ne-

cremnus by having the antennal scape greatly enlarged and compressed and

the joints of the funicle entirely without rami. The female appears to be

typical of the genus and the male differs in no way, except in the antennae.

In both sexes the front wing has a large fuscous cloud in the disk enclosing

a hyaline area adjacent to the marginal vein, and there are also three fuscous

spots near the apical margin. The second funicular joint is testaceous, the

rest of the flagellum black.

Necremnus californicus (Girault), n. comb.

Eulophus californicus Girault, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 53: 446. 1917.

The type of this species lacks the head, abdomen, and wings. The head and

wings are mounted on a slide, the head crushed beneath the cover glass.

It may be distinguished from the other species treated herein by the large

discoidal cloud covering the whole width of the wing behind the marginal

vein. The scape is cylindrical, the pedicel more than twice as long as broad.

The single ring joint is about half as long as broad. The first funicular joint is

very slightly longer than the pedicel and about twice as long as broad at

apex, the second joint a little longer than broad and the third subquadrate.

The club is a little longer than the two preceding joints combined and very

slightly broader than the last funicular joint. The propodeum is practically

smooth, the median carina barely indicated, and the lateral folds and spirac-

ular sulci are entirely absent.

Necremnus comptus, n. sp.

The bimaculate forewing, relatively long and pointed abdomen, and the

mostly yellow hind tibia will distinguish this species from all others known to

me.

May 15, 1941 GAHAN: REVISION OF THE GENUS NECREMNUS 199

Female.—Length 2.6 mm. Head as broad as thorax and nearly uniformly

strongly reticulate-punctate; ocelli in a low triangle; lateral ocellus about

twice its own diameter from eye margin; eyes with short pile; antennae in-

serted very slightly below a line connecting lower extremities of eyes, 9-

jointed; scape subcylindrical, reaching to front ocellus, about five times as

long as broad; pedicel about twice as long as broad; ring joint transverse;

first funicular joint nearly twice as long as pedicel and about two and one-

half times as long as broad; second and third funicular joints equal and each

about twice as long as broad; club distinctly 3-jointed, no thicker than funi-

cle, about equal in length to two preceding joints combined, the basal joint

longer than broad, second joint subquadrate, apical joint conical, a little

shorter than penultimate and terminating in a short spine. Thorax strongly

reticulate punctate, the punctures on scutellum and axillae a little finer than

those on mesoscutum; prepectus more coarsely sculptured than rest of pleu-

ron; postscutellum about as long as propodeum and sculptured like scutel-

lum; propodeum with very distinct and nearly uniform, fine, reticulate-punc-

tate sculpture, with a distinct median carina and with traces of both lateral

folds and spiracular sulci but these not distinctly impressed. Forewing ex-

tending about to apex of abdomen, its length to breadth about as 24 to 9;

marginal, postmarginal, and stigmal veins approximately in the proportion

of 25, 15, and 10, respectively. Abdomen longer than head and thorax com-

bined, a little narrower than thorax, and fully three times as long as broad,

the basal tergite smooth, the other tergites more or less sculptured; tip of

ovipositor sheaths protruding a little beyond apex of abdomen.

General color greenish black; head below antennae, front coxae, meso-

sternum, and dorsum of abdomen tinged with coppery; propodeum metallic

green; antennae entirely black; mandibles testaceous; coxae, trochanters,

and femora black; tibiae yellow, the middle and posterior pairs with a little

more than the apical one-third black; tarsi yellowish, the last two or three

segments of each more or less fuscous; forewing subhyaline with a weak fus-

cous band at base of marginal vein and another incomplete one below stig-

mal vein; venation dark testaceous; hind wing hyaline.

Type locality.—San Francisco, Calif.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 54701.

Described from one female collected May 13, 1915, by E. P. Van Duzee.

Necremnus breviramulus, n. sp.

The male of this species is easily distinguished from other known males of

the genus by the very short rami of the funicular joints. These branches are

subequal and each less than twice the length of the main body of the seg-

ment from which it originates. The female differs from maculatipennis Ash-

mead and californicus (Girault) by having the forewings without infuscation,

and it may be distinguished from leucarthros (Nees) by the much brighter

metallic-green color of the body, by the somewhat shorter antennae, and by

the less extensive infuscation of the posterior tarsi.

Female.—Length 2.2 mm. Head transverse, about as wide as thorax; lat-

eral ocellus about twice its own diameter from eye margin; eyes with a few

very short cilia; antennae inserted on or very slightly below a line joining

the lower margins of the eyes, 9-jointed; scape subcylindrical, not attaining

level of vertex; pedicel about one and one-half times as long as broad at apex;

ring joint transverse, distinct; first funicular joint subequal in length to

pedicel but slightly thicker; second and third joints of funicle each about as

long as broad and very slightly shorter than first; club distinctly 3-jointed

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 3l, NO. 5

and a little longer than the two preceding funicle joints combined, terminat-

ing in a distinct short spine. Whole head with fine, shallow, reticulate-punc-

tate sculpture. Thorax sculptured about like the head; postscutellum about

two-thirds as long as propodeum and sculptured like scutellum; propodeum

with a distinct though delicate median longitudinal carina, without com-

plete lateral folds but usually with distinct traces of them posteriorly, with-

out spiracular sulci, and with its surface delicately reticulated, this sculpture

very weak medially; prepectus distinctly more coarsely sculptured than rest

of pleuron, the mesepimeron mostly smooth. Forewing extending beyond

apex of abdomen, its length to breadth about as 22:9; marginal, postmargin-

al, and stigmal veins in about the proportions of 22, 10, and 7, respectively.

Abdomen ovate, about twice as long as broad and about as long as head and

thorax combined, nearly smooth but with some weak lineolation on the last

three or four tergites; only the tip of ovipositor sheath exserted.

Head, thorax, and abdomen brilliant metallic green; antennal flagellum

brownish; scape and pedicel metallic green; mandibles yellowish; legs metal-

lic green or metallic fuscous, but with all trochanters, apices of all femora,

anterior tibiae except ventrally, and middle and posterior tibiae at bases and

apices pale yellow or whitish; each tarsus usually with the two basal joints

white, the two apical joints fuscous; wings hyaline; venation pale yellowish;

tegulae metallic green; abdomen beneath less brilliantly metallic than above.

Male.—Length 1.6 mm. Antennal scape slightly thickened, about two and

one-half times as long as broad; pedicel only a little longer than broad; ring

joint apparently obsolete; first three joints of flagellum each about as broad

as long and each with a short thick ramus originating at its base and extend-

ing beyond its apex approximately to apex of following segment; fourth

flagellar joint about one and one-half times as long as thick, distinctly sepa-

rated from the preceding and the following joints by short petioles and with-

out a ramus; fifth and sixth flagellar joints separated only by a distinct

groove, together forming a club which is approximately one and one-half

times as long as the fourth flagellar joint and slightly constricted at apex but

without the distinct terminal spine which is present in the female. The ab-

domen is about as long as the thorax. In other respects the male is like the fe-

male.

Type locality.— Lawrence, Kans.

Type.—U.8S.N.M. no. 54702.

Described from 31 females (1 holotype) and 8 males (1 allotype) said to

have been reared from pupae of Hypera eximius Lec., June 6, 1936, by L. S.

Henderson. The holotype, allotype, and 18 paratypes are deposited in the

U.S. National Museum. Fifteen female and 4 male paratypes have been re-

turned to the University of Kansas, whence the material was ‘originally re-

ceived. :

Two females and 1 male reared at Pegrim, Ill., in October 1905 from

Hypera comptus (Say) by E. S. G. Titus are in the U. 8S. National Museum

collection and are almost certainly this species but are not considered a part

of the type material.

Necremnus oregonensis, n. sp.

Necremnus sp. Chamberlin, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 35: 107. 1933.

In color, size, and most every other respect, this species agrees with the

description of breviramulus, but it differs from that species in the following

particulars: Antenna of male with branches of funicular jomts each about

two and one-half to three times as long as the segment from which they orig-

May 15, 1941 GAHAN: REVISION OF THE GENUS NECREMNUS 201

inate and always extending well beyond the apex of the segment which fol-

lows; fourth flagellar joint of male more than twice as long as broad; first

funicular joint of female distinctly a little longer than pedicel and about

twice as long as broad; propodeum in both sexes with nearly uniform, dis-

tinct, fine, reticulate-punctate sculpture and without definite traces of the

lateral folds.

Type locality—Richmond, Oreg.

Type.—U.5.N.M. no. 54708.

Described from 5 females (1 holotype) and 2 males (1 allotype) reared in

July 1930 and June 1931 from Hypera rumicis (L.) by T. R. Chamberlin;

also 2 females and 5 males reared July 5, 1931, by Chamberlin from material

of Hypera sp. collected in the type locality.

Necremnus punctifrons Thomson

Necremnus punctifrons Thomson, Hym. Scand. 5: 235. 1878.

According to the description, this Kuropean species has the postmarginal

vein not longer than the stigmal, in which respect it differs from all the other

species here treated. It is not known to occur in America and has not been

seen by the writer.

Necremnus leucarthros (Nees)

Eulophus leucarthros Nees, Hym. Ichneumon. affin. Mongr. 2: 172. 1834.

Eulophus hippias Walker, Mongr. Chaleid. 1: 185. 1839.

Eulophus amempsimus Walker, Mongr. Chalcid. 1: 186. 1839; Dalla Torre,

_ Cat. Hym. 5: 58. 1878; Thorpe, Proc. Ent. Soc. London 5 (pt. 2): 30. 1930;

Donisthorpe, Ent. Rec. and Journ. Variation 50: 74. 1938. (New synon-

ymy.)

Necremnus leucarthros (Nees) Thomson, Hym. Scand. 5: 234. 1878; Dalla

Torre, Cat. Hym. 5: 7. 1898; Ruschka and Fulmek, Zeitsch. Angew. Ent.

2: 398. 1915; Graham-Smith, Parasitology 11: 371-383. 1919; Chamber-

lin, Journ. Econ. Ent. 17: 629. 1924; Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 27: 142.

1925.

The type of Eulophus leucarthros Nees has not been seen by the writer, the

present interpretation of the species being based on specimens identified by

Thomson, Ruschka, and Schmiedeknecht. Eulophus hippias Walker was

placed by Thomson as a questionable synonym of leucarthros. The type of

hippias in the British Museum was studied in 1927 and found to be the same

as the current interpretation of lewcarthros. On the same occasion the types of

Eulophus amempsimus Walker were examined, and that species is also be-

lieved to be the same as leucarthros.

Necremnus leucarthros was reared at the Salt Lake, Utah, Laboratory of

the Bureau of Entomology from material imported from Europe in connec-

tion with the introduction of parasites for control of the alfalfa weevil,

Hypera variabilis (Abst.), but is not known to have been released in this

country. The species is recorded by Ruschka and Fulmek as parasitizing

Lema cyanella (L.) and by Graham-Smith as attacking Diptera. Thorpe re-

cords Hulophus amempsimus from Hyponomeuta padellus (L.) and Donis-

thorpe cites it as a parasite of Quedius brevis Er.

Necremnus duplicatus, n. sp.

This species 1s extremely like lewcarthros but may be distinguished in the

male by the fact that the rami of the funicle joints are slender, cylindrical,

202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 5

and sparsely clothed with long hairs. The female is not easily distinguished

from leucarthros, differing, so far as I can see, only by being somewhat more

robust, by having the abdomen broader in proportion to its length, and by

the marginal vein being pale yellowish instead of brownish fuscous. The

male antenna agrees with Thomson’s characterization of punctifrons, but

the postmarginal vein in that species is stated to be not longer than the

stigmal, whereas in this species it is nearly one and one-half times as long as

the stigmal.

Female.—Length 2.15 mm. Head transverse, about as wide as thorax,

viewed from in front a little broader than high; ocelli in a low triangle; lateral

ocellus about twice its own diameter from eye margin; eyes with sparse short

pile; antennae inserted very slightly above a line connecting lower margins

of eyes, 9-jointed; scape subcylindrical, slightly compressed, attaining to

level of anterior ocellus; pedicel not quite twice as long as broad, shorter and

narrower than first funicular joint; ring joint strongly transverse; first funic-

ular joint fully twice as long as broad; second and third joints of funicle sub-

equal, each distinctly longer than broad but a little shorter than first; club

very distinctly 3-jointed, about as long as two preceding joints combined

and scarcely thicker than funicle, the first two joints subequal, the third joint

smaller and terminating in a short spine. Whole head finely reticulate-punc-

tate. Thorax sculptured about like head, the punctation on scutellum and

axillae distinctly a little finer than on mesoscutum; postscutellum nearly as

long as propodeum on median line and sculptured like scutellum; propodeum

with a delicate median carina, usually without lateral folds but occasionally

with faint traces of them posteriorly, without spiracular sulci, and with its

surface uniformly very indistinctly reticulated, nearly smooth; prepectus

more strongly sculptured than rest of pleuron; mesepimeron on upper half

perfectly smooth. Forewing extending beyond apex of abdomen, its length

to breadth about as 26 to 11; marginal, postmarginal, and stigmal veins

about in the proportions of 27, 14, and 10, respectively. Abdomen broadly

ovate, about as long as head and thorax combined and approximately one

and one-half times as long as broad, the basal four segments practically

smooth, those beyond the fourth weakly sculptured; only the apex of ovi-

positor sheath exposed.

Head and thorax dark green, more or less strongly tinged with coppery be-

low antennae and on scutellum, axillae, and mesepimeron; mandibles yellow-

ish; antennal scape and pedicel greenish black, flagellum brownish black;

wings hyaline, the venation pale yellowish with the stigmal knob dark brown;

all coxae concolorous with thorax, the anterior and median pairs tinged with

coppery; trochanters dark; all femora greenish black with their apices nar-

rowly yellow; front tibia blackish but with a pale-yellowish stripe on outer

margin extending from base to apex; middle and posterior tibiae black with

a narrow yellowish band at base of each; anterior tarsi wholly dark brown;

middle and posterior tarsi with basal joint pale, the three following joints

brownish or blackish; abdomen dark metallic green above, but with apex of

first and greater part of second, third, and fourth tergites copper colored ;

ventral side of abdomen nearly black.

Male.—Length 1.7 mm. Antennal scape not thickened, four or five times

as long as broad; pedicel about one and one-half times as long as broad; ring

joint obsolete; first funicular joint a little longer than pedicel and with a long,

slender, cylindrical branch originating at its base and reaching very nearly

to apex of flagellum; second funieular joint a little longer than first and with

a similar branch originating somewhat beyond its base and likewise extend-

May 15, 1941 OMAN: REVISION OF THE NEARCTIC MEGOPHTHALMINAE 203

ing nearly to apex of flagellum; third joint a little longer than second, with

its branch originating about at its middle and attaining to about the same

point as the others; all the funicular rami sparsely clothed with long fine

hairs; fourth joint of funicle nearly four times as long as broad, thicker to-

ward apex than at base, and without a branch; club 2-jointed, a little thicker

and very slightly longer than fourth funicular Joint, its apical joint about half

as long as the basal one and terminating in a very short spine; abdomen el-

liptical, about as long as thorax and about twice as long as broad, with its

dorsum mostly dark cupreus. Otherwise like the female except less robust.

Type localitty—Mount Vernon, Wash.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 54704.

Described from 20 females (1 holotype) and 21 males (1 allotype) reared

from Ceutorhynchus assimilis (Payk.) in turnip seed pods July 3, 1937, by

A. J. Hanson. A male and a female reared July 17-19, 1937, by H. L. Parker,

under European Parasite Laboratory no. 4377 from ‘“‘Cruciferae pods”’ from

Holland, seem to be this same species but are not considered a part of the

type series. Also in the collection are 8 specimens, believed to be this species,

from Oakley, Hollister, Roseworth, and Castleford, Idaho, all swept from or

collected on Sophia sophia and Sisymbrium altissimum in June 1937 and in

May and June 1931. The specimens collected in 1931 were taken by David

EK. Fox, but the collector of the earlier specimens is not known.

ENTOMOLOGY .—Revision of the Nearctic Megophthalminae (Ho-

moptera: Cicadellidae).t P. W. Oman, U.S. Bureau of Entomol-

ogy and Plant Quarantine.

This paper deals with the North American leafhoppers heretofore

assigned to the genus Paropulopa Fieber. According to the present

interpretation none of the seven known species, representing two

genera herein described, is congeneric with the European Paropulopa

lineata Fieber, 1866, genotype of Paropulopa.

Paropulopa lineata Fieber has no ocelli, the ocellar vestiges being

on the crown rather than on the face, whereas in all the North Ameri-

can species of Megophthalminae the ocelli are present and located on

the face. This character is sufficient to distinguish the North American

forms from Paropulopa, and they may be differentiated from Meg-

ophthalmus Curtis,? to which they seem more closely related, by the

fact that the carinae replacing the frontal and epicranial sutures are

not foliaceously produced. Because these leafhoppers are rather rare

in collections and the characters of the subfamily are not well known,

the following résumé of the characters common to the North American

representatives seems appropriate.

Relatively small, robust leafhoppers (2.5-5 mm in length); color

some shade of cinereous, brown, or NURODTE ; head, including eyes,

1 Received February 26, 1941.

2 Megophthalmus Curtis, January 1833, genotype (Megophthalmus bipunctatus

Curtis, 1833) =Cicada scanica Fallen, 1806; synonym Paropia Germar, March 1833,

genotype (Cicada) Ulopa scanica (Fallen), 1806 (=Coelidia ? scutata Germar, 1821).

204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 3l, NO. 5

distinctly wider than pronotum; eyes somewhat bulbous; clypeal

suture distinct; frontal sutures replaced by carinae above antennal

pits; clypellus elongate and narrowed slightly both basally and distal-

ly, extending well beyond the normal curve of the genae; gena strong-

ly emarginate below eye; length of antenna about one-half width of

head; antennal pit shallow, with only a very small ledge above; dis-

tance between ocelli equal to or greater than distance from ocellus to

eye; ocellus located at the inner end of a more or less distinct trans-

verse depression formed by the frontal carina and the dorsal margin

of the face, the ocellus thus directed laterad or laterocephalad; head,

pronotum, scutellum, and at least basal portion of forewing, excepting

the veins, with numerous small, circular pits; forewing subcoriaceous,

veins usually rather prominent, appendix absent.

In distribution the species treated in this paper appear limited to

California and adjacent Mexico west of the Sierras, and locality rec-

ords given for the various species are in California unless otherwise

indicated.

The illustrations accompanying this paper were made on coordinate

paper with the aid of a micrometer scale placed in the ocular of a com-

pound microscope. Corresponding parts are drawn to the same scale

and therefore give an accurate idea of the relative size of the various

structures in the different species. For convenience in examining these

figures corresponding structures are indicated by the same letter, as

follows: A, lateral view of dorsal spine; B, dorsal view of style and con-

nective; C, lateral view of aedeagus; D, ventral view of male plates,

from dissected specimens; E, dorsal view of head, pronotum, and

scutellum; F, ventral view of female sternite VI; G, ventral view of

female sternite VII. These letters are in each instance associated with

a number indicating the species, as follows: 1, Brenda arborea (Ball) ;

2, Tiaja mexicana (Ball); 3, 7. interrupta (Ball); 4, T. californica

(Ball); 5, T. ventura, n. sp.; 6, T. friscana (Ball); 7, T. montara, n. sp.

In choosing the cotype specimens herein designated as lectotypes

of the various species, I have in each ease selected the specimen to

which Ball had attached his name label.

KEY TO GENERA AND SPECIES OF NEARCTIC MEGOPHTHALMINAE

a’. Hindwings fully developed. Crown broad and short, median length not

greater than length next to eye (Fig. 1E)............ Brenda, n. gen.

One species, Brenda arborea (Ball)

a’. Hindwings rudimentary. Crown distinctly longer medially than next to

Saicen gute, 25) ON eens Ce eaianae si Wart temea rc a amueten 7 ne may ee. oe Tiaja, n. gen.

b'. Vein Cue not forming a claval suture but evident as a vein throughout

its length. Veins adjacent to Cug (Cu; and first claval) at no point

elevated above level of Cug..... Seni Naw Sale eee T. mexicana (Ball)

May 15, 1941 OMAN: REVISION OF THE NEARCTIC MEGOPHTHALMINAE 205

b?. Vein Cue either obscure or appearing as the claval suture for at least

part of its length. Veins adjacent to Cue (Cu: and first claval) usually

distinctly elevated above level of Cue opposite the furcation of radius

and media.

c'. Sternite VII of female usually visible only laterally, always shorter

medially than laterally and median length always less than median

length of sternite VI. Male plates rather small, appearing (unless

relaxed and dissected) subtruncate distally. Dorsal spine slender,

distal pontion-atbenuavediaceaiay. |. a. ee T. interrupta (Ball)

c?. Sternite VII of female visible throughout its width, not shorter me-

dially than laterally, or if so due to a broad, shallow, median emar-

gination posteriorly and then with median length equal to or

greater than median length of sternite VI. Male plates large, never

appearing subtruncate, but with caudolateral margins deflexed.

Dorsal spine stout, distal portion not attenuated.

d'. Sternite VII of female with a median U-shaped emargination pos-

teriorly (Fig. 4G). Dorsal spine with four hooklike points dis-

(GEN UN (CBee eG eer ea te ere T. californica (Ball)

d?. Sternite VII of female without a median U-shaped emargination

posteriorly. Dorsal spine with not more than three points dis-

tally.

e!. Females.

f'. Sternite VII truncate or nearly so. Basal margins of pygofer

exposed.

g'. Basal margins of pygofer not deflexed. . .T. ventura, n. sp.

g’. Basal margins of pygofer strongly deflexed..............

EE Oe eT Rs Nei eg bet T. friscana (Ball)

f?. Sternite VII with a broad, shallow, median emargination pos-

teriorly. Basal margins of pygofer covered by sternite VII.

2 OPS A AE PERC ch Ag A ORE DEED PEP ey ent rae Amare a T. montara, n. sp.

e?. Males.

h'. Style not extending beyond apex of plate.............

ee SN ak ae Ne T. ventura, n. sp.

h?. Style extending well beyond apex of plate.

u, Style with distal portion attenuated (Fig. 6B).......

LRU oq) eeiny la nerpea yi ytd cl Log T. friscana i

7. Style with distal portion expanded (Fig. 7B).

ae ede eat be Dlaues WAR ce eee en gel ae: montara, me sp.

Brenda, n. gen.

Face broad and relatively flat; ocellar depressions very shallow; crown

short and broad (Fig. 1E), with nearly parallel margins, median one-third

with a very shallow transverse depression. Pronotum broadly arched except

for a pair of broad, shallow depressions anterolaterally ; lateral margins short.

Venation of forewing normal, with three discal and three anteapical cells.

Hindwing fully developed, with four apical cells; costal area very broad at

apex of wing.

Type of the genus, Paropulopa arborea Ball, 1909.

Brenda arborea (Ball), n. comb.

Paropulopa arborea Ball, Can. Ent. 41: 184. 1909.

Length 3.4-3.9 mm. Anterior margin of head sharply angled. Circular pits

on forewing sparse, occurring only on basal half along veins.

Vans

"2-MEXICANA

/A W

/-ARBOREA

3-INTERRUPTA

4 -CALIFORNICA

78 7C

7-MONTARA

6-FRISCANA

Figs. 1-7.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

May 15, 1941 OMAN: REVISION OF THE NEARCTIC MEGOPHTHALMINAE 207

Color variable, usually some shade of brown and typically golden-brown,

but frequently with considerable cinereous. Fuscous marks, if present, always

more extensive on the venter; on the dorsum usually confined to the circular

pits but occasionally forming a faint and poorly outlined band across middle

of forewing.

Sternite VII of female very short, usually less than one-third the length of

sternite VI and frequently not apparent as a separate sternite, posterior mar-

gin truncate. Basal portions of ovipositor, ovipositor sheath, and pygofer ex-

posed. Male valve small, nearly quadrangular in outline. Male plates small,

rounded distally (Fig. 1D). Dorsal spine heavily sclerotized and pigmented,

usually visible without dissection, in lateral view as illustrated (Fig. 1A).

Style, connective, and aedeagus relatively simple, outlines as illustrated

(Figs. 1B, 1C).

Distribution.—Cold Springs, Sequoia National Forest (Oman); Colfax

(Ball); El Portal (Oman); Palo Alto (Oman); Sloughhouse (Cartwright) ;

Towle (Beamer); Watsonville (Ball) ; Yosemite Valley (Beamer). All these lo-

calities are in central California west of the Sierras. April 29 to August 20.

62 specimens examined. ;

Lectotype female labeled ‘‘Colfax, Cal. 23 Je. 08” in the E. D. Ball collec-

tion, U. 8. National Museum.

Tiaja, n. gen.

Face moderately convex below the level of the antennal pits, above this

line with a distinct median depression between the two rather deep ocellar

depressions; crown distinctly longer medially than next to eye (Fig. 4K),

nearly flat or with a shallow depressed area on disk. Pronotum scarcely

arched, slightly elevated along the median line, thus accentuating somewhat

the broad, shallow, antero-lateral depressions; lateral margins short; poste-

rior margin truncate or slightly emarginate medially. Venation of forewing

frequently irregular and usually with additional cross veins in the apical por-

tion. Hindwings rudimentary.

Type of the genus, Paropulopa californica Ball, 1909.

Tiaja mexicana (Ball), n. comb.

Paropulopa mexicana Ball, Can. Ent. 34: 22. 1902.

Length 3.6 mm. Clypeus comparatively tumid; frontal carinae not so

prominent as is usual in the genus; anterior margin of head rather blunt.

Forewing long and rather narrow, distally narrowing about equally from

both margins; apex bluntly pointed ; Cue evident as a distinct vein, not as the

claval suture; circular pits distributed rather evenly over entire forewing.

Color testaceous-brown, irregularly marked with fuscous on head and

pronotum. Media of forewing marked with brown on distal half.

Sternite VII of female evident only as a broad, somewhat membranous flap

medially, almost completely covered by the large sternite VI, the posterior

margin of which is produced into a pair of bluntly pointed, divergent, tri-

angular projections laterally, thus forming a broad, flaring v-shaped median

emargination (Fig. 2F). Male unknown.

Distribution.—Sierra Madre Mountains, Chihuahua, Mexico, altitude

about 7,200 feet. Date unknown. Known only from two female cotypes.

Lectotype female labeled “‘Sr. Madre Mts. Mex.” in the E. D. Ball collec-

tion, U. S. National Museum.

Figs. 1-7.—Leafhoppers of the subfamily Megophthalminae: 1, Brenda arborea

(Ball); 2-7 species of T7aja. For identification of various detailed drawings see ex-

planation in introductory remarks.

208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 5

Tiaja interrupta (Ball), n. comb.

Paropulopa interrupta Ball, Can. Ent. 34: 21. 1902.

Length 2.5-3 mm. Anterior margin of head somewhat variable but usually

rather sharp, always more distinctly angled than in mexicana. Forewing with

costal margin more strongly curved than commissural margin; apex bluntly

pointed; claval suture (Cue) rather obscure basally; Cui and 1st claval slight-

ly elevated above Cue opposite furcation of radius and media; circular pits

rather sparse and arranged mostly in single rows along veins.

Color very variable, showing almost every possible intergradation from

uniform pale testaceous-brown or cinereous with a few fuscous marks to

fuscous with a few cinereous marks, typically about equally fuscous and cin-

ereous with an irregularly mottled appearance.

Sternite VII of female very short, usually visible for its entire length but

occasionally visible only laterally. Male valve small, truncate posteriorly, a

little wider basally than distally. Male plates small appearing (unless relaxed

and dissected) subtruncate distally and with lateral margins nearly straight,

in dissected specimens outline as illustrated (Fig. 3D). Dorsal spine with dis-

tal portion attenuated and with a pair of small, blunt, hook-like projections

on the ventral surface, in lateral view as illustrated (Fig. 3A). Style, connec-

tive, and aedeagus simple, outlines as illustrated (Figs. 3B, 3C).

Distribution.—Beaumont (Ball); Cabazon (Ball); Carlsbad (Beamer) ;

Cuyamaca Lake (Beamer); Del Mar (Oman); Hurkey Creek, San Jacinto

Mts. (Oman); Jacumba (Oman); La Mesa (Ball); Los Angeles Co. (Coquil-

lett, Koebele); Miramar (Beamer); Newton (Oman); Ontario (Ball); Pasa-

dena (Ball, Fall); San Diego (Ball, Beamer); Tia Juana (Ball). Mmxico: Tia

Juana (Ball). Apparently confined to rather low altitudes in southern Cali-

fornia and adjacent Mexico west of the Imperial Valley. June 1 to August 6;

135 specimens examined.

Lectotype female labeled ‘‘Los Angeles Co., Cal., Collection Coquillett”’

in the U.S. National Museum, no. 6096.

Tiaja californica (Ball), n. comb.

Paropulopa californica Ball, Can. Ent. 41: 184. 1909.

Length 2.8-3.2 mm. Head, pronotum, and scutellum as illustrated (Fig.

4E). Anterior margin of head distinctly angled. Forewing usually with costal

margin distally more strongly curved than commissural margin, sometimes

the two margins about equally curved; apex bluntly pointed; Cue and circu-

lar pits as in interrupta.

Color varying from uniform pale testaceous-brown or uniform cinereous

with a few brown marks to brownish fuscous with numerous cinereous marks,

typically the ground color of pale testaceous-brown and cinereous with irreg-

ular markings of fuscous and brown.

Sternite VII of female short laterally, posterior margin with a bluntly

rounded projection each side of a flaring U-shaped median emargination (Fig.

4G). Male valve short, truncate posteriorly and distinctly broader basally

than distally. Male plates rather large, appearing (unless relaxed and dis-

sected) nearly parallel sided, distally rounded and but little incised on me-

dian line, caudo-lateral margins slightly deflexed, in dissected specimens the

outline as illustrated (Fig.4D). Dorsal spine ending in four hook-like points,

two rather long and directed caudad, two short and directed cephalad (Fig.

4A). Style, connective, and aedeagus as illustrated in outline (Figs. 4B, 4C),

the aedeagus unusually small in comparison with the aedeagi of other mem-

bers of the genus.

May 15, 1941 OMAN: REVISION OF THE NEARCTIC MEGOPHTHALMINAE 209

Distribution.—Burlingame (Oman); Honda (Oman); Leona Heights

(Beamer); Montara (Oman); Monterey (Beamer); Niles (Beamer); Salinas

(Ball); Sargent (Beamer). These localities are all in the low hills south and

east of San Francisco Bay. April 26 to July 22; 182 specimens examined.

Lectotype female labeled ‘‘Salinas, Cal., 20 Je.’08, E. D. Ball Collector’’ in

the E. D. Ball collection, U. 8. National Museum.

Tiaja ventura, n. sp.

Length 3.2-4 mm. Frontal carinae prominent; anterior margin of head

sharply angled, occasionally subfoliaceous. Forewing with costal margin dis-

tally more strongly curved than commissural margin; apex bluntly pointed;

Cu; and Ist claval distinctly elevated above claval suture opposite furcation

of radius and media; circular pits obscure but present along veins.

Color cinereous, sometimes tinged with testaceous-brown, and usually ir-

regularly marked with brown or fuscous.

Sternite VII of female short, posterior margin truncate or nearly so. Ex-

posed basal margins of female pygofer slightly thickened but not deflexed.

Male plates as in californica but proportionately a little broader. Dorsal spine

with one rather blunt point and two hook-like projections distally, in lateral

view as illustrated (Fig. 5A). Style, connective, and aedeagus as illustrated in

outline (Figs. 5B, 5C).

Distribution. —Gaviota (Beamer); Oxnard (Ball); Pismo Beach (Beamer) ;

Santa Barbara (Ball). All these localities are along the coast north of Los An-

geles. April 25 to July 25; 198 specimens examined.

Holotype male, allotype female, and numerous paratypes of both sexes

from Pismo Beach, Calif., July 19, 1933, R. H. Beamer. Holotype, allotype,

and paratypes in collection of University of Kansas, paratypes in collection

of U.S. National Museum, no. 55132.

For this species I have adopted the manuscript name applied to it by Dr.

E. D. Ball, who recognized it as new.

Tiaja friscana (Ball), n. comb.

Paropulopa friscana Ball, Can. Ent. 41: 183. 1909.

Length 4-5 mm. Anterior margin of head sharply angled but not so thin

as in ventura; crown proportionately much shorter than in Fig. 4E (califor-

nica) but always distinctly longer medially than next to eye. Forewing with

costal and commissural margins about equally curved distally; apex blunt,

scarcely pointed; claval suture (Cue) obscure basally; Cu; and Ist claval usu-

ally distinctly elevated above level of Cue opposite furcation of radius and

media; circular pits not restricted to rows along veins.

Color pale testaceous-brown or cinereous with irregular brown or fuscous

marks. Apparently not so variable in color as interrupta and californica.

Sternite VII of female short, posterior margin truncate and usually slight-

ly deflexed, at least medially. Exposed basal margins of female pygofer

strongly deflexed. Male valve broad and very short, basal margin but little

longer than distal margin. Male plates broad, apices broadly rounded and

separated by a flaring v-shaped median incision distally (Fig. 6D), the caudo-

lateral margins strongly deflexed. Dorsal spine heavily sclerotized and pig-

mented, visible without dissection, in lateral view as illustrated (Fig. 6A).

Style long, distal portion attenuated, heavily sclerotized and pigmented and

extending well beyond plate, outline of style and connective as illustrated

(Fig. 6B). Aedeagus as illustrated in outline (Fig. 6C).

Distribution Known only from the San Francisco Bay region (Ball,

210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 5

Beamer, Bridwell, Oman, Van Duzee). March 30 to September 9; 34 speci-

mens examined.

Lectotype female labeled ‘‘S. Francisco, Cal., 27 Ap. 08, E. D. Ball Collec-

tor’ in the E. D. Ball collection, U.S. National Museum.

Tiaja montara, n. sp.

Length 3.8-4.1 mm. Anterior margin of head sharply angled; crown pro-

portionately much shorter than in Fig. 4E (californica) but always distinctly

longer medially than next to eye. Forewing as in frzscana.

Color pale testaceous-brown or cinereous with a few irregular brown or

fuscous marks. Veins of distal two-thirds of corium of forewing marked with

fuscous in some specimens. The small series at hand is rather uniform in color

but considerable variation may be expected.

Sternite VII of female as long or longer than sternite VI, posterior margin

broadly and shallowly emarginated. Basal margins of female pygofer covered

by sternite VII. Male valve and plates as in frescana. Dorsal spine heavily

sclerotized, distally with a pair of hook-like projections of about equal size,

one directed caudad and one cephalad, in lateral view as illustrated (Fig.

7A). Style extending well beyond plate, the apex broad and subtruncate, the

subtruncated margin slightly deflexed, outline of style and connective as il-

lustrated (Fig. 7B). Aedeagus as illustrated in outline (Fig. 7C).

Holotype male, allotype female, and three female paratypes from Mon-

tara, Calif., June 13, 1935, P. W. Oman. Known only from the type material.

Types in collection of U.S. National Museum, no. 55132.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

367TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 367th meeting of the Board of Managers was held in the Library of

the Cosmos Club on Friday, March 14, 1941. President CLark called the

meeting to order at 8:08 p.m., with 21 persons present, as follows: A. H.

Cuark, F. D. Rossini, H. 8. Rappiteye, N. R. SmiruH, W. W. Dieu, J. H.

Kempton, J. H. Hipsen, J. E. Grar, F. H. H. Roperts, Jr., F. G. Bricx-

WEDDE, E. P. WaLKrErR, R. M. Hann, W. A. Dayton, H. L. Curtis, W.

RambBere, J. R. Curistiz, L. W. Parr, C. L. GARNER, and, by invitation,

R. J. Sepcer, G. A. Coopmr, and F. C. KRacex.

The minutes of the 366th meeting were read and approved.

President CLARK announced the following appointments:

(a) Committee to Consider the Publication of a Directory of the Academy

for 1941: A. H. Cuarxk (chairman), H. L. Curtis, J. E. Grar, H. 8. Rap-

pLEYE, F. D. Rossini, and N. R. Smita.

(b) Committee to Survey the Academy’s Investments and Deposits: H. 8.

RAPPLEYE (chairman), A. T. McPHERSON.

chairman, J. M. Coornr; For the Biological Sciences, J. M. Cooprr (chair-

man), F.O. Con, H. A. Epson, E. A. Goutpman, I. T. Haic, C. F. W.

MueEsgEBEcK, H. W. ScHoENING, G. STEINER, and A. WEtTMoRSs; for the

Engineering Sciences, H. G. Dorsry (chairman), C. H. Birpsrys, F. M.

Deranporr, J. H. DELLINGER, A. C. FIELDNER, P. A. Situ, and P. C.

Wuitney; for the Physical Sciences, W. E. Drmina (chairman), W. G.

May 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 211

BrRoMBACHER, F. G. CoTTRELL, L. V. Jupson, 8. Karrer, F. E. JOHNSTON,

H. E. McComs, P. G. Nutrine, E. W. Posnsak, and F. O. Rice.

The Committee on Membership, F. C. Kracrex, chairman, presented

nominations for membership for eight persons (seven resident and one non-

resident).

The Board considered individually and duly elected to membership the

five persons (all resident) whose nominations had been presented on Febru-

ary 7, 1941.

The Committee to Consider the Publication of a Directory of the Acad-

emy for 1941, A. H. Cuark, chairman, presented a report recommending the

following: (a) that a Directory of the Academy and its Affiliated Societies for

1941 be published, at a cost to the Academy not to exceed $350; (b) that this

Directory be produced by the photolithographic process; (c) that the present

size of the Directory be retained; (d) that the color of the cover be red; and

(e) that the contents be as follows:

I. The Academy

. History and present status

Officers and committees for 1941*

Past presidents

Bylaws and standing rules

Patrons

Honorary members

. Nonresident members, listed alphabetically, with name, institution,

and place

. Resident members

a. Listed alphabetically, with name, institution, place, and societies

b. Listed by institutions

9. Deceased members

II. Philosophical Society of Washington

1. History and present status

2. Officers and committees for 1941T

3. Members, listed alphabetically, with name and eaten

III to XX. Remaining 18 affiliated societies, similarly arranged, except that

no list of members is given for the Geographical Society and the

Archaeological Society.

The Board approved this report and instructed the President to appoint a

Committee, consisting of the Secretary and the Treasurer, to publish a Di-

rectory of the Academy for 1941 in accordance with the recommendations of

the Committee, with the additional proviso that, if feasible, there be included

for members of the Academy the year of their election.

The Secretary presented the following information with regard to changes

in membership since the last meeting of the Board: Deaths, 1; acceptances

to membership, 8; qualified for membership, 10 resident and 7 nonresident;

retirements, 2; - resignations, 2. The status of the membership, as of March 1S

1941, was as follows:

Regular Retired Honorary - Patrons Total

Resident 425 33 3 0 461

Nonresident 128 15) 14 3 160

Total 553 48 176 3 621

* Provision will be made for inserting similar data for 1942 and 1943.

al ne possible and desirable, provision will be made for inserting similar data for 1942

and 1943.

212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 5

The Senior Editor, J. H. Kempton, asked the Board to approve the trans-

fer of two of the three complete bound sets of the Journal in the hands of the .

Editors to the Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications in order

that the latter might have these available for sale to new institution-sub-

scribers. The Board approved this request with thanks to the Editors.

The Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications, W. W. Dieu,

reported the sale of one complete set of 30 volumes of the Journal.

President Cuark reported the resignation of G. STEINER from the Board

of Managers because of the press of his work. To fill this vacancy for 1941,

the Board elected F. C. KRacuk.

The Chairman of the Committee on Meetings, C. L. GARNER, reported on

the plan of the Scientific Monthly to publish a monthly Calendar of Scientific

Meetings in Washington and to make these available to the Academy and

the various Societies at one-half cent per copy. The Board authorized the

Secretary to send out copies of the calendar to all members with the next

six mailings of notices of meetings of the Academy, the expenses to be paid

from the regular budget of the Secretary.

The meeting adjourned at 9:40 P.M.

304TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 304th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on Thursday, March 20, 1941, with President

A. H. Cuarx presiding. The meeting was devoted to the presentation by the

Academy of its Awards for Scientific Achievement for 1940, as follows:

For the Physical Sciences, to FERDINAND G. BRICKWEDDE, Chief of the

Cryogenic Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards, for his dis-

tinguished service in assisting in the discovery of deuterium, in low-tempera-

ture researches on the different modifications of hydrogen, and in the devel-

opment of a working scale of temperature in the range 14° to 83° K.

For the Engineering Sciences, to HARRY Di1amMonp, Principal Physicist in

the Radio Section of the National Bureau of Standards, for his distinguished

service in developing radio methods for aircraft navigation, especially in

“blind landing,’”’ and for upper-air meteorological soundings, including the

radio sonde, and in the development of an automatic weather reporting sta-

tion.

Lyman J. Briaas, Director, and EucrENE C. CRITTENDEN, Assistant Di-

rector, of the National Bureau of Standards, introduced the recipients, who

each gave a brief address concerning particular phases of the work for which

the awards were made.

There were about 70 persons present. The meeting adjourned at 9:55 P.M.

for a social hour.

May 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY De

NEW MEMBERS

The following persons have recently been elected to membership in the

Academy:

Resident

RicHARD ELioT BLACKWELDER, assistant curator, Division of Insects,

U.S. National Museum, in recognition of his contributions to our knowledge

of the West Indian Coleoptera.

FRANK P. CULLINAN, senior pomologist, U. 8. Bureau of Plant Industry,

in recognition of his researches in pomology, in particular with regard to

apple and peach nutrition, pruning, stone fruit production, and carbohy-

drate-nitrogen relationships in peach shoots.

WALLACE JOHN EXcKERT, head astronomer and director of the Nautical

Almanac Office at the U. 8. Naval Observatory, in recognition of his funda-

mental work in adapting the “‘punched-card”’ method to scientific computa-

tions, particularly in the field of astronomy.

AUREL OVERTON FostTER, assistant zoologist, U. S. Bureau of Animal

Industry, in recognition of his contributions to knowledge of hookworm dis-

ease, particularly with regard to anemia, prenatal infection, physiological

strains, and host migration.

Ira Bowers HANSEN, associate professor of zoology, George Washington

University, in recognition of his reasearches on the anatomical effects of en-

docrines and of his services to science as a teacher of biology.

JoHn THomas LUCKER, associate zoologist, U. S. Bureau of Animal In-

dustry, in recognition of his contributions to the ecology of larval and adult

nematode parasites of domestic animals.

EDWARD GEORGE REINHARD, professor and head of the department of

Biology, Catholic University of America, in recognition of his researches in

embryology and hydrobiology, particularly with regard to the habits of soli-

tary wasps, plankton, and experimental embryology.

LAWRENCE W. SAYLOR, assistant biologist, U. 8. Fish and Wildlife Serv-

ice, in recognition of his contributions to systematic coleopterology, and in

particular his work on the scarab beetles of North, South, and Central Amer-

ica.

THEODOR VON BRAND, associate professor of biology, Catholic University

of America, in recognition of his researches on the physiology of inverte-

brates, particularly with regard to their metaboism.

JAMES FRANKLIN YEAGER, senior entomologist, U. 8. Bureau of Entomol-

ogy and Plant Quarantine, in recognition of his researches on the general and

comparative physiology of insects.

Nonresident

JOSEPH EVERETT ALICATA, parasitologist, Experiment Station, Univer-

sity of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, in recognition of his work in morphology,

taxonomy, parasitic Protozoa and spirochaetes, immunity in metazoan para-

sites, and the life history of helminths.

ARTHUR CHALLEN BakesRr, principal entomologist, U. 8. Bureau of En-

tomology and Plant Quarantine, Colonia Anahuac, Mexico, in recognition of

his work on fruit flies, tropical entomology, and the classification and biology

of Aphidae.

WaLteR E. Dove, principal entomologist, U. S. Bureau of Entomology

and Plant Quarantine, Panama City, Fla., in recognition of his work on over-

wintering of the house fly, bots of horses, creeping eruption, warbles of rein-

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 5

deer, goat lice, tropical rat mites, sand flies, dog and cat hookworms, and

transmission of endemic typhus.

Howarb SAMUEL Fawcett, professor and head of the Department of

Plant Pathology, Citrus Experiment Station, University of California, River-

side, Calif., in recognition of his work on citrus pathology, including his

recent treatise on citrus diseases.

RupouF WILLIAM GLASER, associate member, Rockefeller Institute for

Medical Research, Princeton, N. J., in recognition of his work in physiology,

pathology, bacteriology, protozoology, and mycology of insects, and his

work on virus disesases in plants, intracellular symbionts and reckettsiae,

cultivation of Protozoa in the pure state, and nematode parasites on insects.

HAROLD FREDERICK LOOMIS, associate agronomist, U. S. Bureau of Plant

Industry, Coconut Grove, Fla., in recognition of his contributions to the sys-

tematic classification of millipeds and to agronomic investigations on cotton

grown under irrigation.

FRANK Papen McWuorter, plant pathologist, Oregon State College,

Corvallis, Oreg., in recognition of his work on the ecology of cryptogams,

protozoan diseases of plants, parasitic phanerogams, vegetable pathology,

diseases of ornamental plants and truck crops, diseases of tomatoes, tropical

fruits, and virus diseases of plants.

RaupH Roginson PARKER, director of the Rocky Mountain Laboratory,

U.S. Public Health Service, Hamilton, Mont., in recognition of his work on

Rocky Mountain spotted fever and tularemia.

HowARD SPRAGUE REED, professor of plant physiology, University of Cal-

ifornia, Berkeley, Calif., in recognition of his work in plant physiology, his

book entitled A manual of bacteriology, and his work on the history of botany

since 1801. :

NorMan RUDOLPH STOLL, associate member, Rockefeller Institute for

Medical Research, Princeton, N. J., in recognition of his work on the biology

of free-living stages of hookworm, severity of hookworm infection, hookworm

in the American Tropics and China, self-cure and protection against nema-

todes by sheep, Haemonchus, Monieza, and culture of parasitic nematodes.

Marce.tLus Henry Stow, professor and head of the Department of Ge-

ology, Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va., in recognition of his

researches in sedimentary petrography, and on the petrography and stra-

tigraphy of the Oriskany formation and of the Bighorn Basin.

ORLAND EMILE WHITE, professor of agricultural biology and director of

the Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.,

in recognition of his work in experimental biology, physical bases of inherit-

ance, genetics of tobacco, peas, and castor-oil beans, and origin of cultivated

plants.

FREDERICK D. Rossrnt, Secretary

@bituartes

DayYTON CLARENCE MILLER, professor emeritus of physics, Case School of

Applied Science, died in Cleveland, Ohio, on February 22, 1941. He was born

in Strongsville, Ohio, on March 13, 1866, and received the Ph.B. and M.A.

degrees from Baldwin University in 1886 and 1889 and the D.Sc. degree from

Princeton University in 1890. He was professor of natural science at Baldwin

University in 1888-89. Following graduation from Princeton University he

began his long career of distinguished service at the Case School of Applied

Science, starting as instructor in mathematics and physics in 1890, becoming

assistant professor of physics in 1893 and professor of physics in 1895, which

position he held until his retirement recently as professor emeritus. He had

been a trustee of the Baldwin-Wallace College since 1899 and since 1936 had

served as chairman of the board of trustees.

Professor Miller published numerous scientific papers on investigations of

the velocity of light in magnetic fields, the expansion of gases, Roentgen

rays, the relative motion of the earth and ether, the efficiency of the in-

candescent gas light, applications of the interferometer, photographic regis-

tration of sound waves, and the quality of musical sounds. He was also the

author of seven books, the first (1903) on Laboratory physics and the last

(1939) on Sparks, lightning, cosmic rays. The other books dealt with acous-

tical and musical subjects.

Professor Miller is probably best known for his investigations of the rela-

tive motion of the earth and ether and for his fine collection of flutes. This

collection, which illustrates the development of the flute from very early

times, contains nearly 1,000 musical instruments and is believed to be the

world’s largest. The collection began as an avocation but became the in-

spiration of some important contributions to the acoustical science of music

and to the development of an improved flute. It has been bequeathed to the

Library of Congress and thus becomes a valuable heritage of all the people.

A gold flute, made in accordance with Professor Miller’s directions, has been

used by symphony orchestras with brilliant effect in certain passages.

His work in the field of acoustics was widely recognized. He studied

acoustics in relation to auditorium design and drew the specifications for

some of the large auditoriums throughout the United States. Among these

auditoriums are Severance Music Hall, the Epworth-Euclid Methodist

Church, and the First Church of Christ, Scientist, in Cleveland, and the

chapels at Denison University, Bryn Mawr College, Princeton University,

the University of Chicago, and also the acoustics of the National Academy

of Sciences Building in Washington, D. C. In addition to these, Dr. Miller de-

signed specifications for about a hundred other churches, theaters, hospitals,

offices, and large and small auditoriums.

Professor Miller was honored with the Longstreth Medal of the Franklin

Institute, the Elliott Cresson Medal, and the Cleveland Distinguished Serv-

ice Medal. He held honorary degrees from Miami University in Ohio, Dart-

mouth College, Western Reserve University, Baldwin-Wallace College, and

Case School of Applied Science and was a member of a number of scientific

societies in some of which he held important offices. He was a nonresident

vice-president of the Washington Academy of Sciences in 1922 and president

of the American Physical Society in 1925 and the Acoustical Society of

America in 1931-32. Professor Miller’s Jong continuous period of service in

the American Physical Society began in 1914 when he was elected to the

216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 5

Council of the Society and extended without interruption to his death when

he was serving on the Council as a past president. It was a matter of great

satisfaction to Professor Miller and to his many friends that in that long pe-

riod he had been able to attend, with only a very few exceptions, every meet-

ing of the Council and the Society.

Professor Miller will be long remembered by his many friends and ac-

quaintances for his scholarly attainments and for his gentle and courteous

manners.

WILLIAM WILLIAMS GILBERT, senior pathologist, Division of Fruit and

Vegetable Crops and Diseases, U. 8S. Bureau of Plant Industry, died at

Washington, D. C., on December 22, 1940. He had been in ill health for

some months, but with surprising courage carried on his official duties al-

most to the hour of his death, the immediate cause of which was a cerebral

hemorrhage.

Mr. Gilbert was born in Dorset, Vt., on September 17, 1880, and was

graduated from the University of Vermont in 1904 with the B.S.A. degree

and Phi Beta Kappa honors. In 1909 he was awarded an M.S. degree in

plant pathology by the University. He did postgraduate work at the Uni-

versity of Wisconsin, George Washington University, and in the Graduate

School of the Department of Agriculture.

In 1904 he was appointed a scientific assistant in the office of cotton and

truck crop diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry, assisting the late Dr. W. A.

Orton in breeding disease-resistant varieties of cotton, watermelons, and

cowpeas. During the early years of his Department service—and he spent

his entire scientific life in the Department of Agriculture—he worked mainly

in the Southern States and was charged with much of the responsibility for

the investigations of the office there. Later, as Dr. Orton’s health became

impaired, Mr. Gilbert spent most of his time in Washington, assuming gen-

eral administrative charge of the office. When the office was consolidated

with the new Division of Fruit and Vegetable Crops and Diseases, Mr. Gil-

bert was drafted to fill the position of subject-matter specialist in charge of

publications, his technical background fitting him admirably for this work.

This position he held until his death, his spirit of helpfulness and his infinite

supply of tact proving invaluable.

He was a member of the Botanical Society of Washington, the Washington

Academy of Sciences, the Botanical Society of America, the Vermont Botani-

cal Society, and a charter member of the American Phytopathological So-

ciety, as well as a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement

of Science. He was the author of more than a score of bulletins and scientific

papers dealing with plant pathological problems.

Mr. Gilbert’s entire life was marked by an outstanding spirit of service and

a persistent adherence to the highest ideals in his official work, his church

activities, and in the various community projects to which he lent his aid.

He was a member of the Board of Trustees of the First Congregational

Church of Washington, D. C., and served as secretary of the Board. For

many years he was also a trustee of the Congregational Home for the Aged.

His wife, the former Ottonie Ulickson, died in 1937. He is survived by a

son, Henry Philip Gilbert, of Washington, D. C.

CONTENTS

PALEONTOLOGY.—Generic descriptions of Upper Paleozoic Bryozoa.

R. 8. BASSLER

©, Be Oe iia eo ew ae ees 6 6 ie 9 ve Re 6 ee 6 meee else lee Ja celine ie 6 einen Olea hae ae

PaLEONTOLOGY.—New Devonian stratigraphic units. G. ARTHUR

COOPER

o Terr erceh eek je) e-Le@ (fe) 08 @) Serer @ fe jegcy je a Ser) eye! te aN ent p) Tie Phe css, eo se aim) ©) Bho) ip) ethene) (aun > te ore ele a

ZooLocy.—A new Solenocera and notes on the other Atlantic American

species. Mitton L. LinpNER and WiLu1AmM W. ANDERSON

ZooLtocy.—New. genera and species of millipeds from the southern

peninsula of Haiti. H. F. Loomis........ Pe a a

IcutHyroLocy.—The flatfish Cyclopsetta chittendeni Bean from Texas,

a new record for the fauna of North America. Haru D. Remp...

ENTomo.Locy.—A revision of the parasitic wasps of the genus Necrem-

nus Thomson (Eulophidae; Hymenoptera). A.B. GAHAN......

ENTOMOLOGY.—Revision of the Nearctic Megophthalminae (Homop-

tera: Cicadellidae). P. W. OMAN« (0)...

Bee Oe 0a Oo ese? Oe le re ie! 0 "8 16) we ee) eee eee ase See

PRocEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY

OBITUARIES: DayTON CLARENCE MILLER, WILLIAM WILLIAMS GILBERT

. This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

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Vou. 31 JUNE 15, 1941 No. 6

ASTROPHYSICS.—The constitution of diffuse matter in interstellar

space. Orro StruvE, Yerkes Observatory. (Communicated by

EDWARD TELLER.)

THE EMPTINESS OF SPACE

On a clear moonless night we can see with the unaided eye some-

where between 2,000 and 3,000 stars. With an average pair of binocu-

lars the number of visible stars is increased to about 10,000, and on

long exposures taken with the largest existing telescope the number

would be 2 or 3 billion. If we recall that the entire celestial sphere con-

tains 41,253 square degrees and that the visible area of the full moon

is about one-fifth of a square degree, we find that there are at least

10,000 stars within the reach of our most powerful instruments for

every area of the sky equal to the full moon. If we remember also that

the number of invisible stars—too faint to be recorded even with the

100-inch Mount Wilson reflector—is at least thirty times greater, and

that near the Milky Way the concentration of stars is roughly one

hundred times greater than at the poles of the galaxy, we find that in

many regions of the Milky Way the apparent star density must be of

the order of 30 million for an area equal to the disk of the moon. It is

not surprising that on the best photographs of the Milky Way the

images of the stars are so densely crowded together that they flow into

one another and give the appearance of an almost continuous mass of

Stars.

But this impression is misleading. In reality the individual stars are

separated by distances of several light years, and if we liken the stars

to raindrops their average distances would have to be 40 miles to give

us the right idea of the density within our galaxy of matter in the form

of stars. For every cubic centimeter of stellar matter there are 10”

cubic centimeters of transparent space. Our galaxy is a relatively

dense object. Since the average distances between neighboring galaxies

are of the order of 10° light years, while their diameters are about 10!

light years, it is easy to compute that within the diameter of the ex-

plorable universe—some 600 million light years—with its 10° separate

1 The Eleventh Joseph Henry Lecture of the Philosophical Society of Washington,

delivered on March 29, 1941. Received March 29, 1941.

217

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

galaxies and 10° cubic centimeters of stellar matter, there are approxi-

mately 107° cubic centimeters of transparent space for every cubic

centimeter of stellar matter. The average density of a star like the sun ©

is a little greater than that of water. Hence the density of stellar mat-

ter in the universe is only about 10-78 g/cm’®. A density of the order of

10-* g/cm is considered a high vacuum in ordinary laboratory tech-

nique.

But the question arises whether all matter in the universe is con-

centrated in the form of stars. It is possible that free atoms and mole-

cules or small particles of dust float in interstellar space without com-

pletely obstructing the light of distant stars and galaxies. Eddington

once remarked that although astronomers do not know much about

interstellar matter they talk a great deal about it; they are like the

guest who refused to sleep in a “haunted”? room and who, when asked

whether he believed in ghosts, replied: “‘I do not belzeve in ghosts, but

I am afrazd of them.’’ It is probably no exaggeration to say that inter-

stellar matter was the ghost that has haunted astronomers for the

past hundred years. Until about 15 years ago they steadfastly refused

to believe that there existed any such matter, even though direct

photographs of the Milky Way gave unmistakable evidence of large

regions in space where the light of distant stars is more or less com-

pletely cut off by the screening effect of cosmic dust clouds. They were

afraid of the ghost because they thought it would play havoc with

their elaborate theories of the structure of the Milky Way. These

theories all depended upon an application of the inverse square law

for the brightnesses of the stars. If two stars are of the same intrinsic

luminosity, for example, if both have spectra that exactly match the

spectrum of the sun, but one star is of apparent magnitude 5 while the

other is of apparent magnitude 10, then the astronomers reasoned that

since each step in magnitude corresponds to a ratio of 2.5 in the

brightnesses of the stars, the fainter star sends us one hundredth as

much light as the brighter and that, consequently, its distance must

be ten times greater than that of the brighter star. It is obvious that

if a part of a star’s light is intercepted by a screen of absorbing ma-

terial, this computation would lead to erroneous results: the real dis-

tance of the faint star would be smaller than the one computed by

means of the inverse-square law.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT IN SPACE

The first intimation of a possible effect of interstellar matter upon

the propagation of light through cosmic space occurs in a letter by

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 219

Newton to Flamsteed, dated August 10, 1691. In the last sentence of

this letter Newton, who was not an observer, asks the Astronomer

Royal at Greenwich: ‘‘When you observe the eclipses of Jupiter’s

satellites I should be glad to know if in long telescopes the light of the

satellite immediately before it disappears inclines either to red or blue,

or becomes more ruddy or pale than before.’’ The finite velocity of

light had been measured in 1676 by Romer at Paris. He had used the

predicted eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter and had taken advantage

of the fact that Jupiter is at certain times much closer to the earth

than at others. It was quite natural that Newton should try to find

whether the velocity of blue-and of red light is equal through inter-

planetary space, or whether an appreciable dispersion of the light

takes place between Jupiter and the earth.

We have no record of Flamsteed’s reply, and we do not even know

whether observations were made to answer Newton’s question. But

astronomers gradually concluded that any possible dispersion was

much too small to produce measurable effects in the satellites of

Jupiter.

In 1855 Arago, in a course of public lectures at the Paris Observa-

tory, applied the idea of Newton to the eclipses of distant binary stars

whose orbit planes pass through the earth: ‘‘Let us then investigate

what ought to be the density of this (hypothetical) interstellar gas in

order that two rays, one red, the other blue, emitted at the same in-

stant from a variable star, should arrive almost simultaneously at the

earth notwithstanding the prodigious thickness of the matter trav-

ersed, notwithstanding the time of transmission which cannot be

under three years; the solution of this simple problem of physics will

astonish the imagination by its smallness.’’ Arago gives no numerical

results. He and others had ‘‘frequently examined periodic white stars

in their different stages of brightness without remarking any appreci-

able coloring.”

But these observations were made visually and were not very accu-

rate. After the introduction of accurate photometric methods into

astronomy, in 1908, it seemed for several years that a real positive ef-

fect of interstellar dispersion had been discovered independently by

the Russian astronomer Tikhoff and the French astronomer Nord-

mann. These scientists found that when certain eclipsing variables are

observed in red light the phase of central eclipse, or minimum light,

occurs earlier than when the observations are made in blue light. For

Algol (8 Persei) the observed lag was 16 minutes + 3 minutes. For \

Tauri it was 50 minutes and for RT Persei it was 4 minutes. This ap-

220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

parent lag of blue light with respect to red light has been verified in

many instances, and it is now known as the Tikhoff-Nordmann phe-

nomenon. But, as Lebedeff had pointed out almost immediately after

the announcement of Tikhoff’s and Nordmann’s discoveries, the dis-

tance of Algol is about 60 light years while that of RT Persei is 740

light years. Yet the nearer star has the longer lag of 16 minutes, so

that if interstellar dispersion were responsible for the phenomenon the

dispersion constant would have to be 16/4 x 740/60 =40 times larger

in the direction of Algol than in the direction of RT Persei. Modern

determinations give somewhat different distances for the two stars,

but the conclusion of Lebedeff has been shown to be true. Unless we

make the absurd assumption that the dispersion constant is entirely

different for different stars—even if they are located in the same part

of the sky—the Tikhoff-Nordmann phenomenon must be due to some

other cause.

The final word in the matter came from Shapley. For the stars of

the globular cluster M5, whose distance is about 30,000 light years, or

3X 10” cm, blue light and yellow light arrived on the earth within an

interval of —10 seconds + 60 seconds. This corresponds to a differ-

ence of less than 0.3 cm/sec between blue and red light, and shows

that the velocities are the same to at least one part in 10". We con-

clude that there is no measurable dispersion of light in interstellar

space.

GENERAL ABSORPTION

Apparently the first astronomer to worry about the dimming of star

light by intervening clouds of diffuse matter was Halley, around 1720.

The argument was revived by Chéseaux in Switzerland, about 1744.

Both astronomers pointed out that an infinite universe with an in-

finite number of self-luminous stars should cause the entire heavens to

be ablaze with light—for no matter in which direction we should look,

our line of vision would always ultimately reach the surface of some

distant star. It was tacitly assumed that the distribution of the stars

in space is uniform and that there are no dark stars. In 1823 the fa-

mous German astronomer Olbers expressed asimilar view in the follow-

ing words: ‘“‘God has made the transparency of space imperfect in or-

der to enable the inhabitants of the earth to study astronomy in its

details ... Without this, we should have no knowledge of the starry

heavens; our own sun would be discovered only with difficulty by its

spots; the moon and the planets would not be distinguishable, except

as obscure discs upon a bright background, like the sun...” For-

tunately all these dreadful consequences had been removed by the

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 221

foresight of the Creator who had introduced into interstellar space

enough absorbing material to dim the light of the most distant stars

so that the background is dark and not so brilliantly luminous as the

sun.

It is futile now to speculate upon the scientific logic and the philo-

sophical insight of these early astronomers. It is easy to see that even

an infinite universe need not necessarily lead to a sky completely cov-

ered with stars, and the early arguments in favor of interstellar absorp-

tion are now, to say the least, unconvincing.

The mathematical theory of interstellar absorption was first pre-

cisely formulated by F. G. W. Struve, in Russia. His book Etudes

d’astronomie stellaire, published in 1847, is the first really scientific

study of the whole problem of interstellar matter. It forms the connect-

ing link between the earlier semiphilosophical speculations of Olbers,

Chéseaux, and Halley, and the brilliant theoretical researches of the

last decades of the nineteenth century and the prewar years of the

present century, principally by Seeliger, Kapteyn, and Schwarzschild.

The common property of all these investigations was the tendency to

smooth out the local irregularities in the observed structure of the

Milky Way and to study an idealized or ‘‘typical’’ stellar system

which retained certain characteristics of the Milky Way, such as

galactic concentration, but purposely avoided the discussion of in-

dividual star clouds and dark regions.

Struve’s work was based upon the star counts that Sir William

Herschel had made with his giant telescopes in many different parts

of the sky. These counts gave the numbers of all stars visible for every

step in brightness, over a uniform field of the sky. The problem was to

derive the true distribution of the stars in space and to find, if possible,

whether there was an effect of absorption in space.

To consider this problem it is convenient to use the functions:

(1) D(r)—the density function, which measures the number of stars per

unit volume, as a function of the distance from the sun, r.

(2) ¢(M)—the luminosity function, which measures the distribution of

stars of different intrinsic luminosities.

(3) ¢=f(r)—the intensity function, which measures the apparent bright-

ness of a star as a function of its distance from the sun, r.

The simplest assumptions that we can make and that we can test

are

D(r) = const.; ¢(M) = const.; f(r) = = : (1)

This is, essentially, what Olbers and his predecessors had assumed,

222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

and it is fairly obvious that the appearance of the sky at once suggests

one of two conclusions:

(a) the universe is finite, or

(b) there must be an appreciable absorption in space in which

case f (7) 4%0/r?.

If we are not willing to abandon the inverse-square law, then it is easy

to see that there must exist two simple, but important, statistical rela-

tions:

(1) The theoretical distances of stars of successive magnitude

(apparent brightness) classes form a geometrical series whose

coefficient is (2.5)!

(2) The theoretical numbers of stars down to successive magni-

tude (apparent brightness) classes form a geometrical series

whose coefficient is (2.5)?/?

Since by definition the ratio of the observed intensities of two stars

whose stellar magnitudes are m, and mz is

— = 2.5 (mms)

and since by (1)

(Al Poe

15 isle

we have the first relation; when m,—m.2=1

= = V25: | (2)

Tin

Since, next, for uniform distribution of stars in space (D(r) =const.)

the number of all stars down to each magnitude step is proportional

to the volume of the spheres occupied by those stars which have the

required apparent brightnesses, and since these volumes are propor-

tional to 73, we have, when mi—m.2=1:

~ = (2.5)8/? (3)

or, for any value of m—mp:

log Nn = log Nino + 0.6 (m — mo). (4)

Struve tested relation (4) by means of Herschel’s star counts, which

gave directly the values of N,,,. There were large systematic departures

in the sense that the observed JN, were smaller than those predicted

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 223

by the formula. Two possible conclusions presented themselves: (a)

The assumption D(r) =const. is wrong, and the density of the stars in

space must decrease in all directions from the sun, or (6) the assump-

tion 2=1)/r? is wrong, and there is an effect of interstellar absorption

which makes 7 smaller than it would be without absorption. With re-

gard to hypothesis (a), Struve writes: ‘‘Perhaps someone will say that

there might be a gradual diminution in the star density in the princi-

pal plane, toward the outer boundaries of the Milky Way. But how

much do we know concerning these boundaries? The Milky Way is

for us absolutely impenetrable. What, then, is the probability that the

sun should be located near the center of a disc whose extent is for us

completely unknown? Let us recall, furthermore, that our study of the

Herschel stars has led to the same average decrease in density, at

right angles to the principal plane, which occurs in the neighborhood

of the sun, up to the distance of stars of the 8th and 9th magnitude.

From all these considerations I wish to state that we have discovered

a phenomenon in which the extinction of star light unquestionably

manifests itself.’’ In place of the inverse-square law Struve adopts the

relation

= ee er (5)

where d is the coefficient of absorption. This is equivalent, according

to Struve, to a loss of one stellar magnitude per 3,000 light years, or

\=3X10-7*if r is expressed in light years. This value, obtained almost

100 years ago, is amazingly accurate. Modern results give an average

loss of light of between 0.7 and 0.8 stellar magnitude per kiloparsec

(3,000 light years). The agreement is as good as between individual

results of modern observers.

It is strange that Struve’s results were not universally accepted.

The tendency was to assume that \=0 and to derive the resulting

function D(r). This procedure was adopted by Seeliger, Kapteyn,

Schwarzschild, and Charlier. It resulted in a badly distorted picture

of the Milky Way, with the sun near the center and the star density

decreasing in all directions. Halm, in 1917, attempted to find \ under

the assumption D(r)=const., but his results were not accepted. As

late as in 1923, Kienle, after a careful review of all available evidence,

concluded that the loss of star light through absorption must definite-

ly be less than 2 pace and that it is probably less than 0.1

mag/kiloparsec.?

2 Mag is used in this paper as the abbreviation for stellar magnitude.—Ep1Tor.

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

The first definite break in astronomical opinion came in 1930 when

R. Trumpler published his results on open star clusters, obtained at

the Lick Observatory. His work was based upon measurements of the

diameters of galactic star clusters—groups of tens or hundreds of

stars forming compact systems in which the motions of the individual

members are all alike. Typical among these formations are the Ple-

iades, the Hyades, the cluster in Coma Berenices, and others. By ob-

serving the spectra of the members of clusters and their brightnesses

Trumpler was able to prepare for each cluster a Hertzsprung-Russell

diagram, in which the brightness of each star appears as the ordinate

and the spectral type as the abscissa. In a diagram of this kind, as

Russell had found many years ago, the majority of the stars are ar-

ranged in a definite narrow band—the so-called main sequence. Phys-

ically speaking, the main sequence of one cluster should be rather

similar to the main sequence of another. But since the distances of the

two clusters are, in general, not the same, it is necessary to shift the

diagrams along the vertical coordinate in order to make the two se-

quences coincide. This displacement, measured along the vertical co-

ordinate in stellar magnitudes, provides a measure for the relative

distances of the two clusters. Distances determined in this manner are

affected by absorption. Suppose we find that the vertical shift cor-

responds to 3 magnitudes. This means that all stars of the brighter

cluster are (2.5)?=15.6 times as intense as those of the fainter. If

there were no absorption we should conclude from the inverse-square

law that the fainter cluster is \/15.6=3.95 times as far away as the

brighter cluster. But if absorption is present the real distance would

be smaller. Trumpler conceived the idea of measuring the diameters

of the clusters. He first made sure that he was measuring physically

similar objects. If the brighter cluster had a diameter of 15’ the fainter

should have a diameter of 15/3.95=3'.8 provided the distances in-

ferred from the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram are correct. From a

large amount of very homogeneous material Trumpler concluded that

the diameters of the fainter clusters were systematically too large. He

suggested that there is an appreciable amount of interstellar absorp-

tion and derived for it a value of 0.67 mag/kiloparsec.

Among the many modern determinations of the average amount of

interstellar absorption per unit distance, one of the most interesting

is due to Joy at the Mount Wilson Observatory. The method depends

upon determinations of radial velocities of Cepheid variables and upon

the theory of the rotation of our galaxy, which predicts that the rota-

tional component of motion of a star in the line of sight must be pro-

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 225

portional to the distance from the sun. This results from the nature of

galactic rotation in a central field of force. The matter is complicated

by the fact that the stars have their own individual motions. But these

are probably distributed at random so that if we take average veloci-

ties for groups of Cepheid variables arranged according to apparent

magnitude we should derive a series of values the ratios of which, after

correction for foreshortening, give us directly the ratios of the true

distances for the various groups. Now, the Cepheid variables, as every-

one knows, have the remarkable property that their periods of hght

variation are exactly related to their intrinsic luminosities, so that if

we know the periods of two such variables we can tell at once how

much brighter one is than the other. If we use this criterion of absolute

luminosity, together with the apparent brightness, we derive the dis-

tance. If there were no absorption the two procedures should give

identical results. From the departures, which are conspicuous, Joy,

and later R. E. Wilson, derived an absorption of about 0.6 mag/kilo-

parsec.

Another method depends upon counts of extragalactic objects in

different parts of the sky. These distant galaxies are seen through the

thickness of absorbing matter in our Milky Way, and their numbers

are greatest near the two poles of the galactic circle, while near the

plane of the galaxy the absorption is so great that no outer galaxies are

seen through it. In intermediate galactic latitudes the absorptions are

proportional to the cosecants of the latitudes. For example, at galactic

latitude 10° the absorption is 1.4 mag, at 20° it is 0.7 mag, at 30° it is

0.50 mag, at 60° it is 0.29 mag, and at 90° it is 0.25 mag. The smooth

manner in which these values progress has suggested to Seares the

idea that we are here dealing with ‘‘a widely diffused absorbing stra-

tum extending equally above and below the galactic plane.’’ The zone

of complete avoidance of galaxies, which is irregular in shape, is as-

sociated by Seares with the obscuring clouds in the Milky Way which

give their distinctive irregular appearance to the star clouds.

SELECTIVE ABSORPTION

In 1895 Kapteyn discovered that the average color of stars in the

Milky Way is bluer than outside of it. He suggested that this phenom-

enon might be caused by selective absorption, which should make

those stars appear bluer for which the absorption was least. Since at

that time there was no conclusive evidence of general absorption,

Kapteyn could not know that the color observations would be in dis-

agreement with other evidence by requiring the absorption to be

226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

greatest at the poles of our galaxy. In 1904 DeSitter made a careful

study of star colors and concluded: “True differences in the colors of

the stars, or general absorption in certain spectral regions, or selective

absorption by intervening cosmical clouds or nebulous masses, these

are questions that can be put, but not yet answered.’’ We now know

that the intrinsically blue, hot stars have a much greater tendency to

concentrate toward the galactic equator than do the cool, red stars.

Hence the phenomenon of Kapteyn has no bearing upon the question

of selective scattering.

However, the question was revived some years later when Turner

and others noticed that in order to obtain photographic star images

of equal densities for successive stellar magnitudes, it was not sufh-

cient to increase the exposure times in the ratio of 2.5 for each step of

one magnitude. In fact, it was found that the ratio of the exposure

times is much more nearly 3 than 2.5—in spite of the fact that by defi-

nition a step of one magnitude signifies an intensity ratio of 2.5. In

other words, the photographic density B is not a function of the prod-

uct (7xXt) alone, where 7 is the light intensity and ¢ is the exposure

time, but may be written as

B=fGx

where 0<p<1. The quantity p is now known as Schwarzschild’s ex-

ponent. |

Tikhoff and Turner suggested that p had a cosmic significance.

They argued that selective absorption will make the stars appear red-

der the greater their distances. But distant stars are, on the average,

faint. Hence, faint stars are red, and must require relatively longer ex-

posures on the blue-sensitive photographic emulsions—the only ones

then used for these observations. Turner summarized the matter in

the following words: ‘The fact that when the photographic exposure is

prolonged in a ratio which ought to give stars fainter by five magni-

tudes, we only get four visual magnitudes” is an argument in favor of

“the scattering of light by small particles in space.”

The obvious thing would have been to check the result by means of

visual observations made with the help of violet filters. There is no

reason why this could not have been done. The test would have shown

at once that the fainter stars are not appreciably redder and that the

Schwarzschild exponent is not a measure of interstellar reddening.

The correct interpretation of p was given in 1909 by Parkhurst. It

represents a characteristic property of the photographic emulsion and

determines what we now call the reciprocity failure of the emulsion.

It is different for different brands of emulsions.

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 227

A new attack upon the problem became possible with the develop-

ment of accurate methods of photographic photometry. Miss Maury

at Harvard had remarked in her work on the spectra of the stars that

among representatives of a single class of spectrum there were some

which were weak in violet light while others were strong. Kapteyn

examined the available data on star colors and found that within nar-

row groups of spectrum those stars which were rich in violet light

had large angular proper motions, while those which had little violet

light had, at the same time, small proper motions. Since the angular

proper motion of a star is a good statistical measure of distance, he

concluded that the distant stars are reddened by absorption. Unfor-

tunately, this conclusion was incorrect. It turned out later that an-

other interpretation could be given. The stars examined by Kapteyn

within any given group of spectrum were, through observational se-

lection, all more or less similar in apparent brightness. Hence, the dis-

tant stars of each group were giants, while the nearby stars were

dwarfs. Kapteyn could not have known, or even suspected, that the

surface gravities of the giants are very much smaller than those of

the dwarfs and that, consequently, the pressures of the former are one

hundredth as great as those of the latter. Equal spectral types imply

equal average ionization. But in a giant with its low atmospheric pres-

sure the same degree of ionization is attained at a lower temperature

than in a dwarf. Kapteyn had discovered what is essentially the basis

of spectroscopic luminosities, but he had not found evidence in favor

of space reddening.

In 1923 Kienle could only conclude that the coefficient of selective

absorption must be less than 0.1 mag/kiloparsec. As we shall see, this

result was unnecessarily pessimistic. Even before Kienle’s paper was

printed, in 1919, Russell had called attention to the fact that ‘the

three most abnormally yellow stars of type B (¢, o and é Persei) lie

within 5° of one another, in a region full of diffuse nebulosity,” and

he had suggested that this might be caused by local selective absorp-

tion in some of the dark clouds of the galaxy. Several years later

Hertzsprung compiled a list of abnormally yellow B stars, whose color

excesses were larger than can normally be explained as a result of dif-

ferences in absolute magnitude. This list was greatly enlarged by Bott-

linger, and in 1926 the present writer found fairly convincing evi-

dence ‘‘that the effect of reddening . . . is produced by light scattering

in dark nebulae or in calcium clouds.”’

The modern evidence concerning selective absorption in interstellar

space rests upon three types of observation:

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

(1) Color excesses of B-type stars determined photoelectrically by

Stebbins, Whitford, and Huffer, or photographically by Seyfert and

Popper. These results show a progressive reddening for the more dis-

tant stars. In setting the 82-inch McDonald telescope upon a faint B-

type star I have often been amazed at the redness of these stars: their

continuous spectra show energy distributions corresponding to some

4,000° or 5,000°, while their absorption lines correspond to a tempera-

ture of 20,000°.

(2) Observations of color indices of members of open clusters by

Trumpler and his associates. |

(3) Determinations of the energy distributions and colors of stars

involved in dense clouds of absorbing matter, by Seares and Hubble,

Baade and Minkowski, Henyey, etc.

An important quantity is the ratio of selective absorption to total

absorption. Seares concludes from a discussion of all available data

that:

Total absorption = 10 Xselective absorption, for the diffuse stratum of

interstellar matter, and

Total absorption = 5.7 Xselective absorption, for the dark nebulae of the

zone of avoidance.

The latter law corresponds to an absorption coefficient which is

proportional to \—!. The departure from Rayleigh’s \~* law was first

established by Trumpler, and was then confirmed by Struve, Keenan,

and Hynek. It is probable that some stars, observed by Baade and

Minkowski in the Orion nebula, present appreciable departures from

the smooth A relation, but the exact nature of these departures has

not yet been explored.

DIFFUSE RADIATION

The existence of reflection nebulae, whose spectra are continuous

and whose absorption lines are identical with those of the associated

stars was demonstrated many years ago by V. M. Slipher. Since that

time the present writer, Henyey, Elvey, Greenstein, and others have

investigated in detail the character of the diffuse light that is scattered

by dark nebulae and by interstellar space. The light is nearly of the

same color as that of the illuminating stars; in the Pleiades the nebu-

losity is slightly bluer, but the difference between nebula and star is

much less than that between the blue sky and the sun. This is in agree-

ment with the \-' relation found from the absorption effects. The dif-

fuse light is very little polarized, which all goes to show that the par-

ticles are too large for Rayleigh scattering. On the other hand, there is

some evidence to show that the phase function of the particles throws

229

DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE

STRUVE

JUNE 15, 1941

(preurieg “yy Aq ydeisoj0yq)

‘g1e48 oY} JO IYSI] OYY Suryooyor Aq A[Qooj o7VIpeA 4VY} OV[NGou SuLmMosqo Surmoys

‘sniney, Ul UOIsey{—'T °

230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

most of the light forward and does not show the “‘phases of the moon,”

as one would expect if the particles were larger than about 0.01 em

in radius. This conclusion rests upon a comparison of the diffuse sur-

face brightness of dark nebulae of absorbing matter. These nebulae

are illuminated by the light of all stars around them. The situation is

somewhat analogous to the case of a spherical body which is illuminat-

ed from all sides. If the intensity of the general starlight is assumed

to be uniform and equal to £,=56 stars of magnitude 10.0 per square

degree, if y is the albedo of the particles, a is the phase angle, 2 is the

angle of incidence and ¢ the angle of emergence, then the surface

brightness of the nebula is

r= 2h, { o(e) —~*_— oa (6)

cos 2 + cos €

This formula predicts that the rim of the nebula must be brighter than

the center, but the amount of the difference depends upon the form of

the phase function ¢(a). If we do not wish to make the albedo unrea-

sonably large, we are compelled to adopt a forward throwing phase

function. This suggests that the particles have radii smaller than 0.01

cm.

Sizes between 0.01 cm and 0.001 cm are excluded because of the ab-

sence of diffraction nebulosities surrounding stars that are seen through

absorbing nebulosity. If the particles acted like water particles in

clouds, of the required size, they should give rise to bright rings, which

are often incorrectly called halos, the surface brightnesses of which

may be computed. As a bright star seen through a thin cloud gives

a halo, so the stars shining through dust clouds should produce halos.

A search made by the writer some time ago yielded rather definite

evidence that there is no halo formation. Hence the particles are

smaller than 0.001 cm.

The interval of possible sizes for the majority of the particles has

now been narrowed to between 10~ and 10-> cm. To go beyond this we

must make use of the complicated theory of Mie for the scattering of

light by small particles, and this has been done by a number of inves-

tigators, for example, by Shalén in Sweden and Greenstein in the

United States. The most. frequent sizes of the particles are slightly

greater than 10-° cm.

In connection with the problem of illumination of dense obscuring

nebulosities, Struve and Elvey found in 1937 that the surface bright-

nesses of some of Barnard’s dark nebulae are only about 0.03 mag

fainter than the background of the sky between the stars in star

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 231

Fig. 2—Dark nebula projected upon luminous gaseous nebula, in Orion.

(Photograph by J. C. Duncan.)

clouds. If the star clouds were free of absorbing material the dark neb-

ulae should be considerably more luminous. Hence we conclude that

either the scattering efficiency (albedo) of the particles composing the

nebula is very low, or there exists a large amount of diffuse radiation

in the star clouds of the Milky Way. A direct observational test by

232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

means of a photoelectric surface photometer was made by Elvey and

Roach. They confirmed the correctness of the second alternative:

there is a diffuse “galactic light” in the Milky Way, corresponding

to about 57 stars of magnitude 10 per square degree, in the galactic

plane. A careful study by Henyey and Greenstein has permitted them

to subtract from the galactic light that part which comes from emis-

sion sources. In Cygnus, where the galactic light is strongest they

find the diffuse radiation to be equivalent to 80 stars of magnitude 10

per square degree. In Taurus the galactic light is equivalent to only 35

stars of magnitude 10 per square degree.

Henyey and Greenstein consider the absorbing layer to be a slab

of emitting and scattering matter, stratified along parallel planes. If

the incident starlight and diffuse light has an intensity of 1, each ele-

ment of the absorbing material having an optical thickness dr, con-

tributes to the observed galactic light the amount

var f I ¢(a)dw (7)

where y is the albedo of the particles. The formula is analogous to (6).

The total surface brightness of the galactic light in a given direction

is obtained by multiplying (7) by e-7 and integrating over 7 from 0 to

the limiting optical thickness of the absorbing layer 7o:

[= vf erdr f trola)de = 71 — on) [ Lola)de. (8)

The quantity L, can be computed from star counts, provided we de-

mand no refinements such as the variation of L, with 7. The phase

function is not known. But it is clear that an isotropic distribution of

the scattered radiation would make J larger than a strongly forward

or backward throwing phase function. Indeed, at any given point on

the slab of absorbing material the area of sky contributing to its il-

lumination is greatest for a~90°. Hence a strongly forward throwing

phase function will throw less radiation into the line of sight than an

isotropic phase function. This presupposes that L, is uniform over the

sky. In reality it is concentrated toward the Milky Way, and the

integral must be evaluated numerically. In the region of Cygnus 7»

must be very great. For all practical purposes we may assume that

Fg= ©, SO than

eo yf Lidlade. (9)

Knowing L,; we can compute J for phase functions having different

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 2393

tendencies of throwing the light forward. We need not consider back-

ward throwing functions because we have already eliminated them.

For the Taurus region

Ir = 70 — on) f Lela)de a iin (10)

Taking the ratio, we find

[yr 385

ee 4: (11)

Ie, - SY)

Since the integral / Li ¢(a) dw is not strictly the same for the two re-

gions Henyey and Greenstein derive a slightly different value. But we

shall continue to use (11). Of course, 7» here refers to the Taurus re-

gion, where we evidently have relatively little material. In the Cygnus

region the integral / L, ¢(a) dwis about 72 stars of magnitude 10 in the

case of an isotropic ¢(a); 80 stars of magnitude 10 for a moderately

forward throwing ¢; and about 135 stars of magnitude 10 for an ex-

tremely forward throwing ¢. Since y, the albedo, can not be greater

than 1, we conclude that:

(1) the phase function must be at least moderately forward throw-

ing, and

(2) the albedo must be at least 80/135 =0.6.

Indeed, when y = 1, we have

Ile = [ Lis(e)de

and this is true only when ¢ is moderately forward throwing. If y <1,

then ¢ must be even more forward throwing. For an excessively for-

ward throwing ¢, when all radiation is thrown forward, the integral is

135, so that J./ f Li ¢(a) dw=y=80/135 =0.6. If allowance is made

for errors in the observations and for various refinements in the

theory, Henyey and Greenstein find that the albedo must be greater

than 0.3 and that the phase function must be strongly forward throw-

ing.

_ STAR COUNTS

Our knowledge of the absorptions in individual regions of the

Milky Way rests now largely upon star counts. The method first suc-

cessfully used by Wolf and later improved by Pannekoek has in recent

years received a new impetus through the work of Bok and his star-

counting bureau at Harvard. The method consists essentially. in! the

comparison of star counts made in obscured regions with those made

in open regions. If there were no dispersion in the luminosities of

the stars the interpretation of the results would be simple. The exist-

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

ence of ¢(M) causes considerable complications, but Bok has developed

a numerical procedure which is particularly adapted to the study of in-

dividual dark nebulae. A list of these nebulae prepared by Greenstein

and quoted by Bok is given in table 1.

TABLE 1.—ABSORBING CLOUDS

Region Area in square Distance in Diameter in Absorption in

egrees parsecs parsecs magnitudes

Taurus—Orion—Auriga... 600 145 65 a

Cepheus—Cassiopeia..... 450 500 170 0.7

Cy anus vie cae ke 85 700 130 is

Ophiuchus-—Scorpius.... 1050 125 80 0.9

Welk cna sortie cents Spay: 105 600 120 1.0(?)

Shalén has used similar methods, but has limited the material to a

narrow range of spectral type. Morgan and, quite recently, O’ Keefe

have made considerable progress by studying the spectroscopic lu-

minosity criteria of B-type stars and by deriving the best possible in-

dividual distances for highly reddened stars.

DYNAMICAL CONSIDERATIONS

An indirect method of estimating the density of interstellar matter

rests upon Oort’s study of stellar motions at right angles to the plane

of the Milky Way. The motions of the stars in the galactic plane are

governed largely by the mass of the galactic nucleus. But the motions

across the galactic plane are determined almost wholly by the distri-

bution of mass in the vicinity of the sun. From the observed radial

velocities Oort computes the space motions of the stars. The Z-com-

ponents are then analyzed with regard to the distances of the stars

from the galactic plane. This leads to a determination of the accelera-

tions in the Z-coordinate, and these depend upon the density of mat-

ter in the vicinity of the sun. The data of observation are best satisfied

for an average density of 0.092 solar mass per cubic parsec, which is

equivalent to 6.310 g/em*. Oort finds that the luminous stars in

the solar neighborhood account for 0.038 solar mass per cubic parsec.

Hence, the difference, or 0.05 solar mass per cubic parsec, must be due

to dark stars and to diffuse matter in interstellar space. This cor-

responds to a density of 3x 10-*4 g/em*—the famous Oort limit for the

density of interstellar matter. : |

This leads to an estimate of the upper limit for the radius r of the

particles. If the absorption were due to obscuration we would have for

the absorption coefficient nr”, where n is the number of particles per

cubic centimeter. With Trumpler’s value of the absorption we write

Dah logige-"™"! = (7, (12)

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 235

where I is equal to 3X10 cm. Let the density of each particle be

d=5 g/cm’. Then Oort’s limit

3 <I eye = 7 = ard. (13)

Combining (12) and (13), we find

Pp = Ne ine

This is an upper limit for the average radius of the particles and not

an estimate of the sizes of those particles which are mostly responsible

for the scattering of light.

INTERSTELLAR GASES

In 1904 Hartmann found that the absorption lines of Ca II in the

spectrum of the double star 6 Orionis fail to take part in the periodic

oscillations of the other lines. He eliminated the obvious explanation

that the stationary Ca II lines come from a very massive secondary

component of the binary system and concluded that “at some point

in space in the line of sight between the sun and 6 Orionis there is a

cloud which produces that absorption, and which recedes with a ve-

locity of 16 km/sec.”’ Since that time other atoms and molecules have

been found to originate in interstellar space. Among them are Na I,

Cal, KI, Till, CN, and CH. NaI was found many years ago by Miss

Heger at the Lick Observatory; Ca I, K I, and Ti II were found by

Adams and Dunham; CH was measured by Dunham in 1937 and was

identified by Swings and Rosenfeld; CN is due to Adams and McKel-

lar. There are several unidentified absorption lines from interstellar

matter. Among them are sharp lines at \\ 3957 and 4233.’ These lines

are very prominent in several B-type stars, for example ¢ Ophiuchi, and

are clearly of interstellar origin. There are also a number of diffuse

absorption lines, or bands, discovered by Merrill and by Beals and

Blanchet. They are as yet unidentified, but there is evidence that

their intensities are closely correlated with color excess, so that they

are perhaps produced by the dust particles. The wave lengths of these

broad lines are \\ 4430, 5780, 5796, 6284, and 6614.

The remarkable thing about the identified lines is that they all

originate from the lowest level of each atom. Even if the level is mul-

tiple, as in Ti II, only those numbers of the resonance multiplet appear

which come from the lowest sublevel. Forbidden transitions depopu-

’ The symbols \ and Ad are used as abbreviations for ‘“‘wave length” and ‘‘wave

lengths,” respectively; these wave lengths are expressed in Angstrom units.—EDIToR.

236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

late the higher levels to such an extent that absorption lines originat-

ing in them are not seen.

One of the substances which might be expected to produce inter-

stellar absorption lines is Fe I. Swings and I searched for it in the fall

of 1939 on our spectrograms of early-type stars. The lowest level is

a°D and there are several lines of different multiplets which arise from

it. We searched in B-type stars for the strongest expected lines,

AA 3719.94, 3440.68, and 3859.92. The first is in the wing of the hy-

drogen line Hy 3721.94. A search on Process plates taken with the

quartz spectrograph of the McDonald Observatory for several stars

in which interstellar Ca II is strong, for example é Persei, x Aurigae,

x? Orionis, a Camelopardi, strongly suggests that \ 3720 is present.

But the line is weak and we are not prepared to make a positive iden-

tification with the material now available to us. :

The intensities and radial velocities of the interstellar lines of Ca II

and Na I have been measured in many stars. There is a pronounced

correlation between distance and intensity, first found by the present

writer, which has served to give us an independent method for finding

the distances of hot stars. The method has been discussed by a number

of astronomers; some believe that the density of interstellar calcium

or sodium is not sufficiently uniform throughout space to give reliable

information regarding the distances. Dunham has even announced

from measurements in a Virginis (distance 53 parsecs) and 7 Ursae

Majoris (distance 66 parsecs) that ‘“‘there is probably a region of lower

than average density close to the sun.’’ Dunham also thought that

there was a difference in the average density of 2.4<10-! ionized

calcium atoms in the direction of a Virginis and that of 5.2x10-"

atoms in the direction of 7 Ursae Majoris. This latter conclusion de-

pends upon the adopted distances of the stars, which may be some-

what in error, as Morgan has recently demonstrated. On the whole, it

may be said that distances derived from the intensities of interstellar

lines are fairly reliable, provided a correction is applied to take care of

the concentration of the gas toward the galactic plane.

There is also a tolerably good correlation between line intensity and

color excess. But each of these quantities is much better correlated

with distance, so that we are certain that condensations of reddening

particles are not necessarily accompanied by increased densities of in-

terstellar atoms.

The radial velocities of the interstellar lines show (a) a relatively

small tendency toward peculiar motions and (6) a conspicuous relation

with galactic rotation, the line of sight component of the latter being

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 237

exactly one-half of its value derived from the corresponding stars. In

view of the small peculiar motions the galactic rotation effect may be

used for deriving the distances of the stars. However, there are numer-

ous cases of stars showing double interstellar lines. These have been

explained as being caused by two separate clouds of atoms, each hav-

ing its own motion. 7

Whenever the star lines are broad and diffuse the attribution of a

sharp line to interstellar matter is quite unambiguous. But when the

star lines are sharp the distinction is not always easy, except in spec-

troscopic binaries. There has been in recent years too much of a tend-

ency to take it for granted that all sharp Ca II lines in spectral types

B3 and earlier are interstellar. I have recently measured the Ca II line

d 3933 in the luminous B1 star 6 Canis Majoris and have found on

Texas Coudé plates that the line shares the oscillation of the star

lines. Morgan has remarked that especially in supergiant stars the

stellar calcium lines may sometimes persist as far as BO.

A problem of great interest and one that has not yet been com-

pletely solved is that of the line contours of the interstellar atomic

lines. These contours are deep and become appreciably broadened in

the more distant stars. It was at first suggested, by Unsold, Struve,

and Elvey, that the broadening may be caused by the effect of galactic

rotation, and Eddington attempted to explain the relative intensities

of Ca II to Na I as a result of the corresponding curves of growth.

However, observations, principally by Merrill, Wilson, Sanford, and

others at Mount Wilson, have shown that there are no striking differ-

ences 1n line contours of distant stars located (in galactic longitude)

near the nodes and near the maxima or minima of the curve of galactic

rotation. Clearly, near the nodes the broadening can not be due to

galactic rotation, and in the absence of other Doppler effects, it must

be due to the natural widening of the line by radiation damping. It is

probable that a small effect of this kind does exist, but there can be no

doubt that the lines in the two groups of stars are much more nearly

alike than the theory predicts. Hence it may be regarded as certain

that the contour is determined largely by turbulence, which masks the

galactic rotation broadening except, perhaps, in the most distant ob-

jects. The average turbulent velocities have not been accurately de-

termined, but they are probably of the order of 10 to 20 km/sec, in the

line of sight. |

THE IONIZATION PARADOX

In 1926 Eddington investigated the ionization of the interstellar

gas. Since it is reasonable to suppose that the gas is in a steady state,

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

we write for the equilibrium of Ca I and Ca IT:

No. of ionizations = No. of recombinations (14)

No. of bullets of quanta No. of ions colliding with electrons

disrupting atoms and forming atoms.

This is equivalent to:

Ni X No. of quanta of | NeoN. X function of cross sections for col- (14a)

é ar od ; a

appropriate power lisions and of velocity or temperature.

In other words,

Ni¢(loniz. pot., T) = NoN.f(T, c)

—— No — Ff (Gon, Rot. 1).

This is in effect Saha’s ionization equation. In thermodynamic equi-

librium it is

Ne 59040 2Ur

loge —— Ne= = x == 4 15 log Tt 538 So (15)

Ni T Uy

where x is the ionization potential and we, wv; are the statistical weights

of the ground states of the ion and the atom, respectively. In the inter-

stellar gas the radiation is very greatly diluted, and its spectral com-

position corresponds to the integrated effect of all the stars. In (14) or

(14a) the left side is proportional to the density of the radiation and

this is equal to Planck’s function for the appropriate average temper-

ature and to the dilution factor W, which measures the departure from

thermodynamic equilibrium. W is equal to the ratio of the available

density of radiation to that which would be available if for the appro-

priate temperature JT there existed thermodynamic equilibrium. The

right side of (14) or (14a) is not altered. We can, therefore, write the

lonization equation for interstellar matter in the following manner:

—— N= W X F dom: Pot:, 1);

MN,

Ne 5040 2Us

log — N. = — x ——+ 1.5 log T + 15.388 + log——_+ log W. (16)

Ni : T U4

This, however, presupposes that the distribution of velocities of the

electrons in the gas is Maxwellian and corresponds to the same tem-

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 239

perature 7’, as the one which results from the summation of the energy

curves of all stars. This will not, in general, be the case. A more elab-

orate treatment for an electron temperature T., gives

Ne 5040 E;

log — WN, = — x —— + 1.5 log T+ 0.5 log —+ log W. (17)

M, E iE

Finally, in some applications of the theory it is necessary to allow for

the gradual diminution of the ionizing radiation by absorption in the

gas. This introduces an extra factor of e~7 in the left side of (14) and

(14a), so that our final expression is

5040

All logarithms are to the base of 10. The dilution factor can be deter-

mined from the observed distribution of the stars. Eddington pro-

ceeds in the following manner. He determines the appropriate tem-

perature by summing the energy curves of all stars in the approximate

wave length range where the ionization of calcium is produced. This

turns out to be about 15,000°. In thermodynamic equilibrium Planck’s

formula gives an energy density of 387 erg/cm? for 15,000°. In inter-

stellar space conditions are different. We know that the sun radiates

3.8 X 10 erg/sec and that a star of bolometric absolute magnitude 1.0

radiates 36 times as much, or 1.4 10* erg/sec.. By definition at a dis-

tance of 10 parsecs the absolute magnitude of a star is equal to its ap-

parent magnitude. If we spread the energy radiated per second by our

first magnitude star over a sphere of 10 parsecs in radius we have

1.4 X 10%

Fie xe LOO G9 102°

N TE

log aa = + 1.5log T + 0.5 log a + log W + loge-’. (18)

= 10° erg/cm? sec.

The energy density is obtained by dividing this by c. But the total of

all star light is equivalent to 2,000 stars of the first apparent magni-

tude. Hence the radiation density in interstellar space is

2000 * 10-5

aaa = CX 10 ere/em?*.

a OL

The dilution factor is

7OS< Mee

W = — = 2 x 10-45,

387

More accurate values have been derived by Gerasimovié and Struve,

by Greenstein, and by Dunham.

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

We can now proceed and compute N2/N, for Ca II/Ca I by sub-

stituting numerical values into (18). The question is what to use for

N.. Eddington determines a very rough value for the density of inter-

stellar matter by assuming that the gaseous nebulae are condensations

of the interstellar medium and that the theory of isothermal gas

spheres may be applied to these objects. This gives p=10-* g/cm‘.

Since the electron pressure is not very different from the total gas pres-

sure this estimate gives N, and hence also N2/N,.

Gerasimovi¢é and Struve proceeded in a different manner. In the ab-

sence of any information regarding N, they assumed that all elements

are equally effective in producing electrons in interstellar space, so

that N. could be determined from the equation

pN,. = N2(Cat) + 2N;(Ca**), | (19)

where p=0.015 is the percentage abundance of calcium by atoms in

the crust of the earth. This equation led to a very small value of NV.

= 10-*, which in turn gave a very high degree of ionization. The ioniza-

tion of calcium and sodium derived by Gerasimovié and Struve is

shown in table 2.

TABLE 2.—IONIZATION OF CALCIUM AND SODIUM

(N.=1073)

Calcium Sodium

Caen er ans 3X107 Nig ean 21077

Cais treme Maries 7 X1075 Nas epee 1

ee eee a eh mae iL INR iw YA 6xX10-3

iste Vee Ee 2 >< AOm a —

Since the observed line intensities of Na I and Ca II are very simi-

lar, the table suggests that in cosmic clouds sodium atoms must be 300

times more abundant than atoms of calcium. On the earth the abun-

dance of sodium is only about 1.3 times that of calcium. This ratio is

probably true of other cosmic sources, and it is strange that in inter-

stellar space the abundance of sodium should be several hundred

times greater. This result is similar to that of Eddington. It formed a

serious barrier to further work.

SOLUTION OF THE PARADOX

In 1926, when Eddington’s work was published, and in 1929, when

Gerasimovié and Struve published their computations, there was no

reason to doubt that calcium was a very abundant substance. The

fact that calcium and sodium were the only elements then known in

the spectrum of interstellar matter, combined with the great inten-

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 241

sity of the calcium lines in the solar chromosphere and in prominences,

led quite naturally to the idea of ‘“‘calecium clouds,” which were be-

lieved to consist largely of calcium. The idea advanced by Gerasimo-

vié and Struve that the abundance of calcium might be only | or 2 per-

cent was revolutionary in 1929.

However, later work on the composition of the sun by Russell a

short time afterward established beyond doubt the tremendous pre-

ponderance of hydrogen over all other elements. Hence it became

necessary to review the problem of the ionization of interstellar mat-

ter with the idea that hydrogen might supply the overwhelming ma-

jority of the free electrons.

The basis of the new discussion consists of Dunham’s recent meas-

urements of the intensities of the lines of Ca I 4226 and Ca II 3933 in

several stars. From these intensities it is possible to derive the num-

bers of atoms per cm? of Ca* and of Ca, and thus determine by ob-

servation the ratio N2/N,. This was done independently by Struve

and by Dunham. The ionization equation then leads directly to a

determination of NV. Struve finds 30; Dunham obtains values of 14.4

and 7.3, depending upon which of two assumptions he uses for the

integrated ultraviolet radiation of all stars. Within the past few days

we have received a communication from Bates and Massey, of North-

ern Ireland, who have corrected the ionization formula (18) for the

fact that the ionization processes take place almost exclusively from

the ground level of the Ca atom, while in recombination many atoms

first find themselves in higher energy states, from which they rapidly

cascade downward to the ground level. This correction effectively re-

duces the ionization so that the same observed ratio N2/N, can now

occur at a lower electron density N,.. The factor is approximately

equal to 6. Taking Dunham’s upper value, 14.4, we find:

N, = 2.4 em-3. (20)

We shall see in the next section that there is a good confirmation of

this value from observations of interstellar hydrogen emission lines.

The uncorrected value of N, is sufficient, as I pointed out in 1939, to

greatly improve the Na/Ca paradox. Using this N., and adjusting

W and T for the required ionization potentials, we compute:

EE eee 10

Ni(Ca) N2(Cat)

N2(Nat) _ N,(Nat*) CAD)

= O70,

N,(Na) * N2(Nat)

242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 6

From the equivalent widths of Ca K and Na D and the corresponding

distances, Wilson and Merrill found

INON ED) = 3 N< WO? Gar, (22)

while for Ca K, Merrill and Sanford found

INg(Cayn) = © < 12 ein, (23)

Combining (21) with (22) and (23) we obtain the total numbers of

sodium and calcium atoms:

N,(Na) + N2(Nat) = 8 X 1077 cm™= |

N,(Ca) + N2(Cat) + N3(Ca**) = 1.2 & 10“ cm} oe

Sodium is about 7 times as abundant as calcium. Dunham finds a

larger ratio,

a= 200 (25)

but even this is very much better than the discrepancy of 300 found in

the earlier work. Stromgren suggests that the small remaining incon-

sistency of (25) with terrestrial data will disappear when the correc-

tion of Bates and Massey is applied to Na, as well as to Ca. Since the

theory is difficult, expecially in not being able to give us very reliable

values of T and W, we may consider the paradox of the ionizations as

having been eliminated. Moreover, we must remember that the de-

terminations in (22) and (23) rest upon the curves of growth for Ca

and Na, and these are still incompletely known. Finally, the distances

of the B stars are not accurately known.

INTERSTELLAR HYDROGEN EMISSION

We have already expressed the suspicion that the large value of NV,

may come from the ionization of interstellar hydrogen. Consider the

ionization of hydrogen. If we disregard the factor e~7 in (18) and set

T.=T, we find with the appropriate values at \=900 A, viz. T

= 25,000°, and W =10

N2(Ht

2( Snag

— (26

N,(H) sh

Since W and T are uncertain, this value is only a rough approxima-

tion.

The only lines of hydrogen which are accessible to observation are

those of the Balmer series. Let us see how many H atoms we must

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 243

have in order to account for the value of N. which we have derived

from the calcium absorption lines. For simplicity let us use not the

final result (20) but a value which is close to that derived by Dunham,

namely ee

5 = 0 om

Evidently, since N,= N.(H+) we conclude from (26) that we have in

space one neutral atom of H per cm’. The question arises whether

there is any chance of observing the bright H line in interstellar space.

We first compute the numbers of atoms in the third quantum level.

Since this level is not metastable the population is proportional to W,

so that

a — We-WIkT) (27)

With W=10—" and e-”/*T=10- we have

fi = WO car (28)

Consider now the depths of space. Our Milky Way extends to tens of

thousands of parsecs from the sun, but in effect the more distant re-

gions are cut off by obscuring nebulosities. We can make only a rough

guess as to the effective thickness of the visible layer:

D = 1,000 light years = 107! cm. (29)

Hence we shall have

n3D = 10? atoms/cm”. (30)

The question arises: Can the emission of 100 hydrogen atoms per cm?

be observed? The energy emitted by the layer is

ngDhvA 31

where hy=0.5X10!, A3:=0.5 X 108, and n;D = 100. This is

nsDhvAz ~ 10-2 erg/cm? sec.

This is considerably brighter than the limit of human vision for sur-

face brightnesses. The latter is roughly equivalent to one star of mag-

nitude 9 per square degree. Since the apparent magnitude of the sun is

— 26, and since it covers about one-fifth of a square degree this means

that we can detect surface brightnesses which are 35 magnitudes or

about 10“ times as faint. The total radiation of the sun is about

10 erg/cm’ sec. Our eyes are sensitive to only a fraction of this, let

us say to 3. Hence the minimum surface brightness we can see is

244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

74 DM OEY

1014

This is a fiftieth as faint as the expected brightness of the interstellar

hydrogen emission. There is all reason to search for it. This was done

a few years ago at the McDonald Observatory, with a specially con-

structed nebular spectrograph of great eficiency. The instrument con-

sists of a narrow plane mirror, which acts as the slit. The light from

the sky is reflected by the slit-mirror along the direction of the polar

axis. At a distance of 75 feet it is intercepted by a plane mirror and re-

turned to the prism box and f/1 Schmidt camera. Each spectrum is ac-

companied by a comparison spectrum from some other part of the sky.

= 2 X 10s* eney/cmisec:

Fig. 3.—Nebular spectrograph of the McDonald Observatory. My =narrow plane

mirror acting as slit; M, =stationary plane mirror; P = prisms over camera; T = guiding

telescope.

The results of the observations numbering nearly 80 long exposures

show that—

(1) There are large regions in the Milky Way where H, [O II] 3727,

[N II] 6548, 6484, and occasionally [O III] N; and N, appear in emis-

sion.

(2) These nebulae show but little concentration toward individual

early-type stars, thereby differing conspicuously from ordinary gase-

ous nebulae.

(3) There is no emission at high galactic latitudes.

(4) The emission regions of H in Cygnus, Cepheus, and Monoceros

are fairly sharply bounded on the outside. They are roughly circular

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 245

Fig. 4.—Nebular spectrograph of the McDonald Observatory.

in appearance. The intensity drops somewhat from the inner parts of

each region toward the outer boundary, but this variation is relatively

small.

(5) Whenever [O III] is seen in emission, it occurs in the central

parts of the H regions, without any sharp boundaries.

246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 6

[O II] 3727 Hy HBNi+N~2 Ha

AURORAL LINES A

(a) Guiding star: 56° 2604. Nebula IC 1396

(b) Guiding star: 60° 504. Loose cluster |

(d) Guided 6’ south of 29° 741

Fig, 5.—Spectra of Milky Way regions showing emission of H, [O IJ]

and [O III] superimposed over spectrum of night sky.

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 247

(6) The H regions are probably associated with groups of O-type

stars. This is demonstrated in Figs. 7 and 8 where the spectroscopic

results are shown at the top, the distribution of the O stars at the

bottom. The emission regions are shown by solid circles. Absence of

emission is denoted by open circles.

Fig. 6.—Milky Way in Cygnus. A large part of this area covering nearly

400 square degrees shows emission lines of H and [O II].

(7) The ratio in intensity [O II|/(H-+|N II]) is large in Monoceros

and Canis Major and small in Cygnus, Cepheus, and Sagittarius. This

effect demonstrates a conspicuous difference between the physical con-

ditions of the emission regions in two different parts of the sky.

(8) Some of the emission regions show a slightly milky background

on the direct photographs of Ross and Barnard, but there are other

regions of similar milky appearance which shine by reflected light.

(9) The hydrogen emission regions sometimes cover dark markings

while in other instances the emission does not seem to extend over the

248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 31, NO. 6

dark nebulosities. In the Taurus region there is no emission in the

dark clouds, except in the immediate vicinity of bright O and early B

stars. In the Ophiuchus nebulosities emission is seen only near the Bl

star o Scorpil. The other bright stars, of type B3, produce only re-

flection nebulae.

(10) Slipher reports that in the region a=18 8™, 6=—18° 16’ the

emission of H covers not only the star cloud, but also the dark mark-

ing B92.

The sizes of the emission regions are of the order of s)>=7° for the

one around \ Orionis and s)»=5° for the one in Cygnus. Assuming rea-

sonable absolute magnitudes for the associated O stars we find the

following linear dimensions:

Region Radius

near \ Orionis 40 parsecs

Cygnus 130 parsecs

Monoceros 85 parsecs

The intensities of the observed hydrogen lines may be used to com-

pute the number of atoms per cm? in the third energy level. In princi-

ple this is simple and can be done by reversing the procedure of the

first part of this section. In practice there are many difficulties because

we are dealing with an extremely faint light source. A fairly good

average result from two independent series of observations is

ie, = &) Cor.

Assuming s)=300 parsecs (for which we shall see the justification

later)

ie = = 5 X 10-2! em-. (31)

Be OR eae < Oe

We next apply the formula

Na = a8 We

Ni 91

which gives

Ni =3 X 10°? em.

Allowing for the ionization, as in (26):

N.(H*t)

Rican) a

)

we have

"HOATBO “Y ArepY puvw ssoy “op WY AG ABA

AYTYA 0Y9 JO SUTPY O49 WoOry JLOATBO “Y Arey, SSTPY Aq opBUr SBA deur oy1sodwoo of J, ‘Sefodto

uado sev poqjojd are CG od Ay [Rrqoods Jo sieqs UMOTLY 949 “W0990q 944 FY “SefPt19 PIJOS sv peqojd

aie [TT] O] pue JO UoIsstuo SuIMOYsS suorsod ‘doy oy9 Fy “ABM AXP lourwNg—) "31

‘seporld uedo se pozqod ore GQ od4q [erjQoods Jo suvys UMOUY 94}

110930q 94} FV ‘Sefotto uedo sv pozqo]d 018 UOISSIUIA YNOYYIM SUOIdaI fSo]D11D PITOS sv peqod

ere [[[ O] pus’ FY Jo Uorsstule SuTMoys suotIser ‘doy oy} YW “ABAA AYIA 10PUTAA—"S “SLT

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 249

No ils) — se 2 rennin:

But we should not have used the three-state problem. Evidently sev-

eral other H levels will contain approximately the same populations as

the third level. In fact, the second level may even be overpopulated. ©

Strémgren has allowed for this effect accurately, but we shall simply

estimate that the error due to the neglect of other excited levels cor-

responds to a factor of 10. Then the total number of hydrogen atoms

is:

IN =e Il ee INE) — 2 eines

From his detailed analysis which is based upon my and Elvey’s ob-

servational data Stromgren finds

ICs) = I = 3 Gun. (32)

This agrees closely with the value derived from calcium.

STROMGREN’S THEORY

The significant element of this theory is the retention of the term

e—7 in the ionization formula (18):

N.(H*) if:

N. = G x< Seren Cat (33)

N,(H) @

because W = R?/4s?. The constant C involves the ionization potential

of H, the temperatures 7 and 7’. and the radius of the exciting star R.

Since presumably almost all free electrons came from H

N. = N2(H*). (34)

The optical depth 7 is measured near the limit of the Lyman series:

dr = N,(H)a,ds, (35)

where a, is the continuous absorption coefficient near \ 900 per neu-

tral hydrogen atom. This quantity is known. In our ionization equa-

tion 3

[N2(H+) |?

ene eat 36

ND) ay oe)

the ionization decreases with increasing distance from the ionizing

star. Since a, is small this decrease is at first mainly caused by 1/s?,

because for small s, the factor e-7 is close to 1. But as the distance

increases e~7 becomes more important. Because of the exponential it

causes a very abrupt change in ionization, producing a sharp bound-

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

ary beyond which H is almost completely neutral and inside of which

it is almost entirely ionized. The radius of this boundary, so, can be

computed. It depends upon the temperature and radius of the ionizing

star and upon the density of hydrogen, N(H)=3 cm-. Physically

what happens is this: “In the immediate neighborhood of a star, in- ©

terstellar hydrogen will be ionized. With increasing distance from the

star the proportion of neutral hydrogen atoms increases, and hence

the absorption of the ionizing radiation increases. Ultimately, the

ionizing radiation is so much reduced that the interstellar hydrogen

is un-ionized.” Table 3 gives the quantity N2/N,+N, for several val-

ues of the ratio s/Sp.

TABLE 3.—IONIZATION OF HYDROGEN AS A FUNCTION OF DISTANCE

8/80

Ni+N2

0.00 1.00

0.58 1.00

0.74 0.99

0.84 0.98

0.93 0.96

0.97 0.94

1.00 0.85

1.03 0.33

The very rapid decrease of N2/N,+WN, near s/so=1 is of fundamental

importance. It shows that each star is surrounded by a sharply limited

volume of space where H is almost wholly ionized, while outside of this

volume H is un-ionized.

Table 4 gives Strémgren’s computations for the radius s» of the

ionized hydrogen region, as a function of spectral type. The computa-

tion is based upon values of the radii corresponding to main-sequence

stars.

TABLE 4.—Rapil1 OF REGIONS OF IONIZED HYDROGEN

$o in parsecs for

Spectrum Tt Vis. Abs. Mag. So in parsecs main sequence and

N=3 cm?

O5 79,000 —4.2 54 R2/3N-2/3 67

O6 63 , 000 —4.1 40 52

O7 50 , 000 —4.0 29 41

O8 40 ,000 —3.9 20 31

09 32,000 = 3.6 13 22

BO 25,000 —3.1 1.2 12

Bl 23 ,000 —2.5 5.6 8

B2 20 , 000 —1.8 4.2 5

B3 18 ,600 —1.2 BJo JI 3

B4 17,000 11.0 2.2 y)

B5 15,500 —0.8 1.6 1.8

AO 10,700 +0.9 iM 0.2

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 251

The table illustrates the great preponderance of the hot stars in creat-

ing volumes of ionized hydrogen. In the regions of ionized hydrogen

the Balmer lines will be excited by several mechanisms and will give

rise to emission lines. Stromgren identifies these regions with the ex-

tended areas of hydrogen emission found in the McDonald Observatory

survey of the Milky Way. In these areas O stars are abundant. For a

group of n stars the radius so increases as n’/*, so that from Table 4 we

infer that a group of 10 or 15 late O stars would create an ionized sphere

of about 300 parsecs in diameter. This is of same order of size as the

observed region in Cygnus (p. 248). In the un-ionized regions nearly all

the radiation beyond the Lyman limit, and also that in the Lyman

lines Lz, L,, etc. has been converted into ZL, and low-frequency lines.

There will be almost no excitation of the third and higher levels of

hydrogen, but the second level may be superexcited by a factor of 10%.

It is of interest to consider the manner in which the radius of the

ionized region depends upon the various quantities involved. In this

connection it is important to remember that the discussion applies

only to an element which furnishes the vast majority of free electrons.

In the ionized regions this is hydrogen, and within these regions the

ionization of elements of higher ionization potential is not influenced

by a term of the form e~’. Str6mgren derives for so, when T.=T:

logio So = — 5.85 — 3 log a, — 307 + 4 log T + 2 log R — 2 log N,

where

zie es 5040

I = ionization potential, 9 = a hy —— MOke) DX NOS Cie

But

5900

log R = —— — 0.20 M, — 0.02.

Hence

Clearly s) is very sensitive to T, because of the term (3900—1660/)

1/T. Except when I is small, 1660 J/T predominates. For example,

when J =10 volts, = 33008 Gjese ll

« T=10 « T=16,600 s)=10

“« T=50 « fi BAO) sya

“« 7T=50 « T=16,600 s)=10°

The conclusion is that when J is large hot stars alone are important.

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

The effect of M, is relatively slight, because of the coefficient 0.13.

For a main-sequence star and a supergiant of class A we have

main sequence A0:M=-+0.9

cA0: M = —6.0

The value of login s) changes by 0.13 X 6.9 =0.9. If for a main-sequence

AO star Table 4 gives s)=0.2 parsec, the supergiant will give s»=16

parsecs. This is of the order of size required for a Cygni which may

be responsible for the luminosity of the North America nebula and

the surrounding emission region. The distance is about 200 parsecs

and the apparent radius s)=4°. This gives s)=14 parsecs, which is

close to the value derived from Strémgren’s theory.

In the case of y Cygni, which is of type F8 and which is believed to

be responsible for some faint hydrogen emission showing a sym-

metric arrangement around this star, the agreement is poor. ‘The dis-

tance is about 140 parsecs and s,;=4°. Hence the radius should be

So=10 parsecs. But the temperature is much lower than that of «

Cygni. It is difficult to see how y Cygni can be responsible for the

emission region unless it radiates at \900 like a late B star. The im-

portance of supergiants may become appreciable in the case of early

class B. : :

Let us next apply the theory to two relatively close O stars, y

Velorum and ¢ Puppis. For these stars

M, = —4

and

D = 200 parsecs.

For type O8 Table 4 gives s)>=381 parsecs. Hence we are well outside

the ionized regions surrounding these two stars. Observations con-

firm this: there is no emission at high galactic latitudes.

EMISSION OF FORBIDDEN OXYGEN

The McDonald Observatory results show the following:

(1) [O II] is nearly always present in the regions of ionized H.

(2) There is a relative strengthening of [O IJ] in the winter Milky

Way and a weakening in the summer Milky Way.

(3) The regions of [O II] coincide with those of H and have the

same sharp boundaries.

(4) [O ITI] is rarely observed, but when it does occur it is limited to

the inner parts of the H regions, and it shows no sharp boundaries.

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 253

(5) [O I] was never observed, although a special effort was made

to distinguish it from the strong auroral lines in the spectrum of the

night sky.

These results are in good agreement with Strémgren’s theory.

Since NV. depends on H, the decrease of [O II I]-intensity is caused

by the term 1/s?. The same is true for [O II]; at the boundary of H the

ionization of O will also suddenly stop. Since all exciting stellar radia-

tion is cut off at s», elements of ionization potential higher than that

of H, 13.54 volts, are un-ionized. This applies to the following:

O PS Sbavolts

Oz 34.94

Ort 54.88

He 24.48

Ce: 24.28

N 14.49

Elements of lower ionization potential may be ionized in the regions

where H is neutral. This applies to

€ ieee E22 volits

Ca 6.09

Cat 11.82

Na Hae

Carbon is probably the most abundant of these elements and it must

be the source of the free electrons in these regions. Allowing for the

low abundance of C with respect to H, we estimate that in the non-

hydrogen regions N, is between 10-? and 10-? em~-*. It will be recalled

that this is very similar to the value originally inferred by Gerasi-

movié and Struve for interstellar space. Hence conditions of ionization

for Ca and Na in the nonhydrogen regions must be approximately

those which they had derived. This means that Ca is nearly all doubly

ionized, so that if we observe a star through a series of hydrogen and

nonhydrogen regions, it is the former that give most of the absorption

within the stationary lines of Ca II.

Na I is even more reduced in the nonhydrogen regions and Ca I

originates almost entirely in the regions of ionized hydrogen.

It is not at once obvious why [O I]-is not observed outside the re-

gions of ionized hydrogen. It is certainly not ionized, because the

ionization potential of O almost coincides with that of H. The for-

bidden lines of [O I] are also weak in planetaries. There we could

make the plausible assumption that the gas ceases to exist in the ring

in which we should otherwise expect [O I] to be strong. But this does

not help in the case of interstellar space. Provisionally it seems possi-

ble that because of the low electron density in the nonhydrogen

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

regions there are not enough collisions to excite the metastable levels

of O I. Since the high levels are probably not appreciably excited by

radiation and since there is no ionization, recombination and cascad-

ing can not help to populate the metastable levels. We are compelled

to assume that excitations by electron collisions are not sufficiently

numerous to produce the forbidden lines.

It is of some interest to compute the abundance of O from the ob-

served intensities of the line \8727. The observational data give us

no, the number of atoms per cm’ in the upper, metastable level:

log nm. = 11.97.

This is very large compared to hydrogen, because of the metastability

of the term. We can now apply two methods of reasoning in order to

determine 7: (1) excitation by pure radiation and (2) excitation by

collisions.

Method (1) depends upon the formula for the three-state problem,

with the second level assumed to be metastable: ‘

ne ae A30

a 9 aS P13

where

en (hy (kT).

PSI

Using 7 =25,000°, W=10-'’we have pi;=10-4. Since A32=108 sec7?;

Au=2.4x10— sec-!, we have

Ne/M™ = 2X 107°.

m= 5X 107°,

If so=300 parsecs = 1074 em, we find

Nie Om icmis:.

Since nearly all O is ionized we infer that

ISO) == NO== Caar,

Method (2) makes use of the equation

Ne N da

le ea ci 1710),

mM An + Naa

where dz; is the collisional probability:

Paslode \ ae

Oi, = ot2 ( ) = 3x10"

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 255

For the low metastable level

en (hv IBD) — 0.4,

If we assume V,=1 cm’, we get approximately

n N.

1075:

N41 1

Since n2= 10” we find

n= 2 x Ol

Adopting again s)= 107! cm, we have

IN = XK MO,

Evidently, the collisional mechanism is much more efficient than the

radiation mechanism. The abundance of O may be somewhere be-

tween the two limits. Strémgren has independently estimated from

the same observational data that the interstellar abundance of oxygen

is 10-? or 10-3 atoms to one atom of hydrogen. The method upon

which these computations are based is very rough, but as a prelimi-

nary result we shall adopt

Wi(Q>) = NO-2 can.

The heterogeneity of the Milky Way in regard to the relative intensi-

ties of [O II] and H leads to interesting speculations. It may be due

to real differences in abundance. But it may also be due to different

conditions of excitation.

INTERSTELLAR EMISSION OR ABSORPTION

In the past astronomers have sometimes been searching for inter-

stellar emission lines of Ca II and Na I, and it is of some interest to

explain why these lines are observed in absorption, while H is ob-

served in emission. Let us compare the emission of H and Ca II. From

the absorption intensities we know that

INCA) = NO? Gan,

The total emissions in H, and Ca K are

4rH = N3hv3o Az for H

4nrHx = nkhvrAx for Cat

Since we are only concerned here with orders of magnitude we may

put

256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 31, NO. 6

hve = hvx

Asze a Ax

Accordingly,

ie N3 5

Ex NK NK

because n3=5 cm? (page 248). But

nx = 10-* X 102 X We wieD,

For T=15,000° and W=10-"*,

——— = 10? or 10+,

Ex :

so that the emission of Ca K can not be observed.

In a similar manner we can show that no interstellar absorption

lines of H are expected in the spectra of distant stars, for example in

a Nova which provides an emission background on which an inter-

stellar line could easily be seen. The absence of any such line in Nova

Lacertae, at a distance of about 900 parsecs, shows that

fy << NOP Gane,

because if it were stronger our spectrograms would show it. We also

know that for the third level, which is not metastable,

jy = Vor slo) sy,

while for the second, which is metastable:

Alcs a

Ne = 4\W — eW rs! kT)

121

Since Az,= 108 sec —! the inequality becomes

—— = 7, < 2 X 10° sec.

The question arises whether this is in accord with the theory. Breit

and Teller find that in the absence of collisions the mean life of the 2s

state of hydrogen is about 1/7 second. Hence the Balmer absorption

lines should not be observable.

JUNE 15, 1941 STRUVE: DIFFUSE MATTER IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE 257

COMPOSITION OF INTERSTELLAR GAS

Table 5 summarizes the results. I have combined the results of

Dunham and Strémgren with my own, without making an attempt to

avoid slight inconsistencies. In my opinion the theory, as well as the

observations, permits only a very rough orientation. In Dunham’s

work the atoms refer to the space between the earth and x” Orionis;

those for the molecules represent the means for several stars.

TABLE 5.—COMPOSITION OF INTERSTELLAR GAS

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS OF PARTICLES PER CM?

Element This paper Dunham Sun Nebulae

Electrons..... 0.2 1

Hydrogen | 2 1 0 0

Oxyeen =... .. —3 —1.5 —2

SOGMIM. .. =... —6 —4 —3.3 —4

Potassium.... —5 —3.7 —5

Calcium...... —7 —5 —3.8 —4

atganiim:. 22 .-. —7 —5.3 —4

CLE ote eee —6

ON ee hi —6

For comparison the table gives also the relative abundances in the

sun from Russell and in the nebula NGC 7027 from Bowen and Wyse.

These values were adjusted for one hydrogen atom. The discrepancies

between the results of this paper and Dunham for Ca and Na are

attributable to differences between the determinations of Dunham

and of Merrill, Wilson, and Sanford. However, there are real differ-

ences in different parts of the sky. Dunham found for the neighbor-

hood of the sun a density of 10-!° Ca ions per em’; for the space be-

tween the earth and x? Orionis he finds 10~’, while Merrill and Sanford

find 10-* for the average of many stars. There are also serious

difficulties with the curve of growth for interstellar absorption lines.

Accordingly, we need feel no concern about the differences. It seems

that the composition of the gas is similar to that of the sun and of

the nebulae.

It seems to me that the most important task now is to study in de-

tail the heterogeneity of the galaxy. We have definite observational

indications that the relative intensities of different atoms are different

in various parts of the sky. It is surprising, for example, that some of

the newer interstellar lines are strong in ¢ Ophiuchi. Adams has shown

that \ 4232.6 and CH 4300.3 are relatively strong in this star. But

Ca K is not particularly strong. The star is of very early B type

(Morgan finds it may even ke an O) and probably creates a moderate

volume of ionized H. But it lies quite far from the Milky Way and

from other O stars. The data now available are not sufficient for a

258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

detailed study, and we can only give a few hints as to the topics such

a study might cover:

(1) The relative weakness of K and the strength of molecular lines

in ¢ Ophiuchi, far from the other O-type stars and from the Milky

Way, suggest that the ionized volume is small and that molecular

lines are strengthened in the un-ionized regions. We have as yet no

accurate theory of the equilibrium of CH and NH and it is difficult

to predict the outcome. Swings has made some computations and has

shown that certain diatomic molecules, like CH and NH, must be

quite frequent. The ionization of H may well impede the formation

of the molecules, and it is quite possible that they will be relatively

more numerous in the un-ionized regions.

(2) Adams states that Ca I 4227 does not appear in ¢ Ophiuchi.

This agrees with the prediction of Strémgren’s theory (page 249) for

a relatively un-ionized region. This is also true of the correlation be-

tween Ca I and Ca II, noticed by Adams.

(3) Because of the fact that interstellar Ca II and Na I originate

principally in the ionized H regions, we should expect that there would

be appreciable departures from the simple one-half relation in the

galactic rotation term, which was discovered by Oort, and confirmed

by Struve and by Plaskett and Pearce. However, since the regions

are large it 1s important that the comparison of radial velocities be

confined to those stars and their Ca II lines which are eu Enea Ly re-

sponsible for the creation of a volume of ionized H.

(4) In order to aid in the study of the heterogeneity of the galaxy,

more material is required with the nebular spectrographs.

(5) An application of Strémgren’s theory to diffuse gaseous neb-

ulae, such as the Orion nebula, and to planetaries, should be made,

with special attention to the theoretical and observational study of

absorption lines, such as the lines of He I discovered by O. C. Wilson.

(6) A regional study of interstellar Ti I] should be relatively easy.

From the theory we should expect a behavior which is essentially

similar to that of Ca II and Na I.

(7) The observational problem of determining JN; for interstellar

H has not been solved with sufficient precision.

(8) A study of the effects of stellar lines in early B stars and the

determination of good spectroscopic parallaxes for these stars will

improve our knowledge of N» (Cat) and N;, (Na).

(9) The nature of the contours of the interstellar lines must be

cleared up by extending the determination of line contours to very

distant stars located near the nodes and near the maxima or minima

of the curve of galactic rotation as a function of galactic longitude.

JUNE 15, 1941 COOPER AND WARTHIN: NEW DEVONIAN NAMES 259

PALEONTOLOGY.—New Middle Devonian stratigraphic names.'

G. ARTHUR CoopErR, U. 8. National Museum, and ALDRED §&.

WarTHIN, Vassar College.

These new names are proposed to make them available for use on

the ‘Devonian Correlation Chart’’ of the National Research Council.

Stone Mill member of the Ludlowville formation: A thin bed of lime-

stone varying from | to 3 feet in thickness and exposed at several lo-

calities on both sides of Chenango Valley in Morrisville Quadrangle,

east-central New York. The type section is located in the bed and

banks of Stone Mill Brook, 45 miles (airline) southeast of Lebanon

and about 13 miles northwest of Earlville, N. Y. The layer has only

a local distribution but as the easternmost representative of the Cen-

terfield limestone has considerable stratigraphic significance. It con-

sists mostly of crinoidal and fragmentary shell material but contains

considerable sand. Its westernmost exposure is in a small glen at the

southeastern tip of Bradley Brook Reservoir, and its easternmost

appearance is in a ravine about 245 miles southwest of Poolville. This

member contains a fairly large fauna the most important species of

which are: Prismatophyllum n.sp., ‘““Spirifer”’ venustus Hall, Vitulina

pustulosa Hall, ‘Sp.’ sculptilis Hall, and many water-worn corals.

The Stone Mill member represents the last detected appearance of

the Centerfield formation in eastern New York. The overlying fine-

grained sandstone also contains many elements of the Centerfield

fauna but it has not proved possible to trace them beyond the eastern

limit of the Morrisville Quadrangle. It is therefore thought that the

crinoidal and shell debris, together with the rolled corals, represents

an eastern-shore phase of the Centerfield.

Logansport limestone: The name of this formation is derived from

the city of Logansport, north-central Indiana, but the exposure se-

lected as the type section is located at Pipe Creek Falls, 2 miles above

the Junction of Pipe Creek and the Wabash River, 7 miles above Lo-

gansport. Here 12 feet of light-colored granular limestone overlies the

Silurian at the falls; corals and other fossils are abundant particularly

in the upper 6 feet. Important Centerfield elements in the fauna are:

Camarospira, Eunella attenuata, Camerophoria, Cyclorhina, and “Spi-

rifer”’ venustus.

This formation had previously been correlated with the Onondaga

limestone on the basis of the reported presence of Spirifer acuminatus

and other Onondaga types. This confusion of Onondaga and Hamilton

types occurred because the Logansport formation has a “reef facies”’

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived February 21, 1941.

260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

like parts of the Onondaga. Re-examination of the fossils shows closest

affinities of the Logansport to the Four Mile Dam limestone of the

Traverse Group of Michigan.

Hungry Hollow formation: Proposed for the Encrinal limestone and

coral bed at the base of the Widder formation in southwestern On-

tario. These two beds contain a fauna wholly unlike that of the Wid-

der. Although the Encrinal and coral bed are unlike in lithology the

two contain the same fossils and are thus a faunal unit. The type sec-

tion is in the bluffs along the Aux Sables River in Hungry Hollow

(also known as Bartlett’s or Marsh’s Mill), 25 miles east of Arkona,

Ontario. Here the Hungry Hollow formation consists of 23 feet of

light-brown crinoidal limestone overlain by 3 to 4 feet of calcareous

shale abounding in corals and other fossils. The formation contains

an almost exact duplication of the Centerfield fauna of western New

York. |

Four Mile Dam limestone: Type section located at the Four Mile

Dam on Thunder Bay River, Alpena County, Mich. The rock exposed

at this place is a part of a reef of uncertain thickness overlain uncon-

formably by the Norway Point formation. The Four Mile Dam lime-

stone abounds in fossils of Centerfield affinities: ““Spirifer’’ venustus,

Camarospira, Camerophoria, Cyclorhina, Parazyga, and Strombodes

alpenensis.

Newton Creek limestone: Proposed for the brown, bituminous and

crystalline limestone 25 feet thick exposed 12 feet above the floor of

the Michigan Alkali Company Quarry, Alpena, Mich., and extend-

ing to a thin black shale at the base of the Alpena limestone. The for-

mation abounds in large brachiopods: Cranaena, Pentamerella, Came-

rophoria, and Charionella.

Rockport Quarry limestone: Proposed to replace Rockport limestone

of Smith, 1916 (not Bastin, 1908; Krebs, 1911; or Marbut, 1904). The

type section is in the quarry of the Kelly Island Rock and Transport

Company at Rockport in the northeast corner of Alpena County,

Mich.

JUNE 15, 1941 KEMPTON: MESOCOTYLS AND INTERNODES IN JOB’S-TEARS 261

BOTANY.—Elongation of mesocotyls and internodes in Job’s-tears

(Coix lachryma-jobi L.).' James H. Kempton, U.S. Bureau of

Plant Industry.

Numerous experiments with maize seedlings grown in the dark

have shown that the elongation of the mesocotyl (epicotyl) ceases

with the exsertion from the coleoptile of the first leaf. It has been

established also that 100 F.C. hours Mazda illumination at approxi-

mately 26° C., when the seedlings are 2 to 5 em tall, result in a reduc-

tion in the final length of the mesocotyl of approximately 25 to 30

percent. When the mesocotyl has attained the length maximum for

the seed stock and the experimental conditions, further elongation

of the seedling takes place in the first internode—the internode be-

tween tke colecptile and the first leaf.

Seedlings of the Asiatic maize relative, Corx lachryma-jobi L., differ

morphologically from those of maize in having a bladeless sheath in-

terposed between the coleoptile and the first true leaf. It was of in-

terest, therefore, to determine for Cozx whether cessation of elonga-

tion of the mesocotyl awaited the appearance of the first true leaf or

followed upon the exsertion of the bladeless sheath.

Coix is native to the Oriental humid tropics of very heavy rainfall

and may be considered at least semiaquatic in habitat. Importation

of seed from the Orient is proscribed because of the prevalence there

of a mildew capable of attacking maize. However, the hard-shelled

forms have been grown in this country for years as a source of beads,

and a stock of this seed was obtained from the W. Atlee Burpee Co.

Preliminary experiments showed that the seedlings of this stock,

when grown in the dark, produced mesocotyls almost twice the length

of those of the Funk Yellow Dent used in maize experiments. Meso-

cotyls as long as 450 mm were obtained, and this length at least

equals that found in the desert maize of the Hopi Indians.” In the

case of the Hopi maize, long mesocotyls are an evident adaptation to

the deep planting required to place the seed in moist soil, whereas in

Coix they may be considered as a useful adaptation for an aquatic

habitat where the seeds may be buried along stream banks.

The experiments with Cozx indicated that, with the exsertion of

the bladeless sheath from the coleoptile, the elongation of the meso-

cotyl ceased. However, it developed that upon the cessation of elonga-

tion of the mesocotyl further elongation of the seedling took place at

1 Received March 25, 1941.

2 Cotuins, G. N. A drought-resisting adaptation in seedlings of Hopi maize. Journ.

Agr. Res. 1: 293-301, illus. Jan. 10, 1914.

262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 6

the second internode instead of the first as in maize. The first inter-

node was not extended and the coleoptile and bladeless sheath re-

mained essentially paired as almost opposite organs (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.—Diagrammatic representation of Coiz seedlings: (A) Mesocotyl, this organ

may elongate 450 mm; (B) coleoptile; (C) bladeless sheath, the node bearing this sheath

is not shown but is within 1 or 2 mm of the node at the base of the coleoptile; (D)

second internode; (FE) first true leaf.

A number of experiments have been conducted, all giving the same

results. When the mesocotyl is checked, the second internode elon-

gates. A single experiment is presented in Table 1 where one-half of a

flat of seedlings growing in the dark was given an exposure of 100 F.C.

hours Mazda illumination, the other half remaining in the dark.

From the measurements it is evident that the illumination given

one-half the seedlings resulted in a very great reduction in the elonga-

tion of mesocotyls and stimulated the elongation of second internodes.

No effect of illumination is found in the coleoptiles, though a similar

treatment of maize would have measurably increased the length of

the coleoptiles. The bladeless sheaths, however, definitely responded

JUNE 15, 1941 TRESSLER: OSTRACODA FROM BROMELIADS 263

TABLE 1.—LENGTHS OF VARIOUS PARTS OF SEEDLINGS OF COIX LACHRYMA-JOBI L.,

HauF oF WHIcH WERE GROWN WHOLLY IN THE DARK, THE OTHER HALF SUBJECTED

TO A SINGLE Exposure OF 100 F.C. Hours Mazpa ILLUMINATION WHEN 2 TO 5

cM TALL.

Light exposure

Character - Difference

Dark throughout | 100 F.C. hours

Mm Mm Mm

MEME VN ls se ls 253.71 +8.94 133.41 +7.90 L202 30 cel 9S

MeN UME Fo. we 310) av4 ae Il 3533 0) 47 SE I etl Oo sr al a4:

iMinstesneatm............. 40.87+1.41 DOPOOE tao 1354133 ae 4745)

Second internode......... —- -—- 54.19+3.78 ~ —

Hamsteicue leat.......-.... 82 .56+6.33 144.96 +6.71 62.404 9.22

to the brief illumination. Evidently the mesocotyl of Cov is much

more sensitive to light than is the maize mesocotyl, although this has

not been tested beyond the reduction in length effected by 100 F.C.

hours. In maize it has been possible to detect the effect of 1,000 F.C.

seconds, and it would appear to be possible with Cozx to measure the

response to even smaller amounts of light.

The failure of Coizx to elongate the internode between the coleoptile

and the bladeless sheath is suggestive that this sheath and the coleop-

tile are more intimately related in function than is the case with

maize. The greater sensitivity of Cox to light, as compared with

maize, and the extensive elongation of Cozx mesocotyls, together

with the close physical association of the coleoptile and bladeless

sheath, suggests that both these latter organs produce the growth

substance required for mesocotyl elongation.

ZOOLOGY .—Ostracoda from Puerto Rican bromeliads.: Wiuuis L.

TrESSLER, University of Maryland. (Communicated by WaALpo

L. SCHMITT.)

It has been about 60 years since the first discovery of Entomostraca

in the leaf cups of bromeliads in southern Brazil. Since then this habi-

tat has been investigated in several places, and a long list of animal

forms has been assembled, many of which are found almost exclu-

sively in this peculiar situation.

The bromeliads are large tropical plants built on the lines of a cen-

tury plant or the pineapple, which is a member of this group. The

leaves, which may be several feet in length, are arranged in a spiral

fashion with overlapping bases, which form little cups in which rain

water collects. Bromeliads are mainly epiphytic on the large trees of

tropical America but are found also in most botanical gardens of

+ Received March 12, 1941.

264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

temperate regions where they thrive under glass. The cups at the leaf

bases are filled with decomposing debris and water, and in the water

or among the debris or attached to the sides of the leaves are to be

found a great variety of organisms, including copepods, ostracods,

and worms.

The first report on Entomostraca inhabiting the leaf cups of brome-

liads was made by Fritz Miller in 1880 (Miller, 1880) and concerned

the discovery of various microscopic animals that he had found in

these reservoirs in southern Brazil. Included was a new species of

ostracod, which was described the following year (Miller, 1881).

More recently, Picado (1913) in his masterly study of the organisms

to be found in the leaf cups of bromeliads, recorded about 250 species

of animals that have been found in this habitat in various parts of

the world. This list of species includes representatives from such

groups as the rotifers, oligochaete worms, leeches, planarians, ostra-

cods, copepods, isopods, Onychophora, Myriapoda, Acarina, Phalan-

gida, Pseudoscorpionida, scorpions, spiders, gastropods, insects, and

amphibians. Of these, the insects were by far the most largely repre-

sented.

In Brazil, Miller (1881) found an ostracod that he described as

Elpidium bromeliarum (Figs. 9, 10) but that has since been found to

be a species of the already discovered genus Metacypris. Only one

species of this genus (M. cordata, Figs. 7, 8) was known from northern

Europe and Hungary, where it was an inhabitant of shallow water

along the shores of lakes (G. W. Miller, 1900). It was subsequently

found in England as well. A variety of the European species (M. cor-

data neocomensis) was described by Thiebaud (1906) from Switzer-

land, and an American species (M. americana, Fig. 13) by Furtos

(1936) from the cenotes of Yucatan. A fourth species is described

herein.

Picado found two genera of ostracods in Costa Rica: A species of

Metacypris (Fig. 11) found at La Mica at 1,500 meters elevation, a

form that was considered to be closely related to M. bromeliarum,

and a species that was referred to the genus Candona (Fig. 12) but that

was not described. In the present paper the occurrence of another

species of ostracod (Candonopsis kingsleyz) is recorded from the leaf

cups of bromeliads, which brings the total number of ostracod species

found in this habitat to three, or perhaps four if Picado’s Metacypris

can be considered a distinct species.

Ostracoda and Entomostraca in general have been found in many

strange and unexpected places, the leaf cups of bromeliads being only

JuNE 15, 1941

TRESSLER: OSTRACODA FROM BROMELIADS

265

TABLE 1.—A COMPARISON OF THE KNOWN SPECIES OF METACYPRIS

Character

Shell-profile

Ends of valves

Dorsal margin

Ventral margin

Shell-dorsal

view

Shell-surface

Color

Length

First antenna

Second an-

tenna

cordata

Ovoid

Height =? length

Highest =posterior 4

bromeliarum

Ovoid

Height = 3 length

Highest =in middle

Both broadly

rounded

Nearly straight

Sinuated but covered

in part by bellied

sides

Posterior =broadly

rounded

Anterior =less

rounded

Arched

Same as cordata

americana

Ovoid

Height =3 length

Highest =in middle

maricaoensis

Ovoid

Height =3 length

Highest =in middle

Both broadly

rounded

Gently arched

Same

Very tumid

Width =# length

Anterior end pointed

Posterior end

rounded

Very tumid

Width =# length

Anterior end less

pointed than cor-

data

Small round pits

Strong hairs

Posterior half =dark

grayish brown

Greenish mixture in

middle

Broad light

dorsal border

band

0.56 mm

Slender

Six segments

Spine on second seg-

ment poorly devel-

oped

Exopodite well de-

veloped, reaches to

tips of claws

Mandibular

teeth

Thoracic legs

Four to five teeth,

each with 2 or

more points

Smooth, no pits

Few hairs

Not given

1.2-1.3 mm

Five segments

Dorsal border of first

segment termi-

nates in a thickly

haired wart

Spine reaches to mid-

dle of fourth seg-

ment

Same as cordata

Seven teeth

Broad at base

Similar

Very tumid

Same

Pits present

Few long stiff hairs

Gray

0.55 mm

Five segments

Spine reaches to mid-

dle of terminal

claw

Exopodite long, slen-

der, reaches be-

yond tips of termi-

nal claws

Seven teeth, each

split

Similar

Posterior end broadly

rounded

Anterior end not so

much so

Arched

Same

Similar to cordata

Width =? length

Similar to cordata

No pits, covered with

a pattern of polyg-

onal areas in an-

terior half

Broad band of polyg-

onal areas over

dorsal shell margin.

Few hairs.

Gray, polygonal areas

brown

0.78 mm

Five segments

Spine reaches to mid-

dle of fourth seg-

ment

Exopodite well devel-

oped, reaches to

tips of terminal

claws

Eight teeth, not split

Similar to others

266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

(2) .~)

o,0090F,

AS S 6505 Ff PROP

(2)

oS Steg 38a80 8 8 =

4, a

AALAA a

aca ry naln?

es aa

Figs. 1-6.—Metacypris maricaoensis, n. sp.: 1, Dorsal view, female; 2, left valve,

female; 3, second antenna, female; 4, first antenna, female; 5, thoracic legs, female;

6, mandibular teeth, female. Figs. 7-8.—Metacypris cordata G. W. Miiller: 7, Left

valve, female; 8, dorsal view, female. Figs. 9-10.—Metacypris bromeliarum (Fr.

Miller): 9, Dorsal view, female; 10, left valve, viewed from within, female. Fig. 11.—

Metacypris sp. (from Costa Rica). Fig. 12.—Candona sp. (from Costa Rica). Fig.

13.—Metacypris americana Furtos, right valve, female. Fig. 14.—Candonopsis kings-

leyt Brady and Robertson, lateral view, male. (Figs. 7-8, after G. W. Miller; 9-10,

after Fr. Miller; 11-12, after Picado; 13, after Furtos.)

JuNE 15, 1941 TRESSLER: OSTRACODA FROM BROMELIADS 267

one of the many peculiar habitats that these creatures select for their

life abode. Some species have been found only in these strange places,

a fact clearly brought out in an interesting recent paper by Scour-

field (1988).

The material reported upon in the present paper was sent to the

author for identification by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, curator of marine

invertebrates, U. S. National Museum. The collections had been

made in the Maricao National Forest in Puerto Rico in 1936 and 1937

by Prof. George 8. Tullock, of Brooklyn College, and Prof. W. A.

Hoffman, of the Columbia School of Tropical Medicine, San Juan.

The slides of the dissected ostracods and the specimens in alcohol

have been desposited in the U.S. National Museum as type speci-

mens.

Suborder PODOCOPA

Family CYPRIDAE: Subfamily Cyprina&

Genus Candonopsis Vavra, 1891

Laterally compressed forms with thin shells. Anterior antennae, slender;

posterior antennae, with penultimate joint subdivided, natatory setae poorly

developed. Mandibular palp long and slender with a much-produced ter-

minal joint. Maxillipeds with a vibratory plate bearing three thick, plumose

setae; palp in male transformed as in Candona into a prehensile organ. Dor-

sal margin of furca without setae.

This genus includes one species found in Europe and several from the

Southern Hemisphere.

Candonopsis kingsleyi (Brady and Robertson) Fig. 14

Candona kingsleyz (part) Brady and Robertson, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

(ser. 4) 6:17, pl. figs. 11, 12. 1870.

Candonopsis kingsleyi Vavra, Sitzber. Bohm Ges., 1891, p. 162.

Candonopsis kingsleyz Miller, Zool. 30: 38, pl. 6, figs. 6, 7, 23-28; pl. 7, figs.

22, 25. 1900.

Specific characters—Female: Seen from the side, reniform with rounded

ends, highest a little posterior to the middle. Posterior end slightly more

broadly rounded than the anterior end. Dorsal margin forming an evenly

rounded curve; ventral margin slightly concave. From above, very narrow

with greatest width slightly behind the middle; anterior end somewhat more

pointed than the posterior. Valves with very smooth shiny surfaces and with

a few fine hairs. Inner duplicatures very broad, particularly at the anterior

end where the inner edge forms an almost vertical line. Anterior antennae

long and slender; posterior antennae also slender. Mandibular palp with

terminal joint narrowly produced and of about the same length as the pre-

ceding joint. Maxillipeds with tapering palp exhibiting a very small ter-

minal joint. Second pair of legs with the two shorter bristles of unequal

length, the shorter being less than one half the length of the other. Furcal

rami very narrow and slightly curved, without dorsal seta; claws without

strong teeth.

Male, somewhat larger than the female. Prehensile palps of maxillipeds

268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

short and thick and slightly unequal, the right being broader. Copulatory

appendages terminate in two unequal lappets, the upper one being larger

and of triangular shape. Ejaculatory tubes are very large and conspicuous

and are distinctly visible through the transparent shell. Color whitish, trans-

lucent. Length of male, 1.06 mm; height, 0.54 mm; width, ca. 0.20 mm. Fe-

male slightly smaller.

Occurrence.—F rom bromeliads, Maricao National Forest, Puerto Rico,

2,800-3,000 feet elevation, December 1937.

Distribution.—Sweden, British Isles, Germany, Bohemia, Switzerland,

Siberia.

Family CYTHERIDAE

Genus Metacypris Brady and Robertson, 1870

Metacypris Brady and Robertson, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 4) 6: 19. 1870.

Elpidium F. Miller, Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio de Janeiro 4: 27. 1881. |

Metacypris G. W. Miiller, Zool. 30: 95, pl. 21, figs. 1-9. 1900.

Metacypris Thiebaud, Zool. Anz. 29: 799. 1906. |

Metacypris Furtos, Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 457: 114, figs. 31, 32,

44-46. 1936.

Very short broad shells; right valve with toothed anterior and posterior

margins. First antennae with five or six segments. Second antennae, four

segmented, the exopodite jointed. Mandibles with obscurely segmented palp.

Maxilla with three masticatory processes and a shorter palp; branchial plate

without aberrant or orally directed setae. Furca of female with three setae.

Metacypris maricaoensis, n. sp. Figs. 1-6

Specific characters.—Female: From the side, oval in outline with greatest

height at about the center. Dorsal margin broadly arched, ventral margin

almost straight. Both ends rounded, the posterior end being more broadly

rounded than the anterior, which shows a pronounced slope from the dorsal

margin. Seen from above, very tumid with broadly rounded posterior and

more tapered anterior ends. Large fused eyes very prominent. Valves smooth

with a few scattered, strong hairs. Color, gray with a much darker area in

the anterior half of the valve which consists of a band of polygonal shaped,

dark brown areas across the two valves at the region of the eyes. First

antenna with five segments, the spine on the second segment well developed

and reaching to the middle of the fourth segment. Second antenna with well

developed exopodite which reaches to the tips of the terminal claws. Man-

dible with eight teeth which show no evidence of being split. Thoracic legs

broad at the base and in other respects similar to those of other members of

the genus.

Length of adult female, 0.78 mm; height, 0.39 mm; width, 0.64 mm.

Male unknown.

Occurrence.—Numerous specimens were taken from leaf cups of bromeliads

in the Maricao National Forest, Puerto Rico, at an elevation of 2,800-3,000

feet, January 28, 1936, and December 1937. Female holotype, U.S.N.M.

no. 80029.

Remarks.—This species is evidently closely related to M. cordata but dif-

fers from it in several important respects, viz. the greater size, shape of the

shell and the color markings, the absence of pits on the valves, and the

marked difference in the mandibular teeth.

JuNE 15, 1941 SCHULTZ: A NEW TRICHONOTID FISH 269

LITERATURE CITED

Furtos, N. C. On the Ostracoda from the cenotes of Yucatan and vicinity. Carnegie

Inst. Washington Publ. 457: 89-115. 1936.

M@tuer, fF. Wasserthiere in Baumwipfeln. Kosmos 6: 386-388. 1880.

. Descripcdo do Elpidium bromeliarum. Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio de Janeiro 4:

27-34. 1881.

Miuuuer, G. W. Deutschlands stisswasser ostracoden. Zool. 30: 1-112. 1900.

Picapo, M. C. Les bromeliaces epiphytes considerees comme milieu brologique. Bull.

Scient. France Belgique (7) 47: 215-360. 1913.

ScourRFIELD, D. J. Entomostraca in strange places. Journ. Quekett Micr. Club (ser. 4)

1(3): 116-122. 1939.

TuHIEBAUD, M. Sur la faune invertébrée du lac de St. Blaise. Zool. Anz. 29: 795-801.

1906. :

ICHTH YOLOGY.—Kraemeria bryani, a new species of trichonotid

fish from the Hawaiian Islands.:| LEONARD P. ScHuttz, U. BS.

National Museum.

The reference of genera of fishes to the family Trichonotidae by

various authors from time to time has frequently been the result of

inadequate material for comparison of their anatomical characters.

The genera centering around Kraemeria have features that resemble

the trichonotids more than the gobiids, and this has influenced me to

place them in a subfamily. However, Paragobioides Kendall and

Goldsborough has been referred to this group by Fowler, but it cer-

tainly does not resemble any of the trichonotids except by its elon-

gated body and numerous fin rays. Some pores over the eye, no lateral

line, and the restricted gill opening cause me to conclude that Para-

gobiordes is nearer the Gobiidae than the Trichonotidae. Its true rela-

tionship will be determined no doubt from a study of its skeleton, and

until that is done I propose to consider it tentatively as a distinct

subfamily. Thus I am inclined to believe that Hora (Rec. Indian

Mus. 27 (pt. 6): 455. 1925) in referring Paragobioides to the subfamily

Taenioidinae under the Gobiidae is close to the true relationship of

this species.

In order to separate the various genera referred to the family at

various times (from a practical viewpoint) and to indicate some of the

relationships between Hawaiian, Samoan, and Phoenix Island ma-

terial, I have prepared a key and incorporated the various genera as

noticed by me in the literature.

la. Lateral line present, below the midaxis at least posteriorly; lower Jaw

shortest, snout projecting in front of the thin and weak lower jaw;

tip of tongue free, narrow and pointed, not bilobed; gill membranes

extending far forward, free from isthmus (LIMNICHTHYINAE).

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 25, 1941.

270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

2a. Lateral line along midaxis anteriorly, below it posteriorly, meeting or

nearly meeting its fellow behind the anal fin; snout much pro-

jecting in front of lower jaw, tip of snout fleshy, protractile; lips of

lower jaw with cirri on sides.

3a. Sides of body fully scaled; pelvic rays I, 5; dorsal fin rays fewer than

30; fewer than 45 scales in lateral line.

4a. Dorsal fin rays about 25 or 26; anal 27 to 29; pectoral 13, the

lower rays not separated and different from upper rays; scales

in Jateralslinesabout 40s." a... 2 eee Limmichthys? Waite

4b. Dorsal rays 19; anal 29; pectoral 8+-9=17, lower rays longer than

and somewhat separated from upper rays; scales in lateral

Nin Bilas cece teen ee We epee ae Schizochirus? Waite

2b. Lateral line below midaxis anteriorly, abruptly decurved behind pec-

toral fin, then continuing about halfway from midaxis to base of

anal fin along lower side but not meeting its fellow behind

anal fin; snout a little longer than lower jaw and somewhat fleshy;

dorsal origin behind that of anal, over third to fourth anal ray;

dorsal rays 35; anal 42; pectoral 15; pelvics I, 5... Tewara* Griffin

3b. Sides of body not fully scaled, naked at least above and below lateral

line anteriorly; dorsal fin rays more than 30; about 53 to 60 pores

and scales in lateral line; dorsal rays 37 or 38; anal 35 to 37; pores

in lateral line 54; pelvic rays I, 5; the only scales present occur

alone laterallime a eee Crystallodytes cooker? Fowler

1b. Lateral line present or absent; if present its course is along midaxis and

not below it; snout either shorter than lower jaw (the latter strongly

projecting) or lower and upper jaws about same length.

5a. Body naked; gill membranes narrowly attached to isthmus free for

some distance forward; tongue bilobed; dorsal rays about 19 or 20,

about first 5 simple; anal about 13 to 15, the first ray probably sim-

ple; pelvics I, 5; inner rays longest; about 9 or 10 branched rays in

caudal fin (KRAEMERINAE).

6a. Pectoral rays 3 to 5; dorsal rays 19 or 20; anal 12 to 14, rarely 15.

Kraemeriva bryant, n. sp.

6b. Pectoral rays 7 or 8; dorsal rays 19 or 20; anal usually 14 or 15.

Kraemeria samoensis Steindachner

5b. Body fully scaled, although scales may be minute on Paragobioides,

in which case dorsal rays about 60; tongue not bilobed but rounded

or pointed.

7a. Gill membranes not widely joined to isthmus but free forward,

gill opening not restricted to sides (TRICHONOTINAE).

8a. First one or two anterior rays of dorsal long and filamentous;

inner rays of pelvics long and filamentous

Trichonotus® Block in Schneider; Taeniolabrus* Steindachner

2 Limnichthys Waite, Rec. Australian Mus. 5(pt. 3): 178. 1904 (genotype, Limnich-

thys fasciatus Waite, ibid., pp. 178-179, pl. 23, fig. 4, monotypic); McCulloch, Aus-

tralian Zool. 2(pt. 3): 102, fig. 276a. 1922.

§ Schizochirus Waite, Rec. Australian Mus. 5(pt. 4): 240. 1904 (genotype, Schizo-

chirus insolens Waite, ibid., pp. 242-243, figs. 33, 34, pl. 26, fig. 3, monotypic); Mc-

Culloch, Australian Zool. 2(pt. 3): 102, fig. 277a. 1922.

4 Tewara Griffin, Trans. Proc. New Zealand Inst. 63(pt. 2): 174-176, pl. 25, upper

fig. 1933 (genotype, Tewara cranwelli Griffin).

5 Crystallodytes cookei Fowler, Occ. Pap. B. P. Bishop Mus. 8: 390-392. 1923 (type

locality: Laie Beach, Oahu), Fowler, Fishes of Oceania, Mem. B. P. Bishop Mus. 10:

426, fig. 60. 1928; Pietschmann, B. P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 156: 44, pl. 16, B. 1938.

® Trichonotus Bloch in Schneider, Syst. Ichthy., p. 179. 1801 (genotype, Trichonotus

setiger Bloch in Schneider).

JuNE 15, 1941 SCHULTZ: A NEW TRICHONOTID FISH 271

8b. First rays of dorsal and last rays of pelvics not elongate or

{TNE MGOUSI a 7a eee Hemerocoetes’ Cuvier and Valen-

ciennes; Creedia’ Ogilby ; Lesueurina’

Fowler ; Sgquamicreedia’ Rendahl

7b. Gill membranes broadly joined to isthmus, gill opening mostly

restricted to sides; dorsal rays 60; anal 37; pectoral 14 or 15;

pelvics? I, 4; scales minute, not visible on young; no lateral line;

anus under twenty-fifth dorsal ray; 11 branched rays in caudal

fine Glo yOmMted Trays) ede NRAG@BIOMDINAB) .. 4.5.05. .4.. a4).

Paragobioides® Kendall and Goldsborough

OO O20 GSO CeO i eS OO SO TOR ONO

Kraemeria Steindachner

Kraemeria Steindachner, Akad. Wiss. Wien 115 (Abt. 1): 41. July 1906 (type,

Kraemeria samoensis Steindachner).

Vitreola Jordan and Seale, Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 25: 393. Dec. 1906 (type,

Vitreola sagitta Jordan and Seale, zbid., pl. 37, fig. 1).

Psammichthys Regan, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (ser. 2), Zool., 12(pt. 3):

246. 1908 (type, Psammichthys nudus Regan, ibid., pl. 31, fig. 1);

Psammichthyidae Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 8) 8: 733. 1911.

Kraemeria bryani, n. sp.

Kraemeria samoensis Fowler (not of Steindachner), Fishes of Oceania, B. P.

Bishop Mus. Mem. 10: 425, fig. 68. 1928; Pietschmann, B. P. Bishop

Mus. Bull. 156: 43, pl. 16, A. 1938.

Holotype.—A specimen, 15.1 mm in standard length, collected by C. M.

Cooke, Jr., March 1928, at Malaekahana, Oahu, Hawaiian Islands, U.S.N.M

no. 109380. The following paratypes, 18 to 20 mm, were studied: 10 from

Malaekahana, Oahu, May 30-31, 1926, collected by C. M. Cooke, Jr.; 7

bearing the number 4905 in the Bishop Museum and 2 now catalogued as

U.S.N.M. no. 116181; 6 from Laie, Oahu, taken June 4, 1923, by C. M.

Cooke, Jr., 4 having number 4904 in the Bishop Museum and 2 U.S.N.M.

no. 116180; 3 from Laie Beach, Oahu, collected by C. M. Cooke, Jr.,

November 2, 1922, no. 4902 in Bishop Museum.

Description based on the holotype and paratypes. All measurements are

expressed in hundredths of the standard length, those for the holotype out-

Taeniolabrus Steindachner, Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien 55: 713. 1867 (type, T. fila-

mentosus Steindachner).

Taeniolabrus marleyt Smith, Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa 24(pt. 1): 4-6, pls. 1, 2.

1936 (type locality: Durban).

’ Hemerocoetes Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 12: 311. 1837 (type,

Callionymus acanthorhynchus Forster).

Creedia Ogilby, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales 23(3): 298. 1898 (type, Creedia

clathrisquamis Ogilby, McCulloch, Australian Zool. 2(pt. 3): 101, pl. 31, fig. 275a, of

Creedia clathrisquamis Ogilby. 1922).

Hemerocoetes haswelli Ramsey, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales 6: 575. 1881.

(type locality: North Head of Port Jackson).

_ Lesueurina Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1907, p. 440 [type, Lesueur-

ina platycephala Fowler (Lesueurella platycephalus Fowler, misprint)].

Squamicreedia Rendahl, Svenska Vet. Hand. 61(9): 20. 1921 (type, Squamicreedia

obtusa Rendahl).

8 Paragobioides Kendall and Goldsborough, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 26(7): 324,

pl. 6, fig. 2. 1911 (type, Paragobioides grandoculis Kendall and Goldsborough); Fowler,

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Monog. 2: 206-207. 1938.

272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 6

side the parentheses and for the paratypes within parentheses. Standard

length 15.1 (19.5; 19.7; 20.8 mm); length of head 29.8 (25.4; 25.4; 27.0);

greatest depth 10.0 (11.6; 9.7; 11.8); diameter of eye 1.3 (2.0; 1.5; 2.0);

length of snout 3.3 (3.5; 5.1; 4.4); length from tip of lower jaw to rear edge

of maxillary 5.8 (—; —; 6.9); length from tip of lower jaw to rear edge of

maxillary 8.6 (8.1; 8.6; 9.4); length from tip of snout to anus 53 (-; 56.4;

57.2); length from snout to origin of dorsal fin 31.7 (-; —; 30.3); length of

longest pelvic fin ray (10.6 (10.1; 11.6; 11.8); length of longest pectoral fin

ray 4.0 (4.6; 4.0; 3.9); length of longest caudal fin ray 15.9 (14.7; 16.3; 15.7);

postorbital length of head 22.5 (19.8; 18.8; 19.7).

The following counts were made: Dorsal fin rays 19(4); 20(12); the num-

bers in parentheses indicate the number of counts; anal rays 12(2); 13(3);

14(12); 15(1); pectoral rays 3(9); 4(24); 5(2); pelvics always I, 5.

The dorsal fin almost equal distance between rear border of orbit and

origin of anal fin orover the tips of the pelvic fins; the anal fin origin is under

the 8 or 9 dorsal fin ray; the operculum covers the base of the pectoral fin

and is attached to it dorsally; the opercular apparatus is not emarginate to

fit around the bases of the pelvic fins; gill membranes are narrowly attached

to the isthmus, and the gill opening does not extend as far forward as in

Crystallodytes or Chalixodytes; the body and head are scaleless, and there is

no trace of a lateral line; the rays in the dorsal, pelvic, and pectoral fins are

unbranched; the first 6 dorsal rays and the first anal ray lack the cross marks

or joints; the next to the inside ray of the pelvic fin is longest and the fifth

Fig. 1—Kraemeria bryant, n. sp. (not K. samoensis Steindachner),

after Pietschmann, 1938, pl. 16, fig. A.

ray is of about equal length; the lower margin of the lower lip, the lower

margins of the suborbital and the lower margin of the preopercle are papil-

late; the lower jaw is longer than upper and the mouth is oblique, the tip

of the lower jaw is fleshy and is pyramidal in shape with the apex pointing

forward and ventrally; the eyes are close together in the top of the head; the

premaxillary is not protractile, the tip of the snout has a frenum; tongue

bilobed at tip.

The color has faded in alcohol and no pigmented areas are visible. The eyes

are blackish.

This species differs from others in the genus Kraemeria in having but 3 to 5

pectoral fin rays instead of 7 or 8 as found in Kraemeria samoensis Stein-

dachner and Kraemeria samoensis merensis Whitley (Rec. Australian Mus.

19: 244-246, fig. 11. 1935).

Named bryanz in honor of my good friend E. H. Bryan, curator of collec-

tions, Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu.

_ AsrropHysics.—

Se ats Orto STROVE. re

ZooLoey. Bei ocala rom. Punic Rican bromeliads. :

TRESSLER. ere noare ney Mr AOE Ne,

from the Hawaiian Islands. ‘Lrowarp P. Scuuura.

Juuy 15, 1941 No. 7

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 31 JuLY 15, 1941 No. 7

GEOPHYSICS.—Heat energy from radioactive sources in the earth.

Wiuuiam D. Urry, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institu-

tion of Washington. (Communicated by L. H. Apams.)

The production of heat accompanying the disintegration of the

radio-elements, despite the extreme dissemination of these elements

throughout the material of the earth, is far from negligible in any

treatment of the geothermal history. Some investigators have found

it even necessary to postulate a concentration of the radio-elements

into the outer shells,” a postulate that is borne out, at least qualita-

tively, by existing hypotheses of the structure of the interior and the

few radioactive measurements that have been made, particularly for

the ultrabasic rocks.

All the treatments of the geothermal processes’ indicate the ne-

cessity for a more detailed survey of the heat contribution from the

radioactive sources. In determining the rate of production of heat in

a specimen, it is necessary to consider the elements of the uranium

series, the actino-uranium series, and the thorium series. There are in

addition certain isotopes of the elements usually considered as stable

that are radioactive, but the isotope 40 of potassium alone occurs in

sufficient quantity to require inclusion.

METHODS

The major portion of the heat data at present available has been

accumulated by laborious determinations of the radon content‘! from

which the contribution of the uranium and the isotopic actino-ura-

nium series can be calculated, still more difficult and less frequent

determinations of the thoron content* to calculate the allotment from

1 Received May 22, 1941.

ae Re H. Theearth. 1929; Hotmms, A. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 23:

3 JEFFREYS, H. Op. cit.; Houmeus, A. Op. cit.; Lowan, A.N. Phys. Rev. 44: 769.

1933; VAN OrsTRAND, C. E. Geophysics 5:57. 1940; and others.

4 Piacot, C.S. Amer. Journ. Sci. 17:13. 1929; Evans, R. D. Rev. Sci. Instr. 6:

99. 1935; Urry, Wm. D. Journ. Chem. Phys. 4: 40. 1936.

> Urry, Wm. D. Journ. Chem. Phys. 4: 34. 1936.

273

274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 31, NO. 7

the thorium series, and in but a few cases a chemical analysis for

potassium.

An important item in the program of the Geophysical Laboratory

has been the determination of the heat production by radioactive

elements in rocks. Having in mind the need for a large number of

separate measurements, the Director of the Laboratory at one time

or another discussed with various individuals the feasibility of more

rapid and convenient methods for determining the radioactive heat

production in representative rocks from all parts of the world; and in

particular he requested the present author to examine the possibility

of determining heat production in materials containing small amounts

of radium and thorium together with their disintegration products,

merely by measurement of the rate of alpha-particle emission. It turns

out that it is possible by a single measurement to determine with

sufficient accuracy the heat production in a rock sample, provided

that the potassium content of the rock is already known. The meas-

urement involves only a simple mechanical preparation of the speci-

men and utilizes the newly developed methods® for counting the

alpha-particles emitted by solids. A simultaneous count of the beta-

rays would determine the contribution of the potassium but, as will

be shown, this extra measurement would hardly now be worth while.

While the separate determinations of uranium and thorium are

never likely to produce a sufficient body of data for a study of the

geothermal history, they do provide knowledge of the probable limits

of an independent variable that enters into the equation for cal-

culating the heat quantity by the method of counting all the alpha-

particles. This variable, the thorium to uranium ratio, is not deter-

minable by the counting method alone. The following derivation

demonstrates that by adopting a certain fixed value for the Th/U

ratio, an error of less than 5 percent is introduced in the calculation

of the heat production by the counting method for values of the Th/U

ratio from 0 to 20. This range covers all values of the Th/U ratio that

have previously been found for iron and stony meteorites, ultrabasic,

basic, and acidic igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and nearly all

minerals with the exception of those classified as radioactive.

CALCULATION OF HEAT PRODUCTION FROM ALPHA-PARTICLE COUNT

The following symbols will be used:

N =Total number of alpha-particles emitted per gram per hour from the specimen.

Ny = Number of-atoms of all isotopes of uranium per gram at present.

6 Finney, G. D., and Evans, R. D. Phys. Rev. 48: 503. 1935; Urry, Wm. D.

Rev. Sci. Instr. 12: 289. 1941.

Juuy 15, 1941 URRY: HEAT ENERGY FROM THE EARTH 275

Nut = Number of atoms of uranium [| per gram at present.

Nacu =Number of atoms of actino-uranium per gram at present.

Ny» = Number of atoms of thorium per gram at present.

Nx=Number of atoms of potassium-40 isotope per gram at present.

P=Thorium to uranium ratio by weight at present.

Q@ = Potassium to uranium ratio by weight at present.

f=Number of potassium-40 atoms as a fraction of all potassium atoms.

a=Grams of K,O per gram of specimen.

R= Present-day activity ratio of the actino-uranium series to the uranium series.

k = Present-day ratio of Nay to Nout.

hp; = Total energy loss accompanying the conversion of one UI atom to the stable

end-product of the series.

hay = Total energy loss for one AcU atom.

hyn = Total energy loss for one Th atom.

hx = Total energy loss for one K atom.

h = Production of heat in calories per gram per hour.

H = Production of heat in calories per gram per year.

H =H with the rate of production from potassium added.

\ = Disintegration constant of UI, AcU, Th, and K-40 indicated by the appropriate

subscript. aw

¢ = Ratio of H for various values of a to the value of H for a fixed value of a.

The radio-elements in the specimen are assumed to be in equi-

librium; therefore the number of alpha-particles emitted’ per gram

pe” hour is given by

N = 8duWour + MracuNacu + 6AT»N th (1)

8, 7, and 6 being the respective number of alpha-particles emitted in

the UI, AcU, and Th series and the disintegration constants being in

reciprocal hours. From the definition of the activity ratio R,

(AscuN acu) = R(AviNv1). (2)

Introducing the atomic weights of uranium (238.045) and thorium

(232.12), we have

Non == 1.026PNy. (3)

Now

Nu = Nour + iN New (4)

because the number of atoms of uranium II can be neglected. By the

definition of k and from equation (4),

Ne SO eee (5)

and hence

7 The number of alpha-particles counted per hour is not the number emitted, for

several reasons. The relations between these quantities have been given by FINNEY,

a and Evans, R. D., op. cit. See also Urry,Wm.D. Amer. Journ. Sci. 239: 191.

276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

Non = 1.026P(1 + &)Norx. (6)

Equation (1) can be rearranged with the aid of equations (2) and

(6) to give

hao = NV/|8 + 7R +6 x 1.0260 PRieh eee)

The production of heat, h, from the three radioactive series is given by

h = XotNuthur + AacuNacuhacu + AtaN tohtn, (8)

which with the aid of equations (2), (6), and (7) can be written

cs x= -++ Rhacu + 1.026P(1 + k) ane] (9)

sf 7Ra6 x 1026Pa Eon ene

Equation (9) gives the required quantity h in terms of only two

variables N and P. Table 1 gives the values of the constants in equa-

tion (9).

TABLE 1.—VALUES OF THE RADIOACTIVE CONSTANTS

R=0.046« k =1/139° f=1/9217

Nore Sl 4K NO © see DP Nay = 0)5 (24 SX NON sie He

ATn =4.99 X10! yr 14 AK =4.3 X1071 yr

Constant Mass equivalent/ Ergs? Calories’

hut 0.0512 C OY) KN 182 Ome

hacu 0.0508 7.53 1.80

hen 0.0432 6.40 1.53

hx ae 0.037 0.007

4 Nipr, A. O. Phys. Rev. 55: 153. 1939.

> Nimr, A. O. Phys. Rev. 55: 150. 1939.

¢ Nir, A. O. Phys. Rev. 50: 1041. 1936.

Kovarik, A. F.,and Apams, N.I. Phys. Rev. 53: 928. 1938.

€ Calculated from a specific activity of 23 betas g.K7!. sec-! (MunuHorr, W. Ann. der Physik 399: 205.

1930) with atomic weight of potassium 39.10 and f given above.

The mass equivalent of the total alpha, beta, and gamma ray energy loss in the respective series summed

from a table in WESTERN, F.., and Ruark, A. E. Journ. Chem. Phys. 1: 717. 1933.

9 Unit mass equivalent = jig 482 X10°3 ergs.

2 Calculated from Emax =0.7 X108 e.v. (ANDERSON, C. D., and NEppERMEYER, S. H. Phys. Rev. 45: 653.

1934) and 3ys of 2 X106e.v. per 100 beta rays (Gray, L. H., and Tarrant, G. T. P. Proc. Roy. Soc. 143A: 681.

1934).

* 1 calorie (20° C) =4.18 X10’ ergs.

Substituting the values of Table 1 in equation (9), we have

h = N X 10-”[(1.90 + 0.52P)/(8.32 + 2.04P) |. (10)

Table 2 shows that the quantity h is relatively insensitive to con-

siderable changes in P and that the term involving P in equation (10)

may be assigned a value of 0.240 with a consequent error in the value

of h of less than 5 percent for a range of P from 0 to 20. This range

more than covers the normal spread of Th/U ratios reported in the

literature for all types of igneous rocks and most minerals.* The

8 For asummary of the earlier values of this ratio see Nat. Res. Council Bull. No. 80,

Physics of the earth. IV. The age of the earth, p. 218. 19381; Kmnvit, N. B. Econ. Geol.

Juuy 15, 1941 URRY: HEAT ENERGY FROM THE EARTH 207.

TABLE 2.—VALUES OF THE P-TERM IN EQUATION (10) AND ITS DEVIATION FROM A

FIxED VALUE

Percent deviation

I DUN S<UOF) from the value for

0 0.228 —4.6

1 0.234 —2.1

Z 0.237 —0.8

3 0.239 0.0

4 0.242 +1.3

6 0.244 +2.1

10 0.247 +3.4

20 0.250 +4.6

radium (uranium) and thorium analyses of rocks show a distribution

that is markedly peaked between P =2 and 5.

Equation (10) may therefore be written in terms of one quantity N,

which can be measured by a single experiment. In equation (11), h

is expressed in a more convenient unit:

5 (GAS acai" weer) = all S< Oe Ay (11)

The design of an ionization chamber used in this Laboratory to

determine values of N from solid sources is described elsewhere.’

Pulses due to the energy released in the emission of the individual

alpha-particles can be amplified and recorded with any one of a

variety of electrometer tube or linear pulse amplifier circuits.

Potasstum.—The production of heat accompanying the disintegra-

tion of potassium must be added to the quantity H in equation (11)

to give the total production H. This is a quantity \xNxhx analogous

to the terms in equation (8) and is equal to 4.3 X10-* Xa calories per

gram per year with the values from Table 1, where a is the grams of

K,O per gram.

It is hardly to be hoped that chemical analyses for potassium will

be available in all the specimens to be measured for H, and the deter-

mination of potassium by beta-ray counting requires an extra meas-

urement that it is desirable to avoid. In an attempt to find fixed

values for \xN xhx that can be assigned to particular groups of rocks,

a statistical examination of 4,724 analyses of rocks compiled by H. S.

Washington was made.” The largest group, consisting of 1,370 analy-

33: 685. 1938; JErrReys, H. Gerland Beitr. Geophysik 47: 149. 1936. Since this

paper was first written a valuable contribution to the radioactivity measurements

of rocks has appeared—Evans, R. D., and GoopmMan, C. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 52:

459. 1941. Their measurements indicate appreciable shifts in the Th/U ratios com-

pared to earlier values, but the new values are still well within the range of P treated

ere.

° Urry, Wu. D. Rev. Sci. Instr. 12: 289. 1941.

10 WASHINGTON, H.S. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 99. 1917. The examination

was confined to Pt. I, Superior analyses of fresh rocks.

278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

ses, was one of the granites, quartz-porphyries, granite-porphyries,

and quartz-monzonites. Of this group 31 percent have values of a

between 0.04 and 0.05, and 70 percent between 0.03 and 0.06, while

98 percent lie between 0 and 0.07. Rhyolites and aplites show a similar

distribution. The classification was based on a division of the rocks

into 19 groups, several of which showed very similar distributions.

In order to test the possible error introduced by assigning a group

mode to the value of a, a total heat ratio, ¢, was calculated for various

values of the KO content a’, from 0.0 up to that value that includes

at least 98 percent of all the members of the group (the 0.98 limit).

@ is defined by the following equation:

2.1 10-°N + 4.3 X 10% a’

0) = aUG IR aes Be Saal a i (12)

2K 102 NN =2 43oXK WOsera

The probable limits of N for any group can be determined from the

values of the radium content, Ra, in the literature and the following

equation derived from equations (5) and (7):

Nydur(8.32 + 2.04P)

(13)

(1 + k)

The uranium content by weight is given by Ra/3.49 X 10~" and

N = 1.25 X 10“ Ra(8.382 + 2.04P). (14)

Figs. 1 and 2 show, by the departure of ¢@ from unity, the uncer-

tainty in the total production of radioactive heat in a rock due to

assigning a fixed value of a in place of an experimental value. The

uncertainty decreases with increasing values of P and N. P may be

as low as 1 without sufficient increase in the uncertainty to show in

Bie. of:

Values of the radium content are few and unsatisfactory in the

ultrabasic group of pyroxenites, peridotites, magnetites, and horn-

blendites. A dunite from North Carolina has yielded values as low as

0.005 X 10-” g Ra per g. This value gives N =11 for P=4, which for

a sample of 100 mg would result in a count of less than 0.5 alpha-

particles per hour. This is outside the observational limit of present

counting devices. A practical lower limit of N=50 may be taken.

Fig. 2 shows that the uncertainty ratio @ may depart appreciably

from 1.0 for this group, although the maximum error is not much in

excess of the accuracy with which N=50 can be determined. The

radium and thorium contents of a number of specimens of this group

are being determined in this Laboratory.

JuLy 15, 1941 URRY: HEAT ENERGY

GRANITIC GROUP

Ra=0.5 to 3.0x 107!2g per g.

P =3.

N =900 to §500.

K,0 a= 0.045 g perg.

0.98 limit=0.07 gperg.

FROM THE EARTH 279

BASALTIC GROUP

Rak 0.1 to LOxiO07!2 g perg.

P= 4.

N = 200 to 2000.

K,0 a@=0.0125 g perg.

=0.04 g per g.

20.03 gperg.

0.99 limit

0.96 limit

e'=0.07 ere

BASALTS a=0.0125 GRANITES o#0.045

GRANITIC GROUP MEAN

~ 1000 2000

3000.

4000 5000 6000

Fig. 1—The uncertainty ratio ¢ as a function of the alpha-particles emitted per

hour, N, for the granitic group as defined in the text, with rhyolites and aplites (solid

curves) and for the group of basalts, gabbros,

1.50

and diabases (dashed curves).

ULTRABASIC GROUP

Ro= — to 0.20x107!2 g perg,

1.40 p

K,0 a

1.00 limit

1.30

1.10

1.00

0.90

100

200

50 to 400.

0.002 g per g.

0.015 g per g,

300 400

Fig. 2.—The uncertainty ratio ¢ as a function of the alpha-particles emitted per

hour, N, for the ultrabasic group of rocks defined in the text.

280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 7

A survey of the uranium and thorium contents of all types of ig-

neous rocks indicates that the rate of production of heat may vary by

a factor of 80 or more among individual specimens. Since these varia-

tions in a single type-group even when taken from a very restricted

area often exceed 25 percent, the method outlined above for deter-

mining the heat production with a single measurement and an as-

signed value for the potassium is sufficiently accurate. Figs. 1 and 2

indicate that an uncertainty exceeding such variations from specimen

to specimen is not likely to occur often. A similar treatment for the

sedimentary rocks awaits a statistical analysis of the potash distribu-

tion.

RADIOACTIVE PRODUCTION OF HEAT IN THE PAST

The rate of production of heat by radioactive processes must be

continuously decreasing, as is demonstrated by the fundamental law

expressed by the equation

dn/dt = — Xn, (15)

where n is the number of atoms present at any time. The rate of pro-

duction of heat will be higher but will fall off more rapidly, the greater

the value of the disintegration constant \. Prior to the direct methods

employed by Nier™ to determine the value of \a.v, some values were

“proposed that would indicate a considerably greater rate of produc-

tion of heat in the early stages of the earth’s history than at present.

Similarly, the contribution from potassium was assigned a more con-

spicuous place in the early history of the earth. Recent determinations

of the radioactive constants result in much lower values of the ratio

of the rate of production of heat in the past to that at present. Thus

the curves in Fig. 3 show this ratio to be between 1.33 and 1.56 at

210° years ago. To obtain a higher ratio one can invoke unknown

radioactive elements or series that are supposed to have disintegrated

to a concentration at present not detectable. Such elements or series

of elements can only have influenced the rate of production of heat

for a comparatively short period in the earliest history of the earth,

or have been present in prodigious quantities and initially have gen-

erated heat at a rate greatly in excess of the production from uranium.

Since this point does not seem to have been appreciated by those who

have suggested such a source of energy in pre-Cambrian times, it is

treated in an appendix.

The ratio of the rate of production of heat at a given time T in the

past to that at: present (H7/H) can be expressed as a function of two

11 Nipr, A. O.- Phys. Rev. 55: 150. 1939.

JuLy 15, 1941 URRY: HEAT ENERGY FROM THE EARTH 281

1.90

Q=8x10°

1.80 P= I.

1.70 Q P

16x 10>

Bx hs

1.60 2x10°

Q=8x10"

P=6.

T in lO YEARS

1,00 me

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Fig. 3—The ratio of the rate of production of_heat, from all the known radioactive

sources, in the past to the value at present, (H;/H), as a function of time T in the past.

variables P, the thorium to uranium ratio, and Q, the potassium to

uranium ratio.

Integrating equation 15, we obtain

(Nur) = Nuredut* (16)

and corresponding equations for the AcU and Th series and for the

potassium. The rate of production of heat at any time ¢ will then be

given by

d(Nour)+

hut hae = hyvurNyre'" - - - ete. (17)

The concentrations of the four radio-elements can be considered as

constant over a period of one year; therefore

d(Nour)t rs A(Nour)+

dt At ae

where Af=one year.

Analogous to equation (3),

Nx = 6.089QfNv. (19)

The total heat production per year at time ¢ is determined by sum-

ming the terms (equation (17) for the three series and potassium,

282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

after expressing Nu;, Nacu, Nm, and Nx in terms of Ny with the aid

of equations (3), (4), (5), (6), and (7). |

o [Aurdviet* + khacuvAacve*U* + hrndrrn(1 + £)1.026Pe™*

jee (20)

+ hkdx(1 + k)6.089Qfe**] (20)

The ratio (H 1/H) is then given by

(Hr/H) = |Expression, t = T|/[Expression, ¢ = 0], (21)

in which only two independent variables P and Q appear.

The value of P has been discussed already. Uranium averages can

only be given for two large groups of rocks and these averages depend

somewhat on the. critical weighting of the literature by the computer.

The calculation of Q is shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3.—PoTASSIUM—URANIUM RATIO

Group Radium Uranium ann) aoe Q

1 12 1 6 : eae

TS UI Bie | a ere

Granitic..... 1.6 AL 7 0.045 0.037 7.9X103

Basaltic..... 0.4 2 0.0125 0.010 8.3 X10?

That one might expect to find Q roughly constant is borne out by

the conclusions of Poole and Joly” and of Holmes® and by the obser-

vations of Réssner and of Evans and Williams” “‘that the radium

increases with the alkalies, especially with potash,” but Barth" finds

no evidence to substantiate this correlation in the Finnish Granites.

Comparatively large variations of @ between individual specimens

and even local areas are to be expected. Figure 3 indicates no significant

difference in (H 7/H) for values of Q between 2 and 16X10? and that

the maximum increase in the radioactive output of heat 210° years

ago compared with the present is 56 percent with a most unlikely

value of P. A more probable value is 43 percent falling to 17 percent

at 110° years ago. A discussion of the significance of this result is

beyond the scope of this presentation.

SUMMARY

It has been shown that the determination of the quantity of heat

generated by the disintegration of the radio-elements in the materials

12 Pook, J. H. J., and Jory, J. Phil. Mag. (6) 58: 819. 1924.

13 Houmes, A. . Geol. Mag. 63: 306. 1926.

14 ROssneR, H. Mineralog. petrog. Mitt. 44: 494. 1933.

15 Hivans, R. D., and Witurams, H. Amer. Journ. Sci. 29: 441. 1935.

146 Bartu, T. F. W. Amer. Journ. Sci. 35A: 231. 1938.

JuLy 15, 1941 URRY: HEAT ENERGY FROM THE EARTH 283

of the earth’s crust can be made by a single physical measurement for

the majority of laboratory specimens. A large number of measure-

ments are necessary, and too few are available, because of the com-

plexity of older methods. A moderate degree of accuracy is sufficient,

since variations among individual specimens are large and such varia-

tions can be studied and treated only with a volume of data. The

analysis of this method indicates that an uncertainty of less than

5 percent is introduced by a lack of knowledge of the exact value of

the Th/U ratio. If the potassium content is not measured the uncer-

tainty increases to possibly 15 percent. The probable error, including

the errors of measurement, is less than 25 percent except in a few

isolated cases of relatively high potassium content and very low ura-

nium and thorium values such as may be encountered in a few ultra-

basic specimens.

The ratio of the rate of production of radioactive heat in the past

to the present is very important in a consideration of geothermal

problems. No equation for determining this ratio seems to have ap-

peared in the literature. The ratio is relatively insensitive to a choice

of the two independent variables, and guidance in their choice is

afforded by the available radioactive measurements. No significant

increase in heat production within the structure of the earth during

the accepted age of the earth (210° years) may be inferred.

The possibility of the existence of radio-elements hitherto unde-

tected is explored from the point of view of their influence on the ratio

of the heat production in the past to that at present. It is concluded

that such elements could contribute an appreciable quantity of heat

only before 1.5 10° years ago.

APPENDIX

The problem is to explore the possibility of the existence of radio-

elements that have so far escaped detection but that contributed a

considerable quantity of heat to the rocks of pre-Cambrian times

(10° to 2X 10° years ago). The existence of a series, analogous to the

uranium I series, which produces at least the same quantity of heat

per disintegration of the unknown parent as does UI, is the most

favorable assumption. If this unknown series (subscript x) is to con-

tribute 6 times the heat contribution of the uranium I series, T years

ago, then from equation (17),

h,Nxdxe? = OhurNurvreU!. (A)

If the unknown parent x is an isotope of uranium, Nier finds the upper

limit of abundance relative to U-238 to be at the most 1/12,000 for

284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

APPENDIX TABLE.—VALUES OF @ AND THE RATE OF PRODUCTION OF HEAT IN THE Past

RELATIVE TO THE PRESENT FOR VARIOUS CONSTANTS FOR AN UNKNOWN

RADIOACTIVE SERIES)

a 10,000 2,000 )

ss eRe Grom Ome 4.5X1079 ODL Ome 3.6 <10n? 0

Hr? Hr Hr Hr Hr

T years ) — ) — 6 = 6 — —

H H H H H

0109 0.004 1.0) 0.003 L@ 0.016 1.0) 00127 ai On ale

1.0 2.0 74) - (0) 37433 Les} QO, 453). Oak aaa: 5 31): Lee larg

6 44, 29. 2.0 2.6 Doe 15 2.0 Py) |; Ik SOR

2.0 967. 667. | 18. 14. 245. 170 1 9. il 4183

@ Calculated from the italicized values with equation B.

From Fig. 3, P =3, Q =8 X103, with the heat contribution from the x-series added.

mass numbers 242 to 231, exclusive of the known isotopes 235 and

234.1” If the parent x is not an isotope of uranium, its limit of abun-

dance could hardly be greater than 1/2,000 relative to U-238, other-

wise alpha-particles or beta-rays should be detectable. Substituting

for the following examples, h,=hy: and aN,=Npy, equation A be-

comes

Axerel = badrprerul?, (B)

By assigning @ a given value for a chosen value of T, e.g., 2.0 at 10°

years, equation B can be solved for \x, and 6 determined for other

values of 7’. These values are given in the Appendix table with the

values of (H 7/H) calculated for the additional heat from the x-series.

Obviously the value of (H+/H) in column 10 can not even be doubled

at 10° years without an absurd value of (H1/H) at 2X10° years

(columns 3 and 7). The case for doubling the rate of production of

heat at 1.510° years is more favorable (columns 5 and 9) although

the values of (H1/H) still increase considerably at 210° years and

are only slightly greater than the value without the x-series at 10°

years. The most favorable case is for a=2,000, \.=3.6X10~° yr“,

but the alpha-particle activity ratio of the unknown parent to that

of UI in this case would be 1.2 percent, and the series should have been

detected. Thus an appreciable increase of the heat ratios in Fig. 3

due to an undiscovered radioactive series and, to a much greater ex-

tent an undetected single radio-element, must be confined to a period

before 1.5X10° years, that is, very early in the history of the earth;

otherwise the birth-stage of the earth would be accompanied by ex-

cessive production of radioactive heat.

17 Niger, A. ©. Phiys. Rev. 55:°150, 1939:

JuLy 15, 1941 couUCH & BRIESE: ANALYSIS OF CYANOGENETIC PLANTS 285

CHEMISTRY.—The use of chloroform to accelerate cyanogenesis in

the analysis of cyanogenetic plants.\ J. F. Coucn and R. R.

Brizse, U. 8. Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated by

H. W. ScHOENING.)

In 1909 Guignard (5, 6) reported that when leaves or other tissues

of cyanogenetic plants are subjected to cold or to certain anesthetics

like ether or chloroform there is an increase in the rate at which hydro-

cyanic acid is evolved. Mirande (7) applied this discovery in modify-

ing Guignard’s picric acid paper test for the detection of cyanogenetic

compounds in plants. Armstrong and his coworkers (1) developed and

refined the technique applying the test to a large series of plants.

Boyd and coworkers (2) used chloroform to accelerate cyanogenesis

in their method for the rapid determination of HCN in Sudan grass.

This technique has the disadvantage that the chloroform distills with

the HCN and clouds the distillate, which obscures the end point in

the subsequent titration with silver nitrate.

A rapid process for the estimation of potential HCN in cyanogenetic

plants is desirable. At present none of the available methods, with the

exception of the mercuric-chloride process (3), is free from large

errors. Much of the inaccuracy is due to slow development of the

maximum HCN, while at the same time appreciable loss of HCN oc-

curs through its conversion into other substances (4). Loss of HCN

may be prevented by the use of mercuric chloride, but this substance

considerably retards the analysis by inhibiting the enzyme.

A comparative study of the rate of cyanogenesis in water with and

without the addition of chloroform was made. The figures obtained

by the slower mercuric-chloride method were used as controls. Sor-

ghum varieties grown at the Arlington Experimental Farm of the U.S.

Bureau of Plant Industry under controlled conditions were available

through the courtesy of Dr. J. H. Martin, of that Bureau. Samples

were collected at 8:30 a.m. each morning. The entire plant of young

first or second growth sorghums was used, but in the case of more

mature plants the stalks were discarded and the leaves only were

used. Fruiting heads, when present, were discarded with the stalks.

Samples from young plants were sliced in small pieces with a sharp

knife. The leaves of older plants were hashed through a meat chopper

(3). In both cases the comminuted mass was thoroughly mixed and

50-g samples were weighed out for analysis as rapidly as possible.

The samples for water and for chloroform treatment were weighed

1 Received March 28, 1941.

286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

directly into 5-liter pyrex flasks and the water or water-chloroform

mixture was added. One of the chloroform-water mixtures was im-

mediately connected to a condenser and heat was applied. Fifteen

minutes elapsed on the average before distillation commenced, and

therefore these samples are reported in the table as being macerated

one-fourth hour. Similar samples were tightly stoppered and incu-

bated at 37° for 24 hours before analysis. Other samples were incu-

bated with water for 24 and 48 hours at 37°. Samples for mercuric-

chloride treatment were handled as previously described (3).

Twenty-four collections of seven representative sorghum varieties

were used in these experiments. Nine samples were of second-growth

plants, and three were of suckers. The remaining 12 samples were

leaves of first-growth plants. |

The results are presented in Table 1. In one case, that of second-

growth Sharon kafir, the quarter-hour maceration with chloroform

and the mercuric-chloride samples gave the same figure for HCN,

within the limits of experimental error. In all other cases the chloro-

form samples gave smaller figures than the standards and in many

cases so far below as to demonstrate the inadequacy of chloroform to

give accurate results. In 5 cases out of 14 where the samples were

macerated 24 hours the chloroform figures were lower than those for

water alone. In 5 out of 13 cases they were lower than the figures for

48-hour water maceration. It appears that chloroform applied in this

way can not be depended upon to give accurate as well as rapid re-

sults.

A few experiments were performed to test the utility of Roe’s

method for amygdalin (8) when applied directly to the plant. Samples

weighing 25 g were mixed with 1 cc of chloroform, placed in a small

desiccator arranged so that air might be drawn through the mass and

thence conducted through a solution of potassium hydroxide to catch

the entrained HCN. Before entering the desiccator the air was drawn

through a scrubber containing potassium hydroxide. After several

hours the cyanide trapped in the absorption apparatus was titrated

according to Liebig-Denigés. A new absorption train was connected

to the desiccator and air was drawn through long enough to make

the total aeration period 10 to 24 hours. The results are presented in

Table 2 and are compared with the results obtained after maceration

of another sample in water at 37° for 24 hours. The standard is the

figure obtained by the mercuric-chloride process. In one case only,

that of Sharon kafir, the chloroform sample gave a figure in excess

of the water-macerated sample. In all instances the results of the

JuLY 15, 1941 COUCH & BRIESE: ANALYSIS OF CYANOGENETIC PLANTS 287

TaBLE 1.—Hyprocyanic AcID RECOVERED FROM SORGHUMS AFTER MACERATION IN

WATER WITH AND WITHOUT THE ADDITION OF CHLOROFORM COMPARED WITH

A STANDARD BASED ON PRESERVATION IN MErRcuRIC CHLORIDE

Hydrocyanic acid per 100 g

calculated to dry plant

After maceration in—

How

Date Variety SUBS OF) Sai Height pre: Guise Water and

growth | plant pared ture Water

Stand- chloroform

for—

ard for—

24 48 15 24

hrs. | hrs. | min. | hrs.

1939 inches Percent!) Mg | Mg | Mg | Mg | Mg

July 17 | Hegari First Leaves} 24 Ground | 79.76 208 | 140 | 188 | 145

18 | Sumac sorgo Suckers & 10-14 | Sliced 84.03 189 | 138 | 139 | 111

19 | Sharon kafir First g 24-26 | Ground | 82.54 85 61 50 52

20) Spur feterita | Suckers 5: 20-22 € 85.15 273 | 256 | 256 | 216

24 | Hegari First & 24-26 z 81.96 284 | 139 | 151 | 176

25 | Sumac sorgo ad é 36 a 81.79 SA Se eA!

26 | Sharon kafir a « 38-40 & 79.73 89 76 64 66

28 | Atlas sorgo . : 48 Ss 82.70 88 {fea iaerer HOBIE

31} Hegari 4 & 48 £ 78.21 246 | 207 | 199 |} 150 | 158

Aug. 1 | Hegari Suckers « 18 & 83.90 25 1, 1605) 228) | 1829) 210

2| Sumac sorgo First te 72 < 80.12 12 MO) eT ss 89

3 | Spur feterita " ¢ 54 sf 78.71 256 | 210 |} 201 | 169 | 201

4| Dwarf Yellow

milo e & 36 “ 79.21 ZW || NGS |) Soc 87 | 101

7 | Hegari & & 60 a 78.57 225 | 184 | 194 | 148 | 172

8 | Hegari Second | Whole! 10-12 | Sliced 89.29 405 | 324 | 304 | 308 | 345

8 | Sharon kafir “ is 10-12 4 88.42 196 | 139 | 1386 | 198 | 156

15 | Ajax a « 6-8 & 88.16 583 | 444 | 502 | 481 | 563

22 | Hegari S g 10-12 & 87 .00 325 | 316 | 302 | 251

29 | Dwarf Yellow

milo a & 12-14 & 92.55 Silks |b B27 || DRA We || 25 J

September 26 | Spur feterita & g 6-10 « 87 .68 238 | 217 | 198 | 188 | 219

October 10] Hegari o Leaves| 54-60 | Ground | 72.97 114 47 91 54 65

11 | Ajax é Whole} 8-12 | Sliced 83.44 228 | 163 | 152 | 133 | 196

16 | Hegari! First Leaves} 60-72 | Ground | 71.00 75 53 50 22 63

17 | Hegari! Second | Whole} 8-12 | Sliced 84.86 297 | 198 | 208 | 176 | 273

1 Frosted.

aeration process were much below the standard. Even with a sample

of wild-cherry leaves (Prunus serotina), a species in which cyanogene-

sis is much more rapid than in sorghum, the aeration process yielded

less than 50 percent of the standard. Adding small quantities of water

to the plant mixtures did not improve the evolution sufficiently to

make the process suitable as an accurate analytical procedure.

The reason for the failure of the aeration method lies in the slow-

ness of cyanogenesis under the experimental conditions. Roe obtained

excellent results with amygdalin and emulsin in solution, a condition

in which the glucoside and enzyme may readily come into contact.

In hashed plant tissues, even where the permeability of the cell wall

is increased by chloroform, it is more difficult to bring the glucoside

288

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

TABLE 2.—HyprocyaNnic Actbp RECOVERED FROM CYANOGENETIC PLANTS BY THE

AERATION PROCESS

Hydrocyanic acid per 100 g

calculated to dry plant

Date Variety Height | Moisture ME lay hn cones Witenes Remarks

tionin water | tion with Stand-

for 24 hours CHCI; ard

1988 inches Percent Mg. Mg. Mg.

September 26 Hegari UP ae 26 19 32 Leaves

28 | Sharon kafir 12-14 86.41 76 82 110 Second growth

October 3 Prunus serotina Belo 454 259 555 Leaves

U2 Spur feterita 10-12 85.03 154 67 208 Second growth

5 | Spur feterita 8-14 81.33 164 46 210 :

and enzyme into contact. The addition of 10 to 20 parts of water and

maceration at 37° for 24 hours seldom develop the maximum quantity

of HCN potential in the plant. This is due to a combination of factors,

but adsorption of the enzyme on the plant fiber and consequent in-

hibition of contact with the glucoside appear to play an important

role in this respect.

Gl).

(2).

(3).

(4).

(5).

(6).

(Os

(8).

LITERATURE CITED

ARMSTRONG, H. E., ArmstronG, E. F., and Horton, E. Herbage studies. I.

Lotus corniculatus, a cyanophoric plant. Proc. Roy. Soc. B. 84: 471-484. 1912.

Boyp, F. T., AamMopt, O. 8., BoustEep, G., and Truog, EK. Sudan grass manage-

ment for control of cyanide poisoning. Journ. Amer. Soc. Agron. 30: 569-582.

1938.

BrigEsg, R. R., and Coucu, J. F. Preservation of cyanogenetic plants for chemical

analysis. Journ. Agr. Res. 57: 81-108. 1988.

Coucnu, J. F., and Brirsn, R. R. The destruction of hydrocyanic acid by prunase

and the influence of sugars on the reaction. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 29: 219-—

221. 1939.

GUIGNARD, L. Influence de l’anasthesie et du gel sur le dédoublement de certaines

glucosides chez les plantes. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 149: 91-93. 1909.

. La recherche et le dosage de l’acide cyanhydrique dans les haricots. Ann.

Falsif. 9: 301-305. 1916.

MriranpbE, M. Influence éxercée par certaines vapeurs sur la cyanogenése végétal.

Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 149: 140-144. 1909.

Ros, J. H. The estimation of the hydrogen cyanide content of amygdalin by the

aeration method. Journ. Biol. Chem. 58: 667-669. 1924.

JuLy 15, 1941 GAzIN: PALEOCENE MAMMALS FROM COLORADO 289

PALEONTOLOGY.—Paleocene mammals from the Denver Basin,

Colorado.t C. Lewis Gazin, U.S. National Museum.

The untiring search by Dr. Roland W. Brown, of the U. 8. Geo-

logical Survey, for Paleocene mammal remains in the Denver Basin

resulted during the field seasons of 1939 and 1940 in the discovery of

certain materials indicative of Paleocene age. The specimens are of a

rather fragmentary nature, but their occurrence at strategic localities

warrants a somewhat more detailed description than might otherwise

have been given. The localities involved are of historic importance in

the Cretaceous—Tertiary boundary controversy, and the mammals

herein described, together with the previously known occurrences of

dinosaur materials, serve to determine this boundary or greatly to re-

strict the known limits of its possible position in this region.

The two principal localities are the small but conspicuous area of

exposure on the southeastern portion of South Table Mountain

(Fig. 1), near Golden, Colo., and in an amphitheater of badlands

called Corral Bluffs, east of Jimmy Camp Creek, about 14 miles east

of Colorado Springs. The writer visited the region of the second lo-

eality in 1932 in the company of L. W. Nicklaus, of Colorado Springs,

and the South Table Mountain with R. W. Brown in 1940.

The South Table Mountain materials are, as determined by Brown,

from SW < NW i, sec. 31, T. 38., R. 69 W., in the lower part of the

Denver formation, about 50 feet above the highest occurrences of

dinosaur materials in the same formation. The section at this locality

may be seen from a distance to include a lower dark zone, a middle

light-colored band, and an upper dark band, including the basaltic

lava cap of the mesa. Brown has found that the lower part of the

exposed section, entirely within the Denver formation, includes about

21 feet of drab-green andesitic sandstone with dinosaur and turtle

remains, capped by a 3-foot bed of drab conglomerate. Fifty feet

above this and about 225 feet below the basalt the mammalian re-

mains occurred, together with specimens of the typical Denver flora,

in a light, sandy clay bed of the middle light-colored zone. Hence the

Cretaceous—Tertiary transition is seen to occur within the lower part

of the Denver formation, between the dark dinosaur-bearing deposits

and the mammal and plant horizon in the light, sandy clay zone. The

boundary is considered by Brown to be at about the base of the light-

colored middle zone (see Fig. 1).

1 Published by permission of the Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Received

May 21, 1941.

290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

Fig. 1.—Exposures on southeast face of South Table Mountain, near Golden, Colo.

The man stands at the place where the jaw of Bazoconodon denverensis was found. The

arrows indicate the position of the Cretaceous—Tertiary boundary as interpreted by

R. W. Brown. Photograph by Brown.

The mammalian materials from South Table Mountain include a

lower jaw fragment with two teeth, herein described as representing

a new genus and species, Baioconodon denverensis. The form appears

most closely related to lower Paleocene creodonts and seems beyond

reasonable doubt to be Paleocene in age. Two other lower jaw por-

tions, with teeth not preserved cr too worn for certain recognition,

are tentatively referred to this form. A fourth small jaw fragment with

most of two premolars preserved, but well worn, may represent an

anisonchine periptychid. |

The South Table Mountain Paleocene fauna as known may be

listed as follows: |

Reptilia:

Allognathosuchus sp.

Compsemys sp.

Trionychid sp.

Mammalia:

Batoconodon denverensis, n. gen. and sp.

Periptychid? sp.

The crocodile teeth and fragments of turtle shell were identified by

JuLY 15, 1941 GAZIN: PALEOCENE MAMMALS FROM COLORADO 291

C. W. Gilmore, of the National Museum. These are of a highly frag-

mentary nature and apparently of little or no stratigraphic signifi-

cance. |

The Tertiary in the region east of Colorado Springs, in the vicinity

of Corral Bluffs and Jimmy Camp Creek, has produced, in addition

to undetermined turtle fragments, three mammal specimens. A speci-

men collected by R. W. Brown and C. E. Staudte at Corral Bluffs to

the east of Jimmy Camp Creek is the most readily identified and in-

cludes upper and lower jaw material with teeth. It is referred to the

Puercan species Conacodon entoconus (Cope).2 The specimen was

found in the northeast ‘‘corner”’ of the ‘‘amphitheater’’ on the saddle

of a long spur projecting southward toward State Highway 94, in

SWINE sec. 6, T. 14 8., R. 64 W. The lower Paleocene age of the

specimen is evident, and this horizon, identified by Brown as high in

the lower part of the Dawson Arkose, is closely related in time to the

Puerco of New Mexico. The mammal level was determined by Brown

to be approximately 100 feet above the dinosaur bearing beds farther

west on Jimmy Camp Creek. |

A specimen found by Richardson,’ and identified by Gidley as a

creodont tibia of Eocene age, came from farther west near Jimmy

Camp Creek, SW sec. 2, T. 148., R. 65 W., 600 feet above the base

of the Dawson Arkose. Brown has checked this locality and finds that

no dinosaur-bearing strata outcrop in this section and that the tibia

comes from about 100 feet above the dinosaur material reported by

W. T. Lee,* roughly equivalent to the level of the Conacodon jaws in

Corral Bluffs. The creodont tibia is not in the collections of the Na-

tional Museum; however, the fact of its being a tibia suggests that no

accurate diagnosis was feasible, other than an early Tertiary age.

Hence, a Paleocene age seems entirely possible. Gidley’s statement,

of course, did not preclude the possibility of such an age assignment

because at the time of Richardson’s folio, 1912, the U. 8S. Geological

Survey did not recognize the term Paleocene.

From the evidence of this mammalian material, particularly the

Conacodon jaws, together with the known occurrences of dinosaur re-

mains, it is concluded that the Cretaceous—Tertiary boundary here

comes high in the lower part of the Dawson Arkose, at an horizon

that, according to Brown, is near the base of the zone of workable

coals, between 500 and 600 feet above the base of the formation.

>See W. D. Marruew. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n.s., 30: 145-149, fig. 30: 1937.

°G. B. Ricuarpson. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 23: 272. 1912. Also, U. S. Geol.

Surv. Folio 198:8. 1915.

*W.T. Ler. Amer. Journ. Sci. (4) 35: 531. 1913.

292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 7

The specimen found by L. W. Nicklaus in the Corral Bluffs ap-

parently comes from a somewhat lower level than the Conacodon jaws

and constitutes further evidence for the presence of a large creodont

in the Dawson Arkose.

The materials from the Dawson formation east of Colorado Springs

may be listed as follows:

Reptilia:

Champsosaurus?® sp.

Testudinate remains

Mammalia:

Creodont, near Eoconodon heilprinianus (Cope)

Creodont, undet.

Carsioptychus?® sp.

Conacodon cf. entoconus (Cope)

In addition to the above occurrences mention may be made, as a

matter of record, of a small mammal jaw without teeth, which, to-

gether with turtle remains, was found by Brown in 1940 near a coal

mine in sec. 2, T.98., R. 62 W., about 3.3 miles west of Norton, Colo.,

and east of Castle Rock. The specimen may be from a Paleocene mam-

mal, though certainly not determinable, and comes from the upper

part of the lower Dawson. The form is near the size of Ellipsodon

lemuroides, and as in most species of that genus, it had its third molar

reduced in size, as indicated by the root portions of the teeth.

CREODONTA

Baioconodon,' n. gen.

Generic characters.—Trigonid of lower molars moderately elevated, with

paraconid lingual and well defined. Ridge extending anterolingually from

hypoconid joins posterior wall of trigonid at distinctly lingual point. M3 un-

reduced, with hypoconulid crenulate and talonid basin exhibiting rugae.

External cingulae developed.

Genotype.—Baroconodon denverensis, n. sp.

Baioconodon denverensis, n. sp.

Type.—Portion of right ramus of mandible with Mz. and Ms, U.S. N. M.

no. 16621.

Horizon and locality —Denver formation, lower Paleocene, South Table

Mountain, near Golden, Colo., in SWi NW sec. 31, T.38., R. 69 W.

Specific characters.—Size much smaller than Hoconodon heilprinianus, near

that of Lorolophus priscus. Specific characters not otherwise distinguished

from generic characters.

Description.—The jaw fragment of Bazoconodon is not greatly different in

5 Additional materials collected by R. W. Brown and the writer on June 5, 1941, |

from the Dawson Arkose at Corral Bluffs include specimens tentatively identified,

while in the field, as Champsosaurus and Carsioptychus. The reptilian form is repre-

sented by several vertebrae and the periptychid mammal by fragments of a right lower

jaw with only the root portions of the teeth from P,; to M; and a separate right lower

jaw fragment with one of the premolars preserved. Champsosaurus is known from sev-

eral Paleocene occurrences and Carsioptychus is characteristic of the Puercan stage of

the Paleocene.

® Bavds, small, + conodon, as in Eoconodon.

JuLY 15, 1941 GAZIN: PALEOCENE MAMMALS FROM COLORADO 293

size from that of Loxolophus priscus, much smaller than in Hoconodon heil-

prinianus, which it more closely resembles in the structure of the molars.

The talonid portion of M: is about the same width as the trigonid, and having

about the same anteroposterior extent. M3; shows almost no reduction in

size from that of Me, and the talonid portion is a little longer and narrower

than the trigonid. The trigonid portions of both teeth are elevated with re-

spect to the talonids, but apparently a little less so than observed in some

material of Hoconodon. The paraconid of both molars is well defined, lingual

in position, and rather sharply distinct from the metaconid. The talonid

portion is well basined and exhibits a distinct hypoconid, entoconid, and

hypoconulid, the well-developed posterior crest or hypoconulid on M3; being

AW?

we OT

< Nce 1

6 a

2 ————$— SS mers E ore ae oS

SS SSS

SOS SS=>= = : ==

ban |

= =

Fig. 2.—Baioconodon denverensis, n. gen. and sp. Portion of right ramus of man-

dible with M2 and M3, U.S.N.M. no. 16621, type specimen, lateral and occlusal views.

x3. Denver Paleocene, Golden, Colo. Drawing by Sydney Prentice.

somewhat crenulated. The basin of M3 is further characterized by sharp

crests, one long and one short, extending into the basin posterolingually

from the ridge anterolingual to the hypoconid. The principal character of the

talonid portion of the molar is the markedly lingual point at which the crest

extending anterolingually from the hypoconid joins the trigonid portion of

the tooth, this being a noticeable distinction when comparison is made with

material of Loxolophus, and is most closely approached in the large Hocono-

don. The two lower molars of Baioconodon denverensis are also characterized

by a prominent external cingulum which shows a conspicuous cusp between

the protoconid and hypoconid, especially in M2 where it extends inward

noticeably between the principal outer cusps.

The anteroposterior diameters of M2. and M3 are 6.8 and approximately

8.5 mm., and their greatest transverse diameters about 6 and 5.6 mm,

respectively. |

In comparison with material of Loxolophus, M3 in Baioconodon denverensis

is seen to be less reduced in size. The paraconid occupies a more lingual posi-

tion in both M, and Mz; and the talonid portion in Mz appears relatively

shorter anteroposteriorly. The crest extending forward from the hypoconid

294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

joins the trigonid at a much more lingual position, and the external cingulum

is better developed than in any of the Loxolophus material examined.

Baioconodon denverensis is considerably smaller than Eoconodon heil-

- prinianus, and the paraconid on the last two molars is relatively better de-

veloped, higher, and more distinct from the metaconid. The trigonid, though

elevated with respect to the talonid, is relatively not so high as in teeth of

Eoconodon showing comparable wear. M3 in Batoconodon denverensis is a

little larger with respect to Me, and also shows a somewhat more complex

talonid portion than in Hoconodon heilprinianus. Ms seems slightly more re-

duced in Hoconodon gaudrianus (Amer. Mus. no. 3400) but much more

reduced in Gonzacodon.

Two other specimens from the same locality on South Table Mountain,

exhibiting greater portions of the mandible, but with the teeth broken off or

too badly worn for certain recognition, may also represent Bazoconodon

denverensis, although there is no certainty that they do. No. 16622, a right

mandibular portion possessing only the root portions of P, to Ms, is of a

little greater size than the type, and the masseteric crest does not extend so

far forward, although the roots of the teeth have the same shape and propor-

tions as in no. 16621. If the two are conspecific, the edentulous jaw may well

be from a much older individual, as the teeth in the type are but very little

worn.

No. 16624 is a left mandibular ramus, exhibiting root portions of the teeth

from the canine to M3. The molars have their crowns partially preserved but

so badly worn as to be unrecognizable. Much of the wear on these and the

root portions of the preceding teeth may have been largely erosion post

mortem. The jaw itself is a little more slender below the molars than either

no. 16621 or 16622, but the depth is intermediate between the two. The teeth,

however, appear to have been slightly smaller than in either and the root

portions of M, relatively a little narrower, perhaps more indicative of

Loxolophus, which it may well represent, although the root portions of the

premolars suggest that these teeth may have been relatively wider and more

closely spaced than in material of Loxolophus at hand.

Creodont, near Eoconodon heilprinianus (Cope)

A fragment of a left ramus of the mandible with an almost unworn lower

molar, U. 8. N. M. no. 16626, was found by L. W. Nicklaus, of Colorado

Springs, in the bluffs near Jimmy Camp Creek east of Colorado Springs. The

form represented, clearly a large creodont, is apparently of the triisodontine

or possibly arctocyonine type. The molar is of about the size of M; in Eocono-

don heilprincanus but is a little shorter and wider. It rather noticeably re-

sembles lower teeth of this form in the characters of the cusps. The outline

of the tooth suggests that it may be a first lower molar, but the cusps or pat-

tern of the trigonid more closely resembles Me in EH. hezlprinianus. The trigo-

nid is less elevated, but the paraconid is decidedly forward and lingual in

position as in that form. The talonid portion is relatively shorter and wider

than in Hoconodon and the basin is correspondingly wider, but the crest ex-

tending anterolingually from the hypocone joins the posterior wall of the

trigonid at a position almost as lingual as in Koconodon, much more so than in

Claenodon.

The specimen seems to represent neither Protogonodon nor Claenodon, as

indicated by characters of both the trigonid and talonid of the tooth, but

may be from a form of Hoconodon; however, because of the somewhat more

brachydont trigonid portion, it is not regarded at present as certainly repre-

senting a species of that genus.

JuLtY 15, 1941 GazIN: PALEOCENE MAMMALS FROM COLORADO 295

CONDYLARTHRA

Conacodon cf. entoconus (Cope)

Portions of both maxillae with several well-worn cheek teeth and a left

ramus of the mandible with P2, P3, and the three molars, all belonging to the

same individual, U. S. N. M. no. 16625, were found by Brown and Staudte

east of Jimmy Camp Creek, about 14 miles east of Colorado Springs and in

the Dawson formation (SWiNE3 sec. 6, T. 148., R. 64 W.). The form is

a periptychid condylarth and apparently represents the species Conacodon

entoconus. The teeth are rather well worn but not so much so as to leave any

doubt as to the affinities of the form. The development of the premolars as

indicated in the right maxilla and lower jaw is in a stage equivalent to that

seen in Puerco material, and the teeth in general are entirely comparable,

except for a little greater width of the lower molars than in any of the Puerco

material at hand. The upper molars may also have been relatively wide,

but all these are damaged along the outer wall, and this, together with the

sloping character of inner wall, prevents accurate measurement.

Periptychid? sp.

A small fragment of a lower jaw, no. 16623, with one complete premolar,

Ps or Ps, and half of the preceding tooth, both well worn, was found by

Brown at the South Table Mountain locality. The specimen appears to be of

a periptychid type of mammal, and the development of the premolars is

_about intermediate between the Puercan forms Hemithlaeus kowalevskianus

and Conacodon entoconus. Although well worn, the extent of the talonid

portion on each tooth can be ascertained, and this seems more nearly equiva-

lent to that in Hemithlaeus, not so reduced as in Conacodon, although the pre-

molars as a whole approach in size those of Conacodon entoconus. The speci-

men was found in close association with no. 16622, referred tentatively to

Baioconodon denverensis, but because of duplication of parts, it can not belong

to the same individual. These may well be premolars of B. denverensis, as

indicated by the size of the roots, but the crown portions are suggestive of

an anisonchine periptychid rather than a creodont.

296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.—An evaluation of the results of treatments

given narcissus bulbs for the control of the nematode Ditylenchus

dipsaci (Kihn) Filipjev.. B. G. Currwoop, U. 8. Bureau of

Plant Industry, and F. 8S. Buanton, U.S. Bureau of Entomology

and Plant Quarantine.

Hot-water treatment of narcissus bulbs for the control of the bulb

and stem nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kuhn) Filipjev, was inaugu-

rated by Ramsbottom? and Van Slogteren.* In order to protect nar-

cissus plantings in this country from this pest imported and domestic

bulbs have been subjected to hot-water treatment. Originally this

treatment consisted of the exposure of bulbs to hot water at 110°F.

for 3 to 4 hours. Failure of such treatments to control the disease ade-

quately was responsible for the instigation of further experimental

work. As a result of this work a pre-soak of the bulbs for 2 hours in

water at 70 to 80°F. was added to make the treatment more effective.

Later it was suggested that the treatment bath itself might be im-

proved by the addition of formalin. Vapor-heat treatments were also

proposed as a substitute for hot-water treatments, because the latter

promoted the growth of fungous diseases.

The data included herein are the result of work during the years

1931-1939 by Messrs. Spruijt, Thorne, Blanton, and Chitwood; Miss

E. M. Buhrer; and Mrs. Grace 8. Cobb. The writers have assembled

these data according to treatment, year (except table 2), and technic

of handling.

There are two possible objectives in the treatment of plants for

the control of parasites: (1) Eradication of or cure from infestation;

(2) reduction of infestation. Since none of the known treatments indi-

cate probable attainment of the first objective, this paper is concerned

with the reduction of infestation. This may be approached either

from the standpoint of (a) the reduction in number of living speci-

mens in each plant or (b) the reduction in number of infested plants.

Treatments acceptable for one purpose may be of no great value for

the other purpose. This seems to be the case in daffodil bulbs infected

with the bulb and stem nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci. Since a male

and a female of this species could theoretically produce 200,000 off-

1 The writers wish to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. F. M. Wadley and L. B.

Reed, of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, who have made many help-

ful suggestions relative to the statistical methods. Received April 22, 1941.

2 RamMsBortom, J. K. Investigations on the narcissus disease. Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc.

arenes 1918; Hxperiments on the control of eelworm disease of narcissus, ibid.:

3 SLOGTEREN, E. van. De Toepassing van warmte als Bestrijdingsmiddel van eenige

Bloembollensiekten. Weekblad voor Bloembollcult. 30: 63-66, 69-71. 1919.

JuLy 15, 1941 CHITWOOD & BLANTON: TREATMENT OF NARCISSUS BULBS 297

spring in 90 days, it seems doubtful that mere reduction in numbers of

living nemas would be of any real benefit. Moreover, reduction in

numbers of nemas for each bulb would not reduce the number of foci

of infestation in the field.

Inconsistent results have been a feature of all experimental work

involving the determination of nemic mortality. The literature is ex-

tensive, but the particulars are not especially informative. In general,

experimental work has been conducted in two manners. One method

has been to treat infected stocks and make field observations the fol-

lowing year. This method has not been productive, since sometimes

the symptoms appear to be suppressed the year following treatment

and to reappear later. The other method has been to treat one or

more known infected bulbs at each of a number of durations and

temperatures and later to determine the percent nematode revival in

them. This method does not take into consideration the natural vari-

ation in biological data. In this paper only those records showing

complete mortality in a given bulb are given consideration. Much of

the data was obtained prior to realization of the necessary require-

ments: However, since these data show that many treatments com-

monly thought to be of value are not satisfactory, we feel they are

worthy of recording. The writers have applied, for the first time, sta-

tistical methods for the evaluation of treatments of bulbs for the

control of the stem and bulb eelworm and have found that one can

now predict, with reasonable assurance, the efficacy of treatments.

RESULTS FOR THE YEARS 1931-1938

The data are presented in tabular form, the hot-water and modifications

of the hot-water treatments applied in the years 1932-1938 constituting

table 1, and vapor heat and its modifications for the years 1931-1938 con-

stituting table 2. In both tables each block contains two numbers, the first

representing the number of examinations in which one or more living nemas

(D. dipsacz) were found, the second representing the number of examinations

in which specimens of D. dipsacz were found either living or dead. The num-

ber of bulbs in each examination varied from 1 to 30. A single record of

“no living” D. dipsaci in a treatment is not evidence that this treatment is

satisfactory, since sometimes the same treatment at greater duration or a

similar treatment at higher temperature contains living specimens. Un-

doubtedly several records of no living specimens would be necessary before

a treatment could be considered satisfactory, since a few records might be

due to chance. Sometimes other species of nemas remain alive in bulbs in

which all the D. dipsaci are apparently dead. Such species include A phe-

lenchordes parietinus (Bastian) Steiner, Aphelenchus avenae Bastian, Cephal-

298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

obus spp., and Panagrolaimus subelongatus (Cobb) Thorne; these cases are

marked by an asterisk. Often no nemas were observed in washings of chopped

treated bulbs, either because they were absent or because it is often difficult

to establish the presence of D. dipsaci in bulbs receiving satisfactory or near-

satisfactory treatment even when they are present; examination of the data

has shown that if it were assumed that absence of nemas indicated a kill, one

would be in error nearly half the time. Consequently, such records (0-0)

can not be used. A single examination based on two or more bulbs should be

of more value than an examination based on one bulb. Since it is impossible

to state either what proportion of the bulbs was actually infected before

treatment or, if living D. dipsaci are present, in what proportion all the

nemas were killed, each record as given in tables 1 and 2 must be interpreted

as a single observation. Thus a record of 0-1 indicates one observation in

which all specimens of D. dipsaci were found dead, regardless of number of

bulbs in the given sample, while 5-10 indicates 10 observations covering 10

samples in which specimens were identified living or dead and 5 samples in

which they were found living, regardless of number of bulbs in each sample.

The treatment dates of the various years were as follows:

1. Vapor heat.—Sept. 16-28, 1931; Sept. 7-14, 1932; Sept. 8-13, 1933;

July 26 to Sept. 13 (weekly), 1934; Oct. 9-14, 1936, and Sept. 21-26, 1938.

The series of vapor heat treatments in 1934 were made for 3, 4, and 5 hours,

duration at three temperatures, 114, 116, and 118°F.; one sample at each

temperature and duration was treated each week during the period. The total

numbers of samples providing living D. dzpsacz on these dates were 5, 6, 5,

9, 5, 9, 8, and 5 out of a possible 9 for each respective week.

2. Hot water.—Sept. 7-14, 19382; Sept. 20-23, 1933; Oct. 9-14, 1936;

Sept. 14-16, 1938.

The average number of bulbs constituting a single sample for each of the

years was as follows: 1931, vapor heat 1; 1932, vapor heat and hot water

1.4; 1933, vapor heat 1.1 and hot water 3.7; 1934, vapor heat 4.4; 1986,

vapor heat 1.5 and hot water 1.9; 1938, vapor heat and hot water 12.

The results of the 1931 and 1932 vapor-heat treatments were published by

Spruijt and Blanton.* They are included here for the sake of completeness.

Since tests on the permeability of nemic membranes? had indicated a rela-

tive impermeability of nemic membranes at room temperature, special

tests were conducted in 1938. In these tests infected bulbs were soaked in

0.75 per cent and 0.5 per cent formalin at room temperature and served as a

basis for the following records respectively (presented as in tables 1 and 2):

2 hours 1-2 and 2-2; 4 hours 2-2 and 4-4; 6 hours 2-2 and 4-4. Infected

bulbs soaked in a 1 per cent solution of formalin at room temperature gave

the following results: 24 hours 3-3; 48 hours 3-4; 72 hours 3-4; 96 hours

0-2. From these results, formalin at room temperature is obviously ineffec-

4 Journ. Econ. Ent. 26(3): 613-620, tables 1-3. 1932.

5 CuH1Twoop, B. G. Proc. Helm. Soc. Washington. 5(2): 68-75. 1988.

JuLyY 15, 1941 CHITWOOD & BLANTON: TREATMENT OF NARCISSUS BULBS 299

TABLE 1.—EFrect oF Hot-WATER AND ITS COMBINATIONS ON THE CONTROL OF THE

BULB AND STEM NeEMA, DITYLENCHUS DIPSACI (KUHN) FILIPJEV

Duration in hoursf

Year Type of treatmentt Temp.

1 2 3 4 Iss 6 7 8 @)y) 1L0). aa}

O/7,

HOGS Melot water. o.. 2... 6c. san | 104 3-3 |13-13 13-13 6-8 7-13

1938] Formalin (1:199)......... | 104 6-6 |12-14 5-10 2-6 2-17

HOSS) Hormalin (1-99). 2.5... 104 2-2 2-3 2-2 1-3

HOSSiEOtawatera: 6 sss. eee 110 7-9 |10-14 5-16 0-1 0-11

1936 | Hot water—Presoak...... 110 1-1| 1-1 | 0-1) O-O | O-1| 1-1 | 1-1} O-1

1938 | Hot water—Presoak...... 110 1-1 1-2 2-2

1938 | Formalin (1:199)......... 110 6-8 | 6-14 1-21 0-5 0-11

HOSS) eHormalin: G99)... 5.5.5. - 110 0-4 0-13 0-2 0-3

1938 | Formalin (1:199)—Presoak! 110 0-1 0-1 0-1

1936 | Formalin (1:199)—Presoak| 110 0-1} O-1 | 0-1) O-1 | 0-1} O-1 | O-1} O-1

1938 | Formalin (1:132)......... 110 0-1 0-1 0-1

1938 | Formalin (1:132)—Presoak! 110 0-1 0-1 0-1

See eee ee | aes Se tee

MOSSHMEOUWALETAc «cadence se aL G&S 1—2| 1-6 | 3-3] 3-4

TOSS |) alone WeuGee yo bois 6 Heeie aie ae 112 O-1 | 0-1} O-1 0-1

1936 | Hot water—Presoak...... 112 1-1} O-1 | 1-1} 0-1

1938 | Hot water—Presoak...... 112 1-1 0-0

1936 | Formalin (1:199)—Presoak| 112 Q-1| O-1 | 0-1) 0-1

1938 | Formalin (1:199)—Presoak| 112 O-1 0-1

NOS MEOtRWwaten acl. osckio<se soe 113 0-1} O-1 | 0-2) O-2 | 0-1] O-2 | 0-2) 0-1) O-1} O-1

HOSS a HO tawater. ..5 62 65. sees $ 113 O-3 || O=3) O44. || 1

19)33 | IEIOLE VES oo eae Old oan 114 O*1 | 0-1} O-O | O-1) O-1 | O-O} O-1} O-1; O-1

MOSS PHotawater <6). $600 5. 114 1-1 O-1 1-1

1938 | Hot water—Presoak...... 114 O-1 0-0 1-1

1936 | Hot water—Presoak...... 114 0-0} O-1 | 0-1} O-O

1938| Formalin (1:199)......... 114 O*1 0-1 O*1

1936 | Formalin (1:199)—Presoak| 114 0-0} O-—O | 0-0} O-1

1938 | Formalin (1:199)—Presoak| 114 0-1 0-0 0-1

LOSS) eHormaline (132). .4.4 4... 114 O-1 O*1 O*1

1938 | Formalin (1:132)—Presoak| 114 O*1 O*1 O*1

HOSZiebotuwateres. 4. sess ee MS 0-1} O—O | O-1} O-1 | O-1) O—O | O—O; O-O} O-1} O-1

IGOR | IalOie LePage oo ccs e oe able 115 3-3 | 3-4] 1-4 | 1-3

OB || TElOe Wwe gee eee we eee 116 0-1) O-1

1936 | Hot water—Presoak...... 116 0-1} O-O | 0-1) 0-0

1936 | Formalin (1:199)—Presoak| 116 0-1; O-1 | O-1) O-1

HOSA BH Ot.wabternn sc one se ee 117 O-1

NOS SrMELOtawaueln a oes ame ce 117 0-4 | 0-3} 0-3 | 0-3

HOSA Otawater.. «os 6scco see < | 118 O-1 | O-1} O-O | O*1

1OSSh Elotawaberaas.so.06 56.0: 118 1-3 | 0-3) 0-3 | 0-3)

HOSS eelOtewateruewe alos a 118 6-21} 0-20} 0-6 0-6

1938 | Formalin (1:199)......... 118 0-3 | O-1

IDE || lloye WIS ek ese eodeeaue 119 O-1 | 0-1

IQS2 | IslOle WIE Gon easceoo ages 120 0-1

* Other species of living nematodes also found.

t In each block two numbers are given, the first of which represents the number of examinations in which

living D. dipsaci were observed and the second represents the number of examinations in which D. dipsaci were

observed either living or dead. The italic numbers represent records invalidated by the observation of living

nematodes in more severe treatments.

£ Presoak means that the treatment was preceded by a presoak in water at 70—-80°F.

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

TABLE 2.—EFFECT OF VAPOR HEAT AND ITS COMBINATIONS ON THE CONTROL OF THE

BULB AND STEM NEMA, DITYLENCHUS DIPSACI (KUHN) FILIPJEV

Duration in hourst

Type of treatment* Temp.

it 2 3 4 5 6 a 8 9 | 10 | 11 | 12

= 18,

Vaporheat.cicmcria te ren ree 110 2-2 | 2-2 | 2-2 | 2-2

Vapor heat—Preheat......... 110 1-1 | 1-1 | 1-1 | 1-1 |} 1-1 } 1-1

Vapor heat—Presoak......... 110 1-1 | 2-2 | 0-O | 2-2 | 0-0 | O-1

Vapor heat—Formalin presoak| 110 0-0 | 0-2 | O-1 | O-2 | O-1 | 0-0

Viaporihe sitions seine erin 111 2-2 | 2-2 | 2-2

Vapormheatasainn cs aoe: 112 2-2 | 2-2 | 2-3 | 0-2 | 1-1 0-1 0-1

Vapor heat—Preheat......... 112 1-1 | 1-1 | 1-1 | O-1 | 1-1 |} 1-1

Vapor heat—Presoak......... 112 1-1 | 2-2 | 1-1 | 1-2 | O-1 |} 1-1

Vapor heat—Formalin presoak} 112 1-1 | 0-2 | O-1 | O-1 | 0-0 | 0-0

Waponheadtansn perience ae 113 2-2 | 3-3 | 2-3 | 2-2 | O-1 | O-1 | 0-2 | 0-1 | 0-2] 0-1] 0-1

Waporheatiruc.. cess. See cs} vote 114 | 2-2] 2-2 |10-10) 8-9 | 7-8 | O-1 | O-1 | 0O—-O | 0-1! 0-1 | 0-0] 0-1

Vapor heat—Preheat......... 114 1-1 | 1-1 | O-1 | 1-1 |} 1-1 } 1-1

Vapor heat—Presoak......... 114 1-1 | O-1 | O-O | O-1 | 0-0 | 0-0

Vapor heat—Formalin presoak| 114 O-O | O-O | O-O |} O-1 | O-1 | O-1

Vaporjheathsanuncate someon ee 115 | 2-2] 2-2 | O-1 | O-1 | O-1 | O-1 | O-1 | O—-O | 0-0} 0-1] 0-1] 0-1

Vaponheatqeeimas cence 116 8-13] 7-12} 4-10} 1-1

Vapor heat—-Preheat......... 116 1-1 | 1-1 | 0—O | O-1 | 1-1 | O-1

Vapor heat—Presoak......... 116 0-1 | 1-1 | 0-1 | 0-1 | 0-0 | 0-1

Vapor heat—Formalin presoak| 116 O-O | O-1 | O-O | O-1 | O-1 | O-1

Wanorileat) mein? iste 117 0-2 | 0-3 | 0-3 | O-1

Wapormheatev cary csiatierih eee 118 | 1-1] 1-2 | 4-14] 5-12] 4-13) 0-4

Vapor heat—Preheat......... 118 1-1 | 0-0 | 0-0 | 0-0 | 0-0 | 0-1

Vapor heat—Presoak......... 118 0-0 | O-O | O-O | O-O | O-1 | O-1

Vapor heat—Formalin presoak| 118 0-0 | 0-O | O-O | 0-0 | 0-1 | 0-0

Waporsneath een racer 119 O-1 | 0-3 | 0-1 | 0-3 | 0-3

Viaporphea tea ise cei 120 | 1-1] 1-2 | 0-4 | 0-4 | 0-2 | 0-1

* Preheat means that the treatment was preceded by 2 hours of preheating at 70—80°F.; presoak, treatment

preceded by a presoak in water for 2 hours at 70—80°F .; formalin presoak, treatment preceded by a presoak in

formalin (1:199) at 70-80°F.

+ In each block two numbers are given, the first of which represents the number of examinations in which

living D. dipsaci were observed and the second the number of examinations in which D. dipsaci were observed

either living or dead.

tive as a nematocide for nemas in bulbs. Since results presented elsewhere in

this paper show that formalin at higher temperature is effective, heat ap-

pears to be essential for the action of formalin on D. dipsacz in narcissus

bulbs. | 3

DETERMINATION OF A STANDARD OF EFFICACY

The variability in efficacy of a given treatment is emphasized by the find-

ing of living D. dipsaci after treatments at higher temperature, longer dura-

tion, or greater concentration of formalin than those after which no living

JuLy 15, 1941 CHITWOOD & BLANTON: TREATMENT OF NARCISSUS BULBS 301

specimens were found. Before making a recommendation one should be able

to predict the proportion of bulbs in which all specimens of D. dipsaci would

be killed. Commercial stocks of narcissus bulbs are considered badly diseased

when 5 percent are infected with nematodes. This would be 50 in 1,000. If un-

treated, each bulb may easily serve as a source of infection for three addi-

tional bulbs. Thus, in one year the number could increase to 200. If treated

in such a manner that all the nemas are killed in 19 out of 20 infected bulbs

(95 percent), then three out of 50 (6 percent) would be left infected; one

might expect 12 infected bulbs in one year and 48 in two years. The treat-

ment would then have to be repeated. If the original lot of 1,000 bulbs, 5

percent infected, were treated in such a manner as to kill all the nemas in

18 out of 20 bulbs (90 percent), then one might expect five bulbs (10 per-

cent) to be left infected, which would increase to 20 in one year and 80 in two

years. Hence it would be necessary to treat every year in order to reduce

the infection. Annual treatments being impractical, the minimum standard

of efficacy should be better than 90 percent, preferably 95 percent so that

a treatment is necessary only in alternate years.

The problem now is to determine how many bulbs must be examined to

assure a statistically sound basis for measuring efficacy. Such a basis is fur-

nished by the binomial distribution.®

Let p=any assumed efficacy expressed as a proportion of 1; let g=the

remainder, also expressed as a proportion of 1; and let n=the number of

bulbs examined. For instance, for a desired efficacy of 90 percent, p=0.9,

q=0.1.

Then expansion of (p+q)” represents the various class frequencies ex-

pected, the first term being the proportion of zeros expected, the second the

number of ones, the third the number of twos, etc.

In order to predict with 19:1 probability that a treatment giving zero sur-

vival from a homogeneous lot of infected bulbs has an efficacy better than a

desired efficacy p, the number must be such that p”=0.05 or less. This is true

because with the assumed efficacy and smaller numbers, random sampling

will give zero more than 5 percent of the time and a somewhat lower efficacy

will give zero 5 percent of the time. Thus with smaller numbers we will not

have assurance that a zero means efficacy of p or better. With larger or equal

numbers such assurance is obtained. With groups of bulbs showing hetero-

geneity, more variation may be expected, and somewhat larger numbers

might be needed.

In order similarly to predict with 19:1 probability that a treatment giving

1 survival has an efficacy better than a desired efficacy p, the number must

be such that p”+np” ¢=0.05 or less. With still larger numbers of survivors

the formula becomes increasingly complex.

Assuming an efficacy of 90 percent, a complete kill would have to be ob-

tained in 29 bulbs. Living nemas in one bulb would have to represent 46

6 SNEDECcOR. Statistical methods, rev. ed. 1938.

302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

treated bulbs; similarly two, three and four bulbs with living nemas would

have to represent 61, 76, and 89 bulbs respectively. An apparently perfect

treatment would not be recommendable if based on less than 29 bulb exami-

nations.

Assuming an efficacy of 95 percent, a complete kill in 59 bulbs would be

required in order to prove the treatment better than the assumed efficacy. A

treatment must be considerably better than an assumed efficacy to show its

superiority with a high probability statistically. As the efficacies of treat-

ments more closely approach 100 percent one is nearly justified in accepting

the actual efficacies since the numbers of bulbs must be so large.

In order to make the greatest possible use of the data available, it would

appear that one is justified in selecting any given treatment and adding to its

record the records of all treatments of lesser severity until one comes to a rec-

ord of living nemas. This is an approximate method leading only to tentative

conclusions. 7

PERCENTAGE OF FORMALIN AND RATIO OF BULBS TO LIQUID

An experiment was designed to test the significance of the proportion of

bulbs to quantity of liquid in the treating tank, the liquid varying in percent-

age of formalin. The percentages of formalin were 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0; the

proportions of bulbs to liquid (by weight) were 1:2.8, 1:4, and 1:5.3; treat-

ment durations were 2, 3, 4, and 5 hours. All treatments were at 110°F. with

no presoak. Allowance was made for actual time required for the liquid in

the treating chamber to return to 110°F. after the bulbs were put in. The

bulbs were medium-sized Laurens Koster. Each sample contained five sup-

posedly infected bulbs. They were held submerged by crossed garden labels.

The treatments were conducted in 1-gallon cans submerged in a standard

treating tank with an agitator. No agitator was present in the individual

cans. The temperature was taken for the cans and not the tank. Treatments

- were conducted September 26 to 29, 1939.

The data are presented in table 3.

Totals by duration show that the 2-hour treatment (138-35) was unsatis-

factory; by actual record the 3-hour treatment (4-44) was better but of

questionable value; the 5-hour treatment (2-36) was still better by actual

record; and the 4-hour treatment (0-42) was perfect. Since both of the bulbs

with living nemas in the 5-hour treatments were in 0.25 percent formalin

solutions, it is apparent that this concentration is unsatisfactory.

Totals by ratio of solution weight to bulb weight show no striking differ-

ences but the 5.3: 1 ratio shows a lower survival than the 2.8:1 or 4:1 ratios.

Totals by percentage of formalin are likewise inconsistent with practically

identical results with the 0.25, 0.75, and 1.0 percent solutions and poorer re-

sults with the 0.5 percent solution. However, six of the seven bulbs unsatis-

factorily treated in 0.5 percent formalin were in the 2-hour duration and five

JuLy 15, 1941 CHITWOOD & BLANTON: TREATMENT OF NARCISSUS BULBS 303

TABLE 3.—EFFEcT oF Hot WatErR aT 110°F. oN THE CoNTROL OF D. DIPSACI WITH

RELATION TO THE PERCENTAGE OF FORMALIN AND THE RATIO OF

SOLUTION TO BuLBs, 1939

Saliiontwerehit Duration in hoursf Totalt

| ROrmMalin

Bulb weight 2 3 4 5 By ratio By percent

Percent

Motsiell 0.25 0-1 0-4 0-2 13 1-10

4:1 0.25 1-2 0-3 0-5 0-2 1-12

Haig 0.25 1-3 0-4 0-3 1-5 2-15 4-37

2.8:1 0.5 1-2 1-4 0-4 0-4 2-14

4:1 0.5 5-5 0-2 0-4 0-4 5-15

§.3:1 0.5 0-1 0-3 0*4 0-2 0-10 7-39

meal 0.75 0-3 1-5 0-3 0-4 1-15

4:1 0.75 1-3 0-3 0-4 0-4 1-14

333i 0.75 0*4 2-5 0-3 0-2 2-14 4-43

W331 1.0 2-3 0-3 0-3 O*2 2-11

4:1 1.0 2-5 0-3 0-2 0-3 2-13

Hoaseil 1.0 0*3 0-5 0-5 0-1 0-14 4-38

Grand total... 13-35 4-44 0-42 2-36 19-157 19-157

* Other species of nematodes.

{ In each block two numbers are given, the first of which represents the number of examinatiors in which

living specimens of D. dipsaci were observed and the second represents the number of examinations in which

specimens of D. dipsaci were observed either living or dead.

t Totals by solution-bulb ratio are as follows: 2.8:1, 6-50; 4:1, 9-54; 5.3:1, 4-53.

were in a single treatment. This could have easily been due to error in the

treatment technique.

EFFECT OF REUSING THE SAME FORMALIN SOLUTION

An experiment was designed to test the possibilities of repeated treatments

in the same solution of formalin at 110°F. A constant volume of liquid and a

constant weight of bulbs (5 pounds, or 2.268 kg) was maintained. The treat-

ing tank was a constant temperature bath with agitator. This bath was filled

with 0.5 percent formalin solution to the 10.5-liter mark and refilled to this

level with 0.5 percent formalin before each repeated treatment. The solu-

tion-bulb ratio was, therefore, 4.6:1. There were six treatments of three

hours’ duration and six of four hours’ duration.

Ten medium-sized Laurens Koster bulbs were used for each of these tests.

The treatments were conducted on October 9 to 11, 1939.

Since bulbs contain a relatively large quantity of water they would tend

to dilute the formalin solution. Theoretically, for the liquid in the bulbs to

contain the same amount of formalin as the external liquid contains, the per-

centage of formalin in the liquid would be reduced to 0.4 percent and that

in the bulbs would be raised to 0.4 percent. In order to compensate for this

reduction in concentration, in subsequent treatments sufficient formalin to

make a 0.1 percent solution was added in tests 5 and 6.

In treatment 1 fresh formalin was used while in treatments 2-6 the forma-

lin had previously been used one or more times. In treatments 2, 3, and 4 only

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

sufficient formalin (0.5 per cent) was added to compensate for the loss in vol-

ume due to prior use, there being no compensation for loss in concentration.

The results of this experiment are given in table 4. The minor difference in

totals by duration, 2-29 for the 3-hour and 1-42 for the 4-hour treatment,

might well be due to chance. No reduction in efficacy appears to have oc-

curred as a result of second and third use of the treating bath whether or not

an attempt was made to compensate for dilution of the formalin. However,

when the treating bath was used a fourth time without compensation the

efficacy was reduced in both 3- and 4-hour durations. Even this difference

might have been due to chance but it would not be wise to risk such treat-

ments commercially.

TABLE 4.—EFFECcCT OF REPEATED TREATMENTS IN THE SAME SOLUTION OF FORMALIN

AT 110°F. oN THE EFFICACY OF SucH TREATMENTS FOR D. DIPSACI

Duration in hourst

Test no. Character of bath* ey ae har a ea re Totals by treatment

1 Fresh 0-4 0-9 0-13

2, Second use 0-6 0-6 0-12

3 Third use 0-6 0-8 0-14

4 Fourth use 2-5 1-6 3-11

5 Second use, C 0-4 0-6 0-10

6 Third use, C 0-4 0-7 0-11

Totals by duration..........|. 2-29 1-42 |

+ © denotes that sufficient commercial formalin was added to compensate for theoretic reduction in con-

centration due to prior use of the bath.

+ In each block two numbers are given, the first of which represents the number of examinations in which

living D. dipsaci were observed and the second represents the number of examinations in which nemas were ob-

served either living or dead.

EFFECT OF PRESOAK AND VARIED TEMPERATURES, DURATIONS

OF TREATMENT, AND CONCENTRATIONS OF FORMALIN

This experiment was designed to test the difference in efficacy of varied

treatments at varied temperatures. Treatments were made in a standard

hot-water treating tank with an agitator. Ten bulbs, supposedly infected

with D. dipsaci, were used for each test. Those in tests 1 to 8, 11 to 16, and

22 were medium-sized King Alfred bulbs rogued from the fields, while those

in tests 9 to 10 and 17 to 21 were mixed varieties grown normally in the field.

The size of the mixed variety bulbs naturally varied; the average size, how-

ever, was approximately the size of a small round King Alfred bulb with a

diameter of about one and one-fourth inches. The experiment was conducted

on September 19 to 23, 1939. Results are presented in table 5.

Using totals by treatment and temperature, the percentage of efficacy

favors presoak in six cases, no presoak in two cases, and is equal in three

cases. From this one might presume that presoak was advantageous. How-

ever, if one makes the same comparisons by duration with a given treatment

one finds, by comparing 0.5 percent formalin treatments with and without

presoak, that the percentage of efficacy favors presoak in only 2 cases, Is

JuLy 15, 1941 CHITWOOD & BLANTON: TREATMENT OF NARCISSUS BULBS 305

against presoak in 3 cases and is equal in 8 cases. Presoak has no demonstra-

ble advantage, possibly a disadvantage.

Comparing efficacy of 1 percent. formalin treatments with and without

presoak, 4 favor presoak, 1 is against and 4 are equal. With hot water, 4 favor

presoak, 1 is against, and 7 are equal.

Using the binomial method of analysis for recommendation previously dis

TABLE 5.—EFFECT OF PRESOAK, VARIED TEMPERATURES, DURATIONS OF TREATMENT,

AND CONCENTRATIONS OF FORMALIN ON THE EFFICACY OF HOT-WATER

TREATMENTS FOR D. DIPSACI

Duration in hourst

No. Type of treatmenttf Temp.

1 2 3 4 6 8 Total

O10,

if ISIGYS WEN 86 oon b OER ciao 110 3-7 2-4 0-8 5-19

2 Hot water—Presoak........ 110 1-9 1-6 0-6 2-21

3 Hormealined:99) 4. i . ee 110 9-10 4-8 O*8 0-9 13-35

4 Formalin (1:99)—Presoak...| 110 3a1 (7 0-6 0-4 10-24

5 Hormaline 3199). eae. 110 7-9 1-7 1-6 0-9 9-31

6 Formalin (1:199)—Presoak..| 110 4-5 0*5 1-7 0-5 5-22

i FVOtRWwateEAa= sec siicss ee ele 114 6-7 3-9 0-9 0-7 9-32

8 Hot water—Presoak........ 114 6-7 0-7 1-7 0-8 7-29

9 iRormaling (=199)5 5.5.53 .06 06 114 1-2 0-2 0-4 0-3 1-11

10 Formalin (1:199)—Presoak..} 114 0-1 0-2 0-2 0-0 0-5

11 VO tRWALET) icc cctools cia bs 6 116 7-8 1-7 1-10 8-25

12 Hot water—Presoak........ 116 Dall 0-5 0-7 2-19

13 Hormealing (e199). 6 2... 5 116 0*8 0-9 0-8 0-25

14 Formalin (1:199)—Presoak..| 116 1-9 0-5 1-7 2-21

5 Wormalina (299) cscs cee 116 1-8 1-8 0-9 2-25

16 Formalin (1:99)—Presoak...| 116 0-10 0-3 0-8 0-21

17 EUG Gawaltert erence ssiee s% 118 0-8 0-3 0-11

18 Hot water—Presoak 118 0-8 0-3 0-11

19 Honrmalini(@:19O)h 5... 40.4. 118 0-3 0-4 0-7

20 Formalin (1:199)—Presoak..| 118 0-5 0-6 0-11

21 Honmaling (99) mes ssee ane 118 0-5 0-5 0-10

22 Formalin (1:99)—Presoak...| 118 0-9 0-6 0-15

* Other species of living nematodes also found.

{ Presoak means that the treatment was preceded by a presoak in water at 70-80°F.

{ In each block two numbers are given, the first of which represents the number of examinations in which

living D. dipsaci were observed and the second represents the number of examinations in which D. dipsaci were

observed either living or dead.

cussed, the following treatments by addition are tentatively recommendable

with probability of at least 19:1 that the efficacy is better than 90 percent,

1 percent formalin for 3 hours at 116°F. or 1 hour at 118°F. preceded by a 2-

hour aqueous preosak in either case; 1 percent formalin for 2 hours at 118°F.

with no presoak; and 0.5 percent formalin for 2 hours at 118°F. with a 2-

hour aqueous presoak. Only one treatment is shown with probability of 19:1

to have an efficacy better than 95 percent, this being 1 percent formalin for

2 hours at 118°F. with a 2-hour aqueous presoak. Many of the other treat-

ments may have an efficacy as high or higher if there were sufficient data.

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

DISCUSSION |

By combining tables 1 to 5, several reeommendable treatments are

obtained, these being based on bulbs of various sizes and stages of

disease, and treatments in different seasons. By addition of records

of treatments of lesser durations, lower temperature or lesser concen-

tration of formalin, one treatment has an efficacy significantly better

than 95 per cent, this treatment being 2 hours in 1 per cent formalin

at 118°F. with a 2-hour aqueous presoak at 70° to 80°F. The tolerance

of bulbs to this treatment is not known.

Similarly, by addition of records one modification of the vapor heat

treatment, namely 8 hours at 118°F. with a 2-hour presoak in 0.5

percent formalin at 70° to 80°F., had an efficacy significantly better

than 90 percent.

The minimum hot-water treatment that, based on addition of

records, had an efficacy significantly better than 90 percent was 4

hours at 118°F.

Based on addition of records other treatments with an efficacy sig-

nificantly better than 90 percent are: 1 percent formalin at 118°F.

for 1 hour with a 2-hour aqueous presoak; 1 percent formalin at 116°F.

for 2 hours with a 2-hour aqueous presoak.

All efficacies determined by addition of records must be considered

tentative. The tolerance of bulbs is not known for any one of these

treatments.

The data in tables 1, 3, and 4 on the 0.5 percent formalin treat-

ments at 110°F. for 4 hours with no presoak are adequate to demon-

strate an efficacy of better than 90 percent with no addition of records

from other treatments. The tolerance to this treatment, with the ad-

dition of a presoak has been determined by Blanton and Chitwood.’

In an experiment on 40 varieties of narcissus and 41 lots during one

year the controls showed a greater weight increase in every variety,

while during the next year the controls showed a greater weight in-

crease than the treated bulbs in only 23 lots and a lesser or equal

weight increase in 18 lots. The only conclusion one may draw from

this information is that there is great variability in tolerance to treat-

ment.

Regarding the efficacy of a 4-hour treatment, in 0.5 percent forma-

lin in tables 1, 3, and 4, the records for this treatment are 1—21, 0-12,

and 1-42. Adding these one obtains a record of 2-75, or an observed

efficacy of 97 percent. On the basis of binomial distribution this

gives a predicted efficacy of better than 91 percent. Despite the rela-

7 Proc. Helm. Soc. Washington 7(2): 91-94. 1940.

JuLty 15, 1941 cHITWOOD & BLANTON: TREATMENT OF NARCISSUS BULBS 307

tively small number of bulbs involved, it would appear that this

treatment 1s recommendable.

The efficacy of a 3-hour treatment in 0.5 percent formalin is indi-

cated by records from tables 3, 4, and 5, these being !—9, 2-29, and

0-8, respectively. Adding these one obtains the total 3-46 or an ob-

served efficacy of 93 percent. The predicted efficacy would be con-

siderably under 90 percent, but more extensive records might show

this treatment to be recommendable.

SUMMARY

The results of narcissus-bulb treatments for Ditylenchus dipsaci

over a period of 9 years are presented. These treatments are all modi-

fications of the hot-water and vapor-heat treatments.

Because of the nature of the disease producing organism, D. dipsacz,

and its mode of spread, the authors conclude that a treatment should

have an efficacy of better than 90 percent, preferably 95 percent, to

be recommendable in the control of this disease.

A method of evaluating the results of treatments is given. To prove

a treatment efficacy of greater than 90 percent, at least 29 records

of a complete kill of D. dipsaci are necessary. One bulb containing

living specimens must represent at least 46 bulbs containing this spe-

cies of nematode to substantiate an efficacy of better than 90 percent

and two, three, and four bulbs with living nematodes must represent

at least 61, 76, and 89 bulbs, respectively, to corroborate the same

efficacy.

Hot-water treatments have been conducted at several temperatures

ranging from 104° to 120°F. A 2-hour presoak in water at 70°-80°F.

appears to be of some benefit from the standpoint of nemic control.

However, no hot-water treatments other than those in combination

with formalin are considered both practical and recommendable.

Vapor-heat treatments have shown no particular advantage over

hot-water treatments from the standpoint of nemic control. No plain

vapor-heat treatment is considered recommendable on the basis of the

data available. A vapor-heat treatment at 118°F. for 8 hours pre-

ceded by a 2-hour presoak in 0.5 percent formalin at 70°-80°F. is

recommendable from the standpoint of control, but it is considered too

drastic for host tolerance. Less severe vapor-heat treatments in com-

bination with a formalin presoak might be recommendable were suf-

ficient data available.

It is shown that a certain degree of heat is essential to insure lethal

action of formalin on Ditylenchus dipsaci in narcissus bulbs. A presoak

308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

in a 0.5 percent formalin solution at 70°-80°F. followed by vapor-

heat treatment probably has the same effect as a treatment in forma-

lin solution at a higher temperature.

In hot-water formalin treatments the temperature showing the

least bulb injury for the maximum efficacy appears to be 110°F. No

benefit was apparent as a result of presoaks in combination with hot-

water formalin treatments. The formalin used in these experiments

ranged in concentration from 0.25 to 1.0 percent commercial formalin.

Demonstrable differences in efficacy as a result of these various con-

centrations could have been due to chance but it would probably be

safest to use not less than 0.5 percent formalin at the present time.

Likewise, the differences as a result of varied proportions of bulbs to

liquid could have been due to chance but it would be safest to use not

less than 5.3 parts by weight of solution to 1 part by weight of bulbs.

The treating bath may be used for two consecutive treatments pro-

viding enough formalin of the same concentration is added to bring

up the volume. According to the present data the solution does not

warrant further use thereafter.

On the basis of these data, a treatment in 0.5 percent formalin for

4 hours at 110°F. with no presoak is recommendable from the stand-

point of nemic mortality. The tolerance of bulbs to this treatment is

not known, but it is known for the same treatment with the addition

of a 2 hours’ aqueous presoak. According to this information narcissus

varieties and lots of the same variety differ in their tolerance to the

treatment. There is also a marked difference in the tolerance of the

same stock of bulbs from year to year. In general, the increase in

weight may be smaller in treated than untreated bulbs. Considering

the damage inherent in the disease, treatment is not too drastic.

Treatment for 4 hours in 0.5 percent formalin at 110°F. is the best

treatment known today. It is reeommended for all stocks containing

a residuum of bulbs infected with D. dipsaci. A treatment of 3 hours

in 0.5 percent formalin at 110°F. might be recommendable were suf-

ficient data available.

In conclusion, the results of this work show that:

1. Estimates of efficacy should be based on binomial distribution

formulae. |

2. Considerable numbers of bulbs should be examined individually.

3. Hot-water and vapor-heat treatments require relatively high

temperatures or long durations to be effective.

4. Hot-water formalin treatment at 110°F. for 4 hours is apparently

a recommendable control measure for Ditylenchus dipsaci in narcissus

bulbs

Juny 15, 1941 MARTIN: ON ARGYNNA POLYHEDRON 309

MYCOLOGY.—On Argynna polyhedron (Schw.) Morgan... G. W.

MartTINn, State University of Iowa.

The fungus that is the subject of the present note was originally

described by Schweinitz (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. 4: 257. 1834) as

Physarum polyaedron. His material was collected at Bethlehem, Pa.,

on a dead stump of Juglans. The species was not again noted until

Morgan (Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. 18: 41. 1895) reported it

from Ohio, on hickory. Morgan had recognized his collection as proba-

bly referable to the species described by Schweinitz and had sent a

portion to Dr. G. A. Rex, who compared the two and pronounced

them identical. Since it could not be a Physarum and the spores were

unlike those of any known fungus, Morgan erected for it the new

genus Argynna, so called because of the butterfly-shaped spores.. Al-

though he saw no asci, he was convinced that the spores could have

been borne in no other way and that the genus was to be included in

the Perisporiaceae. His drawings represent the spores accurately and

also show correctly the small, nearly globose fructifications, without

ostioles and with walls composed of brittle, carbonaceous, hexagonal

plates.

Von Hohnel (Ann. Myce. 15: 361. 1917) accepted Morgan’s decision

that Argynna was an ascomycete but decided that Morgan had in-

correctly described the spores and that they must in reality be 1-

celled, with membranous wings, as in Samarospora Rostrup. Von

Hohnel included Argynna with Cephalotheca, Zopfiella, and other

genera in his new family Cephalothecaceae, segregated from the Peri-

sporiaceae by possession of an outer wall composed of angular plates.

Theissen and Sydow, writing in the same volume (Ann. Myce. 15:

466. 1917), summarily dismiss the genus with the remark that it can

not be considered an ascomycete. There is not the slightest suggestion

that any of these European mycologists ever saw the fungus; hence

their cavalier treatment of Morgan’s description must have been

based entirely on preconceived ideas of what the genus ought to be

like. Nevertheless, Theissen and Sydow’s dictum is accepted by Clem-

ents and Shear (Gen. Fungi 255. 1931). The change in the spelling of

the specific name from polyaedron to polyhedron, first made by Sac-

cardo, may not be technically valid but is in accordance with the

practice suggested by Recommendation 38 of the present rules.

In April, 1939, a third collection of the species was made at Big

Spring, Mo., on an old and much-decayed log of some frondose spe-

cies. An attempt to culture it proved successful; it will grow on all

1 Received March 15, 1941.

310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 7

ordinary laboratory culture media and has produced cleistothecia on

sterilized cornstalks, on oak twigs, and, more sparingly, on oat agar.

Argynna polyhedron is unmistakably an ascomycete, to be assigned

to the Perisporiaceae or, if von Hohnel’s family is to be recognized,

to the Cephalothecaceae. The spores are 2-celled, exactly as Morgan

described them. The septum is somewhat obscured by the very dark

central portion of the mature spores (Fig. 1, d, g), but less mature

spores, while still in the ascus (Fig. 1, f) show it clearly. Morgan’s

Fig. 1—Argynna polyhedron (Schw.) Morgan: a, Large ascocarp, from above, X24;

b, smaller ascocarp, on subiculum, from side, 24; c, longitudinal section through large

ascocarp on stalklike stroma, showing basal plates, hymenium, and spore mass, X24;

d, two spores from Morgan’s Ohio collection, 1,200; e, immature ascus with distinct

wall and spores as yet unseptate, 1,200; f, mature ascus with wall gelatinizing and

spores septate and becoming dark, X1,200; g, mature spore from Missouri strain,

x 1,200.

recognition of the nature of the spores is completely justified and the

summary and arbitrary decision of Theissen and Sydow is proved to

be without warrant. :

The cleistothecia are nearly globose, sessile on a flattened base and

fuscous-black under a lens, appearing black to the naked eye. In cul-

ture they are often borne on a dense, dark subiculum (Fig. 1, 6) and

in some cases this may form a thick, stalklike base (Fig. 1, c). Such a

subiculum is not apparent in the two field collections available but is

represented by the intense blackening of the substratum in Morgan’s

collection but not in the Missouri collection from which the cultures

were derived. Morgan gives the diameter of the cleistothecia as 1—-1.5

mm, which is correct for his material. Those of the Missouri collection

and the cultures derived from it are distinctly smaller, 0.3-1.3 mm in

diameter, mostly 0.5—1 mm.

The asci are borne in a dense palisade layer lining the lower portion

JuLty 15,1941 HULL: NEW SOUTH AMERICAN SYRPHIDAE dll

of the cleistothecium (Fig. 1, c). They are at first clavate with a

rather thick wall and a slender stalk, the spore-bearing portion

18-22 X 8-10y, and contain eight spores. As they mature the spores

become septate and darken. Simultaneously the stalk shrivels, the

ascus walls become gelatinized, and the spores are set free in the gelat-

inous matrix above the hymenial layer, apparently completing the

process of maturation in the cleistothecial cavity after leaving the

asci. Dehiscence is by the separation of the plates of the peridium,

beginning at the top and exposing the dark brown spore mass in a

cuplike cavity.

ENTOMOLOGY .—Some new species of Syrphidae from South Amer-

ica.1 FRANK M. Hutu, University of Mississippi. (Communi-

cated by Epwarp A. CHAPIN.)

In this paper I present the descriptions of several new syrphid flies

from South America, most of which have come to hand in the past few

years. Several of these have been collected by John Lane, of Sao

Paulo, Brazil. Types, unless otherwise stated, are in the collection of

the author. Paratypes where present have been deposited in the col-

lection of Mr. Lane.

Mesogramma mulio, n. sp.

Related to norma Cur. and productus Cur., but there are pairs of small de-

tached spots on the third and fourth abdominal segments; this pattern is

much like that of planiventris Lw., but mulio is much larger, the abdomen

slenderer, ete.

Male. Length 7.5 mm. Head: Cheeks, face, and front wholly pale yellow,

the latter with a tiny, median impression, the facial sides white-pubescent.

The antennae are light orange, the third joint barely brownish above, the

face quite produced forward and pinched. Vertex brilliant violet behind ocel-

li, golden between them, the occiput brassy-brown pollinose, its pile wholly

light yellow. Thorax: Mesonotum dark olive-brown, the sides broadly yellow,

becoming a little darker above the wing and on the postcalli. Down the mid-

dle of the mesonotum is a diffuse, pale, steel-bluish, brownish-yellow polli-

nose, somewhat diffuse vitta that runs all the way to the scutellum. The dark

mesonotal disk where it meets the yellow side margin is dark, brownish-black,

vittate. Pleurae metallic black, the humeri, propleurae, posterior two-thirds

of the mesopleurae, upper portion of sternopleurae all pale yellow, which

last section is also densely, silvery pubescent. The scutellum is deep brown-

ish yellow, with subappressed blackish pile and two longer marginal black

bristles near the middle and a long, well-developed golden ventral fringe. Ab-

domen: Elongate with parallel sides from the middle of the second segment

almost to the middle of fourth; deep brownish yellow marked with black as

follows: A posterior fascia along the margin of the first segment, narrowed in

1 Received April 17, 1941.

312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL. 31, NO. 7

the middle, slightly expanded on each side but not reaching the sides of the

segment. There is a parallel-sided, narrow, basal fascia on the second seg-

ment, a wider one on the posterior margin which 1s evanescent on the poste-

rior half, which reaches the lateral margin and is slightly wider there. On the

third segment there are similar fasciae, the basal one considerably more eva-

nescent and the posterior one not quite so distinct. Fourth segment similar to

the third except that the basal fascia leaves only traces widely separated on

either side. Both of these segments have faint, medial, approximated, linear,

sublunate vittae whose anterior ends turn outward and are knobbed. Fifth

segment with a linear, median, black vitta two-thirds the length of the seg-

ment. Hypopygium yellowish brown with black spots. The abdominal pile

is black, except on the base of the first segment, its sides, the extreme corners

of the second, and a few hairs on the corners of the fifth segment. Legs: Pale

yellow, the hind femora with a distal smoky annulus, their tibiae with a mid-

dle annulus. Pile of legs yellow except on whole distal half of middle femora,

base of their tibiae as far as the middle ventrally, whole of hind tibiae and

their femora except the base and dorsal surface of the hind tarsi, which are all

black pilose. Wings: Hyaline, the stigma brown.

Holotype: One male, Sao Paulo, Juquia, Brazil, J. Lane, collector.

Mesogramma gemini, n. sp.

Related to duplicatus Wied., but the face is much shorter, the abdominal

pattern different.

Female. Length 5.5 mm. Head: Face yellow, the antennae orange, the third

joint blackish above, the front widely black, the sides narrowly yellow. Tho-

rax: Mesonotum broadly olive-brown pollinose, with a wide steel-blue medial

linear vitta; the lateral margins are obscurely brownish yellow. Scutellum

wholly yellowish brown, long, sparse, black pilose; the propleura is dark. Ab-

domen: Oval, the sides conspicuously emarginate, dark yellowish brown,

marked with black as follows: All but the anterior corners and lateral margins

of the first segment, the wide marginal fasciae on the base and apex of the

second segment, each occupying about a third the length of the segment. The

third and fourth segments are each marked alike—there is a wide, black,

posterior, marginal fascia occupying two-fifths of the length of the segment.

There is also a very narrow submedial and sublateral, basal, marginal fascia,

and the intervening yellowish-brown area contains a pair of narrowly sep-

arated, small triangles, which are connected to the posterior fascia by slender

linear vittae, the spaces between the posterior fasciae indented. Fourth seg-

ment with a large, opaque, black, medial, basal spot, the posterior margin of

the segment narrowly shining black as well as the posterior half of the lateral

margin. Legs: Light yellow, the hind tarsi blackish above throughout, the

hind tibiae and apical half of hind femora appearing darker because of the

black pile. Wings: Hyaline; stigma pale brown.

Holotype: One female, Sao Paulo, Brazil, March 22, J. Lane, collector.

Mesogramma flamminea, n. sp.

Related to M. baszlaris Wied., but the face almost wholly yellow, scutel-

lum yellow marginate, abdominal pattern different.

Male. Length 4.5 mm. Head: Face, front, and antennae yellow, the arista

brownish, the vertex blackish and feebly shining, black pilose. Thorax: Meso-

notum broadly shining metallic, dark brown-pollinose with a brownish me-

dian vitta, the narrow lateral margins, the humeri and propleurae pale yel-

low. Scutellum metallic greenish black, the margin broadly brownish yellow.

Juty 15,1941 HULL: NEW SOUTH AMERICAN SYRPHIDAE 313

Abdomen: Narrowly oval, shining, reddish brown. All the first segment ex-

cept the anterior corners and a narrow anterior margin, shining black; this

black extends diffusely onto the basal fourth of the second segment. The ab-

dominal pile is short and black, the reddish hypopygium chiefly pale pilose,

with a diffuse blackish spot on the left side. Legs: Light yellow; the hind fe-

mora has a conspicuous, subapical, black annulus. The hind tibia has a sub-

basal annulus; much of the tibial and femoral pile is golden. Hind metatarsi

black on the basal half, their last two tarsal joints black; intervening joints

brown. Wings: Hyaline, the stigma pale yellow.

Female. Similar, the face brownish yellow, barely darker in the middle. Ab-

domen yellow with conspicuous, posterior, black, marginal fasciae; there are

posterior black corners that extend laterally up most of the length of the seg-

ment and in some cases completely along the lateral margin. The second seg-

ment has a basal and a medial fascia dividing the yellow. Third and fourth

segments with a pair each of small, narrowly separated comma-like spots.

Holotype: One male, Sao Paula, Severinia, Brazil, A. G. Silva, December

1940. Allotype: One female, same data in the collection of John Lane. Para-

types: One male and female in copula, seven males and one female (four male

paratypes in the collection of John Lane), same data.

Volucella calochaeta, n. sp.

Related to prescutellaris Will., but the front as well as the face is light

brownish yellow.

Male. Length 9.5 mm. Head: Kyes exceedingly densely light brown, long

pilose. Cheeks (except for a very diffuse narrow brown vitta), face, and front

light brownish yellow. Frontal pile and an extensive patch covering the low

broad tubercle and vertical pile black; elsewhere the pile is pale. The face is

considerably produced both downward and forward. The antennae are

elongate, light orange; the pale arista has 32 rays above. Thorax: Broadly

coppery-violaceous in the middle with a greenish cast, the sides broadly yel-

lowish brown, the propleurae, mesopleurae, and humeri yellowish brown and

golden pilose, the remainder of the pleurae darker brown, almost black in

places with yellowish pile. There is a single, heavy, tuberculous bristle on the

upper part of the mesopleurae, three on the notopleurae, three above the

base of the wing, three on the postcalli, six pairs on the scutellum, all of which

are quite long. There are some finer, long, black bristles before the scutellum ;

the mesonotal pile is pale yellow with a few black hairs. Scutellum yellow,

with long, fine black bristly pile and yellow ventral fringe. Abdomen: Chiefly

brown to black, marked with a pair of large, basal and lateral brownish-yel-

low spots on the sides of the second segment, diffusely separated by brown in

the middle and on the sides of the third segment a pair of almost equally

large, basal, pale yellow spots widely separated by black in the middle. The

first segment is light brownish; the fourth segment is very dark brown, black

on the apical margin, the hypopygium yellow. The pile of the posterior third

of the the first segment and narrowly up its middle is black. The pile of the

third segment is black on almost the posterior half, on the black middle vitta,

and on a portion of the yellow on each side of this, and there is a narrow basal

fringe of black pile on this segment. The remainder of the yellow spots are

yellow pilose. Basal two-thirds of the pile of the fourth segment yellow, the

remainder black. Legs: Dark brown, the hind tibiae and tarsi and the anterior

tibiae and tarsi much darker, almost black, the pile of legs everywhere black.

Wings: costal and subcostal cells upon their basal half, first and second sub-

314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

basal cells yellowish. The marginal and submarginal cells are brownish. The

marginal cell is closed in the costa on one side, opened on the other.

Holotype: One male, received many years ago in some miscellaneous ma-

terial from Brazil, no further data.

Volucella azurina, n. sp.

Related to mexicana Macq. but equipped with four prescutellars and

scutellum with five pairs of heavy bristles. Related also to fuloicornis Bigot, —

but the face is dark brown, the abdomen is blue; there are also scutellar dif-

ferences, ete.

Female. Length 13mm. Head: Cheeks black, face and front and vertex red-

dish brown, the front a little darker. The face is considerably produced down-

ward and forward; the tubercle is moderately prominent, deeply excavated

above but continued almost straight downward from the tubercle to the epis-

toma. The pile of the face, front, and vertex is black, the face with considera-

ble whitish pubescence throughout but more extensive on the flattened area

below the antennae. The sides of the front are also whitish pubescent. The

antennae are orange-brown, the third joint about twice as long as wide, the

apical half a little narrower than the basal part, and a little darker dorsally

and apically; the arista is pale yellow, with 30 rays above. Thorax: Mesono-

tum and pleurae shining blackish, the former with slight purplish cast, the

sides of the mesonotum also dark. The pile of the entire thorax and scutel-

lum including its fringe is black with the exception of whitish pile on the

anterior portion of the mesopleurae, the humeri, and some in the anterior

middle of the mesonotum. The mesopleura has three rather long, heavy,

tuberculous black bristles, notopleura with five, base of wing with three,

postealli with five, and scutellum with six pairs. The scutellum itself is dark,

shining, mahogony, reddish brown. Abdomen: Very broad and rounded, the

disk only gently convex and entirely metallic, purplish black throughout

over which is a strong bluish reflection; its pile is black, dense, short, and

stubby upon second and third segments and much longer and sparser upon

the fourth segment. Legs: Black and black-pilose, the apex of the anterior

femora the base of their tibiae dark brown. Wings: Dark brown upon the

basal anterior half, including first and second basal cells and a slight marginal

area posterior to the latter and distal to the former. The marginal cell is well

closed, its apex not expanded.

Holotype: One male, Bonito, Brazil. Received several years ago in mis-

cellaneous material from Brazil, no further data.

Ceriogaster aureopila, n. sp.

Related to auricaudata Will., but the mesonotal sutures bordered with

short golden pile and without opaque black marginal spots. Apex of abdomen

appressed golden pilose. Scutellum blackish.

Female. Length 6.5 mm. Head: Eyes with a median transverse impressed

line just above the middle. Vertex blackish about ocelli behind the vertex

and occiput is metallic brassy black, which from an oblique view is yellow-

pollinose. The lower half of the front is more or less light yellowish-brown

pubescent. On each side of the bare facial carina is a narrow vertical stripe

of light-colored pubescence, and there is a similar one along the angular an-

terior margin of the cheek. Antennae elongate, the third joint three times as

long as the second, the entire antennae and arista pale yellowish brown.

Back of upper occiput with black spines. Thorax: A row of spines lies across

the anterior part of a mesonotum; just back of the spines is a dull, yellowish

JULY 15, 1941 BARBER: A NEW BAT. BUG old

transverse fascia of pubescence that appears almost golden in places and

throughout which arises some very short golden pile. The fascia is well inter-

rupted in the middle. There is a similar interrupted fascia lying along the

anterior suture continued down over the upper part of the mesopleura upon

its posterior margin. Just before the scutellum there is a more obscure fascia

or subtriangular spot. Scutellum dark black with very short black pile, the

posterior margin dull brassy. Abdomen: Club shaped, the first two segments

not greatly narrower than the decumbent club-shaped third and fourth seg-

ment. Sides of the first segment steel blue, becoming brassy at the extreme

margin. Second segment extensively black throughout the middle, with a

faint metallic luster, along the lateral margin becoming bright and coppery

and brassy. All the third and fourth segments golden with coppery luster,

except for a large, somewhat opaque, blackish triangle in the middle of

the second segment, the base of which lies along the posterior margin of

the segment. Pile of the last two segments flat, appressed, everywhere bright

golden, dense, and directed diagonally toward the midline from each anterior

corner. The middle pile, however, directed straight backward. Legs: Femora

dark brown, almost black on the basal half of the pair, with a somewhat me-

tallic luster that in places grows decidedly brassy. Pile of the legs everywhere

pale yellowish, except upon the anterior surface of the fore tibiae and all their

tarsi. Hind femora rather thickened, its ventral margin with a double row of

black spines, which reach almost from apex to base. Fore tarsi black and

rather flattened, the other tarsi and tibiae light yellowish brown, the hind

pair somewhat pale at base. Wzngs: Tinged with brown, the apical third ob-

liquely rather smoky, the stigmal cell smoky brown.

Holotype: One female, Barro Colorado, Panama. August 1938, F. M. Hull,

collector.

ENTOMOLOGY .—Description of a new bat bug (Hemiptera-Heter-

optera: Cimicidae).| Harry G. Barser, U. 8. Bureau of En-

tomology and Plant Quarantine.

Recently Drs. Glen M. Kohls and William L. Jellison, of the U.S.

Public Health Service at Hamilton, Mont., submitted for determina-

tion a number of specimens of a new bat bug which were collected in

the Ney Cave, near Hondo, Tex. With the permission of the collectors

a description of this new form is herewith presented.

Primicimex, n. gen.

Head longer, than wide, impunctate, somewhat longer than pronotum,

strongly convex and setose above and beneath; eyes small in both dorsal and

lateral view, projecting, remote from anterior angles of pronotum; tylus

broad; jugae short; antenniferous tubercles prominently visible from above;

maxillary lobes well developed; antenna with the first two elongate segments

incrassate, subequal, last two segments slender; rostrum short, stout, not

surpassing base of head. Pronotum longer than wide; anterior and posterior

margins concave, fringed with long setae; lateral and posterior edges nar-

rowly margined and fringed with long setae. Hemielytra orbicular, expanded

laterally, in contact behind scutellum, roughly rugose, surface and margins

with long setae. Scutellum wider than long. Abdomen of male asymmetrical;

1 Received May 10, 1941.

316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

aan §

ATE

} i i AN \ o | v k 4 Wii THK = ~!

Fig. 1.—Primicimex cavernis, n. gen. and sp.

left paramere forming a long, curved, acute process; right paramere aborted.

Metasternum elevated. Legs long mutic, setose; anterior femur more incras-

sate than other femora; all “tibiae long and gently curved.

Genotype.—Primicimex cavernis, n. sp.

Primicimex is apparently a primitive member of the Cimicidae, presenting

no close structural relationship to any known cimicid genera. The most re-

markable characteristics are the relatively long head, orbicular hemielytra,

and the elongated legs which resemble those of certain reduviids.

Primicimex cavernis, n. sp. Fig. 1

Color brownish; hemielytra and legs somewhat paler; last two segments of

antenna, rostrum, apex of scutellum, and tarsi stramineous. Body and ap-

pendages profusely setose. The setae are of two kinds, setiform on the ventral

parts and on the appendages, while most of those on the dorsum are cylindri-

cal, curved, very minutely serrate on the convex side, and with the apices

delicately spurred.

Head impunctate, shining, longer than wide (1.44 by 1.32 mm), strongly

transversely convex both dorsally and ventrally; preocular margins to apices

of antenniferous tubercles 0.28 mm. long, slightly diverging anteriorly,

shorter than postocular margins, which gradually diverge posteriorly; setae

longer and denser beneath; eyes relatively small, viewed dorsally about one-

third longer than wide, seen laterally but little higher than wide; tylus broad,

a little wider anteriorly and widest just before the middle, subtruncate at

apex, strongly transversely convex; jugae short, apposed to sides of tylus and

JuLY 15, 1941 BARBER: A NEW BAT BUG 3L7

extended anteriorly nearly as far as apices of antenniferous tubercles; an-

tenniferous tubercles broad and short, obliquely truncate at apices; base of

labrum visible from above; maxillary lobes extended anteriorly from apices

of jugae to just beyond apex of tylus, the edges fringed with short setae; two

long, erect setae on each side of head, one before front line of eyes, midway

between these and tylus, the other lateral, behind eye. Antenna rather long,

about one-third longer than head and pronotum conjoined; first two seg-

ments incrassate, with short, inclined setae, basal segment porrect, slightly

curved, a little shorter and wider than second, extended beyond apex of head

by more than half of its length; last two segments much more slender, fili-

form, sparsely and finely setose, terminal segment shortest, gradually and

slightly expanded apically, appearing truncate at apex; lengths of the respec-

tive segments as follows: I, 1.00; II, 1.12; III, 1.44; and IV, 0.80 mm. Ros-

trum short, stout, nearly or quite attaining base of head, second segment

slightly longer than basal segment, terminal segment short.

Pronotum nearly one-third wider than long, subshining, impuncate, rather

strongly transversely convex, densely long setose; anterior and posterior

margins concavely emarginate, lateral margin gently and almost evenly

rounded; lateral and posterior submargins deeply and narrowly impressed,

the external edges roundly elevated, forming calloused margins; the curved

setae along margins as well as those on anterior region longer than elsewhere

on surface. Scutellum triangular, wider than long, disk rather flat, margins

defiexed, apex bluntly rounded. Hemielytra orbicular, opaque, roughly ru-

gose, surface with rounded shallow pits, exposed margins densely fringed

with long curved setae, the surface with shorter curved setae.

Abdomen broadly oval, asymmetrical posteriorly in the male; tergites

closely rugose punctate, covered with short reeumbent setae, in the male the

setae along the margins as well as on the surface much longer and more erect;

terminal segment densely set with long setae; left paramere long, gently

curved, falciform, grooved along upper face; right paramere aborted. Meta-

sternum elevated. Legs long, densely covered with short, recumbent setae,

tibiae gently curved, hispidlike, and faintly conspurcated. Anterior femur

shorter and more incrassate than other femora, concave below toward base,

lower surface as well as coxa and trochanter beneath densely setose; anterior

tibia shorter than femur, with a padlike calcarium at apex; anterior tarsus

nearly half as long as tibia, basal segment short, terminal slightly longer than

intermediate segment, claws well developed; intermediate femur a little

shorter than tibia; posterior femur longer than other femora, tibia longer than

femur. Length of male, 10 mm.

Type material.—Type, male, from Ney Bat Cave, near Hondo, Tex., col-

lected on October 14, 1940, by Drs. Glen H. Kohls and William L. Jellison.

Collection No. A. P. 17258.

Paratypes, 2 males, 11 females, and numerous nymphs, with same data.

Type and paratypes in the U. 8. National Museum (no. 55230). Paratypes

in the laboratory of the U. S. Public Health Service, Hamilton, Mont. One

paratype, female, same locality, February 5, 1939, no. 17798, collected by

K. E. Stager, Allan Hancock Foundation, University of Southern California.

Remarks.—Dr. Kohls writes that “the Ney Cave harbored a very large

colony of the Mexican free-tailed bat, Tadarida mexicana (Saussure). The

bugs were not actually collected from the bats but were found on the guano

and rocks on the floor and also on the walls near the entrance, as well as back

in the farther recesses of the cave where the rocks were wet and the atmos-

phere approaching saturation.”’

318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 7

ARCHEOLOGY .—Prehistoric Eskimo harpoon heads from Bering

Strait.| Henry B. Couuins, Jr., Bureau of American Eth-

nology.

The harpoon with which the Eskimos capture seals, walruses, and

other marine mammals is a complicated device consisting of a wooden

shaft, a detachable head of bone or ivory, and a foreshaft, socket-

piece, and ice pick of the same materials. Regional differences may be

observed in all parts of the harpoon, but especially in the detachable

head, which strikes and holds the quarry. Because of their complex

form and the many developmental changes they have undergone in

the past, harpoon heads have proved to be extremely useful in deter-

mining culture sequences in the Eskimo area.

On the basis of material excavated from five old village sites of

different ages on St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, the writer has described

the harpoon heads of the Old Bering Sea, the oldest Eskimo culture of

which we have full knowledge, and traced their development into the

Punuk, protohistoric, and modern stages. Among the specimens found

at the oldest site (the Hillside site) was a broken harpoon head (Fig. 6)

that did not fall into any of the established types. On the chance that

it might have been an individual variation of no typological signifi-

cance, it was described and illustrated but was not included in the

classification (Collins, 1937, p. 107, pl. 23, fig. 8). Later, when exam-

ining archeological material collected in 1926 by Dr. Diamond Jenness

on Little Diomede Island in Bering Strait, the writer saw four more

harpoon heads of this type. The fact that they were deeply patinated

and different in form from any known modern or prehistoric Diomede

type suggested that they were older than the other objects in the

collection. The same type of harpoon head has been found in con-

siderable numbers at Okvik, an old buried site discovered by Otto W.

Geist, of the University of Alaska, on Punuk Island, off the eastern

end of St. Lawrence Island, and it appears again at the old Ipiutak

site at Point Hope on the Arctic coast discovered in 1939 by Dr. F. G.

Rainey of the same institution (Rainey, 1941).

The Ipiutak, Okvik, and Hillside sites are the oldest thus far dis-

covered in the Eskimo area. Unlike most old Eskimo settlements,

they were completely buried and were unknown to the local Eskimos.

Ipiutak is culturally the most divergent and seemingly the earliest of

the three sites. It lacks certain features common to the other two and

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived May 1, 1941.

JuLy 15, 1941 COLLINS: PREHISTORIC ESKIMO HARPOON HEADS 319

in addition has a number of unique elements. On the other hand, a

definite cultural interrelationship between the three sites is indicated

by close correspondences in some of the implements and in the style

of art, which the writer has described as Old Bering Sea style 1

(Collins, 1937, pp. 40-47, 53-56). The occurrence of this particular

type of harpoon head and of Old Bering Sea style 1 art on Little

Diomede Island points to the existence of the same early stage of

Eskimo culture at Bering Strait, midway between St. Lawrence

Island and Point Hope. The harpoon heads referred to are clearly

one of the oldest known Eskimo types, and as such it seems de-

sirable that they should be described.

Photographs of three of the Diomede Island specimens, kindly

furnished by Dr. Diamond Jenness, of the National Museum of Can-

ada, are shown in Figs. 1-8. Drawings of another Diomede head ap-

pear in Fig. 4. These four harpoon heads, and a fifth fragmentary

specimen of the same type not illustrated, were excavated by Eskimos

and sold to Dr. Jenness. Consequently depth records are lacking. It

seems unlikely, however, that they came from the upper levels of the

midden, for Dr. Jenness’s own excavations there revealed only modern

and late prehistoric types (Jenness, 1928, pp. 75-76). Moreover, none

of these later types of harpoon heads or of the many other artifacts

of similar age dug up by the Eskimos that I have examined are pati-

nated to the extent of the specimens here described.

The harpoon head from the Hillside site, St. Lawrence Island, is

shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 5 illustrates another head of the same type that

the writer purchased from an Eskimo on St. Lawrence Island. Though

its exact provenience is unknown it may have come from Okvik, the

old Punuk Island site, as it is identical with those that Geist collected

there.

Material.—All the specimens here described are of walrus ivory

except that shown in Fig. 4, which is of bone. The original white of

the ivory has been altered to various shades of yellowish brown (Figs.

1, 5), deep chocolate-brown (Figs. 4, 6), or gray (Fig. 3).

Shape.—Though possessing structural features that bring them into

relationship with Old Bering Sea heads in general, these old Diomede

and St. Lawrence examples do not exhibit the smooth finish and care-

ful workmanship characteristic of other types of that period. They

are crude and heavy in appearance and thick in cross section, with

the two wider surfaces relatively flat. In contrast, other Old Bering

Sea and later types are more graceful in outline, usually thinner in

cross section, or, if relatively thick, have more rounded contours. The

320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 7

side opposite the basal spur, instead of being beveled to an edge as

usual, is flat and 1 to 1.3 ems wide. Only the upper edge, near the tip,

is beveled.

Socket.—One of the features that distinguishes these harpoon heads

from later types is the form of the open socket in which the upper end

of the foreshaft rested. The socket is very wide and relatively shallow,

and the walls have a slight outward flare, partly as a consequence of

‘the floor being somewhat concave instead of flat. Also unusual are the

deep parallel striations on the socket floor left by the cutting tool.

These are clearly visible on all the specimens, though the drawing

(Fig. 4, right) does not show them.

Beginning with this earliest known form, the open socket underwent

a series of changes in prehistoric and protohistoric times (Collins,

1937, pp. 114, 210, 213-214). The Old Bering Sea heads exhibit the

same general type of socket—wide and shallow with concave floor

and slightly flaring walls—though in somewhat less extreme form.

The oldest harpoon heads from Cook Inlet also have unusually wide

sockets, which, however, are rounded rather than squared off at the

upper end (de Laguna, 1934, pl. 38). In the succeeding prehistoric

stages (Birnirk, Punuk, Thule) the socket becomes much narrower

and deeper, with vertical sides and, on St. Lawrence Island, a flat

floor. In protohistoric times the socket became triangular in cross

section, the walls slanting inward to such an extent that the foreshaft

remained in place without the aid of a lashing.

In one of the Diomede heads (Fig. 4) a narrow ivory wedge was in-

serted in the upper end of the socket to prevent the foreshaft from

breaking through to the line hole.

Lashing slot and groove-—The foreshaft was held in place by a lash-

ing, which passed through a narrow slot with a connected groove. The

latter is deeper, narrower, and more carelessly made than most lashing

grooves. This lashing arrangement of a single slot and an opposite

groove 1s characteristic of some of the Birnirk and protohistoric types.

It is rarely found on Old Bering Sea heads, which usually have two

lashing slots.

A characteristic feature of the old Diomede and St. Lawrence heads

is the sunken area just below the line hole on the side opposite the

socket (see especially Figs. 2 and 5). The lashing groove crosses this

sunken area and joins the slot, which thus emerges from under a pro-

jecting ledge.. The ledge, continuing downward and curving inward,

becomes part of the basal spur. An inward projection of the upper

part of the spur is a feature often seen on Old Bering Sea heads, both

JULY 15, 1941

COLLINS: PREHISTORIC ESKIMO HARPOON HEADS

321

; 6, St. Lawrence

s81Ze.

5, St. Lawrence Island

Two-thirds natural

g Strait

sland, Ber

, Punuk Island.

iomede I

1-4, Little D

site, Gambell)

Island (Hillside

Figs. 1-7.—Prehistoric harpoon heads

322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 31, NO. 7

of the open and closed socket types (Collins, 1937, pl. 23, figs. 4, 5, 12;

ple 24 igs 2 lo oe lO pl. 2 hes.09—)-

Spur.—As in the case of most other Old Bering Sea heads, the basal

spur is irregular. The most elaborate form is that shown in Figs. 4

and 5, with five and four separate prongs respectively. This is the

form of spur that is found on the comparable harpoon heads from

Okvik and Ipiutak. The other Diomede specimens (Figs. 1-3) lack

definite prongs, the irregularity being effected by beveling. In Figs.

1 and 2 the spur is wedge-shaped at the tip.

Line hole.-—With the exception of the example shown in Fig. 4 the

line holes are somewhat larger than usual, averaging about 8 mm in

diameter. One of the St. Lawrence heads (Fig. 5) differs from the

others in having the line hole square and cut out rather than drilled.

In the other examples the line holes are circular, having been made

with a hand drill. In all cases the edges of the hole are beveled.

A characteristic feature is a crude decoration of deeply incised lines

forming a triangular area just above the line hole. Sometimes, as in

Figs. 1-8, this roughened triangular area is sunken.

Upper end.—The terminal blade slit is sometimes in the plane of the

line hole (Figs. 1, 4, 5), sometimes at right angles to it (Figs. 2, 6). In

Fig. 3, as so often on Old Bering Sea heads, there are two deep slots

for side blades just below the tip (not visible in the illustration) ; there

was no end blade. The specimen illustrated in 1 is unique in that

it had both side blades and an end blade.

Decoration.—The incised designs, though meager and crude, are

not without significance. The arrangement of three pairs of radiating

or converging lines above the line hole and on the upper part of the

spur of Fig. 5, while very simple as a decorative device, is one of the

commonest motives of Old Bering Sea style 1 from St. Lawrence,

Punuk, and Diomede Islands (Collins, 1937, fig. 6 (10), p. 47; fig. 8,

p. 53; pl. 13, fig. 7; pl. 14, fig. 5. . Collins, 1940) pl IeAeasahie ss:

Rainey, 1937, p. 604, harpoon head at upper right. Rainey, 1941,

p. 154, harpoon head at right). Still simpler but equally diagnostic of

Old Bering Sea style 1 are the pairs of short detached lines seen on the

spur of one of the Diomede heads (Fig. 3) and above the line hole on

another (Fig. 4. For other examples see Rainey, 1937, p. 604, and

Collins, 1987, fig. 6 (1), p. 47; pl. 12, fig. 8; pl. 14, fig. 5). Other designs

are deeply incised lines (Fig. 6), small T-shaped figures (Fig. 3), and

lines with spurs attached (Fig. 2).

In Fig. 4 the decoration consists of an ordered arrangement of

deeply incised lines either detached or attached as spurs to bordering

JuLty 15, 1941 COLLINS: PREHISTORIC ESKIMO HARPOON HEADS 323

lines. Viewed from the sides to right and left of the socket (Fig. 4,

center) the lines appear to radiate from a center, producing an effect

similar to that of the converging lines referred to above. These lines,

together with others just below them, combine to form a design sug-

gestive of a human face. The ornamentation as a whole, with its

deeply incised short lines and oblique spurs and its schematic repre-

sentation of a human face, somewhat resembles prehistoric Dorset art

from the Hudson Bay area (Jenness, 1925, fig. 9; Mathiassen, 1927,

pl. 62).

The harpoon head shown in Fig. 7 is structurally unrelated to the

type described above or to any other thus far known. It was excavated

by the writer from the base of the 16-foot midden on Punuk Island.

The depth at which it lay, its unusual form and ornamentation, and

its deep patination are all suggestive of considerable age, even though

we can not definitely assign it to any known period.

The material is walrus ivory. Like the Diomede specimen illus-

trated in Fig. 3, it is gray, a color rarely seen on old ivory.

The lower end is beveled at a 45° angle, and into this sloping sur-

face the foreshaft socket was cut. The socket is enclosed and, unlike

any other thus far known, is triangular in shape. It is very shallow,

with a depth of only 1 em at the lower, wider end and 3 mm at the

upper. The line hole is oval and is placed laterally because of the

presence of a prominent median ridge on both sides. On the socket

side the tip was cut down to provide a bed for an end blade. On the

opposite side is a deep narrow groove for the lashing that held the

blade in place. This form of blade attachment is found on harpoon

heads from Southampton Island in Hudson Bay but not elsewhere in

the Eskimo area (Boas, 1901, fig. 87; Mathiassen, 1927, pl. 74, fig. 1).

On either edge just below the line groove is a shallow depression,

possibly a residual slot for a side blade.

Ornamentation consists of arandom arrangement of straight lines,

lines with spurs attached, and crosses. Both sides are decorated, but

the surface is so worn that the designs on the socket side are barely

visible. The decoration as a whole bears little resemblance to Eskimo

art, though the spurred line is a characteristic Eskimo element. In its

lack of an organized design it resembles some of the cruder examples

of Old Bering Sea style 1. The writer has pointed out that the rather

simple and diffuse ornamentation of style 1, with its emphasis on short-

detached lines and spurred lines, bears a closer resemblance to Paleo-

lithic and Mesolithic geometric art, which was equally simple and

variable, than to later styles in either America or Eurasia (Collins,

324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 7

1937, pp. 294-296; 1940, pp. 585-586). In the case of the harpoon

head shown in Fig. 7, the resemblance is even closer, both with respect

to the individual elements and their arrangement. Whatever this may

mean—and too much weight should not be attached to a single speci-

men—it is almost certainly pre-Old Bering Sea and in all probability

one of the oldest Eskimo harpoon heads known.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Boas, Franz. The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.

Hist. 15. 1901.

Couuins, Henry B., Jr. Archeology of St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Smithsonian

Misc. Coll. 96(1). 1937.

Outline of Eskimo prehistory. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 100: 533-592. 1940.

JENNESS, Diamonp. Archeological investigations in Bering Strait. Nat. Mus. Canada

Bull. 50: 71-80. 1928.

. A new Eskimo culture in Hudson Bay. Geogr. Rev. 15(8): 428-487. 1925

DE Laguna, FrEpERICA. The archeology of Cook Inlet, Alaska. 1984.

MaATHIASSEN, THERKEL. Archeology of the central Eskimos. Rep. 5th Thule Exped.,

1921-24, 10(1). 1927.

Rainey, FrRoEticH G. Old Eskimo art. Nat. Hist. 40(3): 603-607. 1937.

. Mystery people of the Arctic. Nat. Hist. 42(3): 148-155. 1941

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

305TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 305th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on Thursday, April 17, 1941, with President

A. H. Cuark presiding. The program consisted of a series of illustrated re-

ports on various phases of the 1940 South American Eclipse Expedition spon-

sored by the National Geographic Society and the National Bureau of

Standards, as follows:

The 1940 National Geographic Society—National Bureau of Standards

Eclipse Expedition, by IrvinE C. GARDNER, National Bureau of Standards.

The 1940 flash spectrum, by Cart C. Kiuss, National Bureau of Standards.

Sky brightness at Patos, Brazil, 1940, by Epwarp O. HuLBurt, U.S. Naval

Research Laboratory.

Ionosphere observations at the 1940 eclipse, by THEODORE R. GILLILAND,

National Bureau of Standards.

Because of his unexpected absence, the scheduled contribution on A photo-

grap hic determination of the time of contact during a total solar eclipse, by PAUL

A. McNAtty, s. J., Georgetown University, was not given. Following the

regular program, Dr. GARDNER presented some colored motion pictures of

South American life and scenery.

There were about 75 persons present. The meeting adjourned at 10:00 Pp. M.

for a social hour.

FrRepERICK D. Rossint, Secretary.

CONTENTS

GropHysics.—Heat energy from radioactive sources in the earth,

Worm D,-UBRY 2005370 Oe ee i ee

CHEMIsTRY.—The use of chloroform to accelerate cyanogenesis 1m the art

analysis of cyanogenetic plants.. J. F. Coucn and R. R. Briese. 285

PALEONTOLOGY.—Paleocene mammals from the Denver Basin, Colo-

rado. _C. Lewis GAZIN....... odie aioe ie piece 8 tar oa se ee ee eee

PuHyToPATHOLOGY.—An evaluation of the results of treatments given

narcissus bulbs for the control of the nematode Dzrtylenchus dip-

saci (Kiihn) Filipjev. B.G. Currwoop and F.S. Buanton.... 296

MycoLoey.—On argrem polyhedron (Schw.) Morgan. G. W. Mar-

PIN ieee pede Neu er ee vaatrccies Ge age 0 ar

ENTOMOLOGY.—Some new species of Syrphidae from South America. |

Frank M. Huuu......... BPN ages o ee ee

ENtToMoLoGy.—Description of a new bat bug (Hemiptera-Heterop-

tera: €imicidae). Harry G. BARBER:........:5:..4-2 0659 ee ee

ARcHEOLOGY.—Prehistoric Eskimo harpoon heads from Bering Strait. :

Henry B. Coiuins, JR........- Bre SE ervey ee ek!

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY ¢ vi on bs i cb ee os eee

This Journal] is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

324

Aveust 15, 1941 No. 8

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BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 31 Aveust 15, 1941 No. 8

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.—Physical reflections in a chemical mir-

ror R. E. Gipson, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institu-

tion of Washington.

Since it is a long-established custom in this Society that the retiring

president give an address on some branch of natural philosophy with

which he is acquainted at first hand or to which he has actually made

contributions, I shall speak tonight about the physical chemistry of

solutions. Superficially, a solution is the simplest result we know of

the interaction of unlike species of matter and may be defined as fol-

lows. When two or more different substances are mixed, we frequently

find that a mass is produced that is homogeneous to all macroscopic

criteria, whose properties are somewhere intermediate between those

of the original components, and from which these components may

be recovered by relatively simple operations. Such a mass is called a

solution: physically, it acts as a single phase of matter; chemically,

its composition is continuously variable within wide limits, a fact that

distinguishes it from the orthodox chemical compound.

Although solutions may be solids, liquids, or gases, liquid solutions

have claimed most of our attention because of the fact that matter

occurs in a relatively dense, readily confinable, but highly mobile form

in liquids. Their external mobility, which permits their easy transfer

from place to place, and their internal mobility, which makes them

highly convenient media for chemical reactions, have given liquids a

unique place in the dynamic phases of matter and life.

The main problems connected with a study of solutions seem rather

simple and may be stated in the form of the following questions:

(1) How can we predict exactly the properties and behavior of a solu-

tion from a knowledge of those of its components? (2) What character-

istics of a solid and a liquid cause the former to dissolve in the latter?

How is solubility influenced by pressure, temperature, and other dis-

_ 7 Address of the retiring president of the Philosophical Society of Washington de-

livered at the 1176th meeting of the Society, January 18, 1941. Received July 5, 1941.

325

326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 31, No. 8

solved substances? (3) What types of interaction take place among

the molecules of different species intimately mixed in a solution; what

deductions about these interactions can we make from observations

on solutions and conversely; how do these interactions foreshadow

profounder changes that may occur subsequently in the solutions?

Answers to these questions, which really represent particular phases

of the general problem of molecular interaction, might enable us to

understand the processes going on in the vast solutions that lie around

us in the oceans, below us, transporting materials within the earth, and

within us, giving us nourishment and forming an essential link in that

complex chain of processes we call life. Through the medium of solu-

tions in water, the soul of man finds expression in the creation of

beauty or the search for truth, and only through the same media can

he appreciate these achievements. There is no doubt of our conscious

or unconscious familiarity with solutions. From a more objective

point you are well acquainted with solution phenomena; you have

all seen salt or sugar dissolve in water; some of you may have studied

more complex solutions such as those of alcohol, sugar, and water;

you may have been struck by the mystery of a rigid, massive solid

being reduced to a state of mobility by mere contact with a liquid;

you may have wondered what happened to the solid. So have many

hundreds of generations of men before you. Each generation has con-

tributed to our knowledge of the phenomena of solutions, has added

some new facts, and each generation has tried to explain these facts.

Unfortunately, each generation has been better at discovery than at

explanation—has raised more problems than it has solved—and each

generation has outgrown the simpler explanations it inherited. The

study of solutions has now grown to be very complex; an exact de-

scription of the large body of facts that has been accumulated about

the properties of solutions in terms of a few simple postulates, in short,

a theory of solutions, suffers from the same evil that besets all gen-

eralizations about phenomena close to our everyday lives. We know

too much about the facts to be satisfied with theories based on simple

abstractions and too little to trace the guiding clues through their

manifold complexities or to handle simultaneously the many variables

that must be considered. From the point of view of a lecturer to a

general audience, therefore, the subject I wish to discuss tonight is

in a very unsatisfactory state. My problem has been to distill from

the mass of material available some thoughts on the subject that

might be condensed into the space of one lecture and still be of inter-

est to you.

Aue. 15,1941 GIBSON: PHYSICAL REFLECTIONS IN A CHEMICAL MIRROR 327

THE HISTORICAL APPROACH TO COMPLICATED PROBLEMS

In the first verse of the fifty-first chapter of the Book of Isaiah,

you will find the words ‘‘Hearken to me, ye that follow after righteous-

ness, ye that seek the Lord: look unto the rock whence ye are hewn,

and to the hole of the pit whence ye are digged.” I have always been

fascinated by this passage in which Isaiah exhorts us to make or re-

new the acquaintance of our intellectual ancestry, to seek an under-

standing of things as they are from a deeper knowledge of how they

came to be so, and I think that we may apply this thought with profit

to such a complex problem as the theory of solutions.

I wish, however, to digress a moment and call your attention to

some thoughts of a general nature that are suggested by Isaiah’s ex-

hortation. It is quite certain that even in their wildest dreams neither

the prophet nor his hearers ever imagined that men could spend their

lives in the pursuit of what we call Science, and yet his words and the

very figures of speech employed are so happy in their application to

natural philosophers that I would advocate their inscription on the

walls of all places where scientific research is fostered. Consider the

phrase “look to the rock whence ye are hewn.” Does it not imply a

high degree of permanence in the system of which we are a part? Does

it not imply an association in something much more fundamental and

lasting than ourselves? It is interesting to compare this thought with

that expressed by Wordsworth and familiar to all readers of ‘“‘Na-

ture’’:

To the solid ground

Of Nature trusts the mind that builds for aye.

We have assurance that this is not just poetic fancy from the re-

searches of one of the greatest scholars in the history of science, for

George Sarton has stated as his considered opinion that ‘scientific

activity is the only human activity that is obviously and undoubtedly

cumulative and progressive.’’? To continue the metaphor, each chip

hewn from the rock is a step toward the final statue. We see the image

more clearly and hew our chips more intelligently because of the work

done by our ancestors. In other words, scientific progress is the one

thing we can bequeath to posterity that will not be nibbled at by

inheritance taxes on personal reputations, annihilated by the infla-

tions or deflations of fluctuating fashions and taste, or squandered by

carelessness or indifference. |

Dignified as the metaphor of the rock may be, the exhortation to

“look to the pit whence ye are digged”’ is even more appealing to

2 Sarton, G. The history of science and the new humanism, p. 24. New York, 1931.

328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

chemists and biologists and others who work in the messier regions of

science. The metaphor implies a humble origin, an intimate contact

with the soil of life, a certain amount of monotonous drudgery, a pain-

ful groping and digging in an a most boundless quarry for something

we do not even know to be there, a laborious sifting of the gold from

the dross. It also carries a warning that even when the nugget of truth

is found, it will be contaminated with the dirt of irrelevancy or error.

The broadened outlook on scientific problems that comes to many

of us most easily through a background of historical knowledge,

through looking into “‘the pit whence we are digged,” is so valuable

that I think at least one member of each of the scientific departments

of our large graduate schools should be versed in this aspect of his

subject. I do not advocate that the memories of graduate students

already burdened with a heavy technical load should be made to carry

an extra weight of names and dates, but that there should be someone

to stimulate them to ask: Where did this idea come from, how did

this theory arise? Habits of thought so stimulated can make several

significant contributions to the intellectual equipment of research

workers. In the first place, even a moderate familiarity with the his-

torical development of our own or cognate fields enables us to put

ourselves into the frame of mind of the masters who made the great

advances in the past. If we take the trouble to understand their back-

ground, the problems as they saw them, the ideas available to them

and the sources of these ideas, we can trace their steps through the

arguments leading to important conclusions and try to emulate them.

Glimpses of the turning points where they hesitated and the reasons

that led them to prefer one road to the others are probably more

valuable to the research student than the great discoveries them-

selves that now form an integral part of recorded science.

Secondly, I think we can gain the confidence that comes from a per-

spective of our subject, a perspective that enables us to differentiate

between apparent difficulties that arise from elaboration of simple

principles and real difficulties that arise from lack of principles or ab-

sence of a trustworthy logic for handling simultaneously the numerous

variables of a complicated problem. An interesting result of even a

superficial study of this sort is the realization that the intrinsically

mysterious parts of physics, chemistry, or biology are not the theo-

ries but the phenomena presented by nature and observed by experi-

ment. What the mind of one man can invent, that of another can

grasp, granted that the proper effort is made and that the theory is

not purely fantastic; but we must still agree with Hamlet that “there

Ralph E. Gibson, retiring president of the Philosophical Society of Washington

AuG. 15, 1941 GIBSON: PHYSICAL REFLECTIONS IN A CHEMICAL MIRROR 329

are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamed of in our

philosophy.” The basic ideas, the concepts, and the hypotheses on

which the theories of physics and chemistry are based were drawn

originally from every-day experience and are very limited in number;

for example, pushing with a stick (waves) and throwing stones (par-

ticles) are the only mechanisms we can imagine for action at a dis-

tance. As a science develops, the concepts and hypotheses are refined

and modified in the light of the new specialized experience, with the

result that the very foundations of a theory become somewhat re-

moved from every-day experience, and the beginner is confronted

with difficulties that are not lessened by the limitations of our vocabu-

lary. An excursion into the past leading to a knowledge of where these

ideas came from and how they grew helps greatly in removing these

obstacles.

An unnecessary source of difficulty in the theoretical phases of sci-

ence is the natural and, in some ways, laudable passion for elegance

on the part of some thinkers. In constructing their theories these men

start from current ideas, explore and reject many possibilities, and

frequently achieve success by an inspired guess which is justified a

posteriorz by rigorous means. When their theory is finished, they pro-

ceed to polish it, to obliterate the traces of fumbling, to revise and

refine the basic ideas and, in short, they end by presenting a picture

that is most satisfying to one who is already familiar with the result

but that is baffling to the unsophisticated. The nugget of truth is so

carefully polished that all traces of the pit are removed. One can not

condemn this desire, but one can deplore the loss of those revealing

intermediate steps that might have meant so much to the neophyte.

Iam convinced that the difficulty that most chemists and many physi-

cists encounter in learning mathematics arises from this source. The

subject has been worked over by many generations of mathematicians

who have not only polished out the marks of the chisel but have also

surrounded the rock with the cloud of generality and covered it with

the moss of rigor.

In the light of a historical survey, we may also see that many of the

controversies between seemingly rival theories arose largely from the

fact that the antagonists, working on different aspects of the same

complex problem, derived their basic ideas from different backgrounds

of experience. I shall illustrate this later by the so-called physical and

chemical theories of solutions. Human limitations have forced us to

split up the study of nature into different fields. While organizers, ad-

ministrators, and others who can not function without labels have

330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 8

made the most of this classification, it is one which the true natural

philosopher will never cease to fight. The history of science is full of

examples of great advances that came from the transfer of ideas from

one field to another: Kekulé advanced organic chemistry because he

had been an architect; Faraday made some of his greatest contribu-

tions to physics because he was also a chemist. Frequently a satisfac-

tory theory of complex phenomena can be developed only when con-

cepts and hypotheses from several of the arbitrary divisions of science

are combined.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOME IDEAS USED

IN THE THEORY OF SOLUTIONS

In asking you now to accompany me in taking a few fleeting glances -

into the pit whence our modern theories of solutions have been digged,

I want first to indicate one general conclusion for your guidance. We

shall see that the subject is not so narrow as might appear at first

sight, because, in their attempts to understand the highly complex

problems presented by solutions, investigators have pressed into their

service all the physical and chemical ideas available to them in their

age. Consequently, the story of the development of the theory of solu-

tions is a mirror in which we see reflected the advances in physical and

chemical thought of all the ages, and I have borrowed this figure of

speech with modifications from P. Walden’ to serve as the title of this

agree Early Physical Theories

Somewhat arbitrarily, I shall begin this story in the first half of

the seventeenth century A.D., not because the speculations made prior

to that time lacked interest—in some ways they are the most inter-

esting part of the subject—but because this period marks the begin-

ning of a radical departure from the use of purely anthropomorphic

ideas to the introduction of ideas culled from analyzed experience by

students of the infant science of physics and the embryo science of

chemistry. Up to this time the phenomena of solubility, especially of

solids, had been explained in terms of the Doctrine of Affinity or the

attraction of closely related materials. A liquid dissolved a solid be-

cause something in the solid was closely related to the liquid and

wanted to be with it. The introduction of new ideas may be illustrated

by a quotation from Robert Boyle’ written in 1663 which sums up

one advanced school of thought at that period:

3 WALDEN, P. Die Lésungstheorien in ihrer geschichtlichen Aufeinanderfolge, p. 3.

Stuttgart, 1910. —

4 Boyie,R. Essay entitled ‘“‘Of the Producibleness of Chymical Principles’ (1663).

See The Works of Robert Boyle, London, 1772.

Ave. 15, 1941 GIBSON: PHYSICAL REFLECTIONS IN A CHEMICAL MIRROR 331

These two objections I thought fit to couch together, to be able, in fewer words, to

answer them both: I considered then, that amalgamation being, in effect, but a kind of

dissolution of metals in a menstrum or fluid body (for such mercury is, in reference to

them), there is no necessity, that the solvent should find in the metal a copious ingredi-

ent just of its own nature; for dissolution depends not so much upon the pretended

cognation between the solvent and the body it is to work on, as upon congruity, as to

size and figure, between the pores of the latter and the corpuscles of the former.

Sixteen years earlier, Pierre Gassendi> (1592-1655) had given a simi-

lar atomistic theory of solutions. He held that all matter was made

up of atoms or molecules that had characteristic sizes, shapes, and

weights. When these atoms were packed together to give a solid or

liquid, small interstices or pores remained, and when a salt dissolved

in water it merely occupied the pores in the water, the solution be-

coming saturated when all the pores were filled. The shapes of the

corpuscles of matter were inferred from their crystalline forms; thus

common salt had cubic corpuscles, and this argued the presence of

cubic pores in water; alum had octahedral corpuscles, and it was con-

cluded that there were octahedral pores in the water. Lack of solubil-

ity indicated the absence of pores of the proper shape.

The French philosopher N. Lemery® also developed ideas of the

same type. By the middle of the seventeenth century, therefore, physi-

cists were using ideas about the nature of solutions that are current

today, the corpuscular nature of matter and the geometrical ideas of

packing. The atomic nature of matter was firmly embedded in their

thinking, a fact that is not surprising in view of the material available.

In their speculations about matter they had two, and only two, al-

ternatives based on analogy with every-day experience to choose from.

Kither matter resembled a liquid, such as water, and was continuous,

1.e., divisible without any limit, or it resembled a heap of unbreakable

stones, i.e., was atomic in nature. Those philosophers who studied the

phenomena of solutions could not bring themselves to believe that two

continuous bodies, such as salt and water, could intermingle with such

ease, and for this and other cogent reasons they had to reject the con-

tinuous theory of matter and adopt the only other possible choice.

With the rock-pile hypothesis, the interstices or pores must, of course,

go, and the step from this to geometrical relationships and the packing

together of bodies is a short one. The hypothesis of pores or voids in

liquids was strengthened somewhat later by the observations of

Bishop Watson’ and of Reaumur® that a contraction occurred when

® GASSENDI, PIERRE. Opera Florentiae, 1684. See Meuuor, J. W. A Comprehensive

treatise on inorganic and theoretical chemistry, vol. 1, p. 574, London, 1922.

® Lemery, N. Cours de chymie, Leyden, 1716. See WALDEN, op. cit., p. 25.

OW Aasony tu) hile rans) 5932354 lez!

8 REAuMUR. See WALDEN, op. cit., p. 28.

302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 8

many pairs of liquids were mixed. These we might call the physical

or mechanical theories of the Age of Boyle.

Early Chemical Theories

There were other notable investigators who even in the eighteenth

century rejected this purely mechanical picture of the phenomenon

of solution and held that solution represented a union between the

solvent and the solute (F. Hoffmann, 1722), or implied a definite rela-

tionship (affinity) and similarity between the solvent and the dis-

solved substance (Stahl). Still another worker (Digby, 1603-1665)

suggested that when a salt dissolves in water, each particle of salt

incorporates with itself at least one particle of water, an intimate

union suggestive of the hydrate theories that are still used.

These were chemical theories of the Age of Boyle and are mentioned

here chiefly to introduce the rivalry between the so-called chemical

and mechanical or physical theories of solutions that has persisted al-

most to this day.

Physical Theories of the Eighteenth Century—Influence of Newton

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, new ideas were intro-

duced into the theory of solutions that reflected the tremendous ad-

vances in physics that marked the preceding 25 years. Newton’s

studies in optics, particularly of the phenomena of refraction and

double refraction, led him to speculate on the nature of the interaction

of light and matter and, incidentally, the nature of matter in general

and of solutions in particular. I quote the following passages from

Part I, Book 3, of Newton’s Opticks, published in 1704.°

Quest. 31. Have not the small Particles of Bodies certain Powers, Virtues or Forces,

by which they act at a distance, not only upon the Rays of Light for reflecting, refract-

ing, and inflecting them, but also upon one another for producing a great Part of the

Phenomena of Nature? For it’s well known, that Bodies act one upon another by the

Attractions of Gravity, Magnetism, and Electricity; and these instances shew the

Tenor and Course of Nature, and make it not improbable but that there may be more

attractive Powers than these. For Nature is very consonant and conformable to her-

self. How these Attractions may be perform’d, I do not here consider. What I call At-

traction may be perform’d by impulse, or by some other means unknown to me. I

use that Word here to signify only in general any Force by which Bodies tend towards

one another, whatsoever be the Cause. For we must learn from the Phenomena of Na-

ture what Bodies attract one another, and what are the Laws and Properties of the

Attraction, before we enquire the Cause by which the Attraction is perform’d. The

Attractions of Gravity, Magnetism, and Electricity, reach to very sensible distances,

and so have been observed by vulgar Eyes, and there may be others which reach to so

small distances as hitherto escape Observation; and perhaps electrical Attraction may

reach to such small distances, even without being excited by Friction.

®* Newton, Isaac. Opticks. Reprinted from ed. 4 (William Innys, London, 1730),

pp. 375, 387. G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., London, 1931.

Ava. 15, 1941 GIBSON: PHYSICAL REFLECTIONS IN A CHEMICAL MIRROR 333

For when Salt of Tartar runs per Deliquium, is not this done by an Attraction be-

tween the Particles of the Salt of Tartar, and the Particles of the Water which float

in the Air in the form of Vapours? And why does not common Salt, or Salt-petre, or

Vitriol, run per Deliquium, but for want of such an Attraction? Or why does not Salt of

Tartar draw more Water out of the Air than in a certain Proportion to its quantity, but

for want of an attractive Force after it is satiated with Water? And whence is it but

from this attractive Power that Water which alone distils with a gentle luke-warm

Heat, will not distil from Salt of Tartar without a great Heat? And is it not from the like

attractive Power between the Particles of Oil of Vitriol and the Particles of Water,

that Oil of Vitriol draws to it a good quantity of Water out of the Air, and after it is

satiated draws no more, and in Distillation lets go the Water very difficultly? And

when Water and Oil of Vitriol poured successively into the same Vessel grow very hot

in the mixing, does not this Heat argue a great Motion in the Parts of the Liquors?

And does not this Motion argue, that the Parts of the two Liquors in mixing coalesce

with Violence, and by consequence rush towards one another with an accelerated Mo-

tion...

If a very small quantity of any Salt or Vitriol be dissolved in a great quantity of

Water, the Particles of the Salt or Vitriol will not sink to the bottom, though they be

heavier in Specie than the Water, but will evenly diffuse themselves into all the water,

so as to make it as saline at the top as at the bottom. And does not this imply that the

Parts of the Salt or Vitriol recede from one another, and endeavour to expand them-

selves, and get as far asunder as the quantity of Water in which they float, will allow?

And does not this Endeavour imply that they have a repulsive Force by which they

attract the Water more strongly than they do one another? For as all things ascend in

Water which are less attracted than Water, by the gravitating Power of the Earth;

so all the Particles of Salt which float in Water, and are less attracted than Water by

any one Particle of Salt, must recede from that Particle, and give way to the more at-

tracted Water.

When any saline Liquor is evaporated to a Cuticle and let cool, the Salt concretes

in regular Figures; which argues, that the Particles of the Salt before they concreted,

floated in the Liquor at equal distances in rank and file, and by consequence that they

acted upon one another by some Power which at equal distances is equal, at unequal

distances unequal. For by such a Power they will range themselves uniformly, and with-

out it they will float irregularly, and come together as irregularly. And since the Parti-

cles of Island-Crystal act all the same way upon the Rays of Light for causing the un-

usual Refraction, may it not be supposed that in the Formation of this Crystal, the

Particles not only ranged themselves in rank and file for concreting in regular Figures,

but also by some kind of polar Virtue turned their homogeneal Sides the same way.

The Parts of all homogeneal hard Bodies which fully touch one another, stick to-

gether very strongly. And for explaining how this may be, some have invented hooked

Atoms, which is begging the Question; and others tell us that Bodies are glued together

by rest, that is, by an occult Quality, or rather by nothing; and others, that they stick

together by conspiring Motions, that is, by relative rest amongst themselves. I had

rather infer from their Cohesion, that their Particles attract one another by some

Force, which in immediate Contact is exceeding strong, at small distances performs

the chymical Operations above-mention’d, and reaches not far from the Particles with

any sensible Effect.

These quotations show quite clearly, I think, that the Atomic The-

ory of matter was firmly fixed in Newton’s mind and that he saw in

chemical phenomena, including solutions, an application of the same

ideas that he had used so successfully in describing the motion of

334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

heavenly bodies. We see here the introduction of the idea of forces

between atoms or molecules, forces which varied with the distance and

not only compelled them to attract or repel each other but to influ-

ence light. This was really a great advance over the older ideas that

chemical interaction resulted from the desire of like bodies to be to-

gether. We see also the evolution of a specific nature in these forces,

together with ideas of saturation. It is also interesting to note that

Newton had a clear picture of the relationship of heat to molecular

motion and the use of thermal measurements for estimating the mag-

nitude of the forces holding the corpuscles of matter together, al-

though nearly 150 years were to elapse before the kinetic theory of

heat became firmly established.

Although Newton is purposely and cautiously vague about the na-

ture of the forces between atoms, he did extrapolate his gravitational

theory far enough to say one thing about these forces and make thereby

a most important advance over the current ideas. He does imply that

these intercorpuscular forces are functions only of the distance be-

tween the particles, ‘‘by some Power which at equal distances is equal

and at unequal distances unequal,’’ and he shows that regularity in

the spatial arrangement of the particles of solid bodies follows from

such a law. He goes even farther, and from his observation on the

double refraction of crystals of calcite he arrives at the idea of orienta-

tion of the ultimate particles of calcite that arise from a ‘‘polar virtue”

of those molecules, i.e., a property whereby the forces acting on one

part of the molecule are different from those acting on the other.

In some form or other, these ideas of Newton are in use today, and

I have spoken of them in some detail, not for the purpose of showing

that Newton foreshadowed many modern theories of solution but to

show how a powerful mind took ideas from his analyzed experience

in the study of the motions of heavenly bodies and the properties of

light, extracted some of the essentials and applied them in an entirely

different field with results that still excite our interest and admiration.

These ideas of Newton were slowly absorbed during the eighteenth

century and were reiterated and developed by the French naturalist

Buffon (1707-1785),!° who wrote, ‘“‘The laws of affinity are the same

as the general law which governs the interaction of the heavenly bod-

ies, the specific attractions (attractions particuliéres) are due solely to

the shapes (figures) of the molecules because these shapes enter as an

element in the distance between them.’’ He goes on to show how the

shapes of the bodies are unimportant in astronomy but may be very

10 See WALDEN, op. cit., p. 37.

Aug. 15, 1941 GIBSON: PHYSICAL REFLECTIONS IN A CHEMICAL MIRROR 335

significant in determining interactions in bodies as close together as

molecules.

The end of the eighteenth century also saw a definite realization

among philosophers that the phenomena of solubility, of the density

of bodies, their adhesion, cohesion, and chemical affinity, all were re-

lated through a single unifying principle, the attractive forces between

the units of matter. There were still, however, two main schools of

thought, the physical school and the chemical school. The former based

their theories on ideas such as those I have just outlined, the latter

insisted that a solution represented a chemical combination between

the solvent and the dissolved substance. This school (Wallerius, Klap-

roth, and others) held that the cohesion and adhesion of matter

also was a chemical phenomenon and that solutions depended on the

balance of the adhesive (unlike molecules) and cohesive (like mole-

cules) affinities. It is evident that the difference between the physical

and chemical theories depended mostly on the background of the

thinker, whether he chose his fundamental ideas from physics, the

attraction, shape, pores, or geometry of large bodies, or whether he

chose his ideas from experience in the violent combinations known as

chemical reactions.

An important clarification of thought concerning solutions was

made by Lavoisier toward the end of the eighteenth century when he

distinguished between solution and dissolution. Solution he reserved

for reversible phenomena, such as the dissolving of salt in water, when

the salt is recovered by simple evaporation. He applied the term dis-

solution to cases such as the dissolving of a metal in an acid where the

metal is not recovered on evaporation, but instead of it a salt. In this

case a definite chemical change accompanied the process of solution.

The Early Nineteenth Century—Chemical Theories

The beginning of the nineteenth century saw the introduction of the

atomic theory of matter into experimental chemistry through the law

of definite proportions, the law of multiple proportions, and the law

of reciprocal proportions. From these empirical laws, the chemists

Dalton, Richter, and Berzelius established a quantum theory of

chemically reacting masses that sharpened the definition of a chemi-

cal compound and soon increased the embarrassment of those who

held the view that solutions were purely manifestations of chemical

combination. Some, however, like C. L. Berthollet, never accepted the

laws of definite and multiple proportions and could therefore consist-

ently retain such opinions. Others, in spite of an acceptance of

336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

Dalton’s theory, continued to believe that the dissolved substance

and the solvent were chemically combined. An excellent summary of

the chemical theory of solutions from 1800 to 1880 is given by W. A.

Tilden," who quotes a statement by Josiah P. Cooke written in this

country in 1881 that ‘‘the facts seem to justify the opinion that solu-

tion is in every case a chemical combination of substances dissolved

with the solvent, and that it differs from other examples of chemical

change only in the weakness of the combining force.”

Time does not permit me to elaborate further on these chemical

theories; I have felt that some discussion of them is necessary in order

to balance the picture, but we must return to the main subject and see

how the advances in physics during the nineteenth century are re-

flected in the theories of solutions. We shall see later the ultimate fate

of the controversy between chemical theories and physical theories.

Electrical Theories

By the year 1800 sources of voltaic electricity had been developed

and the fundamental laws governing the attraction and repulsion of

electrostatic charges had been established by the physicists. Chemical

effects of electrical currents also were being investigated. It is not sur-

prising, therefore, that electrical ideas were incorporated into chemi-

cal thought at this time. We are all familiar with the extensive theory

in which Berzelius attempted to explain all chemical combination by

the action of forces between electrical charges, an attempt that failed

because chemists of that time knew too much about chemistry and

the physicists too little about electricity. Some years before Berzelius’s

theory, Th. von Grotthuss applied electrical ideas to solutions, par-

ticularly those that conducted electricity. He considered water as a

dipole, the hydrogen being associated with positive electricity and the

oxygen with negative electricity, and assumed that a continuous dis-

sociation and recombination of these dipoles took place so that there

was a constant interchange of partners among the water dipoles. In

the same way an electrolyte, such as a salt, was supposed to be com-

posed of a positive and a negative part (e.g., Na+ and Cl-) and it was

thought that a constant exchange of partners among the dissolved

molecules also occurred. All this happened without the passage of elec-

tric current through the solution, but, as we should say today, the

exchange of partners was purely random. When positive and negative

electrodes were placed in the solution, a direction was given to this ex-

change with the result that current flowed and electrolysis took place.

1 TILDEN, W. A. British Assoc. Reports, 1886, p. 444.

AugG. 15, 1941 GIBSON: PHYSICAL REFLECTIONS IN A CHEMICAL MIRROR 337

Of especial interest is the picture that Grotthuss gave of the solu-

bility of electrolytes, e.g., salts. He suggested that the solubility of

such substances depended on their capacity to split up their ‘‘polar-

electric elementary particles,’’ i.e., ions, and in the association of these

ions with the molecular galvanic activity of the water. The work of

Grotthuss marks the introduction of ideas drawn from electrical ob-

servations to give a mechanism for the vague ideas of chemical affin-

ity, and he suggests that the solubility of salts in water is an electro-

chemical phenomenon depending on the interaction between the water

molecules acting as electrical units and the ions into which the dis-

solved electrolytes resolve themselves.

The Kinetic Theory

The next important set of ideas that we find introduced into the

theory of solutions reflects an advance in physics for which the nine-

teenth century will always be famous in the annals of science. I refer

to the establishment of the kinetic theory of heat and matter on a

firm experimental and logical basis by Clausius and others.

Members of both the physical and chemical schools of thought in

the early nineteenth century seem to have had a clear recognition of

the relations between those forces that caused one substance to dis-

solve in another and those forces that gave rise to cohesion in solids

and liquids. For example, the French chemist Dumas” wrote in 1836,

“Molecular attraction manifests itself in three well differentiated

ways, between molecules of one and the same body, this is the ordi-

nary cohesion of the physicists, between more or less similar molecules,

which mix in such a way as to preserve their individual properties—

that is the force of solution, and finally between dissimilar molecules

which unite intimately giving a product of quite different properties—

this is Affinity.’”? Such views were generally held and attempts were

made to explain the solubility of solids and especially saturated solu-

tions in terms of competing forces—forces between the solvent and

solute molecules producing solution on the one hand and forces of co-

hesion opposing the dispersion of the solid on the other. These investi-

gators apparently felt the need of a general type of force or agency

opposing cohesion, an agency that tended to separate molecules from

each other. Newton supplied this need by repulsive forces, but it is

just as well that his ideas on this subject did not spread, although it is

to be regretted that no one followed up his ideas of heat as a measure

of molecular attraction.

2 Dumas, J. B. A. Lecons sur la philosophie chimique, ed. 1, p. 391. Paris, 1837.

338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 8

When the theory that heat is a form of molecular motion was firmly

established on an experimental basis, this general dispersing agency

was at once apparent in the kinetic energy of the molecules. For ex-

ample, Clausius and Joule showed that the pressure of a gas was en-

tirely due to the motion of the molecules, and the processes of melting,

evaporation, and sublimation were at once thought of as taking place

when the temperature and hence the kinetic energy of the molecules

became large enough to overcome the forces of cohesion.

From 1860 to 1885, therefore, a number of theories, e.g., those of

L. Dossios (1867), W. W. J. Nicol (1883), Gay-Lussac, and W. A.

Tilden and W. A. Shenstone (1884) appeared in which the kinetic

energy of the molecules played an important role in the discussion of

solubility and other phenomena connected with solutions. For ex-

ample, Tilden and Shenstone examined the connection between the

solubility and the fusibility (melting point) of salts showing in general

that the lower the melting point, the more soluble was the salt, and

wrote:

But the connexion between fusibility and solubility, though proved does not wholly

explain the nature of the initial stage in the process of solution of a solid. It does, how-

ever, strongly support a kinetic theory of solution based on the mechanical theory of

heat. The solution of a solid in a liquid would accordingly be analogous to the sublima-

tion of such a solid into a gas, and proceeds from the admixture of molecules detached

from the solid with those of the surrounding liquid. Such a process is promoted by rise

in temperature, partly because the molecules of the still solid substance make larger

excursions from their normal centre, partly because they are subjected to more violent

encounter with the moving molecules of the liquid. Such a view does not necessarily in-

volve the assumption of an “attraction” between the molecules of the solvent and those

of the solvend (Cf. L. Dossius, Jahresb. (1867), 92. Nicol, Phil. Mag. Feb. 1883).

Indeed it is difficult to disconnect “attraction: from theidea of combination resulting

from such attraction. In some cases we are considering, e.g. the solution of anhydrous

Na2SO, in water at 100°, nothing like combination between water and salt seems to

occur.

We notice that the role of the attractive forces between molecules in

solutions, introduced by Newton, is being abandoned and attempts

are being made to explain all the phenomena by the kinetic theory.

The Kinetic Theory of Van’'t Hoff

These theories were, however, completely overshadowed by the

kinetic theory picture developed a year or so later (1887) by van’t

Hoff from a study of the osmotic pressure of solutions. It had been

known for a long time that, if a solution were placed in a strong vessel

and connected with the pure solvent by a membrane permeable to the

solvent, but not to the dissolved substance, solvent flowed through

13 TILDEN, W. A., and SHenstTone, W. A. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 175A: 30. 1884.

Aue. 15, 1941 GIBSON: PHYSICAL REFLECTIONS IN A CHEMICAL MIRROR 339

the membrane into the solution until a definite pressure was developed

in the vessel containing the solution. This pressure was called the

Osmotic Pressure. Van’t Hoff showed from the experimental results

of Pfeffer that the following relationship held in dilute solutions:

a =(n/V)RT where z is the observed osmotic pressure, n is the num-

ber of gram molecules dissolved in a volume JV, T is the absolute tem-

perature, and the constant & has the same value as the well-known

gas constant. The analogy of this result with the equation of state

for an ideal gas P=RT/V led van’t Hoff to regard the dissolved sub-

stance as an ideal gas dispersed in a solvent whose role was that of a

modified empty space and, of course, to treat the osmotic pressure

as the pressure of an ideal gas, 1.e., of purely kinetic origin. This theory

was brilliant and led to some excellent experimental work, notably

that of H. N. Morse and his students in Baltimore, who showed that

the law was limited to very dilute solutions, if exact application were

desired, and who studied the effects of temperature and the nature

of the solvents and dissolved substances. The theory suffered from the

fate common to all simple theories in this field, it long outlived its use-

fulness. You will notice that the theory exalts one idea, namely, the

kinetic energy of the dissolved substance, to a position that excludes

all the other considerations we have spoken of. Such a defect is fatal

in so complicated a subject. The result was that several generations

of chemists had to learn all about the osmotic pressure of solutions

under the impression that it was a unique and fundamental quantity,

and they tried to patch up the theory of van’t Hoff to cover regions

where, by its fundamental assumptions, it was inapplicable. Like too

many theories, that of van’t Hoff started as a strong current carrying

the ship of science into broader waters of knowledge and ended up by

being a whirlpool in which there was plenty of motion but all in a

circle.

Thermodynamics—Entropy and Energy

The decade from 1880 to 1890 saw the beginning of a series of ex-

tensive and intensive researches on the properties of solutions which

has continued unabated to this day. Indeed, these studies have con-

stituted a major part of the science of physical chemistry that dates

from 1887, the year of the publication of the first volume of the Zeit-

schrift fir Physikalische Chemie. In order to understand this activity,

we must recall that by 1880 chemistry was on a sound basis. Not only

was the atomic theory firmly established but definite and trustworthy

ideas about molecules had also been developed and a consistent sys-

tem of molecular and atomic weights was available. Hypotheses of

340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 31, NO. 8

valency or the combining powers of the elements had been tested ex-

perimentally and a convenient, simple, and consistent scheme had

been devised for the formulation of elements and compounds. At this

time, too, we see a new reflection appearing in our mirror, a reflection

that was to become a floodlight revealing relations among many ap-

parently disconnected phenomena. I refer to the science of thermo-

dynamics. Although thermodynamics and the kinetic theory were

“nursed upon the selfsame hill,” they are different in character. Classi-

cal thermodynamics is now a self-contained science based on two

fundamental laws whose validity has been placed beyond doubt by

experiment. From these two laws, deductions reaching into all

branches of science have been made by unimpeachable mathematics.

The science deals with experimental quantities, heat, work, tempera-

ture, pressure, and functions formally derived from them, and its theo-

rems are exact. It is one of the few branches of physics that have come

unscathed through the recent revolutions. The reason is that thermo-

dynamic arguments depend only on observables and are independent

of any hypothesis concerning the nature of matter.

The function of thermodynamics in physical chemistry has been to

provide exact relations among observable quantities, thereby promot-

ing economy, not only of measurement by limiting the number of ex-

periments we have to do, but also of thought by allowing us to pass

readily and exactly from measured quantities whose theoretical sig-

nificance is obscure to those whose interpretation is more readily seen.

In other words, thermodynamics gives us an exact system into which

the experimental results of physical chemistry in general and the stud-

ies of solutions in particular, may be fitted, a system which enables

us to examine the results from many points of view and pass to the

more abstract quantities, such as energy and entropy, which lead di-

rectly into the kinetic theory and statistical mechanics.

Because of its very nature it was not to be expected that thermo-

dynamics could supply any new mechanisms for use in the theory of

solutions, but this science did make an important contribution to the

theory in that imperceptibly but inexorably it forced physical chem-

ists to think simultaneously of several variables, the forces between

molecules, their geometry, and their kinetic energy. This came about

because the thermodynamic criterion of equilibrium insists that we

consider at the same time both energy and entropy, potential energy

(forces), and kinetic energy (motion). I shall illustrate this by an ex-

ample drawn from ideal solutions where changes of energy are zero.

Suppose I have two liquids A and B, such that the forces between

Ava. 15, 1941 GIBSON: PHYSICAL REFLECTIONS IN A CHEMICAL MIRROR 341

the molecules A and A, B and B, and A and B are the same, and I

place A and B in contact. I shall find that at constant temperature, a

spontaneous process takes place and that finally I get a homogeneous

solution AB. If the liquids are properly chosen, careful measurements

will also show that there is no heat and no volume change during the

process, but in spite of this we know that the final state is definitely

different from the initial state, and we want to find the physical quan-

tity that reflects this change. Thermodynamics provides such a quan-

tity in the entropy of the system and furthermore says that, since the

change was a spontaneous one, the change in entropy is greater than

the heat absorbed divided by the absolute temperature, i.e., greater

than zero in this case. Hence the entropy zncreased during this process.

With the aid of the kinetic theory or elementary statistical mechan-

ics, we can go farther and see that the entropy of a substance may be

measured by the volume in configuration space that the coordinates

of its molecules may occupy, together with the volume in momentum

space that the points representing the momenta of its molecules and

their moving parts may occupy. At constant temperature, we may

consider that this latter part of the entropy is fixed and conclude that

the increase of entropy that accompanied the mixing of liquids A and

B arose solely from the fact that the molecules of each found larger

volumes available to them. Indeed, from elementary statistical me-

chanics, we may see that the following expressions represent what

happened :4

Sa ae: S,? = = RinX, (1)

Sp = Sp? == RinX sz. (2)

Let us carry the argument one step farther and change the tempera-

ture so that one of our pure liquids freezes—we shall then be dealing

with the solubility of a solid in a liquid; naphthalene in contact with

benzene is an actual example that approximates to the conditions I

am describing When the solution is saturated, we have coexisting at

equilibrium solid A (naphthalene) and a solution of A and B. Under

such conditions, thermodynamics tells us that the pressure and the

temperature must be the same in both phases and that the following

relation must hold for the component that is present in both phases,

the naphthalene in this example:

14 In this example the symbols have the following meaning: S, is the partial molal

entropy of substance A in the solution, S,° is the molal entropy of pure liquid A, S,°%

is the molal entropy of solid A, X, is the mole fraction of A in the solution. Ss, Sp°,

S35 and Xx are the same quantities for component B. H,, H,°, H,5 are the molal heat

contents corresponding to these entropies (the heat content is the total energy +the

pressure multiplied by the volume). F is the conventional gas constant per gram mole-

cule. T is the absolute temperature.

342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

AS — TS,s8 = Hy — TSa (3)

1.€.,

Hy — AyS = T(S4 — Sa’). (4)

and, if there is no heat change when the liquids are mixed,

H,° — HS = T(Sa — Sa’) (5)

where (H 4° —H,) is the ordinary heat of melting of the solid A, which

may change with temperature but this change depends only on sub-

stance A and not on the solution. With the help of equation (1), we

may go farther and write

CO hia)

Seq TT NE ae ee (Sin? aaah IS) rs RinX 4. (6)

This picture gives a direct connection between solubility and melting

in the ideal case. At the melting temperature of A, i.e., 7 =Tm, we

know that (H4° —H,48) =T,,(Sa°—S,’) or X4 =1, i.e., pure liquid A

is in equilibrium with solid A.

Since solids freeze spontaneously below their melting points, we see

that (H,°—H,S)/T is greater than (S,°—S,°) if T is less than Tn,

in which case the equation is balanced only if RlnX, is negative or

X 4 is between 0 and 1, a positive fraction representing the solubility

of solid A in liquid B.

This example shows (1) that the solubility of solid A is due to the

increased entropy that A gets when its molecules are dispersed in B

(indeed, the term —RInX, actually measures this entropy change)

and (2) that this solubility will increase with temperature, a well-

known experimental fact.

This is the thermodynamic description of the state of affairs in an

ideal solution and is the basis of a general theory of solutions today.

Wherein does this differ from the theory of van’t Hoff or other kinetic

theories; are we still regarding the dissolved substance as an ideal gas

in an inert medium? The answer is interesting. So far as the entropy

change on mixing is concerned, we are considering the dissolved sub-

stance as an ideal gas, but as regards energy changes we are assuming

that a molecule of A is acted on by the same forces when immersed

in liquid B as when it is surrounded by molecules of its own kind. It is

certainly not a gas from this point of view. The interactions between

molecules A and A, B and B, and A and B are, therefore, of great 1m-

portance, and only in very rare cases is an ideal solution, as pictured

above, realized experimentally. Generally speaking, the solubility of

A in B will be greater than the ideal solubility given by a calculation

analogous to that just described if the A—B attractive forces are

Auge. 15, 1941 GIBSON: PHYSICAL REFLECTIONS IN A CHEMICAL MIRROR 343

ereater than the A—A or B —B forces, and less if the opposite condi-

tions hold. One of the chief lines of attack on the problem of solutions

today is directed toward finding out the nature of intermolecular

forces between like and between unlike molecules and applying this

knowledge through statistical mechanics to obtain an adequate quan-

titative description of the properties of solutions as observed in the

laboratory.” It should be mentioned that the intermolecular forces

and the geometry of the systems not only influence the energy but

also add to the entropy terms that must be considered along with the

ideal entropy of mixing. In recent years some instructive attempts to

calculate the energy and the entropy of solutions have been made."

The point we have now reached in our consideration of the evolu-

tion of the ideas used in the theories of solutions is well into the twen-

tieth century. Let us pause to gather together some of the ideas of

which I have spoken. The list is by no means exhaustive, but it con-

tains most of the raw material of which modern theories are made:

(1) Corpuscular nature of matter (older philosophers) ; (2) geometry of

corpuscles or molecules—size, shape, packing, voids or holes in packing

(Boyle, Gassendi); (3) general forces between molecules—attraction

and repulsion (Newton, Buffon—developments of mechanics) ; forces

that are functions of distance only; (4) orzentation of corpuscles—light

as means of investigating matter (Newton); (5) chemical theories—

specific but unknown chemical forces as opposed to general physical

forces causing attraction or cohesion of molecules; connection between

forces producing cohesion and forces producing solution; (6) electrical

nature of forces causing chemical combination, cohesion, and solution

—electricity in molecular systems (Grotthuss, Berzelius); (7) kinetic

theory of matter—heat as form of molecular motion; disordering effect

of heat and temperature; gas picture of solutions; relation of solubility

and melting; (8) thermodynamics—unification of experimental results;

quantitative studies of equilibrium and direction of physicochemical

changes; heat and entropy; (9) statzstical mechanics.

15 Although by far the greater portion of the effort devoted to the study of solutions

has been directed toward the problem of solutions of electrolytes in water and develop-

ments of great importance have been made in this field, limitations of space prevent

the discussion of theories of electrolytes here. It has been realized for many years that

strong electrolytes exist mostly as positively and negatively charged ions in water

solutions, and since the potential fields around ions are well known, the application of

elementary electrostatics and statistical mechanics has led to noteworthy advances in

the understanding of the subject. Electrolytes form a case where an important part

of the intermolecular action (forces between the ions) is known. A general formula-

tion of solution theory into which the treatment of electrolytes or non-electrolytes

may be fitted is given by J. G. Ktrxwoop (Chem. Rev. 19: 275. 1936).

16 BERNAL, J. D., and Fowuer, R. H. Journ. Chem. Physics 1: 515. 1933;

Eney, D. D., and Evans, M. G. Trans. Faraday Soc. 34: 1093. 1938; EvERETT,

D. H., and Couuson, C. A. Trans. Faraday Soc. 36: 633. 1940.

344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 8

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

The next part of my story concerns the further development and

refinement of these ideas, but now a change takes place in our perspec-

tive. We have been seeing various advances in physics reflected in the

mirror of the chemistry of solutions, but now our mirror becomes

transparent and we look through the phenomena of chemistry into the

realm of physics that underlies them and find that the interface that

separated these sciences was not real but was placed there by the

limitations of our own point of view. Those unknown attractive forces

about which Newton speculated, the same unknown forces that caused

the disputes between those who supported the chemical theories and

those who supported the physical theories, are becoming known,

and in the light of this knowledge the boundary between physics and

chemistry is fading. The faint reflection that Grotthuss and Berzelius

caught has grown to the magnitude of a sun, and to its light we owe

our present knowledge.

Even an outline of how this change has come about would take sev-

eral lectures, and it is a subject with which most of you are familiar,

anyway. I shall, therefore, merely mention a few landmarks.

Through the experimental researches of Faraday and the work of

the brilliant theoretical physicists of the second half of the nineteenth

century, notably Maxwell, the sciences of electromagnetics and elec-

trostatics rose to their full stature. The researches of J. J. Thomson

and his school, together with the discovery of radioactivity, estab-

lished on an experimental basis the corpuscular nature of electricity

and the electrical nature of matter. The researches of the spectro-

scopists, together with the inspiration of Bohr and his followers, when

added to these results, have led to the universal acceptance of the

theory that the atoms of matter are complex systems composed of

elementary electrical particles, electrons, protons, positrons, etc.

Finally, the development of quantum mechanics removed the last

obstacle that stood in the way of a general conclusion that in prin-

ciple all forces of attraction and repulsion between atoms and mole-

cules arise from the complex electrostatic interactions of the charges

of which they are composed. Thus those forces producing chemical

combination, physical cohesion, the solubility of one substance in an-

other, and all the other metamorphoses observed in nature are be-

lieved to be the result of a complex system of positive and negative

electrical charges seeking a configuration of lowest potential energy.

Based on quantum mechanics we now have a statistical mechanics

Aue. 15, 1941 GIBSON: PHYSICAL REFLECTIONS IN A CHEMICAL MIRROR 345

that leads us from molecular theory to the properties of matter in the

bulk with no alarming contradictions.

“Chemical” and “Physical” Forces

The practical solutions of the problems of the interaction between

the electrical systems that constitute atoms or molecules are, in gen-

eral, difficult, but an important simplification has arisen from the fact

that, by suitable approximation, the stable configurations may be

made to fall into certain classes identifiable with the types of com-

bining forces or bonds that the chemists have postulated by induction

from their experiments, together with types of forces well known in

experimental physics. Thus, in one type of configuration, the force

between two atoms acts as a plain electrostatic attraction between two

oppositely charged particles. This is the ionic link met with in salts

such as sodium chloride. In another type of stable arrangement, we

have a complex state of affairs that corresponds to the sharing of elec-

trons between two atoms as postulated by G. N. Lewis. This is the

covalent link, the common binding in organic chemistry and the for-

mation or breaking of such bonds is what chemists usually mean by

a chemical reaction. These bonds are directed and an atom can have

only so many of them. Thus arise the combining laws of Dalton and

the stereochemistry of van’t Hoff. Another stable arrangement which

was not at ail understood before the quantum theory is that which

gives the cohesion of metals.

Furthermore, molecules (as well as atoms) are electrical systems,

and mutual interactions between their constituent charges lead to

forces that hold them together or push them apart. In this class belong

the “‘van der Waals’ forces’’ of the older physicists or the “residual

valencies”’ of the chemists. From the researches of Debye, London,

and others, a fair amount is known about these forces. They arise from

a variety of causes in which the size, the shape and the polarizability

of the molecules play an important part. These are the forces most

commonly encountered in non-aqueous solutions. In the light of mod-

ern knowledge and experience, however, we now recognize that any

or all of the types of force enumerated above may be met with in

solutions. The present status of the controversy between the ‘‘physi-

eal” and ‘“‘chemical’’ schools may be summed up, therefore, by the

phrase, “‘both are partly right.”

I must mention, however briefly, one other fertile source of ideas

that are applicable in a study of solutions, viz, the structure of crys-

talline solids, for this leads us back to the geometrical ideas of Boyle.

Von Laue’s discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals, the

346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

sumplified theory and inspired experiment by the Braggs, the mathe-

matical studies of the homogeneous packing of bodies in space by

Schonflies, Federoff, and Pope and Barlow, and the untiring efforts

of many workers in the last 30 years have given us a knowledge of

how the atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in crystals.

Hand in hand with this information about the geometry of solids

has come, through studies of lattice energies, definite knowledge con-

cerning the forces of cohesion in solids and liquids. For example, it is

known that sodium-chloride crystals are held together by nondirected

electrostatic forces between the charged ions which act as units to-

gether with a slight contribution from van der Waals’ forces. The pack-

ing is determined by the relative sizes of the sodium and chloride ions.

In diamond, on the other hand, the units (atoms of carbon) are held

together by covalent bonds—the same bonds as in CH.—and the

structure in which one carbon is surrounded by four others is deter-

mined by the direction of these bonds. The bonds are very strong, and

this accounts for the hardness of diamond and for the fact that it will

not dissolve in any solvent, while sodium chloride dissolves easily in

solutions of high dielectric constant.

On the other hand, an analysis of the structure of paraffin wax

shows that the hydrocarbon molecule is the unit of structure. Within

the molecule the carbon and hydrogen atoms are held together by

very strong covalent forces, which practically neutralize each other’s

fields, leaving only the relatively weak van der Waals’ forces to hold

the solid together. This solid is weak, melts easily—it is easily soluble

in other hydrocarbons like gasoline. Studies of solids have sharpened

our ideas of the nature of cohesive forces and, at the same time, shown

that these may be what used to be called purely chemical, as in dia-

mond, or purely physical, as in paraffin wax or almost anything in

between.

These studies have also made physical chemists conscious of geome-

try, of the important role played by the shape and size of atoms, mole-

cules, or ions in determining solid structure. Many solids that are

referred to as compounds but whose composition puzzled chemists in

the past are now known to owe their existence to geometrical reasons,

to the possibilities of packing in regular structures, rather than to the

action of specific chemical bonds. It is also well recognized that con-

gruity in the size and shape of the component ions or molecules 1s a

most important factor in determining whether two substances shall

form solid solutions. The old ideas of Boyle and Gassendi are still

with us.

Ava. 15, 1941 GIBSON: PHYSICAL REFLECTIONS IN A CHEMICAL MIRROR 347

The application of these ideas of geometrical packing and the effect

of intermolecular forces on it are now being carried over to liquids and

solutions, where the determination of the molecular distribution in

space is one of the most interesting problems.

CONCLUSION

We have traced in broad outline the development of the different

ideas used in the theory of solutions and have seen how some of these

ideas were taken from every-day experience and gradually shorn of

their irrelevancies and molded into shape for quantitative use. Above

all, I have tried to point out how developments in one science, viz,

physics, were used in the development of a subject belonging to the

cognate science of chemistry. In our excursion into the pit we have

seen the remains of many muddling efforts in the past, attempts to

explain complicated phenomena in terms of one or two simple ideas;

we have seen, however, that each of these attempts contained a nug-

get of truth that is still a treasured possession in our store.

As a result of this excursion, I hope that the familiar sight of a crys-

tal of common salt dissolving in water or sugar dissolving in a cup of

tea will conjure before your mind a panorama of particles, motions,

and forces. I hope that you will see the microscopic electrical systems

of different sorts that constitute the ions of the salt or the molecules

of the water being impelled to mix with each other in as disorderly a

fashion as possible under the drive of their thermal motion, fulfilling

their destiny by increasing the entropy of the universe. I hope that

you will imagine these microcosms arranging themselves in positions

of lowest energy into configurations that may sometimes suggest that

they are joined by directed chemical bonds, sometimes that they are

held by non-directed physical forces of varying magnitude, sometimes

joined by a bond that combines the qualities of both those just men-

tioned. In your picture I hope you will also add geometrical consid-

erations, that you will think of the sizes and the shapes (including the

electrical distributions) of the ions or molecules and that you will note

the effect of geometry on the energy (the forces) and the entropy (the

motion) of the system as a whole. Above all, I hope that you will

realize that the phenomenon you are witnessing differs from others

you may have studied in that you can not get an explanation that will

satisfy you if you exalt any one of these considerations to the exclusion

of the others. Therein lies the complication.

I have left you with a picture of complexity, but if you will look

to the hole of the pit whence it was digged, you will not be dismayed

348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 8

by it. In the past, mathematicians have forged out of human experi-

ence methods of mechanical and exact development of ideas; they are

still doing so and we have every reason to believe that mathematical

methods for handling complicated problems where abstraction is un-

desirable will be available in the future. Our glimpse into the past

gives us every assurance that a better understanding of solutions will

come as time goes by, but we must expect that understanding to be

based on concepts that are still further removed from our every-day

experience.

BOTANY.—New United States grasses. JASON R. SWALLEN, U. S.

Bureau of Plant Industry.!

Of the eight new species herein described, five are from the collec-

tions of W. A. Silveus in Florida (Andropogon rhizomatus, A. niveus,

A. sericatus), Texas (Sporobolus silveanus), and Arizona (Sporobolus

patens). Sporobolus pulvinatus and Muhlenbergia villosa are described

from material previously referred to S. pyramidatus (Lam.) Hitche.

and M. thurberi Rydb., respectively, and Glyceria cookei is based on

a collection of William Bridge Cooke from the Mount Shasta region

of California.

Glyceria cookei Swallen, sp. nov. Fig. 1

Perennis; culmi 15-30 em alti, graciles, foliosi, erecti basi decumbentes,

glabri; vaginae internodiis multo longiores, inferiores breves superiores elon-

gatae, carinatae, scaberulae, marginibus hyalinis; ligula 5-7 mm longa,

hyalina; laminae 3-5 cm longae, 2-3 mm latae, abrupte acutae marginibus

scabris; paniculae 6-12 cm longae, simplices; spiculae breviter pedicellatae

appressae vel anguste adscendentes, 15-18 mm longae; gluma prima 1.8—2.2

mm longa, obtusa, obscure 1-nervis; gluma secunda 3-3.5 mm longa, obtusa;

lemmata 44.5 mm longa, 7-nervia, scabra, dentata, marginibus hyalinis;

palea lemmate paulo longior, sulcata, bifida carinis alatis; antherae 0.8 mm

longae. ;

Perennial; culms 15-30 ecm tall, slender, leafy, erect from a decumbent

branching base, glabrous; sheaths much longer than the internodes, the lower

ones short, the upper ones somewhat elongate, keeled, scaberulous, the mar-

gins thin and hyaline; ligule conspicuous, 5-7 mm long, thin and hyaline;

blades 3-5 cm long, 2-3 mm wide, abruptly acute, the margins finely sca-

brous; panicle 6-12 cm long, erect, unbranched; spikelets short pedicellate

on the main axis, appressed or narrowly ascending, 15-18 mm long; first

glume 1.8-2.2 mm long, oblong, obtuse, obscurely 1-nerved; second glume 3-—

3.0 mm long, similar to the first; lemma 4—4.5 mm long, 7-nerved, the nerves

prominent, scabrous between the nerves, obtuse, irregularly dentate, the tip

and margins hyaline; palea as long as or a little longer than the lemma, sul-

cate, bifid, the keels narrowly winged; anthers 0.8 mm long.

Type in the herbarium of the U. S. National Arboretum, no. 98480, col-

lected in a wet place on alluvial gravel in the Box Canyon of the Sacramento

1 Received February 27, 1941.

Ave. 15, 1941 SWALLEN: NEW UNITED STATES GRASSES : 349

Figs. 1-3.—New species of United States grasses, plants and panicles, X1, spike-

lets, X10: 1, Glyceria cooker; 2, Muhlenbergia villosa; 3, Sporobolus silveanus. Drawings

from the type specimens by Mrs. Frances C. Weintraub.

River near Mount Shasta City, Calif., altitude 3,000 feet, July 12, 1940, by

William Bridge Cooke (no. 15312).

Glyceria cooker belongs to the section Euglyceria, in which the spikelets are

linear and nearly terete. The known species of this group are all rather tall

erect grasses with simple flaccid culms and relatively broad elongate blades.

This species, however, has short, firm culms, decumbent and branching at

the base, with short, narrow, spreading blades. It is evidently most nearly

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

related to Glyceria occidentalis (Piper) J. C. Nels. but differs in the epee:

mentioned characters.

Muhlenbergia villosa Swallen, sp. nov. Fig. 2

Perennis, rhizomatosa; culmi 10-20 cm alti, ramosi, puberuli, obscure

nodulosi; vaginae internodiis breviores, glabrae; ligula 1-2 mm longa decur-

rens; laminae 2.5-3.5 cm longae, eae ramorum breviores, firmae, involutae,

infra glabrae, supra pubescentes, marginibus scabris; paniculae 2-4 em

longae ramis brevibus appressis vel infimis divaricatis usque ad 1 cm longis;

spiculae 2—2.5 mm longae breviter pedicellatae, appressae; glumae sub-

aequales, 1-1.6 mm longae, acutae vel subobtusae, 1-nerves; lemma 2-2.5

mm longum, acutum vel mucronatum, marginibus infra medium villosis.

Perennial; culms 10-20 cm tall, wiry, rather freely branching, erect from

scaly rhizomes, puberulent, obscurely nodulose roughened; sheaths mostly

shorter than the internodes, glabrous; ligule 1-2 mm long, decurrent; blades

2.5-3.5 cm long or those of the shorter branches shorter, firm, involute, gla-

brous on the lower surface, pubescent on the upper, the margins scabrous;

panicles 2-4 cm long, the short closely flowered branches appressed, or the

lowermost sometimes stiffly spreading as much as 1 cm long; spikelets 2—2.5

mm long, short pedicellate, appressed; glumes subequal, 1-1.6 mm long,

acute or subobtuse, 1-nerved, scabrous on the keel; lemma 2—2.5 mm long,

acute or mucronate, the keel and margins villous on the lower half; palea vil-

lous on the keels.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1886596, collected 15 miles

south of Stanton, Tex., July 11, 1928, by B. C. Tharp (no. 5048).

This species is closely related to M. villiflora Hitche. but is larger in all its

parts. The latter is rarely more than 10 cm tall with very wiry culms, arcuate

spreading blades 0.5—1 cm long, narrow panicles 0.5-1.5 cm long, and spike-.

lets 1.5—2 mm long. The differences are small, but the characters of M. villi-

flora are very constant through a series of specimens from various localities.

Sporobolus silveanus Swallen, sp. nov. ‘Fig. 3

Perennis; culmi 85-115 cm alti, dense caespitosi, erecti, scabri; vaginae in-

ternodiis longiores, glabrae vel scaberulae i in collo pubescentes, inferiores con-

fertae, superiores elongatae; ligula 0.5 mm longa; laminae usque ad 45 cm

longae, involutae, firmae, flexuosae, glabrae, marginibus scabris; paniculae

30-50 cm longae, ramis adscendentibus paucifloris, inferioribus 10-15 cm

longis; spiculae 5-6 mm longae, purpureae, pedicellis 5-8 mm longis; gluma

prima 3—4.5 mm longa, acuminata, secunda subacuta, lata, 4.5-6 mm longa,

in carina scabra; lemma 5-6 mm longum, subacutum; palea lemma aequans,

subacuta, obscure carinata; antherae 4mm longae, nigro-purpureae.

Perennial; culms densely tufted, erect, 85-115 cm tall, scabrous at least

toward the summit; leaves mostly crowded toward the base, those of the

culm one or two with elongated sheaths; sheaths much longer than the in-

ternodes, glabrous or scaberulous, pubescent on the collar, the lower ones

firm, straw-colored, shiny, the margins spreading and more or less papery

with age; ligule erose-ciliate, 0.5 mm long; blades firm, flat or usually in-

volute, glabrous on both surfaces with scabrous margins, those of the innova-

tions elongate as much as 45 cm long, 1-2 mm wide, curved or flexuous, those

of the culms much shorter, the uppermost 7-20 cm long; panicle narrow,

mostly 30-50 cm long (or shorter on more slender culms) the branches as-

cending, rather distant, few-flowered, naked toward the base, the lower ones

mostly 10-15 cm long; spikelets 5-6 mm long, purple, the pedicels 5-8 mm

Ava. 15, 1941 SWALLEN: NEW UNITED STATES GRASSES 301

long, appressed or somewhat spreading; glumes acuminate, scabrous on the

keel, the first 3-4.5 mm long, 1-nerved, the second broader, 4.5-6 mm long,

3-nerved; lemma 5-6 mm long, subacute; palea about as long as the lemma,

subacute, scabrous toward the tip, the keels obscure; anthers about 4 mm

long, blackish purple.

Type in the herbarium of the U. 8. National Arboretum, no. 98476, col-

lected in open woods about 10 miles northeast of Orange, Tex., September

30, 1940, by W. A. Silveus (no. 6441).

This species is closely related to Sporobolus floridanus Chapm. and S.

teretifolius Harper, the former differing in having flat blades as much as 5 mm

wide, more densely flowered panicles, smaller spikelets 4-5 mm long with

nearly equal glumes and the latter in having smaller panicles 15-25 cm long,

pilose in the axils, and slightly smaller spikelets with a narrower first glume

which is usually less than half as long as the second. The long sparsely flow-

ered panicles of large purple spikelets are very striking and characteristic.

Sporobolus pulvinatus Swallen, sp. nov. Fig. 4

Annuus; culmi 5-30 cm alti, caespitosi, basi decumbentes, glabri: vaginae

internodiis breviores, glabrae, in ore plusminusve hispidae; ligula ciliata, 0.5

mm longa; laminae 4—7 cm longae, 2—5 mm latae, utrinque scabrae, ea su-

prema multo reducta; paniculae 2-8 cm longae, pyramidatae, ramis verticil-

latis appressis vel divaricatis, basi nudis, densifloris; spiculae 1.5-1.7 mm

longae, breviter pedicellatae, appressae; gluma prima minuta; gluma secunda

et lemma aequalia, abrupte acuta vel subobtusa; palea lemma aequans, mi-

nute dentata; antherae 0.3 mm longae, pallidae.

Annual; culms 5-30 cm tall in small or rather dense tufts, decumbent

spreading at the base, glabrous; sheaths shorter than the internodes, gla-

brous, more or less hispid at the throat; ligule ciliate, about 0.5 mm long;

blades mostly 4-7 cm long, 2-5 mm wide or smaller in depauperate plants,

lanceolate-acuminate, scabrous on both surfaces and on the thick white mar-

gins, the uppermost much reduced; panicles 2-5 cm or rarely as much as 8

em long, pyramidal, the branches verticillate, appressed, spreading at ma-

turity, naked at the base, densely flowered, with scattered but rather prom-

inent glandular areas, and a large pulvinus at the base of each; spikelets 1.5—

1.7 mm long, short pedicellate, appressed; first glume minute; second glume

about as long as the spikelet, abruptly acute or subobtuse; lemma similar to

the second glume but somewhat narrower; palea broad, conspicuous, as long

as the lemma, minutely dentate; anthers 0.3 mm long, pale or pinkish; cary-

opsis 1 mm long, asymmetrically obovate, pale lead colored or reddish, the

embryo appearing as a blackened area at the base.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 997877, collected at Adamana,

Ariz., August 6-15, 1903, by David Griffiths (no. 5107).

This species has been confused with Sporobolus pyramidatus (Lam.)

Hitche. but is easily distinguished by its annual habit, short flat blades, and

abruptly acute or subobtuse second glume and lemma. S. pyramidatus, de-

scribed from South America (as Agrostis pyramidatus), is a strong densely

tufted perennial with stiff, erect, acuminate blades and spikelets as much as

2mm long. The second glume and lemma are gradually acute or subacumi-

nate rather than acute or subobtuse, as in S. pulvinatus.

Sporobolus pulvinatus is apparently rather. common on sandy plains and

roadsides of northern Mexico, extending northward to Texas, New Mexico,

and Arizona, where it is relatively rare, at least as indicated by herbarium

specimens, and southward to Oaxaca. Specimens representing this species

are as follows:

302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

Texas: El Paso, M. E. Jones 4338; without locality, Reverchon. Nrw

Mexico: Valencia County, 50 miles west of Albuquerque, John Redd in 1935

(Soil Conservation Service no. 755); San Ysidro, Sandoval County, Dean

Mahaffey 88. Arizona: Wilcox, Griffiths 1896; Benson, Griffiths 1490. So-

norA: Agiabampo, Palmer 814 in 1890; Guaymas, Palmer 696 in 1887;

Batamotal, Orcutt in 1899; Imeris to Santa Ana via Magdalena, Griffiths 6856

CHIHUAHUA: Chihuahua, Pringle 816. CoaunuiLa: Saltillo, Hitchcock 5580.

TAMAULIPAS: Tampico, Hitchcock 5789. SinaLoa: Mazatlan, Purpus 359.

Duranco: Durango, Hitchcock 7583, Palmer 384 in 1896; Bernejillo, John-

ston 7787. QUERETARO: Querétaro, Hitchcock 5855. HipauGo: Pachuca,

Hitchcock 6758. Zacatecas: Villa de Cos, Johnston 7427. Oaxaca: To-

mellin, Hitchcock 6236.

Sporobolus patens Swallen, sp. nov. Fig. 5

Annuus; culmi 10-25 cm alti, graciles, erecti, glabri; vaginae internodlis

breviores, glabrae, in ore sparse hispidae, ea suprema elongata aphylla; ligula

ciliata, 0.56 mm longa; laminae 1—2 cm longae, 1-2 mm latae, lanceolatae,

planae, marginibus scabris; paniculae pyramidales, 2.5-—5 cm longae, ramis

paucifloris patentibus infimis subverticillatis superioribus alternis, ramulis

abrupte patentibus; spiculae 1.8—2 mm longae, pedicellibus divaricatis usque

ad 3 mm longis; gluma prima 0.3 mm longa; gluma secunda et lemma aequa-

lia, acuta; palea lemmate paulo brevior, lata, truncata, minute dentata; an-

therae 0.2—0.3 mm longae; caryopsis 1 mm longa, pallida.

Annual; culms 10—25cm tall, slender, erect, in small tufts, glabrous; sheaths

shorter than the internodes, the upper one elongate almost bladeless, gla-

brous, sparsely hispid at the throat; ligule ciliate, about 0.5 mm long; blades

1—2 cm long, 1-2 mm wide, lanceolate, flat, scabrous on the margins; panicles

pyramidal, 2.5—-5 cm long, the slender branches spreading or even reflexed,

the lower ones subverticillate, the upper ones scattered, few flowered, the

branchlets abruptly spreading; spikelets 1.8—2 mm long, the pedicels slender,

spreading, as much as 3 mm long; first glume minute, about 0.3 mm long;

second glume and lemma equal, acute, the lemma a little broader than the

glume; palea somewhat shorter than the lemma, broad, truncate, minutely

dentate; anthers minute, 0.2—-0.3 mm long, pinkish; caryopsis 1 mm long,

pale.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1723881, collected at Wilcox,

Ariz., September 26, 1938, by W. A. Silveus (no. 3504).

Probably closely related to the preceding, differing in having very slender

culms, delicate few-flowered panicles, long spreading pedicels, and larger

spikelets. The pulvini are inconspicuous and there are no glandular areas on

the axis or branches of the panicle.

Andropogon rhizomatus Swallen, sp. nov. Fig. 6

Perennis, rhizomatosus; culmi 50-70 em alti, solitarii vel caespitosi, gla-

bri, in parte superiore ramosi, ramis gracilibus appressis vel adscendentibus;

vaginae internodiis longiores, obscure carinatae, glabrae, inferiores aphyllae;

ligula membranacea, minute erosa, 0.5 mm longa; laminae 10-25 cm longae,

1-3 mm latae, glabrae; spathae angustae inconspicuae; racemi solitarii, 2-3

cm longi, pedunculis gracilibus 3-7 cm longis; rachis tortuosa marginibus vil-

losis; spicula sessilis 5-6 mm longa, gluma prima apice obscure carinata, gla-

bra; lemma fertile 5 mm longum, angustum, arista 8-10 mm longa, genicu-

lata, infra geniculam contorta; spicula pedicellata reducta, 2-3 mm longa,

exaristata, pedicello superne ciliato.

Aue. 15, 1941 SWALLEN: NEW UNITED STATES GRASSES 300

Figs. 4-8.—New species of United States grasses, plants and panicles, X1, spike-

lets, X10: 4, Sporobolus pulvinatus; 5, Sporobolus patens; 6, Andropogon rhizomatus ;

7, Andropogon niveus; 8, Andropogon sericatus. Drawings from the type specimens by

Mrs. Frances C. Weintraub.

Perennial; culms 50-70 cm tall, slender or rather stout, scattered, or in

small dense tufts, erect from short scaly rhizomes, glabrous, rather sparingly

branched above the middle, the usually long slender branches appressed or

narrowly ascending; sheaths much longer than the internodes, or the upper

ones shorter, rounded on the back or obscurely keeled, the lowermost short,

crowded, bladeless, but these not always evident; ligule membranaceous,

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

minutely erose, about 0.5 mm long; blades 10-25 cm long, 1-3 mm wide, flat

or loosely involute, glabrous; racemes solitary, 2-3 cm long, partly enclosed

or exserted from the very narrow inconspicuous spathes, the peduncles very

slender, 3-7 cm long, the rachis tortuous, villous on the margins; sessile spike-

let 5-6 mm long, narrow, the first glume rounded on the back, obscurely

keeled near the summit, glabrous; fertile lemma 5 mm long, very narrow,

awned from about the middle, the awn 8-10 mm long, geniculate, tightly

twisted below the bend; pedicellate spikelet very much reduced, inconspicu-

ous, 2-3 mm long, awnless, the pedicel arcuate spreading, villous on the mar-

gins above the middle.

Type in the herbarium of the U. 8. National Arboretum, no. 98478, col-

lected in shallow rocky soil near Homestead, Fla., October 16, 1940, by W. A.

Silveus (no. 6614).

This well-marked species superficially resembles Andropogon stolonifer

(Nash) Hitche., which is typically much larger with longer rhizomes, broad,

distinctly keeled sheaths, and more numerous racemes which are commonly

4—6 cm long. It is a plant of low rocky or alkaline soil of southern Florida,

while A. stolonifer is found in sandy woods of northern Florida.

Other collections have been made west of Palm Beach, Szlveus 6661, and

Royal Palm State Park, Szlveus 6606.

Andropogon niveus Swallen, sp. nov. Fig. 7

Perennis; culmi graciles 50-65 cm alti, caespitosi glabri; vaginae carinatae,

glabrae, inferiores internodiis longiores, superiores internodiis breviores;

ligula membranacea, 1 mm longa; laminae 5-9 cm longae, 1—2 mm latae, di-

vergentes vel reflexae, marginibus scabris; racemi 4-7, 3-4 cm longi, rachi

subflexuosa densissime pilosa pilis ca. 2 mm longis; spiculae sessiles 5-6 mm

longae, suberectae; gluma prima minute bifida, obscure carinata, glabra;

lemma fertile 4 mm longum, lobatum, arista 1 cm longa, geniculata, infra

geniculam contorta; spicula pedicellata reducta 3 mm longa.

Perennial; culms slender, 50-65 cm tall, in small rather dense tufts, erect,

glabrous; sheaths keeled, glabrous, the lower ones longer, the upper ones

shorter than the internodes; ligule membranaceous about 1 mm long; blades

5-9 cm long, 1-2 mm wide, flat, scabrous on the margins, spreading to re-

flexed; racemes solitary, few to several, 3-4 cm long, terminating the slender,

elongate, rather distant branchlets, the rachis nearly straight or somewhat

flexuous, the joints and sterile pedicels about 5 mm long, very densely villous,

the hairs 2 mm long at the summit becoming gradually shorter toward the

base; first glume of sessile spikelet 5-6 mm long, glabrous, minutely bifid,

obscurely keeled toward the summit, 2-nerved between the keels; fertile lem-

ma 4 mm long, very deeply lobed, awned from near the base, the awn 1 cm

long, geniculate at the middle, tightly twisted below the bend; pedicellate

spikelet much reduced, about 3 mm long including the awn; anthers yellow,

2.5 mm long.

Type in the herbarium of the U. 8. National Arboretum, no. 98477, col-

lected on sandy land about 15 miles south of Kissimmee, Fila., October Dil

1940, by W. A. Silveus (no. 6684).

This very graceful species is allied to Andropogon gracilis Spreng., which

can be distinguished by the longer involute blades, more conspicuously hairy

racemes, and stouter longer awns as much as 2 cm long. It is rather common

in open sandy pineland of central Florida. Other collections than the type

have been made in Florida east of Clermont, Lake County, Szlveus 6704;

Gainesville, Alachua County, Swallen 5634, 5639; 8 miles east of Dundee,

= DW a Mt a

Ave. 15, 1941 SWALLEN: NEW UNITED STATES GRASSES 355

Polk County, McFarlin 3707; Brooksville, Hernando County, H. R. Reed

in 19388.

Andropogon sericatus Swallen, sp. nov. Fig. 8

Perennis; culmi graciles, 50-80 cm alti, erecti, caespitosi, in parte superiore

multiramosi, ramis gracilibus erectis vel adscendentibus; vaginae glabrae,

carinatae, internodiis breviores; ligula membranacea, truncata, 1 mm longa;

laminae innovationes subfiliformae, 10-20 cm longae, supra ad basin pilosae,

eae culmorum 15-20 cm longae, 2-3 mm latae, conduplicatae marginibus sca-

bris; spathae inconspicuae; pedunculi 4-6 cm longi, gracillimi, curvati; race-

mi solitarii, 3 cm longi, vix exserti; rachis gracilis, flexuosa, dense pilosa pilis

usque ad 7 mm longis; spicula sessilis 5 mm longa, divergens; gluma prima

suleata carinis scabris; lemma fertile 3 mm longum, bilobum, arista 15-20

mm longa, geniculata, infra geniculam contorta; spicula pedicellata reducta,

3—4 mm longa.

Perennial; culms 50-80 cm tall, rather slender, tufted, erect, glabrous, pro-

fusely branching in the upper half, the slender branches and racemes forming

a somewhat dense but delicate inflorescence; sheaths, except the lower ones,

shorter than the internodes, keeled, glabrous; ligule membranaceous, trun-

cate, 1 mm long; blades of the innovations very narrow or subfiliform, 10-20

cm long, long pilose on the upper surface toward the base; culm blades broad-

er, 2-3 mm wide, conduplicate, mostly 15-20 cm long, scabrous on the mar-

gins; spathes very inconspicuous; peduncles 4-6 cm long, very slender,

curved but becoming straight with age; racemes solitary or rarely paired, 3

em long, scarcely exserted from the spathes, the rachis slender, flexuous, con-

spicuously hairy, the hairs at the summit of the joints as much as 7 mm long,

gradually shorter downward, the sterile pedicels spreading, hairy like the

rachis joints; sessile spikelets 5 mm long, spreading; first glume conspicuous-

ly keeled with a deep furrow between the scabrous keels; lemma 3 mm long,

bilobed, awned from just below the middle, the awn 15-20 mm long, genicu-

late, tightly twisted below the bend; pendicellate spikelet very much re-

duced, 3-4 mm long including the awn.

Type in the herbarium of the U. 8. National Arboretum, no. 98479, col-

lected on Ramrod Key, Fla., October 17, 1940, by W. A. Silveus (no. 6633).

The relationship of this grass is not evident. The racemes are mostly soli-

tary as in the section Schizachyrium, but occasionally they are paired as in

the section Arthrolophis, thus breaking down the primary character used to

separate Schizachyrium as a genus. Superficially this species resembles larger

plants of A. gracilis Spreng., the racemes of which are fewer and much more

conspicuously hairy, and all the blades are involute. The numerous slender

branches forming a relatively dense but delicate inflorescence, and the usu-

ally solitary, flexuous, silky racemes are characteristic.

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

ZOOLOGY .—A review of the snakes of the genus Ficimia.! Hopart M.

SMITH, Smithsonian Institution, and Epwarp H. Taytor, Uni-

versity of Kansas. (Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

In 1936 Taylor? reviewed most of the species of F2cimia known from

Mexico, including a very distinct new species discovered by him in

Sonora (desertorum). This review was based on material available in

the EHT-HMS collection and of necessity was not complete.

While the collection of the U. S. National Museum also lacks cer-

tain species (desertorum, quadrangularis, ruspator), it does contain a

number of specimens that present new and noteworthy information

on distribution and variation of other species in the genus. This ma-

terial, combined with that now present in the EHT-HMS collection,

makes possible a redefinition of the several species and an evaluation

of certain specific and generic characters of species and groups of

species. .

Two groups are apparent in Ficimia (sensu lato), one (olivacea

group [=Ficimia, sensu stricto]) containing publia, variegata, a new

species described below as ruspator, olivacea, and streckeri, the other

(cana group [=Gyalopion]) containing cana, quadrangularis, and de-

sertorum. The association of the latter with the cana group is open to

question, since the species has two characters that Gf normal) dis-

tinguish it from all others, not only of the group, but of the genus

(entire anal, a loreal*?). However, it agrees with the cana group in pat-

tern and in having the rostral separated from the frontal by contact

of the prefrontals. The latter is one of the chief characteristics of the

cana group, and since desertorwm seems to be directly ancestral to the

other two species of the group, there is little gained by placing it in

another group or genus.

The two groups differ from each other in contact (or separation) of

the rostral from the frontal and in number of ventrals and subcaudals.

The olivacea group has the rostral in contact with the frontal, ventrals

140 to 160, and caudals 32 to 42. The cana group has the rostral sep-

arated from the frontal by contact medially of the two prefrontals,

and has 129 to 146 ventrals and 23 to 36 caudals. No hemipenial dif-

ferences are discernible, and differences in dentition are slight (see

following discussion). | :

The members of the olivacea group are differentiated by variations

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived January 30, 1941.

2 Taylor, E. H., Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 49: 51-54. 1936.

’ The entire anal may not be normal, as one specimen of publia has it the same.

The loreal is not completely unique, either, as one cana possesses a loreal (see Fig. 16).

Ave. 15, 1941 SMITH AND TAYLOR: SNAKES OF THE GENUS FICIMIA 3057

in pattern (presence, absence, number, and width of blotches), by

presence or absence of internasals, and by number of postoculars.

Every member (with one exception) has a distinctive pattern, which

fortunately is subject to less intraspecific variation (without inter-

specific overlap, so far as now known) than the two varying charac-

ters of scutellation (which do overlap interspecifically). Accordingly

pattern is the primary medium of differentiation in the process of

speciation in the genus. Scutellation is more generally constant

throughout the group, is less readily affected than pattern, and dif-

ferentiations that have occurred in it are less well stabilized. In both

pattern and scutellation, however, there is a definite, orthogenetic

trend toward reduction and simplification.

In the cana group also pattern is the chief medium of species dif-

ferentiation. F’. cana and quadrangularis are differentiated from each

other largely by pattern characters resulting from two different modes

of reduction from a pattern type such as possessed by desertorum.

Differentiation in scutellation has also occurred, however, and by the

same process (simplification by fusion, the loreal of desertorum rarely

present in cana and quadrangularis, fused with the prefrontal), carried

out during long periods of isolation (i.e., separation from parent

stock), as in the olivacea group. In both pattern and scutellation de-

sertorum is the most primitive of the group. If we regard this species

as representing a type ancestral to the other two species, then the two

orthogenetic trends evident in the olivacea group are quite as obvious

in the cana group.

In the center of dispersal of the olivacea group is publia, which we

believe is the most primitive of that group, since it is the only one

normally with internasals; its pattern is also one from which the other

pattern types conceivably may have been derived. The trends of

evolution in the group are toward elimination of the blotched pattern

(through production of many small spots) and fusion of the head

scales. Essentially two lines of divergence, each showing these trends

of evolution, from the publia stock, are evident: one on the Atlantic

coast, marked by extremes of fusion of head scales and of pattern

reduction, and one on the Pacific coast, marked by lesser pattern re-

duction and little fusion of head scales. The Pacific coast branch is

now split into two geographic (and specific) populations, one south

(east) of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (variegatus), the other north

(west) of the Isthmus (ruspator). In the Isthmus itself is publia. In

this line pattern reduction has proceeded but little; the dorsal spots

are well defined, and only more numerous and a little narrower than

358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 8

in publia. In scutellation also little change has occurred, the northern

form retaining the scutellation of publia, the southern form losing the

internasals (by fusion with the prefrontals).

Two species (streckeri and olivacea) have emerged from the Atlantic

coast branch also, but in this the pattern is totally eliminated in one

(olivacea), nearly so in the other (streckerz); both have lost the inter-

nasals, and streckerz marks the extreme in structural specialization in

the genus by fusion of the two postoculars.

In the cana group, by its possession of a loreal and a generalized

pattern, desertorum should be ancestral to cana and quadrangularis;

its central geographic position in Sonora supports this view. Its entire

anal (apparently a specialized character) may have developed after

the evolution of cana-quadrangularis stock (in which case each stem

possesses a specialized character in scutellation), or unfortunately it

may be an aberrant character appearing in the single known specimen.

It is obvious from the foregoing discussion that two widely different

stocks, long isolated from each other, are at present included in

Ficumia, in the arrangement proposed by Boulenger (Cat. Snakes,

vol. 2, 1894). These have different centers of dispersal (Fig. 11), differ-

ent ranges, and different morphological characters, and while obvi-

ously related their common ancestry seems very remote. They are

units possessing the characters defining them as genera according to

present usage of that term; they fit that definition much better than

some genera at present generally recognized. Accordingly the eight

species of these two units are segregated in the genera Gyalopion

and Ficimia.

Genus Gyalopion Cope

Gyalopion Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1861, p. 248.

Genotype.—Gyalopion canum Cope, loc. cit., by monotypy.

Diagnosis.—Maxillary teeth 12 to 15, subequal, no diastemata, some with

very distinct, shallow, lateral depressions, all or most others with some evi-

dence of same; body short, cylindrical, head not distinct from neck; eye small;

pupil round; snout projecting, pointed; rostral large, separated from frontal

by prefrontals; internasals present; loreal present or absent; anterior section

of nasal usually fused with first labial; one anterior temporal; posterior chin-

shields very small; scales smooth, with single apical pits; ventrals 129 to 146;

caudals 23 to 36; hemipenis undivided, distal half or two-thirds calyces, a

small adjacent (proximally) area spines, basal sixth ridges, sulcus single.

Remarks.—Because of the constant presence of internasals, presence of

a loreal in two specimens, and constant separation of the rostral from the

frontal, this genus is, in general, more primitive than Ficimea. That it is not

directly ancestral to it is attested by the peculiar pattern, reduced ventral

and caudal count, and peripheral distribution (with a different center of dis-

persal).

Ava. 15, 1941 SMITH AND TAYLOR: SNAKES OF THE GENUS FICIMIA 359

Gyalopion desertorum (Taylor) Figs. 2, 7, 15

Ficimia desertorum Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 49: 51-52. 1936 (12

kilometers northwest of Guaymas, Sonora); Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull. 24:

494, pl. 48, fig. 1. 1936 (1938).

Diagnosis.—Rostral separated from frontal by prefrontals; a loreal; anal

single (normal?) ; blotches entirely black on middorsum; nuchal spot extend-

ing onto frontal and supraocular region; ground color reddish, except on mid-

dorsum.

Specimens examined.—One, the type, the only known specimen (EHT-

HMS 4576).

Remarks.—From canum and quadrangularis this species differs by possessing

a loreal, perhaps in having a single anal, and in color pattern. The latter is

more like that of guadrangularis than canum, since in both the spots are uni-

form black (not brown, black-edged as in canwm) and the nuchal spot is

fused across the middorsal occipital region with another black spot on the

top of head which involves the frontal and extends laterally through and be-

low the eyes.

In quadrangularis, however, the spots are less numerous (26 on body, 5 on

tail; in desertorum, 32 on body, 8 on tail), and they are restricted to the mid-

dorsal region, the sides being unmarked. In desertorum the blotches extend

laterally to the edge of the ventrals, but on the sides of the body a broad, cen-

tral area of each scale in the blotches is light, the dark area restricted to the

edges of the scales. Only the nuchal blotch is uniform black on the sides of

the body.

The reddish (magenta) dorsal ground color (cream on middorsum) of

desertorum is a very noteworthy and surprising development. This color is

very striking in life, although not evident after six years in preservative: the

local residents called the snake a coralillo. Since red occurs in no other species

of either Gyalopion or Ficimia (so far as now known; quadrangularis may

have it), its significance is not readily obvious. Presumably it is a specializa-

tion.

The maxilla has 13 subequal teeth, most of them feebly grooved laterally;

extreme anterior tip toothless.

The hemipenis is 10 caudals long; distal three caudal lengths caleyces; ad-

jacent five caudal lengths spines, the size increasing proximally; two large

basal spines; remaining area at base ridged, each ridge surmounted by tiny

spines; sulcus single.

G. desertorum differs from all others of its genus and of Ficimia (so far as

known) in the presence of tiny spines on the proximal portion of the hemi-

penis, and by the presence of a loreal (latter not completely unique). With

some reason the species could be separated in a monotypic genus, especially if

the single anal proves constant. We have refrained from doing so because it

appears to be directly ancestral to canum and quadrangularis.

Gyalopion quadrangularis (Giinther)

Ficumia quadrangularis Giinther, Biol. Centr. Amer., Rept., p. 99, pl. 35,

fig. A. 1893 (Presidio, near Mazatlan, Sinaloa).

Diagnosis.—Rostral separated from frontal by prefrontals; no loreal; anal

divided; no spots on sides of body, only markings a series of 26 rounded or

subquadrangular, uniform blackish-brown spots on body, 5 on tail; spots not

extending below fifth scale row, sides of body below this nearly white; nuchal

spot confluent with interocular dark bar.

360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

oS ey

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desertorum streckeri

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GYALOPION /

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Fig. 1.—(See opposite page for legend).

Ava. 15, 1941 SMITH AND TAYLOR: SNAKES OF THE GENUS FICIMIA 361

Specimens examined.mNone. Apparently none in American museums;

type in British Museum.

Remarks.—This species does not differ from canum in scutellation. Giin-

ther points out that the seventh labial is very small, but the size of this scale

varies greatly at least in Ficimia publia, and possibly also in quadrangularis.

Some publia have it considerably smaller than the tertiary temporals (as in

quadrangularis), others have it much larger.

Pattern differences from canum are obvious; spots fewer (30 to 39 in

canum), head markings black, fused with first nuchal spot (not in canwm), no

marks on sides (secondary spots on sides in canum, dorsal spots also extend-

ing on sides), all spots black (brown, black-edged, in canum). It has fewer

spots than desertorum, and the spots are restricted to the middorsal region,

but otherwise it is much like the latter, from which its pattern obviously is

derived.

Gyalopion canum Cope Figs. 1, 6, 16

Gyalopion canum Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1860, p. 243

(Fort Buchanan, Ariz.; U.S.N.M. nos. 16427-8).

Ficumia cana Garman, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 8: 83, 161. 1883; Van Den-

burgh, Occ. Papers California Acad. Sci. 10: 777-779. 1922; Taylor,

Copeia, 1931, no. 1, pp. 4-5.

Diagnosis.—Rostral separated from frontal by prefrontals; no loreal; anal

divided; spots on body 30 to 39, on tail 9 to 12; spots brown, black-edged,

broken laterally or continuous with lateral spots, reaching nearly to ventrals;

irregular, small spots scattered on sides of body.

Specimens examined.—Four.

Range.—Southeastern Arizona east to Tom Green County, Tex.; south to

the Chisos Mountains, Tex. Not yet recorded from Mexico.

Locality records.—ARiIzONA: Fort Buchanan (U.S.N.M. nos. 16427-8);

Montezuma Canyon, Huachuca Mountains (Van Denburgh). New Mex-

1co: White Sands, Alamogordo (Van Denburgh); 10 miles north of Florida,

Luna County (Kans. Univ. nos. 6616-7). TErxas: Green Gulch, Chisos

Mountains (U.S.N.M. no. 103654); Tom Green County (Baylor Univ. no.

6015); El Paso (Van Denburgh).

Remarks.—The color pattern of this species is markedly different from that

of the other two species of the genus in having the blotches light-centered and

black-edged, and a different head and neck pattern. An interocular dark bar,

bordered by light anteriorly and posteriorly, is visible in this species; a similar

bar extends across the middle of the parietals;the nuchal blotch does not ex-

tend onto the head. The pattern is conceivably derived from that of deser-

torum, in which the blotches number about the same, but are solid black. The

Figs. 1, 6, 16.—Cephalic scutellation of Gyalopion canum, from K.U. no. 6616,

Florida, N. M. Loreal and small lower preocular not usually present.

Figs. 2, 7, 15.—Cephalic scutellation of Gyalopion desertorum, from holotype, EHT-

HMS no. 4576, Guaymas, Sonora.

Figs. 3, 8, 14.—Cephalic scutellation of Ficimia streckeri, from holotype, K.U. no.

9140, Rio Grande City, Tex.

Figs. 4, 9, 13.—Cephalic scutellation of Fictmia olivacea, from EHT-HMS no. 4575,

Tierra Colorada, Veracruz.

Figs. 5, 10, 12.—Cephalic scutellation of Fictmia ruspator, from holotype, EHT-HMS

no. 23646, Tixtla, Guerrero.

Fig. 11—Diagrammatie representation of the possible phylogeny of Gyalopion and

Ficimia. .

362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

latter feature seems to be the primitive condition in Ficimia as well as in

Gyalopion, since southern (presumably most primitive) publia have the spots

nearly or quite solidly black.

TABLE 1.—VARIATION IN GYALOPION CANUM

Number Sex |Ventrals | Caudals| Supral. | Infral. Proc. Ptoe. Ptoe. Bony en

spots spots

6617 of 134 35 Cail 7-7 1-1 1-2 1-1 39 12

103654 rot 136 30 7-7 7-7 1-1 2-2 1-1 34 12

5284 fo) 136 27 7-7 7-8 1-1 2-2 1-1 30 9

6616 fe) 143 31 7-7 8-8 2-2 2-2 1-1 36 9

6015 fe) 141 31 7-7 7-7 1-1 2-2 1-1 36 11

Brit. M Q 131 28 7-0 1-1 2-2 1-1

Ruthven 9? 145 29 calli 7-8 1-1 2-2 1-1 40 9

Maxilla with 12 teeth, all with moderately distinct to faint, lateral de-

pressions or grooves; tip toothless.

Hemipenis (of K.U. no. 6617) about 14 caudals long; distal half calyces,

these extending a little farther proximally along sulcus; nearly all of re-

mainder spines; two large basal spines; extreme basal portion ridged, without

spicules.

One specimen (no. 6617) has the first labial completely separated from the

nasal. Another from the same locality has a loreal and a small, lower preocu-

lar (Fig. 16).

Genus Ficimia Gray

Ficimia Gray, Cat. Snakes Brit. Mus., p. 80. 1849.

Amblymetopon Ginther, Cat. Snakes Brit. Mus., p. 7. 1858 (genotype,

variegatum, by monotypy).

Genotype.—Ficimia olivacea Gray, loc. cit., by monotypy.

Diagnosis.—Like Gyalopion, except: Maxillary teeth with very faint

lateral grooves or depressions; rostral in contact with frontal, separating

prefrontals medially; loreal absent; internasals present or absent (fused) ;

ventrals 140 to 160, caudals 32 to 42.

Ficimia publia Cope

Ficimia publia Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1866, p. 126 (Yuca-

tan; two cotypes, U.S.N.M. nos. 16427—8); Barbour and Cole, Bull. Mus.

Comp. Zool. 50: 153. 1906; Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 49: 53.

1936; Schmidt and Andrews, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 20: 173-

174. 1936; Hartweg and Oliver, Univ. Michigan Mus. Zool. Misc. Publ.

47: 23. 1940.

?Ficimia olivacea (sensu lato, nec Gray) Stuart, Univ. Michigan Mus. Zool.

Mise. Publ. 29: 51. 1935.

Ficimia variegata (nec Giinther) Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 49: 54.

1936.

Diagnosis.—Rostral in contact with frontal; internasals usually present

(84 percent) ; two postoculars, or if only one, the other obviously fused with

it or with supraocular; a dorsal pattern of distinct blotches or irregular

bands, 21 to 35 on body, 7 to 11 on tail; centers of blotches usually lighter,

edges ‘black (all black only in southern [Honduras] specimens); length of

blotches equal to two to four scale lengths; spaces between blotches never

exceeding one and one-half times length of blotches, usually equal or less.

Ava. 15, 1941 SMITH AND TAYLOR: SNAKES OF THE GENUS FICIMIA 363

Specimens examined.—Fourteen. Partial data on four others.

Range.—Isthmus of Tehuantepec to western Honduras; on Pacific slopes

only from the Isthmus of. Tehuantepec to southern Guatemala.

Locality records.—Cuiapas: La Esperanza, near Escuintla (U.S.N.M. no.

110296). Oaxaca: Ranchero Pozo Rio (U.M.M.Z. no. 82594); La Con-

cepcién (U.S.N.M. no. 110298); Tehuantepec (U.S.N.M. no. 110297).

Veracruz: Minatitlan (Taylor). YucaTAN: Catmis (F.M.N.H. no. 26993);

Chichen Itza (F.M.N.H. nos. 20623, 20653; M.C.Z., Barbour and Cole);

Yucatan (U.S.N.M. nos. 16427-8; Brit. Mus.). Guaremaua: ?La Libertad

(U.M.M.Z., Stuart); Piedras Negras (U.S.N.M. no. 110295); Escuintla

(U.S.N.M. 12688). Honpuras: Ceiba (U.S.N.M. nos. 55237-8, 64986). One

other record is Cuernavaca, Morelos (Brit. Mus.). While this may be cor-

rect, its distant removal from other localities represented by the species

makes it questionable, until supported by other locality data. If the locality

is correct, the specimen very likely may be referable to ruspator. It has

internasals.

Remarks.—It is our belief that the chief character identifying this species

and separating it from its nearest relatives is its pattern. It has less numerous

blotches than varzegata and ruspator (which have nearly identical patterns),

and much broader and more regular ones than streckeri; olivacea has none.

The head markings show a great deal of variability. They are symmetrical

and well defined in the Tehuantepec specimens, absent in the Honduras

specimens, and present, although asymmetrical and not well defined, in the

others.

The presence or absence of internasals is not an infallible, invariable

character in this group. While publia is generally characterized by inter-

nasals present, the fact that one specimen has one internasal partially fused

with the prefrontal and another specimen has one internasal on one side,

leads us to believe that the two specimens lacking internasals on both sides

are merely variants of publia. The latter two specimens show no differences

in pattern, and no differences we can consider significant in scutellation,

from other publia. Both occur within the expected range of publza.

Species in which the internasals have been lost do not show a variation

like that which occurs in publia: 14 specimens of these species (streckert,

olivacea, variegata) show the occurrence of an internasal but once (on one

side of one olivacea). Since the trend in this genus is toward loss of these

scales, it is to be expected that the variation should occur in those retaining

the scales distinct (publia, ruspator), not in those in which they are lost;

distinct internasals are an anomaly in the latter, but the lack of them in the

former is merely evidence of a well-established generic trend. This fact is

one of the chief reasons that ruspator is held distinct from variegata, which

is known to normally lack internasals (none in four specimens).

As shown in Table 2, the relative width and length of frontal, rostral,

and frontal-rostral suture seem to have no great significance in publia, ex-

cept that the frontal-rostral suture may be broader in younger specimens,

and that the rostral is generally a little shorter than the frontal.

If other forms are distinguished in the future among the specimens here

referred to publia, we believe they will be subspecies distinguished by

features of the color pattern. The most distinct population now discernible

is that of Honduras; the three specimens from that country have the blotches

bandlike and of uniform color throughout, the ground color light (not

darkened), and very few lateral marks. All other publia have the blotches

distinctly light centered; the condition of the Honduras specimens is closely

364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 8

TABLE 2.—VARIATION IN FICIMIA PUBLIA

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mm | mm |mm/!mm

§5237 o | 144 | 38 | 7-7 | 8-8 | 1-1 | 2-1 | 0-1 | 0.9 |} 2.0 | 2.3 | 3.0 | 28 9 | Honduras

55238 o | 144 | 39 | 7-7 | 7-8 | 1-1 | 2-1 | 1-1 | 1.0] 1.9 | 2.8 | 3.1 | 31 | 10 | Honduras

Stuart co | 135 | 36 Peten

110295 o' | 146 | 38 | 7-7 | 8-8 |} 1-1 | 2-2 | 1-4 | 1.2 | 2.8 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 27 8 | Peten

16428 o | 1384 | 33 | 7-7 | 7-7 | 1-1 | 2-2 | 1-1 | 0.7 | 2.0 | 2.8 | 2.8 | 81 | 11 | Yucatdén

26993 o | 136 | 37 | 7-7 | 7-7 | 1-1 | 1-2 | 0-0 25 8 | Yucatan

M.C.Z. o'?| 145 | 37 1-1 26 9 | Yucatan

Brit. M.| o?} 142 | 36 1-1 | 2-2 | 1-1 Yucat4n

82594 co | 1438 | 36 | 7-7 | 7-7 1-1 25 | 8| Tehuantepec

64986 9 | 156 | 35 | 7-7 | 7-8 | 1-1 | 1-2 |] 1-1] 0.9 | 1.8 | 2.1 | 2.9 | 30 9 | Honduras

16427 2 1388 | 30 | 7-7 | 7-8 | 1-1 | 2-2 | 1-1 | 0.7 | 1.9 |} 2. 2.7 | 31 | 10 | Yucatdn

20623 Q@ | 148 | 35 | 7-7 | 7-7 | 1-1 | 2-2 | 1-1 26 9 | Yucatén

20635 @ | 151 | 32 | 7-7 | 6.7 | 1-1 | 2-2 | 1-1 25 7 | Yueatdén

Rickard | @ | 155 | 34 | 7-7 | 7-7 | 1-1 | 1-1 | 0-0 Heal) aby4t | By 9 | Veracruz

110297 Q 148 | 32 | 7-7 | 7-7 | 1-1 | 2-2} 1-1 | 1.7 | 1.9 | 2.0 |] 2.2 | 21 7 | Tehuantepec

110298 fe) 152 | 37 | 7-7 | 8-8 |} 1-1 | 2-2 | 1-1 | 1.0 |] 1.8 | 2.0 |] 2.2 |; 25 7 | Tehuantepec

110296 Q 153 | 36 | 7-7 | 7-8 | 1-1 | 2-2 | 1-1 | 1.2 | 2.8 | 4.5 | 3.8 | 31 8 | Chiapas

12688 Q 154 | 32 | 7-7 | 8-8 | 1-1 | 2-2 | 1-1 | 0.9 | 2.1 |] 3.8 | 3.5 | 35 9 | Guatemala

Brit. M.| 9 | 142 | 35 0-0 | ‘““Mexico”’

approached by the Piedras Negras specimen, in which the blotches are al-

most entirely black. We have refrained from naming the Honduras speci-

mens because it appears certain that, if they are recognized, then the re-

mainder of publia should be split: the Yucatan specimens have few marks

on the sides; the Escuintla specimen has the blotches bandlike; and the

remainder have the blotches split laterally (not forming crossbands), numer-

ous lateral spots, and adults have the ground color darkened. Until these

pattern types are known from many more specimens, and the limits of varia-

tion can be more definitely established, it is impossible to diagnose sub-

species in publia with any degree of certainty.

Ficimia ruspator sp. nov. Figs. 5, 10, 12

?Ficimia publia Boulenger, Cat. Snakes Brit. Mus. 2: 271. 1894. (part.; the

Cuernavaca specimen).

Holotype.—K. H. Taylor—H. M. Smith collection no. 23646, female, 3 miles

east of Tixtla (about 10 miles east of Chilpancingo), Guerrero.

Diagnosis.—Similar to Ficimia publia, but blotches on body 48, on tail

11. Similar to Frcemia variegata, but internasals present. Two postoculars;

blotches narrow, tending to be light-centered; ventrals 154; caudals 33.

Description of holotype.—Rostral large, elongate, its suture with frontal

subequal to sutures between latter and prefrontals; rostral sharply upturned

anteriorly, the ridge bordered posteriorly by a shallow depression; length of

rostral from anterior ridge to frontal (2.8 mm) distinctly greater than length

of frontal (2.0 mm), very slightly greater than length of median parietal

suture; nasal narrow, anterior section fused with first labial; prefrontal in

contact with second labial; preocular single, large; two postoculars, lower

Aug. 15, 1941 SMITH AND TAYLOR: SNAKES OF THE GENUS FICIMIA 365

smaller; one elongate, narrow, anterior temporal; two (three) tertiary tem-

porals; seven supralabials, all relatively high, sixth largest, fourth next

largest, third and fourth contacting orbit, seventh slightly larger than lower

tertiary temporal; diameter of orbit nearly as great (five-sixths) as its dis-

tance from labial border, little less than half its distance from tip of snout;

seven infralabials, fourth largest, three in contact with anterior chinshields;

posterior chinshields practically indistinguishable, separated medially by

two scales, somewhat larger than gular scales, in contact with two labials.

Scales in 17 rows throughout, smooth, with single apical pits; ventrals 154;

anal divided; caudals 33. Total length 144 mm; tail 20 mm.

Color.—General color light gray; body with 43 transverse, black blotches,

some of the anterior blotches with dimly lighter (brown) centers; blotches

broken on sides of body at about fifth scale row; below this sides with ir-

regular black spots and vertical streaks, some rarely confluent with dorsal

blotches, some involving ends of ventrals; spaces between blotches about

equal to length of blotches or slightly less (one and one-half to two scale

lengths, middorsal line); tail with 11 dorsal crossbars, sides with a very few

spots. Top of head somewhat brownish gray, with numerous irregular black

marks; a large dark spot under eye, reaching lip; labial sutures dark. Infra-

labial sutures dark stippled, the markings not distinct; no other gular marks;

some spots on sides of body involving ends of ventral; a little scattered stip-

pling on sides of belly; otherwise ventral surfaces unspotted, white.

Remarks.—Aside from the ‘‘Cuernavaca”’ record of Boulenger, which is

open to much doubt, the type of ruspator is the only specimen of Ficimia

known from the Pacific slopes of Mexico north (west) of Tehuantepec. The

fact that this area faunistically is much different from the area in Chiapas

and southeastern Oaxaca inhabited by variegata; that the range of the latter

species is separated from the presumed range of ruspator by an area (Te-

huantepec) occupied by publia; that species of Ficimia normally lacking

internasals very rarely (if ever) have them on both sides (it is the reverse

that frequently occurs); and that Ficimia tends to differentiate in each dif-

ferent area it inhabits, leads us to believe that the single specimen and type

of ruspator may be normal and represent a form different from varzegata

(by presence of internasals) and publia (by more numerous blotches). If

further specimens prove to lack internasals usually, then the concept of the

range of varzegata must be extended to include this area, in spite of the fact

that it is split in the Tehuantepec area by the range of publia. That we do

not believe this will prove to be the case is implied by the fact that the

Guerrero specimen is here named. We believe that ruspator and variegata

are of independent origin (from publia, however), and that the parallelism

between the two in pattern is explicable by the orthogenetic trend in the

genus toward reduction in size and increase in number of the blotches.

Probably streckert passed through the same stage in its pattern evolution,

which in it has gone still farther and produced very narrow, irregular bands.

The fact that variegata has lost the internasals while ruspator retains them

indicates a possibly greater age for the former.

The parallelism between ruspator and variegata is remarkably similar to

that occurring in Conophis lineatus and C. pulcher.

Ficimia variegata (Giinther)

Amblymetopon variégatum Giinther, Cat. Snakes Brit. Mus., pp. 7-8. 1858

(Mexico).

066 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 8

?Ficumia olivacea Steindachner, Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 61: 19. 1870;

Gunther, Biol. Centr. Amer., Rept., p. 98. 1893 (part), pl. 35, fig. C;

Boulenger, Cat. Snakes Brit. Mus. 2: 272. 1894 (part).

Diagnosis.—Rostral in contact with frontal; apparently no internasals

normally; two postoculars normally; pattern consisting of 45 to 56(?) band-

like blotches on body, about 16 on tail; bands covering one and one-half to

ee a lengths medially; spaces between bands about equal to length of

ands.

Specimens exammned.—One. Four known.

Range.—Mountains of central Chiapas and eastern Oaxaca (i.e., east of

the Isthmus of Tehuantepec).

Locality records.—The single specimen examined is from Guichicovi,

Oaxaca. If the Steindachner specimen from ‘“‘Tustla” is properly associated

with this species, the locality more correctly may be Tuxtla Gutierrez,

Chiapas (as previously stated by one of us Taylor, loc. cit., 1936, p. 54]).

The cotypes collected by Sallé very likely came from this same region, as a

number of other species of reptiles collected by him are now known to be

restricted to that area. |

Remarks.—If variegata has any significance whatever, the name must be

applied to specimens with a large number of dorsal blotches. The fact that

the four specimens now known with numerous blotches all appear to have

originated from a rather well-defined area not occupied by other members of

the genus (except perhaps olzvacea, the range of which may overlap that of

variegata), correlated with the fact that all four lack internasals while the

species’ closest relatives (publia, ruspator) normally have them (in spite

of the general trend in the genus toward elimination of them), indicates a

natural association and not a purely arbitrary one.

The specimen examined has 48 bands on the body, 16 on the tail. De-

scriptions of other specimens of the species unfortunately do not make clear

whether the band count given is the total number or only those on the body.

The figure in Giinther (Biol. Centr. Amer.) of one of the cotypes shows about

45 on the body, about 16 on the tail (total 61). However, Ginther states

that there are ‘‘51 to 56 of these crossbars,’’ but leaves indefinite what these

numbers represent. Since neither number corresponds either to body or total

blotches shown in the figure, perhaps the latter is incorrectly executed. The

original description does not clarify the situation, as the specimen described

in detail is merely said to have ‘56 black narrow cross bars.”’

The Guichicovi specimen is a female; ventrals 152; caudals 36; supra-

labials 7-7; preoculars 1-1; postoculars 1-2 (upper fused with supraocular on

one side); no internasals; rostro-frontal suture 1.2 mm; rostral width 2.7

mm; rostral length 3.8 mm; frontal length 3.9 mm. The two specimens in

the British Museum (a juvenile and a female) have 160 and 149 ventrals,

respectively, 37 and 36 caudals; both have 1-1 preoculars and 2-2 postoc-

ulars.

Ficimia olivacea Gray Figs. 4, 9, 13

Ficimia olivacea Gray, Cat. Snakes Brit. Mus., p. 80. 1849 (Mexico); Sumi-

chrast, La Naturaleza 6: 41. 1882; Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington

49: 52-53. 19386.

Diagnosis.—Rostral in contact with frontal; internasals normally absent;

two postoculars, or if only one, the other obviously fused with it or with

supraoculars; uniform dark gray or brown above, no evidence of transverse

markings.

Ava. 15, 1941 SMITH AND TAYLOR: SNAKES OF THE GENUS FICIMIA 367

\ eo

‘ eS or

Fig. 17.—Geographic distribution of the species of Gyalopion and Ficimia.

Inverted triangles, olzvacea; triangles not inverted, variegata; solid circles not otherwise

indicated, publia.

Specimens examined.—Four. Two others reported.

Range.—Central and southern Veracruz in coastal regions and low hills

(not to coast in extreme southern Veracruz); northeastern Oaxaca.

Locality records.—Oaxaca: El Barrio, near Lagunas (U.S.N.M. no.

30131). VeRacRuUzZ: Orizaba (U.S.N.M. no. 6329); Otopa (F.M.N.H. no.

1315); Tierra Colorada (HHT-HMS 2194).

Remarks.—The species is well defined, since it is the only one without

dorsal spots.

TABLE 3.—VARIATION IN FICIMIA OLIVACEA

Number Sex Ventrals Caudals Supral. Infral. Proc. Ptoc. Intern.

6329 of 140 37 Uae (0 1-1 2-2 0-0

Brit. M. a 152 42 1-1 2-2 0-0

Brit. M. fot 150 41 1-1 2-2 0-1

2194 fof 142 38 (7 TU. 1-1 2-2 0-0

30131 Q 146 7/ UU UU 1-1 2-2 0-0

1315 Q 142 37 7-7 7-7 1-1 2-2 0-0

Maxilla (no. 6329) with 15 subequal teeth, almost all with moderately well

defined, lateral grooves. Hemipenis of same specimen nine caudals long,

distal half calyces; nearly all of remainder with spines, increasing in size

proximally and terminating with two larger basal spines; extreme basal

portion ridged, spineless; sulcus single.

368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 8

Ficimia streckeri Taylor Figs. 3, 8, 14

Ficimia streckert Taylor, Copeia, 1931, no. 1, pp. 5-7 (3 miles east of Rio

Grande City, Tex.).

Diagnosis.—Rostral in contact with frontal; normally no internasals; one

postocular; pattern consisting of numerous (88 to 47), narrow, frequently

irregular, dark brown or black cross-bars; these covering about one scale

length or less, and separated from each other by about three times their own

length; bands sometimes very broken posteriorly, remaining evident chiefly

as small, middorsal spots.

Specimens examined.—Three, including type.

Range.—Extreme southern Texas to northern Veracruz.

Locality records.—TExas: Edinburg (U.S.N.M. no. 101051); 3 miles east

of Rio Grande City (K.U. no. 4140). Veracruz: Tuxpam (U.S.N.M. nos.

25201-2).

TABLE 4.—VARIATION IN FICIMIA STRECKERI

Number Sex Ventrals Caudals Supral. Infral. Proce. Ptoc. Intern.

25201 fof 144 37 7 7-7 1-1 1-1 0-0

25202 Q 149 29 7-7 7-7 1-1 1-1 0-0

101051 Q 143 33 7-7 7-7 1-1 1-1 0-0

4140 fe) 144 30 7-7 8-8 1-1 1-1 0-0

Remarks.—The very narrow, dorsal cross bands, separated from each

other by a distance about three times their own length, characterize this

species and differentiate it from all others. The single postocular is also

unique. In other species the two postoculars may be fused together, or one

fused with the supraoculars, but in all such cases the fusion is obvious.

KEY TO GYALOPION AND FICIMIA

1. Rostral separated from frontal............... Gyalopion... = aan 2

Restral in contact with frontal............... Picimid..s eee 4

2. Dark markings on head and middorsum brown, black-edged; head mark-

ings variable, not a single large blotch fused with first nuchal spot

He a6 Ms ab hos i gciou dh Sela MB We Nye at eReader G. canum

Dark markings on head and middorsum uniform black; a large black spot

on head, fused with first nuchal spot. -....2..... aon eee 3

3. Markings restricted to middorsum, not extending onto sides of body;

26) spots;on body; no loreal... 2) .4. 4-5. 948 oe G. quadrangularis

Markings extending onto sides of body to ends of ventrals; 32 spots on

body;#alorealcs oe 18 ou. 0 Wai iene i te ae G. desertorum

4. No dorsal markings whatever; usually two postoculars; usually no inter-

TAS AS as peer tit tore ad Rel ea A a F. olivacea

Dorsal bands present; one or two postoculars; internasals present or

ADSENE. occas b usela oa belie os Pe ot kd Gk nee 5

5. Dorsal bands very narrow (a scale length or less), separated from each

other by about three times their length; one postocular; no internasals

sags asrctne Deca aa tes Me Gap Ba ae AL 4x eg CEE Oe F. streckert

Dorsal bands longer (one and one half or more scale lengths), separated

from each other by no more than one and one half times their length;

two postoculars usually ; internasals present or absent.............. 6

6. Bands on body 21 to 35; internasals usually present.......... F. publia

Bands on body 48 or more; internasals present or absent.............7

i; Internasals presemt 0.20.4 2/ve. 2 eee ee F.. ruspator

Internasals absenty...) 2... «ge ee ee F. variegata

Ava. 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 369

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1170TH MEETING

The 1170th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

October 12, 1940, President Gipson presiding.

Program: W. Enwarps Dremina: On the sampling problems of the 1940 cen-

sus.—This paper was the presentation of a joint study carried out by F. F.

Stephan, Morris Hansen, and the author. Properly applied and interpreted,

sampling methods are capable of yielding results that for most inquiries are

as valuable as those that would be obtained on a complete coverage. Such

methods were used to enlarge the scope of the 1940 census. The sample thus

obtained contributes in four ways:

I. Since not every person responds to every question, the field work is

speeded up and carried out at reduced cost, thus making it possible to carry

more questions on the schedule.

II. Tabulations can be carried out on the sample for estimates of many

population characteristics, months ahead of the regular tabulations prepared

from the full count. This is an especially important feature in times of na-

tional emergency, and the fact is that several tabulations are even now in

progress to obtain quick counts of the distribution of the labor force by area,

sex, age, etc.

III. Because the sample tabulations can be carried out at greatly reduced

cost, more cross-tabulations can be tabulated and published (i.e., more in-

formation made available) than would otherwise be possible.

IV. The sample cards can be stored for subsequent tabulations as the need

arises. Storage of the cards for the complete count, even from one decade to

another, is not contemplated because of the space required. Storage of the

sample cards opens up the possibility, not heretofore realizable, of preserving

latent information for several decades.

The sampling scheme puts one person in the sample to represent himself

and 19 others. These sample persons were so chosen that the tabulations

made up from their characteristics will closely approximate the proportions

that would be shown by tabulations made from the entire population. The

procedure, so far as the enumerators were concerned, was automatic in its

operation. Care was taken to circumvent certain process biases that are in-

herent in a systematic coverage. The most important process biases arise

from the required order of enumeration, by which, in cities, the enumerator

starts at a corner and works around the block, and enumerates within each

household the head, the wife, oldest child, etc., in a specified order, according

to long-established census procedure. The magnitudes of these and other

biases were measured by studying the records of previous censuses, in order

to see which ones need to be eliminated, and just what the effect is if they

are not. The method of designating the sample persons also anticipated and

eliminated the effect of a number of enumerators’ misunderstandings. (Au-

thor’s abstract.) 7

The paper was discussed by Messrs. StePHAN, HaNsEN, TRUESDELL,

SEEGER, HAWKESWORTH, and Srquist.

3/0 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

1171sT MEETING

The 1171st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

October 26, 1941, President GrBson presiding.

Program: i. D. McAuisTER, Smithsonian Institution: Fluorescence and

photosynthesis. —Recent observations of chlorophyll fluorescence show that

the intensity of fluorescence depends on the rate of photochemical processes

in a living plant. In particular, when the intensity of fluorescence and rate

of COs, assimilation were recorded simultaneously during the induction

period (McAuistrErR, E. D., and Myers, Jack, Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,

99. No. 6. 1940) it was found that the two curves were nearly perfect mir-

ror images of each other under low oxygen pressures (photosynthesis then

being the predominant photochemical reaction). These data suggest the

“working hypothesis” that the energy losses from chlorophyll as heat and

fluorescence are affected alike by changes in photochemical processes in the

plant, i.e., the ratio of heat loss to fluorescence is a constant. If the intensity

of fluorescence is plotted against absorbed energy (steady state conditions)

a straight line is obtained, under light limitation, the slope of which is propor-

tioned to (1— E) and E is the upper limit of the efficiency of photosynthesis.

(E is the ratio of the number of quanta accepted by the photosynthetic

mechanism per second to the number absorbed by the chlorophyll per sec-

ond.) When photosynthesis is constant or zero a steeper line is obtained, the

slope of which is independent of E. The ratio of the first slope to the latter is

numerically equal to (1—E). Thus, if the hypothesis previously mentioned

is correct, this type of fluorescence data provides a means of measuring an

upper limit to the efficiency of photosynthesis. Particularly significant are

the data of Wassink (Wassink, E. C., et al., Enzymol. 5: 100-109. 1938;

5: 145-172. 1939), wherein, with alga cultured under conditions such as to

give high quantum yields, values of # ranging from 0.35 to 0.43 may be cal-

culated from the slopes of his curves for fluorescence with and without pois-

oning of photosynthesis by cyanide and by urethane. In other words these

data may be interpreted to indicate that about half of the energy absorbed

by chlorophyll is lost directly as heat even under conditions where high quan-

tum yields are obtained. (Author’s abstract.)

JessE W. M. DuMonp, California Institute of Technology: The consist-

ency of our knowledge concerning the atomic constants.—The purpose of this

paper was to show in greater detail the construction and use of a certain

type of consistency chart already briefly described by the author in a previ-

ous paper, and by means of it to exhibit, with a few minor changes and some

important new additional data, the present status of the dilemma regarding

the values of e, m, and h which grows out of the discrepancy between various

results of careful measurements of functions of these variables. The dis-

crepancy itself remains practically as glaring and just as unexplained as ever.

Scales have been added permitting the values of e, m, and h corresponding

to any intersection point to be read off directly. (Author’ s abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. HuMpHREYsand AsBBor; thesec-

ond one by Messrs. ALLISON, BRICK WEDDE, and WENSEL.

1172D MEETING

The 1172d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

November 9, 1940, President Gipson presiding.

Program: Hi. TELLER: On the expanding universe.—The idea that the uni-

verse is populated with stars at a roughly uniform density leads to two diffi-

Ave. 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Byal

culties which have been recognized for a long time. First, the radiation of

distant stars would result in an infinite radiation density at every point, and

secondly the gravitational energy due to interaction with distant stars di-

verges. The fact that the universe expands shows a way out of both these

difficulties; moreover, it is not necessary to draw the conclusion that diver-

gences can be avoided only if the total number of stars is finite. The expan-

sion of the universe is proved by red shifts in spectral lines of distant groups

of stars, leading to the conclusion that any two such star groups recede with

a velocity which is roughly proportional to their distance. Thus one obtains

a picture of the system of stars which is somewhat analogous to a crystal in

uniform thermal expansion. One may describe such expansion by considering

any atom at rest and by saying that the other atoms recede from this atom

as a center. The red shift caused by the recession of distant stars lowers the

radiation energy received from a distant star all the more the farther the star

is, thus making it possible that the total energy arriving at any point remains

finite. The gravitational action of distant stars also appears in a new light.

Let us consider the gravitational action of the stars within a large sphere on a

star located on the surface of that sphere. The gravitational force increases

with the size of the sphere, but so does the velocity of the star on the surface

with respect to the average velocity within the sphere. The kinetic energy

due to this relative motion is under present conditions of expansion much

more than sufficient to overcome the gravitational attraction.

Considering the distribution of stars in somewhat greater detail one finds

that the stars are grouped in great clusters or galaxies. Within a galaxy the

stars are spaced at a few light years apart while the dimension of a galaxy

is a few thousand light years. The stars of a galaxy execute motions analogous

to the thermal motion of atoms in a gas. The galaxy is held together by gravi-

tational forces and does not expand. One finds such galaxies at approximately

a million light years apart rather uniformly distributed in space. The galaxies

recede from each other so that in our picture of the expanding crystal the

galaxies correspond to atoms. It is interesting to notice that the relative

velocity of two neighboring galaxies is of the same order of magnitude as the

average velocities of stars within one galaxy and also as the thermal veloci-

ties of atoms within stars. Extrapolating backward in time to states of the

universe where the average density of galaxies has been greater one might be

led to the idea that originally all galaxies formed one system, which in sepa-

rating into star clusters gave rise to similar relative velocities of two resulting

clusters as were found for the stars within a cluster. And extrapolating still

further back one might suspect that the origin of stellar velocities is the

separation of larger accumulations of matter into stars and that during that

separation the stars obtained velocities which did not differ greatly from

the thermal velocities of the atoms. Thus stellar and also galactic velocities

may originate in the thermal motion of atoms which, as has been shown, can

in turn be explained by the thermo-nuclear reactions that furnish the energy

of the stars. (Author’s abstract.)

L. B. TuckerRmMAN: Mathematical spoofing.—In spite of their traditional

reverence for the discipline of logical rigor, even the best of mathematicians

at times indulge in spoofing.

This frequently takes the form of devising problems involving some ab-

surdity. Many of these are included in the numerous compilations of mathe-

matical puzzles, and when properly understood are interesting and instruc-

tive.

Examples were given of problems that were mathematically correct but

3/2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

physically absurd, problems that involved mathematical inconsistencies,

problems that buried the essential data under a flood of irrelevant words,

and problems that were essentially indeterminate.

In the last category are the numerous problems which ask that, from a

finite sequence of numbers, the next numbers in the sequence be determined.

Several examples were givén and their indeterminacy discussed. The logical

absurdity of these tests has been pointed out by mathematicians, and mathe-

maticians use them only when they are spoofing. However, in spite of their

absurdity they are still included in many of the so-called intelligence tests,

to which school children are subjected. (Author’s abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. Hawkeswortu, Mouter,

BaraFr, and RouuER; the second one by Messrs. HAwKESWwORTH and

PAWLING.

1173D MEETING

The 1173d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

November 23, 1940, President GrBson presiding.

Program: H. Marx, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn: Modern aspects of

the synthetic rubber problem.—The production of synthetic products with rub-

berlike properties is not only interesting from the point of view of National

Defense, but it seems to be also promising and timely from the point of view

of our present fundamental knowledge on the field of Highpolymeric Sub-

stances. The lecture gives a report on the present conception of the structure

of such compounds—having long, flexible chainlike molecules—and of the

relations between this structure and their technical qualities. (Author’s ab-

stract.)

This paper was discussed by Messrs. McPHERSON, SCHIEFER, and

HUMPHREYS.

1174TH MEETING

The 1174th meeting, constituting the 70th annual meeting, was held in the

Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, December 7, 1940, President Gipson

presiding.

The treasurer reported that the income from dues and interest on invest-

ments was $1,240.45 and that the expenditures exclusive of investments was

$994.47, less $10.30 for sale of offprints, leaving a net surplus of $256.28 on

ordinary expenses. The ordinary expenses were at the rate of $3.18 per mem-

ber.

The secretaries’ joint report showed an active membership as of December

1, 1940, of 309, of whom the following were elected during the year: C. I.

ASLAKSON, JOHN C. BuRLEW, PETER A. Coun, Tosias Danrzic, MERRILL

Distap, Eric Duranp, FRANK R. Evpripes, R. P. EyEMAN, WALTER EH.

Scorr, and Irwin ViengEss. The following were elected in 1939 and qualified

in 1940: Vinton C. FisHEL and Dwicut F. WINDENBURG.

The following officers were declared elected for the year 1941:

President, H. E. McComp; Vice-presidents, W.G. BRoMBACHER and R. J.

SEEGER; Recording Secretary, FRED L. MouuerR; Treasurer, W. E. DEMING;

Members-at-Large of the General Committee, G. KE. BENNETT and Paut A.

SMITH.

At the conclusion of the business part of the program Dr. VANNEVAR

Bush, president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, spoke on Science

in national defense.

RayMonpd J. SEEGER, Recording Secretary.

Ave. 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 373

1175TH MEETING

The 1175th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

December 21, 1940, President McComp presiding.

Program: W. J. Ecxrert, U. 8. Naval Observatory: Scientific computation

with the aid of punched cards.—Scientists faced with extensive calculations

have usually used one of three modes of attack: (1) to proceed without delay

along the conventional lines, (2) to design a special machine for the purpose,

and (3) to adapt to the problem devices made for other purposes. The work

described here comes under the third category.

The computing laboratory in the Department of Astronomy at Columbia

University employs Electric Punched Card Accounting Machines which have

been modified to make them suitable for scientific computation. It was the

first laboratory capable of performing general scientific calculation auto-

matically without any reading or writing of figures. In this laboratory many

classical astronomical problems, including the numerical integration of the

equations of planetary motion, the solution of the main problem of the lunar

theory, and the reduction of astronomical observations, have been solved.

The laboratory is now operated for the use of astronomers by the Thomas

J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau. The bureau is a joint enterprise

of the American Astronomical Society, the International Business Machine

Corporation, and Columbia University.

Other similar but less complete installations such as the one at the Naval

Observatory are now in use. The new Air Almanac was produced in a few

months on these machines.

Slides were shown to illustrate the basic operation of the machines and

their application to the computation of the apparent places of stars. (Au-

thor’s abstract.)

T. B. Brown: Two-dimensional kinetic theory model.—The ‘‘molecules”’ of

this model consist of ping-pong balls contained in a vertical chamber formed

by two glass plates which are separated only far enough to permit free mo-

tion of the balls between them. The size of this chamber (18” wide by 24”

high) is such that the demonstrations may be seen easily by a large audience.

A simple agitator-cam, working through a slot in the bottom of the chamber,

keeps the balls in a state of rapid random motions.

The apparatus thus demonstrates graphically the motions of molecules as

described by the kinetic theory. With the aid of various auxiliary pieces of

apparatus, it was used also to illustrate the pressure of a gas against a piston,

the diffusion of gas molecules through a porous plug, and Brownian motions

of translation, of rotation, and of vibration. The fluctuations from average

values which occur in all these phenomena are clearly illustrated and may

be studied quantitatively. Such studies serve as useful experiments for the

student laboratory. (Author’s abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. MAXWELL, GARNER, McNIsu,

RApPPLEYE, Demine, H. H. Hows, W. Davis, McComs, and Curtis; the

second one by Messrs. BRICKWEDDE and HUMPHREYS.

Informal communications were presented by Messrs. PAWLiInG and

RAPPLEYE.

1176TH MEETING

The 1176th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

January 18, 1941, Vice-president BROMBACHER presiding.

The Retiring President, RALPH E. Gipson, gavean address entitled Physi-

cal reflections in a chemical mirror. This address is published in the present

issue of the JOURNAL, pp. 325-348.

374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

1177TH MEETING

The 1177th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

February 1, 1941, President McComs presiding.

Program: D. R. Ineuis, Johns Hopkins University: Motions in the earth’s

core.—It is well known that the earth is gradually slowing down in its rota-

tion, and that its axis of rotation is gradually changing in a manner that may

be approximately described as a ‘‘27,000-year precession.’”’ Seismological

data, while not definite on this point, indicate that the earth’s core is prob-

ably rather fluid. The fact that the core is made of hot iron and nickel sug-

gests that it is then very fluid. The question treated is whether the inner part

of the core keeps up with the rotation of the solid part of the earth, or rotates

about some earlier axis of rotation. Calculations based on the existence of

turbulent flow in the intermediate layer, and on a drag of magnetic induction,

indicate that the axes of rotation of the interior part and of the exterior

probably differ in direction by one or several degrees. This involves a rather

violent motion of the interior matter relative to the exterior. (Author’s ab-

stract.) :

This paper was discussed by Messrs. HERzFELD and HAWKESWORTH.

A. B. Fock, Brown University: Segregation of polonium in bismuth crys-

tals—Single crystals of bismuth containing polonium as an impurity were

studied to determine the distribution of the polonium. Number-distance rela-

tions for a-particles emitted normally through cleavage surfaces afford the

means of investigation, measurements being made with a Geiger-point coun-

ter. When present in very small concentrations polonium is found to be

segregated into small regions which have nearly regular spacing when viewed

in several directions. These average spacings, 0.55 micron for planes parallel

to the (111) plane and 0.86 micron for planes parallel to the (111) plane, are

not affected by the speed of growth of bismuth crystals or by subsequent

heat treatment. In the case of mechanical twinning, it is found that the

spacing between polonium groups follows the crystallographic changes. (A u-

thor’s abstract.)

1178TH MEETING

The 1178th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

February 15, 1941, President McComgs presiding.

Program: C. A. Bretrs, U. 8. Forest Service: Heavy construction The

great variety of interesting problems encountered in heavy construction was

illustrated by the following projects on which the speaker has been engaged;

The six-mile Moffat Tunnel in Colorado; the 33 and 43 mile Owyhee water

tunnels in Oregon, and the Owyhee Dam (the highest prior to the Boulder

Dam), and smaller dams. Construction problems of the National Forest

Service, including bridges, roads and fire lookout towers, were also described

and illustrated. (Abstract by the Secretary.)

E. 8. GILFILLAN, Consulting Engineer: What happens when candy burns.—

It was shown that for the group of reactions of one chemical element with

another there exists a critical series, analogous to the sum-of-states familiar

in statistical mechanics, having the property that at temperatures for which

the series converges the compounds break into clean fragments whereas for

temperatures for which the series diverges very complex products are formed

as equilibrium is approached. It is thus that charring and tar formation oc-

cur. For most pairs of elements, the temperatures of divergence are so low

that no perceptible reaction would be expected to occur even in intervals

long in geologic time. In the case of carbon and hydrogen, however, at the

Aue. 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 375

partial pressures of hydrogen which obtain in equilibrium with mixtures of

iron, iron oxides, carbon, and water vapor, the critical series diverges at

temperatures at which fairly rapid reaction of these elemnts is known to

occur. It was suggested that petroleum may have been formed in this way.

(Author’s abstract.)

An informal communication on Resistivity of interstellar space was pre-

sented by F. L. Monter.—It was pointed out that on the basis of recent

estimates of conditions in interstellar space, the equation for resistivity of

an ionized gas is applicable and the resistivity is about 0.2 ohms per cm cube.

Thus interstellar space is a highly conducting medium. (Author’s abstract.)

This was discussed by Messrs. HUMPHREYS, GILFILLAN, and BRICKWEDDE.

1179TH MEETING

The 1179th meeting was a joint meeting with the Washington Academy

of Sciences. Prof. P. W. BripGMAN, of Harvard University, delivered an

address entitled The changing position of thermodynamics.

1180TH MEETING

The 1180th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

March 1, 1941, President McComp presiding.

Program: F. O. Ric, Catholic University of America: Mechanism of

chemical reactions.—The chemist represents the reactions that he studies

by equations such as,

CsHigt 170.—8CO, +9H,O,

which represents the combustion of octane, or

2Na2SO3+ O2—2NaSOu,

which represents the oxidation of sodium sulphite to sodium sulphate and

occurs readily at room temperature in aqueous solution. The decomposition

of acetone is represented by the equation,

CH;COCH;—CH.+ CH2=CO

which shows the formation of methane and ketene; however this occurs only

at about 500°C. or higher.

All these reactions have one peculiarity in common, namely that the rate

of the reaction can be profoundly influenced by the addition of relatively

minute amounts of other substances. The puzzling feature is that by select-

ing an appropriate substance, these and many other reactions can be slowed

up so that the rate can not be measured.

The present day explanation of this curious effect is that these reactions

consist really of a complex series of steps in which a free radical generated

initially causes a cycle of reactions in which it (or some other radical) is

regenerated in each cycle and can therefore start the next cycle. It is, there-

fore, reasonable to expect that a substance which can combine with or

destroy radicals will reduce the rate of such a reaction even if the substance

is present in very small amounts. (Author’s abstract.)

K. F. Herzrevip: Propagation of sound in liquids.—In liquids as in gases,

sound waves consist in alternate compressions and attenuations, accom-

panied by temperature variations. For the same energy radiated, the pres-

sure variation is much higher, the temperature variation lower in the liquid

than in the gas.

376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 8

Absorption of sound in liquids has been measured reliably up to about 80

megacycles in mercury, water, and three other liquids and turns out to be

proportional to the square of the frequency. Except for mercury, it is several

times larger than can be accounted for by viscosity and heat conduction.

Attempts to explain this increased absorption by slowness of energy ex-

change between internal and external degrees of freedom seem successful for

benzene, but not for water.

In liquid mixture, sound waves should produce partial unmixing, but the

effect 1s too small to be observable. (A uthor’s abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. HUMPHREYS, Curtis, Brick-

WEDDE, HAWKESWORTH, and GrBson; the second one by Messrs. GILFILLAN,

Rock, Gipson, and BRICKWEDDE.

1181sT MEETING

The 1181st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

March 15, 1941, President McComps presiding.

Program: S. L. Quimsy, Columbia University: Investigations with the piezo-

electric oscillator.—The composite piezoelectric oscillator is a device which

permits the measurement of the elastic constants and internal friction of

single and polycrystalline solids. A small right circular cylinder of specimen

material is cemented at one end to a suitably cut crystalline quartz cylinder

of identical cross section. The quartz cylinder carries electrodes properly

oriented with respect to the electric axes of the crystal, and a harmonically

varying potential difference is maintained between these electrodes. In con-

sequence of the harmonically varying piezoelectric stress which accompanies

the electric field in the quartz, a state of forced longitudinal or torsional

vibration is established in the composite system which, under these circum-

stances, is electrically equivalent to a series resonant circuit shunted by a

capacity. The fundamental frequency of free longitudinal or torsional vibra-

tion of the composite system and the vibration decrement are deduced from

the observed variation of the reactance of this circuit with frequency, and

its resistance. These data, in combination with the results of corresponding

measurements made on the quartz cylinder alone, yield values of the elastic

constants and coefficients of internal friction of the specimen material. Par-

ticular advantages of the method are its high accuracy, economy of speci-

men material, and the ease with which measurements can be made at very

low temperatures.

The method has been used to measure the variation of the principal elastic

constants of NaCl, KCl and MgO with temperature at low temperatures,

and of NH,Cl, 8-brass, and the copper-gold alloys through their transition

temperatures; also, the variation of the elastic constants and internal fric-

tion of iron and permalloy with magnetization, and of nickel with magnetiza-

tion and temperature through the Curie point. It has recently been extended

to the treatment of non-homogeneous specimens, and studies have been

made of the phenomenon of plasticity in single metal crystals. (Author’s

abstract.)

ALEXANDER HOLLAENDER, National Institute of Health: The wavelength

dependence of genetical changes produced by ultraviolet radiation.—The results

of the studies on the genetical effects of monochromatic ultraviolet radiation

between 2180 and 3650A on typical fungous spores were discussed on the

basis of work done in cooperation with Dr. C. W. Emmons. The technique

used insured that on the average each spore received and absorbed definite

quantities of energy. Survival ratios were determined from plate counts for

Ava. 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Ba

the different wavelengths tested. Three different types of effects were ob-

served: (1) Toxic or fungicidal effect; (2) physiological changes, and (3) ge-

netical changes. Fungicidal and genetical effects show a maximum of sensitiv-

ity in the wavelength range around 2600A. This wavelength is most highly

absorbed by nucleic acids which are one of the main constituents of chromo-

somes. Genetical effects of monochromatic ultraviolet radiation have also

been observed after the irradiation of liverwort sperm, pollen grain of maize,

and Drosophila sperm. The wavelength dependence of mutation production

in Drosophila is complicated by the fact that the sperm has to be irradiated

with our present technique inside the living animal, and the injurious effect

of ultraviolet radiation obscured the results. The significance of these find-

ings was discussed in relation to the possible role of sunlight on the produc-

tion of natural mutations. (Author’s abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. BARAFF, SEEGER, GOLDBERG,

and TuUCKERMAN; the second one by Messrs. Bararr, McComp, and

MOoOHLER.

1182D MEETING

The 1182d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

March 29, 1941, President McComs presiding. |

The Eleventh Joseph Henry Lecture, entitled The constitution of diffuse

matter in interstellar space, was delivered by Otro Srruve, professor of

astronomy at the University of Chicago. This lecture has been published in

this JOURNAL 31: 217-258. 1941.

1183D MEETING

The 1183d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

- April 12, 1941, President McComp presiding.

Program: Toxsias Dantzic: Mathematics; prospects and retrospects.—The

period through which we are now passing would be replete with tricentennial

celebrations and jubilees if the world were in a mood for jubilees. Three

hundred years ago modern science generally, and mathematics in particu-

lar, had come of age: the two decades from 1630 to 1650 saw the births of

such important mathematical disciplines as Analytic and Projective Geom-

etry, Infinitesimal Analysis, Theory of Equations and Theory of Numbers,

Analytical Mechanics, and the Theory of Probabilities. The speaker reviewed

that period, the problems which confronted it, the characters and the atti-

tudes of the great men who launched the new sciences against the social,

economic, and political backgrounds of those turbulent times, when human

thought had just emerged from the oppressive influence of Scholasticism

and reliance on authority. He then undertook to draw a parallel between

that period and the critical times through which we are now passing. The

events of the last three decades have forced upon thinking men everywhere

a revaluation of values, and mathematics is no exception to this trend. The

foundations of the mathematical sciences have undergone a searching cri-

tique, which few of the concepts and axioms on which these sciences rested

survived unscathed. But there is also another tendency. Mathematics is

an art, and as such it has not been spared the disease which has afflicted

modern music, art and literature: the substitution of form for content,

which was so characteristic of the Dark Ages. Whether this is but a passing

malady, or augurs a decadence and a relapse into medievalism, time alone

will show. However, the speaker saw definite symptoms of a healthy revolt

against this sterile formalism. (Author’s abstract.)

378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

ARNOLD H. Scorr: A mechanical aid for selecting the essential terms of a

determinant.—It was shown that the method of expanding determinants

whereby the rows are interchanged so that the terms of the expansion appear

successively in the principal diagonal can be of material assistance in picking

out wanted terms in special determinants. The determinant used for illus-

tration was one in which all the elements of the principal diagonal had the

value X except one and more than a third of the other elements were zero.

The terms required in this particular problem were those containing the

three highest powers of X. The rows were printed on strips of cardboard

which allowed a ready interchange of the rows. Only those row interchanges

were required which removed one or two X’s from the principal diagonal.

The terms of the expansion were then obtained from the principal diagonal

in a progressive series order. (Author’s abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. BLAKE and SEEGER; the second

one by Messrs. HAWKESWORTH, TUCKERMAN, Danrzic, and CuRTIS.

1184TH MEETING

The 1184th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

April 26, 1941, President McCome presiding.

Program: Roxpert B. Bropz, University of California: Cosmic-ray toniza-

tion.—The cosmic radiation produces most of its effects at the earth’s sur-

face by the ionization along the paths of high energy charged particles. This

ionization is observed by means of ionization chambers, Geiger counters,

and Wilson cloud chambers. Most of the vertical coincidence counts in a

pair of Geiger counters appear to be due to mesotrons. A study of the ioniza-

tion along the paths of mesotrons and along the paths of electrons enables

the relative mass of the particles to be estimated. The specific ionization or

the total ionization produced per centimeter of the path can be obtained

from cloud chamber measurements. Pictures are taken of the track after a

delay of 0.1 sec. which permits the ions to diffuse slightly. With high resolu-

tion photography the individual water drops can then be counted. Each of

these drops has an ion as a nucleus. Positive and negative ions can be dis-

tinguished by their motion in the clearing field or by their behavior under

different expansion ratios of the cloud chamber. Electrons with an energy

of a million electric volts energy have an ionization of about 45 ions pairs

per cm of path. Both faster and slower electrons have greater ionization.

This experimental observation agrees with the predictions of Bohr and

others. Mesotrons of two hundred times the mass of an electron and with

an energy of one hundred million electron volts would be expected to have

about the same ionization as one million volt electrons. (Author’s abstract.)

J. E. Mayer, Columbia University: Statistical mechanics and liquids.—

The general methods of statistical mechanics have not been greatly changed

since the time of Gibbs, although the introduction of quantum mechanics

has altered many details and improved the agreement with experiment.

The general equations can be solved in only two cases, that of the gas and

that of the crystal. The problem is essentially that of integration over the

coordinates of some 10% particles of an integrand which is the exponential

of minus the potential energy of the system, divided by kT. This integration

is practical only if the result can be expressed as a product of integrals over

fewer coordinates. In the case of the gas, this is done by expanding the

integrand into terms, the first of which is unity and gives the value of the

integrand when all particles are far apart. The following terms give the cor-

rections due to clusters of molecules which are close to each other.

Auge. 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 379

In the case of the crystal, the problem is solved by assuming a configura-

tion of minimum potential energy and expanding the integrand over very

small deviations from this equilibrium position. In this case the integral

becomes the product of the integrals over the so-called normal coordinates.

Neither of these two methods can be expected to work for a system at the

temperature and density of a liquid. It is then necessary to find some other

method of solution. One developed by Kirkwood and an analogous one de-

veloped by Mayer and Montroll appears to offer some hope. In this method

one starts in the middle of the problem and works towards both ends. Dis-

tribution functions giving the probabilities of certain configurations for a

small number of molecules, are introduced. The thermodynamics properties

of the system can be calculated in terms of these distribution functions. By

a method of successive approximations, it appears that the distribution func-

tions themselves can be determined. (Author’s abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. Monumr, P. A. Smitu, BARAFF,

Mayer, BrRickKWEDDE, and McComs; the second one by Messrs. HAWKEs-

WORTH, HERZFELD, and BRODE.

1185TH MEETING

The 1185th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

May 10, 1941, President McComp presiding.

Program: R. M. Bozortu, Bell Telephone Laboratories: The physical basis

of ferromagnetism.—After an introductory review of the general nature of

magnetic phenomena and the magnitudes of the atomic forces involved,

there was a discussion of the atomic structure of the ferromagnetic elements

and elements having similar structures. This included a description of the

gyromagnetic experiments and their interpretation and of atomic energy

levels and exchange interaction. The properties of single crystals and the

structure of domains were described in relation to the form of the magnetiza-

tion curve and the nature of magnetic processes accompanying changes in

field-strength. Two simple demonstrations were made of the Barkhausen

effect and the directional magnetic properties of crystals. (A uthor’s abstract.)

This paper was discussed by Messrs. Router, Bates, KraceK, Hum-

PHREYS, DorsEy, JoycrE, McComps, PINrEo, and McNIsu.

An informal communication was presented by Paut R. Hryt on a law

of falling bodies proposed by Galileo in Two new sciences. Galileo assumed

that the velocity was proportional to the distance fallen and the conse-

quences of this were discussed. This was discussed by Messrs. McNisH and

HUMPHREYS.

1186TH MEETING

The 1186th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

May 24, 1941, President McComps presiding.

Program: C. L. GARNER: Recent developments in geodetic control._—This

paper consists of a brief outline of the status of the geodetic control work,

particularly triangulation, in the United States at the present time, and its

_ relation to mapping and other engineering and scientific works of national

importance. It reviews very briefly the extension of the horizontal control

net of the United States from its inception in 1817 to the present, showing

that by far the larger part of the work as it stands today has been accom-

plished during the last decade. This was through the use of emergency funds

for the relief of unemployment and at one time involved the employment of

more than 10,000 people distributed in all of the states in carrying on ex-

380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 8

tremely important work in vital areas. There is also sketched in brief the

present methods of procedure in the operation of a triangulation party using

steel towers, automobile trucks, and modern instruments of various types.

Problems encountered in the field in carrying on the work with the required

accuracy and the resulting field work are discussed in detail. (Author’s ab-

stract.)

Howarp 8. Rappieyen, Problems in vertical control surveys —This paper

first outlined briefly the fundamental equipment and process of spirit level-

ing, continued with a brief description of the precise leveling equipment

and procedure of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey and discussed the

extent of the vertical control net. Emphasis was placed on the difficulties

and problems involved in the field and office work preliminary to the publi-

cation of the final results in the form of lists of descriptions and elevations

of bench marks.

The latter part of the paper discussed the difficulty of maintaining the

bench marks in the field with special reference to problems involved in pre-

venting destruction of bench marks as a result of construction, repair and

maintenance activities; natural causes, such as frost heaving, rock disintegra-

tion, etc. The effect of earthquakes, regional settlement and other causes of

the disturbance of bench marks were also covered briefly. (A uthor’s abstract.)

The first paper was discussed by Messrs. MAxwELL, BROMBACHER,

TUCKERMAN, and Smit; the second one by Messrs. SmitH, Heck, BLAKE,

H. L. Curtis, TucKERMAN, and McComs.

7 Frep L. Mouusr, Recording Secretary.

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R. E. iy i

Bonne Noe United States grasses. en) ASON R. : —

ZOOLOGY. —A review of the enue of the genus Ficimia

Smity and Epwarp H. TAYLOR. . Sao ae

Proceepinas: ParLosoPatca. SOGINTY ob.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 31 SEPTEMBER 15, 1941 No. 9

ENTOMOLOGY.—WNotes on the American representatives of the butter-

fly genus Argynnis.! Austin H. Cuark, U.S. National Museum.

The problem of the interrelationships of the numerous forms of the

genus Argynms occurring in North America is an interesting one.

In sharp contrast to the various species of Europe and Asia, we find

among the American species extraordinary similarity in fundamental

characters of structure and in color pattern, combined with an

equally extraordinary diversity in details. Characteristic of all the

American argynnids, with the exception of A. diana, are the arrange-

ment and relative size of the spots on the under side of the hind

wings, although they may or may not be silvered, and the ground

color of the wings may be green or brown of various shades, yellow,

or even deep purple, uniform or more or less mottled or variegated

with lighter or darker, from sharply to only vaguely contrasting with

the spots, and with or without a broad or narrow light marginal band.

Especially noteworthy in the American argynnids is the entire ab-

sence on the under side of the hind wings of the submarginal row of eye

spots, which, more or less developed, occurs in very nearly all the

Old World species no matter how much the rest of the color pattern

may differ. These eye spots, sometimes reduced to dots, are equally

characteristic of the species of the genus Brenthis and are present in

all the American forms in that group.

The only European and Asiatic species of Argynnis that lack all

traces of these eye spots are aglaia, elisa, clara, and alexandra. In

aglaia not only are these spots lacking, but the color pattern above

and below resembles that characteristic of the American forms. On

the under side of the hind wings the spots are of the same shapes

and proportions as the corresponding spots in the American forms,

and the light band between the marginal and inner rows of spots found

in nearly all the American forms is present in most of the numerous

races.

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution

Received June 22, 1941.

d81

382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

Argynnis aglaia ranges from the British Isles and most of Europe

and Asia Minor eastward throughout Asia as far south as Kashmir

and northwestern India to eastern Asia and Japan. It is divisible into a

number of local races or subspecies that differ considerably in size and

in color, especially in the ground color of the under side of the hind

wings. Wherever this butterfly occurs it is abundant, or at least

common.

Under the name of washingtonia Drs. Barnes and McDunnough

have described a form from British Columbia and Washington that

does not seem to differ in any tangible character from A. aglaza as it

occurs in eastern Asia. There is an average difference in specimens

from the two regions, but in all characters they appear to intergrade.

The American specimens may usually be distinguished by the pres-

ence of a silver dash on the under side of the hind wings near the

narrowly silvered abdominal border about halfway from the base to

the anal angle. This silver dash is typically absent in Asiatic specimens,

but traces of it occur in some from Si-Gong-Kong, near Tatsien-Lu,

and from Tang-Gu, and in one at hand from Tang-Gu it is well de-

veloped.

There can be no doubt that washingtonia is simply an American

representative of the European and Asiatic A. aglaia, and that it

should be included in our lists as Argynnis aglaia washingtonia. Here,

however, we encounter one of those conflicts between systematic

zoology and taxonomy that tend to obscure a true appreciation of the

interrelationships of animal types. In Dr. MceDunnough’s latest lst

washingtonia 1s given as one of the six subspecies of A. eurynome

Edwards, the other five being eurynome, bischoffi, opis, artonis, and

luski. Now although eurynome was the first of these to be described,

washingtonia, not specifically distinct from the Old World aglaza, is

undoubtedly the basic form from which the others were locally

derived, if it is assumed that these six forms are really subspecifically

related.

It appears reasonable to consider that, in spite of their diversity,

they are closely related. Their interrelationships are, however, of a

nature quite different from those between aglava and its European

and Asiatic subspecies. They involve curious and unusual factors

such as the paling of the under side of the hind wings in artonis,

which reaches an extreme and is combined with partial obliteration

of the spots in opis, and a paling of the ground color to a light dull

yellow on which the position and shape of the spots is indicated by

narrow dark outlines in luski. It would appear possible to regard

SepT. 15, 1941 CLARK: BUTTERFLY GENUS ARGYNNIS 383

these strange variants from the aglaia—washingtonia type as forms

that have arisen by mutation quite independently of their immediate

surroundings and have become locally established either in the same

area as the stem form or in different areas, rather than as the usual

type of subspecies which is a modification, by mutation or otherwise,

of a specific type in more or less definite, or at least assumed, re-

sponse to local ecological conditions.

If this hypothesis be acceptable it can be expanded and broadened

to cover all the American argynnids, which would then be interpreted

as fundamentally mutants from the highly plastic aglava stock. Some

of these mutants, as A. cybele, A. aphrodite, and A. atlantis, are

stable entities and, ranging widely, have developed local races or sub-

species of the usual type. Others, in the Southwest and Southeast at the

maximum distance from the territory inhabited by A. aglaza washing-

tonia, are highly aberrant, like A. caerulescens and A. diana, which,

except in color, do not differ essentially from A. cybele, and A. idalza.

With wide departures from the normal in color are associated curi-

ous ecological characteristics. Both Argynnis diana and A. idalia

have a very wide range within which neither shows any noticeable

tendency to form local races. Argynnis diana is strictly a woodland

form occurring only in warm regions but always near cold water,

either cold mountain streams or extensive cold seepages as along the

western border of the Dismal Swamp. On the other hand, A. zdalia

is confined to open grass lands, moist meadows in the lowlands and

open pastures in the southeastern mountains.

The interpretation of our American argynnids as primarily deriva-

tives, mostly by more or less abrupt mutation, from aglaia stock

represented in North America by washingtonia would explain the

close similarity in the fundamental features upon which is superim-

posed extraordinary diversity in detail. It would also explain the

curiously involved character of their interrelationships which makes it

practically impossible to arrange them in any logical and convincing

systematic pattern.

Among the species of the related genus Brenthis there are certain

‘points that should be brought out.

The common North American species known as myrina, including

the several recognized subspecies, is, taken as a whole, indistinguish-

able from the widespread and variable selene of Europe and Asia.

The most constant difference between the Old World forms grouped

under the name of selene and the American forms collectively con-

sidered as myrina is found in the black central dot in the spot occupy-

384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

ing the greater part of the cell on the under side of the hind wing.

In selene this dot is large and is typically not ringed with lighter. In

myrina it is small and is ringed more or less completely with silver or

with light vellow. But even this character is undependable. A speci-

men of selene at hand from Rennes, France, in this as in other features

is almost an exact duplicate of another from Tolland, Colo., and if

the place of origin were unknown it would certainly be referred to

the form tollandensis. A specimen from Hopedale, Labrador, is very

close to others from northern Europe and perhaps should be referred

to the same subspecies.

The North American forms now grouped under Brenthis myrina

should be listed as:

Brenthis selene myrina (Cramer)

Brenthis selene atrocostalis Huard

Brenthis selene terrae-novae Holland

Brenthis selene nebraskensis Holland

Brenthis selene tollandensis Barnes and Benjamin

Brenthis selene marilandica, subsp. nov.

Diagnosis.—Resembling Brenthis selene myrina but larger, the fore wings

22-25 (averaging 23.75) mm in length, and with the ground color above

darker and more reddish and the black markings broader and heavier, often

much heavier so that they are more or less extensively confluent; on the

under surface the color varies from about as dark as in the darkest myrina

(from Massachusetts) to very appreciably richer, with the black markings

on the under side of the fore wings always heavier.

Type.—From the boggy pasture on the south side of the road from the

Beltsville, Md., railway station to the Department of Agriculture experi-

ment farm, collected by Austin H. Clark on July 6, 1929 (U.S.N.M. no.

55470, figured in U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 157, pl. 3, figs. 5, 6, 1932).

Remarks.—This form has only a single brood, flying from the end of June

(earliest date June 29) to about the end of July. In the past it was rather com-

mon in the type locality, but it has not been found in recent years. No

other locality for it is known. The common form of this species in Maryland

and in western Virginia is myrina.

ENTOMOLOGY.—Five new Guatemalan scarab beetles of the genus

Phyllophaga.1 LAWRENCE W. Saytor, U. S. Fish and Wildlife

Service.

Opportunity is taken herewith to characterize five new species of

Scarabaeidae from Guatemala. All belong to the genus Phyllophaga

Harris (subgenus Phyllophaga), and the holotypes of all are in the

author’s collection.

1 Received May 13, 1941.

Seer. 15, 1941 SAYLOR: NEW GUATEMALAN BEETLES 389

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) duenas, n. sp.

Male.—Oblong-ovate, slightly wider behind; color rufocastaneous, faintly

pruinose above; dorsal surface griseopilose. Clypeus moderately long, the

apex truncate, entire, and slightly reflexed, with the angles broadly rounded;

disk very densely and coarsely punctate. Front coarsely scabrose, with long

erect hairs. Antennae 10-segmented, rufotestaceous; club ovate, equal in

length to segments 3-7 combined. Thorax with sides dilated, ciliate, hardly

crenulate, straight before the dilation and slightly sinuate behind; front

angles subrectangular, hind angles obtuse; disk with very dense and fine

punctures, each separated by about its own diameter, those in apical half

and at sides faintly scabrose and very slightly larger, all discal punctures

with short, suberect, griseous pile and a few slightly longer hairs near center

apex. Elytra ecostate, sutural costa not well defined; disk with the fine, dense

punctures separated by once their diameters, and all with short, suberect,

griseous hairs, with a few longer hairs near base of disk. Pygidium slightly

convex, pruinose, and punctured like the elytra, with very short suberect

hairs mixed with short erect hairs, apex reflexed and slightly thickened.

Abdomen pruinose, flattened, slightly longitudinally impressed, surface very

finely and densely punctate, with short procumbent hairs; fifth sternite

faintly, lobately produced at midapical margin, disk flat and with a dense

median patch of small granules and short hairs; sixth sternite half the length

of fifth, the basal margin thickened and carinate with the middle base lobately

reflexed toward the apical margin and the apex of this lobe forming a some-

what broad transverse carina that is slightly tumid at each end; apical mar-

gin carinate, though narrowly interrupted at the middle, and ciliate; disk

densely and finely punctate, with long erect hairs. First segment of hind

tarsus shorter than second; spurs free. Claws with basal tooth submedian in

position and a little broader and longer than apical tooth, also faintly reflexed

toward the base; claw base broad and very obtusely dilated. Length 16.5 mm.

The unique male holotype, in the Saylor collection, is from ‘‘Duenas,

Guatemala.”’ The species is related to P. abdominalis Moser, but the sixth

abdominal sternite is quite different and the abdomen is slightly impressed.

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) nepida, n. sp.

Male.—Robust-oval, wider behind; color piceocastaneous, thorax dull and

faintly pruinose, dorsal surface haired. Clypeus short, transverse, and nearly

rounded, the apex entire and slightly reflexed, the angles hardly indicated;

disk densely, coarsely, and setigerously punctate. Front densely and coarsely

punctured, with short erect hairs. Thorax with sides slightly dilated, ciliate,

entire, and subparallel behind, angles obtuse but well indicated; disk evenly

punctate, with moderately coarse, dense, variolate punctures, each separated

by more than once its diameter on disk, though closer at sides, and each with

a short suberect hair; front margin with long cilia. Elytra, except for the

sutural rib, ecostate; disk densely punctured, as thorax, with short, suberect,

griseous pile and a few longer intercalated hairs on suture and near base.

Pygidium slightly convex, polished, basal half pruinose; disk densely and

coarsely punctate, with short erect hairs of two lengths; apex truncate and

ciliate. Abdomen pruinose, flattened, and faintly longitudinally sulcate at

middle; fifth sternite declivous at apex, with a large patch of granules at

middle and short erect hair; sixth nearly as long as fifth, transversely flat-

tened and subgranulately punctate, with a faint, smooth, longitudinal im-

pression; the basal margin somewhat thickened and subcarinate, though

interrupted at middle. First segment of hind tarsus shorter than second;

386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 9

spurs free. Claws short, robust, basal tooth short and triangular and slightly

basad of middle, the base hardly dilated. Genitalia of the bilaterally sym-

metrical, complete, ring-shaped type; in en-face view the lateral angles are

moderately long, very sharp, and somewhat convergent toward the center,

the center underpiece well indicated and divided into two sharp, subparallel,

slender teeth.

Female.—Antennal club ovate and equal in length to segments 3-7 com-

bined; the front thoracic angles rectangular and the hind angles nearly so;

elytra with very sparse longer hairs all over the surface, those at base some-

what thicker than corresponding hairs of the male; pygidium more flattened

and a little more coarsely punctate in apical half; abdomen flattened, the

fifth and sixth sternites plane and densely and setigerously punctate; other-

wise similar to male. Length 14-15 mm.

The holotype male, allotype female, and paratype female, which remain

in the Saylor collection, are from ‘‘Finca San Juan, Alta Vera Paz, Guate-

mala.’’ They were collected by Felix A. Muenchmeyer. This species is near

P. wittkugeli Nonfried but differs in the male genitalia and the dorsal sculp-

ture. ;

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) ferupilis, n. sp.

Male.—Elongate-subparallel; color rufocastaneous and. slightly shining,

above entirely griseopilose. Clypeus long, flat, nearly trapezoidal, the apex

subtruncate and entire, the angles narrowly rounded; disk very coarsely

and densely punctate, with erect hairs. Front coarsely and contiguously

punctate, with short erect pile. Antennae 10-segmented, rufous; club very

long, subequal in length to the entire stem; segments 5-7 with short spines

on the inner apical margin. Thorax, elytra, and pygidium with extremely

fine and extremely dense punctures over the entire surface, with short pro-

cumbent hairs; on the elytra adjoining the scutellum there are several longer

hairs, which, however, are still rather fine. Thorax with the sides dilated in

front of middle, ciliate, entire in front and crenate behind the dilation; angles

obtuse but angulate. Elytra with a strong membranous margin, the sutural

costa weakly indicated; sutural costae hardly obvious at base and apex.

Pygidium faintly convex, its apex subrounded and reflexed. Abdomen punc-

tured and haired like the elytra, its center flat; fifth sternite very slightly

prolonged at middle of the apical margin into a small lobe, disk with a

dense patch of fine granules; sixth sternite half the length of fifth, trans-

versely suleate and punctate, basal margin much thickened and subcarinate,

especially at the middle, where there is a very small, triangular, apical gib-

bosity, which is impressed at center and slightly granulate each side; apical

margin of sixth sternite carinate and ciliate and interrupted at the middle.

First two hind tarsal segments subequal, the spurs free and very graceful.

Claws with a sharp basal tooth, which is median in position and of nearly

same size and length as apical tooth; claw base angularly dilated but obtuse.

Genitalia bilaterally symmetrical; in lateral view the iateral margins are

greatly rounded and overhang the small and bidentate median underpiece.

Length 24.5 mm. |

The unique male holotype, in the Saylor collection, was collected by Felix

A. Muenchmeyer at ‘“‘Finca San Juan, Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala.” The

species 1s near P. ferrugata Moser but is much larger, and the abdominal

characters are distinct.

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) totonis, n. sp.

Male.—Oblong-ovate; color castaneous, shining, head and thorax piceo-

castaneous; hairy above. Clypeus moderately long, apex hardly reflexed,

Sept. 15, 1941 SAYLOR: NEW GUATEMALAN BEETLES 387

very narrowly but distinctly emarginate, the angles very broadly rounded,

disk with coarse, dense, setigerous punctures. Front very densely, coarsely,

and scabrosely punctate, with very long brownish hair. Antenna 10-seg-

mented, rufobrunneous; club long, about one-fourth longer than funicle but

hardly as long as the entire stem. Thorax with sides strongly dilated, with

long cilia, straight before dilation and noticeably sinuate behind it, the mar-

gins subcrenate; front angles obtuse, hind angles distinctly rectangular; disk

with dense, moderately coarse, umbilicate punctures, each separated by

once its diameter, or slightly more, somewhat closer at sides, all punctures

with very long erect hairs and without intercalated shorter hairs; an area

of disk at each lateral dilation, and along base each side of the middle to the

hind angles, smooth and impunctate. Scutellum impunctate. Elytra with

sutural stria strong and with a moderately indicated, oblique first discal stria,

which becomes progressively wider toward the apex, where it is evanescent;

disk rugose, punctures small, irregularly and not densely placed, with very

long hair near scutellum and along lateral margins, the disk with a few short,

scattered hairs. Pygidium convex, polished; disk rugose, the punctures very

fine and dense and with fine erect hair of short to moderate length; apex

widely subrounded. Abdomen flattened, highly polished, middle glabrous

and very finely and sparsely punctate; fifth sternite somewhat declivous be-

hind, basal fourth smooth, apical portion with a small patch of fine dense

punctures; sixth sternite faintly longer than fifth, widely shallowly foveate,

the disk densely and finely subgranulate and punctate at sides with long

erect hairs. First segment of hind tarsus a little shorter than second. Claw

widely cleft, the upper tooth nearly twice as broad as apical and apex

obliquely truncate; both teeth of approximately the same length; claw base

distinctly though obtusely dilated. Genitalia bilaterally symmetrical, the

lateral lobes free at apex though touching; in en-face view the lateral lobes

have each a short thumblike lobe at the middle projecting upward, and at

the lower apex each lateral lobe is very broad and the apex is emarginate, the

_two blunt inner lobes touching or slightly overlapping at the center. Length

3.5) TATA.

The unique male holotype, in the Saylor collection, is from ‘‘Quicke

Totonicapan, Guatemala, May.’’ The species is near Phytalus xanthocomus

Bates but differs in the pygidial characters and antennal length. From P.

castanetpennis Moser, totonis differs in the clypeal form and in the elytral

characters.

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) mentalis, n. sp.

Male.—Oblong-oval, widest behind; color rufotestaceous and strongly

shining, head and thorax rufous; very nearly glabrous above. Clypeus flat

and very broad; apex slightly reflexed and very narrowly sinuate at middle;

the angles very broadly rounded; disk with somewhat coarse, moderately

dense, irregularly placed punctures. Front sparsely punctate like the clypeus,

with very sparse, short, erect hairs near sides. Vertex impunctate. Antenna

10-segmented, rufotestaceous; club ovate and minute, scarcely equal in

length to segments 5-7 combined. Thorax with sides arcuate, nearly en-

tire, and slightly ciliate, the angles rounded; base not margined at middle;

front margin thickened and slightly sinuate; disk with somewhat coarse,

moderately dense punctures, which are slightly less dense at center. Scutel-

lum punctate. Elytra with two discal striae, other than sutural, weakly in-

dicated; disk punctured as thorax but a little more densely and more irregu-

larly so. Pygidium polished, slightly convex, glabrous, disk punctured like

the thorax, the punctures a little finer. Abdomen convex, highly polished,

and very finely not densely punctate at middle, with a few short scattered

388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

hairs; fifth sternite no different from third and fourth; sixth sternite three-

fifths the length of fifth and widely transversely impressed, the apex and

base slightly thickened, carinate, and not interrupted, except very narrowly

at apex; disk of sixth sternite wrinkled and not obviously punctate, appar-

ently glabrous and with a very fine longitudinal sulcus. First segment of

hind tarsus slightly shorter than second; spurs free. Claw very short and

robust, the basal tooth very small, short, and strongly inclined toward, but

narrowly separated from, the weakly dilated claw base. Mid and hind tibiae

each with several small serrations on the outer margin. Labrum large, very

deeply and narrowly cleft to base. Mentum very deeply and longitudinally

suleate. Length 19 mm.

The unique male holotype, in the Saylor collection, is from ““Trece Aquas,

Cacoa, Guatemala.”’ The species appears to be quite different from any

known to me in a number of characters but somewhat approaches P. parvi-

cornis Moser, from which it may be separated by the different abdominal

structure, densely punctate pygidium, and punctate scutellum.

ZOOLOGY .—WNotes on Mexican snakes of the genus Masticophis.!

Hosart M. SmitH, Smithsonian Institution. (Communicated

by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

The following notes are based on the Mexican whipsnakes in the

U. 8. National Museum (to which specimen numbers refer, unless

otherwise indicated), and on a portion of the EK. H. Taylor-H. M.

Smith Mexican collection. I am much indebted to Dr. E. H. Taylor

for loan of material and other courtesies too numerous to mention. A

portion of the specimens were collected during my tenure of a Walter

Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholarship, of the Smithsonian Institu-

tion.

Masticophis mentovarius (Duméril and Bibron)

Eleven Mexican specimens are from the following localities: CHIAPAS:

Tonala (no. 111270); near Colonia Soconusco (no. 111269). Oaxaca: Juchi-

tan (no. 30231); Tehuantepec (nos. 30422-3, 1112746) ; Cerro de Huamelula

(no. 111272); Mixtequilla (no. 111271); Cerro Arenal (no. 111273). One in

the EHT-HMS collection is from Rodriguez Clara, Veracruz (no. 5494).

All have seven labials, but in two the subocular labial (fourth) is partially

split. A juvenile (Veracruz), measuring 448 mm in total length (tail 110 mm),

has a narrow light stripe along adjacent edges of the third and fourth scale

rows, mostly on the third; a similar stripe, a little more distinct, is on the ad-

jacent edges of the first and second scale rows. Both stripes become very

faint posteriorly and completely disappear at about the middle of the body.

This species, because of the rudimentary nature of the light stripes, pres-

ence of dark spots on the scales, absence of any marked peculiarity in pat-

tern, and its geographical position, appears to represent the nearest approach

to the ancestral type of pattern in the genus. From it all other pattern types

of the genus may be derived, as a northward radiation of vicariating forms in

three series. With mentovarius as the starting point, two primary series are

evident: one in which cross bands are present and one in which stripes are

1 Received April 10, 1941.

Supr. 15, 1941 SMITH: SNAKES OF GENUS MASTICOPHIS 389

developed. The latter soon splits, to give rise to the 15-scale row series, as

opposed to the primitive, 17-scale row type. The pattern in the most primi-

tive 15-scale row form (t. australis), however, is much like the 17-scale row

form from which it possibly was derived (bzlineatus), in respect to the stage

of pattern evolution; in each the stripes are incomplete and disappear on at

least the posterior fourth of the body. In the end forms of each of these two

series (2.e., in lateralis, barbouri, and aurigulus of the 17-scale row series, and

in taenzatus of the 15-scale row series) the trend toward development of the

stripes reaches its extreme, as shown by the full-length stripes. In one form

(t. ruthvenr) the pattern is very simple, and the stripes nearly absent; it 1s ap-

parently a result of secondary reduction of the pattern.

In the cross-banded series, the trend is toward emphasis of the cross bands

and retention of them for a longer period in the life of the individual. This

trend reaches its maximum development in piceus and flagellum, and in a dif-

ferent form in each case. The more primitive of this series do not show any

evidence whatever of the cross bands in the adults, but they do show a curi-

ous lined or spotted pattern on the individual scales. This tendency is shown

somewhat in mentovarius, and in striolatus the spots at the bases of the scales

are well developed. In both products of striolatus (anthonyi and lineatulus)

the spots are replaced by a longitudinal dark line on each scale. In the next

most primitive member (flavigularis) these lines are lost. It is of great sig-

nificance that the most primitive member of the other two series of the genus

(bilineatus) toward the southern part of its range has a longitudinal line on

each scale, asin the primitive members of the cross-banded series; bilineatus

also has such short stripes toward the southern part of its range that, save

for the dark longitudinal line on the side of the head, it could easily be con-

fused with strzolatus of the cross-banded series.

Masticophis bilineatus Jan

Masticophis bilineatus Jan, Elenco Sist. Ofidi, p. 65. 1863 (‘‘Messico occid?).

—Jan and Sordelli, Icon. Gén.., livr. 22, pl. 6, fig. 2 (Mexico). 1867.

Masticophis semilineatus Ortenburger, Mem. Univ. Michigan Mus. Zool.

1: 48-57, figs. 6-8, pls. 11-13. 1928.

Six specimens are from mainland Mexico: No. 15880, Guaymas, Sonora;

no. 46382, Batopilas, Chihuahua; no. 46481, San Juan Capistrano, Zacate-

cas; no. 46417, Pedro Pablo, Nayarit; no. 32212, Guadalajara, Jalisco; no.

46499, Cuicatlan, Oaxaca. A specimen in the EHT-HMS collection is from

a locality between Autlan and Guadalajara, Jalisco (no. 23516).

All have the stripes on the anterior part of the body, and the dark stripe

through the upper part of the labials characteristic of the species. In the

Guadalajara specimen the lateral light stripes are confined to the nape. The

specimen from Cuicatlan has still shorter light stripes, and the body posterior

to the nape is almost entirely unmarked; it seems very different from the

typical, northern, half-lined specimens, yet the variation exhibited by the

few specimens available is so great that I can not satisfactorily define any

races within the species.

The young of this species are striped, as the adult. The chief distinguishing

feature from mentovarius, from which it seems to have been derived, is the

longitudinal black line on the sides of the head, involving the upper parts of

the supralabials; the remainder of the supralabials are white. In mentovarius

there is no such black line, and the labials are more or less uniformly mottled.

In addition, the fourth and fifth labials normally are fused in the latter spe-

390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 31, NO. 9

cies, so that only one large labial borders the orbit, but this character is not

invariable (cf. Hartweg and Oliver, Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan,

no. 47: 19-20. 1940). The color character is invariable, however (it is be-

lieved), and is the chief reason for not considering these two forms as sub-

species.

It is with little doubt that the name bzlzneatus of Jan is associated with this

species. In the ‘‘Elenco’”’ he states that the scale rows are 17, and that prob-

ably the snake came from western Mexico. In 1867 the type was well illus-

trated and shown to have a pattern precisely like that of the species generally

known as semilineatus.

It is noteworthy that this is not Masticophis bilineatus Cope (Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Phila., 1866, p. 127),aname applied without description to two speci-

mens (Field no. 777) in Schott’s collection from Yucatan (U.S.N.M. no. 6555

now lost). Cope’s synonymy for this name is Herpetodryas bilineatus Schlegel

ined., Jan (Elenco Sist. Ofidi, p. 81. 1863). Cope probably used this name for

the young of Dryadophis boddaertit melanolomus, and perhaps Jan had the

same form. Regardless, however, of the identity of either Jan’s or Cope’s

specimens, the name was suppressed by Cope in 1866, by his allocation of it

to Masticophis, in which genus the same name was earlier proposed and diag-

nosed by Jan (1863).

Masticophis taeniatus australis, subsp. nov.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 10240, a juvenile female from “Guanajuato,”

collected by Alfredo Dugés.

Paratypes—U.S.N.M. no. 1113812, Tacicuaro, Michoacan; and EHT-

HMS 26227, same locality.

Diagnosis.—Scales in 15-13 rows; a continuous, unbroken white line in-

volving adjacent edges of third and fourth scale rows, extending three-

fourths length of body; no or but faint evidence of a light stripe on adjacent

edges of ventrals and first scale row; anterolateral edges of middorsal scales

faintly lighter; ventrals 202 in female type.

Description of holotype —Kight supralabials, fourth and fifth entering eye

and largely fused together, last three-fifths length of seventh; fifth labial

in contact with temporal; loreal single, a little longer than high; two preocu-

lars, upper very large and separated from frontal, lower very minute and in

contact with two (third, fourth) labials; two postoculars, upper larger; tem-

porals in two rows of two or three scales; nine infralabials, four in contact

with chin shields.

Dorsal scales in 15-15-13 rows, smooth, those on neck with single apical

pits (others pitless) ; ventrals 202; caudals 143; anal divided; total length 517

mm, tail 159 mm.

Dorsal surface of head uniform brown, without light edges on scales; lips

white, with a very fine black line on labial border of first five labials; a fine

black line on orbital edges of scales entering orbit, least evident on supra-

ocular; a very irregular, broken black border on upper edges of preocular

labials; postoculars, most of upper preocular, and anterior edge of loreal

white; in temporal region the dark color of the dorsal surface involves the ex-

treme upper edges of the last three labials, and the posterior third of the

eighth labial; an irregular, vague light spot in median posterior temporal

region; a dark-edged white line beginning at nape and following the adjacent

edges of the third and fourth scale rows to about the posterior fourth of the

body, where it disappears; below this a brown band involving the second and

adjacent half rows; belly mostly white, but with a slight pigmentation lat-

SEPT. 15, 1941 SMITH: SNAKES OF GENUS MASTICOPHIS ool

erally, making barely evident a faint light line involving adjacent edges of

ventrals and first row of dorsals; this line disappears completely a little an-

terior to the point where the other line disappears. Posterior fourth of body

and tail more or less uniform brown. Dorsal scales between stripes brown,

their anterolateral edges lighter, their extreme anterior edges black. Tail

white below, slightly stippled anteriorly.

Variation.—The two paratypes from Tacicuaro are also juveniles, as the

holotype, and agree exactly with the latter in coloration. The ventrals of

neither can be counted, but the caudals in one (male) are 147, in the other

(female) 143. Supralabials 8-8 in each, infralabials 10-10, 11-11; oculars, tem-

porals and scale rows as in type.

Remarks.—The closest relatives of australis appear to be girardi and schot-

tv. Since the former is known from localities much nearer the range of aus-

tralis, perhaps it is more closely related to the southern subspecies than is

schottt, although australis certainly resembles the latter more closely. From

schotti, australis differs by having no or very faint evidence of a light line on

the adjacent edges of the ventrals and the first row of lateral scales; the belly

in schotte is strongly pigmented laterally, except toward the posterior part

of the body, while in australis the belly is almost uniform white, with very

little stippling. From gzrardi, australis differs by lacking dark marks on the

belly, by the presence of only a single lateral light stripe on the adjacent por-

tions of scale rows three and four, by the absence of dark lines on the lateral

scale rows, and (?) by the absence of light edges on the dorsal head scales.

I have not seen young gzrardiz, but according to Ortenburger ‘‘the pattern of

the young of this species is somewhat different from that of the adult. The

light cross-bands are absent except for a very narrow first dorsal band just

behind the head. There is present a black median stripe through scale row

1; row 2 is brown with light lower edge; the lower half of row 3 is black, the

upper half cream; row 4 is either all cream, or the lower half or two thirds

cream, and upper third or half, black; row 5 is either dark like the remainder

of the dorsal surface, or the lower fourth is cream and the upper three fourths

dark. The light stripe on rows 3 and 4 is the only wide one present and, unless

close examination is made, the general impression is that there is present but

a single light lateral stripe. There is a dark brown spot on the anterior ends of

those scales of row 4, which will, in the adult, be between the light interrup-

tions. The regions which will be occupied by the light cross-bands and inter-

ruptions of the adult are already indicated by the lack of the anterior dark

marks on the cream-colored scales of row 4. The belly is mottled only about

half the way to the tail” (pp. 37-88).

Accordingly, while adults of australis are not yet known, the young avail-

able do not appear referable either to girardi (as it is known in the United

States) or to any other previously described form. It should be remarked,

however, that the young of the extreme southern ‘‘girardi”’ (e.g., Zacatecas,

southern Coahuila), the adults of which, like australis, lack the light edges on

the dorsal head scales (present in northern, typical girardi), are not yet

known; it is not impossible that they may prove to lack the juvenile char-

acters of typical gzrardz, and be referable to australis.

Specimens of australis apparently were referred by Ortenburger to two

other subspecies. The type was included with ¢. taeniatus, but from this it dif-

fers in so many pattern characters that they need not be enumerated here.

On the basis of this specimen the range of ¢. taendatus was conceived to in-

clude a portion of the central Mexican plateau. Present evidence does not

verify its occurrence south of Lake Sante Maria, Chihuahua. The single rec-

392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

ord (other than from Guanajuato) of ¢. taeniatus given by Ortenburger for

areas south of central Chihuahua, is (apparently) San Pedro, Coahuila. If

this record is correct, then it represents the extreme eastern edge of the range

of the subspecies in this area, for a specimen of this group in the National

Museum from a locality five kilometers southeast of San Pedro proves to be

girardi. There is another specimen available of girardz, from central Zacatecas

(La Colorada), which strongly indicates that, if t. taenzatus occurs south of

Chihuahua, it must be confined to the extreme western edge of the plateau

(from which area no specimens of the group are yet available); such a dis-

tribution does not seem very probable.

The remaining specimens, apparently of australis, available to Orten-

burger, were referred by him to ruthvenz. They are from San Luis Potosi

(M.C.Z. nos. 19027-32) and are described as being striped, while the true

juveniles of ruthveni are not (see discussion of latter).

The subspecies australis is perhaps the most primitive of taenzatus. Al-

though ruthvent may appear to have the most primitive pattern, since in it

the stripes are the least well defined of all, it seems only to represent a sec-

ondary obsolescence of pattern, perhaps from a type shown by the juveniles

of australis. Intensification of the pattern of australis characterizes schottt,

certainly a derivative of the former. These three form a unit opposed to the

other (taenzatus and girardz); it is characterized by (1) the presence of light

anterolateral edges on the middorsal scales, by (2) the narrowness of the

light stripes, and by (3) the absence of light edges on the dorsal head scales.?

The subspecies gzrardi apparently also was derived from australis but at

an earlier date than the others, since it typically lacks the light anterolateral

edges on the dorsal scales and has broader light lines. Its close association

with the schottt unit, however, is indicated by the absence of light edges on

the dorsal head scales in southern specimens, and by apparent intergrada-

tion with schottz, and probably with australis. M. t. girardi has short, light

stripes, as does schotta and australis, and in this respect differs from taenzatus,

in which the light stripes (at least the primary) extend the full length of the

body.

Masticophis taeniatus ruthveni Ortenburger

Five specimens of this form have been examined: TAMAULIPAS: 22 km.

north of Victoria (no. 11443); Soto La Marina (no. 37546); 50 miles south of

Brownsville, Texas (no. 64681). San Luis Porost: 35 km. northwest of Ciu-

dad Maiz (EHT-HMS 23517). MicHoacAn: Zamora (HHT-HMS 21452).

Ortenburger (p. 46) states: ‘‘In one specimen, not fully grown (M.C.Z.,

no. 13951), a light lateral stripe [‘covering adjacent parts of rows 3 and 4,

bordered by black’ (p. 21)] is present and continues the length of the body.

Another specimen (U.S.N.M., no. 1974), very young, shows this light lateral

stripe also, and except for the fact that the typical yellow marks on the dor-

sal scales are lacking it is quite similar to schottz. Six other young specimens

were received from San Luis Potosi (M.C.Z. 19027-19032). These likewise

show the lateral light stripe and lack of the light marks on the dorsal seales.”’

U.S.N.M. no. 1974 was from Matamoras, Tamaulipas, and is labeled in

the catalog ‘‘schottz,’’ but is now lost. In view of Gloyd and Conant’s work

(Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., no. 287: 1-17, pls. 1-8. 1934) on this

form and schotti, there can be but little doubt that this specimen was either

a young schottz or else a schotti-ruthveni intergrade. Probably M.C.Z. no.

2 The first and third characters need verification in adult australis; that they exist

in present specimens of that form may be simply a juvenile characteristic.

Seer. 15, 1941 SMITH: SNAKES OF GENUS MASTICOPHIS 393

13951 is the same, while M.C.Z. nos. 19027—32 almost certainly belong to

australis. That none of these have the light marks on the anterolateral bor-

ders of the dorsal scales is rather obviously a juvenile character.

That the young of true ruthveni are not striped is shown by EHT-HMS no.

23517, from Ciudad Maiz. This specimen measures 495 mm in total length,

the tail 160 mm. In color and pattern it is precisely like typical adult ruth-

vent, save that the dorsal scales are but very faintly light-edged anteriorly.

No distinct stripes whatever are evident anteriorly; a faint, threadlike light

line is visible on the neck at the lower edge of the fourth scale row, but in no

sense is this similar to the lateral light line of schotti or australis; adult ruth-

vent also show an exactly similar line (see Ortenburger, pl. 9).

The most extraordinary specimen in the entire series is an apparently

perfectly typical adult ruthveni from Zamora, Michoacan, a locality so far

removed from others from which the subspecies is known that it is impossi-

ble to guess the significance of this record. Unfortunately the snake is badly

crushed, having been found on a road. Its scale rows, supralabials, and ocu-

lars are typical; the dorsal surface is nearly uniform blue-green, except for

yellowish borders on the extreme anterolateral edges of the median rows of

dorsals; no stripes are present, except a very faint one anteriorly along the

adjacent edges of the ventrals and first scale row.

This specimen may be just what it appears to be—a typical ruthvenz; but if

so a broad overlapping of the ranges of australis and ruthvent is indicated.

Regardless of the manner of interpretation of this specimen and its sig-

nificance, a considerable juggling is necessary in order to reconcile all known

facts; so much hinges upon this specimen alone that speculation upon it

should await verification of the record by further material.

Masticophis taeniatus girardi (Stejneger and Barbour)

Four specimens are known from Mexico, from ‘‘Chihuahua” (no. 14272);

La Cuchilla, 5 miles south of San Pedro, Coahuila (no. 105300) ; 14 km. north-

east of Pedricefia, Durango (EHT-HMS); and La Colorada, Zacatecas

(EHT-HMS no. 5487, described by Dunkle and Smith, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool.

Univ. Mich., no. 363: 5-6. 1937). These lack the light borders on the dorsal

head scales, typical of northern specimens.

Masticophis taeniatus taeniatus (Hallowell)

A single Mexican specimen examined is from Lake Santa Maria, Chihua-

hua (no. 46594).

Masticophis flagellum striolatus (Mertens)

Coluber striolatus Mertens, Zoologica 32: 190. 1934 (nom. nov. for Coluber

eo [Duméril and Bibron], preoccupied by Coluber lineatus Linnae-

us).

Masticophis lineatus Ortenburger, Mem. Mus. Univ. Michigan 1: 134-138,

ne 20, pl. 25. 1928.

Twenty-three specimens are in the collection: Nos. 24680-2, Maria Mag-

dalena, Tres Marias Islands; no. 46483, Acaponeta, Nayarit; no 46386,

Atemajac, Jalisco; no. 111278, Coyuca, Guerrero; no. 111277, 10 km. south

of Cuernavaca, Morelos; nos. 32178, 32221-2, 32232-3, 62027-9, 620314,

Colima, Colima; no. 32344, Zacatula River, near Lauria, Guerrero; no. 62026,

Sierra Madre, Chacan River, Michoacan; no. 62030, Hurcha Volcano, plains

of Nuruapa, Michoacan.

094 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 9

The original description (of lineatus Duméril and Bibron) appears to be a

composite, based partly upon strzolatus as at present defined and partly upon

lineatulus. Fortunately a specimen from Colima is mentioned, which, for

geographic reasons, probably is striolatus as at present understood.

Small specimens show traces of cross bands anteriorly, but in this form the

banded pattern is less distinct than in any other of the species. This form is so

obviously a close relative of lineatulus, which occurs in adjacent territory,

that I believe there is little doubt they are subspecies. It moreover appears

that strzolatus, not flavigularis, as suggested by Ortenburger, is the most

primitive form of the species flagellum.

Masticophis flagellum lineatulus, subsp. nov.

Holotype.—U. 8. N. M. no. 105292, female, from a locality eleven miles

south of San Buenaventura, Chihuahua. .

Paratypes.—Thirteen in the U. 8. National Museum: No. 12676, Guana-

juato; nos. 14279, 14283, Chihuahua; no. 26151, ‘‘Mexico”’; no. 46355,

Guanacevi, Durango; no. 1988, Alamo de Parras, Cohuila; nos. 104675-6,

Rio Santa Maria, near Progreso, Chihuahua; no. 1989, Cobre Mines, New

Mexico; no. 4388, Laguna, N. Mex.; no. 8429, ‘“New Mexico’; no. 22142,

Las Cruces, N. Mex.; no. 102240, Jornada Experimental Range, Dona Ana

County, N. Mex. One in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, no. 14280,

from Las Cruces, N. Mex. One in the EHT-HMS collection, no. 5388, be-

tween Torreon and San Pedro, Coahuila.

Diagnosis.—Scales in 17 rows, posteriorly 12 or 13; ventrals 190 to 198,

caudals 99 to 110; posterior portion of belly and subcaudal surface red or

marked with red (except in juveniles), even in long-preserved specimens

(red not fading greatly); each dorsal scale with a longitudinal dark line or a |

posterior dark spot; head scales not light edged in young, no light loreal

stripe (center may be light); young with cross bands 2 or 3 scales long, ex-

tending laterally to ends of ventrals, disappearing on middle of body.

Description of holotype-——Rostral rather prominent, strongly pointed

posteriorly, as high as wide, portion visible from above as long as inter-

nasals; latter three-fourths length of internasals; frontal twice as broad

anteriorly as between middle of orbits and posteriorly, about as long as its

distance from tip of snout, very slightly shorter than frontal; nasal com-

pletely divided, anterior section a little larger and higher than posterior;

loreal a little longer than high, in contact with two labials and lower pre-

ocular; two preoculars, upper in contact with frontal, lower much smaller

and wedged between third and fourth supralabials; two postoculars, upper

a little the larger; two irregular rows of temporals; an anterior temporal

wedged between fifth and seventh labials, above sixth (which is small);

eight supralabials, fourth and fifth entering orbit, fifth in contact with a

temporal, seventh and eighth larger than others; infralabials 10-11, four in

contact with anterior chin shields, two with posterior, fifth much the largest;

anterior chin shields shorter, and a little broader, than posterior.

Dorsal scales smooth, with double apical pits, in 17-17-12 rows; ventrals

197; anal divided; tail incomplete. Total length 1,481 mm, tail 386 mm

(plus a few mm).

Color—Head light yellowish brown, darker toward posterior sutures;

sides of head light yellowish brown, with a lighter area in the preocular,

loreal, nasal and rostral; a dark, rounded spot in center of nasal; supra-

labials white (cream) below a line about even with posterolateral border of

seventh labial and middle of subocular labials.

—

Supt. 15, 1941 SMITH: SNAKES OF GENUS MASTICOPHIS o95

Dorsal ground color light yellowish brown, becoming more reddish toward

middle of body, posteriorly mostly salmon red; all anterior dorsal scales

with a central, longitudinal black streak, which becomes more spot-like on

scales in middle of body, barely indicated on posterior scales; aS the black

spots become less distinct, the red areas become more distinct, the posterior

scales being mostly red (with a little black near tip), with a white (cream)

base; dorsal surface of the tail is even more strongly marked with salmon red.

Posterior edge of mental and broad areas near the sutures between the

infralabials and chin shields, black-marked; a double row of black spots be-

ginning with anterior ventral scales; posteriorly these spots becoming mixed

with red and soon mostly red and very little black; anterior ground color of

belly yellow, this color extending onto lower dorsal scale rows; toward

middle of belly the color is largely replaced by salmon red, and posteriorly

the belly is entirely red, with the double row of black spots faintly indicated;

ventral surface of tail mostly red, the bases of the scales hghter (cream).

V ariation.—The variation in scutellation is given in Table 1. In coloration

the adult and subadult paratypes agree with the holotype, except that those

long preserved have lost much of the original color. Without a single excep-

tion, however, every adult shows the typical salmon red color at least on

the subcaudal surface.

Two very young specimens are from ‘‘Guanajuato” and ‘‘Mexico,”’ both

collected by Dugés and therefore probably from the vicinity of the city of

Guanajuato. In these the dorsal head scales are not light-margined; sides

of head with numerous vertical light marks, one on frontal; a light spot in

loreal (not a stripe) and another on posterior section of nasal. Anterior part

of body darker than posterior, and with narrow light cross bands covering

considerably less than one scale length, placed at intervals of two or three

scale lengths; these light cross bands extend to ventrals, somewhat irregular

middorsally; tail, and middle and posterior part of body unmarked, be-

coming lighter posteriorly.

TABLE 1.—ScaLE Counts IN MASTICOPHIS FLAGELLUM LINEATULUS

Num-

Bax Sex een Pals Ale Supral.| Infral. | Proc. | Ptoc. | Temp.

1989 Q? 17-12 198 100 8-8 10-10 2-2 2-2 2-2

8429 Q 17-13 198 107 8-8 9-10 2-2 2-2 2-2

12676 Q 17-13 194 110 8-8 11-12 2-2 2-2 2-2

14279 Q 17-12 190 —— 8-8 12-13 2-2 2-2 2-2

14283 Q 17-12 194 100 8-8 11-11 2-2 2-2 2-2

26151 Q 17-13 191 109 8-8 10-11 2-2 2-2 2-2

105292 Q 17-12 197 — 8-8 10-11 2-2 2-2 2-2

1988 of 17-12 — — — — = — ae

4388 of 17-12 189 106 8-8 10-11 2-2 2-2 2-2

22142 of 17-12 199 — 8-8 10-12 2-2 2-2 2-2

46355 oO 17-12 196 99 8-8 10-11 2-2 2-2 2-2

102240 of 17-13 200 _- 8-8 9-10 2-2 2-2 2-2

104676 of 17-12 198 105 8-8 11-11 2-2 2-2 2-2

104675 on 17-12 198 | 107 8-8 11-11 2-2 2-2 2-2

A young specimen, from ‘‘New Mexico,’’ appears to be an intergrade be-

tween lineatulus and flavigularis, as it has the striped pattern anteriorly of

the former, in addition to two narrow, widely separated dark cross bands

typical of juvenile flavigularzs. Another specimen, also young, from Dofia

Ana County, N. Mex., appears to be an intergrade, as it has dim evidence °

anteriorly of cross bands somewhat like those of juvenile flavigularis; the

396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 9

specimen is so nearly grown, however, that the nature of the cross bands is

not readily discerned; the striped pattern anteriorly is distinct and typical

of lineatulus. A specimen in the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology,

from 8 miles north of Hereford, Ariz. (no. 69668) closely approaches lineatu-

lus, differing only by having a light loreal stripe as in piceus (see color de-

scription by Gloyd, Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci. 5: 117-118. 1937).

Remarks.—The adults of this subspecies are readily distinguishable from

flavigularis and piceus by the striped scales; they also lack the loreal stripe

ourigulus

taeniatus

barbouri

piceus flagellum

girardi schotti

lateralis Bieri

flavigularis

anthony! lineatulus

bilineatus australis

striolatus

mentovearius

Fig. 1.—Possible phylogeny of the members of Masticophis.

of the latter. Preserved lineatulus also retain the red ventral color, while

flavigularis and piceus, although frequently brilliant red in life, lose this

color very quickly in preservative.

The young of lineatulus are strikingly different from those of flavigularis,

with narrow, dark cross bands; piceus, with a light loreal stripe and the two

or three anterior dark bands broad and very dark (black), those following

conspicuously lighter; and strzolatus, with light margins on the dorsal head

scales.

Ortenburger anticipated the separation of this subspecies in his discussion

of flavigularis, with which specimens of lineatulus were associated. “One

specimen (M.C.Z., no. 14280) is particularly interesting in that it approaches

Sept. 15, 1941 SMITH: SNAKES OF GENUS MASTICOPHIS 397

piceus in ventral coloration and number of ventrals. The belly is red like

that of the typical pzceus of the west [but which does not retain this red in

preservative], and moreover it has 202 ventrals, a much higher number

than would be expected for flavigularis. It is from the western part of the

range of the form—Las Cruces, Dofia Ana County, New Mexico. Four other

specimens show a similar coloration. Two of these are from Chihuahua and

another from Durango, and another from San Luis Potosi. A singular dorsal

coloration is exhibited by all these specimens. Practically all the dorsal

scales have an elongate median dark mark. Whether these very few interest-

ing specimens will eventually be considered as belonging to a distinct form

cannot now be determined” (pp. 102-103).

Masticophis flagellum flavigularis (Hallowell)

Six specimens: Nuevo Lr6n: 15 miles north of Monterrey (no. 111268);

Pesquieria Grande (no. 1995); Santa Caterina (no. 1992); Tamauuipas: Mier

(no. 48091). San Luis Porost: Chijol (no. 46476). Sonora: San Bernardino

Ranch (no. 21052). All are typical adults, of nearly uniform light brownish-

gray color.

Juveniles have very narrow, dark cross bands, and in this respect they

differ from the young of all other subspecies.

The record from extreme northwestern Sonora is substantiated by another

specimen of flavigularis from Apache, Ariz. (no. 8428, juvenile). These two

specimens lack the loreal stripe and dark anterior cross bands of piceus

and also the red ventral color and striped scales of lineatulus. The subspecies

flavigularis apparently surrounds the latter north of the United States-

Mexico boundary.

Masticophis flagellum piceus (Cope)

The only specimen from mainland Mexico is one from Altata, Sinaloa

(no. 33570).

Juveniles of this subspecies have a distinct white loreal stripe, as has pre-

viously been pointed out; the cross bands on the body extend to the ventral

surface; the posterior part of the body is considerably lighter (uniform) than

the anterior (banded); and the extreme anterior nuchal bands are darker

than the succeeding bands. In Arizona and Sinaloa specimens the dorsal

head scales usually are light-edged, and the anterior cross bands are less

distinctly differentiated from the succeeding bands; California specimens

usually do not have the dorsal head scales light-edged, and the anterior

cross bands are very well differentiated from (darker than) the succeeding

bands.

It is obvious that the black phase for which the name prceus has generally

been used can not have arisen by the same procedure as have all other mem-

bers of Masticophis recognized at present. It is, almost beyond question, a

mutant form, occurring within the range of ‘‘frenatus’’; it does not seem of

greater significance than the red phase of the same species. Taylor (Kansas

Univ. Sci. Bull. 24: 491. 1936 [1938]) describes a specimen in which only

“the anterior half of the body is black. About the middle of body there are

three, black-spotted, reddish bands, while the latter third of the body is-

more or less reddish. The specimen was captured in the heat of the day under

a flat rock, near La Posa [Sonora].”’ It is unfortunate that the name of an

atypical phase must, because of priority, be used for the species; such is the

case, however, in this form, for pzceus (1892) antedates the only other name

(frenatus, 1893) that has been applied to this race. The latter name, more-

398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

over, is not available under any circumstance, since it is a suppressed homo-

nym of Herpetodryas frenatus Gray (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 12: 390.

1853.) from India, placed in the genus Coluber (Coluber frenatus, a valid

species) by Boulenger (Fauna Brit. India, Rept., p. 335. 1890). If the Cali-

fornia specimens are ultimately distinguished from Arizona ones, or if the

name piceus is restricted to the black phase, a new name or names will be

required.

Key To Marnutanp Mexican MAstIcopuHis

1. Seales in 15 rows. EI ee 2

Scales in 17 rows. 0.0 0. a ee ee 6

2. A distinct lateral light stripe involving edges of third and all or adjacent

edge of fourth row... 0.0 ee a eee 4

No distinct lateral light stripe involving third and fourth rows........

HIS Be EE a itm Pk eae Ne taeniatus ruthvent

3. Upper lateral light stripe involving fifth row of scales............... 4

Upper lateral light stripe confined to adjacent edges of third and fourth

rows, always Continuous... 0.2 ho. la py ee 5

4. Lateral light stripe broken or partially interrupted anteriorly, not reach-

iIng.anal FESO... We. aks Aes en alae oe eee ee taeniatus girardi

Lateral stripe continuous and uniform in character throughout its

length reachimecanal meciome se ose eee taeniatus taenratus

5. A very distinct, light lateral stripe on adjacent edges of ventrals and first

row of dorsalss youne and=adulits\..).4.0. oe eee taeniatus schotti

No or only faint evidence of a lateral light stripe on adjacent edges of

ventrals and first row of dorsals; young only (adult not known)......

Ee ne SO aCe ete mR taenratus australis

6. Avsingle labial enterime orbit. 3:32 ede 1. ¢+ 0 ee ee mentovarius

Two: labials entering orbit... . 6.2 2k. ee 7

7. No longitudinal light stripes exclusively on lateral rows anteriorly; if

present, equally distinct on dorsal as on lateral rows............... 9

Lateral light stripes present anteriorly, these more distinct than dorsal

light Stripes Gf any)... 00.000 0 ee 8

So Lips'mottleds ee ye A ae in mentovarius

Lips mostly white, bordered above by black................ bilineatus

9. In young, neck bands much darker than succeeding bands, considerably

broader than spaces between them; in adults, neck bands always vis-

ible; a longitudinal white stripe through loreal....... flagellum piceus

In young, neck bands not greatly darker than those following; in adults,

if bands are visible, they are narrower than the spaces between them;

no distinet- white stripe through loreal........... 3 eee 10

10. Caudals 109 or more; a dark spot at the base of each scale; usually no

dark lines through the centers of anterior scales... . flagellum striolatus

Caudals usually less; no dark spots at the bases of the scales, or if so a

dark line through the center of the anterior scales................ 11

11. In adults, a dark line through the center of each scale at least on anterior

part of body, and at least subcaudal surface salmon red in preserved

specimens; in young, the dark bands broader than the light interspaces,

which are incomplete and irregular.............. flagellum lineatulus

No dark lines through centers of scales; ventral surfaces not red except

in live or very recently preserved specimens; young with narrow dark

crossbands, narrower than light interspaces, which are complete......

TO ae cape (it LORE | 2 ala iN BRR is rou a ry ee ae flagellum flavigularis

3 Not yet recorded from Mexico, but almost certainly occurring.

Sepr. 15, 1941 BIGELOW: NOTES ON SQUILLA EMPUSA 399

ZOOLOGY .—Notes on Squilla empusa Say. RoBERT PAYNE BIGE-

Low, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (Communicated

by Wa.Lpo L. ScHMITT.)

The purpose of this paper is to place on record some observations

made under especially favorable circumstances upon the coloration of

Squilla empusa Say (1818), including a few notes on the behavior,

external anatomy, and sexual dimorphism of this stomatopod crus-

tacean, the only one found normally in the vicinity of Woods Hole,

Mass.

Squilla empusa is known to range southward to the Gulf of Mexico

and Texas. It has been found also in the West Indies and has been re-

ported from west Africa. Buzzards Bay appears to be the northern

limit of its distribution, and, while the pelagic larvae are occasionally

abundant in the plankton, adults are rarely taken (Sumner et al.,

1911). Only a few specimens are brought into Woods Hole from time

to time by scallop, Pecten (Plagioctenitum) irradians Lamarck, or

quahaug, Venus mercenaria Linnaeus, fishermen. In September 1931,

however, a number of half-grown specimens were taken with the seine

in the Wareham River; and on several trips made between the first

of August and the last of September 1932, large numbers of adults

were captured by Robert A. Goffin, of the U. 8. Fisheries Biological

Station, with a shrimp-trawl in Mattapoisett Harbor and in Wareham

River, on the north shore of Buzzards Bay.

Although in Woods Hole at the time, I was unaware of these events

until—just as I was about to leave—my attention was called to an

exhibit in the public aquarium room of the Fisheries Station. In a big

glass aquarium, close by a large window of frosted glass, were 21

adults selected from some hundred specimens taken by Mr. Goffin

with the otter shrimp-trawl at a depth of about 3 fathoms in Matta-

poisett Harbor on September 6, 1932. The specimens were lively and

in excellent condition, visible from all sides, and brilliantly illuminated

by diffused sunlight during the morning hours. Their coloration was

striking. This is a feature usually neglected in taxonomic works (cf.

DeKay, 1844; Bigelow, 1895; Pratt, 1916), and here was an oppor-

tunity not to be missed. As the time at my disposal was short, I made

careful notes without waiting to consult the literature. Thus my ob-

servations were made independently of the detailed but rather in-

complete descriptions of Say (1818, p. 252) and of Verrill and Smith

(1873, p. 369), and for that reason, perhaps, they may be worthy of

record.

1 Received April 14, 1941.

400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

COLOR PATTERN

As seen in the aquarium, the animals were ornamented on the dorsal

side by a ground color and by markings in various other colors that

produced a brilliant pattern. The ground color was an opalescent

purple—described by another observer as “mauve,” or gray with a

tinge of violet. Across the median area of the somites of the hind-

body were transverse shadowy gray patches, most marked on the

second abdominal somite.

Aside from these indistinct patches, the markings were mostly

green, opaque white, yellow, and orange. The green color marked the

projecting portions of the integument. On the posterior border of the

carapace and of each somite of the hindbody there was a band of

apple green shading anteriorly into a deep olive-green. The bright-

yellow edge mentioned by Say and by Verrill accentuates the light

green on the margins of the carapace and the last two abdominal

somites. Except for the marginal carinae of the abdomen, each carina,

from the rostrum to the telson, and the basal bosses of the marginal

teeth and denticles of the telson were marked by green in the same

way. On the dorsal surface of the telson each one of the pits on each

side of the crest appeared as a light-green spot. Also the dorsal carina

on the propodus of the raptorial limb is light green, while the margin

of the ventral groove of the merus is purple, the two colors coming

close together when the claw is closed.

The opaque white markings on the body consist of fine lines and

spots in a symmetrical pattern on the submedian area of the thoracic

and abdominal somites, and of large irregular patches lateral to the

intermediate carinae of the thorax and of the abdomen and between

the lateral and marginal carinae of the abdomen, extending to the

flattened surface of the marginal carinae. The mobile spines of the

uropods are entirely white, and the same color appears on the tips of

the submedian and intermediate teeth of the telson and of the prongs

of the basal process of the uropods, and along the outer margins of

the pleopods. The thoracic limbs are pinkish white.

The antennal scales are yellow toward the apex, while a deeper

yellow marks the outer half of the paddle of the uropods. The color

scheme is completed, in the main, by broad fringes of setae that bor-

der the antennal scales, the pleopods, and the uropods. These are a

shade of orange that forms a strong contrast to the other colors.

The eyes are among the most striking features of these animals.

Both Say and Verrill describe them as brilliant emerald-green. In our

specimens the outer layers of the cornea were perfectly transparent,

Sept. 15, 1941 BIGELOW: NOTES ON SQUILLA EMPUSA 401

and within could be seen a dark mass with a brilliantly iridescent

metallic luster. The eye stalks were translucent with a pinkish or

orange hue.

If this more detailed description is compared with that of Say or of

Verrill and Smith, it will be found to differ in many particulars. It

differs fundamentally from the description and figure of DeKay (1844,

pr oo, fig. 54).

It is well known that some Crustacea change color with a change of

background (Keeble and Gamble, 1904; D. C. Smith, 1930; F. A.

Brown, 1935). Late in the summer of 1933 it was suggested to me that

Squilla empusa may be one of the variable species. To test this an

attempt was made to obtain material for experiments, but a day of

strenuous dredging, September 14, yielded only one specimen where

the species had been abundant the year before. Without an ample

supply one could not expect significant results. Nevertheless, this one

large female was subjected to a series of experiments with apparatus

kindly lent by G. H. Parker at the Marine Biological Laboratory, and

no change in color was observed. That result is perhaps to be expected

of an animal that spends part of its life in a burrow. If there is any

change, it may be very slow, as in the crayfishes (Kent, 1901).

BEHAVIOR

While notes were being made of the color the animals were con-

stantly in motion. Even those that were resting on the bottom ex-

hibited rhythmic, fanlike movements of the epipodites on the first

five pairs of thoracic limbs. These movements of the epipodites were

not in phase with the similar rhythmic motion of the gill-bearing

abdominal appendages, the pleopods. It was amusing to observe the

use that frequently was made of the first thoracic limb to clean the

body. By means of the brush of setae on the terminal segment, first

the adjacent limbs were thoroughly scrubbed, then the body was bent

so that other parts could be reached, until finally a complete toilet

had been accomplished, including all the abdominal appendages and

gills.

Locomotion on the bottom was by alternate movements of the three

pairs of thoracic walking legs; but change from place to place was

chiefly by swimming with progressive oarlike strokes of the pleopods.

Occasionally a sudden backward movement was made by a powerful

flexure of the hindbody. Application of the net handle to the anten-

nules of a resting individual evoked a stroke of the raptorial claws

that was startling in its swiftness and force.

402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

There were small fishes in the aquarium. They were frequently

pursued. The capture was observed of a menhaden about 5 cm in

length. This was accomplished by bilateral grasping movements of

the raptorial limbs. The fish was quickly bitten cleanly in two. The

posterior half dropped to the bottom. There it was found and eaten

by another squilla while the captor was consuming the other part.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES

Opportunity to supplement previous descriptions of the structural

features of this species is afforded by the courtesy of Mr. Goffin, who

placed in my hands two males (76 and 145 mm) and three females

(97, 105, and 180 mm) preserved from the catch of September 6, 1932;

and also a male (150 mm) taken with a scallop-dredge in Buzzards

Bay at North Falmouth in November 1926. i

The facts to be recorded are in two groups—first, referring to the

affinity of this species to other species of the genus; and, second, re-

lating to sexuality.

In the first group should be noted the presence of mandibular palps

with three segments; epipodites at the bases of all of the first five

thoracic limbs; and an abdominal spine-formula (Kemp, 1913, p. 9),

as follows:

Carinae ending in spines Abdominal somites

Srullomaae claire Rah eet ia a ea ira none nc MN Ce nme am La ee Sao

Jib eR TAS CCE s/s tee ees ous Neo es NN (3)o 4 eos GAO

[batter alee Te ORES emis Akete e aR nme CBee eG

Mia oantalisigc mieten tina. pies ee ee Coon cia Late an hee races 1. + Die SS eae ero

The carpus of the raptorial limb, when fully developed, bears a dorsal

crest with four sharp teeth, the distal one out of line with the others.

The exopodite of the uropods is armed with 8 or 9 (rarely 6) mobile

spines, the distal one acute, not greatly elongated, and curved toward

the apex of the limb.

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

Of special interest are the differences in the sculpturing of the telson

and the abdominal somites to be seen by comparing young with old

of both sexes and fully grown males with females of the same age.

These differences were well marked in the six specimens examined at

Woods Hole. In the two smaller females and the small male the crest

and marginal carinae of the telson have sharply defined summits; and

the marginal carinae of the abdomen, separated by a distinct groove

from the edge of the somite, are but slightly wider than the other

carinae and each one is distinctly grooved longitudinally. In the large

Sept. 15, 1941 BIGELOW: NOTES ON SQUILLA EMPUSA 403

female (180 mm) and the two large males (150 and 145 mm in me-

dian length) the sculpturing of the telson is alike and differsfrom that

of the smaller specimens in having the crest and marginal carinae

swollen and broadly rounded at the summit.

Fig. 1.—Squilla empusa: Six abdominal somites of a male 150 mm long and lateral

and marginal carinae on the abdomen of a female 180 mm long. Left lateral aspect,

natural size. :

On the other hand, the marginal carinae of the abdomen in these

large individuals exhibit distinct sexual differences, as shown in Fig. 1.

On the third abdominal somite of the large female these carinae are

grooved on the anterior third of their length and the posterior two-

thirds is broad (about one-tenth the length) and distinctly swollen.

This feature is progressively less marked on the other somites toward

each extremity of the abdomen. The two large males differ from the

female in having these carinae very much broader (maximum width

about one-fourth the length) with the summit a broad flat plane—not

at all grooved, except slightly on the first abdominal somite.

Thus our species shows distinctly in one feature, previously over-

looked, some of the sexual dimorphism, that is conspicuous in several

closely related species of the Panama region.

REFERENCES

BigELow, Rospert P. Report on the Crustacea of the order Stomatopoda collected by

the steamer Albatross. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 17: 525-534. 1895.

Brown, F. A., Jr. Color changes in Palaemonetes. Journ. Morph. 57: 317-333. 1935.

DeKay, J. E. Zoology of New York, Part 6, Crustacea, pp. 32-338, pl. 13, fig. 54. 1844.

KEEBLE, F., and GAMBLE, F. W. Colour-physiology of higher Crustacea. Phil. Trans.

(B) 196: 295-388, pls. 18-23. 1904.

Kemp, STANLEY. Crustacea Stomatopoda of the Indo-Pacific region. Mem. Indian

Mus. 6. 1913.

Kent, W. J. Colors of the crayfish. Amer. Nat. 35: 933-936. 1901.

Pratt, H.S. Manual of the common invertebrate animals, p. 384. 1916.

Say, THomas. An account of the Crustacea of the United States (Continued). Journ.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1: 250-253. 1818. |

SmituH, D. C. Effects of temperature changes upon the chromatophores of crustaceans.

Biol. Bull. 58: 193-202. 1930.

SuMNER, F.B., et al. Biological survey of the waters of Woods Hole and vicinity. Bull.

U.S. Bur. Fisheries 31: 137, 662. 1911.

VERRILL, A. E., and Smiru, 8. I. Report wpon the invertebrate animals of Vineyard

Sound and adjacent waters. U.S. Fish Comm. Report for 1871-72, pp. 369, 536,

gol USiise

404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 9

ORNITHOLOGY.—Bird bones from Eskimo ruins at Cape Prince

of Wales, Alaska.|. HERBERT FRIEDMANN, U. 8. National Mu-

seum.

In the summer of 1936, H. B. Collins, Jr., of the Bureau of American

Ethnology, excavated a number of old Eskimo habitations in the Cape

Prince of Wales area, Alaska, and collected, among other material,

a large number of bird bones. All the material was carefully labeled

with full stratigraphical data, thereby preserving the relative ages of

the various specimens. The antiquity of the sites and the levels of the

different cuttings have been estimated from archeological evidence

by Collins (Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 100: 545. 1940) as follows:

The oldest site, the Sand Mound near the Light House, 2 miles

north of Wales, is considered to be about 1,500 years old; a series of

numbered cuts (1-10) are next in age—1,000 years, as are also the

basal layers of two cuts ‘‘above A and B’”’; two sites named Mugisak-

tavik and Eyumnik are next in age, with an estimated 100-150 years;

finally come a series of excavations “A, B, C, and D,” assumed to be

50-100 years old.

The bulk of the material coming from the older diggings (1,000-—

1,500 years old) are of the Punuk-Thule archeological level and are,

therefore, comparable to the diggings from Ievoghiyoghameet and

the upper part of Myiowaghameet at Gambell, St. Lawrence Island

(reported in Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 24: 83-96. 1934). A com-

parison of the present lot of bones with the Gambell series reveals

some striking differences, but differences that seem to reflect dis-

similarities in the bird life of the two areas, rather than in any dif-

ferential human selectivity.

In the material collected on St. Lawrence Island, bones of the

murres (Uria) were by far the most abundant elements of the bird

remains, totaling about 60 percent of all the bones collected; in the

Cape Prince of Wales collection only a moderate number of murre

bones were found, and they were far exceeded numerically by remains

of the king eider. In the former area there are cliffs that harbor breed-

ing colonies of murres; in the latter area there are none, and it seems

that this is the reason for the dissimilarity in the collections, rather

than any great proclivity for murres of the St. Lawrence Eskimos, as

contrasted with the Wales Eskimos. Other minor differences are

noted under the separate species accounts.

The chronology of the cuttings involves only a span of not more

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 26, 1941.

Sept. 15, 1941 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES FROM ALASKA 405

than 1,500 years, and, as might be expected, it reveals no changes in

the bird life of the area.

Gavia immer (Briinnich): Common Loon

‘The common loon is represented by bones from five cuttings, ranging

from the most recent (50-100 years old) to the oldest (over 1,000 years)

strata. In the oldest one, eight bones representing at least three individuals

were found; in the others, only single bones were collected.

Gavia adamsi (Gray): Yellow-billed Loon

Dive cuttings considered to be of the Punuk-Thule period (1,000 years old)

each yielded a single bone of this species.

Gavia arctica pacifica (Lawrence): Pacific Loon

The Pacific loon is represented by bones from nine cuts, all of the Punuk-

Thule period, and also from the oldest site—a few centuries older. The largest

number of bones in any one cut was three, so this species cannot be looked

upon as a very frequently eaten article of diet. The actual specimens identi-

fied are five carpometacarpals, five tarsometatarsals, four humeri, two

tibiotarsi, and a pair of mandibles.

Gavia stellata (Pontoppidan): Red-throated Loon

Bones of this bird were collected in five cuttings, all of about 1,000 years

antiquity. The bones included four tibiotarsi, one radius, one ulna, one pair

of mandibles, and two coracoids.

Puffinus tenuirostris (Temminck): Slender-billed Shearwater

The old cuttings (1,000 years) yielded a single humerus each of this shear-

water. It would seem from this that the slender-billed shearwater was rarely

eaten by the Eskimos of the area.

Phalacrocorax pelagicus pelagicus Pallas: Pelagic Cormorant

Sites of all ages from 50 to 1,500 years yielded bones of this cormorant. In

the oldest cut, that of the Sand Mound near the light house, were found the

greatest number—three femurs, two coracoids, three ulnae, three tibiotarsi,

and seven humeri; in the others the number was smaller—from one to three

bones.

In a report on a similar collection of bird bones from Eskimo ruins on St.

Lawrence Island (Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 24: 88. 1934) it was noted

that ‘although many limb bones were found, only four synsacra and one

sternum were unearthed and no parts of the skull or mandibles.’’ In the

present collection, there is a similar absence of skull bones and sterna,

and only one synsacrum was recovered. Inasmuch as sterna, synsacra, and

skulls of other birds of similar size, especially the eider ducks, are present

in numbers, together with their corresponding limb bones, it is difficult to

explain their absence in the case of the cormorant.

Branta canadensis (Linnaeus): Canada Goose

Bones of this species, but not certainly identifiable to subspecies, were

found sparingly. Five sites yielded one bone each. The Eyumnik cut revealed

a femur and in four of the excavations of Punuk-Thule area, there were un-

earthed two ulnae, one humerus, and one carpometacarpal.

406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

Branta nigricans (Lawrence): Black Brant

The black brant is represented in the material collected from five old

(Punuk-Thule period) diggings, and from one recent (50-100 years old) one.

The old sites yielded a single bone each; the recent one, two humeri.

Philacte canagica (Sevastianoff): Emperor Goose

Remains of the emperor goose were found in eleven cuttings, ranging in

age from the most ancient (Sand Mound—ca. 1,500 years) to those of the

Punuk-Thule period (ca. 1,000 years). Strangely enough, no bones were

found in the excavations of more recent sites. This is essentially similar to

the St. Lawrence Island record, where no bones were found in-the oldest or

the most recent cuts, but only in diggings at Kialegak and Seklowaghyaget,

both of Pinuk-Thule age. In the St. Lawrence Island collection, there were

no long bones, but chiefly metacarpals, clavicles, and coracoids; in the

present series are humeri, ulnae, femurs, sacra, metatarsals, and meta-

carpals.

Anser albifrons (Scopoli): White-fronted Goose

The white-fronted goose is sparingly represented by bones found in six

diggings of from 1,000 to 1,500 years antiquity. In all but one of these sites,

only single bones were unearthed; in the one, there were two bones.

Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos Linnaeus: Common Mallard

Considering the total absence of bones of this species in the St. Lawrence

Island material, it is surprising to find the mallard abundantly represented

in the present collection. No fewer than 49 bones of this duck were un-

earthed in 24 diggings of all ages from most ancient to most recent.

Dafila acuta (Linnaeus): Pintail

Four cuttings of Punuk-Thule age yielded one bone each of this duck.

It was even scarcer in the St. Lawrence Island collection, where only a single

bone was unearthed in a cut of comparable age.

Nyroca marila (Linnaeus): Greater Scaup Duck

Fifteen diggings yielded 25 bones of this duck (tibiotarsi, humeri, and

ulnae).

Glaucionetta clangula (Linnaeus): Goldeneye

A few bones of this species were found in two cuttings of about 1,000 years

of age. The subspecific identification is impossible even to guess at, as either

the Asiatic or the American form might occur in the region.

Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus): Oldsquaw

The oldsquaw is represented by 26 bones from 15 different diggings, all

but one recent one of Punuk-Thule age. This is in agreement with the record

of the species in the collection from St. Lawrence Island.

Polysticta stelleri (Pallas): Steller’s Eider

Unlike the St. Lawrence Island material, where this duck was poorly

represented, the present collection contains 30 bones from 20 sites. With two

exceptions (both recent sites) all the diggings involved were of Punuk-Thule

age. The number of bones varied from one to nine in any single site.

Supt. 15, 1941 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES FROM ALASKA 407

Somateria v-nigra Gray: Pacific Eider

The Pacific eider is very abundantly represented in the present collection,

107 bones from 35 diggings being identified as of this species. All ages, from

50 to 1,500 years, are presented in the cuttings involved.

Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus): King Eider

The most abundant species in the collection, no less than 188 bones from

60 diggings being of this eider. These diggings cover the entire time range

of from 50 to 1,500 years antiquity. |

Melanitta deglandi (Bonaparte): White-winged Scoter

The white-winged scoter is represented by 18 bones from eight diggings,

all of the Punuk-Thule period. The bones include humeri, tibiotarsi, and

sterna.

Oidemia americana Swainson: American Scoter

Eight bones of this duck were unearthed in four cuttings, two of which

were of recent date and two of Punuk-Thule age.

Lagopus sp.: Ptarmigan

Hight bones (seven humeri and one metacarpal) from as many cuttings,

all but one (recent) of Punuk-Thule age, are here recorded together. Prob-

ably two species, the rock ptarmigan, Lagopus rupestris subsp., and the

Alaska ptarmigan, Lagopus lagopus alascensis Swarth, are represented, but

it is not possible to identify them with absolute certainty.

Grus canadensis canadensis (Linnaeus): Little Brown Crane

Four diggings of the Punuk-Thule level revealed bones (one in each) of

the little brown crane. The bones were a skull, two fragmentary tibiotarsi,

and a tarsometatarsus.

Stercorarius pomarinus (Temminck): Pomarine Jaeger

The absence of Jaeger bones in this collection is noteworthy by contrast

with their abundance in the St. Lawrence Island material. Whereas in the

latter collection, there were large numbers of bones of the long-tailed Jaeger

and a few remains of the parasitic jaeger, the Cape Prince of Wales excava-

tion yielded only three tibiotarsi of the pomarine jaeger, all from one cutting

of Punuk-Thule age.

Larus hyperboreus Gunnerus: Glaucous Gull

Eleven cuts of all ages from 50 to 1,500 years yielded bones (one in each

case) of this large gull. The bones included metacarpals, humeri, mandibles,

tarsometatarsi, and tibiotarsi.

Larus glaucescens Naumann: Glaucous-winged Gull

Bones of this gull were found in only two of the cuttings of Punuk-Thule

age. The excavation at Eyumnik yielded two metacarpals and a femur; the

other (cut 8), one tibiotarsus.

Larus argentatus subsp.: Herring Gull

The most abundantly represented gull. Twenty-five bones from 16

diggings are identified as of this species; the diggings covering the entire

time range of from 50 to 1,500 years.

408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 31, NO. 9

Rissa tridactyla pollicaris Ridgway: Pacific Kittiwake

In three diggings, one recent and two of Punuk-Thule age, were found

bones of the Pacific kittiwake (one bone—a humerus, in each case).

Xema sabini (Sabine): Sabine’s Gull

_ Sabine’s gull is poorly represented in the collection, only two tibiotarsi

being identified. These came from two cuts of Punuk-Thule age.

Sterna paradisaea Brunnich: Arctic Tern

The Arctic tern is represented by a humerus and an ulna from a cutting

of Punuk-Thule age. Judging by its absence in all the other cuttings, one

may surmise that it was very infrequently eaten.

Uria spp.: Murres

Murres, probably of two species, Uria lomvia arra (Pallas) and Uria

aalge californica (Bryant), are represented by 104 bones found in 38 cuttings

of all ages from 50 to 1,500 years. The most striking contrast between the

present collection and that from St. Lawrence Island is the relative abun-

dance of murre bones. In the latter, murre bones comprised a little more

individual bones than all the other species combined; in the present collec-

tion, no such outstanding preponderance is true, in fact, murre bones are

greatly outnumbered by king eider and also by Pacific eider. Undoubtedly,

the reason for this is that on St. Lawrence Island, there are many cliffs where

the murres nest, while in the Cape Prince of Wales area there are no such

formations and hence murres are not only less numerous but also harder to

catch than where they can be snared at the nest.

The greatest number of murre bones from any one digging is from the

oldest site—Sand Mound near the Light House, where eleven humeri, one

femur, two coracoids, two metacarpals, eight ulnae, and three tibiotarsi

were unearthed; the next most productive cut, one of Punuk-Thule age,

yielded one skull, two sterna, two pairs of mandibles, two synsacra, two

humeri, two ulnae, one coracoid, and three tibiotarsi. In the cuts of recent

age, the number of murre bones (where found) is from three to six. It follows

that the Eskimos of Cape Prince of Wales did not feed on murres to anything

like the extent that the St. Lawrence Islanders did.

Cepphus columba Pallas: Pigeon Guillemot

The pigeon guillemot is represented by nine bones (all femurs!) from three

cuttings of Punuk-Thule age.

Cyclorrhynchus psittacula (Pallas): Paroquet Auklet

Three diggings, two of Punuk-Thule age, and one recent one, revealed

bones (one in each case) of the paroquet auklet. This is in striking contrast

to the abundance of remains of this species in the St. Lawrence Island collec-

tion. ?

Aethia cristatella (Pallas): Crested Auklet

Of this auklet, 47 bones were gathered from 27 different cuttings. While

most of the bones were humeri, there were also sterna, coracoids, and

clavicles.

Aethia pusilla (Pallas): Least Auklet

Fourteen diggings, all but one of Punuk-Thule age, and one recent one,

Sept. 15, 1941 SMITH: WAITEA AND MAHIDOLIA 409

contained bones of the least auklet, 29 in all, including humeri, sterna,

coracoids, and metacarpals.

Fratercula corniculata (Naumann): Horned Puffin

A single humerus from a cutting of Punuk-Thule age is the only bone of

the horned puffin found in the collection. The scarcity of remains of this

species and the next one may not necessarily indicate the numerical status

of the two species in the area, as on St. Lawrence Island, “‘in spite of their

abundance and size, neither of the puffins... seems to have figured very

largely in the diet of the ancient Eskimos” (Journ. Washington Acad. Sci.

24: 96. 1934).

Lunda cirrhata (Pallas): Tufted Puffin

The tufted puffin is represented by five bones from two excavations of

Punuk-Thule age.

Nyctea nyctea (Linnaeus): Snowy Owl

A single coracoid from a recent site (50-100 years old) is the only bone of

this species in the collection. As on St. Lawrence Island, owls may not have

been looked upon as food.

Corvus corax principalis Ridgway: Northern Raven

Two raven bones, one from the oldest site (1,500 years) and one of Punuk-

Thule age (1,000 years) are all that represent this bird. However, this is

due not to the scarcity of the raven but to the taboos regarding killing it.

Not a single raven bone was found in the refuse mounds on St. Lawrence

Island, where the raven is a common bird.

ICHTHYOLOGY .—The gobies Waitea and Mahidolia.t Hucu M.

SMITH, U. 8. National Museum.

The two gobioid genera Wartea and Mahidolia, with a rather wide

distribution in the Oriental and South Pacific regions (Philippine

Islands, Samoan Islands, Java, and Thailand or Siam), have become

somewhat involved in the literature, and it seems desirable, with the

information and material now available, to attempt a clarification of

their status. These genera are similar in possessing a pronounced

backward extension of the jaws, but their general appearance is dif-

ferent and taxonomically they are quite distinct.

Genus Waitea Jordan and Seale

Jordan and Seale (1906) established Waitea as a new genus of gobies

and indicated Gobius mystacinus Cuvier and Valenciennes (1837) as

the genotype. No description of the genus was given except that it

was close to Gobionellus but had the maxillaries produced backward

as in Opisthognathus. Beyond the mere listing of Waitea mystacina

(Cuvier and Valenciennes) as being known from Samoa and Java,

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived June 22, 1941.

410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

there was no reference to any specimens taken in Samoan waters,

although there was published a text figure from a drawing presum-

ably made from a Samoan specimen. It is not a matter of record

that the authors of Waitea compared their Samoan fish with any

authentic specimen of Gobius mystacinus.

The first definition of the genus Waztea seems to have been given

by Herre (1927) and was based on Jordan and Seale, reinforced by the

information afforded by specimens from the Philippine Islands. Herre

identified these fish as Waztea mystacina; and while his description

was in some particulars considerably at variance with specimens from

the Philippines and Samoa in the U. 8. National Museum, Herre con-

sidered his Spann ‘unmistakably the same fish as shown in Jordan

and Seale’s figure.”

The description and discussion of the genus Waieas given by Kou-

mans (1931) were most unsatisfactory because his conclusions were

based largely on the examination of two specimens in the Paris

Museum collected in Java by Kuhl and van Hasselt and labeled

Gobius mystacinus which were subsequently found by Koumans to

represent Oxyurichthys microlepis (Bleeker). Koumans later examined

the undoubted type of Gobius mystacinus in the Paris Museum but in

trying (1935) to reconcile that type with Waztea mystacina of Jordan

and Seale of which he had seen no specimens he ran into further

difficulties and concluded his consideration of Waitea and Wairtea

mystacina in these words:

The figure of Waztea mystacina (C. & V.) published by Jordan & Seale (Bull. Bur.

Fish. xxv, 1905, p. 407, fig. 94) differs from the type specimen in Paris Museum in

several respects. The anal fin shows I.11 rays instead of I.9 in the type specimen; in the

figure the 5th ray of D.I. is the longest, in the type specimen the first ray is the longest,

the other rays decrease gradually in length. The shape of the caudal is not lanceolate

in the type specimen, but much shorter, and finally the pattern of coloration is a totally

other one. So I am not quite certain that Jordan & Seale had the real Gobius mystacinus

in hands and therefore the locality Samoa is uncertain.

The U. S. National Museum contains a specimen of Waztea col-

lected at Apia, Samoan Islands, by Jordan and Kellogg in 1902, which

is without doubt the same fish as figured by Jordan and Seale from a

drawing by W. S. Atkinson.

From a critical examination of this specimen it is clear that the

fish that Jordan and Seale identified as Gobius mystacinus of Cuvier

and Valenciennes and made the type of their genus Waitea is not the

fish that Cuvier and Valenciennes so designated. While there is a

certain similarity, the differences are so marked and fundamental

Sepr. 15, 1941 SMITH: WAITEA AND MAHIDOLIA 411

that the two fishes can not be regarded as conspecific or even con-

generic.

In this case, of which there are numerous parallels in the annals

of zoological nomenclature, a new genus has been assigned a genotype

that is assumed to be identical with and is given the name of an

existing species that, in fact, is not the same as the particular fish in

hand.

The question arises (a) whether the old specific name mystacinus

together with the species it had hitherto represented goes with the

new genus for which it had been mistakenly designated as the type, or

(b) whether the fish incorrectly identified as Gobiws mystacinus should

receive a new specific name. The latter course seems preferable and

will here be followed, although the International Rules of Zoological

Nomenclature do not appear to provide the means for a definite

decision. The Opinion of the International Commission on Zoological

Nomenclature that bears most directly is No. 65, dealing with cases

in which a genus is based upon erroneously determined species. Out of

a very voluminous correspondence and protracted discussion there

was evolved the opinion ‘“‘that as a specimen is the type of a species,

SO a species is the type of a genus, and hence when an author names a

particular species as type of a new genus it is to be assumed that it

has been correctly determined. If a case should present itself in which

it appears that an author has based his genus upon certain definite

specimens rather than upon a species it should be submitted to the

Commission for consideration.”

In view of the impracticability of invoking the opinion of the Com-

mission at this time and in view of the manifest impropriety of making

Gobius mystacinus Cuvier and Valenciennes the genotype of Waztea

on the basis of a specimen of another species incorrectly so identified,

it is herein proposed to recognize and validate the genus Waitea as

having as its genotype the particular and only species that Jordan

and Seale had before them when they established the genus. This

species has been heretofore unnamed and is here described as new

from specimens in the U. 8. National Museum.

Waitea stomias, new species (Gobiidae)

Waitea mystacina (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Jordan and Seale, 1906, p. 407,

fig. 94; Samoa. (Not Gobius mystacinus Cuvier and Valenciennes.)

Waitea mystacona (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Jordan and Richardson, 1908,

p. 279; Luzon, Philippine Islands. (Not Gobius mystacinus Cuvier and

Valenciennes. )

Waitea mystacina (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Herre, 1927, p. 208; Panay,

Philippine Islands. (Not Gobsus mystacinus Cuvier and Valenciennes.)

412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

Wartea mystacina (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Koumans, 1935, p. 133;

(Gobius mystaconus Cuvier and Valenciennes, in part.)

Description.—Elongate; body rather strongly compressed, its depth 4.8

in standard length; caudal peduncle rather slender, its least depth 2 times

in depth of body, 3 in length of head, and 1.75 in its own length; head large,

moderately compressed, its length 3. 2 in standard length, its width 2 i in its

length and 0.8 its depth; snout 2.75 in head, rather strongly decurved; eye 1.6

in snout, 4.5 in head; tnterorbital space narrow, less than 0.5 eye; mouth

large, slightly oblique, upper lip broad; maxillary extending to posterior

edge of preopercle, 1.4 in head and as long as head less snout; teeth in each

jaw in a narrow band of about four rows, the outer row enlarged; tip of

tongue obtusely rounded; gill openings restricted, extending forward under

middle of opercle, the isthmus somewhat wider than the eye.

Squamation: Scales weakly ctenoid, 27 in longitudinal series, 7 or 8 in

transverse series, 12 circumpeduncular ; nape, predorsal area, opercles,

check, breast, and base of pectoral naked.

Fins: Dorsal rays VI-I,10; dorsal spines long, flexible, increasing in

length from first to fifth, fifth as long as head; interdorsal space short, 0.3

eye; second dorsal base as long as head, the posterior rays reaching on

caudal when depressed; caudal fin lanceolate, 1.5 times head and 0.5 com-

bined length of head and body; anal similar to second dorsal, rays I,11;

ventral fin long, reaching to anal; pectoral pointed, extending ‘to opposite

second branched ray of dorsal and anal fins, pectoral rays 19.

Coloration: Midside of body with five roundish black areas larger than

eye, the last at base of caudal fin; back and side with small roundish black

or dark brown spots in irregular disposition, top of head mottled with dark

brown; rays of both dorsal fins with small black spots which form into irregu-

lar transverse lines; caudal with six broad, curved, dark cross bands; anal

dusky; ventrals purplish black; pectorals plain.

Type.—The type, 7.4 cm in total length, was collected by Jordan and

Kellogg in 1902 at Apia, on Upolu, one of the Samoan Islands. U.S.N.M.

no. 51816.

Other specimens.—The U. 8. National Museum contains two other speci-

mens (nos. 99295 and 99296) taken in 1909 by an Albatross party in the Agus

River near Camp Overton, Mindanao, Philippine Islands. These specimens,

6.7 and 6.5 cm long, agree very closely with the type in form and color, but

have an increased number of scales in longitudinal series (29 and 31) and

show some variation in the dentition, with the inner row of teeth in the

upper jaw enlarged and with an anterior patch of teeth in the lower jaw

curved canines.

Remarks.—As already indicated, this is the fish that Jordan and Seale

misidentified as Gobius mystacinus of Cuvier and Valenciennes and made the

genotype of Waztea.

Waitea stomias, as represented by the type from Samoa and the two speci-

mens from Mindanao in the national collection, can not be the same species

that Herre (1927) called Waztea mystacina and considered ‘‘unmistakably’’

represented in Jordan and Seale’s figure. To show that Herre’s two speci-

mens 45 and 46 mm long from Iloilo are different it 1s necessary only to note

SeprT. 15, 1941 SMITH: WAITEA AND MAHIDOLIA 413

that the scales in longitudinal series are given by Herre as 36 or 38 (as

against 27 in stomzas), the scales in transverse series are stated to be about 16

(against 7 or 8 in stomias), the branched anal rays are given as 9 (against

11), and the shape of the first dorsal and caudal fins is entirely dissimilar.

Genus Mahidolia H. M. Smith

The genus Mahidolia was proposed by H. M. Smith (1932) for the

accommodation of a Siamese estuarine goby thought to be new and

given the name normani by Smith and Koumans in honor of J. R.

Norman, of the British Museum. Several years later Koumans (1935),

having examined the type of Cuvier and Valenciennes’ Gobius mysta-

cinus in the Paris Museum, concluded that normani from Siam is

identical with mystacinus from Java. While accepting this conclusion

I dissent from Koumans’ various contentions (1) that Mahidolia is a

synonym of Wartea, (2) that Mahidolia normani is identical with

Waitea mystacina of Jordan and Seale, and (38) that the name Waitea

mystacina of Jordan and Seale represents the same fish that Cuvier

and Valenciennes called Gobius mystacinus.

It is remarkable that with all the revising that has been accorded

the multicomposite genus Gobius (Linnaeus, 1758), the species Gobzus

mystacinus dating from 1837 should have remained untouched until

a comparatively recent date and even then, in my opinion, should

have been incorrectly allocated. As long ago as 1861 Giinther said

of Gobius mystacinus that “‘this species appears to be the type of a

separate genus.”

The proper name and synonymy of the genotype of Mahidolia are

as follows:

Mahidolia mystacina (Cuvier and Valenciennes)

Gobius mystacinus Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1837, p. 124.—Giinther, 1861,

p. 48.

Waitea mystacina Herre, 1927, p. 208; in part.—Koumans, 1931, p. 67, in part;

1935, p. 133, in part.

Mahidolia normani Smith and Koumans, 1932, p. 256, pl. 28, fig. 1.

COMPARISON OF WAITEA AND MAHIDOLIA

In view of the uncertainty that has arisen with regard to the dis-

tinctness of Waitea and Mahidolia, there are presented comparisons

of certain features in the two genera, and there are shown outline

figures of the genotypes. These figures alone are conclusive evidence

that Waitea stomias (= Waitea mystacina of Jordan and Seale and of

Koumans) can not as claimed be the same fish as Gobius mystacinus

of Cuvier and Valenciennes.

414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

The squamation in described members of the two genera is quite

different. In both the body is covered with weakly ctenoid scales and

the head is sealeless, but in Waztea the breast is naked and in Mahi-

dolia it is fully scaled. The scales in longitudinal series number 27 in

Waitea stomzas from Samoa but in specimens from the Philippines

there are several more scales in that series; in transverse series the

scales are 7 or 8. In Mahidolia from Siam the scales in longitudinal

series number 40 to 45 and in transverse series 14 to 16.

Fig. 1.—Waitea stomias, new species: The type specimen, from

Samoa. Length, 7.4 cm.

Fig. 2.—Mahidolia mystacina (Cuvier and Valenciennes): The type

specimen of M. normani, from Siam. Length, 6.2 cm.

The dentition is not markedly different in the two genera. The

teeth in both jaws are in about four rows, with the median teeth

minute. In Waitea the outer row of teeth in both jaws are enlarged

and approach caninoid, and the inner teeth in the upper jaw may be

slightly enlarged or small. In Mahidolia only the outer teeth in both

jaws are somewhat enlarged.

The size of the gill openings is another point of difference. In

Wautea these are quite restricted, extending forward to a point oppo-

Sept. 15, 1941 JENKINS AND CHEO: NEW FUNGI 415

site the base of the ventral fins; and the isthmus is correspondingly

wide. In Mahidolia the gill openings extend well forward to a point

under the anterior margin of the preopercle, or about half the dis-

tance between the posterior edge of the opercle and the eye; and the

isthmus is correspondingly narrow.

As regards the fins, there are entirely different types of spinous

dorsal and caudal fins in the two genera. In Waztea the length of the

spinous rays increases gradually from the first to the fifth, the sixth

being the shortest. In Mahzdolza the length of the spinous rays de-

creases gradually from the first to the sixth. The caudal fin in Wartea

is very long, lanceolate, and sharp-pointed; its length is half the

combined length of head and body. The caudal fin in Mahidolva is

obtusely rounded, its depth two-thirds its length, and its length less

than one-third the combined length of head and body.

LITERATURE CITED

Cuvier and VALENCIENNES. AHistoire naturelle des poissons 12. 1837.

GUNTHER, A. Catalogue of the fishes of the British Museum 3. 1861.

HERRE, ALBERT W. Gobies of the Philippines and China Sea. 1927.

JORDAN, D. S., and SEALE, ALVIN. The fishes of Samoa. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 25

(1905): 1738-455, pls. 38-53. 1906.

and RICHARDSON, Rospert EK. Fishes from islands of the Philippine Archipelago.

Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 27 (1907): 2338-287, 12 figs. 1908.

KouMANS, FREDERIK P. A preliminary revision of the genera of gobioid fishes with

united ventral fins. 1931.

———. Notes on gobiord fishes: 6, On the synonymy of some species from the Indo-Aus-

tralian Archipelago. Zool. Meded. 18: 121-150. 1935.

SmituH, H. M. Description of a new genus and three new species of Siamese gobies.

Journ. Siam Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 8: 255-262, pl. 23. 19382.

MYCOLOGY.—Descriptions of Elsinoé dolichi, n. sp., and Sphace-

loma ricini, n.sp.1. ANNA E. JENKINS, U.S. Department of Agri-

culture, Washington, D.C., and C. C. Curo, National Tsing-hua

University, Kunming, China.

Descriptions of two new species of Myriangiales are contained in an

unpublished paper by Cheo and Jenkins.” The first is a species of

Elsinoé on hyacinth bean (Dolichos lablab L.) for which the name E.

dolichi is proposed. The other is on castor bean (Ricinus communis L.),

and this is described under the name of Sphaceloma ricini. Both spe-

cles were under study by the senior author when they were discovered

in China, as explained in the paper. The first one had also been studied

cooperatively with A. A. Bitancourt, of the Instituto Biologico, Sao

1 Received June 24, 1941.

2 CuHEO, C. C. and JENKINS, ANNA E. Diseases caused by Elsinoé and Sphaceloma

discovered in Yunnan, China. Contribution presented by the senior author at the

celebration on April 18, 1940, of the 30th anniversary of the National Tsing-hua Uni-

versity, Kunming, Yunnan, China.

416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

Paulo, Brazil. Because of the unavoidable delay that will be occa-

sioned necessarily in the publication of the complete article, the Latin

diagnosis’ of the two new species is made available here as follows:

Elsinoé dolichi Jenkins, Bitancourt, and Cheo, n. sp.

Maculae in foliis interdum in superficie sola primo infecta distinctae, pal-

lide alutaceae, interdum castaneo-marginatae, saepe margine elevatae, plus

minusve nervisequentes, aliquando per laminam contiguam leniter extensae,

saepe orbiculares, usque 4 mm in diam.; cancri in petiolis caulibusque ex

orbicularibus ellipticales vel elongati, minuti usque 1 cm longi, 3 mm lati,

plani vel depressuli, saepe margine elevati, pallidi, interdum flavido-vel

prominenter atro-purpureo-marginati, in siliquis plus minusve orbiculares

punctati usque circa 5 mm in diam., generaliter brunnei vel purpureo-brunnel

vel centro pallescentes; ascomata amphigena, in superficie primo infecta

abundioria e sub cortice fusco superficiali oriunda, e massis pseudostromaticis

ex hyalinis flavidulis composita, plerumque pulvinata, saepe erumpenia,

aliquando fere superficialia, 60-800u in diam., usque 100 lata, saepe coales-

centia vel saltem propinqua; asci inspersi, in stratis uno vel pluribus, im-

maturi subglobosi usqua pyriformes vel ellipsoidei, 20-32 alti, 15-22, lati,

in maturitate probabiliter majores; ascosporae immaturae, 1-3 septatae,

hyalinae, 7—13u longae, 3—5.2u latae conidiophora superficiem corticis fuscae

plus minusve continenter tegentia, paulo abrupte attenuata, 10u alta, basi

3.6—-5.3u lata; conidia in herba sparsa, elliptica, minuta usque 3.5 mm in

diam., in culturis globosa, 2.5-3.5u in diam., usque ellipsoidea, 3—4.6u longa,

1.5-1.8u lata, hyalina.

DISTRIBUTION: On leaves, stems, and pods of hyacinth bean (Dolichos

lablab L.), causing the disease termed “seab of hyacinth bean,’ Kenya and

Uganda, Africa, and Yunnan, China.

SPECIMENS EXAMINED: Serere, Uganda, Africa, September 17, 1930, D. C.

Edwards. Type (Mycological Collections of the Bureau of Plant Industry,

Washington, D. C., no. 72652; Phytopathological Herbarium, Instituto

Biologico, Sao Paulo, Brazil, no. 3267; and Imperial Mycological Institute,

Kew, Surrey, England).

Yunnan, China, November 10, 1938, C. C. Cheo.

Sphaceloma ricini Jenkins and Cheo, n. sp.

Maculae in lamina foliorum plerumque e superficie superiore oriundas,

orbiculares vel suborbiculares, papyraceas, saepe 2-3 mm in diam., in nervis

subcontinuas, verruciformes, interdum per laminam contiguam extensas, 1n

periolis caulibusque elliptico-elongatas, saepe utrinque aciminatas, primum

rubro-brunneas, deinde luteas vel albas et brunneo-vel atropurpureo-mar-

ginatas producens; conidiophora in cancros conspicua, nune in palum com-

pactum flavidulum vel succineum, interdum partem centralem maculae

tegentem, nunc separata vel sola, subuliformia vel cylindrica, plerumque

simplicia, continua vel uniseptata, ex hyalinia usque flavidula, 10-30u longa,

3-5u lata, glabra vel e generatio acropleurogena conidiorum apiculata,

breviter vel longe acuminata; conidia in forma, magnitudine coloreque varia-

3 Acknowledgment is here made to the Lntoeaned Mycological Institute, Kew, Sur-

rey, England, for the contribution of materia! from Uganda of the first. fungus de-

scribed. Similarly, for the material from Formosa of the second species described ac-

knowledgment is made to Dr. K. Sawada, Taihoku Imperial University. This material

was sent directly to the senior author.

Supr. 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 417

bilia, plerumque oblonga, ovoidea, elliptica, e minuta (1-2u) usque 10-15

longa, 2.5—4.5u lata, minoria hyaline, majoria fusiformia, saepe flavidula.

DisTRIBUTION: On leaves and stems of castor bean (Ricinus communis

L.), causing the disease termed ‘‘scab of castor bean,’ Taihoku, Formosa

(Taiwan) and several localities in Yunnan, China.

SPECIMENS EXAMINED: Taihoku, Formosa, July 2 (type) (Mycological Col-

lections of the Bureau of Plant Industry no. 72921) and August 1938,

K. Sawada.

Ta-chong station, Yunnan, China, December 1938, T. F. Yu, T. H. Wang,

and 8. T. Chao; August 1939, C. C. Cheo; Gee-kai station, Yunnan, June

1939, C. C. Cheo.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

368TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 368th meeting of the Board of Managers was held in the Library of

the Cosmos Club on Friday, May 16, 1941. President CLARK called the meet-

ing to order at 8:12 p.m., with 14 persons present as follows: A. H. Cuark,

F. D. Rossini, H. 8. RAppLEYr, W. W. Dirut, J. H. Hipspen, F. C. KRAckx,

H. B. Couns, Jr., H. E. McComps, M. C. Merrintit, W. Rampere, J. R.

Curistib, C. L. GARNER, and by invitation, R. J. SEEGER.

The minutes of the 367th meeting were read and approved.

President CLARK announced the appointment of C. L. GARNER to con-

tinue as Chairman of the Committee on Meetings until June, 1942.

The Executive Committee, through the President and Secretary, reported

on a meeting held by them on May 6, 1941, at which they received from the

Committee to Survey the Academy’s Investment and Deposits, H. 8.

RAPPLEYE (chairman) and A. T. McPHERSON, a report summarizing the

present status of the Academy’s investments and deposits and recommend-

ing that the savings account of nearly $8,500 be discontinued, since it was

producing a return of only about 1 percent, and that the Academy place on

deposit in investment accounts with two Federal Savings and Loan Associa-

tions, in which the principal amount of each account is insured up to $5,000,

the sum of $8,500, with $4,500 in one and $4,000 in the other.

The Board authorized the Committee on Meetings to arrange for a meet-

ing in September if they felt it desirable.

The Committee on Membership, F. C. Kracexk, chairman, presented a

nomination for membership for one resident person.

The Board considered individually and duly elected to membership the

seven persons (six resident and one nonresident) whose nominations had been

presented on March 14, 1941.

The Committee to Publish the Directory for 1941 reported that plans were

under way to publish the Directory in accordance with the recommendations

made by the Board at its previous meeting.

The Secretary presented the following information concerning changes in

membership: Deaths, 2; acceptances to membership, 5; qualified for mem-

bership, 9 (resident) ; retirements, none; resignations, none. The status of the

membership as of March 15, 1941, is as follows:

418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 9

Regular Retired Honorary’ Patrons Total

Residenin tee 428 35 3 0 466

Nonresident........ 128 15 ae = 160

POC ae 556 50 17 3 626

In accordance with instructions from the Board in January, the Board of

Editors presented a report, through R. J. Srncmr, Acting Senior Editor,

concerning their study of the desirability of changing the Journal to a 2-col-

umn format and recommended that such a change be made, as it would bring

about an annual saving of about $200. The Board passed a resolution in-

structing the Board of Editors to issue the Journal with a 2-column format

beginning with the first number of the 32d volume, in January, 1942.

The Board instructed the President to appoint a delegate to represent the

Academy at the 175th anniversary celebration of Rutgers University, Octo-

ber 9, 10, and 11, 1941.

President CLARK addressed the Board on the subject of giving serious

thought to the possible ways in which the Academy might better fulfill its

obligations as the leader of science in Washington, and asked each member

of the Board to consider this problem and to make appropriate reecommenda-

tions at the first meeting of the Board in the fall.

The meeting adjourned at 9:33 P.M.

FREDERICK D. Rossint, Secretary

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

528TH MEETING

The 528th meeting (57th annual meeting) was held in the auditorium of

the Cosmos Club on Thursday, January 9, 1941, at 8:15 p.m., President HAL-

LER presiding. The annual reports of the officers and committee chairmen

for 1940 were read and approved. Dr. WruuiAm J. SVIRBELY was elected

Councilor to fill the office vacated by the resignation of Dr. G. E. F. Lun-

DELL, who had recently been elected to the office of Councilor-at-Large in

the National Society. The Society was addressed by the retiring-president,

Dr. Raymonp M. Hawn, who spoke on the subject Some observations on the

Walden inversion in the sugar series.

529TH MEETING

The 529th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, February 13, 1941, at 8:15 p.m., President HALLER presiding.

It was announced that Dr. F. G. Brickwepp#, of the National Bureau of

Standards, was to be awarded the Hillebrand Prize for 1940 for his out-

standing work on deuterium and its compounds. The Society was addressed

by Prof. Wittiam MansrFreip CuarK, of the Department of Physiological

Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, who spoke on the subject Metallo-

porphyrins.

530TH MEETING

The 530th meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, March 13, 1941, at 6:30 p.m. The occasion was the annual ban-

quet of the Society at which about 110 members and guests were present

to celebrate the awarding of the Hillebrand Prize to Dr. F. G. BricKWEDDE,

of the National Bureau of Standards, for his excellent work on deuterium and

its compounds, with special reference to the preparation and determination

Sept. 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 419

of properties of hydrogen deuteride. President HALLER acted as toastmaster.

Dr. HANN spoke a few words on the work of Dr. BricKweEppE. The speaker

of the evening was Prof. H. C. Urry, of Columbia University, who spoke

on the differences in the Raman spectra of the isotopic deutero modification

of methane. Professor Urey in his talk praised the work of Dr. BrickwEppE

and considered him well worthy of the award which he had received.

531sT MEETING

The 531st meeting was held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, April 3, 1941, at 8:15P.m., President HALLER presiding. Following

the routine business, the Society was addressed by Dr. W. AtFrep La

LANDE, JR., director of research, Attapulgus Clay Co., who spoke on the

subject Some industrial applications of mineral adsorbents.

532D MEETING

The 532d meeting was held jointly with the Washington Chapter of the

American Institute of Chemists in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Thursday, April 10, 1941, at 8:15 p.m. In the absence of President HALLER,

Secretary BEKKEDAHL acted as Chairman. After a few words by Dr. A. H.

WarTH, chairman of the Washington Chapter of the American Institute of

Chemists, and by F. O. Lunpstrom, Chairman of the Washington local

cooperating committee of the Chemist Advisory Council, the Society was

addressed by FraAnK G. Breyer, of Singmaster and Breyer, consulting

metallurgists and chemical engineers of New York City, who is a member

of the Board of Directors of the Chemist Advisory Council, Inc. He spoke

on the subject The activities of the Chemist Advisory Council, Inc. Mr.

BuHaGwat, Secretary of the Council, also spoke briefly on the organization

and accomplishments of the Council.

533D MEETING

The 533d meeting was held at the University of Maryland, College Park,

Md., on Thursday, May 8, 1941. A dinner was held in the University Dining

Hall at 6:30 p.m. At 8:15 P.m., the general meeting took place in Room A-1

of the Arts and Science Building, President HALLER presiding. Following the

completion of routine business, the following communications were presented

in four sections:

Biochemistry, Dr. M. Harris, presiding

Huco Bausr, National Institute of Health: Synthesis of organic phos-

phorus compounds of interest in chemotherapy.

SANFORD M. RosEenTHAL, National Institute of Health: Some relations of

structure and pharmacological behavior to chemotherapeutic action.

J. P. GREENSTEIN and ALEXANDER HOLLAENDER, National Institute of

Health: Physical changes in thymonucleic acid induced by salts, proteins, and

ultraviolet irradiation.

L. A. SHINN and B. H. Nicouet, Bureau of Dairy Industry: Determination

of methylpentoses in the presence of pentoses.

Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Dr. C. E. WHITE, presiding

CLEMENT J. RoppEN, National Bureau of Standards: Spectrophotometric

determination of praseodymium, neodymium, and samarium.

Husert W. Lakin, Division of Soil Chemistry and Physics, U. 8. De-

420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 9

partment of Agriculture: Selenium in pyritic mine slimes as a potential agri-

cultural hazard.

A. GrorcEe Stern, U. 8. Bureau of Mines: Fluorescent lighting—its

mineral chemistry and dramatic uses.

Organic Chemistry, Dr. R. P. JACOBSEN, presiding

W. T. Haskins, Raymonp M. Hann, and C. 8. Hupson, National In-

stitute of Health: A syntheszs of the epimer of cellobiose.

F. B. LaForcs and §. F. Acre, Jr., Bureau of Entomology and Plant

Quarantine: The reaction of some allenes with lead tetracetate.

J. R. Spies, Bureau of Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering: The chem-

istry of cottonseed allergens.

Physical Chemistry, Dr. F. O. Rick, presiding

B. J. Mair, A. R. Guascow, Jr., and F. D. Rossini, National Bureau of

Standards: Separation of hydrocarbons by azeotropic distillation.

A. L. SkuAR, Catholic University of America: Mechanism of auxochrome

effects.

534TH MEETING

The 534th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Chemistry Building

of the Catholic University of America on Thursday, May 22, 1941, at

8:15 p.m., President HALLER presiding. Following the routine business, the

Society was addressed by Prof. Permr Dresysn, Head of the Department of

Chemistry, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., who spoke on the subject

Analysis of molecular structure by electron scattering.

NorMAN BEKKEDAHL, Secretary.

Se rc emt Me mp me eri:

SI gt Et URL A ne DN Sem ee 2

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96 ELE ion,

Pee Page

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CONTENTS -

EnTomoocy. —Notes on ie eas representa

genus ae AUSTIN H. esas eee

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“Pilot: tay W. See Zand i

Zootogy.—Notes on Mexican snakes of the genus J

BART M. Se a ae ‘Ge Deena

Paotiarnas: Tan ACADEMY. . SOM han aah ene gin a

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see

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 31 OcToOBER 15, 1941 No. 10

MATHEMATICS.—/ntwitive and descriptive geometry of function

space: The graphical representation of geometrical figures. MERLE

RANDALL, Department of Chemistry, University of California,

and Bruce Lonetin, Department of Chemistry, [linois Insti-

tute of Technology. (Communicated by FrEpERIcK D. Ros-

SINI.)

Beginning with the monumental works of Volterra? and Hilbert,*

the theory of functionals and their calculus has rapidly become an ex-

tremely important field of mathematics. More particularly is this true

because of the wide field of practical applications that this theory is

finding in physics, engineering, biophysics, economics, and other so-

cial sciences.

From the viewpoint of one of its fundamental methods of attack

(evident in the works of both Hilbert and Volterra), the theory of

functionals takes as its field the mathematical relationships that are

expressible in terms of spaces of an infinite number of dimensions and

that depend simultaneously upon at least a finite fraction of the total

number of dimensions.

The theory of functionals is thus intimately connected with the

geometry of spaces of n dimensions, n being indefinitely large. How-

ever, in accordance with an early statement of Hadamard! that the

intuitive processes of geometry are completely denied in this field, the

indeed fruitful geometric reasoning so far applied to the theory of

functionals has been almost without exception abstract and analytic

in nature.

It is the purpose of this paper to present and give applications of a

graphical representation by means of which some measure of purely

geometrical intuition may be rescued to the field of functional theory.

1 Clerical assistance of the Work Projects Administration is gratefully acknowl-

edged. O.P. 165-1-08-73. (Unit C-2.) Received July 22, 1941.

2 VoLTERRA, Vito. Sopra le funzioni che dipendono da altre funzioni, R. Acc.

Lincei Rend. (5 parts) [4] 3(2): 97, 141, 158, 225, 274.. 1887; Lecons sur les fonctions

de lignes, Paris, 1913; Theory of functionals. London, 1930.

3 HILBERT, Davip. Grundztige einer allgemeinen Theorie der linearen Integral-

gleichungen, Leipzig and Berlin, 1912, a collection from Gétt. Nachr. 1904: 49, 213

1905: 307; 1906: 157, 489; 1910: 355.

4 HADAMARD, J. Le calcul functionel l’enseignement mathematique 19: 1. 1912.

421

422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 10

At the same time it will be seen that the representation is of some-

what wider application. Obviously, no geometric intuition can be com-

plete for spaces of more than a limited number of dimensions. The

method must lean heavily on abstract analysis.’ Thus demonstrations

that have already been repeated many times in the history of func-

tional theory must be called upon again in order to develop fully the

limited range of possible intuitions. Of these the method of passage

from a finite to an infinite number of dimensions will be used most

frequently.

REPRESENTATION OF 7” DIMENSIONS IN A SPACE OF ™ DIMENSIONS

The representation of 3-dimensional figures by means of plan and

elevation views is quite familiar and commonplace. A number of

writers® have used similar methods to represent 4- and 5-dimensional

figures either in two dimensions or by means of solid models. In gen-

eral, whether projective or other methods are used, a single point in n

dimensions may be represented by means of a sufficient number of

points in m dimensions, and an n-dimensional figure by a sufficient

number of m-dimensional “‘views.’’

A point in n dimensions is determined uniquely by exactly n param-

eters. A point in m dimensions is therefore sufficient to represent m

parameters. If an n-dimensional point is restrained to lie in an m-di-

mentional locus of any nature, it is only capable of representing m

rather than n parameters, and hence (so far as representation is con-

cerned) is effectively only the m/n part of an n-dimensional point.

Thus a point that lies in a surface in three dimensions has only two

degrees of freedom and is effectively only two-thirds of a 3-dimen-

sional point.

In order to represent an n-dimensional point in m dimensions at

least n/m points will be needed. Each point will represent m dimen-

sions and n/m of them will represent (n/m)m or n dimensions. Thus

to represent 3-space on drawing paper requires 13 points (1.e., a point

and another point confined to a line or curve). In the plan and eleva-

tion views the plan point determines a vertical locus along which the

elevation and the vertical coordinate of the elevation view point repre-

sent the 3-space coordinates of the point. In the Cavalier projection

5 See LenzEN, Amer. Math. Monthly 46: 324. 1939.

§ JoUFFRET, E. P. Mélanges de géométrie a quatre dimensions, Paris, 1906.

Mannina, H. P. Geometry of four dimensions,. Macmillan, New York, 1914.

ScHoutTE, P: H. Mehrdimensionale Geometrie, Leipzig, 1902, 1905.

SomMERVILLE, D. M. Y. An introduction to the geometry of n dimensions, London,

1929.

VERONESE, G. Fondamenti di geometria (pt. 2), Padova Tipografia del Seminaria,

1891.

Oct. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRY OF FUNCTION SPACE 423

commonly used by analytical geometers, a plan view point is shown

in oblique X Y coordinates, and a point is given on the vertical ray

through the plan view point, which gives the principal view of the pro-

jection. Either of these representations alone is sufficient. However,

both together offer a far richer intuition as to the space geometry of

the figure represented. The addition of auxiliary views will further in-

crease the richness of the representation.

Principal View

Fig. 1.—Representation of a point in Cavalier projection.

To represent a 4-dimensional figure by solid models requires at least

two models in one of which only one parameter of each point is inde-

pendent of the three coordinates of the corresponding point in the

other model. To represent the figure in two dimensions requires two

completely independent views, or a number of dependent views. To

represent an n dimensional figure requires n/3 independent solid

models, or n/2 independent plane views. As n approaches infinity one

can imagine the necessity of a shelf of models extending further and

further indefinitely, or even of a book of drawings growing larger until

it becomes volumes, stacks, and libraries without end.

While the complete representation by means of 2- or 3-dimensional

diagrams becomes impractical for spaces of many dimensions, the

representation by means of 1-dimensional diagrams does not. The

necessary n 1-dimensional figures can be drawn on n parallel lines. As

m increases, the lines may be crowded together, so that they always

remain on a single sheet of paper.

Such a representation will, of course, be less rich than representa-

tion by means of models and 2-dimensional diagrams. However, it is

a complete representation, and any desired 2- or 3-dimensional view

may be obtained from it by the proper constructions. For example,

any two of the 1-dimensional diagrams will serve to define values of

two parameters of the n-dimensional point. These two values plotted

as Cartesian coordinates will define a point which is one 2-dimen-

sional view of the n-dimensional point.

424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 10

THE PRINCIPAL REPRESENTATION

The proposed representation is simply a geometrical interpretation

of the analytic results common in the theory of functionals. It gives

rise quite naturally to essentially vector forms, whether the approach

is vectorial or algebraic. From the point of view of the geometrical in-

tuitions which may result, a vectorial approach is therefore desirable

at the outset.

Fig. 2.—A 3-dimensional radius vector in (a) Cavalier; (b) proposed projection.

In Fig. 2 a 3-dimensional radius vector is represented both in

Cavalier projection and by the proposed method. The components

V1 Ve, and v3, of the vector v with respect to the given coordinate axes,

are the three Cartesian coordinates x, y, and z, respectively, of the

point represented by the head of the vector. In the proposed repre-

sentation a horizontal interval, A, is divided into three equal seg-

ments, and the component 2; erected at the center of the first segment,

v, at the center of the second, and v3 at the center of the third.

To represent a 4-dimensional radius vector whose components are

(V1, V2, V3, Vs), the same interval, A, would be divided into four equal

segments and each of the four components erected at the center of one

of the segments in the order named. To represent a space of n dimen-

sions, the interval A is divided into n equal segments and each of the

components v; is erected at the center of one of the segments, in the

order of increasing indices 7. When any particular stage of subdivision

of the interval A has been reached, the 2’* component will be found at

a position whose x-coordinate is (a+(2/n)A). If we wish, rather than

designate it as v;,; we may designate it as v(x), x serving the same pur-

pose here as the index 7.

It will be convenient to join the upper extremities of the strokes

representing the components v(x) by a broken line (Fig. 3), which

serves to tie together the various points used in representing the same

n-dimensional point. It is analogous to the projection ray used in de-

Oct. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRY OF FUNCTION SPACE 425

scriptive geometry to tie together several views of the same point. The

only significant points on the line are those at the intersections of ad-

jacent segments (i.e., the extremities of the vertical strokes).

If the indices 7 are so assigned that the components v; are arranged

monotonically in the order of increasing or decreasing magnitude (at

least within finite subintervals of A) and the magnitudes are bounded,

then as n approaches infinity the broken line representing the vector

tee ag oe |

Fig. 3.— Representation of an 8-dimensional radius vector.

v will certainly approach as a limit a curve whose derivative is at least

piecewise continuous. In this case v(x) becomes in the limit a continu-

ous or piecewise continuous function of x, provided it is in the limit de-

fined for all values of x in A.’

For purposes of representation we shall assume that the vectors

with which we deal are in general representable in the limit by con-

tinuous curves. Then we may describe the vector either geometrically

by the curve v(x), or analytically by a statement of the limiting func-

tion v(x). We shall later see that such an assumption limits attention

to a very narrow hypersolid angle in n-space. This limitation does not

lead to any serious loss of generality, all the results being easily. modi-

fied to fit vectors whose components show no correlation in magnitude

with the arbitrary index 7.

Because the representation of a point in space of an infinite number

of dimensions by the method indicated leads to the most general pic-

ture of a function of x, such a space has come to be known as a func-

tion space. In particular when the geometry of the space is Euclidean,

it is known as a Hilbert-space.

PRINCIPAL PROJECTIONS

The diagram representing a given n-vector may easily be projected

on any of the subspaces defined by a group of the coordinate axes. For

example in 3-space the projection of a point onto the X Y plane, made

7 If the number 7 is only so great that the group of points for which v(z) is defined

is of measure zero, then v(x) will not be continuous, but all of its values will be values of

a continuous or piecewise continuous function.

426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 10

by rays parallel to the Z axis, is a point in the X Y plane that has the

same x- and y-coordinates as the given point, but whose z-coordinate

is zero. In general, one of these principal projections may be obtained

by discarding the coordinates v, corresponding to the axes x, parallel

to which the projection rays are to be taken.

Expressed differently, a principal projection may be obtained by se-

lecting the components corresponding to the particular projection-

| ween Ee ‘ MKD Xa aes

7A\

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.—(a) A point in ~»-space; (b) its principal projection on

. the 21-%2-%3-x4-x5 hyperplane.

hyperplane and constructing a separate diagram from these com-

ponents.

In Fig. 4 the projection of a point in a function space onto the co-

ordinate 5-plane defined by the x, 2X2, x3, 74, and 2; axes is Shown. If the

projection is made onto a coordinate plane or onto a coordinate 3-

space, it may be developed, by plotting the two or three components as

Cartesian coordinates. Such developments of projections onto planes

and 3-spaces will constitute the chief method in the descriptive geom-

etry of n-space.

If a vector happens to lie on one of the coordinate n-planes for

which n is finite, then all but a finite number of its components will

vanish. The only remaining ones will be those lying in the particular

coordinate n-plane. The projection of such a vector onto this coordi-

nate n-plane will then be simply the normal representation of an n-

component vector in n-space as defined by Figs. 2 and 3. Obviously

the case of a finite number of dimensions is merely a special case of an

infinite number.

ADDITION OF VECTORS

By the sum, u-+v, of two vectors is understood the vector s, each of

Oct. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRY OF FUNCTION SPACE 427

whose components is the sum of the corresponding components of u

and v. Thus if

s=u-ty, ane

then

S10) (2)

for all values of m. Passing to the limit, we find

s(x) =u(x) +0(2). (3)

Fig. 5.—Graphical addition of vectors in function space.

The graphical addition of the vectors u(x) and v(x) is shown in Fig.

5. Each of the ordinates of the curve s(x) is the sum of the correspond-

ing ordinates of the curves u(x) and v(x). The inverse operation of

taking the difference, s —u, is also shown. The vertical rulings drawn

between the curves s(a) and u(x) are each equal to the difference

(s; —u;) for some particular component. Hence they are corresponding

ordinates of the curve v(2) which represents the vector (Ss —u).

The meaning of the construction of Fig. 5 may be made clearer by

projecting the diagram onto the 21-x_. plane indicated by the cuts 1

and 2 in Fig. 5.

The developed projection is shown in Fig. 6. The vector v’ which is

equal to the vector v, corresponds to the shaded area of Fig. 5. In the

projection the construction appears as the familiar addition of 2-di-

mensional vectors. The development of a 3-dimensional projection

would similarly appear as an ordinary 3-dimensional vector addition.

Analytically, no matter what components are selected for a projec-

tion, they will be connected by equations 2, which are the equations

for vector addition in the resulting m-space.

FREE VECTORS

The vectors so far considered have been radius vectors (i.e., radiat-

ing from the origin). A free vector is one that may originate at any

428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 10

point in space. Thus in Fig. 6 the vector v’ is a free vector if the vector

u may be varied at will.

In Fig. 5 the shaded area represents a free vector equal to v if the

curve u(x) may be arbitrarily varied. In general any free vector will be

represented by the region between two curves (or broken lines in re-

gions of space in which these do not approach smooth curves) in which

xfraxis

Fig. 6.—Principal projections of Fig. 5 on the 2-22 plane.

the vertical distances between the curves represent the various com-

ponents of the vector.

REPRESENTATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

If a vector is prolonged along itself, one end remaining fixed, the

other end will trace out a straight line. The prolonged vector is to be

obtained by multiplying the vector by an arbitrary constant. Thus if

the vector 1, is a radius vector to a particular point on the line, and vis

any vector that lies along the line, then the radius vector 1 to any

other point on the line is

1=1, + av, (4)

where ais an arbitrary constant. This equation implies in detail that

(AS lp Hoos? (OS, A Bes 2 770) (5)

for any value of m. In the limit for function space®

I(x) =1,(x) +av(2). (6)

In Fig. 7,a the heavy curve represents the fixed point on the

straight line. The vertical distances between the two full curves repre-

sents the vector v. The upper dotted curve was obtained by adding

twice the v(x) ordinates to the /)(x) curve, and the lower one by sub-

tracting half the v(a#) ordinate. Hence they represent the two points

on the curve for which a is 2 and —3, respectively. Fig. 7,b is the

8’ Cf. Fricuet, M. Essai de geometrie analytique a une infinité de codrdonées,

Nouv. Ann. Math. (4) 5: 97, 289. 1908.

Oct. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRY OF FUNCTION SPACE 429

developed projection of the construction onto the coordinate plane

labeled x1—22. This view shows the four points, lo, (lo t+v), (lo+2v)

and (1,—4v) as lying on the same straight line. Any other projected

view would likewise show them on the same straight line. Hence we

may develop the intuition projectively that Fig. 7,a actually does

represent a straight line.

xpraxis

Fig. 7.—(a) Representation of a line in function space; (b) its

principal projection on the 2, x2 plane.

REPRESENTATION OF A PLANE®

Let u and v be two nonparallel vectors lying in a given plane, and

let 1) be the radius vector to a point in the plane. Then the radius

vector, 1, to any other point in the plane is given as

=1,+av+bu. (7)

In the limit of an infinite number of dimensions this becomes

l(a) =lo(a) +av(x) +bu(z). (8)

If bis kept constant and a allowed to vary, 1 will trace out a line on

the plane. If b is then changed, 1 will trace out another line parallel

to the first as a is allowed to vary. If b takes on all possible values, the

whole plane is generated.

Fig. 8,a represents six different points lying in the same plane in a

space of an infinite number of dimensions. These are the points for

which a and b have the values (0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1), (2, 0), (0, 2), and

(2, 1), respectively. Fig. 8,6 shows the developed projection of these

points onto the 2-a-%;-coordinate 3-space. By choosing a particular

value of 6 it is possible to make /(x) vanish for x= 2, for any value of a.

When [(22) is zero we obtain the series of points in the plane that

in the developed projection of Fig. 8,6 lie in the 2,-x;-plane (com-

ponent /=zero). By choosing b to make /[(x) vanish at +=, and again

at =p, it is then possible to trace out the points on the plane that

in the developed projection appear as the intersections of the plane

with the three coordinate planes. This has been done. Thus the

430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 10

developed projection of Fig. 8 shows the characteristics of a plane.

By taking any number of such projections onto different coordinate

3-spaces, we soon develop the intuition that the construction of

Fig. 8,a and equation 7 represents a plane in function space.

Because of the essential complexity of the representation, it is

v (x3)

‘3 ~lotut2v

Fig. 8.—(a) Representation of a plane in function space;

(6) its principal projection on 2%, 22, X3-space.

sufficient and convenient to represent a plane merely by specifying

three points on it (e.g., the points Jo, J) -+u, and /)+v of Fig. 8).

REPRESENTATION OF A HYPERPLANE

Unless the hyperplane is so oriented that we see it edgewise, it can

not be represented projectively in a 2- or 3-dimensional development.

We will see later how limited portions may be represented by devel-

oped projections of their various 2- and 3-dimensional sections. For

the convenient representation of an m-dimensional hyperplane we are

therefore limited to the graphical specification of (m+1) of its points,

together with the direction that the general point is found as

U(x) =lo(x) +o ais (a). (9)

INTERSECTION OF TWO STRAIGHT LINES

Two straight lines need not intersect in function space. They will

only intersect provided they lie in the same plane. If they do inter-

sect, they must appear to intersect in the same point in all views.

If they do not intersect, the apparent intersection will shift in going

from one view to the next, owing to parallax.

The intersection, if any, of two lines may be determined by locating

the apparent intersection in any single two dimensional view. This

apparent intersection represents two points, one on each line, that

appear one behind the other in the projection. Thus in Fig. 9,6,

point s represents the apparent coincidence of these two points.

Oct. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRY OF FUNCTION SPACE 431

Returning to the original diagram Fig. 9,a, one may locate (by the

method of Fig. 7) a complete view in function space of these two

points. That is, a point on the line pipe, and another on the line ls,

may be located which have the 2,- and 22-coordinates of the apparent

intersection in the projected view. In the case shown, the two points

th axi

xfPaxis

(b)

Fig. 9.—Construction for locating intersection of two straight

lines in function space.

that in the projection appear to coincide are not identical in the com-

plete view, but are actually the two distinct points s and s’. If the

lines actually do coincide, the two points that appear to coincide in

the projection will be found to correspond to the same point in the

complete view.

APPLICATIONS

Two applications of the methods so far developed in this paper

are of importance. In representing the composition of mixtures of

several chemical components phase diagrams are used that require

as many dimensions as there are independent components.?

When the number of components is large or infinite, it becomes

necessary to use the method of representation presented here. In

studying processes for separating the components of a mixture,

graphical methods based on the phase diagrams have been developed

for binary and ternary mixtures. These methods may readily be gen-

eralized to multicomponent systems by translating them to the

n-component vector diagram.

In studies of the intensity of illumination it is often important to

consider the intensity of luminous energy concentrated in each wave

length of a spectrum. These intensities may be considered as com-

ponents of a vector in function space. The indices of the components

very naturally become the wavelengths of the individual components

of the spectrum. When two sources of light are combined additively,

the resulting spectrum is to be found by adding their representative

vectors.

° Cf. Ranpaut and Lonetin. Journ. Phys. Chem. 42: 1157. 1938.

432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 10

ENTOMOLOGY .—Some undescribed syrphid flies from the Neotropi-

cal region. FRANK M. Huuu, University of Mississippi. (Com-

municated by Epwarp A. CHAPIN.)

I am indebted to Charles T. Greene, of the United States National

Museum, for the privilege of studying a small but interesting collec-

tion of Neotropical syrphids. I also wish to thank Dr. E. A. Chapin,

curator of insects, for many courtesies and facilities extended to me on

visits to the Museum. All holotypes described in this paper except

one are in the National Museum.

Mesogramma flava, n. sp.

Related to tebacen Wied.; black, with wide black frontal vitta, yellow face,

humeri, and propleura; fourth abdominal segment with a median vitta and

two pairs of yellow fasciae, which are characteristic.

Female. Length 10 mm. Head: Vertex and front black, sides of the latter,

its face, and cheeks reddish or brownish yellow. Antennae dark brown, the

ventral portion of the third joint somewhat lighter. The pile of the antennae

black. A considerable part of the upper occipital pile, as well as that of the

front, black. Thorax: Black; narrowly separated pair of gray vittae in the

middle of the mesonotum, the humeri and notopleurae, lateral margins,

call, and a broad marginal stripe on the scutellum yellow. Posterior part of

mesopleurae, upper part of sternopleurae, and a large propleural spot yel-

low. Abdomen: With nearly parallel sides, black marked with yellow. Ex-

treme corners of the first segment and a quite transverse complete band on

the second segment just before the middle yellow. On the third segment

there is a pair of slender, yellow, basal spots, narrowly separated in the mid-

dle, with their posterior margins rounded. There is also just before the middle

of the segment a transverse band, slightly arcuate on either half and pos-

teriorly indented in the middle. On the fourth segment the middie band is

broken into two spots, separated by a slender, yellow, median vitta, and there

is a similar pair of slender basal spots almost touching the middle. On the

fifth segment the slender basal fascialike spots on their outer ends merge

into a pair of oblique yellow spots occupying the greater part of the center of

the segment. Legs: Yellow; all the tarsi, the whole of the hind tibiae and of

the hind femora, except the base, smoky brown with black pile. Pile of middle

femora and tibiae and apical half of front femora chiefly blackish. Wings:

Hyaline, the stigma brown.

Holotype: A female, from Restrepo, Colombia (J. Bequaert, collector) ;

three paratypes in the U. S. National Museum (no. 55126) and two para-

types in the author’s collection, all from the Upper Putamayo River, Colom-

bia, B. Guegara, collector.

Mesogramma nasica, n. sp.

Related to basilaris Wied.; hind femora with only a subapical black annu-

lus and extensively black pilose; front and face yellow, strongly projecting;

first and second abdominal segments black, others pale.

Male. Length 6 mm. Head: Upper portion of occiput metallic, slightly

brassy, with a prominent crease proceeding from the upper corner angles of

1 Received March 1, 1941.

Oct. 15, 1941 HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 433

the eyes backward. Vertex behind the ocelli somewhat violaceous, the eyes

touching for a distance of five or six facets, the vertical triangle rather nar-

row. Front and face yellow, the cheeks black, the face strongly protruding

forward. Antennae pale brownish yellow, the third joint grayish brown on

the dorsal and apical half. Arista dark brown to black. Thorax: Dorsum of

thorax highly metallic, with a broad, light-brown, median, pollinose vitta,

noticeable only from behind, underlying which the ground color is shghtly

bluish. Viewed from in front there is, upon each side of the median vitta, a

broad obscure brownish stripe. Scutellum shining metallic black, the rim

quite narrowly brownish but not yellow. Pleurae metallic black, the posterior

half of the mesopleurae, a prominent spot on the upper part of the sterno-

pleurae, and the humeri pale yellow. Abdomen: First and second segments

polished shining black. There is a broad, oval, opaque black spot occupying

the greater part of the center of the second segment, not reaching the sides

or margins. The third, fourth, and fifth segments are dark shining red or

brownish red. They are somewhat paler, broadly throughout the middle of

the third and fourth segment, and narrowly and diffusely paler along the an-

terior half of the lateral margin of third, fourth and fifth segments. There is

a slender short pair of vittate spots in the middle of the third segment. Hy-

popygium shining black, sternum light brownish orange. Legs: First and sec-

ond pairs of legs, excluding the coxae, light brownish yellow, their anterior

tarsi brownish dorsally. Hind coxae, trochanters, and femora, except for a

prominent subapical brownish black band, entirely light yellow. Hind tibiae

dark brown throughout except for the narrow base. Hind tarsi entirely dark

brown. Wings: Hyaline, faintly gray.

Holotype: A male, Tuxtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico, J. Camelo G., no. 1795

(UESSNEIVIEDNio: 55127). ,

In shape this species is unusually flat, the sides of the abdomen are almost

parallel, being slightly wider at the end of the second segment. It is charac-

terized by its highly polished glassy appearance, margins of the mesonotum

dark except the humeri, the black base, and red apex of the abdomen. The pile

of the middle femora and tibiae, of the hind tibiae, and the apical half of the

hind femora is black. The long black hairs of the hind femora occupy two-

thirds of the length on the posterior side. There are only a few scattered black

hairs on the anterior femora.

Mesogramma azurlinea, n. sp.

Related to taenza Curran but without the median notches upon the ab-

dominal fascia; face yellow and pointed; fifth abdominal segment with a

median brown or black spot.

Male. Length 5.5 mm. Head: Occiput along the sides pale grayish white,

above ochre-yellow, without prominent grooves, the angles of the eyes trun-

cate. For a short distance behind the ocelli the vertex is bright coppery with

a violaceous tinge. Eyes touching for about five or six facets; front and face

pale yellow, sides of the latter broadly whitish pubescent, the face produced

only moderately, not protruding beyond the quite short, rounded, almost

wholly orange antennae. On the third joint there is a faint brown tinge, not

at all conspicuous. Arista dark brown. Only the posterior half of the cheeks

is blackish. Mesonotum strongly yellowish-brown pollinose, with a promi-

nent, narrow, blue, median line, which, viewed in front, is white-pollinose on

the posterior half; also from in front there is submarginally or about the

middle of each half of the mesonotum a somewhat obscure, yellowish, pol-

linose vitta. Lateral margins of the mesonotum including humeri and post-

434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 10

calli brownish yellow. Scutellum yellowish brown, slightly darker upon the

disk. Posterior half of the mesopleurae, a prominent spot upon the upper half

of the sternopleurae, the upper and anterior part of pteropleurae, and a con-

spicuous spot above the anterior coxae pale yellow, otherwise metallic black.

Squamae yellow, the halteres dark brown. Abdomen: Oval, widest at the end

of the third segment, though barely wider, if at all, than the thorax. Sides of

abdomen emarginate. The first segment dully shining black, only its anterior

margin yellowish. Second segment narrowly blackish, along the base and

again along the posterior margin, leaving the greater central part yellowish

brown, which from above appears to extend fully to the lateral margin.

Turned to the sides the lateral margin is narrowly blackish. Third segment

except for the uniform dark posterior. margin that occupies approximately a

fifth of the length of the segment, wholly light brownish, dully shining.

Fourth segment similar, with traces of a tiny pair of median subbasal lunate

spots. Fifth segment dark brown with a conspicuous, median, basal, some-

what triangular opaque spot, its apex rounded. Hypopygium shining black-

ish. Pile along the margins of the abdomen and upon the disk of the segments,

except on the extreme anterior margin of the second segment, blackish.

Legs: Almost entirely light yellow, the apical third of the anterior tibia,

all its tarsi, a narrow inconspicuous subapical ring upon the hind femora and

the hind basi tarsi brown in color. Pile of the hind tibia except toward the

ventral part of the apex and of the hind femora except narrowly toward the

base and along the posterodorsal margin black. There are a few black hairs

toward the apex of the middle femora. Wings: Hyaline.

Holotype: One male, Elcayo, British Honduras, February 21, 1909, F.

Knab (U.S.N.M. no. 55128).

Eumyiolepta circularis, n. sp.

Not very closely related to other known species though somewhat similar

to strigilata Lw. of northern latitudes; characterized by the circular pattern

of cream-colored scales upon the dull gray mesonotum.

Female. Length 7.5 mm; wing 7.5 mm. Head: Vertex narrow; together

with the front and face and cheeks shining black. On each side of the front,

growing more narrow ventrally, is a narrow band of punctate, brownish-

yellow pubescence and a few brownish-yellow scales. There is a median im-

pressed line down the front and a few scales on the upper part of the occiput

along the eye. Opposite the antennae and on the face there is some yellow to

brownish-white pubescence narrowly connected with a large brown spot be-

neath the antennae. Lower, projecting, obconical part of the face and cheeks

bare except for a narrow band of pubescence from eye margin to epistoma.

Antennae dark brown, the end of second segment and the middle base of

third joint narrowly deep red. Third joint one and one-half times as long as

wide; broadly, bluntly rounded apically. Arista narrow, long, basally thick-

ened and dark. Dorsum of the thorax dull black, feebly shining, with very

appressed short bristles, a few scales cream-colored on the inside of the hu-

meri and a narrow almost complete circle of cream-colored scales beginning

at the inner end of the suture, tracing the posterior border of the suture and

continuing along the side of the thorax over the posterior calli. These scales

continue just before.the scutellum, and, except for the interruption of the

suture at their inner ends, the circle is complete. This large circle is connected

with the scales of the humeri by a few scattered scales, and there are a few

Oct. 15, 1941 HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 435

others on the pleurae. Scutellum shining black, appressed bristly, without

scales. Abdomen: Of the usual Myiolepta type, broad, rather strongly curled

under from the end of the very flat second segment, dark shining black, with

a bronze-purplish cast. The pile of the abdomen pure brassy in color, rather

flat, very delicate and slender, but sharp and rather long for appressed pile.

It is especially longer and thicker and golden on the last segment. There are

no scales on the abdomen. There is a bare, very narrow, perhaps accidental

line on the middle of the third segment. Legs: For the most part shining

black, the hind femora appressed golden-bristly, its base for one-fifth of the

length reddish brown; at the extreme base paler. Bases of the other femora

narrowly reddish, all the tips of the femora narrowly reddish, and the knees

or tibiae basally light brown. Hind femora equipped on the outside with a

row of nine sharp, long spines. There is also an inner row. Halteres pale

orange, squamae light brown, brown fringed. Wings: With whole extent

suffused with brown, a little bit lighter near the tip and posterior border and

darker at the extremity of the costal cell and the two cells immediately be-

neath it. Stigmal cell brown.

Holotype: Female, Villa Nouges, Brovines Tucuman, Argentina, Decem-

ber 1928 (no. 16), in collection of the U. S. National Museum.

Myiolepta greenei, n. sp.

In general somewhat similar to strigzlata Lw. but different, in many re-

spects; the mesonotal pile finer, less scalelike, more wiry; the abdominal

pile flattened, longer, more abundant, less like scales. Base of wing with yel-

low, the middle with a brown cloud.

Female. Length 9 mm. Head: Face, front, and vertex shining black. The

face with a pair of triangles of grayish-white pubescence, narrowly connected

with a central similarly colored area beneath the antennae and with a thin

evanescent line or band of such pubescence from the lower eye margins to the

epistoma. Front with very sparse, quite flattened, scalose, golden pile, a

prominent median crease and on each eye margin a pair of semicircular

pubescent spots. Post ocellar pile golden. Antennae black, the basal joints

brown, the arista pale brown, black on its apical third. Thorax: Mesonotum

dull black with linear arrangement of short, flat, pale golden pile, much of it

set in black microtubercles. Scutellum flattened, rugose with black pile on

the disk and short, scaly, golden pile on the rim. Pleurae black, obscurely

shining, with sparse, flat, wiry pile. Abdomen: Black, obscurely shining,

very dark brown along the sides of the segments and their extreme post-

margins. The pile pale golden, somewhat erect on the second segment, be-

coming flattened on the third and extremely appressed, longer, wider, more

scalelike and silky yellow or brassy upon the fourth segment. Legs: Shining

blackish, with faint metallic cast, the pile white, thick, and close appressed.

The anterior basitarsi and middle basitarsi yellowish white, the posterior

basitarsi light brown. The ventral setae of the femora black. Wings: Strongly

yellowish; about the base and on the basal half of the stigmal cell the yellow

color arranged obliquely upon the wing. Middle of the wing, except the cen-

tral portion of the marginal cells, dark brown and intensest along the region

lying behind the stigma.

Holotype: A female, in the U. 8. National Museum. One paratype female

in the U. S. National Museum (no. 55129) and two paratype females in the

author’s collection. All are from Villa Nouges, Province of Tucuman, Argen-

tina.

436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 10

Sarolepta, n. gen.

Small, dark-colored flies with short setaceous pile and stripes or patches

of curly tomentum upon the thorax; face of female hollowed out beneath the

antennae; the subapical cross vein joining the third longitudinal vein almost

at the tip of the wing. Related to Myzolepta.

Head: Wide, the eyes large, high, broadly rounded, with the occipital mar-

gin well developed. The antennae are short; the first two joints short, the

third joint oval, larger than the first two combined; arista long and slender.

Face bare except for some pubescent areas, the epistoma a little protuberant,

leaving the face concave beneath the antennae. Thorax: Mesonotum short

pilose, with stripes or patches of curly tomentum. Scutellum triangular, the

apex somewhat rounded. Abdomen: Oval, flattened, its pile short, appressed,

setaceous. Legs: Hind femora slightly thickened, with inner and outer rows

of short stiff spines upon the ventral surface. Wings: Small cross vein joining

the third longitudinal vein quite near the apex of the wing.

Genotype: Sarolepta dolorosa, n. sp.

Sarolepta dolorosa, n. sp.

Not related to any species known at present. The mesonotum is slate-gray,

the sides broadly orange; the abdomen is gray with its lateral margins cream

colored; wings gray, the extreme tip whitish.

Female. Length 8.5 mm; wings 7 mm. Head: Barely as wide as thorax when

viewed from above. The head about the occiput is slightly concave, the oc-

cipital margins rather narrow above, growing rather wide below, silver-

pubescent and silver-pilose. The vertex is somewhat swollen and convex;

the ocelli are large but not conspicuous. The vertex very narrow, widening

slowly down the front with a median, bare, black, shining ridge, which is

produced as a narrow streak from the vertex part way down the front; it

terminates in a point just before the end of the extensive yellow pubescence

that occupies all the tront except the lower third. Lower third of front flat,

shining, very.dark brown. Antennae with third joint very large, first two

joints rather small, third joint very little longer than wide, evenly rounded,

rather flat, the entire antennae pale orange. Arista long and slender. There

is an area of yellow pubescence below the antennae that rises a short distance

along the side by the eye, but is not continuous with the similarly colored

area of pubescence upon the front. The facial pubescence is continued down-

ward along the facial strips barely reaching as far as the base of the tubercle

in the middle and underlaid by a brownish background instead of black.

Face and cheeks shining black. Tubercle of face low but broad, situated di-

rectly above the epistoma. Face produced but little, as much forward as

down; eyes bare; head not very long, eyes therefore flattened. Thorax:

Largely opaque, slate-gray with a bluish cast, this color occupying a very

broad median area a little more than half of the width of the thorax. On each

side of the dark area a portion is shining in color. This dark area is as wide as

the scutellum, which is shining black, obscured by the flat, sharp, setaceous

pile. On the sides of the thorax, from and including the humeri to the corners

of the scutellum, is a wide band that is continuous with the entire pleurae;

this band is bright, light orange and covered on the dorsum and upper meso-

pleurae with flat, thickened, possibly scaly, curly, golden pile. Scutellum

large, rather produced and pointed, roughly equilateral, and triangular.

Black, flat, setaceous pile on the dorsum of the thorax. Humeri pilose. Ab-

domen: A little wider than the thorax, not quite twice as long and wide, very

Ocr. 15, 1941 HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 437

much flattened and, with one exception, entirely black with a dull shining

bluish cast. Down the middle of each segment, except the last and first, runs

a narrow gray vitta. There is a conspicuous, pale cream-colored border along

the sides of the abdomen. Pile of abdomen flat, dark in color and pale on the

side borders. Scutellum slightly directed upward without ventral fringe.

Halteres cream colored. Squamae yellow. Legs: Shining black, the two middle

basitarsi only being pale whitish. Hind femora a little bit thickened through-

out, the greater thickening being at the point of outer two-thirds or one-

third from the end. The hind femora has a row of numerous, prominent, stiff,

black spines lying ventrally upon the inner and outer surfaces of the apical

half; they are more numerous on the inside. Anterior and middle femora

similarly spinose. Anterior femora quite bowed. Wings: Almost smoky brown

or gray. The tip of the wing narrowly white or cream colored. The costal cell

pale and the extreme base of the wing as far as the first cross vein bright

orange.

Holotype: One female, Venezuela, ‘“‘alte Sammlung.” In the Vienna Mu-

seum, in Austria.

Edwardsietta, n. gen.

Broad, short-setate flies that resemble Meromacrus but have a pronounced

tubercle upon the face and have the tomentum so characteristic of Meroma-

crus virtually or wholly absent. The marginal cell is widely open.

Head: Tall, anterior posterior length short. Eyes tall, twice as long ver-

tically as horizontally, and bare. Antennae short, the third joint a little

longer than wide, the apex roughly truncated dorsoapically. Arista long,

slender and bare. Face concave beneath the antennae, the tubercle well de-

veloped. Thorax: Vittate, the pile rather short and setaceous, a little longer

upon the pleurae. Scutellum small, the margin circular in shape. Abdomen:

Broad, short setate. Legs: Hind femora quite thickened; ventrally there are

a series of slender spinous bristles. Hind tibia large, deep, and flattened, the

apex truncate. Wings: Third longitudinal vein with a deep narrow loop into

the first posterior cell. Marginal cell widely open.

Genotype: Edwardsietta ochracea, n. sp. Named in honor of F. W. Edwards,

late of the British Museum, a splendid gentleman and an enthusiastic and

tireless worker in his chosen field.

Edwardsietta ochracea, n. sp.

Not related closely to any species known at the present time. In general

appearance suggestive of Meromacrus but with the marginal cell well open.

Broad, dark-brown flies with pale yellowish-brown pollen; hind femora light

brown with a blackish middle annulus.

Female. Length 13 mm; wing 10 mm. Head: Rather flat, wider than the

thorax, beautifully rounded from the front, eyes prominent, vertex a little

swollen, dark brown; ocelli close set, red. The occiput is somewhat tumid,

with rather squared margins, very densely pubescent; front golden-pubescent

on the upper half, narrowly along the eyes, and upon a narrow median

impression. Lower part of front just before antennae bare and shining

brown, but pale yellow directly in the middle. Pile of vertex and front

and behind the ocelli rather short but thick and bushy, and pale golden.

Face with a very wide silver-pubescent band connected on the prominent

concavity across the face and below the antennae. Tubercle and the face be-

low are bare, the former rather prominent, owing to the deep concavity below

the antennae. A very wide band on the anterior part of the cheeks black and

438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 10

shining bare. Antennae short, the third joint large, flattened, about as long

as wide, a little narrow apically, light brown; the thickened arista is elongate,

its apex yellow. Thorax: Dorsum very gently convex, in ground color dark

brownish black but almost completely obscured by the very dense light

orange-brown pollen. There are two darker vittae on the anterior part of the

thorax, which merge into a general dark-brown area on the posterior half,

which, however, does not reach the scutellum. There is a large, obscure, dark

spot on the lateral sides of the dorsum before the suture, widely separated

from the two median vittae and the posterior part of which spot is lighter.

This spot, the two median vittae, and the postcalli, when viewed from the

front, may be seen to have pile of a different character. Scutellum entirely

light orange-brown; nowhere is there tomentum present unless the pile just

before the base of the wing be called tomentum. Abdomen: Broad, wider

than thorax, dark, shining, chestnut-brown, very dense, very short, appressed,

black-setate; a median, narrow, orange-setate vitta on the second segment

that does not reach the apex of the segment. The setae in the corners of the

third and fourth segments are pale. First segment light orange-brown, the

sides of the segment posteriorly and the anterior corners of the second seg-

ment blackish. Legs: Largely blackish or very dark brown, the basal half of

the hind femora, anterior basal third of first and second femora, the basal

two-fifths of hind tibiae, and a lateral, broad, elongate, spot on the hind

femora all pale brownish yellow. Many black, slender bristles or spines ven-

trally, just back of the apex of the hind femora. Hind femora very much

thickened, especially on the dorsal side and apex more narrowly slender.

Wings: Somewhat smoky on the apical part and especially near the dip of the

vein. Stigmal cell pale brown, stigmal cross vein present, base of wings pale

orange up to costal cross vein. Vena spuria lightly chitinized. Marginal cell

open.

Holotype: One female, Barro Colorado, April 17, 1926. C. T. Greene, col-

lector (U.S.N.M. no. 52903).

Microdon chapini, n. sp.

Somewhat related to auroscutatus Curran. Deeply punctate, dark-brown

flies with beautiful golden pile; mesonotal suture and prescutellar area with

longer, golden pile.

Male. Length 9.5 mm without antennae; wing 6.5 mm; first joint of anten-

nae 1 mm. Head: With the occiput on the upper third exceedingly tumid and

somewhat swollen, the eyes somewhat approximated but by no means close;

front, vertex, cheeks, and face, except for a small, vertical, elongate, light-

brownish spot on the sides touching the eyes, everywhere shining black. Pile

of face, cheeks, and front silvery yellow; upon the front the pile is divided in

the middle of the impressed line at the approximation of the eyes; above that

line it is directed upward, below it is directed downward. First antennal joint

dark brown, twice as wide at the apex; about as long as the distance from

back of occiput to the transverse impression of the front; not quite so long as

fore tibiae. Second joint rather short, conical. Third joint lacking. Face even-

ly convex in profile and also when viewed from above. Thorax: Dull shining

black, exceedingly rugose or papillose. The hairs semiappressed, setaceous,

and fairly long. Along the suture, directed backward, is a beautiful tuft of

thick, coarse, bright golden hairs that continues to grow wider on the meso-

pleurae, becoming silvery below. There is a similar patch or band on the pos-

terior part of scutellum directed straight outward, very conspicuous, cover-

ing two short spines that are set rather wide apart. There is also a similar

Oct. 15, 1941 HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 439

narrow band on the thorax, just before the scutellum, parted in the middle,

each side directed outward so that only one side is visible at a time. Abdomen:

Elongate, a little over twice as long as its greatest width, which is on the flat,

flared base of the fused first and second segment. First segment deeply pro-

duced into the center of the second segment, its apex somewhat truncate and

the base of the second segment pitted in little scooped-out pits and the mar-

gin of the second segment fluted. Second, third, and fourth segments deeply

and closely pitted, but the pits are not so large as those along the first seg-

ment. End of first segment marked by a narrow band of bright golden pile

flattened and narrowly interrupted in the middle; third segment similarly

equipped, more widely interrupted, the pile directed outward and down-

ward. Fourth segment with a similar band, a little wider, of even longer pile,

which instead of being interrupted in the middle is continuous and produced

forward in a rounded, anteriorward production for a short way. Remainder

of abdominal pile largely silvery intermixed with black. The inconspicuous

hypopygium is long, black pilose. Legs: Shining black, apex of the middle

femur, apical third upon the outside of the front femur, front and middle

tibiae, except for a middle black annulus, all very dark shining red. All

the tarsi lighter red. Halteres dark orange-brown;squamae whitish with white

fringe. Wings: Villose, with very dark brown veins; stigmal cell brown, vena

spuria heavily chitinized. Stigmal cross vein strongly chitinized and wings

rather sharply marked with characteristic pattern. The smoky-gray pattern

consists of a spot filling out the basal part between the origin of second and

third veins, which is connected by way of the stigma with a more extensive

area upon the outer third of the wing. This area occupies all the outer part of

marginal and submarginal cell, all the outer part of first posterior cell from

just before the spur vein, except a somewhat rectangular clear spot in the

outer half of the cell, also the extreme upper end of second posterior cell, the

outer border of the final sections of third, fourth, and fifth longitudinal veins.

Holotype: One male, Patmeung Mountains, Siam, January 18, 1928,

T. D. A. Cockerell, collector (U.S.N.M. no. 52911).

Microdon gloriosa, n. sp.

Belongs in the auroscutatus Curran group. Abdomen coarctate, thickly ap-

pressed golden pilose; second segment with a pair of clear, hyaline fenestra

of characteristic shape.

- Male. Length 10 mm; wing 8.5 mm; antennae 1.9 mm. Head: Large, very

little wider than thorax. Occiput tumid throughout, conspicuously tumid on

the upper half. The vertex a little swollen, the eyes approximated, separated

by a distance little more than the length ‘of the distance between the ocelli.

Occiput throughout, to the upper corner of the eye, clothed with long, flattened,

crinkly, backward-directed, coarse, brilliant golden pile. At the impression on

the front, between the approximation of the eyes the golden pile above is di-

rected backward and below it is directed forward. Front and face shining

steel-blue with a pale-yellow stripe or spot on the greater part of the margin

of the face bordering the eye, narrow above and wide below, separated in the

middle below by a wide band of black; otherwise the head is everywhere shin-

ing steel blue-black. Antennae elongate, first joint a little longer than the last

two, second joint a little more than half as long as the third joint. Arista

short, basally thickened, orange at base, brown outwardly. Eyes bare, shin-

ing with a waxy appearance. Pile of face and head everywhere brilliant

golden. Last two antennal joints dark brown, lower half of first orange, upper

half black. Lower part of epistoma set off from face by a deep crease; face

440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 10

gently rounded. Thorax: Mesonotum and scutellum dark shining blue-black,

covered with tufts of brilliant golden pile and scattered hairs of the same

color. A tuft of such pile is located behind the humeri, a band of it in front of

the suture running narrowly along the sides of the thorax, especially on the

postealli. The whole of the scutellum is so covered; the pile is more prominent

in the middle and as a thick diagonal mat along the mesopleurae. Halteres

pale yellow; squamae pale yellow, yellow fringed. There are two small, pale,

rather widely separated points on the scutellum. Abdomen: Elongate, the

fused first and second segment much flattened, not quite so broad as the

thorax, becoming as broad as the thorax only at the anterior ends of the sec-

ond segment. First segment deeply set into the second segment, its base deep

punctate, the margin broadly, evenly rounded and fluted, the whole segment

shining black with just a little golden pile in the lateral corners. The middle

of the second segment is a raised, rounded, widening ridge, so that the anterior

portion of the lateral part of this segment is a flat triangle whose inner half is

pale-translucent and hyaline. The remainder of the anterior part is brown.

The rugose middle ridge is very dark brown, nearly black, the posterior cor-

ners, but not the posterior middle, with matted golden pile, posteriorly di-

rected and the sides of the anterior part of the segment with golden, matted,

straight, inwardly produced pile. The abdomen is narrowest at the end of the

second segment, and it is only as wide there as four-fifths the length of the

second segment in the middle. Last two segments developed into a thick,

heavy, much pitted brown, almost black, very convex club, which is widest

just before the end of the fourth segment. The entire sides of the third seg-

ment, except narrowly at the base and rather broadly in the middle, covered

with straight backwardly directed matted golden pile. Fourth segment with

similar but much more restricted lateral golden pile, which does not reach

the end of the segment on the sides; however, before the end of the segment

near the top and widely separated, there is a large, oblique patch of matted

golden pile directed both posteriorward and inward; the extreme apex of this

segment is pale brownish yellow, not visible from above. There is a diagonal

depression just posterior to the dorsal area of the golden pile. Hypopygium

pale brown, pale pilose, not conspicuous. Pile elsewhere on the abdomen, the

dorsal parts of the segment, black. Legs: Hind femora black, narrowly brown

basally and ventrally, hind tibiae very dark brown, remainder of legs light

reddish brown, the tarsi still paler. Hind basitarsi not especially thickened.

Wings: Stigmal cell pale brownish, a very conspicuous stigmal cross vein

present, a well-developed spurious vein and the whole wing, especially the

apical third, somewhat smoky. Veins very dark brown. ‘There is a long spur

vein into the first posterior cell, and the lower corners of the first and second

posterior cells are broadly rounded and without spur.

Holotype: One male, Patmeung Mountains, Siam, January 1928, T. D. A.

Cockerell collector (U.S.N.M. no. 52910).

tes ‘ " : res a

- Maruematics.—Intuitive and descriptive |

space: The graphical representation | a geomet

: MERLE RANDALL and Bruce oa N

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 31 NovreMBER 15, 1941 IN@s Jul

MATHEMATICS.—Intuztive and descriptive geometry of function

space: Metric properties and transformation of coordinates... BRUCE

Lonetin, Department of Chemistry, Illinois Institute of Tech-

nology,and MERLE RanpDALL, Department of Chemistry, Univer-

sity of California. (Communicated by FREDERICK D. ROssINT.)

In a previous paper? a graphical method of representing spaces of an

indefinitely large number of dimensions was developed. The method

consists essentially in dividing an interval A into n equal subintervals

and erecting an ordinate equal to one of the vector components (i.e.,

Cartesian coordinate numbers) at the center of each subinterval. A

number of geometrical figures were studied descriptively by the use of

this representation.

In everyday 3-space, geometric intuitions are developed through the

ability to survey an object from many viewpoints; to pick it up, turn

it around, and move it back and forth. These operations of rotation

and translation enable one who can see only two dimensions at a

time to appreciate the geometry of a third dimension. The significant

result of such geometrical observations is the conclusion that certain

geometric features of an object, such as lengths and angles, remain

unaltered by rotation and translation. It is this property that gives

meaning to the operation of geometrical measurement.

The analytic aspects of the metric properties of function space

form one of the most thoroughly investigated fields of functional

theory. For this reason the analytical results will be presented as

briefly as possible except where clarification is necessary.

SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

The scalar product u-v of the vectors u and v is defined geometri-

cally as the product of their lengths |u| and |v| times the cosine of the

angle @ between the two vectors;

uv =| u|| | cos 6. lp)

1 Clerical assistance of the Work Projects Administration is gratefully acknowl-

edged. O.P. 165-1-08-73. (Unit C-2.) Received July 22, 1941.

* RANDALL and Lonetin. Intuctive and descriptive ane of function space: The

pbiical pesca of geometrical figures. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 31(10):

441

442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

If the two vectors u and v are identical, the angle between them is

zero and cos @ is unity. In this case, the scalar product u-u is the

square of the length of the single vector;

oe a (2)

Since the scalar product may be evaluated by methods that are

independent of any previous knowledge of the length of the vectors,

equation 2 permits an analytic evaluation of the length of any vector.

Equation 1 may then be solved for the angle 6 between two vectors,

in the form

cos @ = u-v/| ul |v, (3)

§.= cos! [u-v/| w| | o]]. | (4)

Thus the metric properties of any Euclidean space may be expressed

in terms of the scalar products of vectors. Such an expression is much

simplified by introducing the general vector notations.

Base vector systems.—An orthogonal set of vectors consists of vec-

tors mutually perpendicular. The scalar product of any two vectors

of such a set is zero (cos 90°=0), as indicated by equation 1, unless

the two are identical. A normalized set of vectors consists of vectors

each of which is of unit length. An orthonormal set is both orthogonal

and normalized. If the vectors e;°, e;°, - - - , form an orthonormal set,

they satisfy the equation

e;°-e,° = 0:3, (5)

where 6;; (Kronecker’s delta symbol) is zero except in the case that

7 and 7 are identical; then it takes the value unity.

In Euclidean spaces of a finite number of dimensions, any vector

v is readily expressed in terms of an orthonormal set e;°, e,°, ---, in

the form

v= ve," + Vo@o? + ak re qP Ona” a De OAa8", (6)

the coefficients v;, v;, -- - being scalar quantities. The set of vectors

e,°, e;°, --- 1s then ealled a base vector system. Any system of vectors

may be used as a base vector system provided the number of base

vectors is the same as the number of dimensions of the space under

consideration, while no one of the base vectors may be expressed in

terms of the others by any equation such as equation 6.

If the vectors u and v have been represented in terms of the same

Nov. 15, 1941 LONGTIN AND RANDALL: TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 443

orthonormal base vector system, e;°, e;°,--- , their scalar product

takes the form

ae ( » ure )( De v1) = DY DL UMP Se. (7)

1 1 i=l j=1

Recalling equation 5, we see that this result may be reduced to the

simple form

UV = Uy, + Ud, + >> + Unda = Dd, Udi. (8)

o—

Two special cases are of interest. If the vector u is one of the base

vectors, e;°, then the coefficients mw, ws, ---, uw, are all zero except Ui,

which is unity. In this case, the scalar product

e,o-VvV = 0; (9)

is the length of the vector v times unity times the cosine of the angle

between v and the base vector e;°. Thus the coefficient v; is the length

of the projection of the vector v on the axis of the vector e;; it is the

vector component in this direction. If the vectors u and v are identical,

one obtains the formula

u-u = Ur? + Us” + On 6 -- Wee. (10)

which is the ordinary Euclidean expression for the square of the length

of the vector v.

From equation 10 it is evident that the length of the vector u will

approach an infinite value as the number of dimensions is increased

indefinitely, if each component has a finite value. If all components of

the vector have the same order of magnitude, the length of the vector

will approach a finite limit only if the individual components are of

infinitesimal length.

Such vectors, whose components are of infinitesimal length, are of

great importance in the geometry of function space. They are best

represented in terms of a reduced base vector system defined by the

equation

e,’ = (A/n)1e,°, (11)

The vectors of the reduced system are orthogonal but are not normal-

ized. They have the same directions as vectors of the orthonormal set,

but each has a length (A/n)! rather than unity. This length ap-

proaches an infinitesimal value as the number, n, of dimensions in-

creases.

The quantity (A/n) is the width of each of the n subintervals into

which the interval A is subdivided in order to construct the block

444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

diagram representation of an n-space vector. When the number of

subdivisions becomes infinite, (A/n) may be replaced by its equiva-

lent, dx. Here x denotes the distance’ (a+ (z2/n)A), whose increment is

(A/n) when the index 7 increases by unity. In this case equation 11

takes the form

e,’ = (dx) "e;°. (12)

In order to represent the vector v in terms of the reduced base

vector system, new components, v;’, must be defined which are

(1/dx)1/* times as big as the original components:

Ds == 05/ (Ga) 4 (13)

and hence may be finite rather than infinitesimal.* Equation 6 then

takes the form

v= v,/e,’ + Vo’ Co’ + A TO(:0-0 + Un Cn” = yy v,;/e;’. (14)

Scalar product in Hilbert space——A Euclidean space of an infinite

number of dimensions is known as a Hilbert space.® By using the re-

duced base vector system for such a space, equation 8 becomes the

sum of an infinite number of terms w,’v;’/(A/n), whose limit is the

integral

a\y = ‘gee in (ayo (aealar. (15)

In this equation, the subscript 7 has been replaced by the variable z,

which is [a+(z/n)A]. The square of the length of any vector in

Hilbert space is thus given as

| a ve i [u’ (a) |2da. (16)

Angle between two vectors—The scalar product u-v and the two

lengths |u| and |v| appearing in equation 4 may be evaluated with

the help of equations 15 and 16. Proceeding in this way, Frank

and Pick* have made a rather detailed study of the spherical

geometry of function space. Their valuable work on the angles which

3 RANDALL and LONGTIN. Op. cit.

4 Cf. KowaLEwskI, G. Ueber Funktionenrdume, Sitz. Akad. Wien 120(2a: 1): 77.

1911. Kowalewski obtains this result without mentioning the role of the base vector

system.

> Hinpert, Davin. Grundziige einer allgemeinen Theorie der linearen Integral-

gleichungen, Leipzig and Berlin, 1912, a collection from Gétt. Nachr. 1904: 49, 213;

1905: 307; 1906: 157, 489; 1910: 355.

6 FRANK and Pick. Math. Ann. 76:354. 1915. Pick. Compt. Rend. 158: 549.

1914. These two papers contain the only cases found in which the geometrical repre-

sentation of vectors in function space has actually been used.

Nov. 15, 1941 LONGTIN AND RANDALL: TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 445

may exist between ‘‘convex’’ functions need not be repeated here.

As one interesting application, consider the angle between a vector

v whose length |v| is unity, and one of the orthonormal base vectors,

e,°. In the formulas, the vector u may be replaced by e;°. Both of the

lengths |u| and |v| of equation 9 are unity. In accordance with

equation 9, the scalar product e;°-v must have the value v;, equal to

v;'(dx)!/?, and this result is obtained from equation 16 when the in-

tegration is carried out properly. Consequently,

6 = cos? [v,’(dx)¥/2] ~ [x/2 — 0,'(dx)¥/?]; (La)

the angle 6 deviates only slightly from 90°, or 7/2 radians, provided

the component 1,’ is finite.

In the previous paper,’ we chose to represent a vector in function

space by means of a continuous (or piecewise continuous) curve with

no infinite ordinates. The function v’(a2) representing the vector v is

in this case continuous and finite. Consequently every reduced com-

ponent v;’ of the vector v is finite, and the angle @ that it makes with

every vector of the base vector system is nearly 90°. ;

In 2-dimensional space there is no region that is nearly 90° away

from both axes. The closest approach to such a region is one lying at

about 45° away from both axes. In 3-space a region may be found that

lies about 55° away from all three axes. As the number of dimensions

increases, the angle between a base vector and the vector that makes

equal angles with all base vectors increases toward 90°. With an in-

finite number of dimensions there is a great abundance of space in

the region nearly 90° away from all the coordinate axes (base vectors).

Such an abundance of space will be noticed repeatedly in regions of

function space which in analogy to common 3-dimensional experience

would at first seem insignificant.

The integrating vector.—A vector all of whose components are zero

or unity in terms of the reduced base vector system has peculiarly

important properties. Let the subscript H denote the ensemble (or

collection) of indices for which the components of such a vector have

the values unity rather than zero. The vector having these com-

ponents is designated as eg. In particular, when the components are

zero for all indices except those between 6 and c and unity for all

indices in this interval (inclusive of 6 and c), the vector will be desig-

nated as e,°. Such a vector is represented in Fig. 1 by the method

previously developed, in which the vector components are plotted as

ordinate against the indices (scale 1/n=unity) as abscissa.

7 RANDALL and LONGTIN. Op. cit.

446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

The scalar product e,°-v proves to be simply the integral

eV = i vy (x) dx; (18)

extended over the interval from 6 to c. This is evident when one sub-

stitutes for w’(2) in equation 15 the components of e;°, which are zero

except in the interval (bc) and unity within this interval. In a more

general sense,® the scalar product ez -v is the integral of u(x) over the

ensemble of values of x included in EF. Because of the role which the

vector €g may be considered to play in the theories of integration, we

may designate it as the zntegrating vector.

g b c

Fig. 1—A vector all of whose components between indices 6 and c are unity.

(Scale, 1/n =unity.)

In the previous paper? the phase diagrams of complex chemical

mixtures were given as an example of the application of the methods

therein developed. When the mixture is that of a series of hydro-

carbons and other volatile substances, the index 7 is taken as the

data from which the analysis of the mixture is obtained give the total

desired value?

W(®) = e’,°-w= { ” w(@)d0. (19)

The weights of the individual components, which are used as the

vector components in the phase diagram, are therefore obtained as

w(®) = dW/do. 7 ao (20)

This serves to indicate another manner in which the representation

8 Compare Lebesgue integration; Lrsreseur, Lecgons sur lintégration, Paris,

Gauthier-Villars, 1928.

® RANDALL and LoNeTIN. Op. cit. j

10 Here and subsequently it will be assumed that the reduced base vector system 1s

to be used, and the designation by accents omitted except where confusion may arise.

Nov. 15, 1941 LONGTIN AND RANDALL: TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 447

in function space may arise. Usually in this case the condition

e’)~-w=1 is also imposed so that w(0) represents the weight fraction

rather than total weight of the component.

Orthonormal vector sets—Consider an orthonormal set of vectors

e.°, es’, ---, e,°, different from the base vector system e,°, 2°, ---,

e,°. Each vector e,° of this set can be represented in terms of the re-

duced base vector system as the sum of its components e,;’e;’. The

coefficient e,;’ is the magnitude of the reduced component of e,° in

the direction of the base vector e;°. In the limit of an infinite number

of dimensions, this coefficient becomes a function e,’(x), which may

be used to represent the vector graphically by the method previously

discussed. 7

If the vectors e.°, e3°, -- -, e,? form an orthonormal set, they must

satisfy a relationship like equation 5. Expressed in the form appro-

priate to function space, this requires that

a+A

€,0-e)? =| EAD en (ad — On (21)

for all pairs of Subscripts x, >. A set of functions e.’(2), @s'(@), ---,

e, («) that satisfy equation 21 are said to be orthogonal and normal-

ized with respect to the interval A; this is not necessarily true with

respect to any other interval of the variable xz. An example is the set

Of umegons (1/A)'? (2/A) sm (6), (2/A)2 cos (0), @/A)!” sin (28),

(2/A)"? cos 26, (2/A)!? sin 36, - - -, where 6 has the value 27x7/A. The

functions of this set are all orthogonal" and normalized with respect

to any interval of width A but of no other width.

Transformation of axes.—Since the set of vectors e.°, e3°,---, &°

are orthonormal, they may serve equally as well for a base vector

system as the original set e,°, e:.°,---, e,°. The components of a

vector v were represented in the original system by the function v(x).

In the new system the values of the components are found with the

help of equations 9, 12, and 13 as

a+A

V»’ = V-e)’ =| Dy (a ena )da: (22)

As an example, the vectors e,° may be those whose representative

functions, e,’(2), are terms of the sine and cosine series discussed

above. In this case the component v,’ will be recognized as the coeffi-

cient of e,’(x) in the Fourier series expansion for v’(z).

If the system e,°, e3°, - - - , e,° is to serve as a complete base vector

11 See Courant. Differential and integral calculus 1: chapter 9. 1939.

448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

system in function space the number, n, of vectors in the set must be

infinite. To represent a vector v graphically in terms of the new sys-

tem, an interval A’ (not necessarily the same as A) is divided into n

subintervals. At the center of the \th interval an ordinate of height

v,’ is erected (for all values of \). In the limit, the subscript \ may be

replaced by a continuous variable £, whose value is [a’+(d/n)A’]. The

vector v is then represented in the new system by a function v’(é), not

the same as the function v’(z). :

For example, consider the vector v which is represented in terms of

the system e,°, e.°, ---, e,° by the curve and three isolated points of

Fig. 2.

pea es

Fig. 2.—The vector v represented in the system e1°, €2°,- >: , en°.

A new base vector system e,°, e3°, ---, €,° 1s represented in terms

of the old by means of the Fourier series terms listed above. The

292)2/q

WE)

| 4 dé

a! & a! + 4

Fig. 3.—The same vector v (Fig. 2) represented in terms of a new coordinate sys-

tem e,°, eg°,:--, e,. In the inset the é-axis has been infinitely magnified to show the

details close to the point =a’. The actual width of the shaded block at a’ is infinitesi-

mal. ‘

Fourier coefficients of the function v(x) of Fig. 2 are all zero except

those of the odd-numbered sine terms. If the normalized functions

are used, the coefficients of these sine terms are (2°/7A!/?/a7x) where x

is the (odd) number of the sine term, counting sine terms only. These

are the vector components, v,. Let 7 denote the number of the term in

the order listed previously, and define the variable € as [a’+(j/n)A‘]

where n is the total number of all terms. Then the vector components

v, are represented by a function v(é), which has alternately the values

Nov. 15, 1941 LONGTIN AND RANDALL: TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 449

zero and (2°/?A'?/7)[dé/(E—a’)]. Between each pair of points for

which its value is definite are three points for which the value is zero.

The function v(é) obtained in this manner is shown in Fig. 3. It

has finite values only as long as (£—a’)/dé remains a denumerable

quantity. After (—a’)dé reaches an infinite value (not denumerable)

the remaining values of v(é) differ only infinitesimally from zero. With

an infinite (not denumerable) number of dimensions, this point is

reached before é differs from a’ by more than an infinitesimal amount,

as indicated in the figure.

In this example, the new coordinate system contains several axes

[those represented by (2/A)! sin 6, (2/A)1? sin 36, and (2/A)?/? sin 56

in particular] that lie in nearly the same region of function space as

does the vector v. This is evidenced in par‘ by the similarity in form

between the function representing any one of these base vectors and

that representing v [which is crudely sinusoidal]. Consequently the

vector v, as represented in the new coordinate system, has important

components only in these few directions; the function v’(¢) has non-

zero values for a few values of €.

The transformation from one orthonormal base vector set to a

second in Hilbert space leaves the sealar product of any two vectors

unaltered. Consequently, the length of a vector and the angle between

two vectors are quantities that may be calculated in the same way and

with the same answer, regardless of the base vector system used in

describing the vectors. Thus, for example, the length of the vector v

obtained by applying equation 16 will be the same whether the function

v(x) and variable x or the function v’(£) and variable € are used. The

area under the curve obtained by squaring the ordinate of Fig. 2 is

the same as that under the block diagram obtained by squaring the

ordinates of Fig. 3.

AUXILIARY PROJECTIONS

In the previous paper” it was shown that a desired principle pro-

jection of function space into two or three dimensions is obtained by

constructing a 2- or 3-dimensional figure with Cartesian coordinates

equal to values from the complete vector diagram corresponding to

the desired two or three particular indices of the set x.

In the practice of descriptive geometry the use of auxiliary projec-

tions is quite helpful. The auxiliary projection may be considered as

a principle projection relative to a coordinate system whose orienta-

tion is different from the original coordinate system. In function

122 RANDALL and LONGTIN. Op. cit.

450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

space, the auxiliary projection may be obtained by representing the

geometrical figure in terms of a new coordinate system e,°, €,°, ---,

e,°, taking it as a principal projection relative to the new representa-

tion. Thus the transformation of axes by the methods discussed

above affords a new point of view from which to survey the function

space figure by means of projections.

For example, one may study the configuration of two intersecting

straight lines (r+su) and (r+tv) by looking at it from all possible

angles. In other words, its principal 2-dimensional projection will be

taken with respect to every different possible base vector system.

These projections will all show two intersecting straight lines, with

varying degrees of foreshortening of lengths and angles. They are like

the various aspects obtained by looking at a pair of intersecting lines

from different directions in ordinary 3-space.

Of all the different aspects of a plane figure, the most important is

that which looks directly at the plane, so that the figure shows no

foreshortening. To obtain this projection one makes use of axes con-

sisting of two mutually perpendicular lines lying in the plane and other

axes perpendicular to the plane and each other. These other axes are

unimportant, since they are to be suppressed in taking the projection.

In applying the method to the two intersecting lines, it is con-

venient to choose as the axes lying in the plane one of the two lines,

and a second perpendicular to it. It may be shown that the com-

ponent of a vector v parallel to the vector u is given by the expression

[u(v-u)/(u-u)]. Consequently the expression [v—u(v-u)/(u-u)] gives

the component of v perpendicular to u. It must necessarily lie in the

plane of u and v, and is suitable for use as the second of the two axes.

The ratio (v-u)/(u-u) may be determined from equations 16 and 17

with the help of graphical integration, if the representative functions

u(a) and v(x) are known. The function u(x) is multiplied by this ratio

and subtracted from v(x) to construct a function representative of

this second coordinate axis.

Fig. 4 (left) represents a radius vector r that extends to the intersec-

tion of vectors u and v. In Fig. 4 (right vector u has been taken to

give the direction of one coordinate axis while a second is taken along

the component of v that is perpendicular to u. The components of v

and r along the directions of these two axes were obtained by the

method that gives [u(v-u)/(u-u)] as the component of v parallel to u.

The projection of this figure taken normal to the plane of u and v was

constructed from these vector components. In this figure, the lines

[r-+su] and [r+tv] actually appear as intersecting lines. Furthermore

Nov. 15, 1941 LOoNGTIN AND RANDALL: TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 451

Fig. 4.—Normal projection of the intersection of two straight lines.

the angle of 30° between them is that calculated from the function

u(x) and v(x) by equations 4, 15, and 16

Frank and Pick® have by similar means obtained a projection of

the intersection of a plane and hypersphere, using the given plane as

the plane of projection. The projection of course appears as a circle.

Many similar exercises in projective geometry may be carried out by

the same means.

NONORTHOGONAL AND NONEUCLIDEAN SYSTEMS

In ordinary descriptive geometry occasional use is made of oblique

projections; in these the projection rays are not normal to the projec-

tion plane. Such projections are to be obtained by representing the

figure in terms of a nonorthogonal base vector system of which one

group defines the projection space, and the remaining group defines

a space parallel to the projection elements. The desired projection is

then obtained by suppressing the coordinates parallel to the projec-

tion elements, just as a principal orthogonal projection is obtained.

The transformation is most readily accomplished with the aid of

the set of vectors reciprocal to the base vector set (i.e., if the base

vector system is covariant, the other system is the corresponding con-

travariant system of vectors). The representative functions of these

two base vector systems form what is known as a biorthogonal system.

This transformation is not of sufficient importance to be described in

detail.“

13 FRANK and Pick. Op. cit.

144 The equations of the transformation may be obtained as a generalization of the

equations given in Wiuus, Vector tensor analysis, $20, 1931, or any other text on the

subject. The analytic generalization to function space is the subject of the following

works: ScumMipT, ERHARD, Dissertation, Gottingen, 1905; Levy, P., Lecons d’analyse

fonctionnelle, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1922; Courant and HiLtBert, Methoden math.

Phystk. I., pp. 19, 34. Berlin, J. Springer, 1924.

452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

Various definitions of non-EKuclidean metric of function space have

been given at different times. Chief of these are those given by

Holder’ and by Fréchet.'® Hoélder’s definition is a generalization of

the Euclidean definition, while Fréchet’s is generically unrelated to

the Euclidean definition. In any case a rotation will be considered as

a transformation of axes, without shift of origin, which preserves all

the (non-Euclidean) distances in the function space save certain singu-

lar ones.

Proceeding in like manner, all the propositions of this paper may be

reproduced in analogue for each non-Euclidean metric. Such a task is

too lengthy for the present paper. There is an alternative procedure

of studying non-Euclidean geometry that will be discussed further in

a subsequent paper. It arises as a generalization of the transformation

theory in tensor analysis. It has already been briefly discussed by

Delsarte” in a series of papers on subgroups of the Fredholm trans-

formation.

CONCLUSIONS

In function space purely mechanical methods of measurement and

of shifting the orientation of figures are not possible. Analytical

methods must be substituted. These methods have been collected.

and some attempt has been made to give them physical significance.

Equation 16 serves as the basis for measuring distances in function

space, while equations 4, 15, and 16 serve to measure angles when the

geometrical figures have been represented by the proposed method.

By representing the geometrical figure in terms of new coordinate

systems, different oblique views are made available. The same trans-

formation may serve a different purpose. The observer may imagine

that he has changed his viewpoint to coincide with one axis (or more)

of the new system. He might then grasp the coordinate axes, rotating

them into coincidence with the old axes. If the geometrical figure

moves with the axes, it will continue to be represented in terms of

these moving axes by the same diagrams, although its representation

in terms of the fixed axis system is changing. Hence the use of different

axis systems allows one the freedom of either a movable observer or

a movable object.

The chief methods of descriptive geometry are the consimneen of

principal and auxiliary projections (including the normal projection),

the construction of straight lines, and the location of intersections.

145 HOLDER. Die mathematische methode, Springer, Berlin, 1928.

146 FRECHET. Les espaces abstraits, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1924.

17 DELSARTE. Compt. Rend. 186: 415, 1095, 1412, 1513. 1928.

Nov. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS 403

These methods have all been developed for function space in this and

the preceding paper. Applications to special problems may be made

in general by analogy to the ordinary 3-dimensional case.

Practical geometrical intuitions are developed by selecting from

among all aspects of each geometrical figure those which are invariant.

In Hilbert space, we have found that the angle between two lines and

the length of a line are independent of the point of view. These in-

variant properties form a backlog of geometrie intuition for function

space, to which other more specialized intuitions may be added by

studying many aspects of many geometrical figures. A few examples

will be included in the following paper.

MATHEMATICS .—/ntuttive and descriptive geometry of function

space: Geometric configurations.: MERLE RANDALL, Department

of Chemistry, University of California, and Brucr LonertIn,

Department of Chemistry, Illinois Institute of Technology.

(Communicated by FREDERICK D. RossInI.)

In two preceding papers? a graphical representation of spaces of

an indefinite number of dimensions was developed, together with the

concepts of Euclidean projection and rotation, which are fundamental

to the descriptive geometry of such a space. In this paper the applica-

tion of these methods to actual problems of descriptive geometry is

indicated.

The analytic geometry of a number of relatively simple n-space

figures has been well studied. A number of these results will be needed

in order to obtain a graphical representation of these figures.

CURVED LINES AND SURFACES

A space curve may be represented analytically either as the inter-

section of two surfaces, or by means of parametric equations that

express the various coordinates as functions of a single parameter,

s (e.g., the curvilinear distance from a fixed point on the curve). The

analytic representation of an m-dimensional hypersurface is most

readily obtained by expressing the n coordinates in terms of m inde-

pendent parameters (i.e., the m parameters of the surface). These

parametric equations are of the form

1 Clerical assistance of the Works Project Administration is gratefully acknowl-

edged. O. P. 165—-1—08-73. (Unit C-2.) Received July 22, 1941.

* RANDALL and LonetTin. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 31(10): 421-431. 1941.

8’ LONGTIN and RANDALL. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 31(11): 441-453. 1941.

4 Cf. Levy, P. Legons d’analyse fonctionnelle, Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1922.

454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

Oe = afalUing thy 82 = 5 linn) fe a AH aa yi) (1)

in which é,, f2, --- , ¢, are the m different parameters. Passing to the

case of function space, equation 1 becomes

v(x) 7 es ti, lo, 1 a) Ga (2)

The points along a curve in function space are represented by curves

of a 1-parameter family, v(7; ¢). Two-dimensional principal projec-

tions of such a curve are obtained by plotting v(a,; t) and v(a; t) as

Fig. 1.—Representation and two principal projections

of a function space curve.

the two Cartesian coordinates of the projection of a point of the curve.

For example, if the equation of the curve is v(x) =e”, the equation of

each principal plane projection is of the form v(2%2) = [v(a)]@/™. In

Fig. la each curve for a particular value of ¢ represents one point on

the function space curve. The whole function space curve is repre-

sented by a family of curves with different values of ¢. Each of these

points may be projected on the plane whose indices are 2; and x, by

the method described in the first paper.® Fig. 15 shows two principal

projections of the curve, one onto the plane 7:22, and the other onto

the plane 2,’2.’. They were obtained graphically from Fig. la, and

are seen to be members of a parabolic family.

A 3-dimensional principal projection of the curve is obtained in the

same manner, using three values v(21; t), v(%2; t), v(x3; t) as coordinates.

It would appear as a space curve, each of whose three principal plane

projections is one of the family of principal plane projections of the

function space curve.

5 RANDALL and LoneTIN. Op. cit.

Nov. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS 455

The points on a function space curved surface are represented by

curves of a 2-parameter family, v(2; ti, t2). An example is the repre-

sentation of a plane, which was discussed in the first paper.® Each

principal 3-dimensional projection of such a surface is obtained

(Fig. 2) by plotting the points [v(a1; fi, tz), v(%2; ti, te), v(a3; ti, te)I.

In general, since two parameters are involved, the resulting projection

is a curved surface in a 3-space. The principal plane projections are

obtained by plotting only two of the three coordinates and are there-

fore principal projections of the curved surfaces.

Fig. 2—A principal projection of a function space curved surface.

The points of a curved 3-space are represented by a 3-parameter

family of curves in the function space diagram. Each principal projec-

tion onto a 3-space is a 1-parameter family of surfaces [v(%1; 1, fe, fs),

(ao; ti, te, ts), v(v3; ti, to, t3)|. Hach surface of the family is a contour of

the curved space for which ft; (or some function of f1, f2, and ts) is con-

stant. The representation of a curved hypersurface of more than three

dimensions by means of space projections is difficult. It can only be

obtained by plotting contours of the figure, analogous to the repre-

sentation of a 4-dimensional figure on a plane by means of 2-dimen-

sional contours of the figure.

Views other than the principal projections may be obtained by

rotation of axes. Each of the functions v(x; ti, to, - -- , tm) correspond-

ing to particular values of ¢, ts, -- - , tm) is expressed in terms of the

rotated axis system by Fourier expansion, and then a series of principal

projections is taken.

SURFACES LYING IN A HYPERPLANE

If the curved hypersurface is limited to an oblique plane hyper-

space, its equation will be of the form .

456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

v(a; ti, te, -- > , tm) = Vola) + her(x) + toeo(x) +--+ + tr€m(x)

fil, to, ees) tao) = 0

folh, le, lhe Pear’) li) = 0

oF, dele preg! Hey Jes ile nine

AGE le, ek ea) thin) =z 0,

where the functions e;(z) are orthonormal and lie in the particular

hyperspace in which the curved surface lies. Since there are only

(m—k) independent parameters, the curved surface has (m—k)

dimensions, and lies entirely in an m-dimensional space.

A projection of such a curved surface onto a space parallel to that

in which it lies® is obtained by plotting the parameters f,, f2, --- , tm,

as coordinates. These coordinates must satisfy the k equations

fi(ts, to, - + +, tm) =O. A projection of v(x; ti, fo, -- +, tm) onto the space

of Hi(x), H.(x),---, En(x) (the set H;(x) being orthonormal, but

oblique to the set e,;(x) is given as

(3)

VE(z; hh, bh, - +: , tn) = Vor(e) + ade e1;H (x) + te eS Sy OC)

++ tb bn 2 emi s(2) (4)

= Von(x) + 2B (Gey, i bey ae bmEm;) Lig\))

in which voz(x) is considered as the Fourier expansion of vo(x) in

terms of the set EL;(x) and e,; is the Fourier coefficient of E;(x) in the

expansion of e;(x). The projection of the curved surface is found by

plotting the m coefficients s,;= (t1¢1;+to€2;+tse3;+ «+ + t+tmémj) aS Mm

Cartesian coordinates,® while requiring that the parameters (1, to, ---,

tm Satisfy equations 3. Since the coefficients €;; are constants depending

on the relative direction of the original and the projection space, the

coordinates in the projection are simply linear combinations of the

parameters f;.

HYPERSPHERE LIMITED TO AN M-SPACEH

If the surface considered is a hypersphere of (m—1) dimensions,

then k=1, and the single equation restricting the parameters is

(i2atp tae alee ala Uae gs (5)

r being the radius of the hypersphere. From the theory of bilinear

forms it is found that if the functions E;(z) are chosen to give the

6 This operation implies that the origin in the projection plane is chosen at a point

which represents the projection of vo(z).

Nov. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS 457

proper orientation of the vectors E; in the projection space, the co-

ordinates s;=) tiers must satisfy an equation of the form

»s (a;s;)? = 7? (6)

_ in which the coefficients a; depend on the angle between the projection

space and the space of the sphere. Equation 6 shows that the pro-

jected figure is an m-dimensional ellipsoid (or (m—1/)-dimensional if 1

of the vectors e; are orthogonal to the projection plane: this gives an

l-edgewise view of the sphere). The orientation of the vectors E; is

chosen to coincide with the principal axes of the ellipsoid.

POLYNOMIALS IN FUNCTION SPACE

In spaces of a finite number of dimensions the simplest analytic

(n—1) dimensional figures are those whose equations are of the form

P(v, V2, +--+, Un) =0, the function P being a polynomial in the n co-

ordinates 01, V2, - + - , Un.

The homogeneous polynomial of degree m in the n variables may

be expressed as

P,@1, 02) ---,0n) = SS Oppo so Dea <0 oy (7)

eee

the multiple summation being extended over m indices. If each of the

indices covers all values n, each of the combinations (vv; - - + v,) will

occur |n times, once for each permutation in which the m indices may

appear in the product.

If the coordinates v1, v2,---, UV, are components of the vector v

expressed in terms of the orthonormal base vector system, then each

of them must be expressed as v,’(dz;)!? in terms of the reduced base

vector system. In order to pass from the finite case to function space,

it is necessary to assume that each a;;..., is equal to @’i;...» (dx:

dx; ---dzx,)'/?. Then in the limit, the homogeneous polynomial be-

comes

(m)

Pa|fo(a)][= fale en + -,2,)'0(ed'ula)! - vley)'drudey «++ diy. (8)

Since each product [v(a;)’v(x;)’ - - - v(x,)’] corresponding to a particu-

lar set of values of (x;, 2;, -- - , Y») may appear several times, not all

sets of functions a(x;, x;,---, x,) will generate distinct polynomials.

The homogeneous polynomial of equation 8 may take certain

special forms. If a(x;, x;,---, x») has the value 1/(dz.dz; - - - dxp_1)

when #;=2;= --- =z,, and zero for all others sets of values of

(xi, Wigs Proce * 5 Lp), then

458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 11

| [ax@y\ = ee a(x)’ |v(x) |*dz. (9)

When a(z:, 2;,---, 2») has other less severe singularities, the poly-

nomial may reduce to the form

(k)

Pr | [v(x) | | a il OC, Ui, ty Diy) [v(x,) |Ple@s) |e oe [v(x,) |2

A (10)

where k is less than m, and (b+c+ --- +g) is equal to m.

The general mth order polynomial is expressed as

B] [oe] | ->P,

[v(x)] |, | (11)

the term for 7=0 being a constant. The equation P| [v(x)]| =0 then

represents a general type of hypersurface analogous to the ordinary

case P(v4, V2, - +: , Un) =0. The most general equation of a hypersurface

in function space is

F | [v(a)] | = 0, (12)

where F is any functional whatever. This corresponds to the ordinary

case f(v1, V2, °°: , Un) =O.

Fig. 3.—Sections of a 3-dimensional solid.

PLANE AND SOLID SECTIONS OF A HYPERSURFACE

In the descriptive geometry of 3-space it is necessary to represent a

curved surface by means of contours, which are parallel plane sections

of the solid figure. Some idea of the n-dimensional figure may be ob-

tained in a similar manner by projection of two 3-dimensional sections

of the figure onto 2- and 3-spaces.

In so doing, it must be remembered that in the 3-dimensional case

a plane cuts the surface in a curve (curve ACBD in Fig. 3), while a

straight line cuts it only in one or more isolated points (A and B). If

Nov. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS 4059

the surface is closed, the curve more or less surrounds the surface

while the points do not. Furthermore, if the directions of the line and

plane are fixed, the plane may be located by fixing one parameter

while to locate the line requires the fixing of two parameters. In

function space the 2- and 3-dimensional sections are analogous to

the linear rather than the plane section of Fig. 3.

The general solid section of the figure represented by equation 12

is obtained when the function v(x) lies in a particular 3-space,

v(x) = Vo(x) + tie: (x) + to€o (a) -- tz3e3 (2), (13)

where fi, f2, and ¢; are parameters independent of x and €:(2), e(x), €3(x)

are orthogonal functions lying in the chosen 3-space. The equation of

the section is therefore

F | [| vo(a) 5e tre1(x) ain to€2 (a) aR tse3(a) + | | = (I), (14)

When the figure is a ‘‘polynomial’’ surface, the equation of a solid

section becomes fairly simple. When the function v(x) lies in the space

defined by equation 13, the homogeneous polynomials become

P| [{vo(x) + ter(x) + teee(x) + tees(x) } | |

= Ey fate tn a5

[vo(x) | Lex(x) | ® Le(x) | [es(x) ]daida; --- dry

where the brackets [vo(x) |? ete. represent the products of g factors of

the form vo(xz;) etc., and the sum (b+c+d-+4g) is equal to m. Hence

the general polynomial P| [v(x)]| becomes a general polynomial in

constant coefficients in this polynomial are sums of integrals of the

form which appears in equation 15.

The solid sections of a figure by the 3-space of equation 13 is to be

found by plotting the parameters f,, ¢. and ¢3 as Cartesian coordinates.

Thus the solid sections of a polynomial hypersurface of degree m are

found to be “‘polynomial”’ solids of degree equal at most to m. That is,

the equations of the sections are of the form P(t, ts, t3;) =0, where P

is a polynomial of degree equal at most to m.

HYPERSPHERE IN FUNCTION SPACE

The vector v defines a point in the hypersphere of radius R, if its

length is constant and equal to R. Hence the equation of the hyper-

sphere is

i) [v(x) }?dx = R?. (16)

460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

Taking a section by the plane of equation 13, we find

We ie ae | Vo |? = f° ()

provided vo(x) is taken orthogonal to e:(x), e2(a), and e€3(a2) (which is

always possible).

Equation 17 is the equation of a sphere of radius (R?—|vo|?)!2,

|vo|? being the distance from the cutting 3-space to the center of the

sphere.

If these successive sections (corresponding to a series of values of

Vo = pV» in which only a single parameter, :, is varied) are all projected

on a space parallel to the cutting spaces, they will appear as a series

of concentric spheres of which the largest has the radius A. If instead

the projection is taken onto a space oblique to the cutting spaces, the

sections will appear as a series of similar ellipsoids (ef. equation 6)

whose centers lie at points which are the projections of vo.

Fig. 4.—Projected sections of a hypersphere.

A series of such sections is shown in Fig. 4. They are each shown

as twice tangent to a sphere of radius 2R (a view of the great sphere

which is parallel to the projection space), the locus of the points of

tangency being a great circle of the sphere. This is an intuitive general-

ization of the analogous case in which circular sections of a sphere

appear in two dimensions as ellipses tangent to a circle of radius 2h.

The proof would result from an application of the theory of bilinear

forms. Different choices of the vector Vo would give other than great

circle loci of the points of tangency. Particular directions of the pro-

jection space might cause the ellipsoid to become tangent to the great-

sphere in a small (or great) circle.

PROJECTED DENSITIES

Imagine a nonrefractive, nonreflecting translucent sphere. This

sphere appears in a single view as a circular region, which is densest

Nov. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS 461

Fig. 5.—Illustration of significance of projected density.

near the center and quite attenuated at the circumference. The ap-

parent density at each point is proportional to the length of linear seg-

ment of the sphere, of which the point is an end-on view. For example,

in Fig. 5 the segments J, 2, 13, and 2, are parallel to the projection

rays. Hach appears as a point that has a density proportional to its

length. This is the projected density of the sphere at this point.

If the projection is taken onto the axis Z rather than onto a plane,

all the points in a plane normal to Z appear in the single point Z%,,

of density proportional to the area of a plane section of the sphere.

This is the projected density of the sphere in terms of a line or 1-

dimensional-projection.

Fig. 6.—Density projections of 3-dimensional sphere on 3-principal axes.

By equation 17, the (n—1) dimensional section of a hypersphere

by a space which is distant |v,| from the center of the sphere has a

radius

r = (R? — | vo |?)1/2, (18)

462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

The volume of this sphere is proportional to r“—». Levy’ has shown

that this volume becomes either zero or infinite, depending on whether

ris less or greater than [(n—1) /2z7e]".

The largest of these sections is the great sphere whose radius is R,

corresponding to. a value of|vo|? of zero. If Vo and V are the volumes

of the great sphere, and of any small sphere respectively, then

V/Vo = Lim [1 — (| vo| /R)*] ® ke

= exp [— (| vo| /R)*%(m — 1)/2]

This ratio is greater than zero only if] vo|is of the order of R/(n—1)!”.

In any projection of the hypersphere onto a straight line, the pro-

jected density is infinitely greater at the center than at any other point.

It decreases exponentially with the distance from the center, and be-

comes almost zero at an infinitesimal distance from the center. It

becomes exactly zero at a distance of R from the center.

Fig. 7.—Projected density of an n-dimensional hypersphere

in the function space diagram.

Fig. 7 shows the projections of the density of an n-sphere onto each

of the principal axes, arranged to form a function space diagram. The

density decrease in receding from the center is shown less abrupt than

the actual case, for the purpose of representation. This density dis-

tribution may also be considered as the result which would be ob-

tained by superposing all curves v(x) having lengths less than R as

measured from the center of the sphere. It is a composite function

space diagram of all vectors which determine points within the

sphere, and, as such, may be used to represent the sphere.

OTHER ANALYTIC FIGURES

Other n-dimensional figures may be studied in the same manner, by

means of sections and projected densities. For example, the hyper-

ellipsoid whose equation is

i [v(a) /a(x) \2dx = 1 (20)

Colbie, lee: (Os Giiin

Nov. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS 463

has principal axes equal to a(a#). All its representations may be ob-

tained from those of the sphere by magnifying the various axes in the

proportions a(z):R. The projected density diagram is shown in

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8.—Projected density of an n-dimensional hyperellipsoid

in the function space diagram.

Of all the sections of a function-space figure, the most interesting

is the section that appears greatest in any particular projection. This

corresponds to the outline in a 2-dimensional view of a solid figure

and is represented by the great-sphere in the case already discussed.

In particular cases it may be found by analytic or intuitive methods.

In general it is found by trial, from the construction of a large number

of sections.

RECTANGULAR HYPERPARALLELOPIPED

If we interpret the vector equation

(ey, 2 hi (21)

to mean that each of the components v;, lies between the limits h; and

(h;+l;) and may be equal to either limit independent of whether any

other component lies at its limit, then the vector v traverses all points

interior to (and on the surface of) a rectangular parallelopiped. If v; is

Fig. 9.—Function space diagram of a rectangular hyperparallelopiped.

464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

equal to h;, and none of the other components lies at either of its

limits, the vector v traverses a limited rectangular portion of an (n—1)

dimensional hyperplane—one of the faces of the parallelopiped. When

v; is equal to (h:+1,), v traverses the opposite face. Hence the ‘“‘re-

duced”’ length of the side normal to these faces is /;. The parallelo-

piped has its edges parallel to the coordinate axes. They are respec-

tively equal to the components of 1. Its corner which is nearest the

origin lies at the end of h.

Fig. 9 shows the function space diagram for a hyperparallelopiped.

The curves h(x) and h(x)+l(x) represent the vectors h and h-+1.

Curve 1 represents a point entirely interior to the parallelopiped.

Over a portion of the interval A, curve 2 passes outside the limit of

h(x) +l(a), and hence represents a vector which does not satisfy

equation 21. It represents a point outside the parallelopiped. Curve 3

represents a function all of whose values are equal to one or the other

of the limits. Hence it represents a vertex of the parallelopiped. The

curves A(x) and [h(x) +1(x)] represent two opposite vertices. Curve 4

has (n6/A) of its components equal to their respective upper limits.

It represents a point which lies in a (1 —n) 6/A-dimensional face of the

parallelopiped.

If the function /(x) is constant independent of x, the vector | being

equal to le’,*+4, the parallelopiped becomes a hypercube. Hence the

hypercube is represented by curves, v(x) which lie entirely within the

region bounded by two curves, h(x) and [1++h(x)], which are vertically

equidistant for all values of z.

yas

meee

Fig. 10.—Principal projection of Fig. 9 on the x;—x2—23-space.

Fig. 10 shows a principal projection of the parallelopiped of Fig. 9.

It is seen as a rectangular parallelopiped in three dimensions. In any

principal m-dimensional projection of the figure, the coordinates

must each satisfy an inequality (h;+l;)2v:2h:, and hence all the

Nov. 15, 1941 RANDALL AND LONGTIN: GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS 465

projected points must lie inside a rectangular parallelopiped. The

projection appears as this parallelopiped.

Oblique views and sections of the parallelopiped may be obtained

in the manner already described for analytic surfaces. A consideration

of the spheres inscribed and circumscribed in a hypercube will indicate

the difficulties involved. The radius of the inscribed sphere has a

length equal to 4/(A/n)!/ in terms of the unit base vector system (the

length of a side of the cube is /(A/n)1” in terms of this system). The

radius of the circumscribed sphere is half the length of the long diag-

onal, which is /|e’,2+4| =. If the circumscribed sphere is of finite

radius, the inscribed sphere has an infinitesimal radius.

Fig. 11.—Projections of the vertices of a hypercube.

The cube has 2” vertices which must lie in the surface of the cir-

cumscribed hypersphere. In the projection they will appear scattered

irregularly throughout the interior of the bounding great-sphere, the

distribution depending on the orientation of the projection space. No

two vertices lying on the same edge may appear in the projection at

a distance greater than /(A/n)!/? (.e., the length of the edge on which

they lie), which is infinitesimal. Hence the distribution of vertices

will be macroscopically dense in certain regions of the projection. If

the projection is edgewise to a number of dimensions of the hypercube,

the region may be limited by a surface which is tangent to the pro-

jection of the inscribed sphere [the greatest breadth observed in the

projection along the direction normal to the edgewise faces is equal to

the length of a side]. In other cases the vertices will more nearly appear

to fill the great-sphere boundary of the circumscribed sphere. Fig. lla

shows a conceivable nearly edgewise view, while Fig. 110 is less nearly

edgewise to any of the faces.

In the special case of a finite number of dimensions, the various

oblique views are more simply described. The number of vertices is

finite, while the edges appear to have finite rather than infinitesimal

lengths. The resulting figures are common in treatises on polytopes.

466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

SUMMARY

Regions of function space having one dimension (curved line) and

two dimensions (curved surface) are easily represented in the function-

space diagram by a family of curves having one or two parameters,

respectively. In any 3-space projection they appear as a curved line

or curved surface.

Any figure having more than three dimensions is of course difficult

to represent in a space of three dimensions. The problem is like that of

representing a solid figure on paper. Three methods have been il-

lustrated, namely:

1. The projected outline of the figure.

2. The projected sections or contours.

3. The projected density.

A fourth method commonly used in descriptive solid geometry is that

of the illuminated and shaded surface. While this method often gives

the most clearly readable representation of solid figures, its applica-

tion to function space is questionable, since the laws of illumination

and reflection are not known for more than three dimensions.

ZOOLOGY .—A review of the subspecies of the indigo snake (Drymar-

chon corais).. Hopart M. Smiru, Smithsonian Institution.

(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

In the most recent study of Drymarchon (Amaral, Mem. Inst. Bu-

tantan 4: 323-330, 1929), three subspecies of the monotypic genus are

recognized: corats corais, corais melanurus, and corais coupert. The last

named is stated to range ‘‘from northeastern Mexico to southeastern

United States.’”’ As has been shown by Blanchard (Papers Michigan

Acad. Sci., Arts and Lett. 4: 28, 1925), and accepted by Stejneger and

Barbour (Check List N. Amer. Amph. Rept., ed. 4, pp. 106-107,

1939), the form in Florida and Georgia possesses characters in both

coloration and scutellation that differentiate it from any other popula-

tion of the genus; and to this form must be applied the name coupert,

with type locality in Georgia. Present records further demonstrate

that there is a hiatus between the range of couper: and that of the

Drymarchon of Texas, this hiatus occurring in the region of Louisiana,

eastern Texas, and Mississippi.

Amaral (op. cit.) indicates that the area of intergradation between

his composite coupert and his melanurus of Central America and cen-

tral Mexico may occur in the region of Tamaulipas and Veracruz.

Since it can be demonstrated that the southwestern Texas form of

1 Received April 10, 1941.

Nov. 15, 1941 SMITH: SUBSPECIES OF THE INDIGO SNAKE 467

Drymarchon is not coupert, the identity of the forms that are inferred

to intergrade in Mexico is left in doubt.

This confusion has led to a reexamination of specimens in the U.S.

National Museum and in the EHT-HMS collection and to an at-

tempt to redefine the various forms of the genus. In the United States

and South America the problem seems relatively simple, as only two

well-defined forms in each area are represented by specimens exam-

ined. In Mexico and northern Central America, however, the problem

becomes complicated. Five of the seven recognizable forms occur in

this area. Lack of adequate material of certain subspecies has ham-

pered a ready understanding of the variation and distribution of all

forms. Most difficult to handle of all are the young, which are fre-

quently unidentifiable. With more material, accompanied by specific

locality data, probably the difficulties encountered in separating the

young may be eliminated. The young of three forms are definitely

identifiable, through their peculiar scutellation or coloration, or both.

Those of the other four forms can be separated into two groups, but

association with either one of the two subspecies in each group is now

too vague to be reliable—other than by geographic probability.

I am indebted to Dr. E. H. Taylor for his suggestions and loan of

material during the course of this study, which was begun some time

ago at the University of Kansas. An important portion of the material

utilized was collected and studied during my tenure of the Walter

Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholarship of the Smithsonian Institution.

KEY TO THE FORMS OF DRYMARCHON

1. Belly and tail light throughout their length; no distinctive dark marks on

edges of subocular labials; in adults, anterior portion of body darker

PME POSKELIOn pPoOrtiompand tail .. on5~ 0.4... sae COrais corars

Tail and at least posterior part of belly usually dark (black); if not, dis-

tinctive dark marks present on edges of at least subocular labials. . .2

2. Antepenultimate labial separated from temporals by contact of adjacent

supralabials; all black except chin and sometimes a few areas on supra-

labials; caudals less than 68; ventrals 185 to 189 in males, 193 to 195 in

HTM CS eneme EE eee aya eaten ten cia alg ee nt Me corais couperr

Antepenultimate labial in contact with temporals or lower preocular, or

Povet nage ener ora cet ya eaten Pci ee gM SCN alee a Wace

3. Subcaudals less than 68 (55 to 65); ventrals 193 or less; scale rows usually

JG! TINGE EN OUI 3 pe, Shae ene eee REM com | 0 te corats erebennus

Subcaudals more than 68 (69 to 83); scale rows usually 15 near anus... . .4

4. Anterior portion of body light brown, extreme posterior portion and tail

black; three vertical black streaks on posterior edges of subocular

labials, and one on posterior edge of seventh labial, never any on pre-

ocular labials (either above or below); lateral gular scales never black-

tipped; young lighter anteriorly than posteriorly, like adults, but with

very broad, light, chevron-shaped bands covering two scale lengths. .

ABE pe Ee ee rey Spr ree ees Pee en. <COTULS: MELANOCETCUS

468 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

Entire body and tail light brown above, or all black; light bands in young

specimens narrow, covering about one scale length (?).............. 5

5. Entire body brown above, and no darker posteriorly than anteriorly ; ven-

tral surface of tail and posterior portion of body dark, but not black;

young (and some adults) with distinct, longitudinal, short black streaks

On anterior pant-o1WOdy< 257) sca eee eee corais unicolor

Entire body nearly uniform black above; belly black on posterior portion,

subcaudal surface black.) .. 000.00 es 6

6. Light areas on supralabial region white or cream, very sharply defined

from the black borders; anterior portion of belly mostly light, salmon

piak amcColor cyan ae 8 ee, OP corais rubidus

Most of head, including sides, black; most of belly black, the light por-

tions cream or white, not reddish.................. corais orizabensis

black” above ..."~*"~s.""+.

One

eet ORIZABENSIS =? COUPERL

/RUBIDUS

low

cauda/s

* EREBENNUS Le

low

ventrals

MELANOCERCUS

UNICOLOR

high

ventrals

CORA/S

Fig. 1—Possible phylogeny of the subspecies of Drymarchon corais.

Evolution within the genus may be traced by the general trend to-

ward melanism in end forms, as in cowperi, rubidus, and orizabensis.

Accordingly a form that is the least melanistic is indicated as the more

primitive; this form is wnicolor. The geographically centralized posi-

tion of unicolor in relation to others supports the premise that it is the

most primitive. Evolution has proceeded in two directions from this

common ancestor, both geographically and in pattern. In one direc-

Nov. 15, 1941 SMITH: SUBSPECIES OF THE INDIGO SNAKE 469

tion, toward the south, evolved corazs, now restricted to South Amer-

ica. This branch exemplifies a different trend in pigmentation than

does the other branch—progression of melanism from the cephalic

region toward the tail. The trend in the second branch is from the tail

toward the head. In both branches pattern evolution is directed to-

ward an end form completely black in color.

goons

sh Oy]

——

OTs

wut

couperi

melanocercus.

—,

—_

als

erebennus—=—

—————

= ——

—<

——

WY orizabensis

rubidus—”

Fig. 2.—Distribution of the subspecies of Drymarchon corais.

Base map courtesy McKnight and McKnight

470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

The fact that unzcolor is now widely separated from corais by

melanocercus in Costa Rica, Panama, and northern South America

does not prove the former could not have given rise to corais. It is

very unlikely that, once the tail-head tendency of pattern change was

established in melanocercus, it should be reversed to produce the char-

acters now shown by corais.

Development of other forms in the genus appears to have pro-

ceeded solely from melanocercus. While wnicolor extends a considerable -

distance toward the north on the Pacific slope, it is separated from

melanocercus the whole distance by the central mountain ranges. Near

the Isthmus, however, where the mountain ranges are lower and com-

plete connection between the Atlantic and Pacific coast populations

is possible, the two forms again come in contact, but the more plastic

of the two (melanocercus) has changed, as in this region it is intergrad-

ing with rubidus of northern Pacific slopes; perhaps because of this

change in melanocercus there is no mingling of wnicolor with it in this

area; the two live in the same general region in southern Chiapas, and

the ranges may overlap to a still greater extent than now known.

It is apparent, then, that it was melanocercus, not unicolor, that

gave rise to rubidus. The rubsdus stem produced no further subspecies,

except perhaps one on the Tres Marias Islands. _

On the Atlantic coast melanocercus gave rise to another color phase

(orzzabensis) very much like rubidus; these two are conceived as paral-

lel developments not derived one from the other. Still farther north

melanocercus gave rise to erebennus; and presumably the latter to

couperi, since these two hold in common a caudal count lower than

that of other forms.

It should be observed that all three end forms (rubidus, orizabensis,

coupert) of the melanocercus branch of Drymarchon (as opposed to the

corais branch) are very black; two of them (orizabensis, cowperz) are

practically uniform black; and one of them (cowperz) not only has

reached the ultimate stage in color evolution in the genus, but is by

far the most highly modified in scutellation. The expectation, of

course, is that the corazs branch should possess one or more black sub-

species; if they exist, however, they are not yet known.

Drymarchon corais unicolor subsp. nov.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 110865, female, from La Esperanza, near Es-

cuintla, Chiapas. .

Paratypes.—U.S.N.M. nos. 6757A-B, ‘“‘Guatemala”’; no. 12687, Escuintla,

Guatemala; no. 79960, Managua, Nicaragua; no. 46464, Huehuetan, Chia-

pas; no. 30424, ‘Tehuantepec’; and EHT-HMS (HMS 14556) from Colonia

Hidalgo, 8 kilometers north of La Esperanza, Chiapas.

Nov. 15,1941 SMITH: SUBSPECIES OF THE INDIGO SNAKE 471

Diagnosis.—Adults uniform light brown above, posterior portion no or

little darker than anterior, sometimes longitudinal black streaks anteriorly;

venter light, becoming somewhat darker posteriorly and under tail, but not

black; young with short, black streaks anteriorly, posteriorly with narrow,

irregular, light crossbars. Ventrals 192 to 206; caudals 70 to 77 (females) ;

totals 266 to 281 (females). Antepenultimate labial in contact with temporals

of postoculars, or both; scale rows posteriorly usually 15.

Description of holotype-—Head scales normal; supralabials eight, the sixth

in contact with lower anterior temporal; infralabials nine, first five in con-

tact with chin shields, four in contact with anterior chin shields; one pre-

ocular, two postoculars; temporals in two rows, three in lower row, two in

upper; lower posterior temporal narrowly in contact with parietal on one

side (between the two upper temporals), narrowly separated on the other;

posterior chin shields distinctly shorter and smaller than anterior; ventrals

195; anal entire; caudals 71. Total length 1570 mm; tail 320 mm.

Dorsal surface of entire body and tail uniform light brown, with the excep-

tion of irregular, short, poorly defined, diagonal black streaks on anterior

portion of body; a black, diagonal patch on nape, poorly defined and short.

Sides of head light brown, as dorsal surface; a vertical black mark on the

posterior edge of the fourth to the seventh supralabials, and on the cor-

responding infralabials; posterolateral gular scales darker at their tips.

Belly light anteriorly, posterior fifth becoming brown, as subcaudal sur-

face; no portion of belly or tail black, save a very few marks on the edges of

some ventrals.

Variation.—The paratype series compares well with the holotype in colo-

ration. In one the dark streaks are more prominent. In none is the posterior

portion of the belly, or the subcaudal surface, black.

TaBLE 1.—ScaLE COUNTS IN UNICOLOR

Scale Supra- Antepenultimate

Number Sex Ventrals | Caudals sates 2 ale Aa

6757 ot 206 68 + 17-15 8-8 Contact

6757 Q 204 U0 17-15 8-9 Contact

30424 Q 192 5) 17-15 8-8 Contact

12687 Q 199 Gt | 17-15 8-8 Contact

46464 Q 200M | 70 17-15 8-8 Contact

79960 Q PAQuE | 75 17-15 8-8 Contact

110865 Q 195 wl 17-15 8-8 Contact

14556 Q 200 52 ++ 17-15 8-8 Contact

Remarks.—Almost certainly this form intergrades with melanocercus in

southern Nicaragua or northern Costa Rica. The Managua, Nicaragua, para-

type is fairly typical, however. North of Nicaragua the two forms do not in-

tergrade, as they are separated by continuous, high ranges of mountains

except toward the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Here they do not intergrade,

either, as typical wnzcolor occurs at La Esperanza, Chiapas, with melanocer-

cus-rubidus intergrades. An ecological segregation of the two types at La

Esperanza is indicated. The single intergrade secured there (No. 110874) as

well as two intergrades from Tonala, Chiapas (Nos. 110875-6) were found

in the forested hills, while the two unzcolor collected near La Esperanza were

found on the coastal plain. Presumably the latter subspecies occurs still

farther north in the same habitat. Unfortunately no specimens are known

from the coastal plain between the vicinity of Tehuantepec and La Espe-

ranza.

472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

The rubidus-melanocercus intergrades are further discussed in the descrip-

tion of the former subspecies.

Drymarchon corais corais (Boie)

Coluber corazs Boie, Isis, 1827, p. 537; Schlegel, Essai Phys. Serp. 2: 139-141,

plo oy fest OS ORS 3:

Geoptyas flaviventris Steindachner, Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien 55: 271, pl. 4,

figs. 4-7. 1867 (Matogrosso, Cuyaba und dem Rio Vaupe).

Spilotes corais suborbitalis Peters, Monatsb. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., Berlin,

1868: 641 (Caracas, Venezuela).

Spilotes corais xanthurus Brown, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1893:

433 (type locality unknown; not Veracruz, as suggested).

Drymarchon corais corais Amaral, Mem. Inst. Butantan 4: 325-827, pl.

1929.?

Type locality.— America.

Diagnosis.—Adults dark anteriorly, light posteriorly on back; belly and

subcaudal surface white, except edges (lateral); young no darker anteriorly

' TABLE 2.—ScALE COUNTS IN CORAIS

Number Sex Ventrals | Caudals | Scale rows Supra Antepea ay imate

5579 Q 208 UP 17-15 8-8 Contact

5579 Q 209 75 17-15 8-8 Contact

11309 Q 210 a 17-15 8-8 Contact

12535 of 205 83 17-15 8-8 Contact

15233 fot 202 80 17-15 8-8 Contact

60660 Cues — COR as 8-8 Contact

60749 fot 206 82 17-15 8-8 Contact

66871 Q 210 74 17-14 8-8 Contact

84523 Oh es B05 74 17-15 8-8 Contact

than posteriorly, but with more or less chevron-shaped, broad, light bands,

not interrupted and covering about two scale lengths; supraocular labials

not distinctively black-edged (see below) in young or adult. Ventrals 190 (?)

to 217 (males 190 to 210, females 205 to 217); caudals 72 to 84 (72 to 84 in

males, 72 to 78 in females) ; total counts 272 to 292 (males 272 to 292, females

278 to 291). Antepenultimate labial in contact with temporals or postoculars

or both; scale rows posteriorly usually 15.

Range.—‘Northern Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, tropical Brazil, eastern

Ecuador and Peru, the Guianas, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago”’ (Amaral,

loc. cul.)

Specimens examined.—Ten, all in the National Museum: Nos. 5579A-B,

12535, 15233, Trinidad; nos. 60660, 60749, Santa Ana, Peru; nos. 66871,

Moengo, Surinam, Dutch Guiana; no. 84523, Pomeroon, 70 miles from

Georgetown, British Guiana; no. 11309, Brazil; no. 100756, Terenos, Matto

Grosso, Brasil.

Remarks.—The body coloration of adults of this form is not duplicated in

any other subspecies of the genus. Most distinctive is the white belly and

2 Phrynonax angulifer Werner, included by Amaral (op. cit., p. 325) in the synonymy

of corais, does not seem to belong to this genus. It is said to have 21 scale rows; 224

ventrals; fourth, fifth, and sixth labials in contact with the eye; and the nine median

scale rows keeled.

Nov. 15, 1941 SMITH: SUBSPECIES OF THE INDIGO SNAKE 473

subcaudal surface, combined with a light dorsal surface on tail and posterior

part of body. Also very strikingly different from other subspecies is the ab-

sence of distinctive dark marks on the poster’or edges of the subocular labials.

These are very characteristic of other subspecies (unless the whole top and

side of head is black), but in c. corazs are absent, although the edges of all

dorsal and lateral head scales may be black; or the whole top of the head

may be black, the color extending a little below the eye.

In addition to the data afforded by the 10 National Museum specimens,

ventral and caudal counts of 44 others, given by Amaral (loc. c7t.), have been

available for establishing the limits of variation in these two characters.

Drymarchon corais melanocercus nom. nov.

Spilotes melanurus Duméril and Bibron, Erp. Gén. 7: 224. 1854.

Geoptyas collaris Steindachner, Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien 55: 271, pl. 3, figs.

4—7 (Brazil). 1867.

Drymarchon corais melanurus Stejneger and Barbour (part), Check List N.

Amer. Amph. Rept., ed. 2: 94. 1923—-Amaral, Mem. Inst. Butantan 4:

325, 330 (part). 1929.

Type locality.‘ Mexico.”’

Diagnosis —Adults light brown anteriorly, dark (black) on posterior

fourth or fifth of body and on tail, both above and below; young generally a

little lighter anteriorly than posteriorly, the bands (where visible, usually to-

ward middle of body) similar to those of young c. corazs; black marks on sub-

ocular labials very sharply defined, rest of head very light; no black marks on

labials preceding orbit, nor on lateral gular scales; diagonal black mark on

each side of neck very well defined. Ventrals 191 to 214 (males 191 to 208,

females 197 to 214); caudals 71 to 88 (males 71 to 88, females 71 to 80); totals

262 to 296 (males 272 to 296, females 268 to 279). Antepenultimate labial in

contact with temporal or postocular or both; scale rows usually 15 poste-

riorly.

Range.—Pacific slopes of Peru and Ecuador; northern Colombia; Central

America north to northern Veracruz on the Atlantic side, to southern Nica-

ragua on the Pacific side.

Specimens examined.—Fourteen. One in the EHT-HMS collection (no.

11636) is from Mérida, Yucatan. The remainder, in the National Museum;

are from VERACRUZ: Mirador? (no. 25093). Cu1apas: Palenque (no. 110871);

Tapasco: Tenosique (no. 110870). YucatTANn: Chichen Itza (no. 46393);

Yucatan (no. 6554). GuaTEMALA (Petén): Pacomon (no. 71371); Piedras

Negras (nos. 110872-3). Costa Rica (no. 61947). PANAMA (no. 53629):

Washington Station (no. 8393). CoLompia: Cayo Papoyal, Bolivar Dist.

(no. 54838). Ecuapor (no. 14025).

Remarks.—This subspecies is remarkably well defined and uniform in

character of color pattern throughout its entire range from South America to

central Mexico. It presumably intergrades with wnicolor in southern Nica-

ragua; intergradation elsewhere with it seems impossible (see discussion of

latter). Intergradation with orzzabensis, rubidus, and erebennus is actually

demonstrated, however, by specimens now available (see discussions of each

form). :

In addition to the data afforded by the 14 specimens examined, ventral

and caudal counts of nine others, given by Amaral (loc. cit.), have been avail-

able. The ventral, caudal, and total counts of these specimens indicate that

two subspecies may be involved, although they do not seem separable on the

474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

basis of color characters. One population is represented by specimens from

Mexico and Petén, Guatemala, the other by specimens from Costa Rica

south. Unfortunately no material is available from the intermediate area.

The counts thus segregated are as follows:

Northern Southern

Males Females Males Females

Ventrals 191-202 [3] 197-202 [4] 203-208 [8] 204-214 [6]

Caudals 71-80 [2] 71-77 [4] 77-88 [8] 73-80 [5]

Total 262-278 [2] 268-279 [4] 280-296 [8] 279-294 [4]

More specimens will be necessary to demonstrate whether these apparent

differences are real. In each area there appears to be a general trend toward

higher counts to the south, lower counts to the north.

TABLE 3.—ScALE COUNTS IN MELANOCERCUS

Scale Supra- Antepe-

Number| Sex | Ventrals | Caudals Pp nultimate Locality

rows labials :

labial

25093 fof 191 71 17-15 — Contact Veracruz

11636 oO 198 80 17-15 8-8 Contact Yucatan

6554 Q 197 76+ 17-15 8-8 Contact Yucatan

46393 Q 200 17 17-15 8-8 Contact Yucatan

110871 of 202 71+ 17-15 8-8 Contact Chiapas

110870 Q 198 71 17-15 8-8 Contact Tabasco

110872 i 197 ace 17-15 8-8 Contact Petén

110873 Q 202 rial 17-14 8-8 Contact Petén

CUS Q 199 74 17-15 8-8 Contact Petén

61947 of 205 83 17-15 8-8 Contact Costa Rica

53629 Q 209 80 17-15 8-8 Contact Panam4

8393 of 203 83 17-15 8-8 Contact Panam4

54338 ? —- 80 —15 8-8 Contact Colombia

14025 Q 207 — Wa 15 8-8 Contact Ecuador

The name Spilotes melanurus Duméril and Bibron is not available for this

subspecies, since it was suppressed by Gray (Cat. Snakes Brit. Mus., 1858,

p. 97), who placed in the same genus (Spilotes) Coluber melanurus Schlegel

(1837). Gray recognized Spzlotes melanurus (Schlegel) and treated Duméril

and Bibron’s name as a variety (‘‘Var. 1’’) of Spilotes corats. The only other

name which has been applied to this subspecies (Geoptyas collaris Steindach-

ner) is also suppressed as a secondary homonym of Coluber collaris Ménétr.,

1832 (=Contia collaris), since Boulenger (Cat. Snakes Brit. Mus. 2: 31.

1894.) included Steindachner’s name in the synonymy of Coluber corais Bote.

Drymarchon corais rubidus subsp. nov.

Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 46430, female, from Rosario, Sinaloa, collected

by Nelson and Goldman.

Paratypes.—Twenty-one, including U.S.N.M. no. 46588, San Sebastian,

Jalisco; no. 24683, Maria Madre Island, Tres Marias Islands; no. 46538,

Acapulco, Guerrero; nos. 61948-9, Colima; no. 110877, San Diego, near

Tehuacan, Puebla; nos. 30425, 110878—84, vicinity of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca;

no. 110885, Ixtepec (San Gerénimo), Oaxaca. EHT-HMS no. 5405, Puente

de Ixtla, Morelos; no. 5400, Magdalena, Jalisco; nos. 5331, 5406, El Sabino,

Michoacan; no. 5591, Huajintlan, Guerrero; and no. 21514, ‘‘Guerrero.”’

Diagnosis.—Dorsal surface, including top of head, uniformly black in

Nov. 15, 1941 SMITH: SUBSPECIES OF THE INDIGO SNAKE 475

adults; extreme posterior portion of belly and subcaudal surface black; re-

mainder of belly salmon pink, except for lateral black marks; most of labials

black-edged posteriorly, the rest of labial area white or pink, sharply dif-

ferentiated from the black areas. Ventrals 190 to 203, caudals 69 to 78, totals

262 to 275. Antepenultimate labial in contact with temporal or postocular or

both; scale rows posteriorly usually 15.

Description of holotype.—Head scales normal; supralabials eight, the sixth

in contact with temporal; infralabials nine, five in contact with chin shields,

four with anterior chin shields; latter a little shorter and wider than posterior

chin shields; one preocular; two postoculars; temporals 2-2; ventrals 193;

anal entire; tail tip missing. Total length 973 mm, tail 151 mm (incomplete).

Nearly uniform black above, a little lighter posteriorly; sides of head, as

well as top, black, to below eye; posterior borders of all supralabials black,

remainder of labial area white, sharply differentiated from black borders;

scales in posterolateral gular area black-tipped. Ventral surface of tail and ex-

treme posterior portion of belly black; remainder of belly light, with a slight

reddish tinge, except for a black mark on the posterolateral edge of almost

every ventral.

Variation.—There is little variation in coloration in the twenty paratypes.

Larger specimens are quite uniform black above (type a little lighter poste-

riorly). Specimens in life have a distinctly salmon-colored belly.

TABLE 4.—ScALE COUNTS IN RUBIDUS

Number Sex Ventrals | Caudals | Seale rows SUE Eceren ate

ool Ct 198 76 17-15 8-8 Contact

5400 ot 190 a2 17-15 8-8 Contact

5405 Q 201 69 + 17-15 8-8 Contact

5406 ? — —— —- — Contact

5591 Q 194 70 17-15 8-8 Contact

21514 Q 197 — 17-15 8-8 Contact

24683 ot 203 82 17-15 8-8 Contact

30425 Q 194 73 17-15 8-8 Contact

46430 Q 193 = 17-15 8-8 Contact

46538 fof 197 UE 17-15 8-8 Contact

46588 ron 191 69+? | 17-15 8-8 Contact

61948 Ct 190 — 17-15 8-8 Contact

61949 re 198 oo 17-14 8-8 Contact

110877 of 196 ie 17-15 8-8 Contact

110878 of 191 Te 17-15 8-8 Contact

110879 of 197 US 17-15 8-8 Contact

110881 fot 192 76 17-15 8-8 Contact

110880 Q 195 67+ | 17-15 8-8 Contact

110882 Q 197 74 17-15 8-8 | Contact

110885 ot 192 U6) 17-15 8-8 Contact

110883 | Q 195 — 17-14 8-8 Contact

110884 CH OTe aa 7 fells: 8-8 Contact

In scutellation the series is uniform with the exception of the Tres Marias

Island specimen, which, like certain other snakes on the same Islands, dif-

fers from its mainland relatives by having a higher number of ventrals and

caudals. It is a male, with 203 ventrals and 82 (+?) caudals; the highest main-

land counts are 201 ventrals in a female (highest male count 198), and 78

caudals in a male. If further specimens from the islands consistently have

high counts, they should be recognizable as belonging to a different subspe-

cies.

476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

Remarks.—The uniformly dark dorsal coloration, white or pink labial

areas and high caudal count separate this subspecies from all others.

Seven specimens represent intergrades between rubsdus and melanocercus

They are from “Tehuantepec” (no. 61959); El Barrio, Oaxaca (no. 30526) ;

Santa Efigenia, Oaxaca (no. 46496); Tonala, Chiapas (nos. 110875-6); La

Esperanza, Chiapas (no. 110874); and Valley of Comitan, Chiapas (no.

46587). Three of these specimens—those from Tonala and La Esperanza—

are adults, and definitely are intermediate in character between rubidus and

melanocercus.

TABLE 5.—ScCALE COUNTS IN MELANOCERCUS-RUBIDUS INTERGRADES

Scale Supra- | Antepenultimate

Number Sex Ventrals | Caudals eet etme Alaa

30526 2 192 76 17-14 8-8 Contact

46496 Q 196 70 17-15 8-8 Contact

46587 Q 193 — 17-15 8-8 Contact

61959 oO 199 73 17-15 8-8 Contact

110874 Q 202 79 17-15 8-8 Contact

110875 Q 193 3+ 17-15 8-8 Contact

110876 ot 193 71 17-15 8-8 Contact

They are distinctly lighter anteriorly than posteriorly (not so light as in

melanocercus) ; the tail is jet black; the labial marks are less numerous than in

rubidus, restricted to the subocular and postocular labials (as in melanocer-

cus); the light areas of the lips are dull brown (not white as in rubzdus) ; the

posterolateral gular scales have slightly darker tips; and the belly is little

marked with black anteriorly (as in melanocercus). These characters are defi-

nitely intermediate between those of rubzdus and melanocercus, and cannot

be construed as indicating intergradation between either one of these and

unicolor. In fact, that such intergradation does not occur is indicated by the

existence of rubidus-melanocercus intergrades at La Esperanza with typical

unicolor.

The other four specimens unfortunately are juveniles, and accordingly

cannot definitely be assigned to the category in which they are here placed as

rubidus-melanocercus intergrades. They are tentatively referred to this cate-

gory because of an apparent combination in them of the characters of the two

forms, and because of geographic probability. One of them with indefinite

locality (‘““Tehuantepec’’) has the tail little darker than the rest of the body,

and distinctly mottled and banded; the whole body is a little lighter than in

the others. This may be a juvenile wnicolor, although the distinct lateral

black marks on the belly do not so indicate. It furthermore may represent an

intergrade between unicolor and rubidus (rubidus-melanocercus), but in view

of other evidence that such intergradation does not occur, it is not well to

draw conclusions upon the basis of this juvenile in which adult features are

not evidenced. | :

The other three specimens appear to be typical intergrades (as character-

ized by the adults), with the exception that about half the ventrals have a

black lateral streak, as typical of adult ruwbidus. The same marks, however,

are indicated in-the adult rubidus-melanocercus intergrades, although poorly

defined. Presumably sharp definition of them is a juvenile characteristic in

the intergrades; in typical rubidus they are sharply defined in the largest

adults as well.

Nov. 15, 1941 SMITH: SUBSPECIES OF THE INDIGO SNAKE 477

Drymarchon corais orizabensis (Dugés)

Morenoa orizabensis Dugés, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1905: 517-518, fig. 77.

Type locality —Orizaba, Veracruz.

Diagnosis.—Adults entirely black above; most of sides of head black; an-

terior portion of belly heavily pigmented, less than half anterior third light;

remainder of ventral surface black; light areas on belly white or cream, not

pink; ventrals 186 to 201, caudals 71 to 78. Antepenultimate labial in con-

tact with temporal or postocular or both (rarely not); scale rows rarely re-

duced to 14 in front of anus.

Range.—Atlantic slopes from near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec about to

Mirador, Veracruz. Perhaps restricted to the foothills.

Specimens examined.—F ive typical specimens were examined: the type, in

the museum at Guanajuato, Mexico; U.S.N.M. no. 110886 and EHT-HMS

nos. 5368, 5592-8, all from Potrero Viejo, Veracruz; and U.S.N.M. no. 24999,

Mirador, Veracruz.

Remarks.—The type is a juvenile; its association with the very black

adults from the same area is prompted for geographic reasons. The form is

most nearly like rubzdus, from which it differs in having the belly almost en-

tirely black (much as in couperz), and the light ventral areas not red but

white or cream. Its similarity to rubidus does not necessarily mean that it is

more Closely related to that form than to any other. There is evidence that

the two are of independent origin.

TABLE 6.—ScALE COUNTS IN ORIZABENSIS

Scale Supra- | Antepenultimate

Number Sex Ventrals | Caudals ae ane tale inal

5368 Q 201 Cl 17-15 8-8 Contact

5592 of 192 64+ 17-15 8-8 Contact

5593 of 186 71 17-15 8-8 Contact

24999 ? 195 — — 8-8 Contact

110886 of 193 76 17-15 8-8 Contact

Type of 199 78 17-15 7-8 Contact

Intergradation between melanocercus and orizabensis is demonstrated by a

series of four specimens bearing the locality data Mirador, Veracruz (nos.

25000-3). Two of these are adults; they have the head and the anterior half

of the body peculiarly mottled with jet black on a brown ground color; the

posterior third of the dorsum is entirely jet black, the tail black above and

below; most of the labials are black-edged. This condition is certainly inter-

mediate between that of melanocercus and orizabensis. The two young are

similar, except that light bands are evident on the anterior portion of the

body; the bands are broad, covering about two scale lengths, as in melano-

cercus.

It is to be noted that both typical orzzabenszs and typical melanocercus oc-

cur near this locality, if the data on two specimens, presumably from the

environs of Mirador, can be trusted (no. 25098, melanocercus; no. 24999, or7-

zabensis). Both these specimens are unquestionably identifiable, even though

one (melanocercus) is a juvenile.

Upon the evidence of these data, and also because an intergrade of melano-

cercus and erebennus is available from farther north, it appears reasonable

to assume that melanocercus is typically a plains species, while orzzabensis

must be restricted to the extensive area of forested foothills in central and

478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

southern Veracruz, from which all specimens with positively known locality

data have been taken.

TABLE 7.—ScCALE COUNTS IN ORIZABENSIS-MELANOCERCUS INTERGRADES

Number Sex Ventrals | Caudals Scale Supra- Antepenultimate

rows labials labial

25000 Q 199 — | 17-15 8-8 Contact

25001 of 196 74 17-15 8-8 Contact

25002 ot 190 WP 17-15 8-8 Contact

25003 Q 191 72 17-15 8-8 Contact

Drymarchon corais erebennus (Cope)

Georgia obsoleta Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., pp. 158-159. 1853.

Spilotes erebennus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1860: 342 (sub-

stitute name for Georgia obsoleta Baird and Girard); zdem, p. 564.

Coluber corais Boulenger (part), Cat. Snakes Brit. Mus. 2: 31, 1894. (sup-

presses Coluber obsoleta [Baird and Girard], as a homonym of Coluber

obsoletus Say, making available erebennus Cope).

Type locality —Eagle Pass, Texas.

Diagnosis.—Black above posteriorly, becoming spotted or banded on middle

TABLE 8.—ScCALE COUNTS IN EREBENNUS

Scale Supra- | Antepenultimate

Number Sex Ventrals | Caudals Fee Anolis inna

A656 of 189 63+? 17-14 8-8 Contact

1843 ot 189 61 17-14 8-8 Contact

1859 of 184 59 17-14 8-8 Contact

1862 ot — 55 17-14 8-8 Contact

1860 of 186 56+? 17-14 8-8 Contact

15675 Q 186 60 17-14 8-8 Contact

15872 Q 191 65+ 17-15 8-8 Contact

16142 ct 183 — 17-15 8-8 Contact

25200 of 186 65 17-15 8-8 Contact

26439 Q 193 57 17-14 8-8 Contact

32783 ot 183 — 17-14 8-8 Contact

37515 of 188 59 17-14 8-8 Contact

65165 of 186 55 17-14 8-8 1 side

82564 of 188 — 17-14 8-8 1 side

105307 of 186 — 17-14 8-8 Contact

105308 of 183 — 17-14 8-8 Contact

110866 Q 192 —- 17-15 8-8 Contact

110867 of 192 — 17-14 8-8 Contact

110868 Q 188 62 17-14 8-8 Contact

110869 on 187 58 17-14 8-8 Contact

and anterior part of body in adults; subcaudals less than 68 (55 to 65); ante-

penultimate labial in contact with temporal or postocular or both; scale rows

near anus usually 14.

Range.—Central southern Texas south to extreme northern Veracruz and

central Hidalgo.?

3 The specimen from Tasquillo, Hidalgo, described by Martin del Campo (Anal.

Inst. Biol. Mex. 8: 264-265 1937) is obviously of this subspecies. Apparently the form

extends up the valleys of the Panuco river system, to which the Rio Tula that flows

by Tasquillo belongs. On maps the spot appears well within the plateau of Mexico.

Nov. 15, 1941 sMITH: SUBSPECIES OF THE INDIGO SNAKE 479

Specimens examined.—Twenty, from the following localities: Hipauco:

Km. 332, 5 kilometers south of Chapulhuacan (no. 110868). Veracruz: Tux-

pan (no. 25200). San Luis Porosi: Huichihuayan (no. 110869). TAMAULIPAS:

Hda. La Clementina, 4 miles west of Forlén (nos. 105307—-8, 110866-7;

EHT-HMS no. 15872); Matamoras (no. 1859). CoanurLa: Sabinas (no.

37515). Texas: Brownsville (nos. 1860, 32783); Lower Rio Grande (no.

1843) ; San Diego (no. 15675); Eagle Pass (no. 1862, type); Cameron County

(no. 65165); McAllen (no. 82564); Las Moras Springs, Kinney County (no.

26439); 29 miles north of Brownsville (Kans. Univ. no. 16142); no locality

(EHT no. A656).

Remarks.—This subspecies is well differentiated from all others, having a

unique character in usually possessing 14 scale rows near the anus; it differs

from all others except cowperz in having less than 68 caudals.

An intergrade between this subspecies and melanocercus is represented by

No. 46447 from Metlatoyuca, Puebla (extreme northeastern corner). The

coloration of the specimen is exactly typical of melanocercus, but the scutel-

lation is that of erebennus: scale rows 17-14; ventrals 186; caudals 63; supra-

labials 8-8; antepenultimate labial in contact with temporal; female.

TABLE 9.—ScALE COUNTS IN COUPERI

Scale Supra- | Antepenultimate

Number| Sex Ventrals | Caudals a facile ‘arbre

4457 of 185 66 17-15 7-8 Separated

4458 ? —- —— — 7-8 Separated

4504 Q 186 63 17-15 8-8 Separated

10379 of 186 67 17-15 8-8 Separated

10465 Q 195 64 17-15 8-8 Separated

10790 of 188 65 17-15 8-8 Separated

10824 Q 193 64 17-15 8-8 Separated

14842 of 187 66 17-15 7-8 Separated

18514 Cf 187 64 17-15 8-8 Separated

24605 Ci 187 65 17-15 8-8 Separated

26618 of 187 65 17-15 8-8 Separated

36481 Ci 186 67 17-15 8-8 Separated

37354 & — — — 8-8 Separated

38101 of 185 67 17-15 7-8 Separated

38153 i —- — — 7-8 Separated

38367 Q 193 63 17-15 8-8 Separated

38579 of 189 — 17-15 Ca Separated

38683 of 187 == 17-15 8-8 Separated

44187 of 187 — 17-15 (3 Separated

44519 ? — = = 7 Separated

61218 of 186 = 17-15 8-8 Separated

83317 of 187 67 17-15 8-8 Separated

85307 of 187 = 17-15 8-8 Separated

85308 of 189 64 17-15 8-8 Separated

85309 of 185 66 17-15 8-8 Separated

In color, the subspecies perhaps most easily confused with erebennus is

rubidus; the latter, however, has the back uniform black in adults, and is not

spotted anteriorly on dorsal surface; also, the light areas on the lips are white

or pink, sharply differentiated from the black (brown in erebennus).

Drymarchon corais couperi (Holbrook)

Coluber couperi Holbrook, N. Amer. Herp., ed. 2, 3: 75, pl. 16. 1842.

Drymarchon corais coupert Stejneger and Barbour, Check List N. Amer.

Amph. Rept., ed. 2, p. 93. 1923.

480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

Type locality —Dry pine hills south of Alatamaha, Ga.

Diagnosis.—Adults uniform black above and below, except gular region;

caudals less than 68; antepenultimate labial separated from temporal or

postocular by contact above it of adjacent labials; 15 scale rows in front of

anus.

Range.—South Carolina to Florida, westward to southern Louisiana

(Stejneger and Barbour).

Specimens examined.—Twenty-five. FLoripa: Silver Springs (Kans. Univ.

no. 18514); Lemon City (no. 38153); Kissimee River (no. 36481); West Palm

Beach (no. 37354); Gainesville (nos. 10465, 10790, 10824, 14842); Orlando

(nos. 26618, 83317); Norwalk ? (nos. 38367, 38683); Clearwater (no. 10379) ;

Pinecrest (nos. 85307-8) ; Canaveral (no. 44519); Miami (no. 85309); ‘‘Flor-

ida’”’ (nos. 44187, 24605, 38101, 38579, 61218). Groreia: Brunswick (no.

4504); Liberty County (nos. 4457-8).

Remarks.—The existence of a hiatus between the ranges of couperi and

erebennus makes questionable the status of these two as subspecies of the

same form. The eastern subspecies, however, is so obviously a derivative of

erebennus, and their characters in general are so similar, that their relationship

is probably best expressed as the name has been used in the past.

This subspecies is the most highly modified of the whole genus. It has a

completely evolved, terminal type of color pattern (all black, shared with

orizabensis), insofar as the trend toward complete melanism is concerned.

In addition it possesses three modifications in scutellation, while only one or

two modifications occur in other members of the genus: (1) Reduced caudals

(shared with erebennus); (2) antepenultimate labial separated from tempo-

rals and postoculars (unique, almost invariable); and (8) reduction of supra-

labials to 7 (unique, but in only 20 percent of the counts). Of course, there

are changes observable in ventral counts in the various forms of the genus,

but the trend in general is so gradual from north to south or vice versa that

no one form can be credited with the development of a unique amount or

type of variation in this character.

CONCLUSIONS

A number of problems made evident but not solved by the present

study may be listed:

1. The existence of other forms, particularly of types more melanis-

tic than corazs, is to be looked for in South America.

2. The question of intergradation between corais and melanocercus

in South America is still open. Theoretically there should be no inter-

gradation between them, although Amaral (ep. cit. p. 328) states that

‘“‘Certain examples from Colombia appear intermediate between corais

corais and corais melanurus.”’

3. The exact ranges of melanocercus and unicolor, and the areas of

intergradation between them, are yet to be determined.

4. The apparent lack of intergradation, and overlapping of ranges,

of unicolor and presumed intergrades between melanocercus and rubi-

dus in southern Chiapas, need verification.

5. There is some evidence that the presumed intergrades between

Nov. 15, 1941 CLARK: A NEW BRITTLE-STAR 481

rubidus and melanocercus may be recognizable as a different subspe-

cies, even though its characters undoubtedly have arisen through hy-

bridization between these two forms. Suggestive of this are two

specimens from Achotal, Veracruz, in Field Museum of Natural His-

tory: one is typical melanocercus, the other a typical melanocercus-

rubidus intergrade; both are adults.

6. The possible split of melanocercus into two subspecies should be

settled by examination of Honduras and Nicaragua specimens; it is

barely possible that unicolor extends completely across Nicaragua, in

which case an actual separation of a northern and southern population

of melanocercus is evident.

7. The exact range of orzzabensis is yet to be defined.

8. The apparent existence of melanocercus on the plains of Veracruz

north of the Isthmus, indicated by several intergrades between that

form and orizabensis and erebennus, should be verified.

9. The apparent hiatus between the ranges of erebennus and couperz

should be investigated. If these two forms are proved to be separated

from each other geographically, their rather sharply different mor-

phological and pattern characters suggest the possibility of consider-

ing couperz a distinct species.

ZOOLOGY .—A new brittle-star of the genus Ophiocomella from Can-

ton Island.1 Austin H. Cuarx, U. 8. National Museum.

The genus Ophiocomella was diagnosed in 1939 with the type species

O. caribbaea, a small 6-armed form that previously had been con-

sidered as the young of Ophiocoma pumila. The species assigned to

the genus were Ophiocomella caribbaea, sp. nov., O. parva (H. L.

Clark), O. schmitti, sp. nov., and O. clippertoni, sp. nov. (the last a

tentative name for specimens from Clipperton Island doubtfully re-

ferred to O. parva). The discovery of another species of this curious

genus is a matter of considerable interest.

Ophiocomella schultzi, sp. nov.

Description.—The disk is circular, not notched at the arm bases, slightly

elevated, 4.3 mm in diameter; the six rather slender arms are 17 mm long;

the arms are separated by about three times their basal width. The specimen

is sexually mature.

The aboral surface of the disk is covered with fine, overlapping, conspicu-

ously punctate scales. About one-quarter of these scales bear short roughened

cylindrical spinelets, which are about twice as high as thick with low-conical

or rounded tips. These are rather widely spaced, being usually two to four

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Received June 22, 1941.

482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

times their width apart. There are 50 to 60 of these to each square millimeter.

The radial shields are visible as small rounde plates between two and three

times as long (radially) as broad situated at the edge of the disk, one on

each side of the arm base. The edge of the disk is sharp. On the oral side the

interradial areas are covered with fine imbricating scales resembling those

on the aboral surface but without spinules, these not extending beyond the

sharpened edge of the aboral surface where they stop abruptly.

The upper arm plates are fan-shaped, in the earlier portion of the arm

about as long as broad. The distal border is approximately hemispherical,

somewhat flattened centrally, passing over into the straight lateral edges

which converge at an angle of 90°. The proximal angle is rather broadly

truncated by the overlapping of the preceding upper arm plate. In the distal

portion of the arms the side arm plates encroach more and more on the

dorsal surface and finally meet so that in the terminal portion of the arm the

upper arm plates, here much reduced in size, are separated by the broad

middorsal union of the side arm plates for as much as their own length.

The terminal portion of the arm becomes more or less moniliform.

The first side arm plate beyond the edge of the disk has four arm spines,

the second five, and those following four, the number falling to three near

the arm tip. The uppermost arm spine is about as long as two arm segments,

slender, tapering, somewhat flattened, and usually more or less swollen

basally and slightly bent distally. On the second arm comb beyond the disk

a similar but slightly smaller spine is inserted above the spine corresponding

to the uppermost spine on the other plates. The second spine is slightly

more slender and slightly shorter than the uppermost. The third spine is

about two-thirds the length of the second, tapers somewhat more rapidly,

and is slightly curved downward. The lowest spine is slightly more slender

than the third and shorter, about the length of an arm segment.

The under arm plates are at first about as long as broad, after about the

sixth becoming longer than broad. They are very slightly broader distally

than proximally with very broadly rounded distal angles, similarly rounded

proximal angles, and slightly concave sides.

The first tentacle pore has two tentacle scales, those following a single

rather broad distally pointed scale situated on the side arm plate.

The oral shields are longer than broad, the outer portion approximately

hemispherical, the lateral edges converging to a broadly rounded proximal

end.

The adoral plates are triangular, the slender produced inner apices ex-

tending downward along the sides of the oral shields so as almost or quite

to meet the apex of the other of the same pair.

The mouth papillae are four or five in number, well rounded, decreasing

in size and in relative width toward the apex of the jaws.

The color of the disk is pale greenish gray with a few rather large in-

definite spots of yellow brown; the arms are whitish with occasional indis-

tinct yellow brown blotches.

Locality.—Canton Island, lagoon; collected by Dr. Leonard P. Schultz on

April 28, 1939 (U.S.N.M. no. E.5919, type).

Remarks.—This new species is related to O. schmitti from which, however,

it is quite distinct. The spinules on the disk are finer, more numerous, and

much shorter; the upper arm plates are broader and more rounded with the

lateral edges making a greater angle with each other; the second side arm

plate beyond the disk carries an extra spine aborally; and the oral shields are

broader and more rounded.

Nov. 15, 1941 OBITUARIES 483

It seems to differ from O. parva (H. L. Clark) from Torres Strait in having

the radial shields visible and the granules on the disk more elongated, and

in having an extra arm spine on the second side arm plate beyond the disk.

In the original description O. parva is said to have a single tentacle scale, but

the figure shows two on at least two of the first tentacle pores.

@bituaries

Morton GITHENS Luioyn, distinguished engineer and chief of the Safety

Codes Section at the National Bureau of Standards since 1917, died April

26, 1941, at his home in Chevy Chase, Md., after a short illness. Born Sep-

tember 10, 1874, in Beverly, N. J., Dr. Lloyd was educated at the Central

Manual Training High School, Philadelphia, and at the University of Penn-

sylvania, recieving a bachelor of science degree there in 1896, a Ph.D. in

1900 and the E.E. degree in 1908. He also had studied at Harvard Univer-

sity and the Friedrich Wilhelms Universitat, Berlin. Dr. Lloyd was an

instructor in physics at the University of Pennsylvania from 1899 to 1902.

From the latter year to 1910 he had served as laboratory assistant, as-

sistant physicist, and associate physicist at the Bureau of Standards. He

was technical editor of the Electrical Review and Western Electrician, from

1910 to 1916.

During his professional career Dr. Lloyd made special investigations of

the effects of self induction and capacity in alternating-current circuits;

thermomagnetic and galvanomagnetic effects in bismuth and tellurium;

effects of wave form upon induction meters, core loss and ratio of trans-

formers and hysteresis; effects of phases of harmonics upon quality of

sound; measurement of hysteresis and eddy currents; magnetic hysteresis

in rotary field; regulation of public utilities, accident prevention; and light-

ning.

Dr. Lloyd took a prominent part in many national associations. He was a

fellow of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, a member of the

Washington Academy of Sciences, the American Association of Engineers,

United States National Committee of the International Commission of

Illumination, president of the International Association of Electrical In-

spectors, member of Franklin Institute, Federal Interdepartmental Safety

Council, Federal Accident Statisticians, American Association for Labor

Legislation, Philosophical Society of Washington, National Fire Protection

Association, National Safety Council, past president of the American Society

of Safety Engineers, Safety Code Correlating Committee of the American

Standards Association, and was an honorary member of the International

Municipal Signal Association. He was also a member of the Internation-

al Electrical Congress, St. Louis, 1904, and Turin, 1911; the International

Engineering Congress, San Francisco, 1915, and the International Congress

on Illumination, Saranac, N. Y., 1928.

He was elected a member of the honor research fraternity, Sigma Xi.

He received a medal from the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 1904, and

was the recipient of the Edward Longstreth Medal of the Franklin Institute,

1910. Dr. Lloyd was the author of numerous technical articles. His writings

have been published in bulletins of the Bureau of Standards, Electrical

Review and Western Electrician, Electrical World, Proceedings of the

A.I.E.E., Proceedings of the International Association of Municipal Elec-

484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 11

tricians, Journal of the Franklin Institute, Safety Engineering, and Pro-

ceedings of the International Association of Electrical Inspectors.

Dr. Lloyd belonged to All Souls Unitarian Church and was a past presi-

dent of the community association of section three, Chevy Chase, Md.

On June 20, 1907, Dr. Lloyd married Miss Ethel Tucker Maurer of Wash-

ington, D. C. He is survived by his widow, a daughter, and a son.

WitiiAM LasH Miuuer, C.B.E., professor emeritus at the University of

Toronto, died on September 1, 1940. He was born at Galt, Ontario, Canada,

on September 10, 1866. He attended the University of Toronto, where he

was granted an A.B. degree in 1887. He subsequently studied at the Univer-

sities of Berlin, G6ttingen, Munich, and Leipzig, and obtained the degree of

doctor of philosophy from the University of Munich in 1890. Professor

Miller was a member of the staff of the University of Toronto for 48 years.

After having served as fellow and demonstrator, he was appointed associate

professor of physical chemistry in 1900, professor in 1908, head of the de-

partment of chemistry in 1921, and was retired as professor emeritus in 1937.

In 1935 he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire.

Professor Miller made many important contributions to chemical thermo-

dynamics, especially in the field of electrochemistry. He was author of more

than 100 original publications, including several comprehensive mathe-

matical papers relating to the kinetics of surface reactions, diffusion, col-

loidal behavior, and electrochemical phenomena. His review of the Method

of Willard Gibbs in chemical thermodynamics, published in Chemical Reviews

for 1925, exemplifies his most obvious desire to serve his fellow chemists by

bringing to their attention the wealth of information to be derived by ap-

plication of the thermodynamic method. His contributions were not re-

stricted to physicochemical and mathematical investigations, but included

fundamental discoveries in other fields, among which may be mentioned the

isolation of inositol from Wilder’s bios, and the demonstration that inositol

is a growth factor for yeasts.

Professor Miller’s outstanding ability and wide interest in the develop-

ment of science brought him many honors and responsibilities in scientific

organizations. He served the Journal of Physical Chemistry as member of

the board of reviewers from 1896 to 1910 and as associate editor from 1910 to

1926. He was chairman of the chemistry section of the Association for the

Advancement of Science in 1913 and in 1923. An honorary member of the

American Chemical Society, he served as chairman of the section of physical

chemistry in 1906 and as associate editor of the Journal of the American

Chemical Society from 1913 to 1924. Professor Miller was one of the founders

of the Canadian section of the Society of Chemical Industry and served as

chairman in 1910. He was an honorary member of the Electrochemical

Society and was elected president in 1912. He was also a member of Franklin

Institute, an honorary member of the Electroplaters Association, Fellow of

the Royal Society of Canada, serving as president in 1935, a member of the

Canadian Institute of Chemistry, serving as president in 1926, and a member

of the British Association for the Advancement of Science which he served

as vice-president in 1924. He was elected to membership in the Washington

Academy of Sciences in October, 1903.

MATHEMATICS Intuitive ‘ands es

space: Geometric configurations. —

LONGTIN......-.... 0.02.25 ee

Hoant M. SMart.

‘ste ye

* corais).

‘Island. AUSTIN H. ‘CLARK. .

Path tee y ’ ie

-Decemper 15, 1941 No. 12

ve a? yn 84

¥ | ) |

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Custodian of Publications: Witt1am W. Dieut, U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry:

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 31 DECEMBER 15, 1941 No. 12

MATHEMATICS.—Intuttive and descriptive geometry of function

space: Tensors and bi-vectors.:| Bruck Lonatin, Department of

Chemistry, Illinois Institute of Technology, and MERLE RaAnN-

DALL, Department of Chemistry, University of California.

(Communicated by FrEpERIcK D. RossIn1.)

In the preceding papers? a graphical method of representing the

geometry of function space was developed. The method depended

principally upon a vector geometry. The present paper briefly dis-

cusses the geometrical representation of more complex multiple num-

bers.

BI-VECTORS

The representation of an ordinary real vector was made by subdivid-

ing an interval A into n equal parts; in the center of each interval an

ordinate was erected equal to the magnitude of one of the n compon-

ents. When any component is a complex number, (u;+7v;), it is rep-

resented by an Argand diagram, rather than by a single coordinate.

Hence, a bi-vector, u+7v, is to be represented by erecting the Argand

diagram for each component at the center of one of the subintervals

OA.

In Fig. 1 the bi-vector (2+78, 1—7, 2, 2) is shown. The four Argand

diagrams are arranged along the axis of indices with their real axes

vertical and their imaginary vertices horizontal. The real and imagi-

nary axes could have been interchanged. The particular choice was

made in order that the diagram may reduce directly to the simple

real vector diagram when the imaginary components vanish. As in the

simple case, the four points representing the four components are

joined by a single broken line to indicate that they belong to the same

bi-vector.

In the case of an infinite number of dimensions, the components

(u;+2v;) become in the limit values of the complex function, ¢(7) =

u(x)+ v(x). If the functions w(x) and v(x) are continuous, the con-

1 Clerical assistance of the Works Progress Administration is gratefully acknowl-

edged, O.P. 165-1-08-73. (Unit C-2.) Received July 22, 1941.

2 RANDALL and LoneTin. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 31: 421-481, 453-466. 1941.

3 LONGTIN and RANDALL. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 31: 441-453. 1941.

485

\oes

wees.

486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

necting broken line of Fig. 1 becomes the continuous space curve of

Fig. 2. The Argand vectors representing the individual components

of » then generate a helicordal surface terminated by the X axis and

this space curve. If the functions u(x) and v(x) are not continuous, the

space curve may be extremely discontinuous, consisting only of a

scattering of points.

Fig. 2.—An n-component bi-vector in function space.

With the use of this representation of a bi-vector, all the graphical

results obtained for real vectors may be repeated. It is necessary only

to give due consideration to the presence of the imaginary terms. For

example, the sum of two bi-vectors, 6+ 4, is a bi-vector, represented

by the function (¢(x2)+ W(x) = (ws(x%) tuy(x)) +2(04(a) +0,(a)). This

function is obtained graphically by adding the Argand vector of y(z)

to that of ¢(x) vectorially for each value of x. This single example is

sufficient to indicate the general plan of development.

AN ALTERNATIVE METHOD OF REPRESENTING BI-VECTORS

The Argand diagram by which the bi-vector, (u-++-7v), was repre-

sented in Figs. 1 and 2 might equally well be represented by plotting

u-components as in the upper part of Fig. 3 and the v-components in

the lower part of the diagram. It is to be understood that the lines for

the u- and v-components erected at the center of the several subinter-

vals of A must be considered as tied together by the restriction that

they are to be considered as being projections corresponding to the

plane of Fig. 1 at a given index 7.

Dec. 15, 1941 LONGTIN AND RANDALL: TENSORS AND BI-VECTORS 487

Thus, while all the propositions that we have given for real vectors

may be repeated for either the real component (upper half of Fig. 3)

or the imaginary component (lower half of Fig. 3) the arrangement of

coordinates chosen for the real component must be rigidly adherred

to for the imaginary component. We thus simultaneously apply all

the theorems previously developed but apply the restriction that any

particular arrangement of groups chosen for the one component must

also be used for the second or imaginary component of the figure.

A yp

ALL TDS. oh al

Fig. 3.— Alternative method of ctelag bi-vectors. (a) Real part;

(b) imaginary part of Argand diagram.

REPRESENTATION OF PHASE SPACE FOR 1” PARTICLES

In statistical mechanics, the concept of a phase space composed of

three positional and three momentum coordinates for each of n par-

ticles has proved useful. The coordinates of such a phase space may be

represented graphically by a method closely analogous to that used in

representing bi-vectors.

The phase coordinates to be represented are three position coor-

dinates, qi(x), g2(x), g3(x), and three momentum coordinates, p,(2),

p2(x), p3(x), of the x” particle, for n such particles. The coordinates of

each particle constitute the components of a 6-dimensional vector.

In 7-dimensional space, one might subdivide the X-axis into small

intervals, each assigned to a particular particle. At the center of each

488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

interval, one would then erect the 6-dimensional vector which repre-

sents the phase coordinates of that particular particle.

In practice, it is necessary to use projections of the 7-dimensional

figure. It is sufficient to use three solid diagrams, each corresponding

to one of the three dimensions of physical space. Each diagram would

be similar to Fig. 1 (or to Fig. 2 if the number of particles is infinite).

In the first, the coordinates qg:(2) and p,(x) would replace the real and

imaginary parts, respectively, of the bi-vector. The second and third

would represent, respectively, the pair of components q2(x), po(x), and

the pair q3(a), p3(2).

Q, = 1

coordinate of

x12 particle ee at

plait

momentum ISS [\ pes an!

coérdinate of ¥ AS

x particle

q, (x) = gh)

coérdinate of

xi! particle

eneen

coordinate of |

x2 particle

gy (x)= SE g

coordinate of

xth particle

P; (x) = 32

momentum {A

codrdinate of

xf particle

7a) i

Serial Number of Particle

Fig. 4.—A 6n diagram showing the coordinates and phase ‘components of a

highly improbable state of a system of n particles.

It is, of course, more convenient to use six plane views of the 7-

dimensional figure, as is done in Fig. 4. In each view, one of the coor-

dinates qi(x), g2(x), g3(x), pi(x), po(x) and p;(x), is plotted against the

variable x, which labels the particular particle to which the coordinate

belongs.

It is like a 3-dimensional Argand diagram that uses a 2-dimensional

vector for each component of the bi-vector. But here we need a 6-

dimensional vector for each particle. Each 6-dimensional vector might

be considered as one sextuple component of a sextuple vector in n-

space, as compared to the n double components of a bi-vector. By a

sextuple vector, we mean one having six sets of components, just as a

bi-vector has two sets of components (real and imaginary).

Dec. 15, 1941 LONGTIN AND RANDALL: TENSORS AND BI-VECTORS 489

Concerning the appearance of the phase space diagram, we can not

presume that the physical system has at the present instant a distri-

bution of coordinates and moments that corresponds to the statisti-

cally most probable distribution. Actually it may never have this dis-

tribution.

Any set of six curves that we might draw represents a possible con-

figuration of the system. The more regular curves represent quite im-

probable configurations, with unusually high total energy, but never-

theless possible configurations. The regularity of the curves necessarily

implies an orderly arrangement of the particles in space along some

smooth space-curve and some regularity in the distribution of mo-

menta.

On the other hand, if the momenta showed Maxwell-Boltzmann

distribution, each would follow a curve q;(a) = (In x)1/?/z, if arranged

monotonically. However, only one of the components at a time could

be so arranged. The rest would be randomly permuted arrangements

of the same function. Similarly, each of the coordinates, g;(a), would

be represented by a randomly permuted form of the function q;(x) =

b-+cx, in the absence of any special forces which favor other than

random spatial distributions of particles. A fuller discussion will be

given later.

TENSORS

A tensor of second rank in terms of the base vectors? e2° is

A @) = SS Atie;°e;°. (1)

Furthermore, it is invariant to a change in the base vector system.

Hence it must be expressed in terms of the reduced base vector system

as° :

Aw) = 2, A’e;e;’, (2)

7.9

where

Ai = Ati] (A/n). (3)

A tensor is sometimes represented graphically by the invariant

quadric surface, v-Ajw)-v=1, associated with it. This representation

may be extended to n dimensions, and is useful in visualizing the con-

cept of the ezgenvectors of a tensor. However, a more generally useful

representation may be obtained by considering the matrix, (A’*‘), of

the tensor Aw).

47 and j are here used merely as indices, not as (—1)#/?.

5 Cf. KowaLEwskI, G. Ueber Funktionenrdume, Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien 120

Gani LOL

490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

The matrix is customarily represented by subdividing a large square

into n? equal small squares, in each of which an appropriate com-

ponent, A’‘i, of the tensor is entered. The component A’*/ is entered

in the 2” row and 7” column of the large square. Fig. 5 is the repre-

sentation of a matrix associated with a 4-dimensional space. If we

Fig. 5.— Matrix of 2-rank and 4-order.

imagine that each of the small squares has associated with it the ap-

propriate base vector dyad e,’e,’, then Fig. 5 is a representation of

the tensor.

Fig. 6.—The proposed representation of the matrix of Fig. 5.

In analogy to the representation of a vector, the matrix representa-

tion may be made completely geometric. In Fig. 6 an ordinate has

been erected at the center of each of the squares of Fig. 5. The ordi-

nate erected in any particular square is numerically equal to the value

A’‘i associated with that square in Fig. 5. In order to tie together all

the points in the diagram of a single tensor, we may construct a

tightly stretched surface (e.g., the surface of least area) between these

Dec. 15, 1941 LONGTIN AND RANDALL: TENSORS AND BI-VECTORS 491

points. This surface corresponds to the broken line used in the repre-

sentation of a vector.

As the number, n, of dimensions of the space is increased, the square

of constant dimensions AXA is subdivided into smaller and smaller

squares of dimensions (A/n)xX(A/n). In the limit the component

A’*‘ is found in a square whose center has the coordinates (a+7A/n)

and (b+ 7A/n), respectively. The infinite matrix (A’%) is, in the limit,

represented by a function A(z, y), in which x and y are the limits of

(a+7A/n) and (b+jA/n) and are defined only in the intervals

(a, a+A) and (b, b+A), respectively. The function A (x, y) may be con-

tinuous or so discontinuous that it is represented graphically by a

scattering of points rather than a continuous surface.

Fig. 7.—Representation of a matrix of 3-rank and 4-order.

A tensor, As), of third rank is an invariant linear form in the base

vector triads e;°e,;°e,-. Its matrix is of the form (A‘”*). Expressed in

terms of the reduced base vector system its matrix is (A’‘’*), where

A’*i* ig equal to A‘*(A/n)—*/2. The matrix may be represented by

dividing a cube into n? small equal cubes. Each number A’** is then

inscribed at the center of the appropriate cube (the 7” cube in the

jg row of the k” layer). The representation becomes more graphic if

each small cube is considered to have a mass density equal to the ap-

propriate value of A’‘**. Such a representation is shown in Fig. 7.

In the limit, as n increases, the matrix (A’‘/*) is represented by a

function A(z,y,z), which is the density at a point (v,y,z) within the

cube. If each elementary cube in the mass distribution is considered

to have a base vector triad e,’e,’e;’ associated with it, then the mass

distribution within the large cube represents the tensor A,3). The con-

cept that A.s) is represented by a function A(2,y,z) is readily general-

ized to tensors of higher rank,* but the geometrical picture can not

easily be carried further.

492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 12

TENSOR ADDITION

The sum of two tensors of the same rank is defined as a tensor,

Ce) = Ag + Ba);

Ci = Aa Be, o

—> X

Fig. 8.—Graphical addition of tensors of 2-rank, % -order.

In the limit the tensor C,2) is therefore represented by a function,

C(x, y) = A(z, y) + BC, y). (5)

If the tensors Aw) and Bw) are represented by two continuous surfaces,

then their sum, Ci), is represented by a continuous surface whose or-

dinates are sums of the corresponding ordinates of the surfaces rep-

resenting Aw) and Bw).

VECTOR-TENSOR DOT PRODUCT

The dot product A.) -v is defined in terms of the reduced base vector

system as the vector

0,9 i}

In the limit of a function space, this becomes

hee | [ 4@ otuddy |e. Oo

The transformed vector is represented in the function-space diagram

by the function

Me) = i AG vay. (8)

Dec. 15, 1941 LONGTIN AND RANDALL: TENSORS AND BI-VECTORS 493

In Fig. 9 the graphical construction is shown by which the trans-

formed vector may be obtained. For each value of x the tensor traces

out a plane curve A(%,y). The ordinates of this curve are each mul-

tiplied® by the corresponding ordinate of the curve v(y) and the area

under the resulting curve is taken as the x: component of the curve

UG).

Fig. 9.—A graphical construction for obtaining the dot product

of a «»-vector and a tensor of 2-rank, »-order.

An example of the use of a product of the form Aj) -v is to be found

in the calculation of the vapor pressure of a petroleum fraction from

its true boiling point assay. The vapor pressure of a pure hydrocarbon

is a function of the temperature 7’, and of the true boiling point 0

(i.e., is different for each hydrocarbon and is correlated with the true

boiling point of the hydrocarbon). It may be expressed as P(T,@).

Suppose the mol fraction of hydrocarbons whose true boiling points

lie in the range (6, @6+d6) is x(@)dé@ in a particular mixture. Then

Raoult’s law gives 2(6@)P(T, @)d6 as the vapor pressure of this particu-

lar group of hydrocarbons. The total vapor pressure of the mixture

is {x(@)P(T,6)d@. Hence the total vapor pressure may be expressed

as the vector tensor product, P-x, and is a function of the temperature

at which it is measured.

Function-space tensor operations in the form of equation 8, have

been studied extensively. Equation 8 defines the Fredholm transfor-

mation of v(y), which forms the basis of the Fredholm theory of inte-

gral equations.’ Having obtained the geometrical interpretation, we

need not carry the discussion further in detail. The large number of

analytical results obtained in the theory of Fredholm equations may

be easily given a geometrical interpretation in terms of this diagram.

6 See RANDALL and Lonetin. Ind. Eng. Chem., for graphical methods of carrying

out this multiplication. To be published.

7 FREDHOLM. Proc. Swedish Acad. 57. 1900; Acta Mathematica 27. 1903.

494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES

The transformation from one system of coordinate axes to a second

was expressed by equation 22 of the second paper of this series.’

Comparison of this equation with equation 7 shows that the transfor-

mation may be represented as a tensor operation,

v' = E’-y. (9)

The tensor E’ has as its components the quantities e,;’, each of which

is the magnitude of the reduced component of a new base vector

e,° in the direction of one of the original base vectors, e;. In function

space, the indices \ and 7 may be replaced by continuous variables

£ and xz, with the result that the tensor E’ is represented by the func-

tion e(&, x)’.

The use of tensors to represent the transformations of coordinates

is well known in the vector and tensor analysis of ordinary 3-space.

Delsarte® has shown that all euclidean transformations of coordinates

in function space are special cases of the Fredholm operator, which

is the most general form of the tensor operation. Thus the graphical

methods of representing and operating with tensors which are pre-

sented above may be used in all of the transformations which are

ordinarily necessary in obtaining auxiliary views of function space

figures. They thus play an important role in the descriptive geometry

of function space.

In the descriptive geometry of every-day experience, perspective

projections are often useful. They may be obtained by means of

what is known as a projective transformation of coordinates. The most

general transformation of this type 1s expressed by the equation

v'’ =E-(v—a)/[b+c-E(v — a)], (10)

in which b is a scalar, a and c are vectors, and E is a tensor, all being

constants.

If the constant b is zero, the transformation projects function space

onto a plane at a distance 1/|E-c| from the point of view. The point

of view is located at the end of the vector a, while the line of sight is

parallel to the vector c (G.e., the projection plane perpendicular to

c. If b were not zero, the same perspective view would be obtained by

taking an auxiliary view of the transformed diagram, parallel to the

vector c. The mathematical properties of such transformations in

function space have been studied by Dines.°

§ DeLSARTE. Compt. Rend. 186: 415, 1095. 1928; Ann. Fac. Sci. Toulouse [3]

20:47. 1928; Rend. Circ. Mat. Palermo 53:135. 1929.

® Dines, L. Iu. Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 20:45. 1919.

Dec. 15, 1941 SPICER: GEOTHERMAL GRADIENTS 495

SUMMARY

An ordinary function space vector is a quantity having a singly

infinite number of components. In addition to these, there are other

types in which the components naturally separate into a finite number

of sets such that corresponding to each component of a particular set

there is one and only one component in each of the other sets. Ex-

amples of this type are bi-vectors and phase-space coordinates. The

representation of any such composite vector is a generalization of the

method here presented for bi-vectors, which consist in constructing a

function space vector diagram for each set of components.

When the number of sets of components becomes infinite, the quan-

tity becomes the function-space equivalent of a matrix. A matrix is

represented by erecting an ordinate equal to the magnitude of the

matrix component at the center of each square in rectangular array

ordinarily used to represent the matrix. The representation of a func-

tion-space matrix is obtained by passing to the limit of an infinite

number of squares contained within a rectangle of fixed dimensions.

This results in representing the matrix by a function of two variables.

The tensor, which is a special type of matrix, is useful as an operator

in obtaining ordinary and perspective projections of function space

figures. It is, therefore, of particular importance in more advanced

studies of the descriptive geometry of function space.

GEOPH YSICS.—Geothermal gradient at Grass Valley, Calif.: A revi-

ston with a note on the flow of heat.1 H. Crcin Spicer, U. 8.

Geological Survey. (Communicated by R. C. WELLS.)

The results presented herein are offered primarily as a revision of

the computations that the writer made for W. D. Johnston, Jr.,? of

temperature measurements made in the mines near Grass Valley,

Calif. These results were also included in another recent publication.’

A cursory reading of the later paper indicated some discrepancies, and

in a subsequent study of the maps, text, and figure (fig. 1 of reference

2; fig. 8 of reference 3) the differences were located.

The 1,100 foot level of the Empire mine, altitude 2,200 feet, which

is located at an average depth of approximately 300 feet below the

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. 8. Geological Survey. Received

August 9, 1941.

2 Jounston, W. D., Jr. Geothermal gradient at Grass Valley, California. Journ.

Washington Acad. Sci. 22 (10): 267-271. 1932; Geothermal gradient of the Mother Lode

belt, California. Jone Washington Acad. Sci. 22 (14): 389-393. 1982.

3 JOHNSTON, W. Jr. The gold quartz veins of Grass Valley, California. Wea:

Geol. Survey Prof. ee 194: 21-22. 1940.

496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

surface was perhaps improperly chosen as the reference point for the

earlier computations. Plate 35, reference 3, contains an error of alti-

tude for the Empire 2,700 level; where the digits have been reversed

so that the elevation should read 1,527 feet instead of 1,257 feet. This

same level is designated the 2,200 at one place on the figure and is

inconsistent with the two other 2,700 figures that are correct. How-

ever, these typographical errors do not change the computed results

and are pointed out only in order that the altitudes, levels, and depths

will be consistent in the revised results. Two other large differences in

depth will be noted on comparing Table 1 of this paper with the

earlier results; namely, Empire 3,400 and North Star 8,700 levels.

Mine level altitudes supplied by W. D. Johnston, Jr., have taken the

place of former figures given for these observations. Other minor dif-

ferences between the depths in the two sets of results, have been dis-

regarded.

A mean altitude of the ground surface above the included mine

workings was obtained from the topographic map of the area,® and

this altitude was used as the reference point for the present computa-

tions. This change of reference to a point 292 feet above the earlier

TABLE 1.—TEMPERATURE GRADIENT AT THE EMPIRE-STAR MINE,

NeEvapba County, CaAtiF.!

305-972 feet | 305-3715 feet

Depth? Observed

Mine Altitude temperatures |Comp. Comp.

Mine level temp. Obs. temp. Obs.

minus minus

Feet Meters | Feet OF oF. OF \) COMP se rec anle

J Diooy ove kro sla wee ae eae 1100 +2195 93.0 305 | 12.4 | 54.4 | 54.2 SL) 2 | 54.6 —0.2

Pennsylvania? ...02-5-.. 1000 2052 136.6 448 | 12.9 | 55.3 | 55.1 | +0.2 | 55.4 —0.1

INews VOL Hall epee 600 1899 201.5 611 | 13.1 | 55.6 | 56.0 | —0.4 | 56.3 | —0.7

INort be Stare scree are 1900 1825 205.7 675 | 13.6 | 56.4 | 56.4 0.0 | 56.6 | —0.2

Pennsylvania........ eat 400 1780 219.5 720 | 13.5 | 56.3 | 56.6 | —0.3 | 56.8 | —0.5

Pennsylvanian sec tee ee 1700 1571 283 .2 929 | 14.3 | 57.7 | 57.8 | —O.1 | 57.9 —0.2

IES mip ine era oer 2700 1528 296.3 972 | 14.7 | 58.5 | 58.1 +0.4 | 58.2 | +0.3

EIMpirea we onser ar ees: 3000 1361 347.2 | 11389 | 15.3 | 59.5 | 59.0 | +0.5 | 59.0 | +0.5

Pennsylvaniavees: aa... 2100 1358 348.1 | 1142 | 15.1 | 59.1 | 59.0 | +0.1 |} 59.1 0.0

Rennsylvanianen.oe ce 2400 1238 384.7 | 1262 | 15.5 | 59.9 | 59.7 | 4+0.2 | 59.7 | +0.2

I MpInereuwes hee 3400 1174 404.2 | 1326 | 15.5 | 59.9 | 60.1 —0.2 | 60.0 | —0.1

SIM PING Me eRe ee oe 3800 965 467.9 | 1535 | 16.6 | 61.8 | 61.3 | +0.5 | 61.1 | +0.7

EM pILene eee eee 4200 L083 526.4 | 1727 | 17.2 | 62.9 | 62.4 | +0.5 | 62.1 | +0.8

DMO DITS seecsne ooo 4600 569 588.6 | 1931 | 17.4 | 63.3 | 638.6 | —0.3 | 63.2 | +0.1

ENING macea eee tes ee ele rece 5000 855 653.8 | 2145 | 17.9 | 64.3 | 64.8 | —0.5 | 64.3 0.0

I Mipineliyen eo ysosteuan reece 5400 + 98 732.1 | 2402 | 19.0 | 66.2 | 66.3 —0.1 | 65.7 +0.5

RIM pPIGe mek caciciaa ee caer: 5800 — 159 810.5 | 2659 | 19.5 | 67.1 | 67.7 —0.6 | 67.1 0.0

MpITete eee 6200 — 414 888.2 | 2914 | 20.2 | 68.3 | 69.2 —0.9 | 68.4 | —0.1

Ida brace poo eb Oe eae :| 7000 — 928 | 1044.9 | 3428 | 21.6 | 70.8 | 72.1 =—ilee) || boil —0.3

INO Neves 6b ala oo.0' Oa aE 8700 —1061 | 1085.4 | 3561 | 22.0 | 71.6 | 72.9 —1.3 | 71.8 | —0.2

INformd ay Sele, ogo boos 60 oF 9000 i Pay ae Payal eiAlsy || PPIECE I P4oas | Zeon! llc || 72@ —0.3

1 Observations made in 1930-31 by W. D. Johnston, Jr. 2

2 Depth below mean altitude of ground surface above mine workings. Mean altitude 2,500 feet.

Dec. 15, 1941

SPICER: GEOTHERMAL GRADIENTS

Constants by least squares?

305-972 feet

972-3715 feet

1931-2914 feet

a= 52.50 a= 53.65 a= 53.41

b= 0.00573 b= 0.00505 b= 0.00516

1/b =174.7 1/6 =198.2 1/6 =193.9

r=+0.21 r=+0.18 r=+0.19

Tq = £0.25 Ta = +£0.12 Tq = +0.58

rh = + 0.00036 ry = + 0.00005 7h = +0.00024

305-1931 feet

1931-3715 feet

2402-3428 feet

a= 52.46 soo @— Soe l4:

b= 0.00586 b= 0.00499 b= 0.00455

1/b =170.7 1/6 =200.4 1/b =220.0

r=+0.23 r==+0.13 r=+0.10

pS se Oo 1s Pr Sse Oo mil Tag = +0.36

rh = +0.00013 Th = + 0.00007 rp = +0.00013

305-2914 feet

972-1931 feet

2914-3715 feet

a= 52.82 a= 53.09 @— 53566

b= 0.00547 b= 0.00546 b= 0.00502

1/6 =182.9 1/6 =183.3 1/b =199.2

r=+0.25 p= se (0) 71 r=+0.07

fe = seo ile Ta = + 0).35 iin == aE) oats:

Th = 0.00008 rh = 0.00025 rh = +0.00011

305-3715 feet

1535-2402 feet

305-3428 feet4

a= 53.03 a= 54.38 a= 53.38

b= 0.00528 b= 0.00478 b =0.00518

1/b =189.5 1/6 =209.1 1/b =193.1

r=+0.26 p= ae()) Pet r=+0.26

Ta = £0.11 ra = £0.69 Ta = +0.18

rh = 0.00006 rb = +0.00035 rb = + 0.00009

3 OF. /ft. X 1.82269 =°C. /m.

4 Observations in Empire-Star only.

computations causes the largest variation between the constants in

the two computations. This change, however, places the reference

point at the mean surface of the ground; the usual place of reference

in earth temperature computations.

The same method was used to compute the constants in both in-

stances; namely, the adjustment of a set of observations to a straight

line by the method of least squares. The equation to be adjusted is

y=a+bx

in which

y =temperature at a point of observation.

a =computed annual mean temperature of the ground just be-

low the surface. |

b =geothermal gradient in degrees Fahrenheit per foot.

x =depth to an observed temperature.

498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

1/b =reciprocal geothermal gradient in feet per degree Fahrenheit.

ip = probable error of an observed temperature y of weight unity.

Tats = probable errors of the computed constants a and b.

The computations are summarized in Table 1.

The constants for some intervals not given in the previous paper

have been added to this table. A separate set of constants for the

observations made in the Empire mine were computed so that a

comparison could be made with the other results that contain obser-

vations in nearby or connected mine workings. By comparing the

gradient of the 305-3,715 foot interval, in which all of the observa-

tions were used, with the one for the 305-3,428 foot interval in the

Empire alone, the observations are shown to be very homogeneous,

and, therefore, the observed temperatures in close-by mines are be-

lieved to be definitely related to those in the Empire.

The observed annual mean temperature agrees closely with the

computed temperature just below the surface of the ground in these

results as well as in the previous ones. For the 305—972 foot interval,

the observed air temperature exceeds the soil temperature by 0.1° F.;

and for the 305-3,715 foot interval the excess of soil temperature is

0.4° F. The latter figure doubtless expresses the true soil temperature.

The value of a is the point of intersection between the computed tem-

perature line and the temperature axis, and reference to Fig. 1 shows

this relation. The observed annual mean temperatures at Nevada City

and Grass Valley have also been included in this figure and may be

compared to the computed results.

The revised depth—temperature relations retain the slight concavity

toward the depth axis as previously pointed out by Johnston.” The

values of the geothermal gradient b decrease with increasing depth,

and this is the indicator for a depth—temperature relation to be con-

cave toward the depth axis.

An additional point on the flow of heat toward the surface may be

of interest. All the observations were made in granodiorite, according

to Johnston,* except the New York Hill 600, Empire 1100, and the

North Star 1900, which were in porphyrite and diabase. The Empire

1100 observation was about 50-75 feet above the contact of the gran-

odiorite. Neither in situ or laboratory tests have been made on these

particular rocks, but results of the proper magnitude may be calcu-

lated from published figures of the thermal conductivity of similar

materials as well as from computed thermal conductivities of the

rocks of the area.

Some values of experimentally determined thermal conductivities

Dec. 15, 1941 SPICER: GEOTHERMAL GRADIENTS 499

(2) =305 - 972 feet

(6)= 972 - 37/5 feet

As}

Gross Valley, Cal.

TEMPERATURE - °F.

ALTITUDE

7) 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

DEPTH REET:

Fig. 1.—Depth-temperature relation, Empire—Star Mine, Grass Valley, Calif.

of rocks which are similar to those in the Grass Valley area are given

in Table 2.

TABLE 2.—E}XPERIMENTALLY DETERMINED VALUES OF THERMAL

CoNDUCTIVITY OF ASSOCIATED Rocks

Thermal conductivity

Material Authority

Range X 103) Mean X 103

Wranaseteiitiis sho) 22) | 5 .02—-5 .44 5 5 940) Birch and Clark!

Augite porphyrite.....

Hornblende porphyrite.| 2.77-8.57 4.84 Tadokoro?

Ronphyrites:... 6...

Quartz monzonite..... 7.56 Birch and Clark!

Guamiget ie oO) ex. 5 .60-8 .30 6.99 Birch and Clark!

mamivecny so... a. «ats 4.19-6.01 5.23 Tadokoro?

Granite porphyry...... | Hew Cees

Crremites 20). nr). | Sel Ingersoll and Zobel?, Nancarrow®

Granodiorite: 5... 5... | 6.2 Interpolated from Birch and

Clark! using granite and diabase

1 Bircu, F., and Cuark, H. Thermal conductivity of rocks and its dependence upon temperatures. Amer. Journ.

Sci. 238: 529-558, 613-635. 1940.

* TapoxKoro, Y. Determination of the thermal conductivity . . . of rocks. Téhoku Univ. Sci. Rep. 10: 339-410.

1921.

3 International critical tables. McGraw-Hill Co., New York City.

4 INGERSOLL, L. R., and Zossxt, O. J. Introduction to the mathematical theory of heat conduction. Ginn & Co.,

New York City. (Out of print.)

5 Nancarrow, H. A. Thermal conductivities of rocks. Proc. Phys. Soc. London 45: 447-467. 1933.

500. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

Taking 5X10 asa representative value for the conductivity of the

diabase and porphyrite, in which part of the observations were made,

and combining it with the gradient for the 305-972 foot interval, the

heat flow to the surface in the upper section is determined to be

5.21077 cal/em? sec. Using the conductivity 6X10-* and combin-

ing it with the gradient for the 1,931—3715 foot interval, the heat

flow in the lower granodiorite section is 5.5107" eal/em? sec. If the

TABLE 3.—COMPUTED VALUES OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF ASSOCIATED ROCKS

Thermal conductivity

Material Parallel arrangement | Series arrangement

of elements of elements

Dia ASes orcs Sec een or ie eet 0.0081 0.0061

Quartz porphynteris aa Pin ane ce Tas 0.0082 0.0059

Granodiorite. siege aes ae 0.0084 0.0057

gradient computed for the entire range is used in combination with the

conductivity 6X10-%, the heat flow is then 5.7X<10~-" cal/cm? sec.

The thermal conductivities for the parallel and series arrangement

of mineral elements of the associated rocks given in Table 3 are cal-

culated results. These theoretical values were obtained by calculating

the norms and/or modes of the rocks from the chemical analyses’

given in reference 3, grouping the constituents having similar thermal

properties and obtaining the conductivity of each group from the re-

sults given by Birch and Clark,> then substituting in the formulas for

computing the thermal conductivity of aggregates having either series

or parallel arrangement of mineral elements. The results for the series

arrangement of mineral elements are considered to be more nearly

representative and they also compare more favorably with the values

given in Table 2 for the experimental determinations on similar rocks.

The flow of heat determined from the rounded 6 X 10-? of the thermal

conductivity from Table 3 would be the same as that previously given

for the entire range of observations, namely, 5.710~’ cal/cm? sec.

The three constituent rocks of the area appear to have very little dif-

ference in thermal conductivity, and a rounded figure of 6107’

cal/cm? sec. will closely approximate the flow of heat to the surface.

However, as a probable upper limit for the flow of heat through the

entire section, the conductivity for the parallel arrangement in gran-

odiorite, 8.4 10-*, may be used with the gradient for the 305-3,715

4 Cross, W., Ippines, J. P., Prrsson, L. V., Wasnineton, H. 8S. Quantitative

classification of igneous rocks. Univ. Chicago Press. 1903.

5 Brrcu, F., and CuarKx, H. Thermal conductivity of rocks and its dependence upon

temperatures. Amer. Journ. Sci. 238: 529-558, 613-635. 1940.

Dec. 15, 1941 BLAKE: VERTEBRA OF PALAEOPHIS | 501

foot interval thus giving the result 8.1 <10-" cal/cm? sec. for the flow

of heat.

The figures obtained in these calculations of heat are low compared

to the results of Bullard and Krige in South Africa and Benfield® in

England. In South Africa the surface flow range obtained was

9.5—15.2X10-' cal/em? sec., mean 11.6+0.09 X 10—’ cal/cm? sec.; in

England, 6.8 —15.3 X 10-7 cal/cm? sec., mean 9.8+0.17 X 1077 cal/em?

sec. If the conductivities of the rocks were measured either in situ or

in the laboratory and found to be larger than those used in obtaining

the results just given the values of heat flow would of course be larger.

Over the potash-bearing area of New Mexico, Richardson and Wells’

obtained 45 cal/cm? yr. for the flow of heat to the surface through the

anhydrite and associated formations, or, converted to the units of

this paper, 14.4 10~-’ cal/cm? sec. The conductivity of the anhydrite

and other rock was assumed to be 12.3 x10-°.

The somewhat lower heat flow near the surface is probably related

to the larger infiltration of water near the surface.® In the first 1,000

feet of the Empire mine, about 670 gallons of water a minute are

pumped to the surface, and this flow of water could conceivably be

the main cuase of the lower temperature gradient and the slightly

smaller heat flow in the upper section of the mine.

PALEONTOLOGY .—WNote on a vertebra of Palaeophis from the Eo-

cene of Maryland. 8. F. Buaxn, Arlington, Va.

The comparative rarity of fossil remains of snakes makes it desir-

able to place on record a nearly perfect anterior thoracic vertebra of

Palaeophis which I collected in 1937 at the well-known Eocene locality

at Popes Creek, Charles County, Md. The vertebra was found in the

greensand at the very base of the cliff near its upper end, and is

therefore to be referred to Zone 17, Woodstock member, Nanjemoy

formation (the upper formation of the Pamunkey group). It is the

first specimen of this genus to be found in Maryland, and the most

nearly complete specimen so far found in this country.

The only Eocene snakes known from the east coast of the United

6 BuLLARD, E. C. Heat flow in South Africa. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, A173 (955):

474-502. 1939.

Kries, L. J. Bore-hole temperatures in the Transvaal and Orange Free State. Ibid.:

450-474.

BENFIELD, A. E. Terrestrial heat flow in Great Britain. Ibid.: 428-450.

7 RicHaRpson, L. T., and Weis, R. C. The heat of solution of some potash minerals.

Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 20: 248-248. 1981.

8 JoHnsTON, W. D., Jr. Op. cit.

1 Received August 9, 1941.

502 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

States, according to Gilmore’s monograph,’ are four species of Palae-

ophis. Three of these, P. littoralis Cope, P. halidanus Cope, and P.

grandis (Marsh), are known altogether from only about 6 thoracic

vertebrae from the Eocene greensands and marls of New Jersey

(Manasquan marl, Vincentown lime, and (probably) Shark River

marl). The fourth, P. virginianus Lynn, is known from two thoracic

vertebrae, one fairly complete, the other very imperfect, collected by

Dr. W. G. Lynn on the shore at Belvedere Beach, below the mouth of

Potomac Creek, King George County, Va., almost directly across the

Potomac River from Popes Creek. These specimens are ascribed to

the Aquia formation (the lower formation of the Pamunkey group),

which forms the bulk of the deposits at this place. Four additional

species of Palaeophis are described from the Eocene of England, and

one from the Eocene of Belgium. As is the case in most groups of

Fig. 1.—Palaeophis grandis (Marsh). Specimen from Popes Creek, Md.: A, lateral view;

B, posterior view; C, anterior view. Natural size. Drawn by Sydney Prentice.

fossils known chiefly or entirely from vertebrae, there is doubt

whether all the described species are actually distinct.

Gilmore temporarily retains the four described American species

of the genus but hints his suspicion that the characters employed in

his key are partly or wholly correlated with differences in position in

the vertebral column. The vertebrae of the three New Jersey species

are distinguished among themselves principally by differences in size,

obviously not a good basis for specific distinction when their relative

position in the backbone of a 15- or 20-foot snake is unknown, as is

also the stage of maturity of the individuals from which they came.

Palaeophis virginianus stands apart on at least two definite features,

its single hypapophysis and its much less extensive neural spine, but

these differences also might conceivably be due to differences in posi-

tion in the vertebral column.

I have been able, in company with Dr. G. G. Simpson, to compare

2 GiumorzE, C. W. Fossil snakes of North America. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 9:

4, 46-56. 1938:

Duc. 15, 1941 BLAKE: VERTEBRA OF PALAEOPHIS 503

the Maryland vertebra with two vertebrae in the American Museum

of Natural History, apparently all that now exist of the three on which

Palaeophis littoralis Cope was founded. One of these is the compara-

tively complete specimen figured by Cope, the other too imperfect to

be of any value for comparison. The Maryland specimen is about

twice the size of the better New Jersey one, but no structural differ-

ence of undoubted specific significance is evident. A single vertebra

(U.S.N.M. no. 11753) from Vincentown, N. J., referred by Gilmore to

P. littoralis, is so similar to the Maryland specimen that it is difficult

to imagine any specific difference, but it is distinctly smaller.

The single known vertebra of P. halidanus Cope, of which I have

seen only the illustration, is so fragmentary that satisfactory com-

parison is impossible, and Gilmore doubts that other specimens can

ever be identified with it. The single known vertebra of P. grandis

(Marsh), of which also I have seen only the figures given by Gilmore,

has the hypapophyses represented only by scars and is otherwise more

incomplete than the Maryland vertebra, as well as somewhat larger,

but on the whole agrees so well with my specimen that it seems per-

missible to refer the latter to it, at least provisionally. At the same

time, I wish to indorse the implicit suggestion in Gilmore’s monograph

that the three described species from New Jersey really represent only

one, although the Virginian species may be distinct. As regards the

New Jersey species, at any rate, whatever external or internal dis-

tinctive characters the snakes in question might have presented to a

contemporary zoologist, the differences observable in their preserved

remains are no greater than might be expected in different parts of

the vertebral column of a single specimen of such size (around 20

feet) as these animals are supposed to have attained.

I am indebted to C. W. Gilmore for assistance in the preparation

of this note, as well as for obtaining the services of Sydney Prentice

to make the drawings that illustrate it. The specimen has been placed

in the U. 8. National Museum (no. 15888). It measures: Div. Vert.

Paleont.).

Gkeatestuhe clita eats i) ty WON RS EES NOY SEU REAL LS Lech os Line era. Cee 33.8 mm

Wacdtheacross! prezyeapophyses). (ce 26 <p toc cade oles eet ek ces echelon 21.5 mm

Length of centrum (edge of glenoid cavity to end of condyle)........... 20.2 mm

eastawsa thy of centrume (near middle). .5 aac eee J ci ek 9.2 mm

Distance from top of zygosphene to lower margin of glenoid cavity...... 21.2 mm

Hee intgoleclenoid) Cawalliy: ta. kek late ea Leia. Ak ee eke geet 11.0 mm

Piidithroteglenordicavaity . qc Mes sk aoe ee eee. Sie ee Semana

nlete hCroiacondylepe ioe. k RN eae yals Uk Ac ia tae RIE Slide Se le ol, 10.5 mm

WiirdiGhroiscomdy lect cr. oe eee peg ee ee ee oe res Le 7/aaodwas

Distance between extremities of pre- and postzygapophyses............. 21.6 mm

Distance between extremities of right and left postzygapophyses........ 20.1 mm

PMerghtxofmeuralecanal inpirontss. 5444. eee ae 5.38 mm

Widthioteneuralicanallimifiront)..0.25 ee Cee a ee ee ek 8.7 mm

Createstywidth of zyeosphenes. 6.05 eee iin oes) eek 2 mm

504 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

BOTANY.—Three new species of Muhlenbergia.! CHARLOTTE O.

Gooppinc. (Communicated by Jason R. SwWALLEN.)

During recent study of the specimens at the United States National

Herbarium three new annual species of Muhlenbergia were found. One

species occurs only in Arizona, the second in Arizona, New Mexico,

Colorado, Texas, and Mexico, while the third is reported from Ari-

zona and Mexico. Invaluable assistance in the determination of ma-

terial and in the preparation of the manuscript was given by Jason R.

Swallen.

Muhlenbergia appressa C. O. Goodding, sp. nov.

Annua; culmi 10-40 cm longi, erecti vel decumbentes, ramosi, infra nodos

scabri vel hispiduli; vaginae striatae, firmae, marginibus membranaceis,

internodiis breviores; ligula 2-3 mm longa, hyalina, lacerata; laminae planae

vel plicatae, 1-4 cm longae, 1-2 mm latae, scabrae vel pubescentes; panicu-

lae 5-20 em longae, 0.5-1 cm latae, saepe parte inferiore inclusa, ramis

appressis paucifloris; spiculae 4.5-6 mm longae; glumae 1-2 mm longae,

obtusae, integrae vel erosae; lemma 4.5-6 mm longum, scabrum, ad basim

dense pilosum; arista 10-30 mm longa, scabra; palea acuminata, scabra, ad

basim pilosa; granum fusiforme, 2.6 mm longum. Vaginae inferiores re-

ductae, spiculis clandestinis; glumae obsoletae; lemma 3 mm longum, scab-

rum ad basim pilosum; arista 5 mm longa; granum 2 mm longum, ovatum.

Annual; culms erect to decumbent at the base, 10-40 cm long, much

branched below, striate, scabrous to hispidulous below the nodes; sheaths

shorter than the internodes, striate, scabrous, firm with membranaceous

margins sometimes auricled; ligule thin, lacerate, decurrent, 2-3 mm long;

blades flat or folded, scabrous or puberulent, 1-4 em long, 1-2 mm wide;

panicles numerous, as much as 20 cm long, 0.5-1 cm wide, green to purple,

very narrow, few-flowered, often included at the base, the branches and

pedicels closely appressed; spikelets slender, 4.5-6 mm long, the slender

pedicels 0.5-4 mm long; glumes 1-2 mm long or sometimes less, obtuse, en-

tire or erose, thin, pale, contrasting with the bright green scabrous nerve;

lemma 4.5-6 mm long, 3-nerved, scabrous above, densely pilose on the cal-

lus and margins at the base; awn 10-30 mm long, slender, flexuous, scabrous;

palea acuminate, scabrous, short pilose below; anthers 1.5—2 mm long, pur-

plish; grain fusiform, about 2.5 mm long. Cleistogamous spikelets common

in the lower reduced sheaths; glumes wanting; lemma about 3 mm long,

sparsely scabrous above, pilose on the callus and margins at the base; awn

about 5 mm long; grain 2 mm long, ovate.

This species is related to M. microsperma (DC.) Kunth, which differs in

having a more open panicle with more densely flowered ascending to spread-

ing branches, shorter ligule (1-2 mm long), and shorter lemma (2.5-3.5 mm

long or rarely less). :

Type.—Harrison & Kearney 1493 (U.S. National Herbarium no. 1296986),

Devils Canyon, Pinal or Gila County, Ariz., March 28, 1926.

Range.—Canyons and slopes of southern Arizona.

Specimens examined.—Devils Canyon, Peebles, Harrison & Kearney 5085;

mountains above Miami, L. N. Goodding in 1941; Camp Creek, Maricopa

County, L. N. Goodding 23-41; Pima Canyon, Griffiths & Shear 2628.

1 Received July 16, 1941.

Dec. 15, 1941 GooDDING: NEW SPECIES OF MUHLENBERGIA 905

Muhlenbergia brevis C. O. Goodding, sp. nov.

Annua; culmi graciles, erecti, 3-20 cm alti, caespitosi, ramosi, infra nodos

scabri vel hispiduli; vaginae compressae, carinatae, striatae, firmae, mar-

ginibus membranaceis, internodiis longiores; ligula 1-3 mm longa,hyalina,

lacerata; laminae planae vel involutae, 0.5-4 cm longae, 1-2 mm latae,

supra scabrae vel pubescentes, infra scabrae; paniculae 1-12 cm longae, ca.

0.5 em latae, saepe parte inferiore inclusa, ramis erectis usque ad 1 cm

longis; spiculae 4-5 mm longae; glumae scabrae, quam flosculus breviores;

gluma prima 1-38 mm longa, 2-nervia, minute vel profunde bifida; gluma

secunda 1.5-4 mm longa, l-nervia, acuminata vel setacea; lemma 4-5 mm

longum, 3—5—nervium, scabrum, ad basim sparse pubescens; arista 10-20

mm longa, scabra; palea 4-5 mm longa, acuminata, scabra.

Annual; culms erect, 3-20 cm tall, slender, tufted, much branched below,

scabrous to hispidulous below the nodes; sheaths compressed, keeled, striate,

firm with membranaceous margins, usually longer than the internodes, the

lower ones often spreading; ligule 1-8 mm (usually about 2 mm) long, thin,

lacerate, often auriculate; blades flat to involute, 0.5-4 em long (mostly 2-3

em), 1-2 mm wide, scabrous or puberulent above, scabrous below, with

white cartilaginous midrib and margins; panicles 1-12 cm long, less than

0.5 cm wide, often included at the base, rather densely flowered, pale green

tinged with purple, the branches erect, as much as 1 cm long; spikelets

slender, 4-5 mm long; glumes scabrous, variable, shorter than the floret;

first glume 1-3 mm long, 2-nerved, minutely to deeply bifid, the slender

teeth sometimes widely spreading; second glume 1.5-4 mm long (usually

2-3 mm), l-nerved, narrow, acuminate to setaceous; lemma lanceolate, 4—5

mm long, prominently 3-nerved (rarely 5-nerved), scabrous especially on

the nerves, sparsely to rather densely appressed pubescent between the

nerves toward the base; awn 10-20 mm (rarely less) long, slightly flexuous,

scabrous; palea 4-5 mm long, acuminate, scabrous; grain fusiform, 2.5 mm

long.

This species is closely related to M. depauperata Scribn., which differs in

having a shorter lemma (3-3.5 mm long) with a shorter awn (5-10 mm long

or less) and glumes about as long as the floret.

Type.—Metcalfe 671 (U. S. National Herbarium no. 495644), Mogollon

Mountains, on Mogollon Creek, Socorro County, N. Mex., September 8,

1903.

Range.—Open ground at higher elevations, Colorado and Texas to Ari-

zona, south to the Federal District, Mexico.

Specimens examined.—ARIzONA: Bowie, Jones in 1884. CoLorapo: Rio

Grande Forest, Conejos County, Kuizleb (U. 8. Forest Service 66111).

New Mexico: Black Range, L. N. Goodding M-271, L. N. & C. Goodding

M-877, Metcalfe 1362; Datil National Forest, Talbot 47; Mimbres Moun-

tains, L. N. & C. Goodding M-380 no locality given, Wright 2017. Trxas:

Mount Livermore, Hinckley 523. CHIHUAHUA: Sanchez, Hitchcock 7664.

DurANnGo: Sandia Station, Pringle 13634. San Luis Potosi: San Luis Potosi,

Schaffner in 1877 and 1879. FEpERAL District: Churubusco, Orcutt 4311.

Muhlenbergia pectinata C. O. Goodding, sp. nov.

Annua; culmi 10-25 cm longi, erecti vel decumbentes, ad nodos inferiores

radicantes, ramosi, graciles, glabri vel infra nodos scabri; vaginae inter-

nodiis longiores, striatae, in ore plusminusve pilosae, saepe marginibus

ciliatis; ligula hyalina, erosa vel ciliata, ca. 0.6 mm longa; laminae planae

506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 12

vel involutae, pubescentes vel pilosae, 1-6 cm longae, 1-2 mm latae; panicu-

lae 2-12 cm longae, ca. 0.5 cm latae, exsertae vel parte inferiore inclusa,

ramis 0.5-4 cm longis, appressis, ad basim floriferis; spiculae 3.5-4.5 mm

longae; glumae 1.5-3 mm longae, abrupte acutae vel acuminatae, aristatae;

lemma 3-5 nervium, nervis lateralibus scabris vel ciliatis, callo pubescente;

arista 10-30 mm longa, gracilis, flexuosa; palea acuminata lemma aequans.

Annual; culms 10-25 cm long, leafy, erect to decumbent, sometimes root-

ing at the lower nodes, slender to filiform, freely branching, glabrous to

scabrous below the nodes, angular, usually square in cross section; sheaths

commonly longer than the internodes, striate, more or less pilose at the

throat, the margins often ciliate; ligule thin, erose to ciliate, about 0.5 mm

long; blades flat to involute, divergent, pubescent to sparsely pilose, 1-6

em long, 1-2 mm wide; panicles numerous, very narrow, exserted or more

often included at the base, 2-12 cm. long, about 0.5 em wide, the branches

0.5-4 cm long, appressed, floriferous from the base or nearly so; spikelets

narrow, terete, 3.5-4.5 mm long; glumes equal or unequal, 1.5-2 mm or

sometimes 8 mm long, prominently l-nerved, scabrous on the nerve,

abruptly acute or acuminate, commonly aristate, the awn usually about

one-half the entire length; lemma prominently 3-nerved, with usually 2

intermediate nerves, scabrous to prominently ciliate on the lateral nerves,

the callus appressed pubescent; awn 10-80 mm long, slender, flexuous;

palea long-acuminate, as long as or slightly longer than the lemma.

This species is related to M. ciliata (H.B.K.) Kunth, which differs in

having spreading panicle branches and shorter lemmas (2—2.5 mm long),

shorter awns (8-12 mm long). It is also closely allied to M. tenella (H.B.K.)

Trin., which differs in having smaller spikelets (2-2.5 mm long).

Type.—Pringle 1745 (U.S. National Herbarium no. 995478), moist ledges

of the barranca near Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico, November 1, 1888.

Range.—Moist rocky hillsides of southern Arizona, south to Jalisco,

Mexico.

Specimens examined.—Arizona: Mule Mountains, Cochise County, L. N.

Goodding M-348, L. N. & C. Goodding M-406; Sycamore Canyon, Santa

Cruz County, L. N. Goodding M-318, M-375, A-9386. Sonora: Canyon de

Huépari, north of Aribabi, Harvey 1742. CurHuAaHuA: Batopilas, Palmer in

1885. DurANGo: Vicinity of Durango, Palmer 719 in 1896. JALisco: Chapala,

Holway 3479; Guadalajara, Palmer 404 and 481 in 1886; Tequila, Pringle

6395; Zapotlan, Hitchcock 7257.

PALEOBOTAN Y.—Pinus and Quercus in the Chesapeake Miocene.'

Epwarp W. Brrry, Johns Hopkins University.

In 1936 I described a pine cone from the Calvert Cliffs Miocene un-

der the name of Pinus collinsi,? naming it after the collector. Obvi-

ously the specimen furnished few features for a specific diagnosis, or

for useful comparisons with other described species, either recent or

fossil. I remarked on the apparent scarcity of land plants in these

shallow-water marine sediments. In the past few years detailed exami-

nation of these strata by Dr. R. E. Lee Collins and by Dr. Charles T.

1 Received June 30, 1940.

2 Torreya 36: 125, fig. 2. 1936.

Dec. 15, 1941 BERRY: PINUS AND QUERCUS IN THE MIOCENE 507

Berry has demonstrated that remains of land plants, although un-

common as might be expected, are not nearly so rare as had been

assumed, and incidentally, the same remark might be made of land

animals. It is the purpose of the present note to comment on some

additional occurrences.

Pinus collinsi Berry

These cones are in the same poor state of preservation and with the same

lack of specific characters as the type. Sometimes they are fairly complete.

At others they are badly broken up, or not much more than the macerated

cone axis is preserved. Superficially they all appear to belong to the single

species, but this is incapable of proof.

To date they have been collected from the following localities and hori-

zons: 1.7 miles south of Plumpoint, Zone 11 of Calvert formation (type); 14

miles south of Plumpoint, Zone 10 of Calvert formation; ¢ and 4 mile Sth

of Governors Run, Zone 14 of the Calvert formation; 2 miles south of Cove

Point, Calvert County, St. Marys formation. The foregoing are all in Mary-

land. In addition, similar cones have been found near the south end of Strat-

ford Cliffs (Nomini), Westmoreland County, Va., in the Calvert formation.

At the locality 15 miles south of Plumpoint, the cones are associated with

driftwood of Pinus and fragments of dicotyledonous leaves. Figs. 1 and 2

show the usual condition of these cones. The lignite to which they have been

altered is structureless, and if not treated before drying with gum arabic,

paraffin, or duco they disintegrate very rapidly.

Quercus sp.

Several acorns of some species of oak were collected in 1937 at Stratford

Cliffs, 1 mile below the mouth of Popes Creek, Westmoreland County, Va.,

by Charles T. Berry. They are about 1.5 cm in length by 1 cm in diameter

and afford no diagnostic features.

The following species of oaks, based upon leaves, were described in 1916

from near shore phases of the Calvert formation at Richmond, Va., and from

two localities in the District of Columbia near Washington’: Quercus cal-

vertonensis, Quercus chapmantfolia, and Quercus lehmani. The first was com-

pared with the modern Quercus alba, the second with Quercus chapmani, and

the third with Quercus emoryz. If any conclusion can be drawn from these

most similar living relatives, which is perhaps doubtful, the Miocene Quercus

chapmanifolia and Quercus lehmani should have had acorns smaller than the

present fossil. It would seem that Quercus calvertonensis, though a smaller-

leafed form than the existing Quercus alba, was the only one of the Miocene

species based on leaves with which the fossil acorn should be correlated, al-

though this is, of course, problematical.

The known Miocene flora of the middle Atlantic slope is one of cypress

3 BERRY, EpwarpD W., U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 98: 61—73, pls. 11, 12. 1916.

508 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

swamps, sand dunes, and beach ridges. Whether these ecological groups are

merely the normal reflection of the coastal zone in shallow marine sediments

or whether they are of wider climatic significance can not be determined from

present information. That there was less runoff from the land, or at least less

terriginous material in the water, thus permitting the accumulation of the

diatomaceous beds that are so prominent a feature of the earlier Miocene

sediments in this region, is certainly well established.

Fig. iL Mais collinsi Berry, from 14 miles south of Plumpoint, Md.

Fig. 2.—P. collinsi from south end of Stratford Cliffs, Va.

The known flora appears, as judged by present-day conditions, to be about

normal to the latitude. There is considerable evidence from the little that is

known about the Tertiary floras of the eastern United States that the Mio-

cene climate was somewhat cooler than that of the Eocene, and there is over-

whelming evidence in the fossil floras of other parts of the world, notably in

the Mississippi embayment, northern Europe, and the Arctic, that this was a

world-wide condition. There is also considerable evidence that the con-

temporaneous marine fauna of the Calvert is a cooler-water fauna than those

of the earlier Tertiary and also, although to a lesser degree, than those of the

later Tertiary.

Dec. 15, 1941 WILSON: NEW SPECIES OF DIAPTOMID COPEPODS 509

ZOOLOGY .—WNew species and distribution records of diaptomid cope-

pods from the Marsh collection in the United States National Mu-

seum.! MILDRED STRATTON WILSON. (Communicated by WAL-

po L. SCHMITT.)

This paper is based on the material concerning the genus Diapto-

mus that accumulated in the collection of Dr. C. Dwight Marsh fol-

lowing the publication of his paper on the distribution of the genus in

1929. His studies on other fresh-water calanoids were entirely included

in the posthumous paper published in 1933. There were found in the

collection, in addition to new distribution records, slides of two unde-

scribed species. Of these, the one from a collection made in Guatemala

is represented by several slides. The name D. amatitlanensis, given by

Dr. Marsh in his notes, is retained. The other species, from a collection

made in New Jersey, is named D. lighti for Prof. S. F. Light, of the

University of California. D. lighti is represented by a unique male

specimen, unfortunately incomplete as regards the right antennule.

Since the specimen shows no indication of abnormality and is dis-

tinctly different from other related diaptomids, it is being designated a

new species.

There was also found a mounted specimen of D. augustaensis Turn-

er, 1910, hitherto known only from the original collection. Since

Turner’s description was not complete, especially as regards the left

fifth leg and the modified right antennule of the male, it is redescribed

on the basis of the newly found specimen.

DISTRIBUTION RECORDS

Dr. Marsh included most of the known information about the dis-

tribution of Dzaptomus in his paper on the distribution of the genus

(1929). Later (1931) he published a paper on collections made in El

Salvador, which reported finding there D. marshi and D. sicilovdes.

Wright had also found D. siciloides in Lake Erie, and his material is a

part of the Marsh collection in the National Museum. Marsh men-

tioned (1931) that Bajkov also found D. siciloides in Lake Winnipego-

sis, Manitoba. Bajkov (1929) added further distribution records for

Manitoban lakes, as follows: D. ashlandi, D. leptopus, D. shoshone, D.

sicilis, and D. tenuicaudatus. Of these, a mounted specimen of D.

ashlandi is in the Marsh collection.

Unpublished records of collections made by or presented to Dr.

1 Received July 11, 1941.

510 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 12

Marsh follow. The notes concerning these collections are very brief,

and complete information is often lacking.

D. ashlandi Marsh: Klamath Lake, Klamath Falls, Oreg., collected by C. D. Marsh,

August 26, 1929.

D. augustaensis Turner: Chapel Hill, N. C., collected by R. E. Coker, May 1981.

D. bacillifer Kélbel: Tundra pond on east side of Lake Harbour, southern coast of

Baffin Land, collected by F. Johansen, August 23, 1927.

D. clavipes Schacht: Ada, Pontotoc County, southern Oklahoma, collected by J. G..

Mackin, contributed by S. Wright.

D. eisent Lilljeborg: Tundra ponds at Port Burwell and Wakeham Bek Hudson Strait,

collected by F. Johansen, 1927.

D. minutus Lilljeborg: White Lake, N. C., collected by R. E. Coker, first record of

occurrence south of Indiana (Marsh 1929); Newton, Mass., collected by C. B.

Wilson. Wilson (1932) has reported D. minutus from the Woods Hole region.

D. oregonensis Lilljeborg: Flathead Lake, Mont.

D. sanguineus Forbes; Ada, Pontotoc County, southern Oklahoma, collected by J. G.

Mackin, contributed by S. Wright.

D. sicilis Forbes: Flathead Lake, Mont., collected by R. T. Young, August 10, 1929;

Gabas road (?) near Midland, Oreg., collected by C. D. Marsh, August 27, 1929.

The most western location reported for D. silicis has been Yellowstone Park

(Marsh 1929).

SYSTEMATIC DISCUSSION

Diaptomus amatitlanensis, n. sp. Big, 1 a=d

Specimens examined.—Thirty-six mounted specimens, 17 female, 19 male,

Marsh slides 5402-5405 and 5409-5419. Collected by Chancey Juday in

Lake Amatitlan, Guatemala, February 5, 1910. Male holotype, U.S. N. M.

no. 79366, Marsh collection, slide 5409. %

Description.—Metasome convex in dorsal profile, tapering shghtly pos-

teriorly. Urosome relatively short, furcal setae short; furea ciliated on both

inner and outer margins. Antennules reaching to end of furca.

Female: Length about 1.4—1.5 mm, exclusive of furcal setae. Last segment

of metasome bearing a blunt dorsal tooth, variable in size; posterolateral

projections inconspicuous, rounded, bearing two spines; spine of dorsal side

minute, sharply pointed, that of lateral tip stout, somewhat curved. Spines

of genital segment of urosome stout and long; second segment shortened,

right side produced into prominent spine-like caudal process. Fifth legs:

Relatively slender, with long, stout basal spines. Third segment of exopodite

distinct, its spine twice the length of seta. Spine of second segment short;

claw almost as long as inner margin of first segment, nearly straight; outer

margin of claw bearing two slender teeth or none; inner margin with ten to

eighteen stout teeth on anterior surface. Endopodite half the length of inner

margin of first segment of exopodite, bearing two short setae, inserted sub-

apically and extending slightly below the tip, lateral seta one-third longer

than median; tip truncate, with a narrow asymmetrically placed groove

bordered by a line of slender hairs.

Male: Length about 1.25-1.4 mm, exclusive of furcal setae. Left anten-

nule with usual setal formula. Right antennule markedly swollen, major

spines on segments 10, 11, and 13; those on 10 and 11 slender, slightly

curved, length less than width of segments: spine on segment 11 about one-

Dec. 15, 1941 WILSON: NEW SPECIES OF DIAPTOMID COPEPODS 511

third longer than that on segment 10. Spine on segment 13 large, almost

twice as long as width of segment, broad at base, tapering, obliquely directed.

Segment 14 with conspicuous, obliquely directed spinous process arising at

proximal angle, and almost as long as spine on segment 13. Small, distally

directed spinous processes at mid-margin of segments 15 and 16. Processes

of segments 14, 15, 16 and depressed process of segment 17, accompanied

by modified setae, stiff, slender and blunt-ended. Process on antepenultimate

segment tapering, slightly outcurved, length less than that of penultimate

segment. Fifth legs: Relatively narrow, left leg reaching to slightly beyond

distal end of first segment of right exopodite. Basal spines long and stout.

Right leg: Basal segment about as long as wide, margins rounded. Second

basal segment much longer than wide, lateral hair at distal fourth; a some-

what diversified process ending in a rounded lobe projects transversely on

the distal posterior face. First segment of exopodite short, wider than long,

outer margin longer than inner, terminating in distally directed lobe; run-

ning across the posterior face of the segment from near outer to near inner

margin is a triangularly elongate ridge with its distal extremity narrowed; a

small rounded lamella projects from the distal border of the segment. Sec-

ond segment broad, length less than twice width; midway of the segment,

beginning at the medial margin, is a straight, obliquely directed ridge; lateral

spine near distal end, relatively slender, length less than width of segment,

distal half curved. Claw about as long as rest of leg excluding first basal

segment, strongly curved in distal half, inner margin finely denticulate.

Endopodite short and wide, reaching slightly beyond first segment of ex-

opodite, bearing laterally on inner margin (rarely on outer) a slender,

distally-directed seta; tip truncate, set with circular line of slender hairs.

Left leg: Basal segments subequal, longer than wide; lateral hair slightly in

front of distal third of second segment. Exopodite less than one-half length

of basipodite; first segment longer than second, pad large, bearing short

slender hairs. Processes of apical segment very small, the distal broad,

blunt, not set off sharply; the lateral spine-like, slender, tapering and curved;

proximal pad set with long slender hairs; distal pad extending nearly to tip

of distal process, set with coarse recumbent hairs. Endopodite narrow, reach-

ing slightly beyond first segment of exopodite; bearing laterally a slender

seta; tip with an asymmetrically curved line of slender hairs.

Taxonomic position.—Diaptomus amatitlanensis belongs to the subgenus

Mastigodiaptomus Light, 1940, and resembles the other included species, D.

albuquerquensis Herrick and D. purpureus Marsh in all the major sub-

generic characters. It is interesting that D. albuquerquensis appeared in the

same collection from which the type species of D. amatitlanensis has been

described (Juday, 1915).

D. amatitlanensis is seemingly most closely related to D. purpureus in that

the lateral spine of the right fifth leg of the male is short, while in D. albu-

querquensis it is comparatively much longer. The setae of the left leg of the

female are intermediate in length between those of D. albuquerquensis and

D. purpureus. It differs distinctly from both other species in the absence of

a hyaline lamella on the medial border of the second basal segment of the

male right leg and in the broad, bulging second segment of the exopodite of

the right leg of the male. |

Diaptomus lighti, n. sp. Bice)

Specimens examined.—Unique male holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 79368, Marsh

Fig. 1.—a-d, Diaptomus amatitlanensis, new species: a, Right antennule (male);

b, left fifth leg (male), anterior view; c, fifth pair of legs (male), posterior view; d,

fifth pair of legs (female). e-g, Diaptomus augustaensis: e, Right antennule (male);

f, fifth pair of legs (male), anterior view; g, left fifth leg (male), anterior view. h-j, Di-

aptomus lightt, new species: h, Fifth pair of legs (male), anterior view; 1, left fifth leg

(male), anterior view; Jj, proximal process of second segment of exopodite of left fifth leg

(male), inside,

Dec. 15, 1941 WILSON: NEW SPECIES OF DIAPTOMID COPEPODS 513

collection, slide 5355. Collected by Dr. C. D. Marsh in Big Timber Creek,

Gloucester, N. J., September 19, 1931.

Description.—Female unknown.

Male: Length 1.75 mm, exclusive of furcal setae. Urosome relatively long,

segments subequal in length, distal two abruptly narrowed. Antennules not

reaching to end of furca; left with usual setal formula, three on segment 2,

two each on segments 9, 11, and 22-24, five on segment 25, one on all others.

Right antennule missing beyond third segment, showing evidence of having

been broken prior to collection. Fifth legs: Elongated; left leg reaching to

slightly beyond distal end of first segment of right exopodite. Spines of first

basal segments short and slender. Right leg: Basal segment short and broad,

rounded on outer margin; inner margin with broad, distally directed, spine-

like lamella on distal posterior face. Second segment twice as long as broad;

inner margin rounded; outer margin incurved proximally; hair short, at

distal third of segment. First segment of exopodite subquadrate, straight-

sided, distal lateral corner ending in a rounded, distally directed lobe; next

to this lobe on the anterior face and overlying the next segment, is a longer

clawlike lamella, curving outward; at inner distal angle on the posterior

face is a small rounded lamella; running along the entire inner margin is a

hyaline lamella with widened, tonguelike free end, projecting beyond the

distal angle of the segment. Second segment about twice as long as broad,

outer margin convex; lateral spine slightly in front of distal third of seg-

ment, length more than half diameter of segment, somewhat curved; in

specimen described, the distal half of spine is bent in a right angle to the

proximal so extent of curvature cannot be determined. Claw longer than

the rest of exopodite. Endopodite short, not reaching distal end of first

segment of exopodite, acuminate, distal surface minutely setose. Left leg:

First basal segment subquadrate; inner face of second segment strongly

convex, longer than outer, exceeding width of segment; outer margin con-

cave, hair short, near distal end. Exopodite narrowed; first segment longer

than second, outer face longer than inner; pad set with short, fine hairs.

Second segment with inner face distinctly rounded; proximal pad with long

slender hairs, distal pad set with short spinelets; processes short, subequal,

digitiform; terminal distally directed, armed with inner marginal row of

short setae; lateral process directed somewhat obliquely, armed on distal

half of posterior inner face with rows of spinelets directed outward so that

the tips of the outer spinelets project beyond the proximal margin of the

process. Endopodite long, extending beyond middle of second segment of

exopodite, 2-segmented, distal end blunt, dentate.

Taxonomic position.—D. lighti clearly belongs to the subgenus Lepto-

diaptomus Light, 1938. The characters of the left exopodite of the male fifth

leg fit the diagnosis given for that group. It differs from any other member

of the group in the shape, size and attachment of the hyaline lamella on the

inner margin of the first segment of the right exopodite. This lamella, un-

doubtedly homologous with that in a similar position in many of the other

species of the group, most closely resembles that of D. signicauda. It differs

in being broader, less rounded distally, and in being attached only along

the margin of the segment. The species is not only considerably larger than

D. signicauda, but is large for the group as a whole. D. lighti is uniquely

distinguished by the distinct claw-like lamella on the anterior face of the

first segment of the right exopodite.

514 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

Diaptomus augustaensis Turner, 1910 Fig. 1, e-g

Specimens examined.—Unique male specimen, Marsh slide 5317. Collected

by R. E. Coker at Chapel Hill, N. C., May, 1931.

Description.—Male: Length approximately 2.5 mm (measurements based

on dissected specimen). Left antennule with usual setal formula. Segments

14-16 of right antennule markedly swollen, major spines on segments 10,

11, and 13 conspicuous, straight, longer than width of segments; that on 11

longest, almost twice length of that on segment 10; spine on segment 13.

widest, almost as long as that on segment 11. Large, distally directed

spinous process on distal third of segment 15. Process of antepenultimate

segment tapering, longer than penultimate segment. Fifth legs: Basal spines

short and stout. Right leg: First basal segment about as long as broad, mar-

gins rounded; large hyaline lamella on distal half of anterior inner surface,

broad at base, terminating in curved distally directed process. This process

partially overlies a hyaline lobe on the proximal inner margin of the second

segment. Inner margin of second segment longer than outer, lobe extended

as narrow hyaline border for two-thirds of its length. First segment of ex-

opodite narrowed distally, outer margin longer than inner. Length of second

segment more than twice width, outer margin concave; prominent spine at

proximal fourth of inner margin. Lateral spine close to distal end, stout,

slightly longer than width of segment. Claw longer than exopodite, strongly

curved, denticulate on inner margin. Endopodite slender, one-fourth longer

than first segment, inner margin setose in distal fourth, terminating in short

rounded process. Left leg: Basal segments subequal in length, wider than

long. Lateral hair at distal angle of second segment. First segment of ex-

_ opodite almost as long as wide, pad narrow with short, slender hairs; apical

segment longer than wide, terminal process short, digitiform; lateral process

a flat, broad, curving spine, armed on distal half of upper margin with short,

stiff setae; pads large, proximal set with long slender hairs, distal with rows

of conspicuous, heavy spinelets. Endopodite rudimentary.

Taxonomic position.—D. augustaensis clearly belongs to the subgenus

Hesperodiaptomus Light, 1938, as indicated by the flat, curving, spinelike

proximal process of the terminal segment of the left fifth leg of the male

and the distal location of the lateral spine of the second segment of the

exopodite of the right leg; the presence of a third segment in the exopodite

of the fifth leg of the female (Turner, 1910); and the long spinous process

on the antepenultimate segment of the right antennule of the male. It dif-

fers markedly from the other species of the subgenus in numerous particu-

lars, notably the relatively large blunt spine on the inner face of the second

segment of the exopodite of the right fifth leg of the male, the unusual

hyaline membranes of the first and second basal segments of the same leg,

and in the rudimentary endopodite. This endopodite may be variable in

character. A first glance at Turner’s drawing in the description of the type

makes it appear that the endopodite is longer than noted in the specimen

herein described, but if the drawing is reconstructed so that the endopodite

bears its proper relationship to the second basal segment, instead of arising

as it seems to as a part of the first basal segment, it would appear to be also

very much reduced. Turner’s description of the species refers to it as a

‘small, slender species,” but the specimen herein described is comparatively

large, as are many other species of the subgenus.

Dec. 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 515

LITERATURE CITED

Basxov, A. Biological conditions of Manitoban lakes. Contr. Canad. Biol. and Fisheries

5(12). 165-204. 1929.

Jupay, Cuancy. Limnological studies on some lakes in Central America. Trans. Wis-

consin Acad. Sci., Arts and Lett. 18(pt. 1): 214-250. 1915.

Lieut, S. F. New subgenera and species of diaptomid copepods from the inland waters of

California and Nevada. Univ. California Pub. Zool. 43(3): 67-78. 1938.

New American subgenera of Diaptomus Westwood (Copepoda, Calanoida). Trans.

Amer. Micr. Soc. 58(4): 473-484. 1939.

Marsa, C. D. Distribution and key of the North American copepods of the genus Diapto-

mus, with the description of a new species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 75(14): 1-27. 1929.

On a collection of Copepoda made in El Salvador by S. F. Hildebrand and Fred J.

Hee of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. Jour. Washington Acad. Sci. 21: 207-209.

931.

. Synopsis of the calanoid crustaceans, exclusive of the Diaptomidae, found in fresh

and brackish waters, chiefly in North America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 82(18):

1-58, 24 pls. 1933.

Turner, C. H. Ecological notes on the Cladocera and copepods of Augusta, Georgia, with

descriptions of new or little known species. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis 19: 151-176.

1910.

Witson, C. B. The copepods of the Woods Hole Region, Massachusetts. U. S. Nat. Mus.

Bull. 158, 635 pp., 41 pls. 1932.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

369TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 369th meeting of the Board of Managers was held in the Library of

the Cosmos Club on Friday, October 3, 1941. President Cuark called the

meeting to order at 8:05 p.m., with 14 persons present, as follows: A. H.

Ciark, F. D. Rossini, H. 8. Rappieye, J. H. Kempton, F. C. Kracex,

J. HE. Grar, F. H. H. Roperts, Jr., F. G. BRickweppe, H. B. Couns, JR.,

F. M. Serzumr, H. L. Curtis, L. W. Parr, C. L. Garner, and, by invitation,

R. J. SEEGER.

The minutes of the 368th meeting were read and approved.

The President announced the following appointments: R. J. SEEGER, to

be the Academy’s delegate to the 175th anniversary celebration of Rutgers

University, at New Brunswick, N. J., on October 9 to 11, 1941; C. L.

GARNER (chairman), R. E. Gipson, L. V. Jupson, W. C. LowpERMILK,

P. A. SmirH, and CHARLES THomM, to constitute the Committee on Meetings,

until May, 1942.

The Board considered and elected to membership one resident person.

The Committee to Publish the Directory for 1941, H. S. RappLrys and

F. D. Rossin, presented its report as follows:

In accordance with the action taken by the Board of Managers at its

meeting on March 14, 1941, the 1941 Directory of the Academy and its

Affiliated Societies was produced by the photolithographic process, in the

usual 6 by 9 inch size with a red cover, and with a new form of contents. In

the lists of members of the affiliated societies, the names of those persons

who are also members of the Academy are marked with an asterisk.

In the production of the 1941 Directory, the master pages of the copy in

its new form were typed by a private individual under special contract, in

order to provide for close contact with the work and to make possible

changes in copy at a minimum of cost. The job of planographing and printing

516 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

and binding was let to the A. L. Sauls Planograph Co., 909 E. Street, NW..,

Washington, D. C., the lowest of four bidders. The Directory was distributed

on September 1, 1941.

There occurred in the 1941 Directory two important errors which should

be guarded against in future editions. One of these was an error of omission

by the Committee and the other was an error of commission in the binding

of the book, as follows: (1) Page numbers were inadvertently omitted from

the contents page; (2) a number of the pages in the book are misaligned. To

compensate for the latter error, the A. L. Sauls Co. made an allowance of

$12 in the cost of producing the Directory.

The cost of producing 1,000 copies of the 1941 Directory for the Academy

was as follows:

Solicitation and preparation of the copy for the 19 affiliated soci-

(2) 1 (ot Ae eden aera Dn EIR METRO ENN eA I oc ooo 5c $ 16.29

Preparine, themmasten copy oy, ype... oan a ee eR 78.87

Proof-reading the master copy ..092".. 9... 42.2 eee 16.65

Planographing, printing, and binding......... $192.40 —

Less allowance for misalignments of pages... 12.00 180.40

Total. 7 eee 292.21

By arrangement with the printer, additional copies of the Directory, over

and above the 1,000 provided for the Academy, were prepared at a cost of

$9.36 per hundred, for distribution on prepublication order to the affiliated

societies at $10.00 per hundred, as follows:

Philosophical Society 275 copies $27.50

Botanical Society 1007 2 10.00

Institute of Radio Engineers 100 ” 10.00

Anthropological Society Sat 5.00

Total 525 ee 52.50

Cost to the Academy 49.14

Profit to the Academy on these 525 copies 3.36

The net cost to the Academy of the 1941 Directory is therefore $288.85,

and, since the Committee was allotted $350 for the 1941 Directory, there will

remain, when the accounts are settled, an unexpended balance of $61.15.

On the basis of its experience with the 1941 Directory, the Committee

wishes to recommend two changes for the next edition of the Directory:

(1) The booklet should be flat-stitched instead of saddle-stitched, even

though the cost will be somewhat greater. There are too many pages in the

Directory to make saddle-stitching satisfactory.

(2) The master pages should be prepared with the new, large character,

bold-face type now available on special typewriters for photolithographic

work, instead of with the type on ordinary typewriters. A sample of how

this special bold-face type would appear when reduced to the size used in

the 1941 Directory is attached in the form of a copy of page 41 of this Di-

rectory. The corresponding page from the 1941 Directory is attached for

comparison. i

The Committee also wishes to recommend that the Board of Managers

authorize the President to appoint a Committee to consider the following

questions with regard to future editions of the Directory:

Dec. 15, 1941 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY Hil

(1) Should the Directory be published annually instead of biennially?

(2) Should the affiliated societies be asked to contribute a nominal sum

to the cost of the Directory? For example, for those societies giving lists of

members, the assessment might be 14 or 2 cents per member, or perhaps $2

for each printed beyond the first.

(3) Should the duties of the Board of Editors be redefined to include all

publications of the Academy? This would bring the preparation of the Di-

rectory under their jurisdiction.

The Board accepted this report and authorized the appointment of a

Committee to Consider the Policy for Future Editions of the Directory.

The Secretary presented the following information concerning the mem-

bership: Deaths, 5; acceptances to membership, 7; qualified for membership,

9; retirements, 2. The status of the membership as of October 2, 1941, is as

follows:

Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total

restuemt) 2. 8... Se. 433 33 3 0 469

Nonresident ~.......: Sil 16 133 3 163

Total 564 49 16 3 632

The Treasurer reported that, in accordance with instructions from the

Executive Committee, the funds on deposit in a savings account with the

American Security and Trust Co. were placed on deposit in two accounts in

federally-insured savings and loan associations, as follows: $4,000 in the

First Savings and Loan Association, currently paying 3 percent interest, and

$4,500 in the Northwestern Savings and Loan Association, currently paying

34 percent interest. The following changes in investments were reported:

The principal amount, $4,000, of real-estate notes of the Ell and Kay In-

vestment Co., on apartment-house property at 5420 Connecticut Avenue,

will be paid to the Academy on October 15, 1941; the Butler real-estate

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$2,000, will, within 30 days of September 19, 1941, bring $1,200 (less com-

mission) to the Academy, as a result of the trustees for the note holders being

forced to dispose of the property at a loss; the Yetta Korman real-estate

notes, on apartment-house property at 7302-7310 Georgia Avenue, NW..,

having a face value of $1,000, are being extended 3 years to October 5, 1944,

with interest at 43 percent.

The Secretary read to the Board certain proposed amendments to the

bylaws, whose purpose is to (1) include in Article II, which lists the officers

of the Academy and indicates the manner of their selection, the manner of

selecting the Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications, and (2)

include in Article III, which gives the duties of these officers, a statement of

the duties of the Archivist and of the Board of Editors. At the present time,

the Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications has his duties de-

scribed in Article III, but there is no statement in Article II as tothe manner

of his selection. Contrariwise, the Archivist does not have his duties de-

scribed in Article III, but there is in Article IJ a statement as to the manner

of his selection. The duties of the Board of Editors are at present described

in the Standing Rules of the Board. The Board instructed the Secretary to

distribute copies of these amendments to each member of the Board, for

appropriate action at the next meeting.

The meeting adjourned at 9:25 p.m.

018 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, NO. 12

306TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 306th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on Thursday, October 16, 1941, with President

CLARK presiding. FRancis W. REICHELDERFER, Chief of the U. 8. Weather

Bureau, delivered an address entitled Some famous weather maps. In his

talk, Commander REICHELDERFER discussed the first weather maps, traced

the evolution of the modern weather map, and indicated the work involved

in its preparation, and showed, by map, the weather conditions holding at

the times of a number of noteworthy storms in this country. The importance

of air-mass analysis in the work of the Weather Bureau was briefly de-

scribed. ;

There were about 145 persons present. The meeting adjourned at 9:30

p.M. for a social hour.

370TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 370th meeting of the Board of Managers was held in the Library of

the Cosmos Club on Friday, November 7, 1941. President Cuarxk called the

meeting to order at 8:03 P.m., with 20 persons present, as follows: A. H.

Cuark, F. D. Rosstni, N. R. Smitu, W. W. Dieuu, J. H. Kempton, J. H.

Hisppen, F. C. Kracex, J. E. Grar, F. H. H. Roperts, Jr., F. G. Bricx-

WEDDE, H. B. Couuins, Jr., F. M. Serztper, R. M. Hann, A. WETMORE,

H. L. Curtis, J. R. Curistiz, L. W. Parr, C. L. Garner, and, by invita-

tion, R. J. SeecrER and G. A. Cooper.

The minutes of the 369th meeting were read and approved.

President CLARK announced the following appointments: Committee to

Consider the Policy for Future Editions of the Directory, H. L. Curtis

(chairman), F. C. Kracrex, L. W. Parr, and F. H. H. Roperts, Jr.

Chairman Kracexk of the Committee on Membership presented nomina-

tions for membership for 7 persons, 6 resident and 1 nonresident.

The Committee on Nominations, H. E. McComs, chairman, reported that

the following nominations for officers for 1942 had been made: For president,

Harvey L. Curtis; for Secretary, FREDERICK D. Rossinr; for Treasurer,

Howarp 8S. Rappieye; for Manager, to January, 1945, with two to be

elected, SipNEY F. Biaxr, Ropert F. Griccs, FRANK C. KRAcEK, and

Brn H. Nicouer.

The Secretary reported the following data relating to the membership:

Deaths, 1; acceptances to membership, 1; resignations, 2. The status of the

membership as of November 6, 1941, is as follows:

Regular Retired Honorary’ Patrons Total

Residemt=n ee eee 433 33 3 0 469

Nonresidents o.see 128 18 13 3 162

Ota | OV Na ee ae 561 51 16 3 631

The amendments to the bylaws previously circulated to the Board were

approved for submission to vote of the membership. The proposed amend-

ments are as follows:

Article II

(1) In the second sentence of Section 1, interchange ‘‘4”’ and “5,” and after “‘Man-

ager of Publications” insert ‘‘(see Section 6).”’

(2) Interchange the numbers and position of Sections 4 and 5.

Dec. 15, 1941 OBITUARIES 519

(3) Add the following new Section: ‘Section 6.—The Custodian and Subscription

Manager of Publications shall be appointed by the President for a period of three

years.” E

Article III

(1) Change the number of the present Section 4 to Section 6.

(2) As new Section 4, insert the following: ‘‘Section 4.—The Archivist shall main-

tain in good order all of the permanent records of the Academy. These shall include the

important records that have passed out of current use from the offices of the Secretary,

Treasurer, etc., and such other documents and material as the Board of Managers may

direct.”

(3) As new Section 5 insert what is now Rule 7 of the Standing Rules of the Board

of Managers: ‘‘Section 5.—The Board of Editors shall have charge of the Journal of

the Academy. The Senior Editor shall sign all contracts on behalf of the Journal. Asso-

ciate Editors shall be appointed by the President for a term of three years.”’

The meeting adjourned at 8:50 P.M.

307TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 307th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on Thursday, November 27, 1941, with President

CLARK presiding. MaTtrHEw W. Stiruine, Chief of the Bureau of American

Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution, assisted by Mrs. Strruine de-

livered an illustrated address entitled Treasure trove of Mexican archeology.

The lecture described pictorially the National Geographic Society—Smith-

sonian Institution Archaeological Expedition to southern Mexico during the

winter of 1940-41, which conducted excavations at the site of Cerro de las

Mesas on the Rio Blanco in the southern part of the state of Veracruz, on

the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and at the site of Izapa on the Mexican side of

the Guatemalan border near the town of Tapachula. Of considerable interest

was the report of the findings of the expedition, which included a cache of

782 jade objects and more than 30 stone monuments.

FREDERICK D. Rossin1, Secretary.

@bituaries

Hues McCormick Smitx died early in the morning of September 28,

1941, of an attack of coronary thrombosis after an illness of only a few hours.

He was 75 years of age, having been born on November 21, 1865, in Wash-

ington, D. C., son of Thomas Croggon and Cornelia Hazard Smith.

Smith began his natural-history studies when a small boy, owing largely

to his father’s interest in birds and other animals on his farm in Virginia.

He was the first president of the Natural History Society of Central High

School, D. C., from which he was graduated in 1884. In 1888 he was gradu-

ated in medicine, with a perfect record in all oral and written examinations,

from Georgetown University Medical School and was a member of its staff

from 1888 to 1905.

Dr. Smith’s interest in science was influenced and probably guided while

he was in high school-by Spencer F. Baird, who in 1884-85 gave him the

opportunity to work in the National Museum. He entered the service of the

United States Fish Commission under Baird in 1886 and during the next

six years had six promotions. He was co-special agent in charge of fisheries,

United States Census of 1890. From 1893 to 1897 he was assistant in charge

520 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

of statistics and methods of the fisheries, United States Fish Commission,

and during the next five years was assistant in charge, division of inquiry

respecting food-fishes and the fishing grounds.

From 1903 to 1913 Dr. Smith was deputy commissioner of the Bureau of

Fisheries, a position specially created by Congress, and from 1913 to 1922 he

was the Commissioner of Fisheries. In 1900 he was named to represent the

United States at the First International Fishery Congress, Paris; and again

in 1905 at the Third International Fishery Congress at Vienna. He was

secretary-general at the Fourth International Fishery Congress, Washing-

ton, in 1908.

Smith held several positions of honor, such as secretary, National Fishery

Congress, 1898; chairman, International Jury on Fish Culture, Louisiana

Purchase Exposition, 1904; expert adviser of the Food and Drugs Board and

of the Bureau of Chemistry in fishery cases arising under the Pure Food and

Drugs Act of 1906-18; expert special assistant of the United States

Counsel at the Arbitration of the North Atlantic Fisheries Dispute at The

Hague, 1910; United States Government representative of the International

Commission for Adjudication of Fishery Disputes with Canada and New-

foundland arising under the award of The Hague arbitration tribunal, 1910;

representative of the United States on the Permanent International Council

for the Exploration of the Sea, 1912; member of the research committee and

associate editor, National Geographic Society, 1909-19; commissioner on

behalf of the United States on International Fishery Commission for regula-

tion of fisheries in boundary waters of the United States and Canada, 1914.

He was also director of the Marine Biological Laboratory of the United

States Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass., 1901—02, and director of the

Albatross expedition for investigation of fisheries and aquatic resources of the

Philippine Islands, 1907-10.

From 1900 to 1934 he studied the AgTIELE resources and the fisheries, as

well as inspected methods of fish culture, some of the laboratories, biological

investigations, and fishery administrations, in 22 countries in Europe, South

America, and Asia. The extensive collections made by Dr. Smith in these

various lands and adjoining seas were given to various museums, but mostly

to the United States National Museum.

This great naturalist was a member of no less than 15 scientific societies

and contributed much to their advancement. He held the presidency for one

or more years of the American Fisheries Society, the Biological Society of

Washington, and the Cosmos Club of Washington, D. C. He was a fellow of

the American Association for the Advancement of Science and honorary

member of the following: Imperial Russian Society of Fish Culture and

Fisheries, Imperial and Royal Austrian Fishery Society, and the Salmon and

Trout Association of Great Britain and Ireland. In honor of his contributions

to science, four birds, two reptiles, one amphibian, nine fishes, three mol-

lusks, two. crustaceans, two insects, and three other forms have been named

for him. From 1898 to 1931 he was presented with seven honorary medals 1 in

recognition of his achievements and services.

Dr. Smith’s chief contributions to science were in the fields of ichthyology

and fisheries. In the latter field he spent 36 years with the United States

Fish Commission, publishing about one hundred papers on fishery science;

and a somewhat larger number on ichthyclogy have appeared under his

name, describing numerous new species, new genera, and families of fishes.

Among a total of about 300 published papers by him there is one or more in

nearly all fields of natural history. Since 1925 his published researches were

Dec. 15, 1941 OBITUARIES 521

largely on fishes and other animals from Siam, now Thailand, where from

1923 to 1935, as Adviser in Fisheries to his Siamese Majesty’s Government,

organizer of the Siamese fishery service and first director of the fishery

bureau, he had ample opportunity to collect and study the fauna of that

kingdom.

In addition to his official duties in Thailand he began collecting natural-

history specimens in his spare time and sending them to the United States

National Museum. In 1924 and again in 1926 he visited Koh Chang, a large

mountainous island lying off the southeastern coast. On the mainland he

covered all the territory fairly well from Patani in southern Peninsular Siam

to the northern boundary and the eastern, southeastern, and southwestern

parts of the country. Many of the localities were visited more than once and

some several times. Although his chief interest while in Thailand was fishes,

he sent 6,555 bird skins and bird skeletons to the United States National

Museum besides thousands of other natural-history specimens. His interest

in Siamese fishes was so great that upon his return to the United States in

1935 he began the most important scientific contribution of his life, “‘A

Monograph of the Fresh-water Fishes of Siam.” For the last six years this

monumental work, with about 300 illustrations planned, occupied all his time

in the division of fishes, United States National Museum, where he was asso-

ciate curator in zoology. Although his untimely death left the Siamese manu-

script not quite completed, it is being prepared for publication by one of his

colleagues.

The death of Dr. Smith was a great shock to his family and to his numer-

ous friends here and in many foreign countries. Through his death science

has lost one of its great men. His kind nature and willingness to help students

become established in their specialty made him dear to the hearts of many.

To honor this great man, his friends had prepared to issue in November,

1941, an anniversary number of Copeza (the journal of the American Society

of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists) on his 76th birthday, but much to the

disappointment of all, this issue was published on November 21, 1941, asa

memorial number. Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, in his tribute to Dr. Smith in

this memorial issue of Copeza, has excellently summarized Smith’s life:

“When Dr. Smith, in 1886, joined the U.S. Fish Commission the connec-

tion with the Smithsonian Institution, with Baird as the head of both, was

in many respects so close that it sometimes was difficult to draw the line

between them, and when in 1935 the Institution took Smith to its heart as

Associate Curator of Zoology, he was practically at home again. As U. 8.

Commissioner of Fisheries Dr. Smith was Baird’s worthiest successor, for he

possessed in rich measure the same mental and spiritual qualities that in-

spired in all his associates, high and low, the respect, faith, admiration and

love of which this note is only a feeble expression. In my heart two pictures

stand side by side, Spencer Fullerton Baird and Hugh McCormick Smith;

higher tribute I cannot conceive.”

On March 12, 1889, Dr. Smith married Emma Hanford. Their daughters

are Mrs. Edmund Vincent Cowdry, of St. Louis, and Mrs. Carl Harry

Claudy, Jr., of Washington.

Davipd Ives BUSHNELL, JR., who died on June 4, 1941, enjoyed a notable

career in American archaeology and ethnology. He was born in St. Louis,

Mo., on April 28, 1875, and his future interests were no doubt determined

in some measure by the fact that his father, a very successful business man,

was long connected with the Missouri Historical Society and president of

522 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

a local body of archaeologists that conducted investigations in and about

St. Louis. In the fall of 1899, during a canoe trip through northern Minne-

sota, young Bushnell witnessed a Chippewa ceremony and made some notes

regarding it afterward included in an article in the American Anthropologist.

The year following he accompanied Jacob V. Brower on an expedition to

explore mound groups and village sites along the shores of Mille Lac. He

kept a diary during this period the essential parts of which were incorporated

in a memoir bearing the joint names of the participants.

From 1901 to 1904 Bushnell was an assistant in archeology at the Peabody

Museum, Harvard University, made a study of aboriginal salt works at

Kimmswick, Mo., and completed a report on the great Cahokia mound

group. From 1904 to 1907 he was in Europe, visiting in particular England,

Switzerland, and Italy, where he made notes regarding a number of collec-

tions of American Indian objects in various museums and engaged in some

archeological work.

After his return to the United States he and his mother lived for a time at

Charlottesville, Va., but later they moved to Washington, and he became a

collaborator in the anthropological work of the Smithsonian Institution,

contributing five bulletins to the publications of the Bureau of American

Ethnology, thirteen papers to the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,

five to the Annual Reports, and one to the Proceedings of the National

Museum, besides making several minor contributions. He was instrumental

in obtaining a copy of the journal of Rudolph Friederich Kurz which was

edited by J. N. B. Hewitt and printed as Bulletin 115 of the Bureau of

American Ethnology. He contributed many papers to Man, the American

Anthropologist, the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, and vari-

ous other scientific and historical periodicals.

In the winter of 1908-09 Bushnell made a study of asmall group of Choctaw

Indians living on Bayou Lacomb, La., but nearly all his later work consisted

in archeological explorations in the neighborhood of Washington, though he

made some collections on the Cape Fear River, N. C., and in Florida. In

1921 he visited Scott Field, the flying field east of Belleville, Ill., to obtain

airplane pictures of the Cahokia mounds. The photographers were Lt.

Harold R. Wells and Lt. Ashley C. McKinley. He was particularly interested

in the soapstone quarries and projected a bulletin on the primitive salt in-

dustry of the American Indians, which he did not live to complete.

During all this time Bushnell was engaged in forming a collection of

paintings and sketches of Indian subjects by early artists, some of them al-

most unknown either to ethnologists or historians. He projected a large work

on artistic representations of Indians and Indian life in the period before

1875, but this undertaking also, for which he was supremely well prepared,

was unfortunately cut off by his death.

Bushnell was possessed of a graceful style in writing. He exercised great

care in the arrangement of his materials and was indefatigable in assembling

the details for any work in which he was interested. His archeological investi-

gations were generally confined to limited areas, but he opened up many inter-

esting problems. In the attention that he called to certain European collections

of Indian artifacts and in his assemblage of sketches illustrative of Indian life

he performed a unique service and placed all American anthropologists in

his debt.

INDEX TO VOLUME 31

An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Anthropological Society of Washington.

126, 418.

168.

Chemical Society of Washington.

Geological Society of Washington.

Philosophical Society of Washington.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

167.

369.

81, 124, 155, 210, 324, 417, 515.

AUTHOR INDEX

ANDERSON, WILLIAM W. See MILTON L.

LINDNER. 181.

BarRBER, Harry G. Description of a

new bat bug (Hemiptera-Heterop-

tera: Cimicidae). 315.

BassuterR, R. 8. Generic descriptions of

Upper Paleozoic Bryozoa. 173.

Ostracoda from the Devonian

(Onondaga) chert of west Tennessee.

Pa\\e

Berry, Epwarp W. Notes on the Pleis-

tocene of Maryland. 28.

Pinus and Quercus in the Chesa-

peake Miocene. 506.

Betts, C. A. *Heavy

374.

BigELOW, RoBERT PAYNE.

Squilla empusa Say. 399.

BLACKWELDER, RicHarD EK. The gender

of scientific names in zoology. 135.

BuakE, 8S. F. Note on a vertebra of

Palaeophis from the Eocene of Mary-

lands) 501:

Buanton, F. 8. See B. G. Cuirwoop.

construction.

Notes on

296.

Bozortn, R. M. *The physical basis of

ferromagnetism. 379.

BrigsE, R. R. See J. F. Coucu.

BRropE, ROBERT B.

tion. 378.

BroucutTon, J. G. *Structural compari-

son of pre-Cambrian and Paleozoic

rocks in northwestern New Jersey.

beAlle

Brown, T. B. *Two-dimensional kinetic

theory model. 373.

BuRBANK, W. S. *An area of pseudo-

landslide topography in the San

Juan Mountains, Colorado. 168.

CHABANAUD, PauL. Pluralité spécifique

du genre Pegusa [Pleuronectoidea

Soleiformes]. 109.

285.

*Cosmic-ray ioniza-

CuHaPiIn, Epwarp A. Two new species

of coccinellid beetles from Costa Rica

and Colombia. 107.

CueEo, C. C. See Anna E. JENKINS. 415.

Cuitwoop, B. G., and F. S. BLanton.

An evaluation of the results of treat-

ments given narcissus bulbs for the

control of the nematode Ditylenchus

dipsact (Kiihn) Filipjev. 296.

Cuark, Austin H. A new brittle-star

of the genus Ophiocomella from Can-

ton Island. 481.

Notes on the American repre-

sentatives of the butterfly genus

Argynnis. 381.

and FRANK W. TRAINER.

terflies of Farmville, Virginia. 38.

Couns, Henry B., Jr. Prehistoric

Eskimo harpoon heads from Bering

Strait. 318.

Relationships of an early Indian

cranial series from Louisiana. 145.

Coox, O. F. Naming the cultivated rub-

But-

ber tree Stphonia ridleyana. 46.

Cooper, G. ArtHur. New Devonian

stratigraphic units. 179.

and ALpRED S. WARTHIN.

New Middle Devonian stratigraphic

names. 259.

Coucn, J. F., and R. R. Britsz. The

use of chloroform to accelerate cyano-

genesis in the analysis of cyanoge-

netic plants. 285.

Dantzic, Topias. *Mathematics; pros-

pects and retrospects. 377.

Derienan, H. G. Remarks on the Kent-

ish plovers of the Extreme Orient,

with separation of a new subspecies.

105.

Drmine, W. Epwarps. *On the sam-

pling problems of the 1940 census.

369.

523

524

Some thoughts on statistical

inference. 865.

Drake, Cart J. New American Tingi-

tidae (Hemiptera). 141.

DuMonp, Jess—E W. M. *The consist-

ency of our knowledge concerning the

atomic constants. 370.

Eaton, Turopore H., Jr. Adaptive

coloration in a single faunal associa-

tion. 129.

Eckert, W. J. *Scientific computation

with the aid of punched cards. 378.

Focxs, A. B. *Segregation of polonium

in bismuth crystals. 374.

Fossrre, F. R. Names in Amaranthus,

Artocarpus, and Inocarpus. 93.

FRIEDMANN, HERBERT. Bird bones from

Eskimo ruins at Cape Prince of

Wales, Alaska. 404.

GAHAN, A. B.A revision of the parasitic

wasps of the genus Necremnus Thom-

son (Kulophidae; Hymenoptera).

196. °

GARNER, C. L. *Recent developments

in geodetic control. 379.

Gazin, C. Lewis. Paleocene mammals

from the Denver Basin, Colorado.

289.

Gipson, R. E. Physical reflections in a

chemical mirror. 325.

GILFILLAN, E. 8. *What happens when

candy burns. 374.

GooppING, CHARLOTTE O. Three new

species of Muhlenbergia. 504. —

HERZFELD, K. F. *Propagation of sound

in liquids. 375.

HOLLAENDER, ALEXANDER. *The wave-

length dependence of _ genetical

changes produced by ultraviolet ra-

diation. 376.

Hutu, Frank M. Some new species of

Syrphidae from South America.

311.

Some undescribed syrphid flies

from the Neotropical region. 432.

Ineuis, D. R. *Motions in the earth’s

core. 374.

JENKINS, ANNA E., and C. C. Curo. De-

scriptions of Elsinoé dolichi, n. sp.,

and Sphaceloma ricini, n. sp. 415.

Kempton, JAMES H. Elongation of

mesocotyls and internodes in Job’s-

tears (Coix lachryma-jobi L.). 261.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

LEONARD, E. C. New Acanthaceae from

Guatemala. 96.

LinpNER, Mitton J., and Witiiam W.

ANDERSON. A new Solenocera and

notes on the other Atlantic American

species. 181.

Lonetin, BRUCE.

421, 453.

Lonetin, Brucr, and Mrerur RANDALL.

Intuitive and descriptive geometry of

function space: Metric properties and

transformation of coordinates. 441.

Intuitive and descriptive geom-

etry of function space: Tensors and

bi-vectors. 485.

Loomis, H. F. New genera and species

of millipeds from the southern pe-

ninsula of Haiti. 188.

Lucker, JoHN T. Contracaecum quin-

cuspis, a new species of nematode

from the American waterturkey. 33.

MANSFIELD, G. R. *The role of fluorine

in phosphate deposition. 171.

Mark, H. *Modern aspects of the syn-

thetic rubber problem. 372.

Martin, G. W. On Argynna polyhedron

(Schw.) Morgan. 309.

Mayer, J. E. *Statistical mechanics and

liquids. 378.

McA.uistTeR, E. D.

photosynthesis. 370.

MitTLEMAN, M. B. A critical synopsis

of the Mexican lizards of the Uta

ornata complex and a description of

a new species from Chihuahua. 66.

Mouter, F. L. *Resistivity of inter-

stellar space. 375.

Murata, K.J. See W. W. Ruspey. 169.

Nuttine, P. G. Time and temperature

effects in the formation of colloidal

dispersions. 41.

Oman, P. W. Revision of the Nearctic

Megophthalminae (Homoptera: Ci-

cadellidae). 203.

Quimsy, S. L. *Investigations with the

piezoelectric oscillator. 376.

RANDALL, MERLE. See BrucE LONGTIN.

441, 485.

RANDALL, MERLE, and Bruce LONGTIN.

Intuitive and descriptive geometry of

function space: Geometric configura-

tions. 453.

See MERLE RANDALL.

*Fjiuorescence and

Dec. 15, 1941

Intuitive and descriptive geom-

etry of function space: The graphical

representation of geometrical figures.

421.

RaAPPLEYE, Howarp S. *Problems in

vertical contro] surveys. 380.

Rep, Eart D. The flatfish Cyclopsetia

chittendent Bean from Texas, a new

record for the fauna of North

America.196.

Rice, F.O. *Mechanism of chemical re-

actions. 375.

Ruspey, W. W., and K. J. Murata.

*Chemical evidence bearing on origin

of a group of hot springs. 169.

Sartor, LAWRENCE W. Five new Guat-

emalan scarab beetles of the genus

Phyllophaga. 384.

Scuuttz, Leonarp P. Kraemeria bry-

ant, a new species of trichonotid fish

from the Hawaiian Islands. 269.

Scott, Arno~tp H. *A mechanical aid

for selecting the essential terms of a

determinant. 378.

Spicer, H. Cectrn. Goethermal gradient

at Grass Valley, Calif.: A revision

with a note on the flow of heat. 495.

SIMPSON, GEORGE GAYLorRD. The role of

the individual in evolution. 1.

SmitH, Hopart M. A new genus of

Central American snakes related to

Tantilla. 115.

A review of the subspecies of the

indigo snake (Drymarchon corais).

466.

Notes on Mexican snakes of the

genus Masticophis. 388.

INDEX

525

Notes on snakes of the genus

Conophis. 117.

and Epwarp H. Tayutor. A re-

view of the snakes of the genus

Ficumia. 356.

SmitH, HuegH M. The gobies Waitea and

Mahidolia. 409.

STEPHENSON, E. L. *Geophysical and

geological investigations of the Cas-

per Mountain chromite deposit,

Wyoming. 170.

StruveE, Otro. The constitution of dif-

fuse matter in interstellar space. 217.

SWALLEN, JASON R. New United States

grasses. 348.

Taytor, Epwarp H. See Hosart M.

SMITH. 356.

TELLER, EK. *On the expanding universe.

370.

THayeErR, T. P. *Chromite deposits of

the Strawberry Range, Oregon.

TRAINER, FRANK W. See Austin H.

CLARK. 38.

TRESSLER, Wiutuis L. Ostracoda from

Puerto Rican bromeliads. 263.

TUCKERMAN, lL. B. *Mathematical

spoofing. 371.

Urry, Witiiam D. Heat energy from

radioactive sources in the earth. 273.

WARTHIN, ALDRED S. See G. ARTHUR

CoopER. 259.

WILSON, MILDRED STRATTON. New spe-

cies and distribution records of di-

aptomid copepods from the Marsh

collection in the Urited States Na-

tional Museum. 509.

SUBJECT INDEX

Anthropology. Relationships of an early

Indian cranial series from Louisi-

ana. HrNry 8B. Co.Luins, JR.

145.

Archeology. Prehistoric Eskimo har-

poon heads from Bering Strait.

Henry B. Corns, Jr. 318.

Astronomy (technique). *Scientific com-

putation with the aid of punched

cards. W. J. Eckert. 373.

Astrophysics. *On the expanding uni-

verse. E. TELLER. 370.

*Resistivity of interstellar

F. L. Mouuer. 375.

The constitution of diffuse matter in

interstellar space. Orro STRUVE.

space.

PT.

Biophysics. *Fluorescence and _ photo-

synthesis. E. D. McALisTER.

370.

*The wavelength dependence of

genetical changes produced by

ultraviolet radiation. ALEXANDER

HOLLAENDER. 376.

Botany. Elongation of mesocotyles and

internodes in Job’s-tears (Coix

lachryma-jobt L.). James H.

Kempton. 261.

Names in Amaranthus, Artocarpus,

and Inocarpus. F. R. Fossere.

93.

Naming the cultivated rubber tree

Siphonia ridleyana. O. F. Coox.

46.

New Acanthaceae from Guatemala.

H.C. Leonarp. 96.

New United States

JASON R. SwaLLen. 348.

Three new species of Muhlenbergia.

CHARLOTTE O. GooppiNne. 504.

Chemistry. *Mechanism of chemical re-

actions. F.O. Rice. 375.

*Modern aspects of the synthetic

rubber problem. H. Marx. 372.

*Segregation of polonium in bismuth

crystals. A.B. Focxe. 374.

Tbe use of chloroform to accelerate

cyanogenesis in the analysis of

cyanogenetic plants. J. F. Coucu

and R. R. BrigsE. 285.

grasses.

*What happens when candy burns.

E. 8S. GILFILLAN. 374.

Ecology. Adaptive coloration in a single

faunal association. THEODORE H,

EATON, Jr. 129.

Engineering. *Heavy construction. C. A.

Betts. 374.

Entomology. A revision of the parasitic

wasps of the genus Necremnus

Thomson (Eulophidae; Hymenop-

tera). A.B. Gawan. 196.

Butterflies of Farmville, Virginia.

Austin H. CLark and Frank W.

TRAINER. 38.

Description of a new bat bug

(Hemiptera-Heteroptera: Cimici-

dae). Harry G. Barsper. 315.

Five new Guatemalan scarab beetles

of the genus Phyllophaga. Law-

RENCE W. SAyYuor. 384.

New American Tingitidae (Hemip-

tera). Cart J. Drake. 141.

Notes on the American representa-

tives of the butterfly genus Argyn-

ms. AusTIN H. CuarK. 381.

Revision of the Nearctic Megoph-

thalminae (Homoptera: Cicadel-

lidae). P. W. Oman. 208.

Some new species of Syrphidae from

South America. FRanK M. Hott.

311.

Some undescribed syrphid flies from

the Neotropical region. Frank M.

Huu. 482.

Two new species of coccinellid beetles

from Costa Rica and Colombia.

Epwarp A. CuHapin. 107.

Geochemistry. *Chemical evidence bear-

ing on origin of a group of hot

springs. W. W. Rusey and K. J.

Murata. 169.

*The role of fluorine in phosphate de-

position. G. R. Mansrreup. 171.

Time and temperature effects in the

formation of colloidal dispersions.

P. G. Nuttine. 41.

Geology. *An area of pseudo-landslide

topography in the San Juan Moun-

tains, Colorado. W.S. BURBANK.

168.

526

Drcy 15, 1941

*Chromite deposits of the Straw-

berry Range, Oregon. T. P.

THAYER. 171:

*Structural comparison of pre-Cam-

brian and Paleozoic rocks in north-

western New Jersey. J. G.

BrovucutTon. 171.

*Geophysical and geological investi-

gations of the Casper Mountain

chromite deposit, Wyoming. E. L.

STEPHENSON. 170.

Geothermal gradient at Grass Valley,

Calif.: A revision with a note on

the flow of heat. H. Creciu Spicer.

495.

Heat energy from radioactive sources

in the earth. Wuii1amM D. Urry.

Do:

*Motions in the earth’s core. D. R.

Ineuis. 374.

*Problems in vertical control surveys.

Howarp 8S. RAppLEYE. 380.

*Recent developments in geodetic

control. C. L. GARNER. 379.

Herpetology. A critical synopsis of the

Mexican lizards of the Uta ornata

complex and a description of

a new species from Chihuahua.

M. B. MirrLtEMAN. 66.

A new genus of Central American

snakes related to Tantilla. Ho-

BART M. Smitu. 115.

Notes on snakes of the genus Cono-

phis. Hopart M. Smitrn. 117.

Ichthyology. Kraemeria bryant, a new

species of trichonotid fish from the

Hawaiian Islands. Lronarp P.

ScHULTz. 269.

Pluralité spécifique du genre

Pegusa [Pleuronectoidea Solei-

formes]. Paun CHABANAUD. 109.

The flatfish Cyclopsetta chittendent

Bean from Texas, a new record for

the fauna of North America.

Karu D. Rep. 196.

The gobies Waitea and Mahidolia.

Hues M. SmirH. 409.

Mathematics. *A mechanical aid for

selecting the essential terms of a

determinant. ARNoLD H. Scort.

378.

Intuitive and descriptive geometry

of function space: Geometric con-

INDEX

527

figurations. MbrriLE RANDALL and

Bruck LoneTin. 453.

Intuitive and descriptive geometry

of function space: Metric proper-

ties and transformation of co-

ordinates. Bruck LoNneTiIN and

MERLE RANDALL. 441.

Intuitive and descriptive geometry

of function space: Tensors and

bi-vectors. Bruce LoNneriIn and

MERLE RANDALL. 485.

Intuitive and descriptive geometry

of function space: The graphical

representation of geometrical fig-

ures. MERLE RANDALL and BRUCE

LonetTin. 421.

*Mathematical spoofing. IG. 183

TUCKERMAN. 371.

*Mathematics; prospects and retro-

spects. Toprias Dantzig. 377.

Mycology. Descriptions of Elsinoé doli-

cht, n. sp., and Sphaceloma ricint,

n. sp. ANNA E. JENKINS and

C]C; Cano, 415:

On Argynna polyhedron (Schw.) Mor-

gan. G. W. Martin. 309.

Obituartes. BowiE, WILLIAM. 83.

BUSHNELL, Davip Ivks, Jr. 521.

GILBERT, WILLIAM WILLIAMS.

216.

Lioyp, Morton GitTHENs. 483.

Metres, EpwarRD BROWNING. 83.

MiuuEer, DAYTON CLARENCE. 215.

Miuuer, WILLIAM LasH. 484.

PEARL, RAYMOND. 127.

SmitH, Hua McCormick. 519.

Youne, WALTER JORGENSEN, 127.

Ornithology. Bird bones from Eskimo

ruins at Cape Prince of Wales,

Alaska. HERBERT FRIEDMANN.

404.

Remarks on the Kentish plovers of

the Extreme Orient, with separa-

tion of a new subspecies. H. G.

DEIGNAN. 105.

Paleobotany. Notes on the Pleistocene of

Maryland. Epwarp W. BeErry.

28.

Pinus and Quercus in the Chesapeake

Miocene. EpwarD W. BERRY.

506.

528

Paleontology. Generic descriptions of

Upper Paleozoic Bryozoa. R. S.

BassuLER. 1783.

New Devonian stratigraphic units.

G. ArTHUR CoopER. 179.

New Middle Devonian stratigraphic

names. G. ARTHUR CooPER and

ALDRED S. WARTHIN. 259.

Note on a vertebra of Palaeophis

from the Eocene of Maryland.

S. F. Buaxe. 501.

Ostracoda from the Devonian (Onon-

daga) chert of west Tennessee.

R. 8S. Basster. 21.

Paleocene mammals from the Denver

Basin, Colorado. C. LEwIs

GAZIN. 289.

The role of the individual in evolu-

tion. GEORGE GAYLORD SIMP-

son. l.

Physical chemistry. Physical reflections

in a chemical mirror. R. E. G1s-

SON. 325.

Physics. *Cosmic-ray ionization.

ERT B. BropE. 378.

*Investigations with the piezoelectric

oscillator. S. L. QuimBy. 376.

*Propagation of sounds in liquids.

K. F. HERzFELD. 375.

*Statistical mechanics and liquids.

J. KE. Mayer. 378.

*The consistency of our knowledge

concerning the atomic constants.

JeEssE W. M. DuMonp. 370.

*The physical basis of ferromagne-

tism. R. M. Bozortu. 379.

*Two-dimensional kinetic theory

model. T. B. Brown. 373.

Phytopathology. An evaluation of the

results of treatments given narcis-

sus bulbs for the control of the

nematode Dnitylenchus dipsaci

Ros-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 31, No. 12

(Kithn) Filipjev. B. G. Curr-

woop and F. 8. BLanton. 296.

Statistics. *On the sampling problems

of the 1940 census.

Demine. 369.

Some thoughts on statistical infer-

ence. W. Epwarps Deming. 85.

Zoology. A new brittle-star of the genus

Ophiocomella from Canton Island.

Austin H. CuarK. 481.

A new Solenocera and notes on the

other Atlantic American species.

Mitton J. LinpNER and WIt-

LIAM W. ANDERSON. 181.

A review of the snakes of. the genus

Ficemia. Hopart M. Situ and

Epwarp H. Taytor. 356.

A review of the subspecies of the

indigo snake (Drymarchon corais).

Hopart M. Suitrn. 466.

Contracaecum quincuspis, a new spe-

cies of nematode from the Ameri-

can waterturkey. Joun T. Luck-

ER. 383.

New genera and species of millipeds

from the southern peninsula of

Haiti. H.F. Loomis. 188.

New species and distribution records

of diaptomid copepods from the

Marsh collection in the United

States National Museum. MuIt-

DRED STRATTON WILson. 509.

Notes on Mexican snakes of the

genus Masticophis. Hopart M.

SmiTH. 388.

Notes on Squilla empusa Say. Ros-

ERT PAYNE BIGELOW. 399.

Ostracoda from Puerto Rican brome-

liads. Wiuuis L. TRESSLER. 263.

The gender of scientific names in

zoology. RicHAarRD E. Buacxk-

WELDER. 1835.

W. EDWARDS