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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 45

January 1955

No. 1

PALEONTOLOGY .—NVew genera of Foraminifera from the British Lower Car-

boniferous. RopeRt H. Cummines, University of Glasgow, Scotland. (Com-

municated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.)

As part of a study of the British Carbonif-

erous Foraminifera a revision of the Brady

collection of Carboniferous and Permian

Foraminifera in the British Museum

(Natural History) has been completed. One

of the most important results has been the

recognition of new genera and species that

not only are of stratigraphical value but

also assist in the interpretation of the mor-

phogeny and phylogeny of the Upper Paleo-

zoic Foraminifera. Since some aspects of

the major study are incomplete as yet and

in order that the information on the new

genera may be made available to other

workers, a detailed description of three new

genera and their type species are given here.

It is interesting to note that no closely

similar forms have been recorded from the

American Mississippian, and it is hoped that

this publication will lead others to confirm

their presence or absence in extra-British

areas.

The writer would like to acknowledge

the continued support of Prof. Neville

George in this research and the valued co-

operation and assistance from Dr. Alfred

R. Loeblich, Jr., Dr. Helen Tappan, and

other American experts and friends.

Family ENDOTHYRIDAE

Subfamily BrRaDYININAE

ENDOTHYRANOPSIS, n. gen.

Involutina (pars) Brady, 1869 (non Terquem,

1862).

Endothyra (pars) Brady, 1873, 1876, et auctores.

Type species (here designated): Involutina

crassa Brady, 1869.

Description.—Test free, relatively large, sub-

globular to nautiloid; coiled with a slight degree

of axial rotation and hence somewhat asym-

metrical; relatively few whorls and moderate

number of crescentiform chambers; almost or

entirely involute with simple, slight sutures and

rounded peripheral margin; granular surface;

wall of granules of calcite bound by calcareous

cement with small but varying proportion of

adventitious material; apertural face inflated

with low, lunate opening at base.

Comparison and affinities—The genus Endo-

thyranopsis differs from members of the Endo-

thyrinae in several features. In the latter the

wall is composed solely of granules of calcite

bound by calcareous cement and is imperforate

whilst, in the case of the new genus, the wall is

not only relatively thicker and typically perforate

but has a varying subordinate quantity of ad-

ventitious material, usually in the form of quartz-

grains and iron oxides. Other and more minor

differences are to be found in the mode of coiling,

number and form of chambers, and possibly in

septal construction.

The inclusion of Hndothyranopsis within the

Bradyininae is based on obvious similarities of

wall-structure and form to other members of the

subfamily. Morphologically the simplest and

stratigraphically the oldest, Hndothyranopsis

appears to occupy a near ancestral position within

the group and may represent an early develop-

ment toward Bradyina Moller and Cribrospira

Moller from the agglutinate ancestral stock.

In the thin-sections of sagittal type, Endo-

thyranopsis may be recognized by the relatively

thick wall of characteristic composition, the few

whorls and moderate number of chambers, the

ploughsharelike or ax-shaped septal outlines, and

the slight irregularity of coiling (Fig. 1, A). In

transverse section it is often difficult to dis-

tinguish from other members of the Bradyininae,

for the strong obliquity of septal curvature in

y, JOURNAL OF THE

B C

Fig. 1.—Endothyranopsis sp. Diagrams based

on actual specimens showing typical appearance

in thin-section: A, sagittal section; B, transverse

section showing apparent lateral chamberlets due

to septal curvature and axial rotation; C, oblique

excentric tangential section. All x 35.

Endothyranopsis may produce apparent lateral

chamberlets in the umbilical region (Fig. 1, B)

that appear identical to the sutural chamberlets

of Bradyina when seen in the same section. How-

ever, other morphological differences, such as the

presence of axial rotation of coiling in Endo-

thyranopsis in contrast to the planispiral coiling

of Bradyina, allow a distinction to be made in

most cases.

Preservation matrix.—While the true

nature of the wall structure is clearly demonstra-

ble in well-preserved material, the large number

of specimens that have undergone secondary

alteration during the diagenesis of the host sedi-

ment have led to confusion in the past. The

perforate nature of the wall was noted by Méller

(1878, p. 94), and though examples have been

found in British material these are few in number.

It would appear that one of the first stages in the

alteration of the wall leads to the recrystallization

of the caleareous matrix within the perforations

and the production of granular calcite of similar

texture of that of the primary wall. Hence an

and

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 1

apparently uniform development of calcite results

that is superficially identical to that of the

primary wall structure of the Endothyrinae.

Quartz grains and fragments of several oxides

of iron are the dominant types of adventitious

material, and it may be that the nature of the

environment determines the choice. Thus iron

oxides are rather common in specimens from a

host rock with a high iron content. Such evidence

is by no means conclusive, however, for the factor

of secondary iron enrichment in both sediment

and specimen must not be overlooked.

The distinction between quartz-grains of the

primary wall-structure and crystalline quartz |

introduced by partial silicifieation during di- |

agenesis is difficult and is possible only after

study of both specimen and host sediment.

Rarely perfect steinkerns of silica are produced

(Fig. 5, C) which are valuable in the analysis of

internal morphology.

Horizon and facies —Endothyranopsis is a com-

mon and characteristic genus occurring in a wide

variety of limestone and calcareous shale en- |

vironments in the upper part of the British Lower |

Carboniferous. It has been recorded, as Endo- |

thyra crassa Brady, at similar horizons in Belgium,

central Europe, and the U.S.S.R.

In addition to the type species the following

may be referred to Endothyranopsis: Endothyra

conspicua Howchin, 1888; Hndothyra crassa var.

compressa Rauser-Chernoussova and Reitlinger, |

sphaerica |

1936; and Endothyra crassa var.

Rauser-Chernoussova and Reitlinger, 1936.

A B

Fie. 2.—Loeblichia sp. Diagrams based on

actual specimens showing typical appearance in

thin-section: A, sagittal section slightly excentric

with variation in wall thickness due to distortion

of specimen; B, axial section showing position of

septa in some whorls. Both X 75.

JANUARY 1955 CUMMINGS:

Endothyranopsis crassus (Brady)

Fig. 5, A-C

Involutina crassa (pars) Brady, 1869.

Endothyra crassa (pars) Brady, 1876, et auctores.

Description—Test free, relatively large,

nautiloid, subglobular, slightly asymmetrical;

some degree of axial rotation of coiling resulting

in rather small, shallow umbilical depression on

one side and involute condition on other; usually

three whorls present, increasing moderately in

height as added and almost complete embrace-

ment throughout; proloculum varies from 0.02 to

0.05 mm in diameter; 28 to 35 chambers in com-

plete test and 10 in final whorl; chambers

erescentiform with maximum width on median

plane and tapering toward umbilical regions,

having squarish outline in median section and

with no marked inflation; somewhat incon-

spicuous slightly depressed sutures, crenulated in

parts and losing identity toward umbilici;

radially aligned septa varying in shape from

periphery to umbilici having a maximum thick-

ness about one-third that of adjacent chambers;

septal tunnel some one-third height of adjacent

chambers; peripheral margin broadly and

smoothly rounded with faint lobulation; surface

rugose or granular; wall of granules of calcite

bound by calcareous cement with a varying

amount of adventitious material, usually quartz

grains and more rarely oxides of iron, perforate

in an irregular manner; apertural face broad,

convex, slightly inflated shield with low, lunate

opening at base on periphery.

Depository, etc—Lectotype (slide P. 41651)

and paratypes (slide P. 35439) in the Brady

collection of Carboniferous and Permian

Foraminifera, British Museum (Natural His-

tory), from the upper part of the Lower Carbon-

iferous, Great Orme’s Head, Caernarvonshire,

North Wales (ex Dr. Holl’s collection) (Brady

locality no. 36).

Dimensions.—Lectotype: maximum diameter

1.41 mm; minimum diameter 1.29 mm; maximum

width 0.91 mm; width of apertural face 1.1 mm;

height of apertural face 0.5 mm.

Comparison and affinities—The species, as

redefined here on the basis of the type material,

differs markedly from other forms in the British

‘Lower Carboniferous as yet undescribed and

hitherto included by previous authors in

. Endothyra crassa Brady. It differs from Endo-

_thyranopsis conspicuus (Howchin) in having a

NEW GENERA OF FORAMINIFERA 3

lower degree of axial rotation of coiling, a broader

cross section and more tapering chambers.

Preservation and matrix.—Brady (1876, p. 97)

notes the presence of small tubercles in the

umbilical regions of Hndothyranopsis crassus but

these appear to be remnants of the original

matrix in the type material (Fig. 5, A) and

products of secondary alteration in other in-

stances. Probably owing to a thinner wall the

last chamber of the species 1s most commonly

broken away. This is so in the case of the figured

lectotype (Fig. 5, B), also figured by Brady

(1876, pl. 5, fig. 16).

Horizon and facies —Endothyranopsis crassus

(Brady) is confined to the lower part of the

Lower Limestone group in the Scottish Lower

Carboniferous, being very common in the Dockra

limestone and other contemporaneous limestones

in the west of the Midland Valley and in the No. 2

limestone in the east. It occurs in the lower part

of the Upper Dibunophyllum zone in the English

Avonian. Earlier records of Endothyra crassa

Brady occurring outside this stratigraphical

range are based on specimens referable to the

genus Endothyranopsis but not to the type

species, Endothyranopsis crassus (Brady).

LOEBLICHINAE, n. subfam.

Tests characterized by small size, planispiral

or subplanispiral mode of coiling and evolute

condition, short axis of rotation, numerous whorls

and chambers, wall of unknown primary composi-

tion and structure, aperture of indistinct nature

and usually terminal.

This subfamily includes the new genus

Loeblichia and is probably related to the

Ozawainellinae. Reasons for the recognition of

this new taxonomic unit are outlined below.

LOEBLICHIA, n. gen.

Endothyra (pars) Brady, 1873, 1876, et auctores.

Type species (here designated): Hndothyra

ammonoides Brady, 1873.

Description—Test free, relatively small,

discoidal or complanate; numerous whorls coiled

in a planispiral manner though axial rotation may

occur in early or late stages of growth; chambers

numerous, crescentiform, regularly arranged,

square to rectangular in sagittal section; sutures

distinct and depressed in later portion only and

internal septa normal to peripheral margin in

sagittal section; periphery usually — slightly

lobulate; primary structure of wall unknown—

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

usually preserved in recrystallized calcite,

amorphous or crystalline silica; no chomata or

secondary deposits present; aperture terminal,

lunate opening at base of apertural face.

Comparison and affinities—The genus

Loeblichia does not appear to be related to any

of the contemporary Endothyrinae of the Lower

Carboniferous. It differs from Endothyra Brown,

1843, Endothyra Phillips, 1846, Plectogyra Zeller,

1950, and Mullerella Thompson, 1942, in the

structure of the wall, the manner of coiling, and

the chamberal arrangement.

Certain morphological similarities exist be-

tween Loeblichia and Nanicella Henbest, 1935,

originally described from the Devonian of Iowa

by Thomas (1931). It is doubtful, however,

whether the degree of isomorphism is sufficient

to indicate a common ancestry. Indeed the con-

trasting dissimilarities in number of chambers,

number of whorls, rate of chamberal growth,

septal form and alignment suggest an analogous

rather than homologous relationship between

the two genera. The same conclusions can be

made in a comparison of Loeblichia and

Rhenothyra Beckmann, 1950, from the Rhenish

Devonian where the morphological differences

are even greater.

Though Loeblichia might be considered an

aberrant specialization of the Endothyrinae, as

is the case of Paraendothyra Tchernysheva, 1940,

both the stratigraphical and morphological

evidence tells against its inclusion, and hence

it is classified separately within the Loeblichinae.

This may prove to be the ancestral stock from

which such problematical fusulinids as Ozawa-

inella Thompson, 1935, Nankinella Lee, 1933,

and Nummulostegina Schubert, 907, arose.

In sagittal section Loeblichia is distinguished

by the characteristically altered wall structure,

the numerous whorls and chambers, the nor-

mality of septal alignment to the peripheral

margin, and septal form (Fig. 2, A). In transverse

section the planispiral coiling, wall-structure,

septal intersections, mode of chamberal growth,

and absence of chomata are criteria for its

distinction from both representatives of the

Endothyrinae and the Ammodiscidae.

Preservation and matrix—Brady (1876, p. 95)

notes that the test-wall of the type material of

Endothyra ammonoides has a “compact arenace-

ous texture” in thin-section, and Wood (1949,

p. 239), describing the same material, writes:

“When the tests are certainly recrystallized (as

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 1

for instance in the specimens of H. ammonoides

figured by Brady 1876, pl. V, fig. 6) the grain

size is much greater, and the specimen is less

dark in transmitted light than the infilling.”’

These descriptions are inadequate, for they fail

to reveal that all specimens from the type locality

are secondarily silicified and that the test-wall

is composed of either amorphous or crystalline

silica. Examples of the latter show ‘‘a compact

arenaceous texture,’ and, should this be associ-

ated with an internal matrix of recrystallized

calcite, as is often the case, the optical properties

noted by Wood would be illustrated.

Numerous specimens of Loeblichia have been

examined from both English and Scottish areas,

and in every case the microstructure of the wall

has been altered from its primary condition.

Often silicification of the host sediment has

led—as in the case of the type material—to the

production of crystalline quartz of irregular and

comparatively large grain size which might be

misinterpreted as a primary arenaceous ag-

glutinate structure. The production of amorphous

silica could be mistakenly identified as an original

siliceous structure if no reference was made to

the diagenesis of the host sediment. In certain

Ayrshire localities replacement of the test-wall

by cryptoerystalline silica of the chalcedonic

variety has produced, by its fibrous structure, a

superficial similarity to the hyalime perforate

condition. ;

The usual mode of preservation is in second-

arily recrystallized calcite though examples are

known where the wall is formed by an irregular

dolomitic growth. Alteration of the calcareous

structure is illustrated by the absence of cement,

the irregularity and relatively large size of the

constituent particles and the arrangement of the

particles in relation to septal form (Fig. 3).

Except in a few cases the products of altera-

tion differ in the test-wall and the matrix, indi-

cating a difference in original composition or

physical structure or both between the test and |

the host sediment.

This proneness to alteration in Loeblichia,

seen in numerous specimens from a variety of

limestone and calcareous shale environments, is

in direct contrast to the resistance to alteration

shown by the Lower Carboniferous Endothyrinae,

e.g., in EHndothyra, Plectogyra, or Mullerella.

While examples of alteration are not unknown

and are not uncommon in some areas, owing to

local diagenetic phenomena, the permanence of

JANUARY 1955 CUMMINGS:

microstructure in the Endothyrinae is demon-

strable in several ways; by the regularity of fine

grain size in wall texture over wide areas and in

a variety of facies, or again, by the maintenance

of layering within the wall to the same propor-

tions in each particular group. Many examples

have been noted where altered specimens of

Loeblichia occur, in the same sample, alongside

unaltered members of the Endothyrinae. Hence

the wall-structure of Loeblichia, in its original

condition, must differ fundamentally from that of

the Endothyrinae. It is for this reason that the

new genus is included in the Loeblichinae.

Horizon and facies —Loeblichia is comparatively

tare in the British Lower Carboniferous and is

eonfined to the upper horizons. It has been re-

corded from the upper part of the Yoredale

series in Northumberland, the Upper Dibuno-

phyllum Zone of Northwest England, and both

the Lower Limestone group and the Upper

Limestone group of Scotland.

Loeblichia ammonoides (Brady)

Fig. 5, D, E

Endothyra ammonoides Brady, 1873, 1876, et auc-

tores.

Description —Test free, relatively small,

laterally compressed, of a complanate or bicon-

eave form; coiling planispiral throughout the

greater part though some indication of axial

rotation in the first half whorl after the pro-

Fic. 3.—Diagrams of texture of wall structure

illustrating the effect of alteration, based on

actual specimens. A, In Loeblichia (recrystallized)

showing the irregularity of grain size and pattern.

B, In Endothyra (unaltered) showing regularity

of grain size and pattern which leads to retention

of original septal margin. Both xX 400.

NEW GENERA OF FORAMINIFERA

Fic. 4.—Fourstonella sp. Diagram based on

actual specimen showing typical appearance in

thin-section; longitudinal section of specimen at-

tached to ecrinoid ossicles (black) showing in-

equality of septal and layer wall and differing

size of chamberlets on either side of foreign

body—latter feature due to obliquity of section

on right side. < 60.

loculum and again toward the apertural region,

where it leads to a slightly asymmetrical ar-

rangement of the last four or five chambers;

broad, shallow umbilici; whorls increase very

slowly in height and embracement of one-quarter

at any point; 10 whorls with numerous, small,

slightly inflated, subcuboidal chambers in each,

23 in final whorl; in early part sutures thin,

depressed lines, but in later portion depressed

broad, possibly limbate, and with a sutural

curvature away from the apertural region; septa

about three-quarters height of whorl in length

and one-quarter width of adjacent chambers in

thickness; peripheral margin smoothly rounded

and faintly lobulate outline; smooth or finely

granular surface; wall of unknown primary

composition—type material preserved in

amorphous or crystalline silica; slightly inflated,

terminal, shieldlike apertural face with low,

lunate opening at base on median line with some

indications of an original vestibular structure.

Depository, etc.—Lectotype (slide P. 41650)

and paratypes (slide P. 35438 and section P.

35500) in the Brady collection of Carboniferous

and Permian Foraminifera, British Museum

(Natural History), from the upper part of the

Lower Carboniferous, Keld Head Mines,

Wensleydale, Yorkshire, England (Brady _lo-

eality no. 29).

Dimensions.—Lectotype: maximum diameter

0.57 mm; minimum diameter 0.54 mm; maximum

thickness 0.11 mm.

Comparison and affinities—The species, as re-

defined here on the basis of the type material,

differs from other and as yet undescribed forms of

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Loeblichia, from the upper part of the British

Lower Carboniferous, that hitherto have been

grouped under Hndothyra ammonoides Brady.

Preservation and matrix.— Vide supra.

Horizon and facies —Loeblichia ammonoides

(Brady) appears to be confined to the Lower

Limestone group in the Scottish Lower Carbo-

niferous and to equivalent horizons in England.

Limited to a calcareous shale facies it has a

spasmodic mode of occurrence and is never

abundant or widespread.

Family TROCHAMMINIDAE

Subfamily TETRATAXINAE

FOURSTONELLA, n. gen.

Stacheia (pars) Brady, 1876, et auctores.

Type species (here designated): Stacheia

fusiformis Brady, 1876.

Description.—Test attached, rarely free, small,

fusiform, or globular; composed of series of

layered chamberlets or subdivided segments

arranged regularly around a foreign body such as

VOL. 45, No. I

crinoid ossicle, brachiopod spine, plant, etc.;

layers subconical in form and concentric in ar-

rangement, overlapping at margins, thin and

numerous; chamberlets separated within layers.

by secondary septa which are thinner than walls

of layers; often faint sutures concentrically ar-

ranged on exterior surface marking termination

of laminae, otherwise smooth surface and

peripheral outline; wall of calcareous granules

bound by calcareous cement; aperture indistinct,

terminal, basal, at margin of test and foreign

body.

Comparison and affinities: Fourstonella and

Stacheia, as typified by Stacheia marginulinoides

Brady, 1876, are distinguished by the fusiform

shape, regularity and pattern of layer arrange-

ment, and unequal thickness of septal and layer

wall of the former to the irregular or acervuline

mode of growth and equality of septal and layer

wall thickness of the latter.

Both Fourstonella and Stacheia appear to be

independent derivatives of Valvulinella Schubert,

1907, which is undoubtedly developed from

Fie. 5.—A, B (both X 35), Endothyranopsis crassus (Brady): A, Lateral view of lectotype (Brit. Mus.

Nat. Hist. P. 41651) showing original matrix in umbilicus; B, ‘Apertural view of lectotype showing

broken final chamber.

Coll. P: 1000) showing internal morphology.

C (X 35), Endothyranopsis sp.: Steinkern in silica (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept.

D, E (X 75), Loeblichia ammonoides (Brady): D, Lat-

eral view of paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. Coll. P. 1002) showing side of specimen and adhesion

of matrix in parts; E, Apertural view of paratype.

F, G (X 65), Fourstonella fusiformis (Brady): F,

Dorsal view of paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. Coll. P. 1001); G, Ventral view of same specimen

with position of original foreign body shown in form of test.

JANUARY 1955 CUMMINGS: NEW

Tetrataxis Ehrenberg, 1843. This phylogenetic

sequence from Tetrataxis is expressed morpho-

genetically by an increasing subdivision of

chambers and irregularity of form and accom-

panies a transition to a fixed mode of life. Stacheia

represents the culmination of this trend whilst

Fourstonella expresses and represents an inde-

pendent, partial fulfilment.

In thin-section Fourstonella is characterized by

its fusiform or circular outline, sessile habit,

granular calcareous wall-structure, and in-

equality of septal and layer wall thickness

(Fig. 4).

Preservation and matrix—With a few excep-

tions all specimens of Fourstonella appear to have

undergone little or no alteration and the primary

structure of the wall is retained. Where silicifica-

tion by chaleedonic varieties has taken place in

both Fourstonella and Stachia concentric rings

may develop on the exterior surface which are

similar to, but independent of, the sutural

pattern of Fourstonella.

Horizon and facies.—A\though confined to the

upper part of the British Avonian—the upper

part of the Dibunophyllum zone and its equiva-

lents—Fourstonella is a common and character-

istic form of shelly limestone and calcareous

shale facies.

Fourstonella fusiformis (Brady)

Fig. 5, F, G

Stacheia fusiformis Brady, 1876, et auctores.

Description —Test attached, short, stout,

symmetrical, fusiform, round in cross-section,

taperig at both ends, composed of layers of

chamberlets—or subdivided segments—sym-

metrically arranged around thin, columnar,

foreign body; each layer embracing previous one

at peripheral margin; chambers thin, numerous,

subdivided by secondary septa into minute

chamberlets; external suture lines thin, concen-

tric, depressed; transverse secondary septa thin-

ner than chamber or layer wall; periphery

smoothly rounded and smooth or faintly granular

surface; wall homogeneous, of calcareous granules

bound by calcareous cement; aperture indistinct,

terminal, basal.

Depository, etc—Lectotype (slide P.41654)

_ and paratypes (slide P.35458 and section P.35509)

in the Brady collection of Carboniferous and

Permian Foraminifera, British Museum (Natural

History), from the upper part of the Lower

Carboniferous, Fourstones, Northumberland,

GENERA OF FORAMINIFERA a

England (ex Rev. W. Howchin’s collection)

(Brady locality no 16).

Dimensions.—Lectotype: maximum

0.67 mm; maximum breadth 0.51 mm.

Comparison and affinities—Brady (1876, p.

114) suggests that this form is closely allied to

Stacheia marginulinoides Brady. However, when

all morphological features are considered such a

relationship is more apparent than real.

Preservation and matrix.—Vide supra.

Horizon and facies.—Fourstonella fusiformis

(Brady) is present in the upper part of the

British Lower Carboniferous in all areas and is

particularly common in the shelly limestone

facies.

length

REFERENCES

BrecKMANN, H. Rhenothyra, eine neue Foramini-

ferengattung aus dem rheinishen Mitteldevon.

Neues Jahrb. Geol. Pal. Monatshefte 6:

183-187. 1950.

Bravy, H. B. Notes on the Foraminifera of Min-

eral Veins and adjacent strata. 39th Meeting

(Exeter) Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci.: 379-381

1869.

Explanation of Sheet 23. Mem. Geol.

Surv. Scotland: 63, 95, ete. 1873.

Monograph of Carboniferous and Permian

Foraminifera (the genus Fusulina excepted):

1-166, Palaeontographical Soc. London, 1876.

Brown, T. The elements of fossil conchology.

London, 1843.

EHRENBERG, C. G. Meloniae of the Oolitic lime-

stones of Germany and England. Ber. Preuss.

Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1843: 106.

Hensest, L.G. Nanicella, a new genus of Devo-

nian Foraminifera. Journ. Washington Acad.

Sci. 25: 34-35. 1935.

Howcuin, W. Additions to the knowledge of the

Carboniferous Foraminifera. Journ. Roy.

Mier. Soc. 1888: 533-545.

Ler, J. 8S. Vaxonomic criteria of Fusulinidae

with notes on seven new Permian genera. Nat.

Res. Inst. China Geol. Mem. 14: 1-32. 1933.

Mo.uter, V. von. Die spiral-gewundenen Fora-

miniferen des russischen Kohlenkalkes. Mem.

Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg, ser. 7, 9:

1-147. 1878.

Puruurps, J. On the remains of microscopic ani-

mals in the rocks of Yorkshire. Proc. Geol. and

Poly. Soc. W. Riding Yorks. 2: 274. 1849.

RAvusER-CHERNOUSSOVA, D. M., Bewsary, G.,

AND ReErTLincer, R. The Upper Palaeozoic

Foraminifera of Petschoraland (western margin

of the northern Urals). Trans. Polar Comm.

Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. 28: 159-232. 1936.

Scuusert, H. J. Vérlaufige Mitteilung vwiber

Foraminiferen und Kalkalgen aus dem dal-

matinischen Karbon. Verh. Geol. Reichs.

Wien, Jahrg 1907: 211-214. 1907.

TcHERNYSHEVA, N. I. “On the stratigraphy of

the Lower Carboniferous Foraminifera in the

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Makarovski District of the southern Urals.’

Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou 49: sec. geol. 18:

113-135. 1940.

TrerQuEM, O. Recherches sur les foraminiferes

du Lias. Mém. Acad. Imp. Metz 1862.

Tuomas, A. O. Late Devonian Foraminifera

from Iowa. Journ. Pal. 3: 40-41, 1931.

Tuompson, M. L. The fusulinid genus Staffella

in America. Journ. Pal. 9: 111-120. 1935.

VOL. 45, No. |

——. New genera of Pennsylvanian fusulinids.

Amer. Journ. Sci. 240: 403-420. 1942.

Woop, A. The structure of the wall of the test in

the Foraminifera; its value in classification.

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London 104: 229-

255. 1948.

ZELLER, EX. Stratigraphic significance of Missis-

sippian endothyranoid Foraminifera. Univ.

Kansas Pal. Publ. art. 4, Protozoa, 1950.

PALEONTOLOGY .—Foraminifera from some ‘Pliocene’ rocks of Egypt. Rusup1

Samp, Cairo University, Egypt. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.)

This paper lists some 40 species of Foram-

inifera separated from marly limestones of a

supposedly “Phocene” outcrop in Helwan,

Egypt.

The ‘‘Phocene” deposits in Egypt have

been the subject of many discussions and

the basis of an enormous amount of litera-

ture. The best description of them is found

in Blanckenhorn (1903 and 1921) and in

Picard (1943). The most authentic and

complete résumé on the Pliocene of the

Nile Valley, with which this paper is con-

cerned, is found in Sandford and Arkell

(1939).

The ‘‘Phocene” deposits of the Nile

Valley occur in the form of isolated out-

crops that extend along the sides of the

valley in a thin strip stretching from Cairo

to the vicinity of Aswan. The outcrops

occupy a more or less uniform height above

sea level—indicating that a narrow arm of

the Mediterranean Sea occupied the Nile

Valley, and on the basis of stratigraphic

relations and marine macrofossils during

Astian time. There are two main facies, a

marine facies of limestones and marly lime-

stones along the immediate sides of the

valley in the north and a conglomeritic

sandy facies in the south and in the outer

fringes of this ancient ‘Pliocene’ gulf.

The outcrop from which the following

species of Foraminifera come les some 10

km south of Helwan, a village to the south

of Cairo. Macrofossils found in the outcrop

include some considered to be the most typ-

ical guide fossils for the Egyptian Pliocene,

such as Ostrea cucullata, Pecten benedictus,

and Chlamys scabrellus. The section consists

of beds of marly limestones and limestones

some 25 meters thick unconformably over-

lying Eocene rocks and overlain by a grav-

elly terrace ascribed by Sandford and Arkell

to the Plio-Pleistocene.

This study shows many interesting con-

clusions with regard to the age of this forma-

tion and the origin of its fauna.

Age.—The Foraminifera recorded in the

area are decidedly Mediterranean in aspect.

They compare well with the Plhocene and

Pleistocene faunas of the Mediterranean

region and many species are still living

today in the Mediterranean. Four species

Cibicides gibbosa, C. rhodiensis, Asterigerina

rhodiensis, and Quinqueloculina foliacea

are known from the lower Pleistocene de-

posits of the Isle of Rhodes. Practically all

other species are known and are typical of

other such classical late Cenozoic localities

of Italy and Spain. Unicosiphonia cf. U

crenulata is a characteristic fossil of the

Pleistocene which is here recorded for the

first time in the Mediterranean region.

There are some interesting points about

the assemblage. The majority of the species

are cold-water forms. In fact this as-

semblage, mainly composed of representa-

tives of the families Textulariidae and Buli-

minidae, can well be compared with that.

living today in the deeper waters of the

Recent Mediterranean (see for example the

ecological studies of Colom (1942) and Said

and Kamel (in press) on the Recent Medi-

terranean fauna). The presence of this

deep-water fauna in the ancient shallow

Nile Valley gulf can be interpreted only as

indicating a cold climate in Egypt at the

time of the deposition of this formation.

The distribution of the detrital sandy facies

in the gulf shows that the climate was also

wet. |

This type of cool wet climate compares |

well with the climate of the Calabrian |

JANUARY 1955

stage, now regarded on the basis of this

kind of climate as belonging to the lower

Pleistocene (Migliorini, 1948, and Movius,

1949).

This assemblage from Helwan includes

many species that do not appear in the Pho-

cene-Pleistocene succession of the Rovigo

boring, Italy (di Napoli-Alliata, 1946),

except in the Calabrian. These species that

seem to indicate the onset of the Calabrian

stage are: Textularia abbreviata, T. acicu-

lata, T. sagittula, and Discorbis orbicularia.

From these two interesting observations

it would seem that the ‘‘Pliocene”’ outcrop

of Helwan should be assigned to the Cala-

brian stage that opens the Pleistocene

period. Such an assignment would have far

reaching implications inasmuch as it would

put the entire evolutionary history of the

River Nile m the post lower Pleistocene

time. A reevaluation and re-dating of the

terraces left behind the Nile in pre-human

times should therefore be investigated in

the light of this new evidence.

Although this study has been restricted

to the Helwan area, it is possible that all

other outcrops of the Nile Valley described

as Pliocene may also belong to the Calabrian

stage since all can well be correlated on the

basis of their fossil content and stratigraph-

ical relations with those of Helwan. If

such is the case the very presence of Plio-

-cene marine deposits in Egypt is question-

able. Work on the revision of the macro-

fauna of the so-called Pliocene of Egypt is

now in progress.

Origin of the fawna—There can be no

doubt that the foraminiferal fauna de-

scribed here is Mediterranean in aspect.

However two facts remain to be noted. The

complete absence of Indo-Pacific species in

the assemblage is interesting inasmuch as

it confirms the conclusions reached by Cox

(1929), Picard (1943) and Sandford and

Arkell (1939) as to the absence of any con-

nection between the Mediterranean and the

Red Sea since Miocene times. On the other

hand, Said and Yallouze (in press) have

shown recently from an analysis of the

‘Miocene faunas of Gebel Oweibid, Egypt,

that even though the fauna is overwhelm-

ingly Mediterranean in aspect it also in-

‘cludes some elements of the Indo-Pacific

SAID: FORAMINIFERA FROM EGYPT 9

region—a fact which points to a temporary

ingression of the Indo-Pacific. The com-

position of the Helwan Calabrian foraminif-

eral fauna seems to show that this con-

nection ceased entirely during the Pliocene

and lower Pleistocene time—contrary to

Ball’s paleogeographic map (1939), which

shows a connection between the Mediter-

ranean and the Red Sea during the Pliocene.

The second fact to be noted is the pres-

ence of Cibicides gibbosa and C. rhodiensis,

typical lower Pleistocene Mediterranean

species in the Recent waters of the Red

Sea. This can be explained only by assum-

ing a temporary connection between the

Mediterranean and the Red Sea in post

lower Pleistocene time to allow for the mi-

gration of these species. Such a connection

must have been very temporary, since it

did not substantially affect the aspect of the

faunas of both seas which remain distinct.

This assumed connection is confirmed by

the presence of a marine level in the clysmic

area common to both the Mediterranean

and the Red Sea (as described by Hume

and Little, 1928) and dated as Midde

Paleolithic.

Family TEXTULARIIDAE

Genus Textularia Defrance, 1824

Textularia abbreviata d’Orbigny

Textularia abbreviata d’Orbigny, Foram. Foss.

Vienne: 249, pl. 15, figs. 9-12. 1849.

This distinct species occurs in small numbers

in the samples from Helwan. This species has

been noted from the Miocene of central Europe,

but does not seem to appear in the Mediterranean

until the Calabrian. It is also recorded from the

Recent seas.

Textularia cf. T. aciculata d’Orbigny

Textularia aciculata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7:

pl. 11, figs. 1-4. 1826.

A few specimens that seem to belong to this

species occur in the Helwan material. Specimens

are slightly longer and thinner particularly at

their initial end than in the typical form. This

species appears in the Mediterranean deposits

only since the Calabrian.

Textularia candeiana d’Orbigny

Textularia candeiana d’Orbigny, in de la Sagra,

Hist. Phys. Pol. Nat. Cuba, “Foraminiféres’’:

143, p. 1, figs. 25-27. 1839.

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The distribution of this species in the Recent

waters is cosmopolitan. In the modern Mediter-

ranean it lives in the deeper waters, together with

other representatives of the family Textulariidae.

Textularia neorugosa Thalmann

Textularia neorugosa Thalmann, Contr. Cushman

Found. Foram. Res. 1: 45. 950.

This cosmopolitan species occurs abundantly

in the Helwan material. Test large, robust;

chambers numerous with their lower margins

excavated and with overhanging lateral lobula-

tions; sutures irregularly rugose; peripheral mar-

gin of the test subacute. Specimens resemble those

recorded from the Red Sea (Said, Contr. Cush-

man Found. Foram. Res., 1: 5, pl. 1, fig. 5,

1929.).

Textularia pseudorugosa Lacroix

Textularia pseudorugosa Lacroix, Bull.

Oceanogr. 582: 11, fig. 3 (in text). 1931.

Inst.

This is a Mediterranean species known from

the deeper Recent waters of this Sea. It is a well-

defined species with a rapidly expanding keeled

test, distinct sutures, and numerous chambers

three times as wide as high.

Textularia sagittula Defrance

Textularia sagittula Defrance, Dict. Sci. Nat. 32:

177. 1824; 53: 344. 1828; Atlas Conch.; pl. 18,

fig. 5. 1824.

This is a deep-water Mediterranean species

that is recorded in small numbers in the outcrop

studied.

Family MInioLipar

Genus Quinqueloculina d’Orbigny, 1826

Quinqueloculina foliacea (Terquem)

Triloculina foliacea Terquem, Mém. Soc. Géol.

France, ser. 3, 1, pt. 3: 60, pl. 6, figs. la-e.

1878.

Specimens of this Lower Pleistocene species of

the Mediterranean region are found in small

numbers in the Helwan material. The test is

somewhat foliated with the foliae extending in

keel-like projections at the edge of the chambers.

This is a distinct and well-defined species.

Family Lacenrpan

Genus Robulus Montfort, 1808

Robulus cultratus (Montfort)

Robulina cultrata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7:

287, no. 1. 1826; Modéles no. 82. 1826.

vou. 45, No. 1

This cosmopolitan species is found in small

numbers in the Egyptian material. According to

Cushman and McCulloch (Allan Hancock

Pacific Exped. 6 (6): 296, 1950) this species is re-

corded from deep waters at an average depth of

65 to 90 fathoms. Our specimens lack the keeled

periphery of specimens of many authors although

they resemble the forms recorded from the late

Tertiary deposits of the Mediterranean region by

the earlier workers.

Genus Nodosaria Lamarck, 1812

Nodosaria sulcata d’Orbigny

Nodosaria sulcata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7:

253, no. 21. 1826. Cushman, Cushman Lab.

Foram. Res. Special Publ. 13: 12, pl. 2, fig. 2;

pl. 3, fig. 2. 1945.

A few specimens of this species, which is known

from the Italian Pliocene and Recent Mediter-

ranean, are recorded in Helwan. They are always

2-chambered and costate.

Family NONIONIDAE

Genus Nonion Montfort, 1808

Nonion ibericum Cushman

Nonion ibericum Cushman, U. 8S. Geol. Surv.

Prof. Paper 191: 17, pl. 4, figs. 17, 18. 1939.

A few typical specimens of this species are

found in Helwan. The small test, the rounded

periphery, the umbilical plug, and the sigmoidal

sutures characterize this species. This is a

Pleistocene species recorded previously from

Malaga, Spain.

Nonion pompiloides (Fichtel and Moll)

Nonion umbilicatula d’Orbigny, Ann. Sei. Nat. 7:

293, pl. 15, figs. 10-12. 1826.

Nonion pompiloides Cushman, U. 8. Geol. Surv.

Prof. Paper 191: 19, pl. 5, figs. 9-12. 1939.

A few specimens of this species are recorded

from Helwan. Specimens are smaller than is usual

and are thinner. This is mainly a Mediterranean

species known from the late Cenozoic and Recent

waters of this region as well as from many other

localities.

Genus Elphidium Montfort, 1808

Elphidium crispum Linné

Elphidium crispum Cushman, Contr. Cushman

Lab. Foram. Res. 5: 20, pl. 4, figs. 3, 4. 1929.

Several typical specimens of this Mediter-

ranean species are recorded from the Helwan

material.

JANUARY 1955

Family PoLyMORPHINIDAE

Genus Pyrulina d’Orbigny, 1830

Pyrulina fusiformis (Roemer)

Polymorphina fusiformis Roemer, Neues Jahrb.

fur Min., ete., 1838: 386, pl. 3, fig. 37.

Pyrulina fusiformis Cushman and Ozawa, Proc.

U. S: Nat. Mus. 77 (art. 6): 54, pl. 13) figs.

3-8. 1930.

This deep-water species, recorded from

modern seas and late Tertiary deposits of the

Mediterranean region, is noted in small numbers

in the Helwan material. Specimens differ slightly

from those of the deep Atlantic by having more

depressed sutures.

Family BULIMINIDAE

Genus Bulimina d’Orbigny, 1826

Bulimina acanthia Costa

Bulimina acanthia Costa, Atti. Accad. Pont. 8,

pt. 2: 335, pl. 13, figs. 35, 36. 1856.

A few specimens of this species occur in our

material. The chambers are inflated particularly

in the latter part of the test with sight overhang-

ing but are not ornamented with any spines. This

species Is common in the Italian Pliocene.

Bulimina buchiana d’Orbigny

Bulimina buchiana d’Orbigny, Foram. Fossiles

Bassin Vienne: 186, pl. 11, figs. 15-18. 1846.

This Miocene Mediterranean species is found

in the Helwan material in abundance. Specimens

are smaller than usual and the test is ornamented

with extremely fine longitudinal costae. The

chambers are inflated and there is no overhanging.

Bulimina costata d’Orbigny

Bulimina costata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7:

269, no. 1, 1826.

This species occurs in abundance in the

Egyptian material. Specimens are typical. This

species seems to be one of the autochthonous forms

of the Mediterranean region that has been re-

corded from since the Miocene to the Recent. It

is also recorded off the coast of Ireland.

Bulimina elongata d’Orbigny

Bulimina elongata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7:

269, no. 9. 1826.

This species is found in abundance in the

Egyptian material. Specimens have an elongate

slender test, inflated and angled chambers, and

smooth polished wall. Our specimens resemble

those recorded from the Mediterranean area.

SAID: FORAMINIFERA FROM EGYPT 11

This species ranges from the Eocene to the Re-

cent and seems to have its origin in the Mediter-

ranean region.

Bulimina gibba Fornasini

Bulimina gibba Fornasini, Mem. Accad. Sci. Ist.

Bologna, ser. 5, 9: 378, pl. O, figs. 32-34. 1901.

This species was recorded in the top part of

the section. Specimens are typical except that

very faint costae appear on the otherwise smooth

and polished test. The terminal basal spine is

lacking, but there are short spines that ornament

the base. The chambers are distinct, regularly

triserial, slightly inflated and offset so as to give

a slight twist to the test.

Bulimina inflata Seguenza

Bulimina inflata Seguenza, Atti Accad. Gioenia

Sci. Nat., ser. 2, 18: 25, pl. 1, fig. 10. 1862.

This Mediterranean and east Atlantic species

occurs in the Egyptian material in small numbers.

Test widest near top with the last whorl forming

about one-third of the entire length. This species

is characterized by having broad costae, a

rapidly tapermg test and chambers that do not

overhang. This is one of the species that has

probably invaded the Mediterranean in a cold

period. It is common in the Pleistocene of Italy.

Records of this species in older sediments need

revision.

Bulimina pupoides d’Orbigny

Bulimina pupoides d’Orbigny, Foram. Fossiles

Bassin Vienne: 185, pl. 11, figs. 11, 12. 1846.

A few specimens of this species are found in

the top beds of the Helwan section. They ap-

proach in their structural detail those recorded

from the Mediterranean region. Specimens lack,

however, the lip and the tooth in the aperture.

This species has a long record but is common in

the late Cenozoic of the Mediterranean region.

Genus Bolivina d’Orbigny

Bolivina aenariensis (Costa)

Brizalina aenariensis Costa, Atti Accad. Pont. 8,

pt. 2: 297, pl. 15, figs. 1A, B. 1856.

This is a late Tertiary Mediterranean species

that has been much confused. Specimens look

very much similar to those recorded from the

Pliocene of Coroncina, Italy, in having an elon-

gate test without a spine at the base, sutures

slightly limbate and strongly curved, and the

characteristic costae on the surface extending

from the base to the middle of the test.

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Bolivina catanensis Seguenza

Bolivina catanensis Seguenza, Atti Accad. Gioenia

Sci. Nat., ser. 2, 18: 29, pl. 2, figs. 3, 3a, 3b.

1862.

This is a typical Mediterranean species that is

recorded from the Pleistocene of Italy. Speci-

mens are compressed and have an elongate test

which is occasionally twisted in its initial end.

Bolivina cf. B. compacta Sidebottom

Boliwina robusta var. compacta Sidebottom, Mem.

Proc. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 49 (5): 15, pl.

3, fig. 7. 1905.

A few specimens that seem to belong to this

species are found in Helwan. Specimens differ

from typical in having a more roughened ex-

terior, a rounded initial end, and a more elongate

test. This is a Mediterranean species that has

been recorded from many Recent seas at different

depths.

Genus Reussella Galloway, 1933

Reussella spinulosa (Reuss)

Verneuilina spinulosa Reuss, Denkschr. Akad.

Wiss. Wien. 1: 374, pl. 47, fig. 12. 1850.

Verneuilina spinulosa Reuss, Denkschr. Akad.

Wiss. Wien 1: 374, pl. 47, fig. 12. 1850.

A few typical specimens of this cosmopolitan

species are found in the Helwan material.

Genus Uvigerina d’Orbigny, 1826

Uvigerina costai Said, new name

Uvigerina striata Costa (non d’Orbigny), Atti

Accad. Pont. 7 (fase. 2): p. 266, pl. 15, fig. 3.

1856—Cushman and Todd, Contr. Cushman

Lab. Foram. Res. 17: 71, pl. 17, fig. 4. 1941.

Specimens resembling Costa’s figures for this

species have been found in the Helwan material.

Test moderate in size for the genus, elongate,

circular in transverse section, base tapering;

chambers equal, rather large, slightly inflated;

sutures distinct; wall with fine longitudinal striae

interrupted at the sutures, extending through the

length of the test equally; aperture at the end of

a short neck, very slightly lipped.

This species deserves a new name as U. striata

has been used by d’Orbigny in 1826 for a Recent

species.

Genus Unicosiphonia Cushman, 1935

Unicosiphonia cf. U. crenulata Cushman

Unicosiphonia crenulata Cushman, Contr. Cush-

man Lab. Foram. Res. 11: 81, pl. 12, figs. 9,

10. 1935.

vou. 45, No. 1

A few specimens of this species are found in

Helwan section. Specimens are slightly different

in having a more rounded initial end that does

not show any traces of biseriality and in having

more poorly developed crenulations. This is the

first record of this species in the Mediterranean

region.

Family RoraiipAE

Genus Discorbis Lamarck, 1804

Discorbis orbicularis (Terquem)

Discorbina orbicularis H. B. Brady, Rep. Voy.

Challenger, Zoology, 9: 647, pl. 88, figs. 4-8.

1884.

This is mainly a Mediterranean east Atlantic

species of wide geographical distribution in

Recent waters. It is also recorded from the late

Tertiary deposits of the Mediterranean region,

although it seems not to have invaded the Recent

Mediterranean except in the Calabrian time.

Family AMPHISTEGINIDAE

Genus Asterigerina d’Orbigny, 1839

Asterigerina rhodiensis Terquem

Asterigerina rhodiensis Terquem, Mém. Soc.

Géol. France, ser. 3, 1, pt. 3:31, pl. 3, figs. 1-4.

1878. ©

Typical specimens of this species recorded

from the lower Pleistocene of the Isle of Rhodes

are recorded in abundance in the Helwan material.

Family GLOBIGERINIDAE

Genus Globigerina d’Orbigny, 1826

Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny

Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat.

7: 277, no. 1. 1826; Modeles nos. 17, 76. 1826.—

Cushman, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res.

17: p. 38, pl. 10, figs. 1-13. 1941.

Typical and well-preserved specimens of this

species are recorded in large numbers at the top

beds of the Helwan section. They agree in detail

with d’Orbigny’s original descriptions and mod-

els. The occurrence of this species in abundance

indicates conditions where the effect of freshening

of water was not felt.

Family ANOMALINIDAE

Genus Planulina d’Orbigny, 1826

Planulina sp.

Test much compressed, partly evolute, earlier

chambers visible from both sides; chambers

JANUARY 1955

numerous; sutures distinct, flush with the surface,

eurved slightly toward the periphery; ventral

side umbilicate; wall perforate, smooth; aperture

at the base of the last chamber at the median

line. The compressed large test and the wide

circular umbilicus of the ventral side distinguish

this species found in very small numbers in the

top bed of the Helwan section.

Genus Cibicides Montfort, 1808

Cibicides gibbosa (Terquem)

Anomalina gibbosa Terquem, Mém. Soc. Géol.

France, ser. 3,1, pt. 3: 24, pl. 2, fig. 7. 1878.

Cibicides gibbosa Said, Cushman Lab. Foram. Res.

Special Publ. 26: 48, pl. 4, fig. 19. 1949.

Typical specimens of this species hitherto re-

corded from the Lower Pleistocene of the Isle of

Rhodes and the Recent Red Sea are found in

large numbers in the Helwan material. This

species is biconvex and is coarsely perforate. It

possesses the apertural characteristics of the

genus Cibicidoides Brotzen, 1936. The author

prefers to place this species in the genus Cibicides

until the validity of the genus Cibicidoides is

cleared (see Hofker, 1951, Siboga Exped. m1).

Cibicides lobatulus (Walker and Jacob)

Truncatulina lobatula H. B. Brady, Rep. Voy.

Challenger, Zoology, 9: 660, pl. 92, fig. 10; pl. 93,

figs. 1, 4, 5; pl. 95, figs. 4, 5. 1884.

Typical specimens of this cosmopolitan species

are found in the Helwan material. According to

Cushman this is a ‘‘very common species in cool

waters.” There are records, however, of this

species in deeper tropical waters and in tropical

shallow seas, but such records probably need

revision.

Cibicides refulgens Montfort

Cibicides refulgens Cushman, U. 8. Nat. Mus.,

Bull. 104, pt. 8: 116 pl. 21, figs. 2a-c. 1931.

This is a cosmopolitan species that is par-

ticularly abundant in cool waters of the modern

seas, according to H. B. Brady.

SAID: FORAMINIFERA FROM EGYPT 13

Cibicides rhodiensis (Terquem)

Truncatulina rhodiensis Terquem, Mém. Soc.

Géol. France, ser. 3, 1, pt. 3: 21, pl. 1, fig. 26.

1878.

Cibicides rhodiensis Said, Cushman Lab. Foram.

Res. Special Publ. 26: p. 42, pl. 4, fig. 16. 1949.

This species recorded from the Lower Pleisto-

cene of the Isle of Rhodes and the Recent Red

Sea is found in abundance in Helwan. The dis-

tribution of this species can be explained only if

we assume a temporary connection to have

existed between the Mediterranean and the Red

Sea sometime in the Pleistocene. Specimens are

typical and abundant.

REFERENCES

Batu, J. Contributions to the geography of Egypt:

Survey of Egypt. 1939.

BLANCKENHORN, M. Neues zur Geologie und Paleon-

tologie Aegyptens: IV. Das Pliozan. Zeitschr.

deutschen geol. Ges. 53: 307-502. 1903.

. Handbuch der regionalen Geologie, Aegypten.

Heidelberg, 1921.

Cotom, G. Una contribucién al conocimiento de los

foraminiferos de la Bahia de Palma de Mallorca.

Notas y Res. Inst. Espaftiol Oceanografia,

ser. 2, no. 108. 1942.

Cox, L. R. Notes on the post-Miocene Ostereidae

etc. Proc. Malac. Soc. London 48, pts. 4 and 5:

165-209. 1929.

Hume, W. F., and Lirrin, O. H. Raised beaches and

terraces of Egypt. C. R. Union Geogr. Intern.,

Paris (session 14, 1926) : 9-15. 1928.

Movius, H. M. Villafranchian stratigraphy in

southern and southwestern Europe. Journ.

Geol. 57: 380-412. 1949.

Napour-Auuiata, EK. Dr. Contributo all conoscenza

della stratigrafia del Pliocene e del Calabriano

nella regione di Rovigo. Riv. Ital. Paleontologia

52: 19-36. 1946.

Picarp, L. The structure and evolution of Palestine.

Bull. Geol. Dept. Hebrew University 4, Nos.

2-4. 1943.

Sai, R., and Kame, T. Recent littoral Foraminif-

era from the Egyptian Mediterranean coast

between Saloum and Bardia. (In press.)

Sarip, R., and YaunouzE. Miocene fauna from

Gebel Oweibid, Egypt. Bull. Inst. Egypte.

(In press.)

Sanprorp, K.S., and ArkeL., W. J. Paleolithic

man and the Nile Valley in Lower Egypt.

Oriental Inst. Publ. 46. 1939.

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 1

PALEONTOLOGY .—A new species of Cymbiocrinus from the Pitkin. HARRELL L.

Srrimeie, Bartlesville, Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.)

The form described below as Cymbio-

crinus pitkini, n. sp., is from the Pitkin

formation, Chester, of the Cookson Hills

southeast of Fort Gibson, Okla. Strong

affinity with Pennsylvanian representatives

of the Ampelocrinidae is indicated.

DENDROCRINOIDEA Bather

AMPELOCRINIDAE Kirk

Cymbiocrinus Kirk, 1944

Cymbiocrinus pitkini, n. sp.

Fig. 1

Description.—The crown of the holotype is 43

mm high; the dorsal cup is about 2.5 mm high by

9.6 mm wide.

Dorsal cup is shallowly bowl-shaped, with

shallow basal concavity. IBB small, confined to

the basal concavity and entirely covered by the

pentagonal shaped proximal columnals. BB are

five, small, and form sides of the basal concavity

but curve upward to participate slightly in the

lateral walls of the cup. RR are five large elements

with width slightly greater than length. The

single anal plate is quadrangular, resting evenly

on the truncated upper edge of post. B, and does

not extend above the cup height.

There are 10 long, slow-tapering, uniserial

arms. PBr is low, wide, with lateral sides taper-

ing slightly. Axillary PBre is large, lateral sides

expanding for a short distance thence sloping

rapidly to the apex of the plate. SBrBr are

remarkably regular segments. Each SBr appears

to have two well-developed though thin pinnules

of moderate length, one on each lateral side. There

is no demonstrated tendency toward fusion, or

syzygy, other than between PBr; and PBro.

The tegmen, or anal sac, has not been ob-

served.

Remarks.—The arms of C. pitkini serve most

readily to distinguish it from other described

species. The regularity of the relatively thick

SBrBr, with no tendency toward cuneiformity

or syzygial pairs, in unique for known species

referred to this genus. C. gravis Strimple (1951),

from the slightly older Fayetteville formation,

has cuneiform arms, and the axillary PBrs has

no lateral sides, so that the first SBr is in contact

with PBr;. The basal plates of C. gravis are more

pronounced and bulbous than those of C. pitkini.

Both species have pentagonal stems and in that

respect are distinct from all other known species

of Cymbiocrinus.

Occurrence.-—Approximately 4 miles southeast

of Greenleaf Lake in bluff overlooking the

Arkansas River, Cookson Hills, Okla.; upper

Pitkin limestone formation, Chester, Mississip-

pian.

Types.—Holotype and paratype collected by

the author. To be deposited in the U. 8. National

Museum.

REFERENCES

Kirk, Epwin. Amer. Journ. Sci. 242: 233-245.

1944.

Srrimpie, Harretrt L. Bull. Amer. Pal. Soc.

33(137): 18, 19, pl. 4, figs. 4-6. 1951.

Fie. 1.—Cymbiocrinus pitkini, n. sp. View of

holotype from the posterior, X 1.7

JANUARY 1955 NEWHOUSE ET AL.:

IMMATURE SARCOPHAGIDAE 15

ENTOMOLOGY —The immature stages of Sarcophaga cooleyi, 8. bullata, and

S. shermani (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). VERNE F. Newnouse, Davin W.

WaLker, and Mavricr T. JamrEs, State College of Washington.

This paper describes the immature stages

of three species of saprophagous flies,

Sarcophaga cooleyi Parker, S. bullata Parker,

and S. shermani Parker. These flies show

an extremely close relationship to one

another as adults, and this affinity is even

more completely borne out by comparative

study of their larval stages.

Greene (1925) described briefly and illus-

trated the puparia of Sarcophaga cooleyz and

S. bullata. The larva of S. bullata, un-

doubtedly third stage though not expressly

so stated, is also briefly discussed and

figured. Knipling (1936) described more

fully the first instar of S. bullata, in com-

parison with some other species of the same

genus, and illustrated the cephalopharyngeal

apparatus, the entire larva, and the pattern

and morphology of the setulae. Root (1923)

discussed the morphology and _ specific

characters of sarcophagid larvae including

bullata, with special emphasis on spiracular

characters. As far as we can ascertain there

has been no published study of the larval

forms of S. shermani.

This present study was initiated with the

hope of distinguishing more clearly these

important, closely related species and of

facilitating their identification in the future.

A great amount of the preliminary work

on this study was done during the summer of

1951 by David W. Walker and presented in

a thesis submitted as partial fulfillment of

requirements for a M.S. degree in ento-

mology at the State College of Washington.

Material for Mr. Walker’s study, as well

as for this one, was obtained through studies

supported in part by funds provided for

biological and medical research by the State

of Washington, Initiative Measure no. 171.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Material for study was taken from labora-

tory colonies, reared at the State College of

Washington, from stocks originally collected

in various areas of the State. Samples were

taken from well established colonies which

had been carried through as many as 27

generations. Although larvae of all ages

were examined, the most fully developed of

each instar were selected wherever possible

as it was felt that this would show most

typically the anatomical characters of that

instar.

In all stages of all species except one

(Sarcophaga bullata) second instar, of which

18 specimens were studied), at least 50

and as many as 300 specimens were ex-

amined.

For fixation, eggs and larvae were placed

in water and heated to the boiling point for

30 seconds. The water was then decanted

and the specimens were carried through

70 per cent alcohol for 24 hours, into abso-

lute alcohol for a similar time period, drained,

placed in xylene for 24 hours, and finally

stored in clove oil. Those for gross examina-

tion were retained in 70 per cent alcohol.

Larvae for the purpose of illustration were

removed from alcohol, cut in half, and boiled

in concentrated potassium hydroxide until

the integument was clear and the body

contents removed. The cephalopharyngeal

apparatus was examined under clove oil at

magnification of 45 diameters, and all draw-

ings were made with the aid of a micrometer

grid. As sarcophagid flies are normally

larviparous, eggs were obtained by dissec-

tion or by forcing them from the abdomen

of gravid flies before the development of the

larvae.

Sarcophaga cooleyi Parker

Sarcophaga cooley: Parker, Can. Ent. 46: 417-423.

1914.

Egg.—White; smooth; slightly curved, tapered

moderately toward one end. Length 1.10 mm,

diameter 0.333 mm.

First stage larva.—White; muscidiform; length

1.50 to 4.75 mm, diameter 0.75 mm; cuticle

nearly smooth. Anterior and/or posterior margin

of each segment possessing many hooklike

setulae arranged around the segmental circum-

ference in the form of a band. Spinous bands very

prominent; setulae dark brown in color; bands

complete on segments 2 through 12. Band on

segment 2 (first thoracic) very broad, especially

ventrally just posterior to mouth hooks. Bands

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCEINCES

on anterior margins usually complete on seg-

ments 2 through 9; incomplete on segments

10 through 12. Bands on posterior margins

usually absent on segments 2 through 4; com-

plete on segments 9 through 11; and incomplete

on segments 5 through 8. Dorsal and lateral

portions of bands on segments 5 through 12 not

as heavy or dark as on the more anterior seg-

ments. Larvae metapneustic; prothoracic spiracles

non-functional but may be visible beneath

integument, especially just before the molt.

Caudal pair of spiracles situated in a shallow

cavity, each unit consisting of two elongated

spiracular openings lying side by side, their inner

sides confluent and their axis dorsoventral.

Distance between each spiracle approximately

equal to the width of one spiracle. Peritreme

absent. Posterior tubercles weakly developed;

may appear to be absent. Opening of spiracular

cavity bordered with nearly complete ring of

setulae or darkened cuticular papillae. Anal

tubercles small but prominent. Anal opening

surrounded by patch of black setulae.

Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 1).—Labial

sclerite well formed, heavily pigmented. Mouth

hooks fused, or in process of fusing postero-

ventrally. Hooks arising from anterodorsal corner

of sclerite, extending forward in a smooth even

curve, terminating in a sharp point above the

median longitudinal axis of the sclerite.1 An-

terior lower edge of sclerite more or less sharp

and truncate. Hypostomal] sclerite small; from a

lateral aspect wedge-shaped, broadened pos-

teriorly, narrowed anteriorly; from a ventral

aspect much less pigmented, broad and _ thick

posteriorly, extending anteriorly as two thin

lateral processes. Small accessory sclerite be-

tween mouth hooks not visible. Dental sclerite

apparently absent. Pharyngeal sclerite well de-

veloped; well pigmented. Anterior process of

ventral portion possessing a small sclerotized

extension which protrudes posteriorly. Upper

posterior end of ventral cornu heavily pigmented,

protruding upward and outward beyond

lower edge. Over-all length of skeleton 0.455 to

0.546 mm.

Second stage larva——White; muscidiform;

length 5.0 to 9.0 mm, diameter 0.75 to 1.75 mm.

Entire cuticle covered with minute papillae

1 The median longitudinal axis is here defined

as a line drawn through the body of the sclerite

from back to front midway between the posterior

corners and roughly parallel to the lower edge.

vou. 45, No. 1

except the anterior margin of each segment which

possesses many hookline setulae; anterior spinous

bands prominent, setulae dark brown in color.

Lateral margins of oral opening possessing

minute ridges which radiate from the opening.

Band on segment 2 sometimes divided, either

with a heavy patch of setulae dorsally and

ventrally, or with the band complete but with its

lateral portions weakly developed; band some-

times obscured as a result of retraction of the

cephalic segment. Bands on anterior margins

usually complete on segments 2 through 9 or 10;

incomplete on segments 10 or 11 through 12.

Bands on posterior margins usually absent on

segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5

through 7; complete on segments 8 through 11.

Larvae amphipneustic; prothoracic spiracle near

posterior margin of segment 2 (first thoracic),

prominently divided into 12 to 15 digits, each

terminating in an oval spiracular opening.

Caudal spiracles, each composed of two slit-like

openings, situated in a deep cavity; peritreme

present but weakly developed. Spiracles almost

contiguous at upper inner border. Posterior

tubercles humplike; posterior cavity bordered

with complete ring of setulae or darkened

integumental papillae. Anal tubercles prominent

and fingerlike. Anal opening surrounded by

small patch of black setulae.

Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 2).—Labial

sclerite heavy, deeply pigmented; hook extending

from upper anterior corner of sclerite outward

and downward in a smooth curve, but terminating

above the median longitudinal axis of the sclerite.

Lower anterior corner of sclerite possessing a

rounded toothlike protuberance; the sliverlike

dental sclerite clearly visible just posterior to this

protuberance. Accessory sclerite slender, lying

between posterior ends of labial sclerites, extend-

ing downwards below the edge of the labial

sclerite so as to give the impression of a small

ventral process on the sclerite when viewed from

a lateral aspect. Hypostomal sclerite narrowed

anteriorly, fused basely to the pharyngeal

sclerite. Paired infrahypostomal sclerites weakly

developed, lightly pigmented; visible from dorsal

aspect between anterior arms of hypostomal

sclerite. Pharyngeal sclerite lightly pigmented;

parastomal sclerite rather thick, blunt; dorso-

pharyngeal sclerite lightly pigmented, flattened

anteriorly. Ventral cornu thickened posteriorly;

the upper edge bending dorsally and possessing a

small, weakly developed fenestra, the lower edge

JANUARY 1955 NEWHOUSE ET AL.: IMMATURE SARCOPHAGIDAE 17

Fias. 1-9.—Cephalopharyngeal skeletons of Sarcophaga, lateral (upper figure) and ventral (lower

figure) views: 1, S. cooleyi, first instar; 2, same, second instar; 3, same, third instar. 4, S. bullata, first

instar; 5, same, second instar; 6, same, third instar. 7, S. shermani, first instar; 8, same, second instar;

), same, third instar. Drawn by Verne F. Newhouse. Drawings in each case based on representative

specimens of the series studied.

extending posteriorly. Over-all length of skeleton

usually about 0.966 mm.

Third stage larva.—White, muscidiform; length

8.75 to 20.25 mm; at maturity (average of 10)

19.17 mm. Diameter 1.5 to 4.5 mm. Entire cuticle

covered with minute papillae except the anterior

margin of each segment which possesses many

hooklike setulae. Spinous band on segment 2

(first thoracic) incomplete; large patch of setulae

posterior to mouth hooks, similar patch dorsally

but lateral extensions of band incomplete. Oral

margin posessing small ridges which radiate from

the oral cavity, extending well laterally on the

cephalic segment. Spious bands complete on

segments 2 through 12. Bands on anterior margins

usually complete on segments 2 through 10;

incomplete on segments 11 and 12. Bands on

posterior margins usually absent on segments 2

through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 8;

and complete on segments 9 through 11. Pro-

thoracic spiracles prominent, divided into 9 to

17 digits, but more commonly into 14 to 16.

Caudal spiracles, each divided into three slit-

like openings, situated in a deep cavity. Peritreme

prominent, strongly developed; extending dorsally

and medially to form a rather sharp upper inside

angle, then laterally and ventrally in a rather

regular curve to terminate directly beneath the

innermost slit. Ratio of width of one spiracle to

distance between spiracles 5.77 to 3.75 (average

of 10). Posterior tubercles slender and fingerlike.

Spiracular cavity bordered by ring of microscopic

setulae or dark papillae. Anal tubercles large

and fingerlike, depending from a prominent anal

process. Anal opening surrounded by small patch

of black setulae in contrast to colorless setulae

of body in general.

Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 3).—Labial

sclerite strongly developed, heavily pigmented;

hook arising from upper anterior angle of sclerite,

extending straight outward, then bending down-

ward in a rather sharp curve. Front angle below

tooth sharp, truncate. Dental sclerite strongly

developed. Accessory sclerite protrudes below

lower edge of labia] sclerite, appearing from lateral

aspect as a process of that sclerite. Hypostomal

sclerite roughly rectangular, more narrowed

anteriorly than posteriorly. Paired infrahy-

postomal sclerites visible between and below

arms of hypostomal sclerite. Pharyngeal sclerite

heavily pigmented medially, but lightly pig-

mented distally. Dorsopharyngeal sclerite lightly

pigmented except for extreme upper anterior

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 1

flattened area. Parastomal sclerite rather heavy,

blunt. Dorsal cornu possessing an elongated,

narrow fenestra; ventral cornu thickened pos-

teriorly, possessing a small, weakly developed

fenestra in upper posterior corner. Lower edge of

ventral cornu (sometimes almost indiscernible)

convex. Lines of axis of dorsal and ventral

cornu divergent posteriorly. Overall length of

skeleton usually about 1.70 mm.

Pupa.—Elliptical, dull dark red; 8.5 to 11 mm

in length, 3 to 5 mm in diameter. Opening

of spiracular cavity oval to elliptical. Spira-

cular plate on roof of posterior cavity shining

deep red-brown; slits almost white in contrast.

Tubercles surrounding posterior cavity flat-

tened, distorted. Ana] tubercles prominent.

Posterior tubercles connected to anal tubercles

by a broad, rounded ridge. Spinous bands

complete on segments 3 through 12. Pro-

throacic spiracles evident, but number of digits

usually not discernible.

Sarcophaga bullata Parker

Sarcophaga bullata Parker, Can. Ent. 48: 359-364.

1916.

Egg.—Unfertilized egg at time of copulation

white, translucent; 0.49 mm in length, 0.30 mm

in diameter. Shape almost as hen’s egg. Entire

surface covered with minute depressions or pits.”

Mature egg as in cooleyi; length 1.25 mm.

Distinctly tapered anteriorly. Developing larva

distinctly visible within.

First stage larva—White, muscidiform, as in

cooleyt. Newly hatched larva 2 to 2.5 mm in

length; 0.5 mm in diameter. Spinous bands con-

siderably more prominent than in cooleyi, almost

black im color; not divided to as great an extent

by plicae except ventrally. Bands on anterior

margins usually complete on segments 2 through

7; incomplete on segments 8 through 10; and

absent on segments 11 and 12. Bands on pos-

terior margins usually absent on segments 1

through 6; incomplete on segments 5 through 8;

and complete on segments 9 through 11. Anal

tubercles more fingerlike than in cooley.

Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 4).—Labial

sclerite well developed. Mouth hook arising as in

cooleyi, but more slender and raised higher from

median longitudinal axis of sclerite. Posterior

2 This degree in development unfortunately ©

could not be accurately matched in the other

species, therefore cannot be compared.

JANUARY 1955

articulation process extending laterally, very

slender. Accessory sclerite visible between labial

sclerites. Hypostomal sclerite thickened pos-

teriorly. Anterior extensions of ventral cornu not

possessing a dorsal process. Pharyngeal sclerite

smaller and lighter in pigment than in cooleyi.

Ventral cornu not extending dorsally, but ap-

pearing bifurcated apically as a result of in-

complete sclerotization. Over-all length of

skeleton 0.483 mm.

Second stage larva—Much as in cooley?. Larva

apparently slightly larger. Length 5.25 to 9.25

mm, diameter 0.75 to 2.25 mm. Setulae of cuticle

black; bands on segments 2 through 12 complete.

Band on segment 2 very broad, especially

ventrally. Bands on anterior margins usually

complete on segments 2 through 7; incomplete on

segments 10 through 12. Bands on posterior

margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4;

incomplete on segments 5 through 8, complete on

segments 9 through 11. Narrow band of setulae

partially surrounding base of anal prominence.

Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 5).—Labial

sclerite more slender than in cooleyi. Hook ex-

tending below the median logitudinal] axis of the

sclerite. Small tooth on lower anterior edge of

sclerite more prominent, sharper than in cooley7.

Dental sclerite obvious. Slender accessory sclerite

larger, extending more ventrad and caudad,

appearing from lateral aspect as a long pro-

tuberance on labial sclerite. Hypostomal and

infrahypostomal sclerites as in cooleyi. Pharyngeal

sclerite lightly pigmented. Parastomal sclerite

slender, usually bent up at the tip. Dorsopharyn-

geal sclerite more heavily pigmented, anterior

flattening more pronounced. Dorsal and ventral

cornua fenestrate; ventral cornu more slender,

lower edge more straight than convex. Overall

length of skeleton about 0.866 mm.

Third stage larva——White, muscidiform, much

as in cooleyi. Larva slightly larger; length 9.50

to 21.00 mm; at maturity (average of 10) 20.17

mm. Setulae of cuticle may show blackening of

tips. Bands on anterior margins usually complete

on segments 2 through 8; incomplete on segments

9 through 12. Bands on posterior margins usually

absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on

segments 5 through 7; complete on segments 8

through 11. Posterior tubercles fingerlike; anal

tubercles long and prominent. Ratio of width of

one spiracle to distance between spiracles 5.80

to 3.95 (average of 10).

Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 6).—Labial

NEWHOUSE ET AL.: IMMATURE SARCOPHAGIDAE 19

sclerites strongly developed. Hook arising from

upper anterior angle, extending straight outward,

then downward in a slightly more regular curve

than in cooley?. Dental sclerite slightly less de-

veloped. Accessory, hypostomal, and _ infra-

hypostomal sclerites as in cooleyi. Pharyngeal

sclerite much more compressed. Parastomal

sclerite more slender, usually tilted upward

anteriorly. Dorsal and ventral cornua fenestrate.

Lines of axis of dorsal and ventral cornu not

divergent posteriorly, but roughly parallel. Over-

all length of skeleton 1.56 mm.

Pupa.—As in cooleyi; perhaps slightly larger.

Length 9.5 to 11.5 mm.

Sarcophaga shermani Parker

Sarcophaga exuberans Authors (not Pandellé, Rev.

Ent. 15: 186. 1896).

Sarcophaga shermani Parker, Bull. Brooklyn Ent.

Soc. 14: 41-46. 1919; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

9(11): 124. 1923.

Egg.—Indistinguishable from cooleyi; length

about 1.50 mm.

First stage larva——As in cooleyi. Length of

mature larva 5.50 mm, diameter 1.0 mm. Anal

tubercles usually not as prominent as in cooleyi.

Setulae of spinous bands black in color. Bands

on anterior margins usually complete on seg-

ments 2 through 11; absent on segment 12.

Bands on posterior margins absent on segments

2 through 4; incomplete on segment 5; complete

on segments 6 through 11.

Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 7).—Labial

sclerite more slender than in either cooleyi or

bullata; tooth arising at higher angle in relation

to axis of sclerite. Dorsal cornu of pharyngeal

sclerite relatively longer and more slender.

Overall length of skeleton 0.533 mm.

Second stage larva-—As in cooleyi. Length

5.50 to 8.25 mm, diameter 1.0 to 1.75 mm.

Spmous bands on anterior margins usually

complete on segments 2 through 9 or 10; in-

complete on segments 10 or 11 through 12.

Bands on posterior margins absent on segments 2

through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 7;

complete on segments 8 through 11. Bands on

second and third segments sometimes incomplete

and indistinct. Posterior tubercles humplike but

prominent; anal tubercles more _fingerlike.

Darkened band surrounding spiracular cavity

not as prominent as in cooleyi. Narrow band of

setulae at ventral base of anal tubercles.

Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 8).—Labial

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

sclerite with hook arising at high angle. Dental,

accessory, hypostomal and _ infrahypostomal

sclerites prominent. Pharyngeal sclerite well

formed and quite heavily pigmented. Dorsal

and ventral cornua fenestrate. Cornua sometimes

divergent posteriorly. Lower surface of ventral

cornu almost concave in outline. Over-all length

of skeleton 1.05 mm.

Third stage larva——As in cooleyt. Length 8.00

to 18.00 mm, diameter 1.5 to 4.0 mm; at maturity

(average of 10) 16.79 mm. Setulae of cuticle may

be black at tip or colorless. Bands on anterior

margins usually complete on segments 2 through

10; incomplete on segments 11 and 12. Bands on

posterior margins usually absent on segments 2

through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 7;

complete on 8 through 11. Ratio of width of one

spiracle to distance between spiracles 5.4 to 2.5.

(Average of 10) One specimen, obviously atypical,

was observed with three slits in the left spiracle

and two in the right.

Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 9).—Similar

vou. 45, No. I

to cooleyt. Mouth hook with small tooth on the

underside at base. Dental sclerite robust.

Parastomal sclerite slender and usually bent up

at the tip. Pharyngeal sclerite quite heavily

pigmented. Dorsal and ventral cornua fenestrate.

Dorsal cornu comparatively more _ slender.

Cornua divergent posteriorly. Lower edge of

ventral cornu flattened or concave in profile.

Over-all length of skeleton 1.43 mm.

Pupa—As in cooleyi. Ridge connecting anal

tubercles and posterior tubercles usually weakly

developed or absent.

LITERATURE CITED

GREENE, CuHarutes T. The puparia and larvae of

sarcophagid flies. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.

66 (29) : 1-26. 1925.

Kntpuinc, Epwarp F. A comparative study of

the first-instar larvae of the genus Sarcophaga

(Calliphoridae: Diptera), with notes on the

biology. Journ. Parasit. 22(5): 417-454. 1936.

Root, Francts M. Notes on larval characters in the

genus Sarcophaga. Journ. Parasit. 9(4):

227-229. 1923.

ENTOMOLOGY Some work of the periodical cicada. E. A. ANDREWS, Johns

Hopkins University. (Communicated by Paul H. Oehser.)

The periodical or seventeen-year cicada,

found only in North America, has a sub-

terranean life years longer than that of

numerous other cicadas and an aerial life

of a few months. Joining these two major

parts of its life history are two briefer links:

a few weeks late in summer when the eggs

left by females inside the wood of twigs

develop into minute young nymphs, which

enter the ground; and a few weeks in spring

when the subterranean nymphs come near

the surface and become ready to emerge and

transform into adults or imagoes. Some of

the work done by the surface dwellers as

observed at Baltimore, Md., is here de-

scribed.

THE LAST DWELLING

During their years under ground the young

cicadas shed from time to time, grow rapidly, and

make successive mud dwellings attached to roots

from which the nymphs suck their nutriment,

being parasites upon many trees. In Baltimore

Potter (1839) observed the largest of these

dwellings some 18 inches below the surface. Each

was a rough ball of earth 114 to 2 inches long and

three-fourths of an inch wide, lined by smooth

mud, and contained one nymph. Emerging from

such last feeding chambers the nymphs dig up-

ward and construct somewhat different dwellings

(Fig. 1). Within the mud tubes they rest some

weeks till ready for emergence and transforma-

tion. These last dwellings have the advantage of

safety some inches below the surface, along with

quick access to the surface when the proper time

comes. Each dwelling (Fig. 1) has rounded ends

above and below as in previous subterranean

dwellings, but these are connected by a long shaft

and are commonly 150 to 350 mm long, though

they may be longer or much shorter. In this shaft

the lymph climbs up close to the surface or falls

rapidly down to the bottom to escape attacks. In

cross section the shaft is circular or sometimes

elliptical, being wider than deep, and is about

either 10 or 15 mm in diameter. Dwellings of

these two sizes occur in the same places, but one

or the other predominates, a fact that harmonizes

with the occurrence here of a larger and a smaller

variety of cicada of which one or the other is

more abundant under certain trees. Also the

larger bores were found where the larger cicadas

emerged; that is, the bores were made to fit the

cicadas.

| January 1955 ANDREWS:

_ The lining of the shaft is smooth mud a few

: millimeters thick, sharply defined from the

_ lumen, but fading off gradually into the surround-

- ing earth. Shafts are by no means always straight,

or of uniform diameter, but may be sinuous and

present swollen regions 20 mm wide. But I have

not seen regular swellings near the upper end, as

noted in another part of Maryland by Snodgrass

(1921). Following his method we filled shafts

under a purple beech tree with plaster of Paris

and obtained such demonstrations of the abun-

dance and character of these dwellings as shown

in Fig. 2. The topsoil was such a mass of small

stones and roots as to indicate that the nymph

must have cut off small roots in order to advance

so many inches. Large obstacles were often

Fic. 1.—Plaster cast of common or typical

dwelling showing bottom chamber, long shaft,

and dome above connected to surface by short

exit passageway added by escaping larva. One-

half natural size.

WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA 21

nine

natural association, lengths, widths, and shapes,

but with upper ends obscured in excess surface

plaster. About half natural size. Photograph by

Charles H. Weber.

Fre. 2.—Plaster cast of dwellings in

avoided by change of direction, but at times small

stones or roots projected into the lumen, covered

with lining mud, and reduced the cavity from its

normal 15 mm to a mere 10 mm in diameter.

Staining of the plaster casts by topsoil or by clay

showed that the lining material came from that

level and was not brought up from below, which

is in harmony with descriptions of the way in

which cicada dwellings are made, namely, by

forcing the earth laterally aside into its walls and

not by carrying it away, as is done by many

burrowing animals.

The chief implements used in making cavities

in the earth, according to Marlatt (1907) and

Snodgrass (1921), who observed the work in

vessels of loose earth, are the big first legs (Fig. 3).

Here, as in the other legs, the terminal segment is

used chiefly in walking and may be folded down

when not needed; the second segment from the

tip is used to pick off particles of earth. The

third segment is the largest and like a powerful

thumb acts with the opposing second as a forceps

to pick up pellets of earth and small stones. The

minute particles picked loose from the earth are

raked together by the tip segment to make a

pellet, which the forceps can carry or shove into

the walls of the cavity. However, all parts of the

22, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fie. 3. Snodgrass’s sketch of inner face of

first right leg, or claw, of cicada pupa. The thickest

segment is the femur, the next pointed segment the

tibia, and the small final segment the tarsus.

body may come into use, for the hind legs and the

abdomen may help shove earth aside and the

head may carry earth plastered upon it. In

vertical] tunnels the animal braces its legs against

the sides and, if disturbed, relaxes and drops

down.

Finally completed, the last dwelling (Fig. 1)

ends above and below in swellings similar to the

ends of the preceding feeding dwellings. The

lower cavity may be called the chamber and the

upper one the dome. The lower chamber is large

enough to allow the nymph to turn about and

commonly is flattened below, as if to allow the

nymph to rest upon a fiat surface. Often the

chamber slants upward to the shaft, as in Fig. 1,

but sometimes the chamber is but the enlarged

bottom of the vertical shaft and not turned to

one side. The inner linings of both chamber and

dome are of the same smoothness as in the shaft.

Some measurements of these chambers were:

Lengths, 24, 30, 60, 70 mm; widths and heights,

15 or 20 mm. The dome or top of such dwellings

VOL. 45, No. 1

comes remarkably near the surface of the earth

without breaking through, leaving but a few

millimeters of earth till the time for transforma-

tion, when the nymph digs its way out. The

axis of the dome may be vertical, as in Fig. 4, or

horizontal, as in Fig. 6. In the larger nymphs the

claws may be stretched out 5 or 6 mm ahead of

the animal, which so might receive sensory im-

pressions of obstacles, or of the near surface, and

then stop or turn aside; but when it turns aside

horizontally, as in Fig. 6, when still 20 mm

beneath the surface, it may be the warmth of the

surface earth that influences the animal.

Examination of very many tubular dwellings,

as well as their plaster casts, shows that, as with

many small boring animals, closely neighboring

cavities do not interconnect, but each has its

own individual upper end and exit and along its

course avoids contact with other dwellings

though they often run close together. In such

shafts as shown in Fig. 5 a common exit might

have easily been made. While some unusual

dwellings do run horizontally close to the surface,

IT saw none with the sharp U turn indicated in the

picturesque illustration printed by Lander (1894).

Yet there were some noteworthy abnormalities;

thus in Fig. 7 the lower end of the dwelling is

bifurcated; there is a normal chamber on the

right and a supernumerary one on the left, as if

two cicadas digging upward made two chambers

that chanced to meet and were then continued as

a single shaft.

A second bifurcation was found in granular red

subsoil that had lain some years over topsoil. In

this example the more normal chamber was 20

mm long and 15 mm wide and deep and inclined

as usual, but the smaller extra chamber was

mht

A ate Jatt

“ie

bar

Fic. 4.—Upper end of shaft and dome coming up

near to surface of soil. One-half natural size.

JaNuARY 1955

Fie. 5—Two shafts ending in domes converg-

ing as if to have a common exist at surface. One-

half natural size.

horizontal, at right angles to the shaft. Both

chambers had flat bottoms roughened by par-

ticles fallen down the shaft before plaster was

poured in.

IMPEDIMENTS TO THE MAKING OF DWELLINGS

In the red clay subsoil a cicada encountered a

large slab of partly decayed wood, 30 mm thick,

and continued its shaft through it and on up near

to the surface. Also, under a privet hedge cicadas

coming up under stiff flat dead leaves lying close

on the surface continued their shafts through the

leaves. Under a copper beech tree we placed

obstacles on the surface of the ground: sheets of

writing paper, brown paper, and carton pieces.

When these lay long in contact with moist earth

the cicadas, concealed below, destroyed their

domes and dug round holes through the obstacles,

even when many sheets were together, though

when the obstacle was thick carton with heavy

brown-paper surface and thick corrugated in-

terior the cicadas merely bored diagonally in but

not through. Having perforated the obstacle, the

cicadas deposited pellets and some liquid mud

Fic. 6.—A 10-mm shaft turned nearly parallel to

surface of earth. One-half natural size.

ANDREWS: WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA 23

above the surface to form a new dome, as in

the sectional view (Fig. 13). Stout paraffin

paper lying under a pear tree was riddled with

many round holes each surmounted with a thim-

ble of mud.

We observed that under brick walks a few

cicadas managed to find a way between bricks to

the surface, and under large stones, logs, and

Fie. 7.—Plaster cast of abnormal dwelling with

two chambers joined to a single shaft. One-half

natural size.

planks many came up and then turned off

horizontally. It may be many inches before they

chance to come to an edge of the obstacle, when

they then build upward again on the free surface

as a new dome, standing forth into the air, but

attached to the face of the obstacle. Under a thin

sheet of metal covering about 1 square foot we

saw many straight and curved shafts running in

all directions, intermingled but each independent

of others, some coming shortly to a free edge and

others wandering far. Here there seemed no indi-

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fia. 8.—Photograph of four aerial structures

(upper right of red clay) showing size, surface,

form, and closed tops (except lower right, open

on other side). One-half natural size. Photograph

by Charles H. Weber.

cation that the cicadas found escape except by

accident. But in some instances it seemed that

the cicadas were guided by sunlight. Under a

beehive, 40 by 50 cm, cicadas came up in six

shafts, 11 to 85 em deep, and, encountering the

bottom of the hive built on horizontally exten-

sions of the shafts, stuck to and suspended from

the hive bottom like the work of termites or

certain wasps. Though the hive contacted the

earth about most of its edge, the west face was

held up by bricks about 25 mm, so that light

entered on that side. Three or four of the hori-

zontal structures were aimed more to the west,

the others had little length and seemed closed;

while the longer ones had opened at the west end.

The structure of these suspended mud tubes was

that of the mud towers to be deserived later,

with only a very thin mud lining against the

roofing wood and the other walls, the mud being

brought there and manipulated. A long row of

beehives rested upon two parallel joists, 314 by

VOL. 45, NO. I

114 inches and 12 feet long, lying in contact with

the earth and 10 inches apart and nearly east and

west. When these joists were raised, many shafts

were revealed, which turned off horizontally

along under the joist. Under the northern joist,

which was kept quite in the shade by the hives

above it, 22 shafts ran from south to north and

19 from north to south, suggesting no guidance.

Under the southerly joist, which early in

spring received sunshine before an overhanging

apple tree was in leaf, the number going north

was 14, south 68—a decided preference for the

south direction. As no light entered between joist

and earth, we infer the sunlight influenced the

cicadas by warming the face of the joist toward

which they were thus guided. Temperatures ob-

tained on April 14, 1954, when the joist still lay

in place were-as follows: At noon along south

side of joist in sunshine air read 34°C., along

north side, in shade of joist, 28°C. Thermometer

bulb under south edge of joist read 29°C. and

under north side 28°C. However, late in May,

when air was 21° to 24°, the temperature under

the joist was 16° to 18°, with no difference

between north and south, as leaf shade kept the

earth cool.

AERIAL DWELLINGS

Thus the last dwelling of the subterranean

nymph is not necessarily restricted to the earth

but may be continued up into the air. In fact,

aerial extensions maz be abundant and of great

interest and are well known as turrets, towers,

cones, chimneys, huts, and adobe houses. Perhaps

the term ‘spigot holes” may refer to such aerial

structures. If so, it is the earliest reference to

ree

wae

Fic. 9.—Vertical section of an aerial dwelling

with shaft ending as a dome arched over with

applied earth material. One-half natural size.

JANUARY 1955

ANDREWS: WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA

Fic. 10—Photograph of three aerial structures; lower left, with dead leaves in walls and showing

where one was pulled off a hole into lumen of shaft. Lower right, a lump as wide as tall closed as

yet at top; upper, a sample of thimble called forth by presence of sheets of paper on surface of

earth. One-half natural size.

them; it was used, as quoted by Marlatt (1907),

by Thomas Mathews in 1705, writing of a swarm

of cicadas in Virginia about the year 1675.

Probably the first illustration of such aerial

dwellings was the above mentioned sketch by

Lander (1894). Since then good photographs have

been published. As shown in Fig. 8, made in

Baltimore in 1953, these are large cylinders or

cones of mud rough externally as made of pellets

stuck together. The material may be topsoil or

subsoil or mixtures of both, and some of it seems

to have been flowing when applied. Some towers

lean over but do not break even when nearly

horizontal, which recalls the surmise made by

Lander (1894) that the mud material was mingled

with some cement supplied by the cicada. Several

hundred pellets are seen in one tower, but others

are concealed or fused together into larger lumps.

These mud houses are durable. Some made late in

April 1953 were still recognizable late in January

1954 where protected by dead leaves under

privet hedges, despite rain, snow, frost, and

thawing.

The walls (Fig. 9) are dense mud, not natural

soil, externally more or less made of pellets but

internally lined with the same smooth layer

found in the underground parts of the dwelling.

Rarely small sticks or leaves are incorporated in

the walls, and stiff vertical dead leaves may form

part of the lining, so that when torn away a hole

is opened into the lumen, as in lower left of Fig.

10. When a tower was built up under layers of

paper they were cut through and the tower com-

pleted above them, leaving the dome sticking up

above the paper as in Fig. 11. As seen by com-

paring Figs. 9, 11, 12, and 13 with 4, the dome of

aerial extensions is just like that of subterranean

dwellings.

In size these aerial dwellings vary much in any

locality, and some localities show an average

different from that of some other locality. Thus

159 under separated box trees ranged in height

from 15 to 90 mm, in width from 15 to 40 mm;

with bores from 9 to 15 mm, thickness of roof of

dome from 1 to 5mm, exit hole from 6 to 15 mm.

While under box trees grown as a hedge, 355

ranged in height from 30 to 100 mm, in width

from 25 to 35 mm. Again under apple trees the

range in height of 136 was from 15 to 100, in

width from 10 to 40, with the bores from 7 by 9

to 15 mm.

FUSED AERIAL DWELLINGS

Often shafts are so close together that when

extended into the air their walls stick together as

one mass with from 2 to 10 separate domes.

When but two (Fig. 14) they fuse all along one

side only, though in exceptions (Figs. 15 and 16)

a pair may lean together and fuse only above or

may fuse below and diverge widely above. When

several fuse a short dome may be overarched by

a taller and so, apparently, the inmate cut off

from escape except by digging through the taller

neighboring dome. In fact, late in summer one

such instance suggested that the inmate had died

within unable to escape. However, several others

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Tiss

Fic. 11.—Vertical section of an aerial dwelling

built up under three layers of paper through which

it was continued to end as a dome. One-half

natural size.

were found closed with no such cause for failure

to escape.

Very rarely was there evidence that cicada

nymphs ever made any use of their neighbors’

work; in one instance three shafts had but two

exits since one inmate had opened its shaft into

that of a neighbor. Fig. 14 shows a certain

economy of building materia] resulting from the

crowding of neighbors, there being no room for

the usual thick wall, only a thin party wall was

built between neighbors. Such economy may lead

to the observed fact that in some aggregates the

entire weight is less than the combined weights

of as many separate structures of similar heights.

ESTIMATES OF WORK DONE

Cicadas are muscular animals; even the slow

nymphs underground move from place to place,

build feeding chambers, suck sap and inject

liquid to aid in feeding, and finally construct

elongated dwellings that may extend up into the

Fra. 12.—Five layers of paper over a concealed

shaft were cut through to end as a dome, not yet

quite finished late in summer. One-half natural

size.

VOL. 45, No. I

air. This enables one, by weighing the earth

deposited, to estimate some of the energy ex-

pended in carrying earth upward several inches.

Some of these deposits under apple, beech, and

English box trees were collected and weighed,

with ranges from 4 to 274 grams each. In all,

1,116 of these came from under box trees, 149 in

number, covering a sum of areas measured as

about one-thirteenth of an acre. They weighed

16,578 grams, or about 28 pounds; 1.e., at the rate

of 364 pounds per acre. However, a correction is

necessary since the dwellings were weighed after

air drying all summer, but when originally carried

up by the cicadas they were wet. When 20 dry

dwellings were dipped in water and drained it

was found they had taken up 25 to 35 per cent of

their weight. Again 20 were ground to powder

and weighed as water was added. When the mass

was plastic enough to be made into pellets with

the fingers, 39 per cent water had been taken up;

with more water the mass lost form and began

Fig. 13.—Two layers of paper over a conceaeled

dome were cut through to form a dome above

those obstacles. One-half natural size.

to flow when 48 per cent had been taken up. So

we add at least one-third, or considering that

some of the cicadas’ material is liquid, as much as

40 per cent to the above dry weights, making

thus, roughly, 500 pounds per acre, mined,

brought up some inches, and deposited as dwelling

walls.

AND CONDITIONS IN

HOUSES ARE

PLACES WHICH AERIAL

MADE

In this arable soil aerial dwellings appear only

in places that were shaded in April, under a

building supported on brick pillars; under its

eastern eaves shaded by evergreen privet; under

the wooden steps of east and west ends of ele-

vated wooden porch; but not under the porch

itself where abundant in 1936 when adjacent

bushes had not been removed; under English ivy

covering the ground; under dense growth of dead

nettle (Lamiwm purpurem 1.), under north face

JANUARY 1955 ANDREWS:

of privet hedge, and under its south face where

dead leaves had collected; under evergreen cane

and bamboo; under apple, beech, and English

box trees. Also in the following peculiar con-

ditions: under a board 16 inches wide and 19 feet

long, supported at the ends 27 inches above the

earth, surrounded by apple trees showing no

aerial structures at all. In this faint shade, es-

pecially near its northerly edge, many fine

dwellings were built up. When we moved this

board 2 feet to the north, many soft new towers

arose in the new shade.

The making of aerial dwellings by providing

artificial shade was evoked as follows: Early in

April a large zine tub was overturned under one

of the above apple trees known to have many sub-

terranean dwellings under it and at length, April

29, a tower 2 inches in height arose under the

Fic. 14.—Cross section of two narrow shafts

of aerial dwellings that coalesced with only a thin

party-wall between. One-half natural size.

tub the night previous. This bent over nearly

horizontally, and by May 3 the inmate had re-

moved the old dome and added pellets making a

new dome.! In a henyard, where there were only

concealed dwellings, scraping the surface re-

vealed 36 shafts thus opened, May 6; these were

covered over with a large zinc tub making a dark

space within which the next morning 30 soft

dwellings had been built into the air, but outside

the tub there were none. In the same region a

number of chimneys arose from a square foot of

hard earth when covered with a wooden trough.

The previously described structures (p. 24),

under joists, etc., are essentially aerial towers

1 Whether in light or darkness each aerial dwell-

ing is closed above, and if the old dome is removed

a new one is made at once. Thus under dense

lamium shade removal of domes was followed the

next night by the making of new ones in most all

the dark cavities formed by placing small tin cans,

4 by 2 inches, over the opened shafts. And under

apple trees where the earth was very wet removal

of 40 towers to reveal open shafts resulted the

next morning, May 3, in the appearance of nearly

as many new structures made within such cans

and 3-inch flowerpots.

WORK OF

“lI

PERIODICAL CICADA yA,

Fic. 15.—Two aerial dwellings leaning to-

gether and coalescing above. Both closed above.

Lining indicated by broken lines. One-half natural

size.

built in the dark and forced into horizontal

postures.

HOW ARE AERIAL DWELLINGS MADE?

The aerial dwellings are built up rapidly in the

night when no one has observed how, but we

assume that they are made much as are the

former feeding chambers, for knowledge of which

we rely on the above-mentioned observations of

Marlatt and Snodgrass. To this we add the fol-

lowing: In 1902 we saw cicadas, placed in tubes

Fia. 16.—Aerial dwellings of a larger and a

smaller variety built close together and then

diverging widely. The large on the left is open at

top. A small stick was built into both where di-

verging. One-half natural size.

of loose earth, place mud onto the right and the

left sides of the face and so carried it up to make

pellets; also some huts found late in summer,

1953, with partly finished still-open domes sug-

gest how domes are made in the air. Each (Fig.

12) had across its summit an open slit about 10

by 5 and 6 mm with very thin edges, not more

than 0.5 mm. As yet no pellets had been placed

over the top of the dome. We imagine the claws

would reach out of the slit to apply mud, that the

slender tarsus would be used in troweling the

mud, and that water was supplied by the cicada

nymph.

CONCLUSION

The last dwellings of seventeen-year cicadas

are of interest as showing what insects can do

with tools; as examples in the comparative

architecture of dwellings of small animals; as a

means for estimating some of the energy ex-

pended; and as beneficial factors in the life of

these plant parasites. Also it is noteworthy that

in the roofs of these last subterranean dwellings

only a thin layer of earth remains to be per-

forated for egress into the air above; and that

this advantage is persistently maintained under

the diverse conditions we have described and

illustrated.

When over 60 or more acres of woodland the

earth is riddled with borings such as indicated in

Fig. 2, the effects must be considerable, for these

holes remain open for a year or more admitting

air and surplus rain and serving for roots and for

many insects, spiders, and other small forest

creatures. Again, when towers of mud weighing

perhaps 500 pounds per acre are deposited, ulti-

mately to be disintegrated on the surface, thus

“nlowing” the earth after the manner of earth-

worms, there seems compensation for the injury

done in sucking root sap and injury to twigs.

Why at some times and places the last dwell-

ings are extended as aerial structures, huts, or

towers is a question needing solution through

experimentation.

It has been thought that these aerial dwellings

were due to water, to peculiar soil, or to tempera-

ture. But in Baltimore the earth was no wetter

where towers appeared than in nearby regions

where subterranean dwellings sufficed—except

only one place where surface water under an

apple tree made a wet basis for towers, but here

there was also shade in April, and this as well as

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. I

wetness may have acted by lowering the earth

temperatures below that within the towers up in

the warm air. Cicadas are parasites upon plants,

drinking sap not only when young nymphs but

when adults. That the oldest nymphs near the

surface also drink sap is inferred but not demon-

strated. That they are not necessarily restricted

to sap for needed water is shown by the following

experiment: Nymphs dug from their concealed

shafts near the surface were kept some days in

dry earth, each in a hole simulating a shaft, and

then put onto garden earth. They at once thrust

their beaks deep into the earth and, as if thirsty,

stood long in the drinking attitude assumed by

adults sucking sap from trees. Apparently they

sucked moisture from the earth. Though they

had been kept in darkness they had not erected

aerial dwellings, nor had most of them even made

domes over the holes they were in, presumably

lacking sufficient water for such work. That

liquid from the earth may be used by old nymphs

for their building needs is implied in their long

life near the surface when the earth is moist and

there may be no roots to suck, as in the instance

described above where they lived in granular

red clay subsoil free from roots. It seems probable

much of the liquid needed for mud making and

even for self maintenance is derived from the

earth.

With water constituting a third or more of the

aerial dwellings, it is evident wet soil is needed

for such work. As part of these aerial structures

seems to be liquid mud and as we do not know

how cicadas can carry liquid mud, we assume

that they made the earth liquid when they used

it. All through cicada life liquid is freely drunk

and freely expelled, since, as described by Myers

(1928), the cicada has a remarkable filtering

apparatus that lets liquid pass rapidly out.

Hence, whenever cicadas have liquid to drink

they have it to expel.

When the actual process of hut-building is

observed we anticipate it will be seen that the

cicada uses both ends of its body, somewhat as

we observed (1911) certain termites do when

building in Jamaica.

Temperature has much to do with emergence,

as shown when pipes heated the earth and cicadas

emerged a year in advance. Hopkins (1898) ob-

served in West Virginia that emergence was

earlier where warmth was greater, either from

lower altitude or from a more southern location.

JANUARY 1955

Krumbach (1917) kept detailed records of

temperatures in part of a botanical garden in

Austria-Hungary, watched 27 cicadas emerge

during 27 days, and also noted they emerged later

in the shade of a wall. He was of the opinion that

temperature was the important factor in bringing

them forth. During the period of emergence

temperatures were as follows: a meter above

ground 11.2° to 19.2° minimum and 31.6° to 35°

maximum; at the surface 10.8° to 16.2° minimum;

down in the earth 300 mm 25.3° to 26.6°; down

600 mm 21.4° to 26.2°; down 1 meter 19.7° to

Bool.

Applying the above to our cicadas it may be

that they were influenced by temperature

gradients in coming up toward the surface and by

surface temperature in emergence; also that a

cicada in a tower might well be warmer than one

beneath the surface. Lander (1894) studied

cicadas near Nyack, N. Y., and concluded that

the chimneys were built as places to cool off in,

for he argued the very warm spring had unduly

heated the trap rock, smoothed by glaciers,

underlying the thin soil. But as no thermometer

readings are given we are free to assume that the

thin clay soil would not drain well into the

glaciated rock but would hold the melted winter

snow and be cold from evaporation, whereas

cicadas up in towers would be warmed by the sun-

shine of an exceptionally warm spring.

That cicadas may get higher temperatures up

in towers than down below is indicated by some

experiments made in February and March 1954

at one of the spots in which chimneys had arisen

in April 1953, which showed that a thermometer

placed in a dry chimney over a hole resembling a

cicada shaft registered 4° or 5° higher than down

1 to 7 inches in the earth, but only 1° lower

than the warmer air. Thus on March 29, 1954,

when the surface temperature of the earth was

28° in full sunshine, the temperature of the air

was 19°, within the chimney 18°, at the surface

13°, down 12 inches 12°C.: in the shade of the

same evergreen privet in which chimneys were

made in 1953. This makes credible the view that

in 1953 cicadas there found temperatures in their

chimneys higher than below ground and com-

parable with that of the surface in full sunshine.

Moreover, as described above (p. 23), cicadas

meeting certain obstacles continued their shafts

horizontally as modified chimneys to the limit of

the obstacle and then upward again to end with a

ANDREWS: WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA 29

normal dome. Temperature taken there a year

later showed that the sunshine warmed one face

of the obstacle and that the cicadas, in the dark,

ina majority of instances, built toward the higher

temperature.

We advance the hypothesis that the chief

factor in inducing the cicada to extend its last

dwelling into the air is temperature; in the shade

or under other conditions when the surface earth

is not warm enough, a higher temperature is at-

tained up in turrets surrounded with warm air.

Though most of the cicada’s life with its

growth and shedding is spent down in lower

temperatures, we assume that higher tempera-

tures are attained and probably needed for the

final perfection of internal organs not needed in

previous subterranean life. To test this hypothe-

sis, temperatures might be obtained in air, on the

surface, and beneath the ground over an area

where cicadas are expected to issue soon. Such

data might well indicate where aerial dwellings

would arise and where only subterranean dwell-

ings would be found.

LITERATURE CITED

AnpREws, E. A. Observations on

Jamaica. Journ. Animal Behavior 1:

228. 1911.

Periodical cicadas in Baltimore, Md. Sei.

Monthly 12: 310-320. 1921.

. The seventeen year cicada, alias locust.

Quart. Rev. Biol. 12: 271-293. 1937.

Horxins, A. D. The periodical cicada in West

Virginia. West Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull.

50: 46 pp., 23 figs., 1 map, 4 pls. 1898.

Krumpacu, T. Zur Naturgeschichte der Sing-

cicaden 1m Roten Istrien. Zool. Anz. 48: 241—

250. 1917.

Lanper, B. Hut-building seventeen-year cicadas.

Sci. American 71: 233-234. 1894.

Maruattr, C. L. The periodical cicada. U. S.

Dept. Agr., Bur. Entomology, Bull. 71: 181 pp.

1907.

Marruews, Tuomas. Swarms of cicadas as one of

the three prodigies appearing in Virginia

about 1675. (Quoted in ‘‘A Library of Ameri-

can Literature,” ed. by E. C. Stedman and

E. M. Hutchinson, vol. 1: 462-468. 1887.)

Myers, J. G. The morphology of the Cicadidae

(Homoptera). Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1928:

365-472, 75 figs.

Porter, N. Notes on the Locusta septentrionalis

americanae decem septima: 27 pp., 1 pl.

Baltimore, 1839.

Snoperass, R. E. The _ seventeen-year locust.

Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Institution for 1919:

381-409, illus. 1921.

termites in

193-

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 1

ICHTHYOLOGY —Flatfishes of the genus Symphurus from the U.S.S. Albatross

Expedition to the Philippines, 1907-1910. Pau CuapaNnaup. (Translated by

Mme. Patricia Isham.) (Communicated by Leonard P. Schultz.)

Max Weber and L. F. de Beaufort,! who

published the most recent summary of the

fish fauna of the Indo-Australian Archi-

pelago, mention only three species in the

genus Symphurus: S. regant Weber and de

Beaufort, S. giles? (Alcock), and S. micro-

rhynchus Weber and de Beaufort. An

additional species, S. marmoratus Fowler,

was described from Jolo Island, Philippines.

No less than six species are represented

among the 139 Symphurus specimens

captured between April 10, 1908, and

December 16, 1909, in that archipelago or

its immediate environs between lat. 20°

37 N., long. 115° 43” EK, and lat. 5° 24’ S.,

long. 122° 18’ 15” E., by the U. 5. Bureau

of Fisheries steamer Albatross in the course

of its successive cruises, which, altogether,

constituted the Albatross Expedition to the

Philippines (1907-1910). I cannot thank too

warmly Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, Curator,

Division of Fishes, U. 8. National Museum,

for his favor in trusting to me the study of

this material of exceptional scientific value

and interest. Also I thank Mme. Patricia

Isham for translating this paper.

Among the three species captured by the

Siboga in 1899-1900, and mentioned or

described by Weber and de Beaufort, only

Symphurus regani was found again by the

Albatross. However, the investigations of

the latter ship augmented the fauna of the

Indo-Australian Archipelago by three

species, S. woodmasoni (Alcock), S. sep-

temstriatus (Alcock), and S. strictus Gilbert,

that are more or less widely scattered in the

tropical Indo-Pacific complex, and by two

new species, S. schultzi and S. luzonensis,

which are described in the lines that follow.

In reality, S. woodmasoni was captured by

the Szboga in the Banda Sea; but the unique

specimen is mentioned by Weber, without

determination (Szboga, Fishes, 1913: 445,

No. 4).

The following abbreviations are used: A,

anal fin; C, caudal fin; D, dorsal fin (also

the letter D indicates dissection); Mx,

Maxillary; R precedes the meristic formula

1The fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago

5: 208-211. 1929.

determined from radiography; S, number of

scales, counted between the vertical of the

opercular opening and the base of the

caudal fin; V, pelvic fin; n, blind side; z,

eyed side.

The position of the caudal extremity of the

maxillary (Mx) on the eyed side is indicated

in the following fashion: I, in front of the

vertical of the anterior border of the fixed

eye; II, underneath the anterior half of the

fixed eye; III, underneath the posterior half

of the fixed eye; IV, in back of the fixed eye.

The intermediary positions are indicated

IVAN UUAQUL, evare) INLAY

The same symbols determine the position

of the first dorsal ray (D 1), in relation to

the movable eye.

The formula for number of vertebrae

conforms with the example: a 9 [3 + 6]

+ c44 = t53. The letter a means number of

abdominal vertebrae. The letter c means

number of caudal vertebrae. The letter ¢

indicates the total of the preceding numbers.

The numbers put between brackets [38 + 6]

analyze the composition of the abdominal

vertebrae. The first number (3) is that of

the vertebrae deprived of the hemal arch;

the second (6) that of the vertebrae that

possess that arch. In all the Symphurus,

except individual abnormalities not yet

found, all the abdominal hemal arches are

closed by distal codssification of the two

hemitoxes’.

Symphurus woodmasoni (Alcock, 1889)

D 91-99. A 78-86. C 14. V 4. 8 80-90 (+2).

Mx: II-III (1I/IV*%). D 1: ILIII (IL/IV’®).

In hundredths of the standard length: head 20-

25; height 23-26 (27-29). In hundredths of the

length of the head: eye 12-14(15); space between

the eyes 0; C 52-76 (90-115*). In hundredths

of the body height: height of D or of A 36-45.

In alcohol the eyed side is of bright reddish

2Cf. Chabanaud, Morphologie comparée des

arcs hémaux abdominaux des téléostéens symétriques

et dyssymétriques. C. R. Acad. Sci. 233: 1393, eff.

5. 1951.

3 Only one case.

4 When its length does not attain about 60

percent of that of the head, the caudal fin can be

considered deteriorated.

JANUARY 1955

brown, generally even, but often enough varied

with dark brown marblelike veins. The fins are

brown, more or less dark, but becoming lighter

from front to back, so the caudal fin is often

colorless. The blind side is colorless and the

reddish tint of the musculature is readily visible.

The peritoneum is generally black.

Number of specimens studied: 85. Standard

length (largest observed): #103 mm; 9121

mm. Sex ratio (82 observations): 28; 9254.

Vertebrae (6 observations): 50-52, 9 of which

{3 + 6] abdominal.

Record of specimens for Albatross dredging

stations®: U.S.N.M. 138049, station 5247, 2

specimens; U.S.N.M. 138058, station 5402, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. 1388062, station 5403, 7

specimens; U.S.N.M. 138034, station 5404, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. 138035, station 5405, 2

specimens; U.S.N.M. 138036, station 5409, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. 138038, station 5412, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. 138039, station 5418, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. 138059, station 5501, a

specimens; U.S.N.M. 138060, station 5502,

specimens; Bee 138061, station 5503, 2 22

specimens; U.S.N.M. 138041, station 5508, 1

specimen; U.S.N ae 138021, station 5516, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. 138048, station 5537, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. 138047, station 5538, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. 188051, station 5623, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. 188052, station 5626, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. 1388056, 1 specimen from

Philippines without locality.

Symphurus schultzi, n. sp.

D 85-87: A 72-75. C 14. V 4. 8S + 70-80.

Mx IL. D 1: IJ/IIE-III/1IV. In hundredths of the

standard length: head 21-25; height 24-30. In

hundredths of the head length: eyes 17-19;

interorbital space 0; C 50-62. In hundredths of

the body height: height of D 42-47. In alcohol:

The eyed side is an even reddish brown, now

light, now dark; the fins are more or less brown

or blackish, progressively lighter from front to

back. The blind side is pale or pigmented. The

peritoneum is black. On two dissected specimens,

US.N.M. 138046 and 138057 the vertebrae

number 48 of which a 9 [3 + 6] are abdominal.

Named in honor of Dr. Leonard P. Schultz,

curator of fishes, United States National Museum,

S. schultzi differs from S. woodmasoni in the

fewer rays, D (85-87, instead of 91-99); A

(72-75 instead of 78-86), and by its eyes that

®> Albatross

published in: Rept.

1-97. Nov. 29, 1910.

dredging station records were

Comm. Fish., 1910 (741):

CHABANAUD: FLATFISHES OF GENUS SYMPHURUS 31

appear a little larger (17-19 hundredths of the

head length instead of 12-15), also in fewer

vertebrae (48 instead of 50-52), the formula of

the abdominal vertebrae is the same 9 [3 + 6].

This species is described from 5 specimens,

2 #7 and 3 2°; maximum standard length # 70

mm., @ 64 mm.

Record of specimens for Albatross dredging

stations: U.S.N.M. 138044, holotype; ¢@, sta-

tion 5508. Paratypes: U.S.N.M. 138025, Station

5201; U.S.N.M. 138033, Station 5373; U.S.N.M.

138057, St. 5506; U.S.N.M. 138046, Station

5536.

Symphurus septemstriatus (Alcock, 1891)

D 93-101. A 81-89. C 12. V 4. S 96-100.

Mx, (1/II*) II-III. D 1: IL-II/III (IIs). In

hundredths of the standard length: head 18-22;

height 21-27. In hundredths of the length of

the head: eye (12) 14-18 (19); interorbital

space 0; C 60-86. In hundredths of the body

height: height of D or of A 36-41. In alcohol,

the eyed side is of reddish brown, more or less

clear with nebulous dark brown areas, arranged

in transverse bands; rarely indistinct, and

numbering about 7 to 12, between the operculum

and the base of C; fins brownish, pale towards the

rear. The blind side is usually reddish brown,

lighter than the eyed side, but always of uniform

color. Peritoneum is black.

Specimens studied numbered 38; maximum

standard length # 78 mm. @ 77 mm. Sex ratio

for 33 observations: @ 21, 9 12. Vertebrae (4

observations): a 9 [8 + 6] + c 44 = t 53 (3

individuals), a 9 [8 + 6] + c 45 = ¢ 54 (1

individual).

Record of specimens for Albatross dredging

stations: U.S.N.M. 138026, station 5216, 4

specimens; U.S.N.M. 138023, station 5265, 2

specimens, U.S.N.M. 138043, station 5268, 2

specimens; U.S.N.M. 138028, station 5298, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. 138029, station 5301, 1

specimen; U.S.N.M. station 138040, station

5326, 2 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138042, station

5387, 16 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138041, station

5388, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138031, station

5391, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138032, station

5392, 2 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138035, station

5405, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 1388037, station

5411, 1. specimen; U.S.N.M. 138038, station

5412, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138060, station

5502, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138044, station

5508, 1 specimen.

5 Only one case.

Symphurus regani Weber and Beaufort, 1929

D 103-104. A 89-92. C 14. V 4.8 + 100.

Mx III. D 1: I-II. In hundredths of the standard

length: head 17; height 24-26. In hundredths

of the length of the head: eye 15; interorbital

space 0; caudal fin + 73. In hundredths of the

body height: height of D or of A: + 30. In alcohol,

the eyed side is of an even reddish brown, not

dark, the fins dark brown. The blind side is

colorless or whitish.

Record of specimens for Albatross dredging

stations: U.S.N.M. 1388045, station 5526, 1 @

specimen, 112 mm _ standard length, R:a 10

[8 + 7] + ¢ 47 = t 57; US.N.M. 188053,

station 5646, 1 @ specimen, 122 mm, R:a 10

[8 + 7] + c¢ 47 = € 57; US.N.M. 138054,

station 5647, 1 @ specimen, 96 mm. R:a 10

[8 +7] + c47 =t 57.

Symphurus luzonensis, n. sp.

Holotype &. Total length 80 mm. Standard

length 72 mm. Length of the head 13 mm. D 99.

A 84. C 12. V 4.8 104. Mx II. D 1:I1/UI. In

hundredths of the standard length: head 18;

height 23. In hundredths of the length of the

head: eye 14; interorbital space 0; C 61. In

hundredths of the body height, height of D or of

A 38. In alcohol, the eyed side is of a light reddish

brown; fins pale; blind side colorless. U.S.N.M.

138043, holotype from Station 5268, @ speci-

men, R:a 10 [4 + 6] + c 42 5 ¢t 52.

Captured near the island of Luzon, the

holotype of Symphurus luzonensis differs from

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 1

S. regani in the fewer rays of its three median

fins, notably of C (12 instead of 14); also by its

caudal vertebrae (42 instead of 46 or 47), the

formula for abdominal vertebrae are the same,

a 10 [4 + 6], proof of the close affinity existing

between these two species.

Symphurus strictus Gilbert, 1905

D 116-121. A 101-106. C (13) 14. V (8) 4.78

130-140. Mx II-III. D 1:I-II. In hundredths of

the standard length: head 15-18; height 21-24

(27). In hundredths of the length of the head:

eye 11-14; interorbital space 0; C ? Inhundredths

of the body height: height of D or of A 33. In

alcohol the eyed side is evenly bright red, with

the fins brownish grey, becoming lighter from

front to back. The peritoneum is black. Blind

side same color as eyed side, but a little lighter.

Seven specimens studied, 4 @ and 3 9Q.

Standard length (maxima observed): @ 126

mm; ? 86mm.

Record of specimens for Albatross dredging

stations: U.S.N.M. 138024, station 5269, 1 ¢

specimen; U.S.N.M. 138027, station 5290, 1 ¢#

specimen, R:a 9 [3 + 6] + ¢52 =t61; US.N.M.

138030, station 5294,1 2 specimen; U.S.N.M.

138022, station 5589, 1 o&, R:a 9 [8 + 6] +

c 62 = t 61; US.N.M. 138050, station 5621,

1 @ specimen; U.S.N.M. 152779, station 5623,

1 @ specimen; U.S.N.M. 138055, station 5645,

1 & specimen.

7C 13, for U.S.N.M. 138024. V 3, for U.S.N.M.

138050.

MALACOLOGY .—Conus eldredi, new name for one of the poison cones. J. P. E.

Morrison, U. 8. National Museum.

The subgenus Gastridiwm Modeer (Sven-

ska Vet.-Akad. Handl. (n. s.) 14: 196.

1793) includes a few relatively large but

thin-shelled species of the genus Conus. It

is probable that these species are more

active and much more rapid in growth of

shell than the great majority of cone species.

One species somewhat smaller than the

genotype of Gastridium (Conus geographus

Linnaeus) but most closely related to it,

and therefore to be handled with equal

caution against its poison bite, is without a

valid scientific name.

The earliest name Conus geographus rosea

Sowerby (Conch. Illus., pt. 32: fig. 33. 1833)

was twice preoccupied by C. roseus Fischer,

1807, and Lamarck, 1810. The next name

given, Conus intermedius Reeve (Conch.

Icon.: pl. 28, fig. 129. 1843) is preoccupied

by the name C. intermedius Lamarck, 1810.

Likewise the third name Conus mappa

Crosse (Rev. Mag. Zool. (2d ser.) 10: 200,

205. 1858), given as a nomen novum for

intermedius Reeve, is preoccupied by the

name Conus mappa Solander (in Humphrey,

Portland Catalogue: 116, No. 2554. 1786).

This poison cone is here given the new name

Conus (Gastridium) eldredi, in honor of my

brother Lt. Cmdr. R. Ray Eldred Morrison |

(U.S.N.R.), who collected the species at

Abamama in the Gilbert Islands in 1944.

This new name may commemorate in a small

way the considerable contributions to the

knowledge of mollusks made by interested

members of the United States Armed Forces

(both regular and reserve) during World

War II.

Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Praslent 2256002 Se sesh eee Francis M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards

Pavectdert-eleck.. 65. cece e Sees MarGaret Pitrman, National Institutes of Health

SOTA es Seas ee eee ee Jason R. Swatuen, U.S. National Museum

PUROGSUTET.<..- 25: : Howarp §S. Rappierg, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired)

ERREIC URS EAI on, oi NS ore SSS bee Gls NERO Sale « JoHN A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station

Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications

Haraup A. Reuper, U. 8. National Museum

Vice-Presidenis Representing the Affiliated Societies:

Philosophical Society of Washington... ............5:. 26: eens ee: S. E. Forsuss

Anthropological Society of Washington.................. ..Wituiam H. GILBERT

Esolovical Society of Washingtone 02.2 eet esae eds ce ne Wiuuram A. Dayton

MhemicaliSocieuy OL WaShINftON. o. 6 5. wesc ones whee nee JoHN KX. TAYLOR

Baomolorical Society of Washington. ...-.-.2.-.---..s0-+22---- 56s F, W. Poos

Netional Geographic Society.............20..eeeeene seed ALEXANDER WETMORE

Geological Society of Washington......................--+0-: ARTHUR A. BAKER

Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................. FREDERICK O. CoE

Metumbra Historical ‘Society: ..... . 0s ccsee es eee eet ene GILBERT GROSVENOR

Berimical society of Washington... .....<5..2400+52.-2omencues Ler M. Hutcuins

Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GrorGE F, GRAVATT

Washmeaton Society of Engineers. ...: 22.0... .65 tee ek eet C. A. Betts

Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers. ARNoLp H. Scorr

Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp 8. DiuL

Helminthological Society of Washington........ .............. L. A. SPINDLER

Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists......... GLENN SLocum

Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houcu

Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers... ... HERBERT Grove DorsEy

District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons

District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine

Wauter C. Hess

Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals........... JoHN G. THOMPSON

Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research. 1. G. Hamprp

Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences...... F. N. FRENKIEL

District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society

F. W. REICHELDERFER

Elected Members of the Board of Managers:

Tip since Ta ere a ea ee R. G. Bares, W. W. Dirnt

ramiearier any alObON. fo) ek et Ae sian as eo ee cd M. A. Mason, R. J. Srncer

BREN PENT ATVI OD «5 o66 oie 68 oc oly crd cine sgt oesSee veers A. T. McPuerson, A. B. Gurney

init! Op MGC ee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor

muurdomediuors and Associate Editors: i..2 3h. 286 352.08 th See ele: [See front cover]

Executive Committee.............. F. M. Deranporr (chairman), MarGcarer PITTMAN,

J. R. Swauuen, H. S. Rappieye, J. A. STEVENSON

Committee on Membership....H1nz Specut (chairman), Myron 8. ANDERSON, CLARENCE

Cottam, Roger W. Curtis, JoHN Faser, J. J. Fanny, Francois N. FRENKIEL,

Wess HayMAkeR, CLARENCE H. Horrmann, Louis R. Maxweuu, Epwarp G.

REINHARD, JOHN A. SANDERSON, LEo A. SHINN, FrRANcis A. SMITH, ALFRED WEISSLER

Committee on Meetings............... Dortuanp J. Davis (chairman), ALLEN VY. ASTIN,

GrorceE A. Hortrie, Martin A. Mason, Wituram W. Rusey

Committee on Monographs (W1Lu1AM N. FENTON, chairman):

Th@® diensmarenreye SOE ee eee ae ca ee eee eee er WitiramM N. Fenton, ALAN STONE

SRomeNrATaVal QOO Kc esc, Awe ote sk: G. ArtHur Coopmr, James I. Horrman

Tho Uinmtneinyy OGY Cee a ee eerie Haratp A. Rexper, Witi1aM A. Dayton

Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (RoBERT C. DuNcAN, general chairman):

For Biological Sciences......Byron J. OLSON (chairman), Sara E. BRANHAM, LEE

M. Hurtcuins, FREDERICK W. Poos, BENJAMIN ScHWARTZ, T. Date Stewart

For Engineering Sciences. . ELuioTtT B. RoBERTS (chairman), CLIFFORD A. BETTs,

Josera M. CaLDWELL, MicnanLt Gotppere, Harte H. Kennarp

ARNOLD H. Scott, Horace M. Trent

For Physical Sciences......... FRANK C. Kracrxk (chairman), Winiiam HH. AVERY,

Ricwarp §. Burineton, NatHan L. Drake, Luoyp G. Henpesr,

EpeGar R. Smita, BrnsAMIN L. SNAVELY

HOV NEAChiING Of SClences.. 2) saee M.A. Mason (chairman), Keita C. JoHNsoN

Commitiee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Herpert N. Eaton (chairman),

Mario Mozart, Francis O. Rice, J. Leon SHERESHEFSKY, JAMES H TAYLOR

Committee on Policy and Planning: (FRANCIS B. SInsBEE, chairman):

POPU ATU ATV ODD cise Ochs seth ata see sce eben L. W. Parr, Francis B. SILsBEE

sowVanwaryelO5Gy ce a. eee ea he eee nes E. C. CRITTENDEN, A. WETMORE

onianucany 1957 ot io. eee ee Joun E. Grar, Raymonp J. SEEGER

Committee on Hncowragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPuerson, chairman):

owamiranyelQbory isres a eeacels tomatoe AGAR: McPHERSON, W. T. Reap

PROM aT Vel OSG epee ee occa ince eure © AG ————_., J. H. McMrien

PRowiamuanyslO57 6. .c0 0 Sl eee ce, L. Epwin Yocum, Wrut1am J. YoupEN

EP LOSENLALZUCROTI (OUNCULIOSAMAMAN S Hanh nt ae er aelat shina seni an Watson Davis

Gan mntlecnofeAUuaclonss <1. so sate ns oe ce ae Josperu P. E. Morrison (chairman),

; Gaten B. Scuuspaver, Easpert H. WALKER

Committee of Tellers...Grorear H. Coons (chairman), SamuEL Levy, Watpo R. Wepre.

CONTENTS

PALEONTOLOGY.—New genera of Foraminifera from the British Lower

Carboniferous. Rorert Ho. CumMinGs.............- 9

PALEONTOLOGY.—Foraminifera from some ‘‘Pliocene” rocks of Egypt.

RUSHDIPSAID. 26 oR asian ees 2 Le.

PALEONTOLOGY.—A new species of Cymbiocrinus from the Pitkin. Har-

Min) IDA SBORIOMHN, 26 beep 6o boos F485 varbiwne tee.

EntomoLocy.—The immature stages of Sarcophaga cooleyz, S. bullata,

and S. shermani (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). VrERNE F. NewHouss,

DAviIp > W. WALKER, and Maurice 2. JAMES......... >)

ENnroMoLogy.—Some work of the periodical cicada. E. A. ANDREWS. .

IcuTrHyoLogy.—F latfishes of the genus Symphurus from the U.S8.8. Alba-

tross Expedition to the Philippines, 1907-1910. Paut CHABANAUD.

MauacoLoey.—Conus eldredi, new name for one of the poison cones.

PS INVORRISON: .. <6 caca80 0 ee nee okey sl sa. 2

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals.

Page

Von. 45 FrBRUARY 1955 No. 2

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 45.

February 1955

No. 2

BIOLOGY .—The unitary principle. A. A. Wiut1AmMson, Washington, D. C. (Com-

municated by Waldo L. Schmitt.)

The greatest thing a human soul ever does in

this world is to see something, and tell what it

saw in a plain way ...To see clearly is poetry,

prophecy, and religion all in one——RuwsKIN.

The Greeks, of course, “had a word for

it.’ Contrasting magnitude with number,

they said that magnitude is limited in the

large but unlimited in the small, whereas

number is limited in the small but unlimited

in the large. For—with respect to the whole

numbers only—the smallest is the unit, one.

By addition it can always be enlarged with-

out limit. However large it may be, it can be

made still larger, as one thousand, by the

addition of one, becomes one thousand one,

and so on without limit. But magnitude is

at its utmost when the universe is taken as a

unit, as the Greeks did. It can, however, be

divided and subdivided without limit.

Therefore Aristotle denied that the atom

of Leucippus and Democritus could be the

ultimate small its name implied: even it must

be divisible as modern physics has found it

to be. But the ultimate large of magnitude

still is the universe, the “turning to one’”’

indicated by its name.

All of the world’s great religions, despite

their differences, are in full agreement on

one basic concept: the eternality and uni-

_ versality of the divine. “Only its laws en-

dure.” The theological religions of the

| West see in their theoretic immortality of

_ the human soul proof of its divinity, for the

| immortal is divine. But the non-theological

religions of the Far East teach how to lose

the personal soul by union with the eternal

soul of the universe from which (they say)

come all incarnate souls. For everything

_ that is manifest is transient; only the soul

of the universe is immortal and therefore

divine. Thus, in both East and West,

eternality—absolute independence of time—

characterizes the divine and its abode, the

universe.

Today, the fundamental concept of the

eternality of the universe is being questioned

and, for some, disproved. Theories assign-

ing a vast but nonetheless limited age to

the heretofore ageless are being advanced

and developed. But not only is the quality

of eternality being questioned, the spatial

extent of the cosmos itself is being conceived

of as having limits. Although these theories

raise as vital problems as they purport to

settle, they are meeting with the wide-

spread credence in scientific circles. If, for

example, the cosmos had a beginning in time,

what was there before it? And if it is to have

an end, what will be there afterward? If it

is spatially limited, what hes beyond those

spatial boundaries? To all such questions

Echo (but only Echo) answers, What?

Modern cosmologies have one thing in

common: all are mathematical. But mathe-

matics is a branch of logic, and logic is

concerned with proof, which is not neces-

sarily synonymous with truth. It can

confidently be said that when the proof of

an axiological proposition is mathematical

only, it is no proof of the truth-value, the

factuality, of the proposition’s primary

postulates, nor of the mathematically

arrived at conclusions. The logical implica-

tions of a proposition can be worked out in

complete disregard of whether or not its

primary postulates are factual: that is not

the concern of mathematics. Something

more than logic, even mathematical logic,

is essential to the demonstration of truth.

And truth, be it said, is simply nature, and

MAR 1 7 1055

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

conformity to it, as science itself recognizes.

That is why even Einstein’s theories have

been and are being subjected to empirical

test. Do lght rays bend when passing

through a gravitational field, as they theo-

retically should? Observation proved that

they do. Then—but only then—the theory,

the logic of its mathematics, could be

accepted as, to that extent, true. But if

observation had shown that no bending

occurs, all the mathematical logic in the

world would not have sufficed to overcome

that discrepancy, that non-conformity of

theory with nature. The mathematics might

be above reproach, but the proposition

would have to be rejected at once as untrue.

Nature does not always accord with human

reason; observation may be faulty, or

crucial experiments not so perfectly ex-

clusive of alternates as supposed. Witness

the history of the phlogiston theory, con-

firmed by thousands of experiments and

everywhere accepted until Lavoisier dem-

onstrated its falsity and founded modern

chemistry.

The extent to which mathematical cos-

mologists now go is illustrated by Dr.

George Gamow’s assertion that space is

not only lmited but even changes shape

with time, assuming convex, negative, and

concave curvatures in a regular order.! The

common sense questions of what, above

suggested, are simply ignored. There is also

the expanding universe theory, now widely

accepted despite its reliance on the logical

fallacy of affirming the consequent in a

hypothetical syllogism (1.e., a non-sequitur

which only may be true, not being at all

necessarily so). Hubble, the discoverer of

the ‘‘Doppler effect”? taken as indicative

of dispersion, recognized that other factors

might operate to produce it, but not all

cosmologists are so conservatively cautious.

The foregoing should not have a contempt

for mathematics read into it. It is merely

to assert that mathematics, while a powerful,

an almost indispensable tool, is nevertheless

only a tool and so, by itself, not enough.

Its logically arrived at conclusions must,

whenever possible, be checked against

empirical observation or controlled experi-

1 Sei. Amer. 190(3) : 55. Mar. 1954.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 2

ment. Should that not be possible, then the

logic of the theory must suffice as the best

we can do.

. The first and second laws of thermody-

hamics as formulated by Clausius are

examples of this, for we do not know—we

cannot know—from experience that the

total energy of the cosmos actually is con-

stant, or that the entropy of the universe

actually tends to a maximum. But the

extrapolation of a future state from a present

state is impossible without a governing

constant, which makes the aforesaid laws

logical necessities. Until proved factually

erroneous, they will stand because of their

scientific usefulness, a major consideration.

If. however, the cosmos is actually sub-

ject to the second law of thermodynamics;

and if it is therefore running down like a

clock which cannot be wound up, then it is

logically false to associate eternality and

divinity, and what all of the world’s great

religions are agreed upon despite conflicting

differences must be abandoned. For it is

hardly conceivable that divinity can survive

the loss of its most distinctive characteristic:

infinity in space and time.

Enters now a concept of which no scientific

notice is taken but which nevertheless

merits grave consideration because of its

pertinence and apparent validity as a

universal law. This is the artistic canon of

Number, which first came to the present

author’s attention in a book on architecture

as one of three great canons in the grammar

of design, the two others being the canons

of Punctuation and Inflection.?

Number, says Edwards, is of three

categories: Unity, Duality, and Plurality.

Of these three, the first and third are artistt

cally correct and acceptable, but the second

(Duality) is artistically abhorrent and not

permissible. It never (he says) occurs un-

resolved in nature.

Edwards defines duality as the juxta-

position of two equals. It causes the two to

compete for supremacy, each over the other,

with almost literally painful effect upon the

eye of the beholder, whose mind demands

that the duality be resolved, for duality is of

> Epwarps, A. Trystan. The things which are

seen: A revaluation of the visual arts. London, 1921.

Feprvuary 1955 WILLIAMSON:

the very essence of discord, just as a second

is in music.

It is the canon of Number, Edwards

explains, which causes architects always to

to support a Greek pediment with an even

—never an odd—number of pillars. For an

odd number would, for the sake of balance,

bring a central pillar directly beneath the

apex of the pediment and indicate a median

line bisecting the whole into two laterally

inverted but equal parts, producing true

duality. The artistic effect would be ex-

eruciating, especially if (as in some church-

building fronts) there were a median-line-

continuing steeple surmounting the whole.

Although two’s occur abundantly in

nature, there is always a duality-resolving

inflection if there is juxtaposition of the

units. Each unit then becomes half of a pair,

requiring the other to make a unitary whole,

as with our hands, our feet, our eyes. Ed-

wards gives many other examples. The

skyline of a land- or seascape should never

be exactly half way between the top and

bottom of the picture, nor should the

ribbon on a man’s straw sailor hat be just

half as wide as the height of the crown. If a

rectangular room is twice as long as it is

wide, people assembling in it in considerable

number will instinctively form two groups,

one in each half, as if an invisible wall

separated them. That invisible wall is the

artistic canon of Number, which all sense

_ though they never so much as heard of it.

There seems no limit to the range of

power of this canon of design. In the present

author’s opinion, it forced a triune God

upon Christianity. For when, in A.D. 325,

the Council of Nicea, by majority vote,

made the Son coequal with the Father, it

unwittingly violated that canon by bringing

two equals inte juxtaposition. Immediately

the question arose: Which of the two is

really God? So great a furore of debate

ensued that it soon became evident that

something had to be done to stop it. Ac-

cordingly, in A.D. 381, the Council of

Constantinople was convened. If the re-

ligion was to remain Christian, no retreat to

Unity (the One God of rejected Arianism)

was possible. Only one way, therefore, lay

open, and that was to resolve the duality by

changing it to plurality. This was accom-

UNITARY PRINCIPLE

plished by the introduction of the Holy

Spirit. The plurality of the Trinity resulted,

and Plurality is itself a kind of Unity, the

unity of a group, which made preservation

of the unity of the God-head possible. But

it is because the Holy Spirit is part of the

Trinity for artistic and not for theological

reasons that it is so difficult to explain and

to understand on theological grounds. On

the basis of the canon of Number, however,

it is easily explamed and understood.

This example is introduced here solely

for the purpose of illustrating the univer-

sality and compelling power of the great

canon of Number. Its rule can be seen to

extend even to spiritual matters, to the

immortal, the divine.

When Emerson, in his essay on Com-

pensation, wrote: ‘‘An inevitable dualism

bisects nature, so that each thing is a half,

and suggests another thing to make it whole;

as, spirit, matter; man, woman; odd, even;

subjective, objective; in, out; upper, under;

motion, rest; yea, nay,” he substituted in

that sentence (and for the worse) the word,

dualism, for the word, polarity, with which

the paragraph begins. For what he referred

to is not dualism in the sense of duality as

defined by Edwards. As the term, polarity,

implies, it is, rather, complementarity. For

as Emerson says, “‘each thing is a half, and

suggests another thing to make it whole.”

Dualism, in Emerson’s sense, is an ancient

truth. It was central to the religious doctrine

taught by Zoroaster (6th century, B. C.)

and still held by the Guebers and Parsees.

It recognized two creative Powers: Ormuzd

or Ahuramazda, the god of light and creator

of all that is good; and Ahriman or Angra-

mainyus, the god of darkness and creator of

evil. That every rose has its thorn is a by-

word of long standing.

Something very much like dualism as

complementarity has sound scientific stand-

ing. Thus, it is recognized that if there are

statistical laws, then there must also be non-

statistical laws in over-all universal law. In

the course of a discussion of probability in

quantum mechanics, Filmer 8. C. Northrop

says: ““...a general rule concerning the

universality of statistical laws in nature can

be stated. This rule is that if there are

certain laws in science which are statistical

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

then there must also be laws in that science

which are not statistical. Otherwise the

concept of theoretical probability essential

to the meaning of the statistical law in

question cannot be defined.’’ Planck has

written to the same effect. And essentially

the same principle of complementarity

underlies Aristotle’s concept of positive

forms and forms by privation as reciprocals,

the former having factual existence, the

latter—implied by the former—only poten-

tial existence. ‘“‘Cold,”’ says Emerson, ‘‘is the

privation of heat.” But there are regions

where cold becomes positive, and tempera-

tures at which that disorder of energy which

is heat, is stilled.

The concept of complementarity leads to

an interesting assumption. It is that if cos-

mic energy is constantly being dissipated,

then there must be some way in which it is

just as constantly being accumulated or

regenerated. But if so, what becomes of the

second law of thermodynamics? It would be

reduced to, at best, a half-truth.

A corollary assumption is that this

assumed restoration of energy to effective-

ness must be through the operation of a

process. And that would imply something

more than the negative entropy (or ‘‘negen-

tropy’’) whose mathematical formula is

given by Erwin Schrédinger in section 60

of his little book What zs life?

This brings us to a consequential ques-

tion: Is there anywhere in nature an ob-

servable process appearing to operate in the

direction of the accumulation and restora-

tion of energy?

To this question an affirmative answer

can—it is believed—be given with con-

siderable assurance. This process was out-

lined in a paper by the present author

published in this JourNAL for October 1953

(vol. 43, no. 10), under the title “Speculation

on the Cosmic Function of Life.” It was

further developed in a second paper in the

same JouRNAL for October 1954 (vol. 44,

no. 10), entitled ‘Integration and Indi-

viduation as Elements of Evolution.”

Both dealt with what was called the Pyra-

mid of Life Concept.*

3 NortHrop, The logic of the sciences and the

humanities. New York, 1947. Fifth (1952) printing,

p. 216.'

4 There are suggestions of a growing tendency

VOL. 45, NO. 2

The purpose of those two papers was to

indicate that life—by no means limited to

this planet—actually does accumulate,

transmute, concentrate, and refine energy,

and does it systematically through bio-

logical evolution. By its pyramid-building

process, mechanical, chemical, thermo-

dynamic, and electromagnetic energy are—

in the level of national social organisms—

brought to such a state of refinement that

electromagnetic energy overwhelmingly pre-

dominates, forming that body of thought-

produced, ideological ‘‘margins of vitality”

which are the glory of civilization. Theoret-

ically, national social organisms carry the

process over into the pyramid’s psychozoic

realm of reality. On the basis of age-long

established precedent in its physical organis-

mal realm (which is composed of three

successively superimposed levels), two addi-

tional levels in the psychozoic realm are to

be expected. They can, indeed, be seen in

process of slow formation now, in current

history.

Here we may pause to note a fundamental

difference between emergence as defined by

William Morton Wheeler (this JouRNAL

43: 10) as it operates in the inanimate

world and in the animate. In the former,

emergents result from the specific interaction

of unlikes, as atomic physics has found and

as every chemical compound formula pro-

claims (e.g., H2SO.). But in animate nature,

emergents result from the specific interaction

or organization of likes only. (All the cells of

every multicellular physical organism are

direct descendants of the original single

fertilized ovum.) In this fundamental differ-

ence lies the root cause of that minority

group antipathy (often miscalled prejudice,

bigotry, or whatnot) from which all nations

(not America alone) unhappily suffer. It is

old as the hills. Moses, the great Lawgiver

of the Hebrews, knew and feared it. Con-

trast the commandment Thou Shalt Not

Kill, with the deeds recounted in Deuteron-

omy 2, and find their reason in Numbers 33,

verse 55: “But if ye will not drive out the

to give thought to life as a cosmic phenomenon,

as (negative) in Harold Blum’s T7me’s arrow and

evolution, and (positive) George Wald’s article,

“The Origin of Life,’’ in Scientific American for

August 1954.

Fepruary 1955

inhabitants of the land from before you;

then it shall come to pass, that those which

ye let remain of them shall be pricks in your

eyes, and thorns in your sides, and shall vex

you in the land wherein ye dwell.” For

those who remained would constitute a

minority group, which spells trouble always.

And it is significant that minority group

antipathy is not basically a matter of

superiority and inferiority. Always it is the

conflict of difference, of unlikes in standard

of living, or religion, or manners and cus-

toms, or race, or whatnot. It arises when,

and only when, there is (1) a marked differ-

ence, and (2) numerical representation of

that difference large enough to be con-

spicuous. One swallow does not make a

summer, nor does difference-representation

by only a few arouse antipathy. Its root

- eause is violation of the like-with-like rule

- shown

reconciliation of

fundamental throughout animate nature

and operative at the human societal level in

family, clan, phratry, tribe, and nation, the

antithesis of the rule fundamental to inani-

mate nature. It is an antithesis having pro-

found implications bearing on the refining,

regenerative process working for the per-

petuation of the cosmic unitary principle.

In his two masterly works, The meeting of

Fast and West and The taming of the nations,

Dr. Filmer 8. C. Northrop, Sterling Profes-

sor of Law and Philosophy at Yale, has

that the greatest humanitarian

problem facing mankind today is the

the indigenous Asian

(Far Eastern), nontheological religions

(Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and

the purer Hinduism) with the theological

religions prevalent in the Near East and the

West (Judaism, Christianity, and Moham-

-medanism). While the difficulties standing

in the way of such a consummation are

appalling, there is an element of hope in the

fact which Northrop so clearly shows: that

both categories of religion seek, by different

ways, to show man how to relate himself to

_ the timeless and the therefore divine. The

- difference is that the nontheological religions

concentrate on what Northrop aptly calls

the aesthetic component of things and our

knowledge of them—that apprehension of

nature which is conveyed directly by the

senses; whereas the theological religions

WILLIAMSON: UNITARY PRINCIPLE

concentrate mainly on the theoretic com-

ponent thereof, which cannot be known by

direct perception. The two categories are

opposed, therefore, in the doctrinal develop-

ment by each of but one of the two compo-

nents of the same thing: nature. Yet those

two components are complementary aspects

of the whole, and he who sees but one sees

not the whole. To neglect the one is to

exaggerate the other, with unhappy effect.°

While Northrop has presented the problem

with beautiful clarity and logic, backed by

an astounding fund of thoroughly and fruit-

fully analyzed information, he does not offer

any unifying concept as a solvent. In this

respect, but in it only, his work is deficient.

(It does not, however, diminish the value of

that work, nor lay it open to censure.) He

brings the problem into clarifying focus,

but does not tell us how to solve it—by

what means.

He does, however, make it clear that a

new set of basic assumptions is required,

in the discovery and formulation of which

both imagination and speculation can play

legitimate, even necessary, roles.®

As has been intimated in the two JouRNAL

papers hereinbefore mentioned, it is the

firm belief of the present author that the

Pyramid of Life Concept, if developed and

elaborated as it can be, could furnish all

that is needed to (1) place the social sciences

and the humanities on a firmer foundation

(for they have a schematic part in it, and in

the complementarity of the integrative and

individuative principles practical ethics

and morals are rooted as derivatives); (2) to

thus help raise those disciplines to a parity

of authority with the physical sciences (for

on its showing no mechanical universe

could endure without life’s rejuvenating

action); and (3) to show explicitly how

that great humanitarian problem could be

solved (by a general adoption of the Con-

cept as the closing nexus of an improved,

more adequate basic understanding). That

belhef—that conviction—is the remoter,

deeper-lying justification for the presenta-

tion of these papers. They attempt to tell

> Tt is interesting and encouraging that Pro-

fessor Northrop’s major works have required re-

peated reprinting to meet the demand for them.

5 Northrop. Op. cit. supra. Pp. 321, 124, 347.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

what has been seen, and tell it ‘in a plain

way.”

The Pyramid of Life Concept challenges

the truth of all those mathematical cos-

mologies which, by limiting space and time,

would make irrational man’s age-old asso-

ciation of eternality and infinity with the

divine. On the basis of that Concept, life

does have meaning and cannot logically be

neglected; eternality and infinity are ra-

tional conceptual attributes of the divine;

and assurance of validity comes whence it

should: the broad field of Biology. For it is

forees amassed, made inherent in, and

systematically restored to power by life

through the pyramid-building process that

give movement to—that animate—the uni-

verse as an indeterminate continuum and

ensure its perpetuity. The cyclic character

of the evolution of its distinguishable,

determinate parts, together with the ap-

parently direct relationship of those three

great mysteries, magnetism, electricity, and

mind, lends support to such a conclusion.

The present author dares hope that if and

when the scientific, philosophical, and even

religious usefulness of the Pyramid of Life

Concept is seen, the way may be opened to

its general acceptance. For it offers a new

VOL. 45, NO. 2

concept of history, superior in every way to

the Hegelian concept out of which grew

two world wars and on which Karl Marx

drew heavily for the dialectic materialism

theory underlying his communistic doctrines.

Kmphasizing as it does the cooperative,

organizing principle, especially in interna-

tional affairs; stressing the irreversible

evolutionary priority of importance of

individual man rather than the State, be-

cause of his sustenance-supplier status in

relation thereto; finding in free intellectual

inquiry the necessary basis for the ‘‘max-

imization of human potentialities’ for the

enrichment of that mental sustenance by

which peoples and their nations live through

their social institutions; and requiring of

evolution only that it continue to operate

just as it has for untold ages—it can fortify

the democratic doctrine with a theoretic,

philosophical justification such as it never

had before and of which it stands in dire

need today.

It is a Justification which can be published

to the world with no fear whatever of evil

consequences to follow, but, on the con-

trary, with the utmost confidence in its

beneficial effects.

MATHEMATICS.—-A pplication of two methods of numerical analysis to the com-

putation of the reflected radiation of a point source. Peter Henricr, American

University, Washington, D. C. (Communicated by John Todd.)

Let a monochromatic source of light of

intensity J be fixed at the point (0, 0, h)

of a (a, y, z)-space and let the horizontal

plane z = 0 reflect independently from the

angle of view a constant fraction » of the

incident radiation. Let a small horizontal

plane p be located at the point (a, y, z). Then

the illumination per unit area of p due to

reflection at the planez = 0 is ul (h, r, 2),

where r = (@ + y’)!? and

| p dy

Jo (h? + 7? + p? — 2rp cos ¢)*/?(p? + 27)?

1 This paper was prepared under a National

Bureau of Standards contract with American

University.

2 See [6], p. 1 + 3.

Introducing the dimensionless quantities

r jaligg

h’ may

we can express this function in terms of one

of two variables by putting

B(h, r, 2) = — WE 2)

and

WE, 1) = 2 dt

(1)

C t dp

0 1+2+ 2 — 2teos¢)??2(2 + 7)" |

In order to get some information about the |

quantitative behavior of W(é, 7), this func-_

Frespruary 1955 HENRICI:

tion was tabulated for the two sets of values

See

.05(.05) 1.6

n = .05(.05)1.6

and

2 = SER

7 = .25(.25)8.0

In this paper we describe some of the pre-

liminary analy tical work necessary for this

computation. In §1 we reduce the integral

(1) to a finite simple integral involving the

hypergeometric function. The computation

of this function, including an application of

Aitken’s 6-method to speed up the con-

vergence of its power series, is discussed in

$2. In §3 we give a rigorous discussion of the

error committed by evaluating the simple

integral numerically. This part of our work

is based on a method proposed recently by

P. Davis and P. Rabinowitz [8, 4].

A major part of the subsequent analysis

can be extended to the case where the

orientation of the plane element p is arbi-

trary. We do not, however, discuss these

generalisations in the present paper.

| 1. TRANSFORMATION OF THE INTEGRAL (1).

1.1 Reduction to a simple integral.

Our first aim is to reduce the double inte-

gral (1) to a simple integral by carrying out

the integration with respect to g. This can be

done with the aid of hypergeometric func-

tions. Although these functions are not ele-

| mentary, they can be computed numerically

to any desired accuracy, as will be shown

in §2.

By an elementary trigonometric identity

we have

Piet — 22 cos ¢

=1+ (t+ &) — 4té (co ae

We expand the integrand in terms of

_ powers of

4té

tes (cor a where X = Too Gabe

and observe that |.

* The numerical results have been computed

* on SEAC and are on file at the Computation Lab-

- oratory.

REFLECTED RADIATION OF A POINT SOURCE 39

of ¢ and &. Integrating term by term, we ob-

tain®

, 270

| (1+ f+ — 2 cos ¢) *” dy

Dit 4 @ +6 Bare?

(3/2), X" ' cos” dd

n=0 nN !

Qr[l + (¢ + €)) PRG, 351; X), (2)

where

(3)

F(a, b; @3 ZB) = Ss (a)n (bd), as

A=0 (One

is the hypergeometric function. Hence

W(E, n) = 2n i (7 +t)”

-( + (t+ €)) PRG, 351; X)tdt (4)

This integral can be simplified further by

using the transformation theory of the

hypergeometric functions. Applying the

formula’

2 —b

ING, (03 Pos 2) = (1 — 5)

bb+1- ao

ge oe)

to the hypergeometric function in (4) and

introducing the new variable°

= (le ey,

(4) becomes

| ate tat fee

X HG, 251; Zz dz, (5)

where now

Ae #

Z=Z = - : 6

OO} ete oe

08 = bh Op =a(a+1)--- (a +n —1),

nm =

5 Bidelyi [5], eq. 2.11(28).

‘ This will not be confounded with the geo-

metrical coordinate z used in the introduction.

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In order to avoid the numerically undesirable

improper integration, we put, denoting the

integrand in (5) by f(z),

be j@) ee = i jie + = (4) ab

Since in view of (6)

Z(z) = z(4),

the hypergeometric function in (5) has the

same value for z and 1/z, and we can there-

fore write

| gle)lgale) + gile)P(Z) dz, (7)

where we have put for brevity

q(z) = 21+ 2)" (8a)

g(z)=[n ++ 8)e]° (8b)

gs(z) = [ne +1 + &] 2" (8¢)

jaa) = 1G ep 118 A). (9)

1.2 Special cases.

1.21 & = 0. By direct integration e.g. of

(4) one finds

1 f 9 37?

A OO NCU et Te ym a

Qsyy\7 V1 —

-+ anhV/1 — 7, <q <i

n= 1

te Se {on + ieee ET

(@? — 1)2\" Vip = 1

-+an lV 7? — i, L<p<Kp

It is easily seen that in spite of the apparent

singularity V(O, 7) is a regular function of

n at 7 = 1, the Taylor expansion being

WO, ») = 6 & ee = 1

1.22 » = 0. For n = O, W(E, n) is not de-

fined. Writing in (4)

VoL. 45, No. 2

Lace

and applying to each integral the second

mean value theorem, it can however be shown

that

Me) = Clap ky

2. COMPUTATION OF THE HYPERGEOMETRIC

FUNCTION.

2.1 Estimation of the error due to trunca-

tion of the hypergeometric series.

Since for all values of z and all finite

values of &£ 0 S Z(z) < 1, the hypergeo-

metric series in (7) can be computed to any

degree of accuracy from its power series.

Putting

PG,#1;2) = Line, 0)

we have

ote We Ye = (1 = re Yn-1)

Ge = il, Bees)

and hence

: 1

Rea U (1 a ms <7

On the other hand,

Denoting by

the n-th partial sum of (10) and putting

s = lim s, , we have thus for the remainder

s — s, of the series the following estimates

from above and from below (valid under the

assumption 0 S Z < 1):

00 Gps

pred < pie =

s—s, 3 = Z i= (11)

Frepruary 1955

NW /S,

2.2 Aitken’s 6-method.

The sequence s, defined above has the

property that, using the symbol A for the

forward differences,

AS;-1

ASn_2

= 0) ar Ep. (13)

where g is a constant and ¢, ~0asn— ~.

The convergence of sequences of this type

can be sped up by a process which is known

as Aitken’s 6-method and which has been

studied by various authors [1, 2, 7, 8]. This

process consists in transforming the original

sequence s, into a new sequence §, accord-

ing to the rule

3, =f = (As,—1) (n = O, 3, a -) (14a)

A*Sn—2

which may be written alternatively as

Sn —= Spz—1 — pollen! ASn—2 (14b)

APSn—2

A n—2 :

Sno. ( ) . (14¢)

A*Sn—2

The following facts are known:

(i) If g ¥ 1, the sequence §, is ultimately

defined;

(i) If |q| < 1, the sequence §, has the

same limit as the original sequence;

Gnjelia O< |"q|< 1, the ‘sequence’ s;,

converges faster than s, in the sense that’

Sim S77

S — Sn

(15)

lim (=0.

no |

We also will have to make use of the follow-

ing simple quantitative properties of the

transformation:

(iv) If s, and §, 4, are defined, then

AE,

(il = Oh E_) (l= Ona E2255)

AS, =

(16)

“See Lubkin [7], p. 233, where, however, the

quite unnecessary assumption is made that e, de-

pends analytically on the variable z = 1/n.

0 ASn-1 0

HENRICI: REFLECTED RADIATION OF A POINT SOURCE

(v) From (16) it follows easily that if

tm = Max | Ae,, |

m=n

a, = Mex | ealf

and if 0) <q < 1 — 6, then

|s — 3, |

us |s—s,a|. (17)

i! :

5 GC S]@=)0 = ¢q— dea)

(vi) Further refinements may be possible

by making use of special properties of the

correction terms ¢,. For instance if, as in

the present case, €, < 0, if the sequences

€, and Ae, are monotonic from m = n on

and if 0 < g < 1 + &,, we can replace

(17) by

=n ———

Ch = OP

IIA

(s = s,-1). (18)

2.3 Application to the summation of the

hypergeometric series.

In the present case

q = Z,

and thus

A Pee Ne

A n = = .

"2 = 16 we ee

Equation (18) thus yields together with (11)

the estimate

ype

< Fa ay seep

ee sen ay

< (19)

Tt follows that for a given number of terms

the 6-method reduces the truncation error

by a factor

§ = & BI 1

= In/2 8s — JU):

which for Z = 0.5, n = 10 is approximately

Vigoo. The gain in accuracy can thus be

considerable. In practice, however, not the

number of terms, but the accuracy is given,

and the question arises how many terms of

the series can be saved when a given ac-

curacy has to be obtained. We shall next

discuss several aspects of this question.

S — Sn

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

2.31 Asymptotic savings in the number of

terms.

We first compute for a given n a lower

bound for the number m of terms necessary

to obtain with s,, the same accuracy as with

§, . Putting m = n + k, we have for k the

condition

SG > Sat SS = fa,

or, using (12) and (19),

2v/2 Gerais

xr 1-Z

open

8n3(1 — Z)?’

which yields

log 62 + 2log(1 — Z) + 3 logn

is 7 (20)

ar —log Z

This is for fixed Z and n large ~ C log n,

where the constant C = —3/log Z can be-

come arbitrarily large if Z is close to 1.

2.32 Savings for a given accuracy.

Upper bounds 7 (Z, ¢) for the number of

terms n necessary to attain with §, a given

accuracy € can be computed from (19) by

trial and error methods. In the following

table we give these values 7 for several

typical values of Z and for an accuracy of

10-*. They are contrasted with the lower

bounds m, computed from (12), for the

number of terms necessary when _ the

speed-up is not used.

Z nN m

l 5 df

5 15 27

9 92 196

.99 953 2279

2.33 Ratio of practical convergence.

The situation that the number of terms of

an infinite series necessary for a given ac-

curacy is either not known a priori or can

only be determined by the solution of a

transcendental equation arises frequently in

practice. In such cases one usually proceeds

with the summation until one or several

terms of the series become smaller than a

preassigned quantity, and the last partial

sum is then taken to be the sum of the

series. This ‘‘practical convergence” of the

series has obviously nothing to do with

mathematical convergence, unless some re-

VOL. 45, No. 2

lationship between the first neglected term

and the remainder of the series is established.

To this end we define as ratio of practical

convergence (r.p.c.) for any series DAs, the

quantity

3 = &

he T°

(21)

For series of type (13) we find under the

assumptions of (vi) §2.2,

and it follows from (16) and (18) that under

the same assumptions

(22)

ies S 9, |

where p, is the r.p.c. of the transformed

series. The r.p.c. is thus not affected ad-

versely by the 6-method. For our present

problem it results that a uniform accuracy ¢

in the hypergeometric function is obtained

if the summation is extended until

AS, = 61 — 2):

2.34 Savings in computation time.

In general, the time needed for the com-

putation of s, will be negligible in compari-

son with the time needed for the computa-

tion of the original sequence s, . In a case

like the present one, however, where the

computation of s, itself is very simple, the

question can be raised if it pays to apply

the 6-method. In order to make it pay, it

was decided here to compute §, not for

every n but only for a set of equidistant

values = kN, N > ik — 2 eee se

if N is large enough® the additional time

used for the computation of s, becomes

negligible in comparison with the time con-

sumed for the computation of s,, and the

savings in computation time are of the same

order as the savings in the number of terms.’

If the assumptions of (vi), §2.2 are satisfied,

then AS, > 0, AS, — O monotonically, and

we obtain for the r.p.c. of the sequence s, =

Sy the estimate

8’ N = 8 was found convenient in the present

case.

8 An alternate procedure would be to apply the

6?-method to the sequence t; = sxy. For this and

various other practical aspects of the 6?-method

see [9].

FEBRUARY 1955 HENRICT:

= Si Sev S — Sauyy

fs Ss == = a 1

S&iDN — SkN SG+DN — Skv

Ze SaqpN lik ges é

=. =e +l= = P(k+t)N ap ll.

N AS(41)N N

For the present case it results that a uniform

accuracy © is guaranteed if the summation

is carried out until

Ne(1 — Z)

ol N= Ne

3. ESTIMATION OF THE QUADRATURE ERROR.

3.1 Description of the method.

On the basis of the discussions of the last

section the integrand in {7) may be con-

sidered as known for numerical purposes. It

remains to estimate the error induced by

carrying out the simple integration (7)

numerically. Since the integrand is an

analytic function of z on the path of inte-

gration, this can be done by a method which

has been devised recently by P. Davis and

P. Rabinowitz and which can be summarized

as follows:

Suppose the function f(z) (2 = x + ty) is

regular analytic in a domain © containing

the segment [—1, 1] of the real axis, and

denote by &, the ellipse with foci at +1 and

semiaxes a and b = ‘a — 1)"? such that

(a + b) = p. If now the integral

f(z) dz

is evaluated numerically by a given integra-

tion rule R (e.g. by the trapezoidal rule, by

Weddle’s rule, or by a Gaussian n-point

rule), then the quadrature error is bounded

by the quantity

Min || f |lg, ozo),

(PlGpeD}

(24)

where

ik. = ff \v@ Pardy ees)

and or(p) is a numerical coefficient depend-

ing only on the integration rule and on p,

but not on the particular function f. The

values of « have been tabulated for various

1 Tt follows that Di. < Ptin) if Pern z=

N/(N — 1).

REFLECTED RADIATION OF A POINT SOURCE 43

values of p and various integration rules

in [4].

If this method is applied in practice, the

quantity || f||/g,, which is hard to obtain

exactly, will usually have to be replaced by

a suitable upper bound, such as

VrabMeg,, (26)

where Mg, is an upper bound of | f(z) | in

& - Moreover, instead of taking the mini-

mum of (24) with respect to the continuous

variable p, one will in general have to be

satisfied with the minimum for a few dis-

tinct values of p. It will be seen that in

complicated cases such as the present one

still further simplifications have to be made

in order to get a working estimate.

3.2 The singularities of the integrand.

In order to determine the ellipses €, at our

disposal, we first have to locate the singu-

larities of the integrand in (7). Singularities

arise

(a) from gi(z) at the points

21,2 = +1;

(b) from g2(z) at the points

VTA Sel

25,6 = 2 ;

n 24,3

(d) from the hypergeometric function,

which is singular at Z = 1, at the points z

satisfying

Z Danleeee

Ga) Bae

1.€., at

kE +7

CUS = 7 —=———1

V1i+ 2

where all four combinations of signs are

possible.

The ellipse &, , which encloses the path of

integration, has in the present case its foci

at 2 = 0 and z = 1. It is clear that if there

are singularities near the path of integration,

the choice of available ellipses &, is re-

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

stricted and, since the coefficients o are

comparatively large for very slender el-

lipses, the integration will be less accurate.

In our problem this will happen when é is

large, in particular when simultaneously 7

is small, because then the points 23,4 and two

of the points 27, ... 1 are near to the points

z = Oandz = 1 respectively.

3.3 The rectangle R,.

In view of the complexity of our integrand

the task of obtainng Mg, for a given &,

exactly is a difficult one. A particular com-

plication arises from the fact that a working

estimate for the function F defined by (9)

is available only for | Z| < 1. In this case

we find, using results of 2.1,

EG 2) see)

In order to overcome these two difficulties,

we again forego some accuracy and consider

in place of the ellipse 6 the smallest

rectangle with sides parallel to the axes con-

taining it. If a and b are the major and the

minor semiaxes of €,, the corners of this

rectangle R, are situated at 1g + a + ib.

An upper bound for the modulus of the

integrand in R, will clearly also be an upper

bound in §,. The rectangle R,, then, must

have the following two properties:

(a) None of the singularities z; must lie

1004 JfH 8

(DS) |Fi-< W aa

Condition (a) is easy to check and yields the

inequality

(27)

b < min Bb,, (28)

i=1,2,3

where

aE NS, Ip ES Vise

Vila Pe ”"

iat) ee aa

nN Aer

If this is satisfied, then we have for the

functions g;(z) ( = 1, 2,3) the upper bounds

[nl S oh

=(% tay +o)70—b)? (9)

el S &

=[" —(+8)b)~ (29)

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 2

lgs| S 9s

=[0g +4) +0? + = 70)

Condition (b) requires some closer in-

vestigation. It is certainly satisfied for a

sufficiently flat ellipse, since for z real,

| Z| < 1. The condition will thus result in

another upper bound for 6, namely,

~?, (295)

UD) 07 | PAB) |< Al}.

pee OS @ S OPO.

Since

e Lea

Y a peers eS

AO ae ea

the problem of determining 6, is equivalent

to that of finding for a given value of

now

1+2

the largest value y = y, with the property

that the function

h(x, y) = | 46@ + Ie) f

satisfied the inequality

h(x, y) <p

for |z—%| 3 4,|y| SY

. Then

= Up. (30)

It is easy to see that the function

hy) =

min h(x,y)

|z—7]Sa

is for a > 14 independent of a and is repre-

sented analytically by

1+ wae T= 4,

hoe ee (31)

@= oy) =

Te ion Wappen Sy = 1

This is evidently a continuous, strictly

monotonically decreasing function of y in

[0, 1] with h(O) = 1, h(1) = O. The function

y = Yp is the inverse of the function p =

h(y) and hence given by

FEBRUARY 1955 HENRICI: REFLFCTED RADIATION OF A POINT SOURCE 45

In a rectangle Rp with b < by the hypergeo-

metric function is thus by (27) bounded by

F = 1/(1 — p/h(b)), (33)

where h(b) is given by (31) with b = y.

Finally, the norm || f ||g, of the integrand

will be bounded by

IF || =V rab giGe+ 9s)F.

3.4 Numerical results.

The material is now at hand to compute

upper bounds for the quadrature error for

given values of — and 7 and for any rule

for which the coefficients o are tabulated.

The practical computation proceeds as fol-

lows: First the upper bounds 6; for the minor

semiaxis of the ellipse have to be ascertained

according to (28) and (30). Then an ellipse

has to be selected which meets the geo-

metrical conditions and for which cr(p) is

known. Experience shows that this ellipse

should be chosen rather large, since with

increasing p,cr(p) seems to decrease much

more rapidly than the norm increases. For

this ellipse the norm || f || has to be com-

puted by (34). An upper bound for the error

induced by the rule RF is then given by

lf | oR(p).

The following is a table of error bounds

for the function W(é, 7) (including the factor

in front of the integral sign in (7)) for a few

representative values of & and 7, if Gauss’s

16-point rule is applied.

(34)

n 22 1 5

1 4.37(—14) 1.40(—10) 2.48(—2)

5 6.24(—5) 6.46(—5) 4.78(—5)

; (a) = 104

Concerning this table, two remarks are in

order.

1. If the above error bounds are computed

for small values of 7, it turns out that only

exceedingly flat ellipses &, are available, for

which the values of o are either bad or are

not tabulated at all. This is an indication

that in these cases the simple application of

even a high-powered integration rule is in-

adequate and that the interval has to be

subdivided. If this is done, the above method

is still explicitly applicable to each subinter-

val, although, of course, the computations

become more and more involved.

2. It is likely that in view of the numerous

simplifications made the above error esti-

mates are much too large. We base this

remark on the two following empirical facts:

(a) The results of the computations of (7)

by one and by two Gaussian 16-point rules,

carrying eight digits after the decimal point,

agreed completely for & = 0(.05)1.6, 7 =

.3(.05)1.6; (b) The value V(O, 1) = .4 (see

$1.2) was obtained exactly. Nevertheless it

will be observed that at least for moderate

values of € and 7 the estimates are still very

practical. To establish bounds of the same

quality by conventional real-variable tech-

niques is probably not easy.

Acknowledgment—The author wishes to

acknowledge a number of stimulating discus-

sions with J. Todd, P. Davis, and L. Joel.

on the subject of this paper. Credit must

also go to L. Joel for the successful computa-

tion of (1) on SEAC along the lines indicated

in §1 and §2. :

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1] ArrKen, A. C. On Bernoulli’s numerical solu-

tion of algebraic equations. Proc. Roy. Soc.

Edinburgh 46: 289-305. 1926.

. Studies in practical mathematics IT. The

evaluation of the latent roots and latent vectors

of a matrix. Proc. Roy. Soe. Edinburgh 57:

269-304. 1936-37.

[3] Davis, P. Errors of numerical approximations

for analytic functions. Journ. Rational Mech.

Anal. 2: 303-313. 1953.

[4] Davis, P., and Rapinowrtz, P. On the estima-

tion of quadrature errors for analytic func-

tions. Math. Tables and Other Aids to Com-

putation 8: 193-203. 1954.

[5] Erppiyr, A., pr au. Higher transcendental

functions, 1: New York, 1953.

[6] Fusseuyu, W. L. The reflected radiation from an

infinite Lambert plane. NRL Memorandum

report no. 122. 1953.

[7] Lusxin, 8. A method of summing infinite series.

Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 48: 228-254.

1952.

[8] STEFFENSEN, J. F. Remarks on iteration.

Skand. Aktuarietidskr. 16: 64-72. 1933.

[9] Experiments in the computation of conformal

maps. Nat. Bur. Standards Applied Math.

Ser. no. 42. Papers by J. Todd, 8S. E.

Warshawski, G. Blanch, L. K. Jackson.

[2]

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 2

METEOROLOGY .— Dynamic linkages between westerly waves and weather.’ H.

WeExLeR, U.S. Weather Bureau.

Improved predictions of the large-scale

westerly flow pattern for 24-48 hours on

a routine basis will soon be available. A

denser network of radiosonde stations, a

better understanding of the dynamics of

atmospheric flow, and availability of fast,

large capacity computers have combined to

make possible for the first time a useful

mathematical prediction of the future

positions and intensities of the major

troughs, ridges, and cyclonic and _ anti-

cyclonic eddies in the midlatitude flow

pattern.

There remains the problem of predicting

the weather pattern from the predicted

flow patterns. Since an important part of

what we mean by ‘‘weather” is cloudiness

and precipitation, which are dependent on

vertical velocities and water vapor, it is

necessary to know the field of vertical

motions. This has already been done in

several cases treated dynamically, the

vertical velocities being expressed as average

horizontal values over 200-mile squares

(which is the basic data mesh used) and over

several hundred millibars in the vertical. The

results of these calculations (e.g., for the

November 5-6, 1953, storm on the east

coast of the United States) show good agree-

ment with precipitation amounts averaged

over large areas, but not with individual

amounts (7). In other words, the large-scale

westerly flow pattern leads to large-scale

fields of vertical velocities which, combined

with the predicted moisture content, will

delineate the associated large-scale pre-

cipitation patterns.

However important this information is,

the meteorologist must know more about

the smaller-scale fine-grained — structure

which he observes as ‘‘weather,’’ not only

visually by cloud formations and distribution

but also as radar displays of precipitating

clouds. These show an amazing amount of

“organization” in weather patterns, with

1 Summary of remarks presented before Con-

ference on High-Speed Computing Applications to

Meteorology and Oceanography, sponsored by the

National Science Foundation and the University

of California at Los Angeles, May 13-15, 1954.

cellular, eddy, and line phenomena present

whose sizes or widths are much smaller

than the westerly wave lengths and in fact,

smaller even than the average 200-mile

mesh length used in present dynamic

prediction methods (2). These smaller-scale

phenomena which have principal effect on

most human activities cannot be delineated

by present larger-scale predictions of average

vertical velocities and, therefore, average

precipitation over 200-mile squares.

For example, precipitation cellular pat-

terns of scale 10 by 10 miles (corresponding

to thunderstorms) are often found super-

imposed on the general large-scale warm-

front precipitation area when the ascending

tropical air is convectively unstable, and

account for the heavier bursts of precipita-

tion amounts hitting some spots and missing

others a few miles away—which makes so

difficult agreement of precipitation amounts

predicted with those observed.

Line phenomena in weather have been

long observed as the terms: line-squall or

squall-line, front, instability line, and pres-

sure jump line indicate. These lines, which

may be hundreds of miles long, have widths

measured in tens of miles. A very large

percentage of violent weather, such as

severe thunderstorms, windstorms, and the

small but violent vortices known as torna-

does, is located on these lines (3).

The general location in space and time of

weather phenomena is controlled mainly by

the large-scale westerly flow pattern in that

“weather” usually occurs between the

planetary wave trough and the ridge sonie

hundreds of miles to the east. The extent and

average intensity of the associated large-

scale weather pattern will depend on the

flow, thermal, and moisture properties of

these westerly waves and are amenable to

quantitative prediction as discussed earlier;

but there is as yet no quantitative method

of predicting the scale and ‘‘unsmoothed”’

intensity of the fine-grained structure of

weather.

sponsored by this organization.

The Junior Academy has made a good begin-

ning in the current year. There have been several

meetings of the Governing Council of this organ-

ization, and one is being held on this date, which

accounts for the absence of the acting chairman

of your committee.

Plans have been made for the year’s program.

Two meetings of the Junior Academy have been

held. The first, attended by around seventy, was

addressed by Dr. Youden of the National Bureau

of Standards. The second was the annual ‘‘Pro]-

ects Meeting”’ at which some fifteen scientists and

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

engineers met with approximately two hundred

students and their guests to plan and discuss

projects for the science fairs in the spring.

Future meetings will include: a session at Wilson

Teachers College, devoted to the work of science

teachers; the Christmas Lectures supported by

the Philosophical Society; a meeting at the Belts-

ville Laboratories of the Department of Agricul-

ture; probably a trip to the Franklin Institute of

Philadelphia; the Awards Program in connection

with the Senior Academy; and a meeting at which

the winners of various contests and fairs will dis-

cuss their projects.

The schools of Prince Georges County plan a

science fair with a view of separate representation

at the National Science Clubs annual science

fair. It is also planned to have more small fairs in

the individual schools and to send only the better

exhibits to the final large fair, which will probably

be held in the gymnasium of the McKinley High

School.

Letters have been sent by the President of the

Washineton Academy to all organizations af-

filiated with the Washington Academy of Sciences

and the District of Columbia Council of Engineer-

ing and Architectural Societies, asking that bud-

get plans include support for the Annual Science

Fairs.

The Education Committee of the District Coun-

cil is working with Dr. Arnold Scott’s subcom-

mittee of the Academy in an extensive program

aimed at arousing greater interest among students

and their parents in science and mathematics and

their applications. At a recent meeting of the Dis-

trict Council, Chairman Higginson made a very

encouraging report indicating not only increased

interest on the part of engineers, but a still greater

degree of cooperation with the Academy in this

program.

While not the immediate responsibility of your

committee, there are several other phases of this

broad program that should be included in this

report.

On September 23 there was a conference under

the auspices of the Future Scientists of America

Foundation to plan the 1955 program of this or-

ganization. The Foundation is a part of the Na-

tional Science Teachers Association and is closely

affliated with the National Education Associa-

tion. There was an attendance of around 100,

including not only educators and representatives

of such organizations as the U. 8. Office of Educa-

tion and the Scientific Manpower Commission,

but a number of people from professional societies

and from large industries. The principal theme of

this conference was the improvement of science

teaching.

The Engineering Manpower Commission main-

tains a large and active Guidance Committee

which operates on a regional basis. As the com-

mittee member from the District of Columbia,

your acting chairman attended the annual con-

ference of Region III, which includes Pennsyl-

vania, Maryland, Delaware, and the District of

Columbia. The major interest of this regional

committee by common consent is the effort to in-

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 3

form and interest secondary school students.

While approaches differ with local situations

there appears to be real unanimity of purpose.

A large number of people in Greater Washing-

ton have become interested in having an educa-

tional television station here, which is to be free

of commercial sponsorship. An organization has

been formed with institutional members, a board

of trustees, and representatives from all sorts of

clubs and societies. Plans of the Board of Trustees

include a modest two-year program of education

which would use programs on local stations before

a final campaign for funds for a new station.

Seven cities are operating such stations and a

dozen more expect to. It would be well for

each society affiliated with the Academy and the

District Council to add to the duties of their sepa-

rate educational representatives the responsibility

for following the plans and progress of the Greater

Washington Educational Television Association.

Dr. CamMpBeE Lt, chairman of the Special Com-

mittee on the Improvement of the JouRNAL,

stated that he had met with Messrs. Ewers,

Frenkiel, and Scribner to consider changes that

might be made and the timing of them. It was

indicated that some changes could be made in the

JaNuARY issue along lines of information about

local scientists and scientific institutions.

The Secretary read the following report of the

Nominating Committee:

The Nominating Committee, consisting of the

Vice-Presidents of the Academy, met in the Tay-

loe Room of the Cosmos Club on Tuesday, Octo-

ber 19, 1954. The meeting was called to order at

10 P.M. by S. E. Forbush, who presided. Others

present were: W. H. Gilbert, W. A. Dayton, Lee

M. Hutchins, G. F. Gravatt, L. A. Spindler,

Richard 8. Dill, E. G. Hampp, and F. N. Frenkiel.

The nominees selected for the offices to be filled

by balloting by members in December were as

follows:

For President-Elect—Ratru E. Gipson

For Secretary—Heinz Specht

For Treasurer—Howard 8. Rappleye 7

For the Board of Managers to serve January

1955 to January 1958 (two to be elected): W.

W. Diehl, Frank C. Kracek, W. W. Rubey,

Jason R. Swallen.

The deaths of the following members of the

Academy were reported: David Fairchild on

August 6, D. Breese Jones on September 5,

George H. Shull on September 29, Norman C.

Fassett on September 14, Raymond F. Bacon on

October 14, Austin H. Clark on October 28, and

Vera K. Charles on November 2.

Mr. Rappleye reported that eight contributions

amounting to $250.00 had been received for the

Science Fair.

Marcu 1955

| Dr. Frenkiel announced that the Christmas

‘Lectures of the Philosophical Society would be

given on December 22 and 23, and the speaker

would be Dr. George Gamovw.

476TH MEETING OF BOARD

OF MANAGERS

The 476th meeting of the Board of Managers,

held in the Tayloe Room of the Cosmos Club,

December 21, 1954, was called to order by the

President at S p.m. with the following in at-

tendance: F. M. Dreranporr, MarcGarer Pirr-

MAN, J. R. SwaLLen, H. 8. Rappinyn, J. A.

STEVENSON, W. W. Dreut, M. A. Mason, R. J.

Seecer, A. T. McPuHeErson, 8. E. Forsusu, W.

Ae Dayton, F. W. Poos, A. Wetmore, A. H.

Score D. &. Parsons, F. W. Hover, W. C.

Hess, E. G. Hamer, F. N. FReNKIEv and, by

ivitation, R. C. Duncan, H. N. Earon, F. W.

Sirssee, R. K. Coox, FRANK L. CAMPBELL, H.

M. Trent, B. J. Otson, F. C. Kracex, Kerra

JoHNSON, and Watson Davis.

President DEFANDORF announced the appoint-

ment of Dr. Harotp E. Frntey to the Commit-

tee on Encouragement of Science Talent, to

serve to January 1956 to complete the unexpired

term of Austin Ciark. Dr. M. A. Mason and Dr.

Roger Bates were appointed to represent the

Academy on the Committee on Engineering

Recognition of the District of Columbia Council

of the Engineering and Architectural Society.

In the absence of Dr. DorLAND Davis, chair-

man of the Committee on Meetings, Dr. Wet-

more reported that the speaker at the annual

dinner meeting, to be held at the Kennedy-

Warren, would be Dr. Matthew W. Stirling,

director of the Bureau of American Ethnology,

who would talk about his explorations in Panama.

Arrangements have been made with the National

Geographic Society to show one of their films

taken by Dr. Stirling to illustrate the lecture.

There was much discussion on the content of

the rest of the program for the dinner meeting.

It was unanimously approved that reports would

be read by title only with the exception of the

Treasurer’s report and the report of the Auditing

Committee, and the President would briefly

review the activities of the Academy during the

year. The Awards for Scientific Achievement

would be presented, but the recipients would not

be expected to speak either at the annual meeting

or subsequently at a later meeting.

Rosert C. Duncan, chairman of the Com-

PROCEEDINGS:

THE ACADEMY 95

mittee on Awards for Scientific Achievement,

asked the Chairmen of his subcommittees to

present nominations for the awards.

For the award in the Biological Sciences, Dr.

Byron J. Otson presented the nomination of

LEoN JAcoBs in recognition of his distinguished

contributions to the field of parasitology. In the

Engineering Sciences, Dr. Horack M. Trent

presented the nomination of W. 8. PrLurnt in

recognition of his notable contributions in the

field of metals processing. In the Physical

Sciences, Dr. F. C. Kracrxk presented the nomi-

nation of SamuEL N. Foner, in recognition of his

studies of constituents of flame reactions, and

specifically for his direct experimental discovery

and proof of the existence of the HO» radical in

certain types of flames.

These nominations were approved by the

Board.

Reporting for the Subcommittee for the Teach-

ing of Science, Dr. M. A. Mason stated:

The committee invited nominations from the

heads of all educational institutions and school

systems in the Metropolitan area, and received

detailed information on seven nominees.

The committee concludes on the basis of data

available to 1t that no recommendation should be

made for an award this year.

The committee wishes to call attention to the

service to young science students provided by Miss

Margaret Patterson of Science Service in her

guidance of Science Clubs of America and other

services. It has been suggested to the committee

that some recognition of Miss Patterson’s contri-

butions might be appropriate for the Academy.

The committee is aware that Miss Patterson is not

eligible for any existing award of the Academy.

The committee believes several persons in addi-

tion to Miss Patterson may have contributed sub-

stantially to encouragement of science talent, and

therefore recommends that the Governing Council

of the Junior Academy of Sciences be asked to in-

form the Board of Managers on the desirability

and a mechanism of recognizing such contribu-

tions.

Dr. Eaton, chairman of the Committee on

Grants-in-Aid for Research, reported that no

applications had been received for a grant, al-

though various educational institutions had been

informed that they were available. It was recom-

mended that the allotment for the current year

from the A.A.A.S. be added to that to be received

next year.

Dr. F. B. SirspEer, chairman of the Committee

96 JOURNAL OF THE

on Policy and Planning, presented the following

report:

We have given careful consideration to the

interim report dated October 12, 1954, of the Spe-

cial Committee on the Improvement of the Jour-

nal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, of

which Dr. Frank L. Campbell was chairman, and

discussed it at length at a meeting held December

14. In general we agree with its recommendations

and look forward to receiving its further sugges-

tions concerning ways and means.

We feel that the Journal should be aimed at

being interesting, informative and useful to its

readers rather than, as at present, of primary

usefulness to its authors by providing a medium

for prompt publication of their original scientific

work. The Journal should be a medium for inter-

preting ‘Science in Washington’ to the nation and

to the world.

As indicated in the discussions of the Special

Committee, articles fall into one or another of

three main types: (1) short or long articles of gen-

eral interest which may be either discussions of

problems common to different branches of science,

for example manpower, governmental programs,

basic trends, or survey articles presenting current

developments in rather broad fields of science for

the information of workers in other fields; (2)

short papers announcing original discoveries by

scientific workers in Washington; and (3) local

items of importance but relatively transient in-

terest connected with scientific life in Washington.

Our committee feels that the relative importance

of these types of articles is that in which they are

listed above rather than that implied by the

recommendation on page 2 of the October 12 re-

port of the Special Committee.

It is obviously desirable that the short articles

of category (2) announcing original scientific

work should, if possible, be distributed over a

much wider range of scientific disciplines than is

usually the case at present. However, merely

spreading the range of this type of paper would

not really solve the main problem. It would mean

that the chances that any individual member of

the Academy would find something of interest in a

given issue of his Journal would be definitely in-

creased but his interest would still be stimulated

by only a very small fraction of the whole maga-

zine.

Our committee is in hearty agreement with the

Special Committee that it would be wise to fix

responsibility and gain continuity of effort in the

operation of the Journal by assigning its conduct

primarily to a single editor who would have full

authority for the execution of policy, and who

would normally be expected to continue to serve

for a number of years. We also agree that such an

officer should be supported by a group of perhaps

three associate editors. The selection of these

individuals will require careful consideration and

negotiation which could best be done by a rela-

tively small group. Our committee therefore

recommends that the editor be nominated by the

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 3

Executive Committee of the Academy and elected

by the Board of Managers and that the associate

editors be similarly nominated by the Executive

Committee in consultation with the editor and

also elected by the Board of Managers. The elec-

tion by the Board of Managers would permit the

prompt filling of vacancies and avoid the delay

and expense required by an election from the

Academy membership as a whole. We feel that this

advantage more than offsets the slight additional

stature which might accrue to the editors if they

were elected by the membership as a whole.

Our committee is inclined to question the ef-

fectiveness of the suggested corps of correspond-

ents in the affiliated societies, although we do

concur that such a liaison with the major scien-

tific institutions of the city might be very helpful.

Presumably the development of such relation-

ships can be left to the discretion of the new board

of editors.

Our committee discussed briefly the possible

desirability of paying the editor an honorarium.

This in part might offset possible rather unofficial

expenses (lunches with prospective authors, etc.)

which he might find it desirable to incur and also

might perhaps stimulate in him a more concrete

sense of responsibility than if his services were

entirely a ‘labor of love.’ We feel, however, that

this matter should be left to the discretion of the

Executive Committee of the Academy.

Our committee does not feel that a possible

gain in circulation resulting from an exchange

with other scientific journals would offset the

probable loss of a number of paid subscriptions

and the bother and confusion of handling the

journals received in exchange.

The establishment of the new form of the Board

of Editors will require amendments to the By-laws

and amendments suitable to effect this are at-

tached hereto for consideration by the Board of

Managers.

The proposed amendments to the Bylaws were

then presented. They were approved by the

Board and the Secretary instructed to submit

them to the members of the Academy for a

ballot vote. The proposed amendments are as

follows:

ART. III, Sec. 1—First sentence, after “Treas-

urer’’? insert ‘‘an Editor.’’ Second sentence,

delete ‘“‘the Senior Editor.’’

ART. III, Sec. 5—Revise by substituting:

“The Board of Editors shall consist of the

Editor and three Associate Editors. The Editor

shall be elected annually by the Board of Man-

agers on nomination of the Executive Commit-

tee of the Academy. The Associate Editors shall

be elected annually by the Board of Managers

on nomination by the Executive Committee of

the Academy acting in consultation with the

Editor. Vacancies occurring during the year

shall be filled in the same manner.”

Marcu 1955 NEW

ART. IV, See. 3—Change “‘Board of Editors’’ to

“Biditor.”

ART. IV, See. 5—Revise by substituting:

“The Editor shall have charge of the Journal

of the Academy and shall sign all contracts on

behalf of the Journal.”’

ART. V, Sec. 1—Change ‘“‘Board of Editors’? to

“Editor.”

Dr. \IicPHERSON reported that the members of

the Junior Academy were honor guests at the

Christmas lectures of the Philosophical Society.

Also that the Junior Academy was sponsoring a

visit to the Franklin Institute.

Dr. SEEGER, chairman of the Committee on

Science Education reported that letters would be

sent to all Academies requesting data as to what

other Academies are doing about the problem of

science education.

MEMBERS 97

The Secretary reported the deaths of E. B.

Bascock on December 8, 1954, and CorNELIUS

J. CONNOLLY.

The Treasurer reported that $415 had been

received so far for the Science Fair.

The problem of financing the attendance at

the National Science Fair by winners of the local

Science Fair was presented by Krrru JOHNSON.

This was brought about by the fact that the

Washington Daily News, which has sponsored

participation in the National Science Fair, had

withdrawn its support. Although several ideas

were suggested and freely discussed, no solution

seemed to be immediately available.

JASON R. SWALLEN, Secretary

NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY

There follows a list of persons elected to

membership in the Academy, by vote of the

Board of Managers, since November 17, 1953,

who have since qualified as members in accord-

ance with the bylaws (see also this JouRNAL 44:

128-132. 1954).

RESIDENT

Elected November 17, 1958

Wittram H. ANDERSON, assistant chief,

Division of Insect Detection and Identification,

Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine,

U. S. Department of Agriculture, in recognition

of his contributions to our knowledge of the

systematics of the insect order Coleoptera as indi-

cated by studies of the immature stages.

Herman Bocarty, research associate, Harris

Research Laboratories, in recognition of his ex-

tensive investigations in cellulose and keratin

chemistry involving their chemistry and proper-

ties.

CHARLES O. Hanptey, Jr., assistant curator,

Division of Mammals, U. 8. National Museum,

in recognition of his contributions to the field of

systematic mammalogy, particularly in the

American Arctic, Virginia, Guatemala, and

Southwest Africa.

Elected December 14, 1953

STrEwarT R. Cooper, professor of analytical

chemistry, Howard University, in recognition of

his work in analytical chemistry, and particularly

his researches in the field of polarography.

Henry Hopp, biometrician, Foreign <Agri-

cultural Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

in recognition of his contributions in the fields of

forestry, soils, and agricultural experimentation,

with notable achievements in the application of

biometry to the development of agricultural

experimentation and extension in underdeveloped

countries.

Vicror J. TULANE, associate professor of

chemistry, Howard University, in recognition of

his work as a teacher and research man in the

field of biochemistry, and particularly for his

work dealing with automatic increase of solvent

polarity in chromatographical analysis.

Elected January 11, 1954

ERNESTINE B. THURMAN, entomologist, Di-

vision of International Health, U. S. Public

Health Service, in recognition of her contribution

to the taxonomy and biology of bloodsucking

insects, particularly the mosquitoes of North

America.

Srpney H. Lresson, head, Electromagnetics

Branch, Naval Research Laboratory, in recog-

nition of his contributions in the fields of gaseous

discharges, organic fluorescence, and solid state

physics.

Donatp B. McMutten, chief, Department of

Medical Zoology, Army Medical Service Gradu-

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ate School, Walter Reed Army Medical Center,

in recognition of his contributions in the field of

medical zoology, particularly on the epidemiology

and control of schistosomiasis.

Henry 8. FuLumr, assistant chief, Department

of Entomology, Army Medical Service Graduate

School, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, in

recognition of his research in the field of medical

entomology, including the use of arthropods as

laboratory hosts of experimental infection, and

on the epidemiology of arthropod-borne diseases.

Cart O. Grasst, botanist, Division of Sugar

Plant Investigations, U. 8. Department of Agri-

culture, in recognition of his important taxonomic

studies on sugarcane and its wild allies, and

important contributions to sugarcane, genetics,

including the breeding of disease resistant

varieties.

Elected February 16, 1954

Donovan 8S. CorreLe, botanist, Plant Intro-

duction Section, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

in recognition of his contributions to taxonomic

and economic botany, especially his work on ferns

and orchids.

GEORGE Gamow, professor of theoretical

physics, George Washington University, in

recognition of his numerous contributions to

astrophysics, cosmology, and nuclear physics.

WattErR H. Hopes, assistant head, Plant

Introduction Section, U. S. Department of Agri-

culture, in recognition of his contributions to

taxonomic and economic botany, especially his

work on the flora of Dominica.

Harry Potacuek, chief, Applied Mathematics

Laboratory, David Taylor Model Basin, in

recognition of his contribution to mathematics

and, in particular, to the application of high-

speed computing techniques in theoretical fluid

dynamics.

Harry WExter, chief, Scientific Services Di-

vision, U. S. Weather Bureau, in recongition of

his contribution to meteorology and, in par-

ticular, to synoptic and dynamic meteorology and

to solar and atmospheric radiation.

Elected April 20, 1954

Joun A. Bennett, chief, Mechanical Metal-

lurgy Section, National Bureau of Standards, in

recognition of his contributions to physical

metallurgy, particularly for his studies of the

causes and mechanism of fatigue failures in

metals.

VOL. 45, NO. 3

Expert DeCoursey, director, Armed Forces

Institute of Pathology, in recognition of his

contributions to the pathology of atom-bomb

injuries.

Francis E. Enuiorr, oceanographer, U. 8.

Navy Hydrographic Office, in recognition of his

contributions to the geography of the oceans and

to the physical characteristics of the inshore

environment.

Harotp E. Frnitny, head, Department of

Zoology, Howard University, in recognition of his

services as teacher and investigator in zoology,

and in particular his work on sexual patterns in

ciliates.

E. R. Kennepy, assistant professor, Depart-

ment of Biology, Catholic University of America,

in recognition of his contributions to bacteriology

and immunology and in particular his researches

on quantitative aspects of the gram reaction.

Morris C. Lerkrnp, chief, Historical Research

Division, Medical Museum, Armed Forces Insti-

tute of Pathology, in recognition of his con-

tributions to the history of science, particularly

in the fields of bacteriology and medicine.

Russet W. Mgss, physicist, National Bureau

of Standards, in recognition of his contribution

to physical metallurgy, particularly for his re-

searches on elastic properties of metal, flow and

fracture of metals, and ultrasonic properties of

metals.

Ketso B. Morris, associate professor, De-

partment of Chemistry, Howard University, in

recognition of his services as a teacher of chem-

istry on a university level, and particularly his

work on the oxidation of hydroxylamine.

Davip McK. Riocu, technical director, Neuro-

psychiatry Division, Army Medical Service

Graduate School, Walter Reed Army Medical

Center, in recognition of his contributions to

neurology and psychiatry.

Merritt P. SariEs, associate professor, De-

partment of Biology, Catholic University of

America, in recognition of his work in experi-

mental parasitology, and especially his con-

tributions to our knowledge of the mechanisms of

jmmunity to parasitic nematodes.

Elected May 18, 1954

Vicror R. Boswett, head, Section of Vege-

table Crops and Diseases, U. 8. Department of

Agriculture, in recognition of his contributions to

horticultural science and in particular his re-

searches on the production, physiology, and

breeding of vegetable crop plants.

Marcu 1955

Evtas Bursrerx, head, Physics Section,

Crystal Branch, Naval Research Laboratory, in

recognition of his contribution to solid state

physies and in particular his work on optical

investigations of semiconductors and on color

center formation in crystals.

J. L. Ertcxsen, head, Theoretical Mechanics

Section, Naval Research Laboratory, in recogni-

tion of his outstanding researches in continuum

mechanics, especially his discoveries in nonlinear

elasticity and in the theory of invariance funda-

mental to modern continuum

mechanics.

HERBERT FRIEDMAN, head, Electron Optics

Branch, Optics Division, Naval Research Labora-

tory, in recognition of his outstanding research in

the fields of X-rays and Geiger counters which

has culminated in his discovery that X-rays are

present in theradiation from the sun with intensity

sufficient to account for E-layer ionization.

B. L. Horecker, chief, Section on Enzymes

and Metabolism, National Institute of Arthritis

and Metabolic Diseases, National Institutes of

Health, in recognition of outstanding original

work in enzymatic mechanisms.

Lawrence M. KusHner, physical chemist,

National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of

his work on colloidal systems, in particular the

size and shape of micelles by means of viscometric

and light-scattering studies.

JoHn R. Maanuss, head, Fruit and Nut Crop

Investigations, U. 8. Department of Agriculture,

in recognition of his contributions to horticultural

science and in particular his researches on the

physiology of fruits during picking, packing,

shipping, and storage.

Metvin R. Meyerson, metallurgist, National

Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his con-

tributions in the field of physical metallurgy, par-

ticularly in his studies of the transformations that

occur in solid steels and of the mechanism of the

fracture of metals in laboratory tests and under

service conditions.

ALBERT W. SAENZ, physicist, Apphed Mathe-

matics Branch, Naval Research Laboratory, in

recognition of his researches in elasticity and rela-

tivity, especially his fundamental work on moving

discontinuities in elasticity and his important

simplification of two of Hlavaty’s fundamental

theorems in unified field theory.

Ouea Taussky (Mrs. John Todd), consultant

in mathematics, National Bureau of Standards,

in recognition of her contributions to pure mathe-

matics, notably to algebra and number theory.

nonlinear

NEW MEMBERS 99

Elected June 1, 1954

\Mirron ABRAMOWITZ, assistant chief, Compu-

tation Laboratory, National Bureau of Standards,

in recognition of his contributions to applied

mathematics, particularly the theory of special

functions, fluid and mathematical

tables.

RicHarp B. Brack, operations analyst, Office

of Naval Research, in recognition of geographical

exploration as commander of East Base, U.S.

Antarctic Service Expedition 1939-41, and

pioneering colonization activities in American

Equatorial Islands for the Interior Department.

Firoyp W. Bucxkury, physical chemist, Na-

tional Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his

contributions to physical chemistry, and in par-

ticular his significant research papers on the

fundamental equations of thermodynamics, the

theory of polarographic measurements, and

dielectric properties of substances.

GrorGE Dickson, physicist, Dental Research

Section, National Bureau of Standards, in recog-

nition of his research on dental restorative ma-

terials and on tooth structure.

W. B. Emerson, physicist, National Bureau of

Standards, in recognition of his contributions

in the field of applications of interferometry to

metrology.

Irvin H. Futpimer, chief, Engineering Me-

trology Section, National Bureau of Standards, in

recognition of his work in engineering metrology,

length measurements by optical interference

methods, promotion of the international unifica-

tion of screw thread, and other standards.

Donatp C. May, Jr., mathematician, Bureau

of Ordnance, Navy Department, in recognition of

his significant contributions to the development

of the mathematical theory of the field of ships,

and to the theory of weapon systems.

CHARLES R. Nasr, chemist, U.S. Geological

Survey, in recognition of his work in inorganic

chemistry, particularly the rare earths.

Sanrorp B. NEwMAN, microanalyst, National

Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his con-

tributions In microscopy and fiber technology, in

particular his work in ultramicrotomy that led to

the extensive use of electron microscopy in the

study of biological and fibrous materials.

J. SAMUEL Smart, research physicist, Mag-

netics Branch, Solid State Division, Naval

Ordnance Laboratory, in recognition of his con-

tribution to the problem of the detection of anti-

ferromagnetism by means of neutron diffraction

mechanics,

100

and for his advancement of our understanding of

ferromagnetism.

PauL L. Smirx, consultant, Crystal Branch,

Naval Research Laboratory, in recognition of his

contribution to crystal physics, in particular his

work on piezoelectricity and piezoelectric ma-

terials.

Ropert E. SrerHeEns, physicist, Optical

Instruments Section, National Bureau of Stand-

ards, in recognition of his contributions in the

field of lens design and optical instruments.

Wruuram T. Swrenry, chief, Dental Research

Section, National Bureau of Standards, in recog-

nition of his contributions in the field of dental

materials and especially for his research with

plastics used in dentistry.

JoHN L. TorGEsen, chemist, National Bureau

of Standards, in recognition of his contributions

in the field of physical chemistry, especially the

measurement of fundamental physical properties

of pure substances.

Elected October 19, 1954

DaniEL P. JoHNSON, physicist, Mechanical

Instruments Section, National Bureau of Stand-

ards, in recognition of his contributions to the

precise measurements of pressure ranging from

those arising from small fluctuations in air pres-

sure to the highest pressures used in chemical

processes and in internal ballistics.

Elected November 9, 1954

H. P. Broma, physicist, Temperature Meas-

urements Section, National Bureau of Standards,

in recognition of his contributions to spec-

troscopy, and in particular his research on tem-

perature measurements in flame.

PrrerR CHRZANOWSKI, physicist, Sound Sec-

tion, National Bureau of Standards, in recogni-

tion of his contributions to acoustical measure-

ments, particularly the measurement of sound

absorption and transmission by acoustical ma-

terials and the propagation of sound in very low

frequencies.

Wituiam R. Duryen, zoologist, Department of

Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 3

Washington, in recognition of his fundamental

studies of the nucleus of living cells.

James B. Saunpers, physicist, National

Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his con-

tributions in the field of high precision measure-

ments, particularly in thermal expansion and the

quality of optical surfaces.

A. M. Sroneg, technical assistant to the di-

rector, Johns Hopkins University Applied

Physics Laboratory, in recognition of his con-

tributions to operational research in the field of

guided missiles.

CarLETON R. TREADWELL, professor of bio-

chemistry, George Washington University School

of Medicine, in recognition of his studies on

cholesterol metabolism and relation to atheroscle-

rosis.

NONRESIDENT

Elected February 16, 1954

J. Damper pr Friet, professeur 4 la faculté

des sciences de |’Université de Lille, France, in

recognition of his contribution to mathematics

and fluid dynamics and, in particular, to the

theory of stochastic processes as related to

turbulence.

Elected April 20, 1954

GkEORGE C. PAFFENBARGER, chief, American

Dental Association Fellowship Group, National

Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his con-

tributions to physical and chemical properties of

dental materials.

Elected June 1, 1954

Joun R. Prtiam, physicist, Norman Bridge

Laboratory, California Institute of Technology,

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CONTENTS

MatuHematics.—Note concerning the number of directions which, in a

given motion, suffer no instantaneous rotation. J. L. ERICKSEN...

MineraLocy.—Thermal analysis and X-ray studies of griffithite.

GrorGn Te PAust: ooo. cie te tine eels) etre eee :

PALEONTOLOGY.—Notes on Permian rhynchonellids. Francis G.

SEGIED 55) 25 4) Sav ean cde Pe Boga Dad a 8 oe lee othe eee ale

Zootocy.—Some Rhizocephala found on brachyuran crabs in the West

Indian region. Epwarp G. REINHARD.................+.+++6

NemMAToLocy.—A new nematode, Rotylenchus melancholicus, n.sp., found

associated with grass roots, and its sexual dimorphism. Luiz Gon-

ZAGA JH: TiORDELLO. 0.00. css oe ee oe ee

HERPETOLOGY.—Desmognathus planiceps, a new salamander from Vir-

piniae | WATER 2 NE WiMAING cyerels ein ee 3 Ua a tecd- alte: Sone

PROCEEDINGS: THe ACADEMY...............-- Shee i300 e eee

New MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY......................-- MOREA i s.

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals.

Page

> Cp)

Vou. 45 Aprit 1955 No. 4

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 45

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No. 4

TOXICOLOGY .— Observations on toxic marine algae.! Ropperr C. Hasexosr, [An

M. Fraser, and Bruce W. Hatsreap, College of Medical Evangelists, Loma

Linda, Calif. (Communicated by John C. Ewers.)

(Received January 27, 1955)

Toxic substances in fresh-water algae have

been reported by many authors (Deem and

Thorp, 1939; Fitch et al., 1934; Shelubsky,

1951; Steyn, 1943; Wheeler, Lackey, and

Schott, 1942; and others), but there do not

appear to be any reports of toxic marie

algae. The spotty geographical distribution

of fish poisoning, the presence of algae in the

stomach content of many poisonous fish,

and the high correlation between toxic

stomach contents and toxic fish (Dawson,

Aleem, and Halstead, 1955) have prompted

this study of marine algae.

Materials and methods—Material was ob-

tained from Corona Del Mar, Calif., and Pal-

myra Island, which is 960 nautical miles south by

west of Honolulu. The algae were frozen shortly

after collection and were kept frozen until used.

They were identified through the kindness of Dr.

Yale Dawson of the University of Southern Cali-

fornia. Algal extracts were prepared routinely

by blending frozen or equivalent amounts of

dried algae with equal amounts of distilled water

in a Waring Blendor for 20 minutes, and then

centrifuging at 2,800 rpm for one hour. The

supernatant was drawn off and stored in extract

bottles. Solidification of some of the extracts due

to their agar content was eliminated by drying

and powdering the algae in a mortar before

extracting them.

A more concentrated and purified extract was

obtained from algae that had been disintegrated

in a food grinder, by extraction with boiling water

1 This investigation was supported by a research

grant from the Division of Research Grants and

Fellowships, of the National Institutes of Health,

Public Health Service, and a contract from Office

of Naval Research, Department of the Navy.

101

using a ratio of algae to water of 2:5. It was cen-

trifuged for 30 minutes and the supernatant

washed four times with chloroform which re-

moved fats and pigments to some extent. This

was then distilled to dryness and reconstituted

in a small amount of distilled water for injection.

The toxicity of the extracts was tested by in-

traperitoneal injection of 1.0 ml volumes into

weanling mice of the California Caviary strain

No. 1 (CC), weight 15-23 g. All routine screen-

ing was done by injecting one or two groups of

four mice each, and the results were confirmed in

a number of representative cases by large-scale

injections of 20 mice. Intraperitoneal injection

results were confirmed in some cases by stomach-

tubing mice.

The injected mice were placed under observa-

tion for 36 hours for the development of symp-

toms. If one or more of the mice died within an

hour after injection the extract was classified as

strongly toxic. It was considered moderately

toxic if one or more died within 36 hours, and

weakly toxic if they displayed two or more of the

following symptoms: lacrymation, ruffed hair,

diarrhea, dyspnea, or weakness.

Large-scale control injections were run using

distilled water, tap water, and sea water. Lettuce

extracts comparable to the algal extracts were

tested to eliminate the possibility that plant pig-

ments and proteins generally are toxic. All of

these tests were negative. A strongly toxic ex-

tract was autoclaved and injected aseptically

with results identical with untreated extracts.

Results: Routine survey.—A number of samples

of algae consisting of both single and inseparably

mixed species from Palmyra Island and Corona

Del Mar have been tested by the routine screen-

ing procedure. The results are shown in Table 1

102

and are based on two or more separate tests which

gave comparable results.

In addition a number of similar mixtures of

algae found in the stomach and intestine of fish

collected at Palmyra Island were tested by the

Taste 1.—Resuuts or ROUTINE SuRVEY or Tox-

icity OF ExTrRacts OF PALMYRA AND

CALIFORNIA ALGAE

Palmyra species ee

Lyngbya majuscula Gomont, with some Bryopsis pen-

nala var. secunda (Harvey) Collins and Hervey MT

Boodlea composita (Harvey) Brand, and Caulerpa serru-

lata (Forskal) Agardh, emend. Borgesen. . : MT

Turbinaria ornata (Agardh) Kutzing, with eophyte

Jania tenella Wiitzing. Also some Ceramiwm masonii

Dawson, Bryopsis pennata var. secunda (Harvey)

Collins and Hervey, and Jania capillacea Harvey.

MAINLY Turbinaria... MT

Turbinaria ornata (Agardh) Taenines Ww ith epiphytic

Jania tenella Kiatzing. Also some Ceramiuwm masonii |

Dawson, Bryopsis pennata var. secunda (Harvey) |

Collins and Hervey, and Jania capillacea Harvey.

NOT MUCH Turbinaria ie all | Wwe

Enteromorpha sp. apparently near E. Reali Bliding.

Absolute identification impossible. Pas WT

Hormothamnion solutum Bornet and Flahault, and

some Centroceras clavulatum (Agardb) Montagne.....| WT

Corona Del Mar, Calif. Species onic

Lithothrix aspergillus J. BE. Gray.. ne sen INfte

Macrocystis pyrifera alveyin. nuns -deneeaaae sec MT

Gelidium cartilagineum var. robustum erat ce MT

Pelvetia fastigiata Gardner : hehe MT

Hesperophycus harveyanus Gardner. ane erie MT

Egregia laevigata Setchell ie Wenner oral. vt

Corallina officinalis var. chilenus (Harvey) Kiitzing ‘ NT

Abbreviations: NT =

MT = Moderately Toxic.

Non-Toxic, WT! = Weakly Toxic,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4

routine screening procedure. The results are

shown in Table 2. The toxicities of portions of

the fish as determined by the methods of Daw-

son, Aleem, and Halstead (1955) are also sum-

marized in this table.

Large-scale tests——The results of large-scale

confirmatory tests with 20 mice using both toxic

and nontoxic extracts are given in Table 3.

Concentration.—The greater toxicity of the

more purified concentrated extract prepared as

described previously is shown in Table 4. These

results were obtained using four or more mice to

test each extract.

Properties of toxin.—A number of the physical

and chemical properties of the toxic materials

have been observed, particularly on extracts of

Pelvetia fastigiata Gardner.

The toxin(s) of Pelvetia is readily soluble in

water but less soluble in ethanol, methanol, chlo-

roform and ether. It is not destroyed by heating

at 100° C. for one hour or by normal autoclaving.

Freezing and thawing of aqueous extracts over a

period of time tends to result in a gradual loss of

toxicity. The ash of toxic extracts is not toxic.

Tests for the presence of traces of arsenic, which

may occur in marine algae (Read and How, 1927),

were negative.

Deproteinization of extracts by boiling results

in no loss of toxicity. The toxin(s) diffuses

through a cellophane dialyzing membrane and

is readily absorbed on activated charcoal.

Discussion.—These data appear to constitute

definite evidence of the existence of one or more

organic substances toxic to mice In marine algae.

Tapp 2.—Toxiciry oF PALMYRA FIsH AND ALGAE IN THEIR INTESTINAL CONTENTS

Fish species Extract Part of fish Toxicity Algae in intestinal contents

No. Rating

Acanthurus fuliginosus Lesson....... R 663 M, L, I, IC NT Lyngbya majuscula Gomont and Jania

f ee : R 664 WWE IE, IG, KO; NT ies ot 0G “ oG

s f : R 666 M, L, I, IC MT a GS Gb OG Ob

6 a R 668 M, L, I, IC MT 40 ee iG ay ve

Chaetodon auriga Forskal R 1051 M, V NT Lyngbya majuscula Gomont

IC MT

Abudefduf septemfasciatus Cuvier... R 1065 M, V NT Lyngbya majuscula Gomont and Bryopsis pen-

IC MT nata var. secunda (Harvey) Collins and

j Hervey

Abudefduf sordidus Forskal.. R 895 M NT Bryopsis pennata var. secunda (Harvey) Col-

We WT lins and Hervey and Lyngbya majuscula

IC NT Gomont

Arothron hispidus Linnaeus. . R 697 M, L,G ST Caulerpa serrulata (Forskaél) Agardh, emend.

I, IC, S ST Borgesen and Lyngbya

Abbreviations: M = Muscle, L = Liver, G =

Nontoxic, WT = Weakly toxic, MT =

Gonads, I = Intestines, V = Viscera, IC = Intestinal contents, S = Skin, NT =

Moderately toxic, ST = Strongly toxic.

Aprit 1955

There is reason to believe that this indicates they

may be toxic to other animals and man.

The simple properties of the toxic material(s)

suggest some resemblance to the toxin(s) present

in fresh water algae (Shelubsky, 1951). There is

also some similarity to the toxins of certain toxic

fish oa and Bunker, 1954; Halstead and

Ralls, 1954). As Table 2 shows, toxic algae occur

in the ical contents of fish, other parts of

which may be toxic. Much further investigation

is required to determine whether this has any

TaBLE 3—ReESULTS OF LARGE-SCALE TOXICITY

Tests oF Extracts oF PALMYRA AND

CALIFORNIA ALGAE

Average

Rescate Deaths death

Species (%) ae

(hours)

PatmyRa ISLAND: |

Boodlea composita (Harvey) Brand and |

Caulerpa serrulata (Forskal) Agardh, |

emend. Birgesen... 100 19

Hormothamnion solutum Bornet and Fla

hoult and some Centroceras clavulatum |

(Agardh) Montagne... | 20 21

Lyngbya majuscula Gian adn ome

Bryopsis pennata var. secunda (Harvey) |

Collins and Hervey.......... See 45 22

Corona DEL Mar, Catir.

Pelvetia fastigiata Gardner.................. 100 | 16

Hesperophycus harveyanus Gardner...... HeeelOOnes| 16

Corallina officinalis var. chilenus (Harvey) |

Fence ee ee ee. 0 |

TaBLeE 4+——RESULTS OF CONCENTRATION OF ALGAL

Extracts

Average

Guecies Type of Deaths death

extract (%) time

(hours)

Boodlea composita (Har-

vey) Brand, and Cau-

lerpa serrulata (Fors-

kal) Agardh, emend.

? Routine Crude 100 22

Borecsen ay ._.....,. | (Concentrated 100 0.6

PETE Jostiguala i Reutine Crude 100 | 16

GENER: soe Sseany ane _Concentrated | 100 0.9

KARABINOS AND FERULIN:

OZONIZED OLEFINS 103

significance. Dawson, Aleem, and Halstead

(1955) present additional data and discussion

bearing on this problem.

Summary.—Water extracts of a number of

tropical and temperate marine algae have been

found to be toxic to mice. Some concentration of

the toxin(s) has been achieved and a number of

the simple physical and chemical properties de-

termined.

Acknowledgments. are much indebted to

Dr. Yale Dawson, Allan Hancock Foundation,

University of Southern California, for the identi-

fication of the algae, and to Dr. John Field, De-

partment of Physiology, School of Medicine,

University of California at Los Angeles, for his

helpful suggestions.

LITERATURE CITED

Dawson, EH. Y., AumEm, A. A., and Hatsrnar,

B. W. Marine algae from Palmyra Island with

special reference to the feeding habits and toxt-

cae of reef fishes. Allan Hancock Found.

Occ. Paper 17: 1-39. 1955.

Derm, A. W., and Tuorp, F. Voxric algae in

Colorado. Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc.

95: 542-544. 1939.

Fitcw, C. P., Bisnor, L. M., Boyp, W. I.

GortneR, R. A., Roaers, C. F., and Tiupen,

J. E. ‘Water bloom” as a cause of poisoning in

domestic animals. Cornell Vet. 24: 30-39. 1934.

Hatsreap, B. W., and Bunker, N.C. A survey of

the poisonous fishes of the Phoenix Islands.

Copeia 1954: No. 1: 1-11.

Haustwap, B. W., and Rauts, R. J. Results of

dialyzing some fish poisons. Science 119: 160-

161. 1954.

Reap, B. E., and How, G. K. The iodine, arsenic,

tron, calcium and sulphur content of Chinese

medicinal algae. Chinese Journ. Physiol. 1:

99-108. 1927.

SHELUBSKY, M. Observations on the properties of a

toxin produced by Microcystis. Proc. Internat.

Assoc. Limnol. 11: 362-366. 1951.

Strpryn, D. G. Poisoning of animals by algae on

dams and pans. Farming South Africa 18:

489-492, 510. 1943.

WuHeeEter, R. E., Lackxry, J. B., and Scnort, S.

A contribution on the toxicity of algae. Publ.

Health Rep. 57: 1695-1701. 1942.

BIOCHEMISTRY —Bactericidal activity of ozonized olefins. J. V. KARABINOS and

H. J. Ferur, Blockson Chemical Co., Joliet, Il.

(Received January 10, 1955)

The germicidal properties of ozonized fats

have been well established from studies on

olive (1, 2), codliver (3), and cottonseed oils

(4). The nature of the antibacterial factor

responsible for this activity 1s, however,

unknown. In a previous article (5) it was

noted that the bactericidal activity of

“ozonides” deteriorated with time and that

not all ozonized substances gave the same

initial activity. In fact, a polyoxyethylene

104

condensate of tall oil rosin acids gave prac-

tically no bactericidal activity upon ozoniza-

tion whereas the presence of fatty acids such

as oleic or linoleic in the hydrophobic radical

resulted in a product of considerable activity

after ozonization. It, therefore, seemed

desirable to ozonize a variety of olefinic

compounds quantitatively and ascertain

whether bactericidal activity varied with

olefinic structure.

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

The olefins used in this study (Table 1)

were the purest grades obtainable from

Matheson, Coleman and Bell. The ozone

was generated with the previously described

(6) apparatus. Approximately 5 grams of

olefin was accurately weighed in a tared

flask and subjected to ozonization. At vari-

ous intervals the flask and its contents were

weighed and the increase in weight was

noted. When the weight became constant,

the ozonization was assumed to be complete

and the product was immediately tested for

bactericidal activity by the FDA method

(7) as described in a previous article (8)

using Staphylococcus aureus (Micrococcus

pyogenes var. aureus ATCC No. 6538, FDA

strain 209, 1938). The results are shown in

Table 1 in terms of dilutions giving positive

or negative growth after ten minutes. A

comparative rating indicating the degree of

bactericidal activity is also included.

It should be mentioned that since the bac-

tericidal activity of the ‘“ozonides” may

deteriorate with time, too much emphasis

should not be put on the numerical values

recorded in Table 1. They should rather be

considered from a relative standpoint.

QUANTITATIVE OZONIZATION OF

SEVERAL OLEFINS

Undecylenic acid (8.4266 g) was placed in

a tared flask (A) followed by a tared trap

(B) cooled in a dry ice bath. Ozone gas (5

percent ozone and 95 percent oxygen) was

bubbled slowly through the olefinic acid and

at regular intervals the weights of A and B

were recorded. After 48 hours, no further in-

crease In weight was observed; however, the

material in A continued to distill slowly into

trap B. At the end of 70 hours, the volatile

material in B, smelling strongly of formal-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 4

dehyde, weighed 0.73 g (1.37 g of formalde-

hyde would be considered theoretical) while

flask A contained 10.35 g of product. To-

gether the weights of ozonized undecylenic

acid weighed 11.08 g whereas a product

containing 4 oxygen atoms per double bond

would have weighed 11.35 g. This represents

97.5 per cent of theory or 3.9 oxygen atoms

per double bond. The only plausible expla-

nation seemed to be that undecylenic acid

(1) was being ozonized to formaldehyde (IT)

and a monoperoxyacid (IIT).

CH.—=CH—(CH:)s—COOH + 0; ——>

| is

CHO + H—OOC—(CH,)s—COOH —>

II III

HOOC—(CH2)s—COOH

To substantiate this hypothesis, the mate-

rial in trap B was treated with 2 ,4-dinitro-

phenylhydrazine and the corresponding

phenylhydrazone of m.p. 160° was isolated

in a 30 percent yield. The m.p. of formalde-

hyde 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone is listed

as 166° (9). Control experiments with our

reagent indicated that yields of this order

could be expected with authentic formalde-

hyde.

Since monoperoxy acids upon heating at

80-100° C (10) liberate oxygen containing

gases, resulting in the formation of the cor-

responding acids, some of the material

(1.222 g) in flask A representing 1.18 g as

monoperoxy acid was heated in a boiling

water bath in a tared test tube. The evolu-

tion of gaseous products was noted and when

this was no longer observed the weight of

the product amounted to 1.093 g. This

weight loss corresponded exactly to that

required for the loss of one oxygen atom

from the monoperoxy acid (III). The

heated residue meanwhile had changed

from a very viscous oil to a solid which

upon recrystallization from ethyl acetate

gave m.p. 132° and a neutral equivalent of

99. Since sebacic acid (IV) gives a m.p. of

133° (11) and has a neutral equivalent of

101 a mixed melting poimt with that sub-

Aprin 1955

stance was determined and no depression

was observed. It was also noted that the

heat-treated acidic residue did not give

a precipitate with 2 ,4-dinitrophenylhydra-

zine indicating the absence of any long

chain aldehydic product. These data,

therefore, strongly indicate that ozonization

of undecylenic acid results in the formation

of formaldehyde and monoperoxy octane-

1,8 dicarboxylic acid (IIT) as shown above

and that this latter substance is indeed

responsible for the high order of bactericidal

activity.

Caprylene was ozonized in the same man-

ner as undecylenic acid and the increase

in weight likewise approached four atoms

of oxygen per mole of the olefin. In this case

formaldehyde was also isolated as the 2 ,4-

dinitrophenylhydrazone of correct melting

point.

Mesityl oxide on the other hand absorbed

ozone gas to a point just short of three

atoms of oxygen per mole. In this case

KARABINOS AND FERLIN: OZONIZED OLEFINS

105

acetone was isolated and identified as the

2 ,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone of m.p. 124°.

The residue gave no evidence of peroxy

acid formation and this seems to account for

the poor bactericidal activity exhibited by

this ‘“‘ozonide.”’

D-Limonene and a Terpineol both ab-

sorbed less than three atoms of oxygen per

double bond and exhibited poor bactericidal

activity.

DISCUSSION

From the data recorded in Table 1, it

becomes apparent that there is great dis-

similarity in the germicidal activity ex-

hibited by the ozonization products of

various olefins. Upon careful examination

of the structures of the parent olefins,

however, certain conclusions may be drawn.

For example, olefins with a vinyl (CH) =

CH—) or vimylene (—CH = CH —)

group exhibit much better bactericidal

properties after ozonization than unsatur-

OF RESULTS

TaBLe 1.—BacTERICIDAL ACTIVITY OF OZONIZED OLEFINS*

| Dilution giv- | Dilution giv-

Compound Forml Ce

10 minutes 10 minutes

Undecyleniec acid. . .| CH»=CH—(CH:);—COOH 1—200,000 | 1-400,000 | Superior

@aprylene.......... CHs—CH (CH) .-— OH 1-80,000 | 1-160,000 | Excellent

Wleicracids..-...-..: | CH;— (CH,);—-CH=CH— (CH:;);,—COOH 1-80, 000 1-160,000 | Excellent

n-Butyl vinyl] ether .| CH,—CH—O—C.H, 1-40,000 | 1-80,000 | Very good

Ethyl undeeylenate.,) CH»=CH—(CH»);—COOC2H; 1-40,000 | 1-80,000 | Very good

Ethyl cinnamate.. .| CsH;—CH=CH—COOC.H,; 1-20,000 | 1-40,000 | Good

Allyl aleohol........| CH:,=CH—CH,0H 1-20,000 | 1-40,000 | Good

imalooles ane ee 5: (CH;3)2—C=CH— (CH.).2—_C—CH=CH, 1-10, 000 1-20, 000 Fair

CH;

Mesityl oxide.......| (CH;)2—C—=CH—CO—CH; 1-1 ,000 1-5, 000 Poor

CH:

DEVimonenes......- CEE 2 1-1 ,000 1-5, 000 Poor

CH;

Propargy] alcohol...) CH==C—CH,OH 1-1 ,000 1-5 ,000 Poor

2-Butyne,1,4 diol ..| HO—CH,—C=C—CH,—OH a 1-1 , 000 Neg.

a-Terpineol ... CHs—< S26(CRey — 1-1 ,000 Neg.

* The bactericidal activities recorded above were carried out on the above olefins after each had

been fully treated with ozone. In most cases, this required about 70 hours.

106 JOURNAL OF THE

ated compounds having no hydrogen atom

substituted on one of the carbon atoms of

the double bond (i.e., >C = CH—).

Likewise, acetylene compounds (—C =

CH) having none or one hydrogen atom on

the triple bond give relatively inactive

“ozonides.”’ The length of the fatty chain

does not seem to be as pertinent as the type

of carbon to carbon double bond.

One might, therefore, classify the vinyl

and vinylene double bonds as ‘‘desirable’”’

for bactericidal activity upon ozonization

and the latter two types as ‘‘undesirable’’.

Several peculiarities may be noted. For

example, lnalool with two double bonds,

one of the vinyl type and the other not,

possesses better bactericidal activity than

mesityl oxide with only one double bond of

the “undesirable” type. It will also be

noted that p-limonene with two double

bonds of the undesirable type gives an

“ozonide”’ of low activity. These data seem

to indicate that one olefin does not necessar-

ily produce the same ozonization prcduct

as does another. Heretofore, it was thought

that all double bonds were converted by

ozone to ozonides (I) or in some cases to

hydroperoxides (II) (72) particularly where

a solvent was employed.

=——C¢— 0-6 — A geet yaa Gua

O—O OOH

I II

In our experiments, it was noted that

those olefins such as oleic acid which did not

produce volatile byproducts, took up four

atoms of oxygen for each double bond

instead of the three expected for a simple

ozonide or hydroperoxide. In several in-

stances where volatile products were ob-

tained, such as with undecylenic acid, it

was noted that formaldehyde, identified as

its 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone of m.p.

162-4°, was isolated from the volatile

fraction. It would seem, therefore, that

three oxygen atoms were consumed by the

remainder of the molecule indicating the

possible formation of a monoperoxyacid

(III). This postulate was further substan-

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 4

tiated by converting the monoperoxyacid

by heat to sebacic acid with the loss of one

oxygen atom. Similar experiments with

several other olefins indicated that the

ones with double bonds of the ‘‘desirable’’

type absorbed four atoms of oxygen per

double bond while those which gave poor

bactericidal activity upon ozonization took

up only three atoms of oxygen. It may also

be mentioned that peracetic acid was syn-

thesized (76) in connection with this work

and possessed bactericidal activity in

dilutions of the order of 1-100,000 using the

FDA procedure lending further support to

the above hypothesis.

SUMMARY

Ozone gas was passed into a variety of

olefinic compounds and bactericidal activity

of the resultant products indicated that

there is great variation in activity depend-

ing upon the type of olefin used. It would

seem that at least one hydrogen atom on

each of the carbon atoms of the double

bond is essential for bacterieidal activity.

The results indicate that the bactericidal

principle may be a peroxyacid.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Harapa, T. Bull.

192. 1934.

(2) CronHemm, G. Journ. Amer. Pharm. Assoc.

Sei. Ed. 36: 274. 1947.

(38) Stevens, F. A. Journ. Bact. 32: 47. 1936.

(4) Butz, L. W., and LaLanpn, W. A., JR.

Journ. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 26: 114. 1937.

(5) Karasinos, J. V., and Frruin, H. J. Soap

Chem. Specialties [8] 30: 46. 1954.

(6) Karasinos,J.V.,and Batutun, A.T. Journ.

Amer. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 31: 71. 1954.

(7) Rupuun, G. L. A., and Brewer, C. M.

U. S. Food and Drug Administration,

Methods of testing Antiseptics and Disin-

fectants. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cire. 198. 1931.

(8) KaraBINOos, J. V., and Ferrin, H. J. Journ.

Amer. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 31: 228. 1954.

(9) Suriner, R. L., and Fuson, R. C. Identifica-

tion of Organic Compounds. ed. 3: 229.

New York, 1948.

(10) Topousky, A. V., and Mersrospran, R. B.

Organic peroxides: 36. New York, 1954.

(11) Ref. 9, p. 224.

(12) Parrick, J. B., and Wrrxop, B.

Org. Chem. 19: 1824. 1954.

(13) WreyGaanp, C. Organic preparations: 122.

New York, 1945.

Chem. Soc. Japan 9:

Journ.

APRIL 1955

MCKENNA: MYLAGAULID FROM MONTANA

107

PALEONTOLOGY .—A new species of mylagaulid from the Chalk Cliffs local fauna,

Montana. Matcotm C. McKenna, University of California. (Communicated

by C. Lewis Gazin.)

In the course of field work in 1950 Dwight

W. Taylor and the writer collected fossil

vertebrate material briefly at exposures in

the sediments interbedded in the volcanics

along the banks of the Yellowstone River,

23.6 miles north of Gardiner, Mont. Col-

lections from this locality have been desig-

nated the Chalk Cliffs local fauna by Wood

et al. (1941). The specimens obtained in

1950 were a right scaphoid of a camelid

about the size of a llama, a P* or P* of

Parahippus cf. P. brevidens, merychippine

cheek tooth fragments (not retained), several

tortoise limb bone fragments, and_ the

incomplete mylagaulid skull herein de-

scribed. These specimens suggest a probable

early Barstovian age for the Chalk Cliffs

local fauna. I am indebted to Seth B.

Benson for his advice on dental succession

and to R. A. Stirton, D. E. Savage, and R.

H. Tedford for their criticism of the manu-

script. The drawings are by Owen J. Poe.

Mylagaulus douglassi, n. sp.

U. C. 44694, named in honor of Earl

Type.

Douglass.

Type locality —U. C. M. P. Loc. V-5060, ex-

posures next to the highway on the east side of

the Yellowstone River, 23.6 miles north of

Gardiner, Mont.

Distribution —Type locality only.

Age—HEarly Barstovian or possibly latest

Hemingfordian.

Diagnosis —Very large mylagaulid (Fig. 1.)

with posteriorly closely approximated temporal

crests; hornless, essentially flat, unelevated

nasals; skull flat from nasals to oecipitals, not

anteroposteriorly compressed; teeth small in

comparison to skull size; P? absent; M? and M?

bearing five fossettes each; P* oval, with divided

anterofossette at early stage of wear, parafossette

round and tiny, metafossette double, slight

angulation in mesostylar region; cement absent

from sides of teeth; capsule of P* forming shelf at

rear of infraorbital foramen; sphenopalatine

foramen a large, anteroventrally trending slit,

well separated from orbital fissure; nasolacrimal

and accompanying foramen large, at rear of

infraorbital foramen; nutrient foramina anterior

to sphenopalatine multiple, not single; optic

foramen small; anterior ethmoid foramen small.

Discussion.—M ylagaulus douglassi is a very

large mylagaulid, equaled in size by the Pliocene

Epigaulus hatchert alone among members of the

family. The skull herein described is approxi-

mately thirty percent larger than the skull of a

described but unnamed Pliocene mylagaulid from

Big Spring Canyon, 8. Dak. (J. T. Gregory, 1942),

and a minimum of fifty percent larger than all

other described skulls of Mesogaulus or Mylagau-

lus. Pliocene mylagaulids became larger than

those of the Miocene as a rule, but, what is more

important, fourth premolar size increased at an

appreciably greater rate than skull size. For this

reason it would be premature to state that various

large premolars from Hemphillian localities

represent animals with larger skulls than that of

Mylagaulus douglassi, even though the teeth of

M. douglassi are smaller. Another prominent

feature of M. douglassi is that dorsally the skull

does not show the extreme anteroposterior com-

pression shown by late Barstovian and_ later

forms. In general aspect, the skull is reminiscent

of the skulls of Promylagaulus, Mylagaulodon,

and A plodontia, rather than of the late Barstovian

and Pliocene mylagaulids. Horns were ap-

parently absent, though a slight elevation is

possibly indicated by the broken anterior edges

of the nasals.

In dental pattern comparisons must be made

with great care in view of the variation shown by

various stages of wear, but it can be stated

cautiously that M. douglass. compares most

favorably with Mesogaulus vetus, Mylagaulus

laevis, and the Mascall mylagaulid, especially

with the Mascall form and the type and nu-

merous referred specimens of M. laevis. The para-

fossette of P* differs from that in the type of

M. laevis and from that of the apparently more

advanced referred specimens of M. laevis from

Skull Spring and Beatty Buttes, Oregon, in that

this fossette is small and round, as in the referred

specimens of M. laevis from the lower Snake

Creek and in Mesogaulus vetus. Specimens num-

bered 14310 in the Peabody Museum, Yale

University, from the Mascall formation at

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 4

Fie. 1.—Mylagaulus douglassi, n. sp.: Dorsal (A), lateral (B), and occlusal (C) views of fragmentary

skull, U. C. 44694. X 114

APRIL 1955

Paulina Creek in the Crooked River region of

Oregon show a pattern almost identical with that

of the P* of W. douglassi and the lower Snake

Creek referred specimens of VW. laevis, but they

average twenty percent smaller than MW. douglassi

teeth. Perhaps it would be useful to speak of the

Mylagaulus laevis group, in analogy to the

Aelurodon seavus group. The members of the M.

laevis group would be M. laevis, the referred

specimens of this species from various localities,

the Maseall form, and Wylagaulus douglass:. The

parafossette of these forms differs radically from

that of Mesogaulus pristinus or of any of the

Pliocene mylagaulids, in which the parafossette

is elongate or multiple.

The placement of W. douglasst in Mylagaulus

instead of in Wesogaulus is somewhat arbitrary

in view of the fact that it is not known whether

there was a parafossettid. But as M. douglassi

belongs to the Mylagaulus laevis group on the

basis of other characters, it seems probable that

there was a small parafossettid as in the other

members of the group. Direct comparison of M.

douglassi with Mesogaulus ballensis from the

nearby Deep River beds is impossible at present,

but a considerable size discrepancy exists between

the two forms.

Dorr (1952) has recently proposed that the

adult mylagaulid cheek dentition becomes Pi,

Mj,M>. Matthew (1924) stated that the adult

cheek dentition becomes P{,M>,M;. Matthew’s

formula is followed in the present paper for the

following reasons, though the question cannot

yet be regarded as completely settled. First of all,

a simple, permanent P* is present in Promyla-

gaulus riggsi, Mylagaulodon cf. M. angulatus,

Mesogaulus paniensis, Mesogaulus vetus, possibly

Mesogaulus praecursor, and Aplodontia. This

tooth is pushed out by the emerging P* in the

advanced mylagaulids. That it is a permanent

P is attested by analogy with Aplodontia, in

which a deciduous, peg-like P? may be observed

in young animals. Deciduous and permanent

P* thus accounted for, the two teeth replaced

next must be dP? and M!. In the skull of Myla-

gaulus from Big Spring Canyon it is possible that

a second molar was pushed out by P‘ in old age,

though it still could be that the rear molars have

been lost. I know of no specimens, however, that

show marked reduction in the last molar of the

series, a condition which might be expected to

precede loss of such a tooth in most instances.

MCKENNA: MYLAGAULID FROM MONTANA

109

Dorr states (1952, pp. 322) with regard to the

lower dentition that “it is difficult to suppose

that as M, (instead of dP,) it would remain

brachyodont in the midst of a strongly hypsodont

dentition”’. However, it would seem reasonable

that since dP} and Mj erupt at about the same

time, that they could look more similar than

Dorr suggests, 1.e., that both could be brachy-

dont, particularly m view of the depth of jaw

available for teeth in such a young animal. An

example of what is meant here is provided by the

artiodacty! Phacochoerus, in which M{ are pushed

out of the series by the remaining molars and P%.

Secondly, the two rooted condition of M, and

narrow, single rooted condition of M! easily could

be a simple adaptation to the enlarging P{. This

would be in response to crowding by P{ and would

mimic the process whereby deciduous teeth are

replaced, a process whose genetic control is un-

doubtedly very deep-seated and influenced by

modifiers such as genes for resorption.

Thirdly, at least in M!, a specimen of Myla-

gaulus from the type Maseall formation, U. C.

39292, shows that the dental pattern of this

tooth is closely similar to that of M? and M?. In

addition to this, the dP* and M' of Mesogaulus

vetus differ markedly in outline, as do the same

teeth in an undescribed specimen of a mylagaulid

from the Burge fauna in the University of

California collections.

Fourthly, Dorr’s objection to the eruption of

My, as part of the “premolar series” seems un-

founded. This is the normal situation in rodents

as well as in many other groups.

These considerations strongly suggest that

Matthew was correct in giving the adult myla-

gaulid cheek tooth formula as P{,M>,M?’ for

advanced forms. Arguments based on induction

and analogy cannot provide certainty, but proba-

bility seems to lie on the side of Matthew’s

formula rather than Dorr’s. In addition, argu-

ments for the Matthew formula are somewhat

simpler than those in favor of Dorr’s formula,

a situation which is advantageous on empirical

grounds.

Wood et al. (1941) list the following members

of the Chalk Cliffs local fauna:

Merychippus cf. M. isonesus |M. seversus]

Mylagaulus sp.

‘2Cosoryx”’ sp. [PMerycodus sp.]

Proboscidea

A camelid, tortoise, and Parahippus ctf. P.

110

brevidens (Fig. 2.) may now be added to the

faunal list. The closest relationships of the Chalk

Cliffs local fauna would seem to lie with the Mas-

call fauna, indicating an early Barstovian age,

but latest Hemingfordian age is not impossible.

The stage of evolution of Mylagaulus douglassi is

as might be expected in either a late Heming-

fordian or early Barstovian mylagaulid, with a

small weight of probability in favor of the latter

age. Thus far, Parahippus brevidens has been

known only from the early Barstovian Maseall

fauna.

Fie. 2.—Parahippus cf. P. brevidens: Occlusal

view of P? or P*. X 1.

Measurements (in millimeters).— As follows:

Length, P‘—M3, inclusive : é 17.4

Length, P? : 3 atte 8.8

Length, diastema from incisor to P*. . 5 24.4

Length, at midline, occiput to nasofrontal contact. ....... 43.6

Width, P4 se ; : ; 6.8

Height, maxilla at P! to nasofrontal contact F 31.1

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No/4

LITERATURE

Cook, H. J., and Greacory, J. T. Mesogaulus

praecursor, a new rodent from the Miocene of

Nebraska. Journ. Pal. 15 (5): 549-552, 2 figs.

1941.

Dorr, Joun A., Jr. Notes on the mylagaulid

rodent dentition. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 82 (8):

319-328, 1 pl. 1952.

Doveuass, Earu. New vertebrates from the

Montana Tertiary. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 2 (2):

145-199, 37 figs., 2 pls. 1903.

Gazin, C. L. A Miocene mammalian fauna from

southeastern Oregon. Carnegie Inst. Washing-

ton Publ. 418: 37-86, 20 figs., 6 pls. 1932.

Greoory, J. T. Pliocene vertebrates from Big

Spring Canyon, South Dakota. Univ. Cali-

fornia Publ. Bull. Dept. Geol. Sci. 26 (4) : 307-

446, 54 figs., 3 pls. 1942.

Marrugw, W. D. Third contribution to the Snake

Creek fauna. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 59

(2): 59-210, 63 figs. 1924.

McGrew, PautO. The Aplodontoidea. Field Mus.

Nat. Hist. Geol. Ser. 9 (1): 1-80, 18 figs. 1941.

Wauuace, Ropert E. A Miocene mammalian

fauna from Beatty Buttes, Oregon. Carnegie

Inst. Washington Publ. 551: 113-134, 1 fig.,

6 pls. 1946.

Woop, H. E., 2d, et al. Nomenclature and corre-

lation of the North American Continental

Tertiary. Bull. Geol. Soe. Amer. 52: 1-48. 1941.

BOTANY .—Studies in the Begoniaceae, IV.1 Lyman B. Smitu, U. S. National

Museum, and Bernice G. Scuuserr, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

This number of our series is an addendum

to floristic treatments of the family for

Peru,’ Argentina,’ and Colombia,! and a

preface to further floristic papers.

VENEZUELA

Begonia steyermarkii Smith & Schubert, sp. nov.

Fras. 1, a-h

Herba annua fugitiva; foliis oblique rhombicis,

apicem versus serratis; inflorescentiis bifloris;

bracteis persistentibus, laceratis; tepalis mascu-

linis 2, integris; filamentis in columnam connatis,

antheris elongatis; bracteolis femineis 2, per-

‘The previous number in this series was this

JOURNAL 40(8) : 241-245. 1950.

2 Begoniaceae. In Macbride, Flora of Peru.

Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Bot. 18: no. 1: 181-202.

1941.

3 Revision de las especies Argentinas del género

Begonia. Darwiniana 5: 78-117, figs. 1-18. 1941.

4The Begoniaceae of Colombia. Caldasia 4:

3-388, 77-107, 179-209, pls. 1-18. 1946.

sistentibus, accrescentibus, una bilobata; tepalis

femineis 4, basi connatis; placentis simplicibus,

stylis 3, bifidis, stigmatibus spiraliter cinctis; alis

capsulae inaequalibus.

Herbaceous annual 6-10 cm high; stem simple,

hirtellous, ascending; leaves asymmetric, ob-

liquely rhombic, acute at apex and more or less

so at base, subpalmately veined, rather coarsely

serrate on the upper margins and ciliate on the

lower, up to 15 mm long and 8 mm wide, with

erect multicellular scattered trichomes above,

essentially glabrous below, petioles 1-3 mm long

with a few scattered spreading trichomes, stipules

persistent, lanceolate, acuminate, ciliate, 4-5 mm

long, 1-1.5 mm wide; peduncles axillary 8-10 mm

long, sparsely hirtellous; inflorescences 2-flowered,

bracts persistent, lanceolate, lacerate, 1.5-2 mm

long; staminate pedicels slender 2.5-3 mm long;

staminate tepals 2, subelliptic, 5mm long, 3.5 mm

wide; stamens about 15, filaments connate in a

column, anthers elongate, the connective slightly

Aprit 1955 SMITH AND SCHUBERT: STUDIES IN THE BEGONIACEAE 111

q end WW)

Fic. 1.—a, Begonia steyermarkw, plant X 1; b, staminate flower X 2; c, androecium X 5; d, pistillate

perianth and styles X 2; e, style X 5; f, larger pistillate bracteole X 1; g, capsule (bracteoles removed)

* 1;h, seed X 10.7, Begonia bifurcata, plant X 14; 7, stipule X 5; k, staminate flower X 1; J, pistillate

flower X 1; m, capsule X 1; n, style X 5. 0, Begonia brevicordata, inflorescences and upper leaves X 1:

p, staminate flower X 1; qg, stamen X 5;7, style X 5. s, Begonia sleumeri, staminate plant X 1; ¢, pistil-

late plant X 1; w,androecium X 5; v, style X 5.

112

produced; pistillate bracteoles 2, persistent, ac-

crescent, serrulate-ciliolate, the smaller ovate,

8 mm long, 5 mm wide, the larger bilobed with

the halves slightly asymmetrical, 6-7 mm long

and each 4—5 mm wide; pistillate pedicels 6-7 mm

long; pistillate tepals 4, fused at base, each lobe

ca. 2.5 mm long and 1.5 mm wide; styles 2-parted

with the stigmatic tissue in a more or less spiral

band; ovary 3-celled, placentae simple, ovulifer-

ous throughout, capsule subelliptic, glabrous, 6

mm high, 2 wings subequal about 6 mm long, 2

mm wide, the third wing larger, 7 mm long, 6 mm

wide, all more or less rounded; seeds oblong,

obtuse, about 1 mm long, stalked, alveolate, the

basal alveolae longer than wide.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

2144327, cultivated at the U. S. Plant Introduc-

tion Garden, Glenn Dale, Md. (PI 211848),

from seeds sent from the Missouri Botanical

Garden, J. A. Steyermark (no. 75502).

Additional specimens examined: Bolivar: On

dry ledges, Chimanté Massif, along base of south-

east-facing sandstone bluffs of Chimantdé-teput

(Torono-tepui), from south corner northeast-

ward, altitude 1,700 meters, May 21, 1953, J. A.

Steyermark 75502 (F, US). Around dry talus with

dry leaves at base of bluff, between Bluff Camp

and low promontory north of Bluff Camp, along

west-facing portion of Chimantdé-tepui (Torono-

tepui), altitude 1,600-1,700 m, June 5, 1953,

J. A. Steyermark 75639 (F, US).

Since the original collection of Dr. Steyermark,

no. 75502, has very mature fruit but neither

leaves nor flowers, and his no. 75639 has flowers

but no mature fruit, we have chosen as type the

more complete plants from a cultivated collection

as cited above.

The species is easy to propagate, but the life of

each small plant is not very long, and it is to be

cultivated more for its botanical interest than

its ornamental value. We are grateful to Dr. John

L. Creech, superintendent of the U. 8. Plant

Introduction Garden at Glenn Dale, Md., for

making available the cultivated material for

herbarium specimens as well as additional collec-

tions of flowers in preservative for study and dis-

section. We also appreciate the interest of Dr.

Fred G. Meyer of the Missouri Botanical Garden

in sending us seeds and specimens of this inter-

esting species.

The affinities of Begonia steyermarkii are clearly

in the section Poecilia A. DC. It may be dis-

tinguished from the other South American species

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4

of the section by its relatively long stamen-

column with elongate anthers, by its bracteoles,

one of which is 2-lobed and surrounds 2 capsule-

walls, and by its gamotepalous 4-lobed pistillate

perianth. This last character is an especially in-

teresting one since it is the character which has

been used to distinguish three small segregates

from Begonia. The appearance of gamotepaly in

this connection leads us to believe that at least

among the American Begoniaceae it is of less

significance than the characters used to dis-

tinguish sections, apparently having evolved at

several different points in the development of

Begonia.

COLOMBIA AND ECUADOR

Begonia L. Sp. Pl. 1056. 1753.

Begoniella Oliver, Trans. Linn. Soc. 28: 513.

1873; emended by Oliver in Hook. ic. 14:

38. 1881; emended by Smith & Schubert,

Caldasia 4: 204. 1946.

Semibegoniella C. DC. Bull. Herb. Boiss. IT.

8: 327. 1908.

As noted above (under Begonia steyermarkii),

it is our feeling that the characters upon which

Begoniella and Semibegoniella were based are no

longer tenable. In our treatment of the Begoni-

aceae of Colombia (p. 205), we stated that the

transition from Begonia to Begoniella “is ob-

viously through Begonia § Casparya and

specifically through B. killipiana which rather

strikingly resembles Begoniella whatet.”” In addi-

tion, Begonia killipiana has biseriate stamens as

in Begoniella whitei and libera and Begonia

hexandra Irmscher. Since this character of biseri-

ate stamens occurs in both genera it lends no

support of correlation with the character of

gamotepaly. There is even less support for

Semibegoniella as only the staminate tepals are

connate there. Consequently we have transferred

the species to the section Casparya of Begonia as ©

follows:

Begonia grewiifolia (A. DC.) Warb. in Engler &

Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3: Abt. 6a: 146. 1894.

Casparya grewtifolia A. DC. Ann. Sci. Nat. IV.

11: 117. 1859.

Semibegoniella jamesoniana C. DC. Bull. Herb.

Boiss. IT. 8: 327. 1908.

Semibegoniella sodirot C. DC. 1. e.

Begonia irmscheri Smith & Schubert, nom. noy.

Begoniella angustifolia Oliver in Hook. Ic. 15:

68, pl. 1487. 1885; Smith & Schubert, Cal-

dasia 4: 208, pl. 18. 1946, non Begonia angus-

tifolia Blume, 1827-28.

Aprit 1955

Begonia Kalbreyeri (Oliver) Smith & Schubert,

comb. nov.

Begoniella kalbreyert Oliver in Hook. Ic. 14: 38,

pl. 1352. 1881; Smith & Schubert, Caldasia

4: 208, pl. 18. 1946.

Begonia kalbreyeri var. glabra (Smith & Schu-

bert) Smith & Schubert, comb. nov.

Begoniella kalbreyert var. glabra Smith & Schu-

bert, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 40: 244.

1950.

Begonia lehmannii (Irmscher) Smith & Schubert,

comb. nov.

Begoniella lehmannii Irmscher, Bot. Jahrb. 74:

630. 1949.

Begonia libera (Smith & Schubert) Smith &

Schubert, comb. nov.

Begoniella Libera Smith & Schubert, Caldasia

4: 206, pl. 18. 1946.

Begonia oliveri Smith & Schubert, nom. nov.

Begoniella whitet Oliver, Trans. Linn. Soc. 28:

513, pl. 41. 1873; Smith & Schubert, Caldasia

4: 205, pl. 18. 1946, non Begonia whyter Stapf.

1905.

PERU

Begonia bifurcata Smith & Schubert, sp. nov.

Figs. 1, in

Perennis, tuberosa; caule quam petiolis pedun-

culisque multo breviore; foliis paucis, late

ellipticis, valde asymmetricis, stipulis deciduis,

pedunculis elongatis; inflorescentia pauciflora,

bifureata; tepalis exterioribus glanduloso-hispidis;

tepalis masculinis 4; filamentis in columnam

angustam connatis; tepalis femineis 5; placentis

bilamellatis; stylis 3, bifidis, ramis linearibus,

stigmatibus spiraliter cinctis; capsula hispida

alis valde inaequalibus.

Perennial from a tuberous base, 28 cm high,

sparsely hispid; stem erect, slender, 5 cm long;

leaves oblique or transverse, broadly elliptic,

acute, sometimes with a small secondary lobe,

deeply and narrowly cordate at base, to 13 cm

long and 9 em wide, palmately 8-nerved, denticu-

late, thin, petioles slender, to 14 cm long, pilose,

stipules deciduous, broadly ovate, acute, 5 mm

long, dentate, membranaceous; peduncles to 17

cm long; inflorescence 2-branched, few-flowered;

bracts persistent ovate, subentire, setose-ciliate;

fruiting pedicels 25 mm long; tepals pale rose, the

outer bearing stiff hairs with dark swollen bases;

staminate tepals 4, elliptic, obtuse, subequal, 6

mm long, entire; stamens borne on a slender

column 1.5 mm long, anthers elliptic-oblong, 1

mm long, about equaling the filaments, connec-

tive not produced; pistillate tepals 5; ovary

3-celled, placentae bilamellate, styles bifid,

stigmatic tissue linear, spiral; capsule more or

SMITH AND SCHUBERT: STUDIES IN THE BEGONIACEAE

113

less decurved, subglobose, wings very unequal,

the largest triangular-ovate, ascending, 5 mm

wide, the others narrowly marginiform.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

2057660, collected in forest, above Canchaque,

Province of Huancabama, Department of Piura,

Peru, altitude 1,500-1,600 meters, March 22,

1948, by Ramoén Ferreyra (no. 3103).

This species would fall next to B. monadelpha

(K1.) R. & P. in our key to Peruvian Begonia

because of its stamen-column but is otherwise

completely unlike it. Except for the stamen-

column it would more appropriately go next to

B. veitchii Hook. f. from which it differs in its

long petioles, transverse leaf-blades, and narrow

anthers. We feel that as might be expected from

its native locality it is more nearly related to the

Ecuadorian B, parcifolia C. DC. than to any

Peruvian species, but unlike that it has the outer

tepals and capsule glandular-hispid.

The habit has been drawn with breaks be-

tween the parts to indicate reconstruction from

fragmentary material.

Begonia brevicordata Smith & Schubert, sp. nov.

Fras. 1, o-r

Glabra; foliis obliquis, late ellipticis vel ovatis,

basi abrupte breviterque cordatis, stipulis de-

ciduis; inflorescentia laxe pauciflora; bracteis

deciduis; tepalis albis, masculinis 2, ovatis,

obtusis; staminibus liberis; tepalis femineis 5;

placentis bilamellatis; stylis 3, bifidis,

connatis; alis capsulae inaequalibus.

Plant 40 cm high, glabrous; stems slender;

leaves oblique, broadly elliptic or ovate, abruptly

acute, abruptly and shallowly cordate at base,

4—5 cm long, denticulate, finely alveolate when

dry, petioles 15-50 mm long, stipules deciduous,

elliptic, subulate-acuminate, 11 mm long, entire;

peduncles 3-8 cm long, slender; inflorescence laxly

few-flowered; bracts deciduous, the basal ones

like the stipules, the others much smaller; pedicels

10-12 mm long; tepals thin, white, the staminate

2, ovate, obtuse, 6-10 mm long, entire, minutely

red-glandular on the margin; stamens free,

numerous, anthers linear, longer than the fila-

ments, connective not produced; pistillate flowers

bracteolate; pistillate tepals 5, the outer red-

glandular at apex; ovary 3-celled, placentae

bilamellate, styles bifid, connate at base, stig-

matic tissue linear, spiral; capsule erect, obovoid,

wings unequal, ovate, obtuse.

Type in the U. 8. National Museum, no.

basi

114

1952111, collected on the edge of woods, Santa

Isabel, Valley of Kosfiipata, Department of

Cuzco, Peru, altitude 1,320 meters, December

1947, by C. Vargas C. (no. 6767). Duplicate in

the Gray Herbarium.

Additional specimen examined: Cuzco: Santa

Isabel, Valley of Kosfipata, alt. 1,200 m, July

23-31, 1948, R. Scolnik 927 (US).

Probably the nearest relative of Begonia

brevicordata is B. lophoptera Rolfe, but the latter

species unlike ours is pilose and has lobed leaves

and thick fleshy papillose-hirsute tepals.

Begonia erythrocarpa A. DC. in Ann. Sci. Nat.

IV. 11: 121. 1859.

Begonia pennellii Smith & Schubert in Mac-

bride, Fl. Peru, Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 13!:

196. 1941.

BOLIVIA

Begonia williamsii Rusby & Nash, Torreya 6: 47.

1906.

Begonia acrensis Irmscher, Bot. Jahrb. 74: 605.

1949.

BRAZIL

Begonia curtii Smith & Schubert, nom. nov.

Begonia velata Brade, Arq. Jard. Bot. Rio de

Janeiro 10: 133, pl. 2. 1950, non Smith &

Schubert, Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 134: 201. 1941,

We take particular pleasure in this opportunity

to commemorate the outstanding work of Dr.

Alexandre Curt Brade in Brazilian Begonia.

Begonia egregia N. I. Br. Gard. Chron. III, 1:

346. 1887.

Begonia quadrilocularis Brade, Rodriguesia 9:

21, pl. 6. 1945.

ARGENTINA

Begonia sleumeri Smith & Schubert, sp. nov.

Fias. 1, s-v

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ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4

Perennis, tuberosa, pilis articulatis vestita;

foliis longipetiolatis, suborbicularibus; inflores- —

centia uniflora; tepalis masculinis 5-6; staminibus

in columnam convexam insertis, antheris ellip-

ticis; tepalis femineis 7; stylis bifidis.

Perennial from a small tuberous base, 6-8 em

high, very sparsely pubescent with pale multi-

cellular trichomes; stem erect, not more than

1 cm long; a single leaf with each scape, blade

suborbicular and without a distinct apex, cordate,

12-30 mm in diameter, crenate-dentate, petioles

to 45 mm long, red, stipules persistent, sub-

orbicular, 3-5 mm long, erose, ciliate, mem-

branaceous, red; peduncle erect, 2-6 cm long,

one-flowered; bracts resembling the stipules,

pedicels 5-15 mm long; flowers ebracteolate,

white; staminate tepals 5-6, elliptic, obtuse,

equal, 10 mm long, entire, glabrous; stamens

numerous on a convex column, filaments 2 mm

long, anthers elliptic, 0.7 mm long, connective

not produced; pistillate tepals 7, like the

staminate; ovary 3-celled, placentae bifid (?),

styles bifid; capsule subglobose, wings unequal,

the largest triangular, acute.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no.

2103588, collected on cumbre at Abra de Tiraxi,

Department of Tumbaya, Province of Jujuy,

Argentina, altitude 3,200 meters, December 31,

1952, by H. Sleumer (no. 3189).

In our treatment of Argentine Begonia, B.

sleumert would fall next to B. tafiensis. However,

it is readily distinguishable from that species by

its more numerous tepals, elliptic rather than

obovate anthers, and much smaller capsule-wings.

It has not been possible to verify the form of the

placentae without ruining the single immature

capsule available but presumably they are

bilamellate.

MYCOLOGY.—A_ small Conidiobolus with globose and with elongated secondary

conidia, CHARLES DreEcHSLER, United States Department of Agriculture,

Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md.

Most species of Conzdiobolus that appear

adventitiously in agar plate cultures pre-

pared for the isolation of parasitic oomy-

cetes from decaying roots, or that develop

in agar plates canopied with small quantities

of slowly decomposing plant detritus, would

seem moderately coarse in comparison with

microscopic fungi generally. In the main,

however, they do not share the large dimen-

sions of the very robust C. utriculosus Bre-

feld (1884) on which the genus was founded

and by which almost exclusively, it was

known for more than half a century. Among

my isolations of readily culturable ento-

mophthoraceous fungi two species of Conz-

diobolus are more particularly characterized

APRIL 1955

by relatively small dimensions of their

hyphal segments and reproductive parts.

One of these species was recently described

elsewhere under the binomial C. nanodes

Drechsler (1955). The other is described

herein, likewise under an epithet meaning

“dwarfish.”’

Cenidiobolus pumilus, sp. nov. Mycelium in-

coloratum sed interdum materiam ambientem vel

permeatum tarde obscurans; hyphis sterilibus

mediocriter ramosis, plerumque 2-7 crassis,

mox septatis, hic illic inanitis, cellula eorum

extrema saepe 75—400u longa, aliis cellulis eorum

plerumque 20—75yu longis; primiformibus fertili-

bus hyphis smgulatum ex cellulis hypharum

surgentibus, in parte submersa vulgo 2.2-3u

crassis, In aerem 8—30u ad lucem protendentibus,

in parte protendenti saepius 3.5-7u crassis, ibi

erectis vel acclivibus, apice unum conidium

formae globosae ferentibus; conidiis formae

globosae violenter prosilientibus, incoloratis, basi

papilla 1.2-3.2u alta et 3-6u lata praeditis,

plerumque ex toto 9-18u longis et 7.3-l4y latis;

conidiis formae elongato-ellipsoideae incoloratis,

interdum 8.8—12u longis et 5—7.5u latis, in apice

hyphae fertilis gracilis oriundis; gracilibus fertili-

bus hyphis ex conidiis abjunctis singulatim

surgentibus, incoloratis, rectis vel aliquid curvis,

interdum 30-40 altis, basi circa 2u crassis,

sursum leniter attenuatis, apice circa 0.8 crassis.

Habitat in materiis plantarum putrescentibus

prope Sanford, Florida.

Mycelium colorless though in many instances

causing the substratum or ambient to darken

slowly; assimilative hyphae moderately branched,

2 to 7u wide, soon divided by cross-walls, when

actively growing commonly terminating in a

segment 75 to 400u long, the other segments

mostly 20 to 75u long and often disjointed from

one another or separated by emptied portions of

filament; primary conidiophores colorless, un-

branched, arising singly from submerged or

prostrate hyphal segments, in their proximal sub-

merged portions often 2.2 to 3u wide, extending

8 to 30u into the air toward the main source of

light, the aerial portion 3.5 to 7u wide, erect or

inclined, bearing a single globose conidium;

globose conidia springing off violently, colorless,

mostly 7.3 to 14u wide and 9 to 18 in total

length inclusive of a basal papilla 1.2 to 3.2u high

and 3 to 6u wide; elongate ellipsoidal conidia

colorless, sometimes 8.8 to 12u long and 5 to 7.5u

DRECHSLER: CONIDIOBOLUS

115

wide, always borne singly on slender conidio-

phores; slender conidiophores arising singly from

individual detached conidia, straight or curved,

sometimes 30 to 40u tall, 2u wide at the base,

tapering gradually upward, about 0.8u wide at

the tip.

Isolated from decaying plant materials col-

lected near Sanford, Fla., on December 31, 1953.

The hyphal segments in Conidiobolus pumilus,

as in most congeneric forms, vary greatly with

respect to size and shape. In the mycelium grow-

ing unimpeded on an ample expanse of maize-

meal agar substratum the terminal segments of

the radially arranged main hyphae at the ad-

vancing margin often measure 200 to 400u in

length and 5 to 6u in width (Fig. 1). Increase in

size of a mycelium is accomplished mainly by

continued apical elongation of each terminal

segment, which thereby is enabled from time to

time to cut off a shorter segment proximally;

the segments thus delimited one after another

each occupying at first a penultimate position in

the filament. Noticeable changes in the usual

sequence of growth and cell division may result

from slight modifications in external conditions.

Thus when an actively expanding mycelium in an

agar slab excised from a Petri plate culture is

placed on a slide, covered with a cover glass, and

then exposed to the bright illumination necessary

for microscopical examination at high magnifica-

tion, the terminal segments in many instances

soon become abnormally shortened through

hastening of cell division at the proximal end

(Fig. 2). Once a hyphal segment has been de-

limited in penultimate position it usually under-

goes no subsequent division, though its shape may

become modified from evacuation of some portion

at either end, and from extension of short branches

or protuberances (Figs. 3-8).

The darkening of substratum often observable

in cultures of Conidiobolus pumilus on maize-

meal or lima-bean agar, within 10 or 15 days after

planting, is noteworthy mainly because other

known members of the genus seem generally in-

capable of bringing about any similar discolor-

ation. Among congeneric forms only C. rugosus

Drechsler (1955) invites comparison here, owing

to the yellow or orange coloration it shows on

maize-meal agar and on other agar media suitable

for its sexual reproduction. The bright coloration

seen in cultures of C. rugosus is due entirely to

enormous numbers of yellow zygospores pro-

116

duced by that species, whereas the darkening in

cultures of C. pwmilus appears to come about

from changes effected in the substratum.

In Conidiobolus pumilus, as in all other seg-

mented congeneric forms, the conidiophores

(figs. 9-15) bearing the primary globose conidia

originate singly from individual hyphal segments.

A conidiophore given off by a rather deeply sub-

merged hyphal segment must grow upward

through the overlying material a considerable

distance before it reaches the surface (Fig. 9, s;

Figs. 11-14: s). Owing to the delay incurred

thereby the empty membrane of the hyphal seg-

ment, together with the evacuated proximal

portion of the conidiophore, has usually vanished

from sight when the conidium is fully delimited

(Figs. 12-14), and may, indeed, be quite indis-

cernible even earlier when movement of proto-

plasm into the growing conidium is still in

progress (Figs. 9, 11). Although a hyphal segment

on the surface of the substratum sometimes ex-

tends its conidiophore procumbently a short

distance (Figs. 10, s; 15, s), its empty envelope

usually remains clearly visible at the time the

conidium becomes walled off basally (Fig. 15).

The conidium of Conidiobolus pumilus springs

off forcibly through sudden eversion of its concave

basal membrane. Since the papilla resulting from

this eversion is generally a little wider than the

corresponding modification in C. nanodes it

merges more gradually with the globose contour

of the spore. Consequently the detached globose

conidia of C. pumilus (Figs. 16-54) in general

appear less abruptly papillate than those of C.

nanodes. When lying on a moist surface they often

put forth individually a short stout conidiophore

on which is produced a conidium of globose shape

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4

like the parent (Figs. 55-62). Less commonly

they give rise individually to a slender conidi-

ophore bearing on its tip an elongate-ellipsoidal or

obovoid conidium (Figs. 63-65) of the secondary

type previously observed in C. heterosporus

Drechsler (1953), C. rhysosporus Drechsler (1954),

and C. rugosus. The elongate conidia here as in

the three species described earlier do not spring

off forcibly but become detached (Figs. 66-92) on

slight disturbance. Elongate conidia of C. pumilus

have hitherto been seen only in cultures over 15

days old in which the globose conidia serving as

parents had been much reduced in size through

prolonged repetitional development. It may be

presumed that if their production were to take

place in relatively young cultures they would

show appreciably greater dimensions than have

been indicated for them in the diagnosis.

In its ordinary vegetative germination the

globose conidium puts forth a germ hypha (Figs.

93-95) that on unoccupied substratum is capable

of growing into an extensive mycelium.

Sexual reproduction, which as a rule occurs

promptly and abundantly in cultures of Conidi-

obolus nanodes, has so far not been observed in

C. pumilus.

REFERENCES

BREFELD, O. Conidiobolus utriculosus wnd minor.

Unters. Gesammtg. Mykologie 6: 35-72,

75-78, pl. 3-5. 1884.

DReEcCHSLER, C. Two new species of Conidiobolus

occurring in leaf mold. Amer. Journ. Bot. 40:

104-115. 1953.

. Two species of Conidiobolus with minutely

ridged zygospores. Amer. Journ. Bot. 41:

567-575. 1954.

. Some new species of Conidiobolus isolated

from decaying plant detritus. Amer. Journ.

Bot. 42: 1955.

Figs. 1-95.—Conidiobolus pumilus as found in Petri plate cultures of maize-meal agar; drawn at a

uniform magnification with the aid of a camera lucida; X 1000: 1, Terminal segment of a main hypha

at margin of an actively growing mycelium, shown in two sections whose proper connection is indicated

by a broken line; 2, terminal portion of a main hypha at margin of a growing mycelium 45 minutes after

material was mounted on a microscope slide and covered with a cover glass; 3, two adjacent hyphal

segments in older region of an extensive mycelium; 4-8, individual hyphal segments in central area of an

extensive mycelium; 9-11, conidiophores on which globose conidia are being formed (s, surface of sub-

stratum); 12-15, conidiophores bearing mature globose conidia (s, surface of substratum); 16-54, de-

tached globose conidia showing variations in size and shape; 55-59, detached globose conidia that are

each giving rise to a secondary globose conidium; 60-62, detached globose conidia that have each pro-

duced a secondary globose conidium; 63-65, globose conidia that have each produced an elongated

secondary conidium on a slender conidiophore; 66-92, detached elongated conidia; 93-95, globose conidia

that are each germinating by emission of a vegetative germ hypha.

ITZ)

CONIDIOBOLUS

DRECHSLER:

Aprit 1955

o 8

ler

del.

(See opposite page for legend).

Figs. 1-95.

118 JOURNAL OF

THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. +

ZOOLOGY .—New species of polychaete worms of the family Polynoidae from the

east coast of North America.. Martian H. Prrriponnr, University of New

Hampshire.

The new species of Polynoidae herein

described were collected in part by the

writer; some were present in the unworked

collections in the United States National

Museum where the types are deposited.

Family PoLyNorIDAr

Austrolaenilla Bergstrom, char.

emend.

Genus 1916;

Elytra 15-16 pairs (15 in type species, A.

antarctica Bergstr6m; 16 in A. mollis (Sars)).

Notosetae stouter than neurosetae, of the funda-

mental Harmothoé type. Neurosetae with tips

slender, not capillary, entire or with secondary

tooth, with filamentous distal ends

(bearded or hirsute tips).

Laenilla? mollis Sars, 1872, is herein referred to

Austrolaenilla. It has been referred to Harmothoé

and Antinoé.

hairs on

Austrolaenilla lanelleae, n. sp.

Fig. 1, a-f

The species is based on three somewhat in-

complete specimens which were found in the

material collected by the U.S. Fish Commission

from off Martha’s Vineyard, Mass.; they were

found along with numerous specimens of the

polynoid, Harmothoé acanellae (Verrill) and which

they superficially resemble; the latter is known

to be associated with corals. The species is named

for LaNelle Peterson, museum aide at the U.S.

National Museum.

Measurements.—Length 14 to 23 mm, greatest

width including setae 5 to 7.5 mm, width ex-

cluding setae 3 to 6.75 mm. Segments 40, 41.

Description.—Body nearly linear, tapering

gradually anteriorly and more so posteriorly,

flattened dorsoventrally. Elytra missing; elytro-

phores 15 pairs. Prostomium bilobed, wider than

long, with deep anteromedian notch and distinct

cephalic peaks (Fig. 1, a). Four eyes purple,

large, anterior pair larger than posterior pair,

lateral in position, in region of greatest prostomial

width. Median antenna with bulbous ceratophore;

style missing. Lateral antennae with short

ceratophores inserted ventrally on prostomium;

1 This study was aided by a grant from the Na-

tional Science Foundation (NSF-G526).

styles short, subulate, tapering to slender tips.

Palps missing. Tentacular segment with elongated

basal lobes each with a single seta. Tentacular,

dorsal and anal cirri missing. Cirrophores of

dorsal cirri bulbous basally. Ventral cirri shorter

than neuropodia, subulate (Fig. 1, 6). Segmental

papillae begin on segment 6, short, cylindrical,

extending upward between the bases of succes-

sive neuropodia.

Parapodia biramous, rather long—parapodia

and setae about as long as body width;

notopodium a short rounded lobe on the antero-

dorsal face of the neuropodium, with a digitiform

acicular lobe; neuropodium bluntly conical (Fig.

1, 6). Notosetae golden-yellow, numerous, form-

ing a spreading bundle, stout (22.5 to 47.5u in

diameter basally), curved, tapering gradually,

with close-set spinous rows, with very short bare

pointed tips or tips worn off bluntly (Fig. 1, c).

Neurosetae golden-yellow, with long stem region

(15 to 25u in diameter basally), with enlarged

long distal spinous regions (20 to 30u in greatest

diameter in basal part), spinous region consisting

of 17 to 35 or so spinous rows, with tip slightly

hooked, with slender secondary tooth (may be

broken off or hidden by bushy hairs); the free end

of the spinous rows taper to slender hairy tips,

the distal row extending about to the setal tip

(Fig. 1, d, f); the lower neurosetae with shorter

spinous regions, with secondary tooth very

slender or absent; the upper neurosetae more

slender, with the longest spinous regions and

longer hairy tips (Fig. 1, d, e).

Remarks.—A. lanelleae superficially resembles

Harmothoé acanellae (Verrill), with which it was

found, in regard to the general shape and large

eyes. It differs by having more numerous

notosetae (4-10 in H. acanellae), fewer number of

segments (50-80 in H. acanellae), and the char-

acter of the noto- and neurosetae. It differs from

A.antarctica Bergstrom by having the neurosetae

with a secondary tooth and shorter bushy hairs.

It differs from A. mollis (Sars) by having 15

pairs of elytra (16 in A. mollis) and neurosetae

with shorter hairs on the hirsute or bearded tips.

Locality—Types (U.S.N.M. nos. 26460 and

26461): Off Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., 39° 57’ N.,

69° 16’ W., 458 fathoms, yellow mud, sand,

Fish Hawk station 1029, 1881.

APRIL 1955 PETTIBONE: NEW SPECIES

Genus Gattyana McIntosh, 1897

Gattyana nutti, n. sp.

Fig. 2, a-f

The species is based on eight specimens—one

collected by D. C. Nutt on the Blue Dolphin

Expedition of 1949 in the Strait of Belle Isle,

Labrador, the others collected by the U.S. Bureau

of Fisheries from off Newfoundland to off Cape

Cod and reserved for study by A. E. Verrill. It

is a dredged form found on bottoms of coral, sand,

and pebbles. The species is named for David C.

Nutt, commander of the Blue Dolphin Expedi-

tions to Labrador.

Measurements—Length 15 to 16.5 mm, great-

est width including setae 4.5 to 4.8 mm, width

excluding setae 3.7 to 3.8 mm. Segments 35.

Description—Body nearly linear, tapering

slightly anteriorly and posteriorly, oval in cross

section. Body without color. Elytra 15 pairs, oval,

imbricated, cover the dorsum, tannish, furnished

with long fringe of papillae on lateral and pos-

terior borders as well as on surface, with large,

bluntly conical, translucent, amber-colored macro-

tubercles covering most of posterior half—macro-

tubercles up to 416y in length; some intermediate-

OF POLYCHAETE WORMS 119

sized tubercles may have the tips flattened, bifid,

or faintly quatrifid; microtubercles more an-

teriorly on elytra, bluntly conical, mostly with

tips bifid, some quatrifid (Fig. 2, ¢).

Prostomium bilobed, wider than long, with

deep anteromedian notch, with distinct blunt

cephalic peaks (Fig. 2, a). Four eyes moderate in

size, anterior pair slightly larger than posterior

pair, anteroventral in position—not visible

dorsally. Median antenna with large bulbous

ceratophore, with brown pigment laterally; style

nearly as long as the palps, dusky basally, with

subterminal enlargement and filamentous tip,

with numerous long papillae. Lateral antennae

about same length as the prostomial width, short

ceratophores inserted ventrally on prostomium;

styles dusky, papillate. Palps up to twice the

prostomial width, dusky, with short slender tips.

Tentacular segment with basal lobes elongated,

each with a single seta; two pairs tentacular cirri

similar to median antenna, the upper pair about

as long as the palps, the ventral pair shorter.

Occipital fold posterior to prostomium slightly

developed. Dorsal cirri and pair of anal cirri

slightly longer than the neurosetae, similar to

median antenna, densely papillate. Ventral cirri

Fie. 1.—Austrolaenilla lanelleae, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first two segments (elytra,

tentacular cirri, and styles of two antennae missing); 6, fifteenth right parapodium, anterior view;

c, tip of notoseta; d, tip of upper neuroseta; e, same, frontal view; f, tip of middle neuroseta.

120

shorter than neuropodia, subulate (Fig. 2, 6).

Segmental papillae begin on segment 6, continu-

ing posteriorly; they become elongated, extending

dorsally between the basal parts of the

neuropodia.

Parapodia biramous; notopodium a rounded

lobe on the anterodorsal face of the neuropodium,

with a projecting acicular lobe; neuropodium with

a bluntly conical presetal acicular lobe (Fig. 2, 6).

Notosetae light yellow, numerous, forming a

bushy bundle, the lower ones extending almost as

far distally as the neurosetae; notosetae 7.5 to

15u in diameter basally, the upper row stouter,

more strongly curved, tapering to blunt tips

(Fig. 2, d), the rest are more slender, tapering

gradually to slender tips (Fig. 2, e). Neurosetae

golden yellow, 12.5 to 22.5u in diameter basally,

with enlarged distal spinous regions (17.5 to

30u in greatest diameter at basal part of spinous

region), with 4 to 17 or so spinous rows and bare

hooked tips (spinous region as long as or slightly

0.35mm.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 4+

longer than the bare hooked tips; fig. 2, f); the

supraacicular neurosetae have longer spinous

regions and more slender tips.

Remarks.—G. nutti resembles the well-known

Gattyana cirrosa (Pallas) in most regards; it

differs in the character of the elytral macro-

tubercles.

Locality.—Type (U.S.N.M. no. 23765): Strait

of Belle Isle, off Labrador, 51° 41’ N., 56° 20’ W.,

25 fms., coral bottom, 1 July 1949, Blue Dolphin

Expedition; paratypes (U.S.N.M. no. 6344): off

Cape Cod, 42° 09’ N., 70° 13’ W., 26 fms., fine

brown sand, pebbles, U.S.F.C. 1879, Loc. 330.

Also south of Newfoundland, 45° 29’ N., 55°

24’ W., 67 fms., coral bottom, Albatross station

2466, 1885; off Nova Scotia, Chebucto Head,

entrance of Halifax Harbor, 25 fathoms, fine

sand, U.S.F.C. 1878, Loc. 216; Gulf of Maine,

N.W. Eastern Point Light, 35 fathoms, fine

sand and few pebbles, U.S.F.C. 1878, Loc. 216.

O.16mm.

17.5

Fig. 2.—Gattyana nutti, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first two segments (elytra removed,

style of median antenna missing); b, middle right parapodium, anterior view; c, middle right elytron;

d, upper notoseta; e, tip of lower notoseta; f, middle neuroseta.

APRIL 1955 PETTIBONE: NEW SPECIES OF POLYCHAETE WORMS 121

Genus Harmotheé Kinberg, 1855, sensw Berg- named for John Dearborn, who collected the

strém, 1916 specimen.

Harmothoe COTES DeSR Measurements.—Length 12.5 mm, greatest

Fig. 3,a~2 width including setae 3.75 mm, width excluding

The species is represented by a single specimen setae 2.7 mm. Segments 35.

which was found attached to floating gulfweeds, Description—Body widest about anterior

including Sargassum, in Vineyard Sound, Mass. third, tapering slightly anteriorly and more so

Its color was similar to that of the weed. It is posteriorly, oval in cross section. Dorsally body

vi Wes eA ma le c l il I; SE 3

it )

NG Walt M !

Fie. 3.—Harmothoé dearborni, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first two segments (elytra re-

moved, left tentacular cirri missing); b, middle right elytron; c, fifteenth left parapodium, anterior

view; d, portion of same, without the setae; e, tip of upper notoseta; f, tip of lower notoseta; g, tip of

upper neuroseta; h, tip of middle neuroseta; 7, lower neuroseta.

122 JOURNAL

rusty-red (in life) or reddish-brown (in alcohol),

with a narrow, somewhat beaded, colorless

transverse band on the anterior part of each

segment between the dorsal tubercles and elytro-

phores (Fig. 3, a); also a colorless intersegmental

band—thus two white bands per segment. Ventral

surface dusky, more so anteriorly and especially

dark in the region of the mouth. Elytra (Fig. 3, b)

15 pairs, oval, overlapping, cover the dorsum;

they are thin, transparent, without fringe of

papillae; elytral surface smooth except for delicate

scattered short papillae and scattered low micro-

tubercles which are mostly confined to the

anterior half; elytra rusty-red with white flecks

in the region of the elytrophores (in life).

Prostomium bilobed, wider than long, with

deep anteromedian notch, with distinct cephalic

peaks; anterior third with brown pigment (Fig.

3, a). Four eyes rather large, faint, anterior pair

about twice as large as posterior pair, lateral

in position, in region of greatest prostomial width.

Median antenna with short cylindrical brown

ceratophore; style about equal in length to

prostomial width, cylindrical basally, distal half

consisting of slender tip (regenerating?). Lateral

antennae with short brown ceratophores inserted

ventral to median antenna; styles slightly shorter

than prostomial length, subulate, with wider dark

basal part and slender tip, with short scattered

papillae. Left palp about three times the pro-

stomial length, right one about half as long,

probably regenerating; they are smooth, tapering

gradually to slender tips. Tentacular segment

with elongated, irregularly pigmented basal lobes

each with a single seta. Upper pair tentacular cirri

longer than the lower pair, slightly longer than

prostomial width, darkly pigmented basally and

a darker subterminal band, with long slender tip

and short papillae. Dorsal cirri with cirrophores

bulbous basally, pigmented; styles taper gradu-

ally to long slender tips, pigmented on basal third

and darker subterminal ring; they extend slightly

beyond the neurosetae, the more posterior ones

are longer, more slender. Ventral cirri shorter

than neuropodia, subulate (Fig. 3, c). Anal cirri

(left one missing) long, with long slender tip.

Segmental papillae begin on segment 6, continu-

ing posteriorly; they are short, cylindrical, ex-

tending dorsally between successive neuropodia.

The single specimen was massed with eggs.

Parapodia rather long (setae and parapodia

about as long as body width); notopodium a

rounded lobe tapering to a slender acicular lobe;

OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4

neuropodium diagonally truncate posteriorly,

with a conical acicular lobe anteriorly (Fig.

3,c, d). Notosetae numerous, forming a spreading

bundle, shorter and slightly stouter than

neurosetae, 12.5 to 20u in diameter basally,

tapering gradually to short bare blunt to pointed

tips, with numerous short spinous rows extending

almost to tip; upper notosetae shorter, more

arched, with pointed tips (Fig. 3, e); rest longer

with bluntly worn tips (Fig. 3, f). Neurosetae

with long stem region, 7.5 to 10u in diameter

basally, with enlarged spinous region (12.5 to

15u in greatest diameter in basal part), tapering

to slender bare hooked tips, all with secondary

tooth close to tip (Fig. 3, 4); upper ones long,

more slender (Fig. 3, g), lower ones with shorter

spinous regions (Fig. 3, 7).

Locality.—Type (U.S.N.M. no. 26457): Vine-

yard Sound, Mass., on floating gulfweed, as

Sargassum and others, September 3, 1953, col-

lected by John Dearborn.

Harmothoé macginitiei, n. sp.

Fig. 4, a-v

The species is based on a single specimen found

at low tide at Hadley Harbor, Naushon Island

in the Woods Hole area, Mass. It was dug under

water and found in the sievings of the muddy

sand. The species is named for Prof. George

MacGinitie.

Measurements—Length 20 mm, greatest width

including setae 8.56 mm, width excluding setae

5.25 mm. Segments 36.

Description.—Body widest in middle two-

thirds, tapering gradually anteriorly and_ pos-

teriorly, greatly flattened dorsoventrally. Body

without color. Elytra 15 pairs, large, oval, over-

lapping, covering the dorsum, tannish, with

numerous amber-colored tubercles which gradu-

ally get larger posteriorly on each elytron, none

of which get to the size of macrotubercles (Fig.

4, b; may get up to 144 in height); tubercles

may be pointed, conical and curved, some bifid,

and some quatrifid or somewhat irregular; the

larger tubercles are in the center of an irregular

circular area which is somewhat scalloped around

the edge, with papillae emerging from the inner

part of the scallop (Fig. 4, c, d); elytra with a

fringe of papillae on the lateral and posterior

borders as well as on the elytral surface; tubercles

and papillae covered with a good deal of debris.

Prostomium bilobed, wider than long, with a

PETTIBONE: NEW SPECIES OF POLYCHAETE WORMS

AprItL 1955

A 24y My

Es [20n

75p e—

Fic. 4.—Harmothoé macginitiei, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first two segments (elytra

removed, upper right tentacular cirrus missing); b, middle right elytron; c, portion of elytral border

showing tubercles, scalloped circular areas and papillae; d, same, showing quatrifid elytral tubercles;

e, middle left parapodium, anterior view; f, upper notoseta; g, tip of middle notoseta; h, tip of neuroseta;

7, same, more enlarged.

124

deep anteromedian notch, with rather indistinct

triangular cephalic peaks (Fig. 4, a). Four eyes

small, anterior pair slightly larger than posterior

pair, lateral in position, just anterior to greatest

prostomial width. Median antenna with large

cylindrical ceratophore; style amost twice the

prostomial width, tapering gradually, with

slender tip and long papillae. Lateral antennae

with short ceratophores inserted ventral to

median antenna; styles subulate, papillate, about

the length of the prostomium. Palps more than

three times the prostomial width, smooth, taper-

ing gradually to slender tips. Tentacular segment

with large tentacular basal lobes, without setae;

tentacular cirrl subequal in length, similar to

median antenna; a distinct nuchal fold posterior

to prostomium (folded back in Fig. 4, a). Dorsal

cirri extending slightly beyond the tips of the

neurosetae, similar to median antenna, with long

slender tip and numerous papillae. Ventral cirri

short, subulate, with slender tips (Fig. 4, e).

Anal cirri missing. Segmental papillae begin on

segment 6, continuing posteriorly; they emerge

from an inflated rounded lobe ventral to the

neuropodia, becoming elongate cylindrical and

turned dorsally between successive neuropodia.

Parapodia long (setae and parapodia longer

than body width), biramous; notopodium a

rounded lobe with a digitiform acicular lobe;

neuropodium conical, with a supraacicular slender

digitiform lobe (Fig. 4, e). Setae golden yellow.

Notosetae numerous, forming a very thick bushy

bundle, the lower ones about as long as the

neurosetae, slightly curved, of about the same

diameter as the neurosetae (15 to 36u in diameter

basally); upper notosetae stouter, shorter, more

arched, with short bare pointed tips (Fig. 4, f);

others with longer bare pointed tips—may be

very long (Fig. 4, g), with traverse spinous rows

in which the spines are rather long and prominent

(longer than in the typical Harmothoé imbricata

type); they are covered with a good deal of debris.

Neurosetae with long stem region (20 to 27.5u

in diameter basally), with enlarged spinous region

(27.5 to 42.5u in greatest diameter in basal part

of spinous region), tapering gradually to long bare

slightly hooked tip, with secondary tooth which

is large, straight, and rather far removed from the

tip (Fig. 4, h, 7; may be lacking in a few lower

neurosetae).

Remarks.—H. macginitiet resembles H. areolata

Grube (known from English Channel, Medi-

terranean, Adriatic) and H. aculeata Andrews

(known from North and South Carolina, Florida).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4

It differs in that H. macginitiet has the elytral

tubercles becoming gradually larger posteriorly,

none attaining the size of macrotubercles; the

tubercles are conical, some bifid, some quatrifid

or irregular, the larger ones in the center of an

irregular circular area with papillae. In H.

areolata, the elytra have several rows of conical

pointed macrotubercles (none bifid) arising from

large polygonal areas, without papillae; in H.

aculeata, the elytra have 1 to 2 rows of conical

macrotubercles (may be bifid) arising from ir-

regular circular areas near the border of which

are chitinous microtubercles as well as some

papillae. The cephalic peaks are poorly developed

in H. macginitiei, well developed in H. areolata

and H. aculeata. None of the dorsal cirri were

inflated in H. macginitiet as they sometimes are

in the other two.

Locality—Type (U.S.N.M. no. 26458): Hadley

Harbor, Naushon Island, in the Woods Hole area,

Mass., low water, muddy-sand, September 2,

1952, M. Pettibone, collector.

Genus Hartmania’, n. gen.

Prostomium harmothoid, with distinct cephalic

peaks and lateral antennae inserted ventral to

the median antenna. Elytra 15 pairs, on segments

2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 18, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23; 26; 29; 32.

Elytra large, cover the dorsum. Segments less

than 40. Both noto- and neurosetae subequal in

diameter, ending in slender pointed to capillary

tips, not hooked.

Hartmania resembles Enipo and Nemidia as

defined by Malmgren, 1865; it differs in having

less than 40 segments, with elytra covering the

dorsum. It. differs from Arcteobia Annenkova,

1937, in having all the neurosetae with slender

sharp tips, none with hooked bifid ones.

Hartmania moorei, n. sp.

Fig. 5, a-e

Five specimens were found in the burrows of

large specimens of .Vereis virens in the sandy-mud

of Little Harbor, Newcastle, New Hampshire.

They are small (up to 15 mm), rather fast moving,

and easily escape notice. The species shows some

of the adaptations of a commensal polynoid, as

small eyes and smooth elytra; it lacks the

melanistic body pigmentation as is found in some.

Two specimens were found among the material

dredged in the region of Cape Cod, Mass., by the

U.S. Fish Commission and reserved for study by

2 Named for Dr. Olga Hartman, who has con-

tributed so much to the study of the polychaetes.

APRIL 1955 PETTIBONE: NEW SPECIES

A. E. Vernrill. The species is named for Dr. George

M. Moore, who collected the majority of the

specimens by persistent digging.

Measurements—Length 8.7 to 15 mm, greatest

width excluding setae 2.5 to 3.6 mm, width in-

cluding setae 3.7 to 5.2 mm. Segments 35-37.

Description —Body of nearly uniform width

in middle third, tapering slightly anteriorly and

posteriorly, flattened dorsoventrally. Body with-

out color. Elytra 15 pairs, rather large,

imbricated, cover the dorsum, oval to subreniform

in shape, smooth, lacking papillae and tubercles,

with pale to light rusty-brown, crescent-shaped

colored areas on medial halves of elytra (Fig. 5, a;

in life and in alcohol).

0.16mm.

OF POLYCHABTE WORMS WG

Prostomium bilobed, wider than long, with a

deep anteromedian notch, with distinct blunt

cephalic peaks (Fig. 5, a). Four eyes small, an-

terior pair lateral in position, just anterior to

greatest prostomial width. Median antenna with

bulbous ceratophore; style about equal in length

to prostomial width, tapering to slender, slightly

bulbous tip and with short scattered papillae.

Lateral antennae inserted ventral to median

antenna on prostomium; short ceratophores —

hidden by the bulbous ceratophore of median

antenna; styles short—less than half the length

of the median antenna, tapering to slightly

bulbous tips. Palps up to two and a half times

the length of the prostomium, with numerous

Fig. 5.—Hartmania moorei, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first 6 segments (first two pairs

elytra removed); b, thirteenth right parapodium, anterior view; c, notoseta; d, tip of supraacicular

neuroseta; e, subacicular neuroseta.

126

close-set short claviform papillae. Tentacular

segment with basal lobes elongated, each with

2 or 3 dark setae; two pairs of subequal tentacular

cirri similar to median antenna. Dorsal cirri

with bulbous cirrophores; styles extend to about

the tips of the neurosetae, tapering gradually

distally to slender slightly bulbous tips, with

short scattered claviform papillae. Ventral cirri

shorter than neuropodia, subulate, with slightly

bulbous tips and few short globular papillae

(Fig. 5, 6). Pair of long anal cirri—the longest

appendages of the body. Segmental papillae

short, globular, inconspicuous, begin on segment

6, continuing posteriorly.

Parapodia biramous, long, slender—parapodia

including setae longer than body width;

notopodium a short rounded lobe with projecting

finger-like acicular lobe; neuropodium conical, the

apex forming a short supraacicular lobe (Fig. 5, 6).

Both notosetae and neurosetae delicate, trans-

parent, iridescent. Notosetae form a spreading

bundle of 5 or 6 rows of graded lengths, the upper

row the shortest, the longest lower row extending

about one-half the length of the neurosetae; they

are widest basally (10 to 12.54 in diameter),

tapering gradually to short capillary tips, appear-

ing smooth but with numerous close-set fine

spinous rows as seen under the highest magnifica-

tion (Fig. 5, c). Few notosetae of tentacular seg-

ment rather stout (20u in diameter), lacking

slender tips; upper notosetae of second or buccal

segment curved, without slender tips. Neurosetae

with long shaft of uniform width (10 to 15y in

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 4

diameter basally), with enlarged distal spinous

regions (15 to 20u in greatest diameter on basal

part of spinous regions), gently curved, ending

in short slender tips (not capillary) ; supraacicular

neurosetae with longer spinous regions and longer

more slender tips (Fig. 5, d); more ventral neuro-

setae with shorter spinous regions (Fig. 5, e). Two

specimens (collected November 8, 1954, New

Hampshire) were filled with eggs. In life, the red

ventral nerve cord and cerebral ganglion in the

prostomium show conspicuously through the

delicate transparent tissues of the body.

Remarks.—The setal, parapodial and prosto-

mial shapes resemble those figured by Malmgren

(1865, pl. 13, fig. 22) for Nemidia torelli. It

differs by having eyes present, fewer number of

segments, and more numerous notosetae.

Locality —Types (U.S.N.M. nos. 26462 and

26463): Little Harbor, Newcastle, N. H., in

sandy-mud burrows associated with Nereis virens,

July 4, 1953 (1 specimen, M. Pettibone, col-

lector); November 11, 1954 (4 specimens, G. M.

Moore, collector). Also mouth of Cape Cod

Bay, Mass., near Race Point Light, gray mud,

26 fathoms, 1879, Loc. 296; near Cuttyhunk

Light, sand and mud, 1715 fathoms, 1880, Loc.

860—both collected by U.S. Fish Commission.

REFERENCE

MatmGreN, A. J. Nordiska Hafs-Annulater.

Forh. Ofv. Kongl. Vet. Akad. Stockholm,

nos. 1, 2, 5: 51-110, 181-192, 355-410, pls. 8—

15, 18-29. 1865.

MAMMALOGY.—Descriptions of pocket gophers (Thomomys bottae) from north-

eastern Arizona. Donato F. Horrmerster, Museum of Natural History,

University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Communicated by David H. Johnson.)

(Received February 11, 1955)

Pocket gophers of the species Thomomys

bottae have recently been collected in certain

parts of Arizona from which they were

poorly known before. This new material,

together with previously collected material,

indicates the need for a re-evaluation of

some kinds of gophers in northeastern Ari-

zona. It seems desirable to recognize one

new subspecies and redescribe another.

Thomomys bottae rufidulus, n. subsp.

Type—Adult male, no. 7344, Univ. Illinois

Mus. Nat. Hist., from 2 miles east of Joseph

City, Navajo County, Ariz.; collected January 1,

1953, by Donald F. Hoffmeister, original no.

1965.

Range.—Along parts of the Little Colorado

and Puerco rivers in Arizona and New Mexico;

probably between Winslow, Ariz., and Gallup,

N. Mex.

Diagnosis.—A race of Thomomys bottae char-

acterized by a reddish color intermixed with con-

siderable black and by small size. Color in sum-

mer: back (a) Clay-Color or Cinnamon approach-

ing Cmnamon-Buff (capitalized color terms from

Aprit 1955 HOFFMEISTER:

Ridgway, Color standards and color nomen-

clature, 1912), with numerous dark hairs forming

a dark stripe down back, with color paling on

sides to Cinnamon-Buff; underparts whitish

with a heavy wash of Pinkish Cinnamon, which

is heaviest along midventral line and fading out

toward lateral line. Color in winter: sides (7)14’

Ochraceous-Tawny, with color on back inter-

spersed with brown, giving dorsum a grayish

appearance; underparts whitish with only the

faintest indication of wash of Cinnamon. Size:

small; smaller than 7. 6. aureus and T. b. per-

amplus by about seven to ten per cent; about

the same size or slightly smaller than 7. 6.

fulvus. Skull: small in most features but broad

interorbitally.

Comparisons —Thomomys bottae rufidulus dif-

fers from T. b. aureus in being less bright red,

more blackish, and in smaller size. It differs from

T. b. peramplus in being lighter in color, with a

less prominent dark stripe down the back. 7. 6.

rufidulus differs from T’. b. fulvus in lighter, more

reddish upper parts, lighter underparts, and

shorter hind foot.

Measurements—Four adult males and two

adult females, all topotypes, give the following

respective measurements: total length, 225, 213,

226, 226, 229, 216; tail, 63, 62, 66, 70, 77, 66;

hind foot, 33, 31, 31, 34, 31, 32; ear, 6, 6, —,

7, 6, 6; basilar length, 34.7, 32.5, 34.9, 34.9,

34.38, 32.7; zygomatic breadth, 24.6, 22.0, 23.8,

23.6, 23.8, 22.7; mastoidal breadth, 21.1, 20.5,

20.8, 20.8, 20.1, 19.9; length of nasals, 13.7,

12.3, 13.6, 13.7, 13.6, 13.0; least interorbital

breadth, 7.1, 6.8, 7.0, 6.7, 6.9, 6.7; length of

Giastemanemlise(-pelo4 s 4 IBIS SEAS 12.0):

length of rostrum (taken from middle of an-

terior border of nasals to maxilla at its lateral-

most point of union with hamular process of

lacrimal) uO 5:6; 16S) WO) 16.5, 5:8:

breadth of rostrum (taken where maxillary and

premaxillary bones meet on sides of rostrum),

8.3, 7.9, 8.3, 8.3, 8.0, 7.9; palatilar length (ex-

clusive of palatal spine), 23.3, 21.4, 23.8, 23.8,

23.2, 22.0. In each instance, the measurement for

the type specimen is given first.

Remarks.—T. 6. rufidulus resembles most

closely in morphological features 7. 6. aureus

and T. b. fuluus. However, rufidulus is readily

distinguishable from these two. This subspecies

has a position somewhat intermediate between

the pale-colored ‘“‘awreus”’ gophers of northeastern

Arizona and the dark-colored ‘‘fuluus” gophers of

POCKET

GOPHERS WAT

the Mogollon Plateau. In his revision of the

pocket gophers of Arizona, Goldman (North

Amer. Fauna 59: 14. 1947) was unaware that

such a race might exist.

The name rufidulus, meaning somewhat

reddish or a little reddish, is in allusion to both

the Little Colorado (= reddish) River and to

the somewhat reddish coloration of the gophers.

Specimens excamined.—Arizona: Vavajo County:

2 miles east of Joseph City, 8 (Univ. Illinois,

Mus. Nat. Hist.). Apache County: Navajo, 1

(Univ. Illinois, Mus. Nat. Hist.). New Mexico:

McKinley County: Gallup, 2 (U. 8. Biol. Surv.

Coll.).

spatus oF Thomomys latirostris MERRIAM

In 1901, Merriam described the pocket gopher

Thomomys latirostris from Little Colorado River,

Painted Desert, Ariz. (Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash-

ington 14: 107. 1901). In 1947, Goldman re-

stricted the type locality to Tanner Crossing,

about 3 miles above Cameron (North Amer.

Fauna 59: 11. 1947). Merriam had but a single

specimen from the Painted Desert, and the skull

of this animal was unique in having an ex-

ceedingly broad rostrum. Attempts by Goldman

to obtain additional specimens from the vicinity

of the type locality proved unsuccessful, and he

regarded the skull of the type as abnormal,

calling Merriam’s latirostris an aberrant in-

dividual of the race Thomomys bottae aureus.

During the past few years, we have been success-

ful in catching three gophers near Cameron.

These specimens indicate that the gophers from

near Cameron are quite distinct from other races

of T. bottae, and gophers from along the western

edge of the Painted Desert may differ in the same

way. However these specimens do indicate that

the rostrum of the type specimen is atypical.

This gopher may be characterized as follows:

Thomomys bottae latirostris Merriam

Type—Adult male, no. 18003/24914, U.S.

Biol. Surv. Coll., from Little Colorado River,

Painted Desert (= Tanner Crossing), Coconino

County, Ariz.; collected September 22, 1899, by

C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey, original no. 504.

Range.—Known only from Tanner Crossing

and 41% to 5 miles north of Cameron, Ariz.;

probably in much of the Painted Desert.

Diagnosis.—A race of Thomomys bottae char-

acterized by pale coloration and small size. Color

on back and sides near (e) Orange-Buff or Pale

128

Yellow-Orange; tail and feet whitish; underparts

whitish, with plumbeous underfur showing.

Size small; smaller than typical 7. 6. aureus;

rostrum long and broad (but condition in type

specimen is atypical), relatively larger than that

of T. b. aureus.

Comparisons—Thomomys bottae lattrostris

needs close comparison only with 7. b. aureus,

from which it differs in paler color (Pale Yellow-

Orange rather than Cinnamon-Buff) and in a

smaller skull with a relatively broader rostrum.

Measurements.—Three males, two adults and

one subadult, from 415 to 5 miles N Cameron

give the following respective measurements: total

length, 212, 226, 206; tail, 61, 74, 60; hind foot,

32, 30, 30; ear, 5, 5, 5; basilar length, 33.0, 32.7,

31.7; zygomatic breadth, 23.1, 23.3, 20.9;

mastoidal breadth, 19.7, 19.7, 19.6; length of

nasals, 15.1, 12.6, 12.7; least interorbital breadth,

7.1, 6.6, 6.9; length of diastema, 12.9, 12.6, 11.2;

length of rostrum, 17.8, 15.4, 15.4; breadth of

MALACOLOGY Sheil

structure of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

West

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 4

rostrum, 8.6, 8.1, 8.2; palatilar length (exclusive

of palatal spine), 21.2, 21.0, 20.5.

Remarks.—Goldman (op. cit.) considers the

type locality of Tanner Crossing as about three

miles above Cameron. However, Barnes in his

Arizona place names (Univ. Arizona Bull. 6:

437. 1935) says this crossing of the Little Colorado

was near the Cameron bridge, and thus at

Cameron itself.

One specimen (no. 161183, U. 8. Biol. Surv.

Coll.) from Tuba City, Coconino County, Ariz.,

closely approaches specimens of latirostris from

near Cameron. Additional material from Tuba

City may indicate that specimens from there are

referable to T. b. latirostris.

Specimens examined.—Arizona: Coconino

County: 5 miles north of Cameron, 1 (Univ.

Illinois, Mus. Nat. Hist.); 415 miles north of

Cameron, 2 (Univ. Illinois, Mus. Nat. Hist.);

Little Colorado River, Painted Desert, 1 (type,

U.S. Biol. Surv. Coll.).

American Pelecypoda. JOHN J.

OBERLING,! University of California. (Communicated by Harald A. Rehder.)

(Received February 17, 1955)

From an examination of numerous speci-

mens from the major pelecypod families, it

appears that the shells are composed of two

types of deposits. One is secreted by the gen-

eral surface of the mantle and is here termed

palliostracum; the other is secreted over the

muscle attachment areas and is here termed

myostracum.

The palliostracum is composed, in addi-

tion to the periostracum, of three major lay-

ers, the ectostracum, mesostracum, and

endostracum (Fig. 1). The ectostracum

forms the outer surface of the shell, includ-

ing the margins. The mesostracum emerges

on the inner surface outside the pallial line

1 Contribution from Museum of Paleontology,

University of California.

The writer gratefully acknowledges advice

and criticism from J. Wyatt Durham, R. L.

Langenheim, Jr., and Howel, Williams. He is also

grateful for help and advice from Zach Arnold

in many technical and other problems, and from

W.K. Emerson in bibliographic and other matters.

Dr. Durham kindly made available the vast col-

lections of the Museum of Paleontology of the

University of California at Berkeley. Miss Joan

Sischo drafted the drawings. Grateful acknowledg-

ment is made to the California Research Corpora-

tion for financial support of these investigations.

and includes the hinge. The endostracum

forms the inner surface within the pallial

line. A seemingly two-layered shell may re-

sult from combination of the outer two

(mesectostracum) or inner two (mesendo-

stracum) major layers. Sometimes all three

layers are structurally identical, as in Lyro-

pecten.

The myostracum is divisible into several

components, the most important of which

are: the pallial myostracum, a thin deposit

secreted at the pallial lime and the adductor

myostraca, similar deposits secreted in the

scars of the adductor muscles. Additional

myostracal deposits are formed in the scars

of lesser muscles, such as the retractor pedis.

The terms hypostracum and ostracum,

hitherto employed in the nomenclature of

the shell layers of pelecypods, have been

discarded, for they refer to a “two-layered

shell.”” Moreover, although Thiele (1903),

the originator of the terms generally used

the term hypostracum for the ‘inner layer”

and ostracum for the “outer layer,” subse-

quent authors (Jameson, 1912; Coker et al.,

Aprit 1955 OBERLING: WEST

1919; Gutsell, 1930; Newell, 1937) have

used these terms with different connotations,

usually referrmg the hypostracum to the

adductor myostracum, so that the status of

the terms is now very uncertain.

The pelecypods examined may be ar-

ranged into three major groups according to

shell structure. These groups are:

1. The nacroprismatic group. Primitive pele-

eypods typically with a nacreous mesendostracum

and a prismatic ectostracum.

2. The foliated group. Pelecypods typically

with one or more foliated layers.

3. The complex-lamellar group. Pelecypods

typically with a complex endostracum and a

crossed-lamellar mesectostracum.

The nacroprismatic group includes the

anisomyarians (except the Dreissenidae),

the Nuculacea, Unionacea, Trigoniidae.

Periplomatidae, Pandoridae and Lyonsiidae.

The foliated group includes the monomyari-

ans. The complex-lamellar group includes

adductor

scar

pallial

adductor myostracum

pallial

myostracum

Fie. 1.—a, Longitudinal section and inner sur-

face of a pelecypod valve showing positional rela-

tionship of palJiostracal layers to each other, as

well as to the pallial line and adductor scar; b,

longitudinal and oblique sections and inner sur-

face of a pelecypod valve showing pallial and

adductor myostraca. Palliostracum stippled. (In

this figure and in Fig. 2, Ke = ectostracum;

En = endostracum; Me = mesostracum; Pe =

periostracum. )

AMERICAN PELECYPODA

129

the heterodonts, the Arcacea and the Dreis-

senidae.

The structure of the various families and

genera in each group may show various

modifications from the typical structure of

the group.

The shells of certain pelecypods are mark-

edly tubulate. The distribution of the tubules

and at times their general aspect and density

vary greatly between families or super-

families but are generally relatively constant

within such groups.

The distribution of the tubules in some

families of pelecypods follows (Fig. 2):

Tubules in the endostracum only—Chamidae,

Lucinidae, most Mytilidae.

Tubules in the endostracum and mesostracum

—Carditidae, Lyonsidae.

Tubules apparently

layers—Spondylidae.

Tubules originating only in the area sur-

rounded by the pallial line but penetrating all

three layers—Arcacea.

present in all three

In the first three cases the tubules must

have originated at the same time as the sur-

rounding shell substance, while in the last

case the portion of the tubules within the

mesectostracum was formed, probably by

resorption, after deposition of the surround-

ing shell substance. The tubules formed to-

gether with the shell substance are more or

less perpendicular to the growth planes in

that substance. Tubules resulting from

resorbtion do not, however, show a constant

relationship to the growth planes, but tend

to be perpendicular to the base of the layer

or set of layers into which they have been

intruded.

Tubules have been observed in association

with all types of shell structures except the

granular and homogeneous. The prismatic

structure seems to be the only one where

there is a regular relationship between the

position of the tubules and the structural

elements. In some forms, the tubules occur

mostly between the prisms, in others within

the prisms, but they have never been ob-

served to occur at random both within and

without these structural elements.

The structural elements in the pelecypod

shell may be variously related positionally

to the shell surfaces and the growth lines.

150

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 4

Fig. 2.—a, Longitudinal section of a pelecypod valve, showing endostracal tubules; b, same as above,

showing mesendostracal tubules; c, distribution of tubules as in b, showing in detail the tubulation pat-

tern in the apical region; d, longitudinal section of the apical region, tubules occurring in all three layers;

e, longitudinal section through the whole valve, showing tubules occurring in all three layers; f, longi-

tudinal section of a pelecypod, tubules in all three layers but appearing only within pallial line.

They may be vertical (perpendicular to the

outer surface), horizontal, or oblique in all

possible directions, or they may even be spi-

rally arranged like the fola in many foliated

peleecypods. In the pectinids, for example,

where most genera show some degree of

spiraling of the folia, the spirals are twisted

clockwise 1n some genera, counterclockwise

in others.

The classification of ribbing and related

structures employed here is based in part on

morphology and in part on genesis, and is

as follows:

1. Nonadditive ribbing, produced by de-

formations of the mantle margin, either plications

or lobations, or both.

2. Additive ribbing, featuring mainly rela-

tively rapid secretion on limited areas of the shell.

3. Composite ribbing, formed by components

of both the previous types, with a non-additive

framework on which are secreted additive

structures, whose position is directly related to

and in most cases apparently determined by that

of the nonadditive components.

LITERATURE CITED

Coker, R. E., nv au. Natural history and propaga-

tion of fresh-water mussels. Bull. U. S. Bur.

Fish. 37: 79-117. 1919.

GutsELL, J. E. Natural history of the bay scallop.

Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 46: 569-632. 1930.

Jameson, H. L. The Ceylon pearl oyster. Proc.

Zool. Soc. London 1912: 260-356.

Newe.., N. D. Late Paleozoic pelecypods: Pecti-

nacea. State Geol. Surv. Kansas 10, pt. 1:

1-123, 20 pls. 1937.

THIELE, J. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Mollusken.

IT: Uber die Molluskenschale. Zeitschr. fiir

Wiss. Zool. 55: 220-251, 2 pls. 1898.

ApriIL 1955 PROCEEDINGS:

PROCEEDINGS OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

At the meeting of the Philosophical So-

ciety held in the auditorium of the Cosmos

Club on May 7, 1954, the following paper

was read by Dr. H. L. Curtis:

Mr. President, members of the Philosophical

Society of Washington, and guests:

It gives me pleasure to present to you a paper,

requested by the Communications Committee, on

the development in Washington of a sub species

of the genus, ““Homo sapiens scientifica,’ the

members of which no longer adorn themselves by

wearing “tails”. This metamorphosis has taken

place in the last few generations of scientists:

in fact I believe it has largely taken place during

my membership in the Society.

This is not the first time that there has been a

decided change in the physical appearance of the

men whom this Society has honored by choosing

them for its presidents. If you will consult the

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

for August 1930 you will find the pictures of most

of the Presidents from Joseph Henry, 1871, to

W. D. Lambert, 1930. You will notice that the

early presidents wore, for the most part, full

beards. Then came a short time when a president

had a choice concerning his beard. But soon it

was not customary to have even a vestige of

hirsute adornment.

But to go back to the tails. When I joined the

Society mm 1908 all possible formalities were

strictly observed. At the opening of this address,

the president and I tried to give you a sample of

the proper behavior at the introduction of a

speaker at that time. At every meeting, the

presiding officer and each speaker wore formal

dress, which at that time consisted of a stiff

front, white shirt with studs, a white bow tie and

a broadcloth coat with tails. Shoes optional, but

patent leather with buttons preferred. Also those

members who were generally recognized as the

intellectual giants of the Society usually came to

the meetings, then held in the Dolly Madison

house, in formal dress and occupied large chairs,

fully upholstered in leather, which formed the

first two rows of seats (eight chairs). Younger

members, in business dress, occupied ordinary

chairs behind the Giants. I remember only one

outstanding paper of my first year. It was by

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

ACADEMY

131

AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Simon Newcomb on the composition of the polar

caps on Mars. He assured the audience that they

must consist of carbon dioxide snow, an hypoth-

esis which is not now universally accepted. I

also have two other reasons for remembering

Simon Newcomb. He signed in 1909 my certificate

of membership in this Society; a scroll about the

size of a high school diploma which I have seen

recently, but which is now hiding among the

accumulation of 50 years of mementos. He died

while President of the Society a few months after

T had been admitted.

Incidentally I learned by the gossip of that

day that Newcomb’s death relieved the Society

of an embarrassment. Some years before Mr.

Wead of the Patent Office was elected fifth vice-

president. He was gradually promoted along the

vice-presidential row where he performed his

duties very acceptably. But to be President of

his honorable Society, in which office he would be

expected to deliver a presidential address covering

some of his contributions to science, that was an

office according to some Society members which

should be reserved for learned men; and such

men were not available in the Patent Office.

He was first vice-president when Newcomb died,

so according to the by-laws became president.

Since this was an act of God, and not of the

Society, all cause for friction was swept away. I

remember something of his address which is

more than I can say of many presidential ad-

dresses.

In order of proceeding at a regular meeting

was, in 1909, much as it is now. First was the

reading of the minutes of the last meeting and

their correction. In 1909, and for a short time

thereafter, they were written in long-hand in a

permanently bound medium-sized notebook.

Particular attention was given to the discussions.

I have been told that some members insisted on

this detail because they might want to use the

facts revealed in the discussion to establish

priority claims in patent litigation. Following the

regular program, an opportunity was given for

informal communications, provided there was

time before the adjournment hour of 10 p.m.

But the real social event of each year was the

annual meeting for the reading of reports and

election of officers. Then everyone who could

make the grade appeared in tails. Discretion was

132

thrown to the winds. Whereas in regular meetings

smoking was frowned upon, at the annual meeting

cigars were provided. No nominations for the

various offices were made. The ballots were cast,

and, while the tellers were counting the votes, the

members smoked and visited. Almost always

several ballots were required for electing a

president. Usually it was a “free for all’ ’til

someone got a majority. After that, voting

produced results more rapidly. But there were

elected five vice-presidents, two secretaries, a

treasurer and several members-at-large of the

General Committee, so adjournment was seldom

much before the 10 o’clock dead-line.

Before going to more recent changes, I wish to

mention a custom which goes back to the very

early days of the Society. That custom is that the

presiding officer shall address the speaker only

as Mr. “So & So,” using no titles. This custom,

according to tradition, was started by General

Sherman, an active member in the early days,

who was of the opinion that discussion of scien-

tific subjects would proceed more freely if each

participant was not reminded of his rank in the

mundane world. I have found this a very useful

custom. I have often wondered how this will be

modified when our lady members present papers.

About 1910, the Cosmos Club started a build-

ing program which temporarily required a new

meeting place. I recall that at one time the

meetings were held at the Auditorium of the

Carnegie Institution Building at P Street and

Connecticut Avenue. Under these conditions

and with the impact of World War I, formalities

were appreciably relaxed. About this time the

tuxedo made its appearance and soon became

very popular. A tuxedo is defined in one dic-

tionary as ‘‘a tailless diner jacket.” Of course,

there was an interval when the presiding officer

could wear tails or be tailless. But long before

World War II, tails had vanished from the

scientific world of Washington. But the tuxedo

still persists.

The change in dress of the speakers has pro-

ceeded more rapidly—by World War IT it was

not unusual for a speaker to appear in a business

suit. Now it is almost universal.

Another change in dress has occurred in con-

nection with the dinners given in honor of the

speaker at the Joseph Henry Lecture. At first,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. +

these dinners were very formal. Those invited

included only officers and past presidents. At the

first dinner in 1931 I think there was no outfit

lower than a tux. Of course these were worn at

the meeting which followed, lending a more

formal appearance to the audience than at

regular meetings. This custom was continued for

some time. During World War II the past

presidents were, for good reason, dropped from

the invitation lists. This year they were again

included, but evidently the moths had played

havoe with the tuxedos of the past presidents.

But if you are a prospective president, you better

be making arrangements with a renting agency,

though a clause in your contract should cover the

case of changing styles. Tails may come back.

Another innovation in my day has been the

serving of refreshments after meetings. In 1908

there was little sociability among members.

As soon as 10 p.m. arrived, everyone filed

demurely out of the room, often without a

ereeting to anyone. Then someone suggested that

light refreshments might aid in getting members

acquainted. At first they were served only once a

month, or once every two months. The improve-

ment in attendance soon convinced the officers

that refreshments at every meeting are desir-

able.

My assignment covered only the non-scientific

features of the Philosophical Society. Un-

fortunately, I could find very little source ma-

terial, so that I have had to depend largely on

my memory. I have checked with some of the

older members, and have retained only that

which is generally acceptable.

One fact that came to me quite unexpectedly

while preparing this address was the length of my

membership in the Society. I have been a

member of the Philosophical Society of Wash-

ington for more than half of its existence. For a

few years after I joined the Society there was one

member, Past President W. H. Dall, of the

Smithsonian Institution, who was one of the

founders of the Society. I once talked with him

about the first meeting. It was in a reception room

of the Smithsonian Building. He was just one of

the boys invited to fill up the chairs.

My association with members of this Society

continues to be a source of inspiration to me and

a pleasure that is heightened with the years.

Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences

PASESBENES econo hore cle ee nA oaicl< Maraaret Pitrman, National Institutes of Health

Prestilent-Glects. ceo 55 oo ve emis ssa Se Raupuy HE. Gisson, Applied Physics Laboratory

NGGHOLEE Se hoe Fe roma Seem nae res Hernz Specut, National Institutes of Health

RTEUSUTER ows ws 6 5 5 Howarp S. Rappers, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired)

PALEMAUEST Se ci cree fesse ces eee Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station

Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications

Haraup A. Reuper, U. 8. National Museum

Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies:

Philosophical Society of Washington......................... Lawrence A. Woop

Anthropological Society of Washington......................

iBrelorical Society of Washington so: <. 2. ....5e2-s.s see sens HERBERT G. DIEGNAN

Chemical Society of Washington. ......................0008: Wiuiiam W. WaLToNn

Bntomological Society of Washington. ................-.6.eee eee e ees F. W. Poos

Naironal:Geopraphic socletymescaes sec sess se ates ese: ALEXANDER WETMORE

Geolortcalisociety of Washington: soccer ct «ces cicisn oe oe Epwin T. McKnicut

Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. Cog

SCalumbia Historical Society. ois. cc.s.02- 5 ose seeecisln orien yee ce GILBERT GROSVENOR

Barnes society of Washineton' ssc. cers os cease se wesc aes S. L. EMswe.ier

Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GrorcE F. Gravatt

Washington Society of Engineers....................... HERBERT Grove Dorsry

Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. Scorr

Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers........ ae 8. Dinu

Helminthological Society of Washington....................... JOHN 8S. ANDREWS

Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists.......Luoyp A. BURKEY

Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fiorp W. HoucH

Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................ H. G. Dorsry

District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons

District of Columbia Section, Society Experimental Biology and Medicine

W. C. Hess

Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............ Tuomas G. Dieess

Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research

Rosert M. STEPHAN

Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences....... F, N. FRENKIEL

District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society

Francis W. REICHELDERFER

Elected Members of the Board of Managers:

PICTUS EYL OOO s/t ce cece cic ee, 2 basa ec eee eee entave menue M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER

iho dinminain OGY Gecaanen ene Ee Soba e aome A. T. McPuHerson, A. B. GuRNEY

PROM UATE YL ODS slots ceye cera is a etree ec rs dw PCIE ove W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwALLEN

ROOT MNOTPINGNOGETS ). = 5. ace bc wee wes All the above officers plus the Senior Editor

INTORE! Di LIGCUDTS s So attites IGE BOGS ETC EO OCCT ETE eg ore eee ena e [See front cover]

WTLECULUVERCOMMILEE.. 5.6/5 vec ccd see eae es M. Pitrman (chairman), R. E. Grsson,

; H. Spsecut, H. 8S. Rappieye, J. R. SwALLEN

Committee on Membership. ...RogeR W. Curtis (chairman), JoHN W. ALDRICH, GEORGE

Anastos, Harotp T. Coox, JosppH J. Fanny, Francois N. FRENKIEL, PETER Kine,

Gorpon M. Kunz, Lous R. Maxwe.Lu, FLorEeNcsE M. Mears, Curtis W. SABROSKY,

BENJAMIN ScHWARTZ, Bancrort W. SITTERLY, WILLIE W. SmitH, HARRY WEXLER

Committee on Meetings...... ARNoLpD H. Scort (chairman), Harry §S. Bernton, Harry

R. Bortuwick, HerBert G. Dreignan, Wayne C. Haut, AtBert M. Stone

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PROMAAHUATY LOD = 2 e.<.nncs.. soca het tee shee G. ArtHur Cooper, James I. HorrmMan

ROMIANUARY MOD seen occ ase creer ens Harawp A. REHDER, WILLIAM A. DayTON

Mow ANUaTy 958). sos ok c.g accuse wees Dean B. Cowis, Josepy P. E. Morrison

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For Biological Sciences..... Sara E. BrRanHam (chairman), JoHNn S. ANDREWS,

JamMEsS M. Hunpter, R. A. St. Grores, Bernice G. Scousert, W. R. WEDEL

For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. Trent (chairman), Josep M. CALDWELL,

. Dit, T. J. Hicxiey, T. J. Kinyt1an, Gorpon W. McBrips, E. R. Priore

For Physical Sciences...... Bensamin L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonn,

Scotr E. ForsusH, Marcaret D. Foster, M. E. FREEMAN, J. K. Taytor

For Teaching of Science....Monror H. Martin (chairman), Kerr C. JOHNSON,

Lourse H. MarsHaty, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. OwENS

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francis 0. Rice (chairman),

HERMAN Branson, CHARLES K. TRUEBLOOD

Committee on Policy and Planning...................... E. C. CrittenDEN (chairman)

Mowanuanyel O56m nee er eee E. C. CrittenpEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE

PROP AMUAT ALO esas tes sv acten sl crore eacierseaisans oe Joun E. Grar, Raymonp J. SEEGER

sLoranusryglO58\cn ee see ae Francis M. Deranporr, FRANK M. SErzLer

Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent..ARcHIBALD T. McPHERSON (chairman)

PLOW ANU Atv) QO Se fee ec rly aes, dares ease Harotp E. Finuey, J. H. McMILuen

PROP RAT UAT VOD (hore sects cede shee eae tees out anes L. Epwin Yocum, WiLi1amM J. YOUDEN

Mophanwanye O58. siete eet en ae ee ane: A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap

Committee on Science Education. ...RaAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), RoNaLD BAMFORD,

R. Percy Barns, Watuace R. Bropt, LEonarp CarRmIcHaEL, Huey L. Dryprn,

REGINA FLANNERY, Rap FE. Grson, Fioyp W. Hove, Martin A. Mason,

GerorceE D. Rock, Wrrttas W. RuBEy, Wituram H. SEBRELL, Watpo L. Scumirr,

. VAN EveEra, Wiutram E. WRATHER, Francis E. JOHNSTON

Representative on Gi of CAR AREAS Si Ei Siete au N eyaitl U0s Watson Davis

Committee of Auditors...FRancis E. Jonnston, (chairman), S. Dz. ‘CoLuins, W. C. Hess

Committee of Tellers.. -Raupu P. TivTs.eR (chairman), pecs Hampp, J. G. Tompson

CONTENTS

ToxicoLocy.—Observations on toxic marine algae. Rosrert C. Hase-

Kost, IAN M. Fraser, and Brucr W. HALSTEAD............-..--

BIocHEMIsTRY.—Bactericidal activity of ozonized olefins. J. V. Kara-

BINOS: And ED. UPERLIN 232i ccs deanna ya he vvaleve aig oles elelle ee eee

PALEONTOLOGY.—A new species of mylagaulid from the Chalk Cliffs local

fauna, Montana. Maucoum C. McKENNA....................-.

Borany.—Studies in the Begoniaceae, IV. Lyman B. Smita and

BERNICE GA SCHUBERT 6 .5/Go0 oc) eieri sor ites cbc Slane «se eei ee ne ee

Mycotocy.—A. small Conidiobolus with globose and with elongated

secondary conidia. CHARLES DRECHSLER...............-2..2..05.

ZooLocy.—New species of polychaete worms of the family Polynoidae

from the east coast of North America. Marian H. PETTIBONE.. .

Mammatocy.—Descriptions of pocket gophers (Thomomys bottae) from

northeastern Arizona. Donaup F. HOFFMBISTER..............

Mauacotocy.—shell structure of West American Pelecypoda. Joun

JOOBEREING ha oy. Bice ne eee tet nie ees ae aneee cath ch

PROCEEDINGS) LHInOSOPHICAT | SOCLED Yanni iieiiaiie serie a eee

Page

101

103

107

110

114

118 |.

126

VoL, 45 May 1955 No. 5

JOURNAL

OF THE

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PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY

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ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY

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VoL. 45

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134

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 5

BIOCHEMISTRY .—The influence of intramuscular and oral cortisone and hydro-

cortisone on liver glycogen formation by DL alanine.. W. C. Hess and I. P.

SHAFFRAN, Georgetown University School of Medicine.

(Received February 18, 1955)

The intramuscular administration of both

cortisone and hydrocortisone produces liver

glycogen formation in the fasting rat.2 The

effect upon liver glycogen production of the

oral administration of these two compounds

has not been investigated. Clinically Boland’

has shown that hydrocortisone is substan-

tially more effective than cortisone acetate

when the compounds were given by mouth

in similar milligram doses. The glycogen

formed is considered to have its origin in the

carbon chains of the glycogenic amino acids

derived from protein.4 Studies from this

laboratory’: © have shown that, while the

amino acids glycine and alanine are both

excellent liver glycogen precursors, intramus-

cular cortisone produces no extra liver

glycogen from glycine but does stimulate

extra liver glycogen production from alanine.

This paper presents data on the formation of

liver glycogen following the oral and the

intramuscular administration of cortisone

and hydrocortisone acetates and also their

effect upon liver glycogen formation by

alanine.

EXPERIMENTAL

Cortisone acetate and hydrocortisone

acetate in saline suspensions were given

intramuscularly and by stomach tube to

white rats previously fasted for 24 hours.

The rats weighed uniformly between 125

and 150 g, and 5 mg of each steroid were

used in single doses. The animals were sacri-

ficed at varying times after the administra-

tion, the livers rapidly removed, and glyco-

gen determined immediately by the method

1 This study was aided by a grant from the

Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry of the

American Medical Association.

2 Paspst, M. L., SHepparp, R. 8., and Kur-

zZENGA, M.H. Endocrin. 41: 55, 1947.

3 Bouannp, E. W. California Med. 77: 1. 1952.

‘Lone, C. N. R., Karzin, B., and Fry, E.

Endocrin. 26: 309. 1940.

> Hess, W. C., and SuHarrran, I. P. Proc.

Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med. 83: 804. 1953.

6 Hess, W. C., and SHarrran, I. P. Ibid.

86: 287. 1954.

of Good, Kramer, and Somogyi.’ The results

are given in Table 1; from 4 to 6 rats were

used for each time period.

TABLE 1.—PeErcent Liver GiycoGEN PRODUCED

BY 5 MG DosgEs OF CORTISONE AND

HypRrocortTIsONE ACETATES

Time Cortisone Hydrocortisone

(hrs.)

Oral LM. Oral IM.

2 0.15 0.22 0.45 0.10

4 0.42 1.80 0.75 0.38

6 0.95 1.65 2.50 0.65

12 1.78 1.80 3.70 3.00

16 1.80 2.40 3.40 2.52

24 1.10 1.90 1.50 3.80

32 3.80

40 4.00 3.42

48 3.75 3.58

The maximum amount of liver glycogen is

formed from DL alanine 6 hours after its

administration.® It was found previously

that, if the DL alanine was fed 18 hours

after intramuscular cortisone acetate and

the animals sacrificed at 24 hours, that the

24-hour period of action for the cortisone

acetate and the 6-hour period for the DL

alanine produced a substantial increase in

liver glycogen content over the additive

effect of the separate administration of the

two compounds. The same plan of admin-

istration was used to study the effects of the

oral administration of cortisone and hydro-

cortisone acetates, and the intramuscular

administration of hydrocortisone acetate.

In each instance 450 mg of DL alanine, in

aqueous solution, was given by stomach tube

6 hours before the animal was sacrificed. The

steroid was given previously so that the peak

glycogenic activities of the two compounds

were approached at the time of sacrifice. The

results are given in Table 2; from 4 to 6 rats

were used for each time period.

7Goop, C. A., Kramer, H., and Somoeyt,

M. J. Journ. Biol. Chem. 100: 485. 1935.

May 1955 SOHNS:

TasBLeE 2—Errect oF STEROIDS UPON EXTRA

Liver GuyrcoGEN Propuction By DL ALANINE

2 g i 2

Alanine

Alanine | Steroid | Change

steroid

Percent | Percent | Percent |

Cortisone, I.M. i 3.33 1.9 | +2.1

24 hours |

Cortisone, Oral 6 42 3583 10 —().1.

hours

Hydrocort., I.M. SI SRone| e2g0

16 hours

Hydrocort., Oral 5.

6 hours

oo)

3.3 2.9 0.0

Column 4 is the difference between column 1

and the sum of columns 2 and 3.

DISCUSSION

Both cortisone and hydrocortisone ace-

tates, given orally, stimulated glycogen pro-

duction in the livers of fasting rats. Hydro-

cortisone acetate was more effective than

cortisone acetate, working more rapidly and

producing more glycogen. Peak production,

however, was reached at the same time,

between 12 and 16 hours, for both com-

pounds. When given intramuscularly corti-

sone acetate produced liver glycogen more

rapidly than hydrocortisone acetate for the

first 6 hours and then hydrocortisone acetate

became more effective. A dip in glycogen

production occurs at 16 hours for hydrocorti-

sone acetate and at 24 hours for cortisone

acetate, followed by a rise. Both compounds

are about equally effective at 48 hours.

One series of experiments was run with

FASCICLE

MORPHOLOGY 135

2.5 mg oral doses of hydrocortisone acetate,

this was almost as effective as the 5.0 mg

dose at the end of 12 hours when 3.6 percent

glycogen was formed, but at the end of 16

and 24 hours the values were 1.1 and 1.2 per-

cent, respectively.

The only effect upon liver glycogen pro-

duction by DL alanine was induced by the

intramuscular cortisone acetate. Since only

one of the four series of experiments showed

any stimulation of liver glycogen formation

it becomes increasingly doubtful that the

liver glycogen produced by the steroids in

the fasting animals comes from amino acids,

unless the amino acids released from tissue

protein breakdown behave differently from

those fed. This phase of the problem is now

under investigation using isotopic labeled

amino acids and proteins.

SUMMARY

1. Cortisone and hydrocortisone acetates

were administered to fasting white rats

intramuscularly and orally and liver glyco-

gen was determined. Hydrocortisone ace-

tate, orally, produced more liver glycogen

more rapidly than did cortisone acetate.

Intramuscularly cortisone acetate acted

more rapidly than did hydrocortisone acetate

for the first 6 hours and then hydrocortisone

acetate was more effective.

2. Cortisone acetate, given intramuscu-

larly, stimulated the production of extra

liver glycogen when DL alanine was fed.

Oral cortisone acetate, oral and intramuscu-

lar hydrocortisone acetate had no such

effect.

BOTANY .—Cenchrus and Pennisetum: Fascicle morphology. ERNEST R. SouNs,

U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by Agnes Chase.)

(Received February 14, 1955)

The grass genera Cenchrus and Pennise-

tum have clusters of spikelets that are

grouped into fascicles, two florets in each

1 Based on part of a thesis, The floral morphology

of Cenchrus, Pennisetum, Setaria, and Ixophorus,

submitted to the faculty of the Graduate School

of Indiana University in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy.

The writer is grateful to Dr. Paul Weatherwax

for guidance and helpful suggestions throughout

the investigation.

spikelet, the lower floret staminate or abor-

tive, the upper floret fertile, and the spikelets

surrounded by bristles in varying degrees of

fusion. The similarity of the fascicles in

several species of Cenchrus and Pennisetum

makes it difficult to separate the genera in

taxonomic keys. Some species have been

referred first to one genus and then to the

other. (Cf. Ewart and Davies, 1917; Hackel,

1887; Hitchcock, 1936, 1951; Stapf, 1917).

136

This morphological study was undertaken

to determine the organization of the fascicles

of these two genera. This paper concerns the

fascicles of eight species of Cenchrus and six

species of Pennisetum.

Literature review.—Goebel (1884) studied two

species of Cenchrus (C. echinatus and C. spinifex)

and concluded that the involucre was formed by

the coalescence of two branch systems. On the

adaxial face of the fascicle the two branch

systems do not coalesce. According to Goebel,

the involucre resulted from the formation of

wall-like proliferations between the bristles so

that, at a later stage, the bristles of the involucre

appear to originate from the wall surrounding the

spikelet. Bristles which occur later on the “wall”

of the involucre, Goebel asserted, might be con-

sidered ‘‘emergencies.”” He considered these to

have arisen by branching, their mode of origin

having been obscured by early coalescence of

the “individual bristle generations.’’ He stated

that the lateral “shoots” of a primary branch

may be abortive and form spines instead of a

spikelet and that shoots (Sprossungen) destined

to be spines may form spikelets. He believed that

the series Setaria-Pennisetum-Cenchrus constitute

an evolutionary sequence and ‘Cenchrus’

originated from a form which possessed a Setaria-

like involucre.”’ Chase (1920) agrees with Goebel’s

interpretation of the bur, but stated that she

used the term without morphological significance

in her revision of the genus.

According to Bews (1929), the involucre is

composed of sterile branchlets, and the term

involucre is probably not the most suitable one.

He suggested that genera having involucres might

be arranged in a sequence, based on the degree of

involucral complexity, beginning with the genus

Anthephora, in which there is an involucre formed

of first glumes, through Odontelytrum, Setaria,

Pennisetum, and other genera, culminating in the

genus Cenchrus.

Arber (1931) examined three species of

Cenchrus (C. echinatus, C. inflecus [C. inflexus

R. Br., 1810, not Poir. 1804 = C. brownit Roem.

& Schult.] and C. myosuroides). She regarded the

bristles of Cenchrus, Pennisetum and Setaria as

simple structures, mostly with one vascular

bundle, and concluded that they are more like

stems than leaves because an occasional bristle

may terminate with an abortive spikelet. She

agreed with Goebel’s interpretation of the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 5

involucre of Cenchrus and attributed the absence

of the first glume and lodicules to the pressure

of the concentric involucre.

Arber (1931) examined six species of Pennisetum

(P. macrostachyum, P. macrourum, P. ciliare, P.

unisetum, P. nubicum and P. petiolare). The last

three species have only one bristle in each

fascicle. The long bristle was regarded as a

continuation of the fascicle axis. The fused

bristles of P. ciliare are believed to foreshadow

the involucre of Cenchrus. She concluded that a

generalized scheme for the fascicles of Setaria

and Pennisetum is not feasible and that each

ultimate bristle-shoot is equivalent to a spikelet.

The association of bristles with spikelets in

Pennisetum and Cenchrus represents sterilization

according to Arber (1934). The conclusion that

each ultimate bristle-shoot is the equivalent of a

spikelet was reiterated.

Materials and method.—These species were

grown in the greenhouse and garden at Indiana

University during 1946-1949. Specimens are

deposited in the Herbarium of Indiana Uni-

versity.

Inflorescences, fascicles and spikelets were

collected and processed by standard methods in

microtechnique. Serial sections, cut at 15 microns,

were stained with safranin and fast green.

Drawings were prepared with the aid of a camera

lucida.

Cenchrus incertus, Pennisetum alopecuroides

and P. purpureum were collected by the writer.

Mr. W. M. Buswell, University of Miami,

provided seeds of C. gracillimus and Mr. G. E.

Ritchey, Gainesville, Florida, supplied plants of

P. ciliare. Seeds of all other species were obtained

from the collection of Dr. Paul Weatherwax.

Agnes Chase, Smithsonian Institution, identified

C. setigerus.

I. Cencurus L.

Discussion —A diagrammatic, medium longi-

section of a fascicle (bur) is shown in Fig. 1.

This diagram shows three spikelets, each with

two florets, and the surrounding involucre. This

generalized version of the bur may be applied

to the species of Cenchrus included here except

C. myosuroides, whose fascicle has only one

spikelet.

Diagrammatic transsections, drawn from serial

sections of a fascicle (bur) of Cenchrus echinatus

at successively higher levels, are shown in Fig.

May 1955 SOHNS: FASCICLE MORPHOLOGY 137

vas bdl.

bri

vas bdl_

5---

pigesenne nea vasbdlspk

Beroce el Lith Sos fo ee in

}_vosbdibri = —t~*«C ME GEES 2 ff fe-ee---- vas bdlbri

eonese R

Ben de is

eee vdsbdlspk

Fics. 1-10.—1, Diagrammatic median longisection of a typical fascicle of Cenchrus with the various

structures of the central spikelet labeled; 2-4, diagrammatic transsections of the rachis and fascicle of

C. echinatus; 5-8, diagrammatic transsections of the rachis and fascicle of C. myosuroides; 9, diagram-

matic representation of the vascularization of a typical fascicle of Cenchrus; 10, diagrammatic represen-

tation of the vascularization of the fascicle C. myosuroides. bl—blade; bri—bristle; d z—‘‘demarcation

zone”’; fa—fascicle; fi—filament; gyn—gynoecium; 1 gl—first glume; 2 gl—second glume; in—involucre;

1 Je—lemma of lower floret; 2 le—lemma of upper floret; L—left vascular bundle; pa—palea; p:—pistil;

R—right vascular bundle; ra—rachis; sta—stamen; vas bdl—vascular bundle; vas bdl bri—vascular

bundle of the bristle; vas bdl spk—vascular bundle of the spikelet. Figs. 1, 9, and 10, diagrammatic and

not drawn to scale; 2-7, ca. X 25.

138

2-4. In Fig. 2, a diagrammatic transsection of

the rachis (ra) and a blade (bl) is shown. The

vascular bundles (vas bdl) of the rachis and the

fascicle (vas bdl fa) are indicated. In Fig. 3, the

three vascular bundles of the spikelets are indi-

cated as 1, 2 and 3. A demarcation occurs between

the involucral wall and the base of the three

spikelets, indicated in the figure as d z. The

small dots in the periphery of the fascicle repre-

sent vascular bundles which may be traced to

the bristles. These same vascular bundles extend

downward and join the vascular supplies to the

spikelets. The bases of the three spikelets of the

fascicle, with various floral parts labeled, are

shown in Fig. 4. The involucral wall is divided

into two halves (left and right) with a few

separate bristles (bri) around the margin. The

involucral wall separates on the adaxial and

abaxial sides opposite the keels of the glumes of

the central spikelet. Pressure exerted by the

expanding central spikelet may influence the

separation of the involucre into two parts.

Contact between the fascicle and the rachis

provides additional pressure on the adaxial face,

especially before the inflorescence is exserted

from the sheath. The left and right halves of the

involucre, at this level, suggest that the fascicle of

Cenchrus is composed of a two-branch system.

This is misleading because the vascular supplies

of the bristles appear as individual vascular

bundles, concentrically, over a short vertical

distance on the axis of the vascular supply for

the fascicle. (Fig. 9, a diagram of the vasculariza-

tion of the fascicle of this species, indicates the

relationship of the vascular tissues of the spikelets

and bristles). The involucre does not represent

the coalescence of a two-branch system as here-

tofore thought, but is the result of the lateral

fusion of many sterile branches of approximately

equal rank. None of these branches may be

assigned to a “left” or a “right”? branch system.

This interpretation applies to C. gracillimus Nash,

C. incertus M. A. Curtis, C. pauciflorus Benth.,

C. pilosus H. B. K., C. setigerus Vahl, and C.

brown.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 5

The spikelets are 2-flowered, the lower stami-

nate or abortive and the upper perfect. Oec-

casionally the first glume may be absent in one

of the lateral spikelets. Lodicules were not found

in the florets of the species of Cenchrus studied.

Cenchrus myosuroides H.B.K. represents what

appears at first to be a deviation from the usual

involucral pattern in Cenchrus. Nash (1903)

thought that C. myosuroides should be segregated

as a distinct genus. Diagrammatic transsections

of a fascicle of this species are shown in Figs. 5-8.

Fig. 5represents the rachis and base of the fascicle.

In Fig. 6, the areas designated “L” and “R” rep-

resent lateral vascular bundles, but the fascicle

contains only one spikelet. The presence of

lateral vascular bundles, which terminate

blindly, suggests that the lateral spikelets are

suppressed. In Fig. 7, the involucral wall, with

its numerous vascular bundles, surrounds the

single spikelet. The involucral wall, like that of

other species of Cenchrus, is divided into a left

and right half. The separation of the involucral

wall occurs adaxially on the rachis side as well

as abaxially opposite the median nerve of the

first glume (7 gl). At the level of Fig. 8, the bases

of the involucral bristles and the base of a new

fascicle on the lower left are shown. Fig. 10

is a diagram of the vascularization of the fascicle

of C. myosuroides. The spikelet is 2-flowered; the

lower staminate or abortive and the upper

perfect.

Summary (Cenchrus).—Fascicle organization

in these species is uniform. The vascular bundles

of the bristles, surrounded by a large amount of

parenchymatous tissue at the base, may be

traced to the axis of the vascular supply of the

spikelets, all merging concentrically over a short

vertical distance. The separation of the involucre

into two halves, i.e., with the appearance of the

ad- and abaxial clefts and subsequent upward

separation into individual bristles suggests a

“two-branch” vascular system. The expression

“two-branch” vascular system means one in

which a vascular branch originates on each side

Fires. 11-31.—11-15, Diagrammatic transsections of a fascicle of P. glawcwm; 16, diagrammatic repre-

sentation of the vascularization of the fascicle of P. glawcum; 17-21, diagrammatic transsections of the

fascicle of P. alopecwroides; 22-26, diagrammatic transsections of the fascicle of P. peruvianwm; 27-30,

diagrammatic trans-sections of rachis and fascicle of P. purpwrewm; 31, diagrammatic representation of

the vascularization of the fascicles of P. alopecuroides, P. peruvianum and P. purpureum. ab—abortive

spikelet ; an—anther; ax

axis of fascicle; bri—bristle; fi—filament; 1 gl—first glume; 2 gl—second glume;

gyn—gynoecium; in—involucre; L—left vascular bundle; 1 le -lemma of lower floret; 2 le—lemma of the

upper floret; lod—lodicule; pa—palea; par—parenchyma; R—right vascular bundle; rud—rudiments of

the lower floret; scl—selerenchyma; ss—sclerenchyma sheath; vas bdl—vascular bundle. Figs. 11-15, 17-—

30, ca. X 25; 16 and 31, diagrammatic and not drawn to scale.

May 1955 SOHNS: FASCICLE MORPHOLOGY 139

eo eee bri

Frias. 11-31.—(See opposite page for legend).

140

of a central vascular plexus; each of these vascular

branches may be traced to a group of bristles on

the left and right side of the fascicle, respectively.

The appearance of the ad- and abaxial clefts in the

bur, giving the fascicle a definite two-parted

appearance, is to be attributed primarily to the

pressure exerted by the expansion of the central

spikelet. The proximity of the fascicle to the

rachis, on the adaxial face, provides additional

pressure which may influence the appearance of

adaxial cleft, especially before the inflorescence

is exserted from the sheath.

The fascicle in these species contains from one

to five spikelets which terminate the axis; there

is no real axis terminus in the genus Cenchrus,

but the spikelets themselves are terminal in

an inflorescence whose axis has become shortened

and whose lateral branches have become sterile.

The bristles, which represent first-order branches

and their lateral members, have vascular supplies

which may be traced to the vascular axis of the

fascicle, joining the axis concentrically over a

short vertical distance; these belong neither to a

left nor to a right branch system. (Cf. Fig. 9

and 10). The relationship of the first-order

branches and their lateral members has become

obscured through a decrease in the length of the

fascicle axis and the appearance of a large amount

of parenchymatous tissue at the base of the

fascicle.

C. myosuroides has a one-spikelet fascicle. The

suppressed lateral spikelets are represented by

two lateral vascular bundles which terminate

blindly in the periphery of the fascicle. Otherwise

the organization of the fascicle of C. myosuroides

is like that of the other species of Cenchrus

included here.

Il. Pennisetum L. Ricw.

Discussion.—Four fascicle patterns are recog-

nizable in the six species of Pennisetum studied:

(1) P. glaucum, with fascicles having more than

one spikelet; (2) P. alopecuroides, P. peruvianum

and P. purpurewm have one-spikelet fascicles;

(3) P. ciliare and (4) P. clandestinum have

specialized fascicles.

P. glaucum (L.) R. Br. has 2 or 3 spikelets in

each fascicle. Figs. 11-15 represent diagrammatic

transsections of a fascicle of this species. Fig. 11

shows the bristles (bri) and the vascular bundles

(vas bdl) in the base of the fascicle. Fascicle

organization of this species differs from that of the

others studied in that, in addition to the fascicle

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 5

axis, each spikelet appears to have an axis

continuation of its own. These structures,

indicated in Figs. 11-15 by arrows, may be

axes subtending the spikelets. The fascicle axis

(ax), shown in Fig. 12, is not a component of the

involucral bristle system because the vascular

bundles for this structure are situated higher on

the axis of the vascular system than the vascular

bundles for the involucral bristles. The relation-

ship of the various parts of the fascicle is shown

in Figs. 13-15. In Fig. 13 an abortive spikelet

(ab spk) is shown. The lower florets in both

spikelets are abortive and the rudiment (rud) of

a lower floret is indicated. Fig. 16 is a diagram of

the vascularization of the fascicle of P. glaucum.

The vascular bundles of the spikelets (s) and

the axis (ax) are stippled. The vascular bundles

of the bristles are indicated by solid lines which

join the vascular system of the spikelets and axis.

The fascicles of P. alopecuroides (1.) Spreng.

usually have one spikelet. A series of trans-

sections is shown in Figs. 17-21. Fig. 17 shows

the base of the involucre (in). The bases of the

bristles (6rz) are shaded to represent sclerenchy-

matous (scl) tissue. The fascicle axis (ax), shown

in Fig. 18, is not a component of the involucral

bristle system. Figs. 19-21 show the relationship

of structures in the fascicle at successively higher

levels.

P. peruvianum Trin., another species with one-

spikelet fascicles, is shown in Figs. 22-26. The

pattern of the fascicle is similar to that of P.

alopecurotdes, i.e., acropetally on the axis of the

fascicle appear the bristle system of the involucre,

the axis continuation and the spikelets.

The diagrammatic transsections shown in

Figs. 27-30 represent selected levels through a

one-spikelet fascicle of P. purpurewm Schumach.

In Fig. 27, a transsection of the base of the

fascicle and rachis (ra) is shown. The position of

a sclerenchyma sheath (s s), which is present

from the base to the apex of the rachis, is shown

also. A left and right vascular branch (Z and R),

shown in the fascicle, may be traced downward

to the vascular supply of the central spikelet.

Each vascular branch (LZ and R) terminates

abruptly in the periphery of the fascicle. These

vascular branches (Z and R) suggest that the

lateral spikelets of the fascicle have been sup-

pressed. (Cf. Fig. 6 and 10 of Cenchrus myo-

suroides). The vascular supply of the long bristle

(ax), indicated in Fig. 28, appears higher on the

vascular axis of the fascicle than the vascular

Figs. 32-44.—32-36, Diagrammatic transsections of a fascicle of P. ciliare; 37, diagrammatic repre-

sentation of the vascularization of the fascicle of P. ciliare; 38-43, diagrammatic transsections of the

fascicle of P. clandestium; 44, diagrammatic representation of the vascularization of the fascicle of

P. clandestinum; an—anther; bri—bristle; fa—tfascicle; fi—filament; 1 gl—first glume; 2 g/—second

glume; gyn—gynoecium; in—involucre; 1 bri—left involucral brist!e system; 1 le—lemma of lower floret;

2 le—lemma of the upper floret ; pa—palea; ra—rachis; r bri—right involucral bristle system; s—spikelet ;

ss—sclerenchyma sheath; sti—stigma; vas bdl—vascular bundle; vas sup—vascular supply. Figs. 32-36,

38-48, ca. X 25; 37 and 44, diagrammatic and not drawn to scale.

141

142

supplies of the other bristles and is clearly not

part of the bristle system of the involucre. Fig.

31 is a diagram representing the vascularization

of the fascicle of P. alopecuroides, P. peruvianum

and P. purpurewm. The vascular bundles of the

spikelets (s), the fascicle axis (av) and the

involucral bristles (brz) are indicated. The

vascular supply of the axis continuation (az)

joins the vascular system of the spikelet higher

on the vascular axis than the vascular bundles of

the bristles. Fascicles of these three species have

one spikelet and a recognizable axis continuation

in the form of a long bristle.

P. ciliare (.) Link is a species which has an

involucre with bristles fused at the base to form a

distinct cup-like structure surrounding the

spikelets. One bristle of this system is longer and

larger than the others. Figs. 32-36 represent a

series of diagrammatic transsections through a

fascicle. Fig. 32 shows the rachis (ra) and fascicle

(fa) and a vascular bundle (vas bdl). The fascicle

has a single vascular bundle at this level which

may be traced downward to the vascular system

of the culm. The rachis of this species (and

of P. alopecuroides) has a sclerenchyma sheath

(s s) encasing the central portion of the rachis

from the base to the top.

In Figs. 33-34 the numerous vascular bundles

to the bristles are shown. The two vascular

bundles indicated by arrows in Fig. 33 may be

traced to the longest bristle in the fascicle. In this

species the long bristle, which is interpreted as

the fascicle axis, appears to be of equal rank

with the other bristles of the involucre. The

fascicle axis in the other five species of Pennisetum

is separate and distinct from the involucral

bristle system. The vascular supply of the

fascicle axis may be traced to an area above the

insertion of the vascular bundles of the involucral

bristles on the central vascular system. Fig. 35

and 36 show the organization of the fascicle and

the relationship of the large bristle (fascicle

axis) to the spikelets. Fig. 37 is a diagram repre-

senting the vascularization of the fascicle of this

species.

In P. clandestinum Hochst. ex Chiov. the

entire inflorescence is enclosed in the leaf sheaths

and is not exserted before or during anthesis.

The short inflorescence has from 4 to 6 spikelets,

each with two florets, all surrounded by leaf

sheaths; consequently the exsertion of anthers

and stigmas is apparently limited to the terminal

florets in the inflorescence. The filaments are

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 5

unusually thick and may elongate up to 2.5 em

during anthesis.

Figs. 38-42 represent diagrammatic trans-

sections through a fascicle (fa) and rachis (ra).

Fig. 38 shows the base of the fascicle (fa) with

the vascular bundle (vas bdl) of the spikelet

and the base of a bristle (br7) system on the right.

In Fig. 39, the base of a bristle (bri) system is

shown on the left. Figs. 40-43 show the relation-

ship of the spikelets and floral organs at suc-

cessively higher levels. Fig. 44 is a diagram repre-

senting the vascularization of the fascicle of this

species. A prominent bristle is not readily dis-

tinguishable in the left (1 bri) or right (7 bri)

bristle systems of the involucre.

Summary (Pennisetum).—Fascicles of these

species of Pennisetum have a sterile axis terminus

which is clearly recognizable as a long bristle

whose vascular bundle joins the vascular system

of the fascicle above that of the vascular bundles

of the involucral bristles and below that of the

spikelets on the vascular axis. Four fascicle

patterns were found in the six species of Pen-

nisetum studied. The fascicle of P. glaucum

represents those species which have more than

one spikelet per fascicle; P. alopecuroides, P.

peruvianum and P. purpureum have one spikelet

in each fascicle. P. ciliare has a fascicle in which

one of the znvolucral bristles is longer than the

others and is apparently of equal rank with the

other bristles in the involucre, but it may be

regarded as the axis of the fascicle. The vascular

bundle of this bristle appears at the same level

as the vascular bundles of the other bristles.

These vascular bundles, which may be traced

to the vascular axis of the fascicle, are slightly

larger than the vascular bundles which may be

traced to the involucral bristles. P. clandestinum

has an inflorescence which is entirely enclosed in

the concentric leaf sheaths and shows a high

degree of specialization, especially in the reduc-

tion of the number and size of the bristles and the

development of stamens whose filaments elongate

to bring the anthers out of the florets and sur-

rounding leaf sheaths.

There are three distinct “zones” on the

vascular axis of the fascicle: (1) the lowest, from

which diverge the vascular bundles of the

bristles, (2) the vascular supply of the long

bristle (axis continuation), and (3) the vascular

supplies of the spikelets.

Summary.—This paper is concerned with the

organization of the fascicles of eight species of

May 1955

Cenchrus and six species of Pennisetum. The

basic pattern of the fascicles of all species of

Cenchrus included here is similar.

The spikelets themselves are terminal in the

fascicles of Cenchrus, and the bristles represent

sterile first-order axes and their branches all

fused laterally, these at one time belonging to

an elongated inflorescence whose axis has be-

eome shortened and whose lateral branches have

become sterile.

C. myosuroides has a 1-flowered fascicle, but

possesses two lateral vascular bundles which

terminate blindly, suggesting that the fascicle

may have possessed three spikelets at one time.

The two-partedness of the involucres may be

attributed primarily to the enlargement of the

central spikelet and not, as heretofore main-

tained, to a “two-branch”’ system.

Four fascicle patterns were found in the six

species of Pennisetum. In five of these species the

axis of the fascicle is prolonged as a prominent

bristle which is interpreted as an axis continu-

ation. The fascicle of P. ciliare, with the bases of

the bristles fused laterally, resembles the fascicles

of Cenchrus, but the presence of the long bristle

(the fascicle axis) places the species in Pen-

nisetum. The highly modified inflorescence of

P. clandestinum, enclosed in leaf sheaths, shows

the influence of pressure on the involucre,

namely, that there is no clearly recognizable

long bristle, the bristles are separated into two

systems (left and right) and the bristles them-

selves are small and thin.

CLARK AND JONES:

TWO NEW NEPHTYS 143

The presence of the usually prolonged, sterile

axis of the fascicles of Pennisetum may be used to

separate this genus from Cenchrus, whose fascicle

axis is terminated by spikelets.

This study indicates the need for an analysis

of the fascicles of those species of Pennisetum

which have no recognizable fascicle axis (long

bristle).

LITERATURE CITED

ARBER, A. Studies in the Gramineae, X. Ann. Bot.

45: 401-420. 19381.

. The Gramineae: 186-194. London, 1934.

Brews, J. W. The world’s grasses: 16, 25, 81, 129-

130. New York, 1929.

Cuasr, A. North American species of Cenchrus.

Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 22: 209-234. 1920.

Ewart, A. J., and Davis, O. B. The flora of the

Northern Territory. [Australia]: 22-52. Mel-

bourne, 1917.

GoEBEL, K. Beitrdge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte

erniger Inflorescenzen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 14:

1-42. 1884.

Hitcucock, A. 8. The genera of the grasses of the

United States. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 772:

16, 253-258. 1936.

. Manual of the grasses of the United States

(2d edition, revised by Agnes Chase). U. 8.

Dept. Agr. Misc. Publ. 200: 24, 727, 730.

1951.

Nasu, G. V. (in) Satu, J. K. Flora of the South-

eastern United States: 51, 109. New York, 1903.

Souns, E. R. Floral morphology of Cenchrus,

Pennisetum, Setaria and Ixophorus. Thesis

(Ph.D.), Indiana University, 1949.

Srapr, O. (in) Flora of Tropical Africa. 9: 16.

(Edited by Sir David Prain.) London, 1917.

ZOOLOGY —Two new Nephtys (Annelida, Polychaeta) from San Francisco Bay.

R. B. Ciark and Merepirx L. Jones, University of California, Berkeley,

Calif. (Communicated by Paul L. Illg.)

(Received January 27, 1955)

The Nephtyidae of the Pacific coast of

North America have been described and re-

viewed by Hartman (1938, 1940, 1950).

However, the polychaetes of San Francisco

Bay have never been studied adequately,

and of three distinguishable Nephtys found

there two require some discussion. The

known species is Nephtys caecoides Hart-

man, the other two have been named as a

new species and subspecies respectively. The

types have been deposited in the U. 8. Na-

tional Museum.

Nephtys parva, n. sp.

Fig. 1, a-f

Description —Prostomium a blunt oval, longer

than broad and widest halfway along its length.

Anterior margin convex. The paired nuchal or-

gans are at the posterolateral margins of the

prostomium but cannot be detected when they

are inverted. Proboscis with 22 rows of subter-

minal papillae, six in a row, the proximal one or

two of which are very small. There is no median

unpaired papilla, and the proximal part of the

proboscis is smooth. Recurved branchiae from

144

the fourth segment to the seventh or eighth last

segment. In all parapodia where they occur, the

branchiae are comparatively short and stout and

their length rarely exceeds the distance between

the two rami of the parapodium; they are always

longer than the dorsal cirrus. Both the branchiae

and the interramal area are heavily ciliated. Para-

podia are with no, or very much reduced, pre-

acicular lobes. The notopodial postacicular lobes

are rounded. The neuropodial postacicular lobes

are also rounded except in the middle of the body

where they tend to become somewhat pointed.

Neither the pre- nor the postacicular lobes are

extensive on any segment. The acicular lobes are

rounded except in the posterior parapodia, where

they are pointed; in no case are they incised. The

preacicular chaetae are barred for the proximal

two-thirds of their length. The postacicular chae-

tae are all capillaries; those in the middle cf each

bundle are denticulate across the whole width of

ea)

B. 0.2mm.

0.2 mm.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, NO. 5

the blade and the teeth, which get smaller and

smaller extend to the tip of the capillary. No

furcate chaetae have been observed. Dorsal cirri

are well developed on all segments. Ventral are

a little smaller than the corresponding dorsal

cirri, except on the first segment, where the ven-

tral cirri are well developed and are slightly

longer than the posterior prostomial tentacles

and the dorsal cirri are reduced to small papillae.

Pigmentation —Most of the specimens are un-

pigmented, except for a small group of eyespots

appearing as a small patch of dark pigment in

the middle of the dorsal surface of the prosto-

mium, and a ring of eye spots encircling the py-

gidium. On the anterior part of the dorsum of the

third segment a pair of large eye spots can be

seen beneath the cuticle.

Size-—Seventeen specimens have been exam-

ined and the size, range and degree of develop-

ment is considerable. Obviously some of our

0.2 mm.

O.Imm.

Ee: (Fs

Fic. 1.—Nephtys parva, n. sp.: A, Dorsal view of the anterior end of the worm; B, parapodium from

the tenth segment; C, parapodium from the twenty-fifth segment; D, parapodium from the thirteenth

last segment; E, postacicular chaeta; F, preacicular chaeta.

May 1955

e e

-———\_—

0.5 mm.

0.2mm. C.

0.2mm. D.

CLARK AND JONES: TWO NEW NEPHTYS

145

0.2 mm.

0.05 mm.

E. F.

Fie. 2.—Nephtys cornuta franciscana, n. subsp.: A, Dorsal view of the anterior end of the worm; B,

parapodium from the tenth segment; C, parapodium from the thirtieth segment; D, parapodium from

the sixth last segment; E, postacicular chaeta; F, preacicular chaeta.

specimens are juvenile, since the smallest is 1.5

mm long (19 segments) and the largest 13 mm

long (70 segments). Practically all intermediate

lengths and numbers of segments have been

found. None of the specimens is sexually mature.

Type.—Holotype, U.S. N. M. no. 26464.

Distribution and habitat —Taken from fine mud

off Point Richmond in San Francisco Bay, Calif.,

at depths between 1 and 10 meters. It is possibly

intertidal.

Discussion—No mature specimens of this

Nephtys have been taken so far and since many

of the specimens we have are obviously juveniles,

we are by no means convinced that we have seen

the adults at all. Nephtys caecoides has been

taken in the same samples and the possibility

that N. parva is a juvenile N. caecoides must be

considered. There are important differences be-

tween the two, however:

1. The acicular rami are rounded and not

incised as in Nephtys caecoides.

2.-The branchiae are not shorter than the dorsal

cirri in the posterior segments.

3. The dorsal cirri of the first segment are

146

reduced and neither these nor the ventral cirri of

the first segment are flattened and triangular.

4. There is no median unpaired papilla on the

proboscis.

5. There are eyespots on the prostomium and a

ring of eyespots on the pygidium as well as two

large eyespots beneath the cuticle on the third

segment, none of which appear in Nephtys cae-

coides.

Most of these differences could conceivably be

attributed to developmental features which have

not yet reached the adult and definitive state.

In all but the presence of eyespots, the differences

are in characters which are fairly crucial in the

taxonomy of the Nephtyidae and while any sin-

gle difference taken individually might be at-

tributable to the immaturity of our specimens,

it is unlikely that this combination of characters,

which is unique, could be disposed of in this way.

Nephtys cornuta Berkeley franciscana, n. subsp.

Fig. 2, a-f

Description.—The new subspecies agrees with

Nephtys cornuta Berkeley (1945) except in the

following respects:

1. The branchiae are shorter and less heavily

ciliated.

2. Barred chaetae appear in postacicular rami

of all paropodia and not just in the anterior seg-

ments.

3. There is a pair of eyespots on the third

segment, they are large and, although beneath

the cuticle, are conspicuous.

4. The new subspecies is about half the size of

Nephtys cornuta.

Pigmentation.—Except for the eye spots the

worms are unpigmented.

Size-—The range in length of the complete

worms described by Berkeley was 10-15 mm and

they were composed of 32-35 segments. The San

Francisco Bay worms are about half this size.

The range of length of the 19 specimens we have

seen is 2.0-6.5 mm (21-28 segments), and for

Specimens carrying eggs in the coelom, the length

range is 4.0-5.5 mm (23-26 segments). The over-

all width is 1 mm. or less.

Type.—Holotype, U. 8. N. M. no. 26466.

Distribution and habitat—The subspecies is ap-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 5

parently fairly numerous in fine mud deposits off

Point Richmond, San Francisco Bay, Calif., at

depths between 1 and 10 meters. It is possibly

intertidal. It is therefore found in a similar habi-

tat to that in which Weese (1932) discovered

Nephtys cornuta near Friday Harbor, Wash.

Discussion.—The species was described from

eight specimens, four of them incomplete, from

Friday Harbor, Wash., and Princess Louise In-

let, British Columbia (Berkeley, 1945; Weese,

1932). One of the complete specimens was sub-

sequently examined by Hartman (1950) who

added to the original description. Through the

kindness of C. Berkeley, we have been able to

examine five of the remaining Friday Harbor

specimens. In view of the differences, which ap-

pear to be constant, between the northern and

the San Francisco Bay specimens, we propose to

name the local variants as a subspecies. It should

be borne in mind that subsequent collections in

the intervening regions may show that the two

groups of Nephtys cornuta represent the opposite

ends of a graded series. This is a possibility which

must always exist when geographical races are

named of a species for which the entire distribu-

tion is unknown. However, it seems likely that

Nephtys cornuta exists as two genetically different

and isolated populations in the areas from which

it has been recorded and in this event, the naming

of a subspecies is justified.

The authors are indebted to Mrs. Lois C. Stone

who prepared the figures.

REFERENCES

Berkevey, E. and C. Notes on Polychaeta from

the coast of western Canada. Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist., ser. 11, 12: 316-335. 1945.

Hartman, Ouaa. Review of the annelid worms of

the family Nephthydae from the northeast

Pacific, with descriptions of five new species.

Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 85: 143-158. 1938.

. Polychaetous annelids. Part IIT. Chryso-

petalidae to Goniadidae. Hancock Pacific

Exped. 7: 173-287. 1940.

. Goniadidae, Glyceridae and Nephtyidae.

Hancock Pacific Exped. 15: 1-181. 1950.

Weess, A. O. The annelids of a marine sere. Proc.

Oklahoma Acad. Sci. 13: 18-21. 1932.

May 1955

HANDLEY: BATS OF GENUS CORYNORHINUS

147

MAMMALOGY —\New bats of the genus Corynorhinus. CHARLES O. HANDLEY, JR.,

U.S. National Museum.

(Received January 31, 1955)

A revisionary study of the lump-nosed or

big-eared bats of the genus Corynorhinus has

shown that the name Corynorhinus rafines-

quit Lesson, currently used for the big-eared

bats of the western United States, is actually

applicable rather to the species inhabiting

the southeastern United States, heretofore

known as Corynorhinus macrotis LeConte.

The prior name for the western bats is

Corynorhinus townsendii Cooper. Geographic

races of this species are: C. ¢. townsendit

Cooper and C. t. pallescens Miller. In addi-

tion, three other populations of C. townsendia

are sufficiently distinct to warrant recogni-

tion by name and are described herein.

For the loan of comparative material I am

indebted to the American Museum of Nat-

ural History (AMNH), the Carnegie Mu-

seum (CM), W. Gene Frum (GF), the Uni-

versity of Kansas Museum of Natural

History (KU), the Louisiana State Univer-

sity Museum of Zoology (LSU), the Texas

Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Texas

A. & M. College (TCWC), the University of

Arkansas Department of Zoology (UAZ),

and the University of Michigan Museum of

Zoology (UMMZ). Specimens in the U. 8.

National Museum, including the Biological

Surveys Collection, are designated with the

abbreviation (US). Special thanks are due to

John A. Sealander, University of Arkansas,

for allowing me to utilize specimens under his

care in the description of a new subspecies,

and for his kindness in depositing the type

specimen in the U. 8. National Museum; to

Aurelio Malaga Alba, Pan American Sani-

tary Bureau, for his cooperation in securing

much needed Mexican specimens, one of

which has served as the type of a new sub-

species; and to Rollin H. Baker, University

of Kansas Museum of Natural History, for

allowing me to use specimens from a collec-

tion that he was studying.

Capitalized color terms are from Ridgway,

1912, Color standards and color nomenclature.

All measurements are in millimeters and are

given as averages followed by extremes.

Corynorhinus townsendii australis, n. subsp.

Type—uU. 8S. N. M. no. 297265; adult female

in alcohol, skull removed; collected December

20, 1952, by Aurelio Mélaga Alba; 2 mi. W

Jacala, 5,500 feet, Hidalgo, México; collector’s

number 1053.

Distribution —Arid interior mountain ranges

of central and northern México.

Diagnosis —Adult coloration: Upper parts—

hair bases between Benzo Brown and Fuscous;

hair tips brighter brown, burnished with dark

brown; mass effect between Russet and Cinna-

mon-Brown; hair bases sharply differentiated

from tips. Underparts—hair bases Natal Brown;

tips about Light Pinkish Cinnamon on belly,

somewhat darker on throat. Size averages

medium for the subgenus; forearm averages

relatively (relative to greatest length of skull)

long. Rostrum averages relatively long, dorso-

laterally inflated, and usually not particularly

depressed; anterior nares relatively large and

usually rounded posteriorly (dorsal view). First

upper incisor normally without secondary cusp;

upper canine averages slightly reduced; antero-

internal cingular cusp of P* frequently present.

Measurements.—Specimens from all parts of

range. Twenty-two adult males: Total length,

96 (91-101); tail vertebrae, 47 (41-53); hind

foot, 10 (9-11); ear from notch, 35 (32-38);

tragus, 15 (18-17); forearm, 42.5 (39.4-44.5);

greatest length of skull (incisors excluded), 16.0

(15.5-16.5); zygomatic breadth, 8.6 (8.2-9.0);

interorbital breadth, 3.6 (3.4-3.7); braincase

breadth, 7.8 (7.5-8.1); braincase depth (exclud-

ing auditory bullae), 5.7 (5.4-5.9); mavillary

tooth row (anterior edge of canine to posterior

edge of M#), 5.1 (4.8-5.3); postpalatal length

(posterior margin of palate, excluding median

process, to anteroventral lip of foramen mag-

num), 5.9 (5.6-6.2); palatal breadth (at M?’),

5.7 (5.4-5.9). Twenty adult females: Total

length, 100 (93-107); tail vertebrae, 49 (45-54);

hind foot, 10 (9-13); ear from notch, 34 (31-36);

tragus, 15 (14-15); forearm, 43.2 (89.2-45.1);

ereatest length of skull, 16.1 (15.5-16.5); zygo-

matic breadth, 8.7 (8.3-9.0); interorbital breadth,

3.6 (3.2-3.7); braincase breadth, 7.9 (7.6-8.3);

148

braincase depth, 5.7 (5.5-6.0); maxillary tooth

row, 5.1 (4.9-5.3); postpalatal length, 6.0 (5.8-

6.3); palatal breadth, 5.9 (5.6-6.1).

Comparisons.—C. t. australis is most similar

to C. t. pallescens, but in dorsal coloration

averages darker, browner, and less cinnamon.

The two populations are not well differentiated

cranially. Compared with Corynorhinus mexi-

canus G. M. Allen, C. t. australis is paler colored,

with greater contrast between bases and tips of

dorsal hairs; usually has more cross-ribs on the

interfemoral membrane; has, on the average,

larger tragus; larger skull; shallower braincase;

longer, stronger, and less depressed rostrum;

larger auditory bullae; and usually lacks a

secondary cusp on the first upper incisor.

Specimens examined.—A total of 57 from the

following localities: M#éxtco: Coahuila, Bella

Unién, 1 mi. 8 & 4 mi. W, 3 (KU); Hacienda

La Mariposa, 4 mi. W, 1 (KU); Muralla, 0.5 mi.

N, 19 (KU); San Buenaventura, 9 mi. N & 4 mi.

W, 1 (KU); San Buenaventura, 9 mi. W & 4 mi.

S, 2 (KU); Sierra Guadalupe, 10 mi. S & 5 mi.

W General Cepeda, 1 (KU). Durango, San Juan,

12 mi. W Lerdo, 2 (UMMZ). Guanajuato,

Santa Rosa, 7 (US). Guanajuato (?), Charcas,

5 (US). Hidalgo, Grutas Xoxafi, 6.6 mi. SE

Yoltepec, 1 (KU); Jacala, 2 mi. W, 3 (US);

Rio Tasquillo, 16 mi. E Zimapan, 1 (TCWC).

Jalisco, San Andrés, 10 mi. W Magdalena, 3

(UMMZ); San Pedro, Guadalajara, 1 (AMNH).

México, Lago Texcoco, 1 (US). Morelos, Cuer-

navaca, 1 (US). Oaxaca, Oaxaca, 1 (US). San

Luis Potosi, Bledos, 1 (LSU); Presa de Guada-

lupe, 1 (LSU). Zacatecas, Sierra de Valparaiso,

1 (US). ‘México’, no exact locality, 1 (US).

Corynorhinus townsendii ingens, n. subsp.

Type-—U. 8. N. M. no. 296767; adult male,

skin and skull; collected 4 December 1950, by

John A. Sealander; Hewlitt Cave, 12 mi. W

Fayetteville, Washington County, Ark.; col-

lector’s number 50-14.

Distribution —Ozark Highlands.

Diagnosis. Adult coloration: Upper parts—

mass effect between Hazel and Mars Brown;

hair bases Fuscous. Underparts—hair tips be-

tween Light Vinaceous-Cinnamon and Light

Pinkish Cinnamon; hair bases Fuscous. Distine-

tion between bases and tips of hairs fairly sharp,

on both dorsum and underparts. Size averages

large for subgenus; forearm averages relatively

long. Skull of heavy construction; rostrum rela-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, NO. 5

tively long, inflated, and not depressed; anterior

nares average relatively large and rounded in

posterior outline (dorsal view). First upper in-

cisor usually with at least a trace of a secondary

cusp; anterointernal cingular cusp of P* absent;

molariform teeth robust.

Measurements——Specimens from all parts of

range. Seven adult males: Total length, 95 (90-

102); tail vertebrae, 42 (35-46); hind foot,

10 (9-10); ear from notch, 35 (34-86); tragus,

14 (13-15); forearm, 45.2 (44.1-46.2); greatest

length of skull, 16.6 (16.3-16.9); zygomatic

breadth, 9.1 (9.0-9.1); interorbital breadth,

3.8 (3.8-3.9); braincase breadth, 8.2 (8.0-8.3);

braincase depth, 5.8 (5.7-5.9); maxillary tooth

row, 5.4 (5.8-5.6); postpalatal length, 6.2 (5.8-

6.4); palatal breadth, 6.3 (6.0-6.4). Nine adult

females: Total length, 98 (95-102); tail verte-

brae, 46 (43-49); hind foot, 10 (8-12); ear from

notch, 35 (34-37); tragus, 15 (14-16); forearm,

46.5 (45.1-47.6); greatest length of skull, 16.8

(16.5-17.2); zygomatic breadth, 9.1 (9.0-9.2);

interorbital breadth, 3.9 (3.7—-4.0); braincase

breadth, 8.1 (7.9-8.4); braincase depth, 5.9

(5.7-6.1); maxillary tooth row, 5.5 (5.4-5.6);

postpalatal length, 6.4 (6.1-6.6); palatal breadth,

6.4 (6.2-6.5).

Comparisons.—C. t. ingens is the most reddish

and the largest race of Corynorhinus townsendit.

From C. t. pallescens it is distinguished by

darker, more orange or reddish coloration; aver-

age larger size; relatively larger auditory bullae;

more inflated rostrum; relatively more robust

molariform teeth; and more frequent develop-

ment of a secondary cusp on the first upper in-

cisor. Compared with C. ¢t. virginianus, C. t.

ingens has the dorsal coloration paler, less

mantled with sooty; averages slightly larger in

most dimensions; and has more frequent de-

velopment of a secondary cusp on the first

upper incisor.

Specimens examined.—A total of 16 from the

following localities: Arkansas: Washington

County, Basset Cave, near Hicks, 1 (UAZ);

Devil’s Icebox, Devil’s Den State Park, 25 mi.

SW Fayetteville, 9 (UAZ), 1 (US), 1 (GE);

Hewlitt Cave, 12 mi. W Fayetteville, 2 (UAZ),

1 (US). Missourr: Stone County, no exact

locality, 1 (AMNH).

Corynorhinus townsendii virginianus, n. subsp.

Type —vU. 8S. N. M. no. 269163; adult male,

skin and skull; collected 12 November 1939, by

May 1955

W. J. Stephenson; Schoolhouse Cave, 44 mi.

NE Riverton, 2205 feet, Pendleton County,

W. Va.; no collector’s number.

Distribution —Central portion of the Appa-

lachian Highlands in western Virginia and eastern

West Virginia.

Diagnosis—Adult coloration: Upper parts—

mass effect between Prout’s Brown and Bister;

hair bases about Benzo Brown. Underparts—

hair tips between Light Vinaceous-Cinnamon

and Light Pinkish Cinnamon; hair bases Fus-

cous. Distinction between tip and base of hair

sharp on underparts, poor on dorsum. Size

averages medium for subgenus; forearm averages

relatively long. Rostrum relatively long and

not depressed; anterior nares wide and round in

posterior outline (dorsal view). First upper in-

cisor usually without trace of secondary cusp.

Measurements—Specimens from all parts of

range. Fifteen adult males: Total length, 101

(98-110); tail vertebrae, 50 (48-52); hind foot,

11 (10-12); ear from notch, 34 (31-88); tragus,

14 (11-15); forearm, 44.5 (48.1-46.4); greatest

length of skull, 16.4 (16.0-16.8); zygomatic

breadth, 8.8 (8.6-9.0); interorbital breadth, 3.7

MALACOLOGY .— Notes on American

MORRISON: AMERICAN LAND SNAILS

149

(3.6-3.9); braincase breadth, 8.0 (7.7-8.3);

braincase depth, 5.8 (5.6-5.9); maxillary tooth

row, 5.3 (5.2-5.4); postpalatal length, 6.1 (6.0—

6.3); palatal breadth, 6.1 (5.9-6.3). Ten adult

females: Total length, 103 (99-112); tail verte-

brae, 49 (46-54); hind foot, 12 (11-13); ear from

notch, 35 (34-39); tragus, 15; forearm, 45.8

(44.6-47.4); greatest length of skull, 16.6 (16.1—

17.0); zygomatic breadth, 9.0 (8.8-9.1); inter-

orbital breadth, 3.8 (8.6-3.9); braincase breadth,

8.1 (7.7-8.4); braincase depth, 5.8 (5.5-6.0);

maxillary tooth row, 5.3 (5.2-5.4); postpalatal

length, 6.2 (6.0-6.4); palatal breadth, 6.1

(6.0-6.3).

Comparisons —Requires comparison only with

C. t. ingens. See account of that race above.

Specimens examined.—A total of 93 from the

following localities: Vrrernra: Tazewell County,

Burkes Garden, 4 (US). West Virernra: Grant

County, Petersburg, 10 mi. S, 3 (CM). Pendle-

ton County, Cave Mountain Cave, 1.4 mi. W

Brushy Run, 11 (US); Hellhole, 3.6 mi. NE

Riverton, 5 (US); Hoffman School Cave, 4.9 mi.

SSW Franklin, 2 (US); Schoolhouse Cave, 4.4

mi. NE Riverton, 31 (US); ‘“Smokehole,”’ 29

(AMNH); “Cave Rock Cave,” 8 (AMNH).

cyclophoroid land snails, with two new

names, eight new species, three new genera, and the family Amphicyclotidae,

separated on animal characters. J. P. E. Morrison, U. 8. National Museum.

(Received January 17, 1955)

Eight American species of the land

operculate group of snails up to now known

as the Cyclophoridae that have come to the

United States National Museum collections

in recent years from different sources are

here described as new. Studies of their

family relationships are outlined briefly

in advance of a complete biological revision

of the American members of the two families

concerned, the Cyclophoridae and_ the

Amphicyclotidae. Anatomical analysis of

American forms that previously have been

included in the family Cyclophoridae has

shown that this group is polyphyletic in

origin. The almost complete fixation of the

radular cusp formula of the endemic

American genera identifies them only as

American and does not give any differential

clues as to their other relationships. The

male reproductive characters, however, are

critically indicative of family and subfamily

relationships, as I have already noted

(Morrison, 1954). The American subfamilies

Neopupinae and Neocyclotinae and the

typically Asiatic Cyclophorinae of the land-

snail family Cyclophoridae, in common with

the marine gastropod family Littorinidae,

possess in the males a verge with only a

seminal groove on its surface. The external

male organ or verge of the Littorinidae is

epipodial in position and well developed.

That of the subfamily Cyclophorinae of the

Cyclophoridae is also epipodial in position,

but rudimentary or vestigial.

Members of the American subfamily

Neopupinae possess a prominent verge that

is lateral to and behind the right tentacle,

without any specialized terminal appendage.

The genera Aperostoma (Fig. 4) and Farc-

men (Fig. 1) both belong to the Neopupinae.

150

The males of the Neocyclotinae possess a

verge attached middorsally with a very

short, specialized, terminal appendage. II-

lustrations of Cyclopilsbrya (Fig. 17),

Cyclobakeria (Fig. 16), Cyclojamaicia (Fig.

18), Cyclochittya (Figs. 21-22), Poteria

(Fig. 2), Plectocyclotus (Fig. 20), Cycladam-

sia (Fig. 24), Neocyclotus (Fig. 19), Cyclo-

hidalgoa (Fig. 23), and Incidostoma (Fig.

5) are furnished as examples of the sub-

family Neocyclotinae.

In contrast, the group previously known

as the subfamily Amphicyclotinae of the

land snails, and the marine family La-

cunidae, are in common possession of a

structurally complete tubular and internal

vas deferens in the males. It follows logically

that only animals of the littorinoid type can

be included in the family Cyclophoridae.

The amphicyclotid group, derivatives of a

lacunoid ancestry, must be considered a

separate family of land snails, the Amphi-

ceyclotidae. The completely tubular, mid-

dorsally attached verge of the family

Amphicyclotidae is illustrated by the genera

Cyclocubana (Fig. 25), Cyclohaitia (Fig. 3),

and Amphicyclotulus (Fig. 6).

Family CycLoPHORIDAE Gray

Subfamily CycLoPHORINAE, Ss. Ss.

Genus Maizaniella Bequaert and Clench, 1936

Genotype: Maizaniella leonensis (Morelet,

1873), by original designation.

The new name Cyclopomops proposed by

Bartsch (1942, p. 219) for Cyclopoma Troschel,

1847 (preoccupied), is biologically synonymous

with Maizaniella Bequaert and Clench, 1936.

It seems highly probable that both the “Ameri-

can” species Marzaniella cinereus (Drouet, 1859)

(U.S.N.M. Bull. 181: 141: 18: 25: 1942) recorded

from Martinique, and Marzaniella moricandr

(Pfeiffer, 1852) (U.S.N.M. Bull. 181: 219: 40:

7-9: 1942) recorded from Bahia, Brazil, were

accidentally introduced from the equatorial

region of Africa with the slave trade or with the

commercial trade coincident thereto.

Genus Buckleyia Higgins, 1872

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 151. 1942.

Genotype: (Cyclophorus (Buckleyia) montezuma

Higgins, 1872) = Cyclophorus martinezi Hidalgo,

1866, by monotypy.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 5

This endemic American genus is allocated to

the Cyclophorinae because of the color and

ornamentation of the shell. Buckleyia agrees

with many Asiatic genera of this group in possess-

ing axial bands or flammules of color on the shell.

The animal characters are still unknown. When

males of Buckleyia are available, their gross

external anatomy should be compared with

Heude’s figures of the animals of Cyclotus

erroneus Heude and Cyclophorus pallens Heude

(Heude, 1890, pl. 42, figs. 12c, 13a).

Buckleyia haughti, n. sp.

Figs. 26-28

Shell discoid, of 414 well-rounded regularly

increasing whorls; almost equally concave above

and below; peripherally keeled with six low

cords and banded spirally with lighter and

darker green bands; the darker bands inter-

rupted or incomplete by reason of coalescence of

axial flammules of the darker green color.

Aperture almost circular, the columellar margin

appressed to the penultimate whorl only between

the dorsal and ventral cords. The suture deep,

bounded by these cords. The peripheral color

band is narrow and becomes more flammulate

and obsolete near the aperture; above and below

it is margined by lighter bands of equal width.

The dorsal and ventral darker green bands are

subequal; both are discreetly margined periph-

erally including the dorsal and ventral thread-

keels as the peripheral margin of these color

bands. Centrally these bands are less distinctly

separated, fading out to the paler green color,

along a more or less regular but markedly

flammulate edge. Sculpture consisting of spiral

cords and threads, the six subequal low cords

subequally spaced above and below the periphery

on the central third of the whorl’s outer cireum-

ference. Between them and beyond on the dorsal

and ventral surfaces the fine spiral threads are

at least as prominent as the fine thread-lines of

growth. These fine spiral threads are only obsolete

on the inner quarter faces of the whorls above

and below, near the sutures. Nuclear whorls

smooth, the spiral cords beginning at the end of

the second whorl and continuing without reduc-

tion in strength to the aperture.

The unique holotype was collected by Oscar L.

Haught along a stream north of the Rio Nuqui,

Dept. Choco, Colombia, and is now catalogued

as U.S.N.M. no. 488865. It has 414 whorls and

May 1955 MORRISON: AMERICAN LAND SNAILS 151

Fias. 1-15.—1, Farcimen superbum itinerarium Torre and Bartsch, from Sumidero, Cuba (U.S.N.M. no.

516032); 2, Poteria simpsoni (Bartsch), from Bogwalk, Jamaica (356078); 3, Cyclohaitia haitia Bartsch,

from north of Tiburén, Haiti (404068); 4, Aperostoma walkeri H. B. Baker, from Necaxa, Puebla, Mexico

(515791) ; 5, Incidostoma giganteum (Reeve), from the Cerro de Garagara, Panama (251101); 6, Amphicy-

clotulus rufescens (Sowerby), from Martinique (535859) ; 7-9, Incidostoma diminutum, n. sp., holotype,

from near Papallagta, Ecuador (543530); 10-12, Incidostoma chocolatum, n. sp., holotype, from near

Papallagta, Ecuador (543527); 13-15, Incidostoma jacksoni, n. sp., holotype, from near Mera, Oriente

Province, Ecuador (543524). (Figs. 1-6, external anatomy sketched to show head and verge of male,

not drawn to scale; figs. 7-15 approximately 1.5. All numbers are U. 8. Nat. Mus.)

152

measures: Height 7.6 mm; greater diameter 23.4

mm; lesser diameter 19.2 mm.

Of the same size and very close in general

appearance to B. bifasciata Mousson from

Antioquia, Colombia, haughtt may be easily

distinguished by the six low but distinct periph-

eral cords and by the difference in the color

banding of those cords. In the only specimen of

bifasciata seen, the four peripheral cords are all

flammulate with light and dark spots of color

over them. In haughtt the dorsal and ventral

cords are completely dark, the central cords

indistinct in color, and lighter toward the

aperture where the narrow peripheral band

becomes obsolete and almost disappears.

Subfamily NeopupinaE Kobelt and Moellendorff,

1898

This subfamily includes the genera Aperostoma

and Tomocyclus from Central America and the

West Indian genera Farcimen, Farcimoides,

Neopupina, and Megalomastoma.

Genus Aperostoma Troschel, 1847

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 169. 1942.

Genotype: Aperostoma mexicanum (Menke),

by subsequent designation by Herrmannsen,

1852, suppl., p. 10.

This genus was listed under the synonymic

name Cyrtotoma in U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181.

H. B. Baker (1948) pointed out the nomen-

clatorially wrong usage of Aperostoma in that

bulletin and cited the earliest valid genotype

designation as listed above. The true subfamily

relationship of the Mexican genus Aperostoma

was proved upon examination of the animals of

Aperostoma fischeri Bartsch and Morrison and

of Aperostoma walkeri H. B. Baker (Fig. 4) lent

for study to the United States National Museum

by Dr. Baker.

Genus Farcimen Troschel, 1847

See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 4. 1942.

Genotype: (Turbo tortwm Wood) = Farcimen

tortum (Wood), 1828, by subsequent designation

by Herrmannsen, 1847, p. 439.

Farcimen superbum itinerarium Torre and

Bartsch, 1942

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 35, pl. 7, figs. 10-12.

1942.

The gross external male anatomy of specimens

of this subspecies from Sumidero, Pinar del Rio,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 5

Cuba, is figured herewith (Fig. 1) for comparison

with that of Aperostoma. This is in agreement

with the more generalized figure published by

Poey (1858, vol. 2, p. 67, pl. 7, fig. 2) of the

male animal of Farcimen alutaceum (Pfeiffer).

Subfamily NeocycioTinar Kobelt and

Moellendorff, 1898

Genus Cyclopilsbrya Bartsch, 1942

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 71. 1942.

Genotype: (Cyclostoma jugosum C. B. Adams)

= Cyclopilsbrya jugosa (C. B. Adams 1852), by

original designation.

Cyclopilsbrya caribaea (Clench and Aguayo, 1935)

See U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 77, pl. 13, figs.

43-45. 1942.

The gross external anatomy of the head and

verge of the male of this species from Mocho, St.

James, Jamaica, is here illustrated (Fig. 17).

Genus Cyclobakeria Bartsch, 1942

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 115. 1942.

Genotype: (Cyclotus novaespet Chitty) =

Cyclobakeria novaespei (Chitty, 1857), by original

designation.

This genus is here restricted to those species

that anatomically and geographically group

about the genotype. Cyclobakeria is known only

from northwestern Jamaica.

Cyclobakeria nanum Bartsch, 1942

See U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 120, pl. 16, figs.

19-21. 1942.

The male animal of this species from Cousin’s

Cove, Hanover, Jamaica, has been sketched for

our Fig. 16.

Genus Cyclojamaicia Bartsch, 1942

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 67. 1942.

Genotype: (Cyclostoma suturale Sowerby) =

Cyclojamaicia suturalis (Sowerby, 1843), by

original designation.

Cyclojamaicia suturalis (Sowerby, 1843)

See U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 69, pl. 12, figs.

10-12. 1942.

The external anatomy (head and verge of the

male) of this species from Island, St. Elizabeth,

Jamaica, is sketched in our Fig. 18.

Rugicyclotus, n. gen.

Genotype: Rugicyclotus perplexus, n. sp.

May 1955 MORRISON: AMERICAN LAND SNAILS 153

Fies. 16-31.—16, Cyclobakeria nanum Bartsch, from Cousin’s Cove, Hanover, Jamaica (3898741); 17,

Cyclopilsbrya caribaea (Clench and Aguayo), from Mocho, St. James, Jamaica (356202) ; 18, Cyclojamaicia

suturalis (Sowerby), from near Island, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica (375179); 19, Neocyclotus grenadensis

mcsweeni (Bartsch), from Baltazar, Grenada, B. W. I. (473942); 20, Plectocyclotus lineatus (Gray), from

the Mandeville region, Manchester, Jamaica (128018); 21, 22, Cyclochittya dentistigmata (Chitty), from

214 miles east of Bath, St. Thomas, Jamaica (401305); 23, Cyclohidalgoa translucida bejyumensis (H. B.

Baker) from Banco Largo, Bejuma, Venezuela (lent by A.N.S.P.); 24, Cycladamsia seminudum (C. B.

Adams), from near Balaclava, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica (536848); 25, Crocidopoma (Cyclocubana) per-

distinctum (Gundlach), from near Banabacoa, Oriente, Cuba (Ramsden; 618779); 26-28, Buckleya

haughti, n. sp., holotype, from north of Rio Nuqui, Dept. Choco, Colombia (488865); 29-31, Amphi-

cyclotus megaplanus, n. sp., holotype, from near Ocozocoantla, Chiapas, Mexico (618777). (Figs. 16-25

external anatomy sketched to show head and verge of male, not drawn to scale; figs. 26-31 approximately

1.1. All numbers are U.S. Nat. Mus.)

154

Shell small, depressed helicoid, with regularly

increasing, well-rounded whorls, nearly circular

in cross section, with no trace of an umbilical

keel, and separated above by a deep suture.

Shell sculpture of fine growth lines over heavy

diagonal, zigzag, or chevron-shaped rugosities;

umbilicus widely open, about one-third the

diameter of the shell; aperture circular, entire;

inner lip a little thickened. Operculum and

animal unknown.

Only examination of the opercula and animals

(when they are available) can permanently settle

the question of the true biological relationship of

Rugicyclotus. It is here assigned a position next to

Cyclovendreysia, whose shells it most resembles,

although so strikingly different in rugosity of

shell sculpture.

Rugicyclotus perplexus, n. sp.

As originally declared by Bartsch (1942, p. 137)

the “pseudogeneric term’ Incerticyclus has no

nomenclatorial standing. Likewise it follows that

any specific name introduced in association with

that name was not thereby validated in binomial

nomenclature. The shell described and figured

by Bartsch (1942, p. 140, pl. 18, figs. 19-21) is

hereby validly named Rugicyclotus perplexus,

as above. At present this species is known only

from the type locality at Appleton, St. Elizabeth,

Jamaica, where it was collected by C. R. Orcutt.

The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 535988, has 3.3

whorls remaining and measures: Height 7.8 mm;

greater diameter 14.9 mm; lesser diameter 11.3

mm; aperture diameter 5.7 mm. Two paratypes,

from the same source, a little smaller than the

holotype, are catalogued as U.S.N.M. no.

378448.

Cyclochittya, n. gen.

Genotype: (Cyclotus dentistigmatus Chitty) =

Cyclochittya dentistigmata (Chitty, 1857).

Neocyclotine shells moderately to strongly

rugose, with a well-developed umbilical keel

which is characteristically marked basally by

alternating pits and short buttressing ridges to

produce a tooth-marked appearance.

The operculum of members of this genus is of

the fundamental Poteria stock, differmg in the

lesser development of the raised lamella, so that

the peripherally reflected external edge of the

lamella does not meet the succeeding turn and

hence does not completely roof over the external

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VOL. 45, No. 5

face of any portion of the operculum. The

peripheral face of the raised lamella is always

more or less concave, after the design of a shallow

pulley rim. This concave periphery is in direct

contrast to that of the operculum of Cyclobakeria,

which is superficially similar, but developed from

the Cyclopilsbrya stock, and has a more or less

convex periphery of the raised lamella, and

never has any external reflection of the outer edge

of the lamella. The operculum of Cyclochittya

was figured in U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181 (pl.

42, figs. 1-3) as an example of Cyclobakeria. The

operculum of Cyclobakeria has not yet been

figured.

The animals of Cyclochittya dentistigmata

(Chitty, 1857) (Figs. 21, 22) and of C. yallahsensis

(Bartsch, 1942) have been examined and found

to differ in details of the verge from the animal

of Cyclobakeria nanum Bartsch, 1942.

Known members of the genus, in addition to

the genotype, are C. corrugata (Chitty, 1857),

C. chatty: (Bartsch, 1942), C. yallahsensis (Bartsch,

1942), C. balnearis (Bartsch, 1942), and C.

schermot, n. sp. All are from the southeastern

part of the Island of Jamaica. A closer analysis of

the nomenclature involved reveals the fact that

the specific name Cyclotus corrugatus Chitty,

1857, is not preoccupied. As the earliest available

name it should be used instead of the new name

magister proposed by Bartsch (1942, p. 119).

Cyclochittya schermoi, n. sp.

The fossil form described and figured by

Bartsch (1942, p. 138, pl. 41, figs. 10-12) is

here validly named Cyclochittya schermot. As

noted previously, this name cannot be con-

sidered as validly published in 1942, because it

was not introduced in connection with a generic

name at that time.

The holotype, A.N.S.P. no. 82532, was col-

lected by Uselma C. Smith and S. L. Schermo

from the Miocene fossil beds at Bowden, Ja-

maica. It has 4.4 whorls and measures: Height

13 mm; greater diameter 19.8 mm; lesser diameter

15.3 mm. Thirteen young and/or fragmentary

paratypes are also catalogued under the same

number at the Academy of Natural Sciences of

Philadelphia. We thus have proof that this genus

has been living in the same region of southeastern

Jamaica (alongside Poteria) at least since the

Miocene era without any change in the generic

shell characters.

May 1955

Genus Poteria Gray, 1850

Poteria Gray, Nomen. Moll. animals and shells... .

British Museum, part 1, Cyclophoridae, p. 11.

1850 (not Poteria Bartsch, 1942). Genotype:

(Turbo jamaicensis Dillwyn) = Poteria jamai-

censis (Dillwyn, 1823), by subsequent designa-

tion by H. B. Baker (Nautilus 35: 15. 1922),

who cited it as Turbo jamaicensis (Chemnitz)

Wood 1828.

Piychocochlis Simpson, 1895, p. 431. Genotype:

(Neocyclotus jamaicensis Chemnitz) = Poteria

corrugatum (Menke, 1830), by original designa-

tion.

Barischivindex H. B. Baker, 1943, p. 135. Genotype:

(Cyclostoma varians C. B. Adams) = Poteria

varians (C. B. Adams, 1852), by original designa-

tion.

The operculum of Poteria has a well-developed

raised calcareous lamella projecting from the

external face. Usually this lamella is [ shaped,

that is, upright, then abruptly reflected periph-

erally to meet the succeeding turn, and com-

pletely roof over the intervening space to produce

a complete external calcareous face of the oper-

culum. In a few species known, the reflected

portion of the lamella does not completely roof

over the intervening space on all of the opercular

turns. In these species, however, there is always

one part of the operculum in which the external

face is completely roofed over and continuous.

The operculum of Poteria martensi (Kobelt)

was figured by Bartsch (1942. pl. 42, figs. 8-10).

The male animal of a paratype of Poteria

simpsoni (Bartsch) (1942, p. 95, pl. 14, figs.

16-18) is illustrated by our Fig. 2.

Poteria clarendonensis, n. name

The name of the species of Poteria described

by Bartsch as Ptychocochlis taylori (1942, p. 89,

pl. 13, figs. 31-33) is preoccupied by Bartsch’s

use of the name Poteria (Cyclobakeria) welchi

taylort (1942, p. 119). The present species from

upper Clarendon Parish, Jamaica, may be known

as Poteria clarendonensis.

Poteria Jamaicensis (Dillwyn, 1823)

. Lister, Historia conchyliorum:

pl. 56, fig. 51. 1865; idem, Huddesford edition:

pl. 55, fig. 51. 1770.

Turbo jamaicensis Dillwyn, Index to Lister (3d

ed.): 9. 1823; Wood, Index Test., suppl.: pl. 6,

fig. 3. 1828.

Ptychocochlis gossei Bartsch, U. 8. Nat. Mus.

Bull. 181: 85, pl. 13, figs. 34-36. 1942.

The earliest designation of the genotype of

Poteria by H. B. Baker in 1922 was not entirely

MORRISON: AMERICAN LAND SNAILS

155

clear. The restatement by Bartsch (1942, p. 106)

was more explicit, but the species name accepted

by all workers as the genotype was misidentified

in Bulletin 181. The earliest valid name for this

species is that listed above. Fortunately the

figures in Lister upon which we now know the

specific name rests are even more critically correct

than is the figure in Wood (1828) in depicting

the usual form of this Jamaican land operculate.

The species from the vicinity of Kingston called

Ptychochlis gossei by Bartsch in 1942 is the true

genotype of Poteria.

Poteria daltei, n. name

The name of the species of Poteria described

by Bartsch as Ptychocochlis welchi (1942, p. 88,

pl. 18, figs. 20-30) is preoccupied by the name

Poteria (Cyclobakeria) welch Bartsch (1942, p.

118). It may be called Poteria daltet to maintain

a valid name in honor of its first discoverer,

D’alte A. Welch.

Poteria bowdenensis, n. sp.

As noted above, specific names published only

in connection with a ‘‘pseudogeneric term’ do

not have any binomial standing. The form de-

scribed and figured by Bartsch (1942, p. 188,

pl. 41, figs. 4-6) is hereby validly named Poteria

bowdenensis.

The holotype, A.N.S.P. no. 82532a, was col-

lected by Uselma C. Smith and 8. L. Schermo

from the Miocene fossil beds at Bowden, Ja-

maica. It has 3.5 whorls remaining and measures:

Height 10.8 mm; greater diameter 15.7 mm;

lesser diameter 12.0 mm.

Critical comparisons have shown that this

fossil species is most closely related to Poteria

campeachyt and P. petricola. The presence of

P. bowdenensis in Miocene times, alongside the

genus Cyclochittya, proves that at least two of the

Recent genera of Neocyclotinae have been living

on Jamaica since the Miocene, without any

change im generic shell characters. How much

preceding time was necessary for their develop-

ment and generic differentiation is as yet com-

pletely unknown.

Genus Plectocyclotus Kobelt and

Moellendorff, 1898

Genotype: (Cyclostoma jamaicensis Sowerby,

1843) = Plectocyclotus lineatus (Gray, 1850),

by subsequent designation by Pilsbry and Brown

(Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1910: 533).

156

This is the genus that was incorrectly called

“Poteria”’ by Bartsch in 1942. It is separate and

distinct from Poteria Gray, 1850, possessing a

different sculpture of the shell and a different

type of operculum. There is no intergradation

whatsoever known between the opercular type of

Poterva and that of Plectocyclotus.

Plectocyclotus lineatus (Gray, 1850)

See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 109, pl. 16, figs.

34-36; pl. 42, figs. 14, 15. 1942.

The external male anatomy (head and verge)

of this species from the Mandeville region,

Manchester, Jamaica, is illustrated herewith

(Fig. 20).

Plectocyclotus novussaltus (Chitty, 1857)

See U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 112, pl. 16, figs.

4-6. 1942.

This is the earliest available specific name for

the fourth species to be called jamaicensis.

Incorrectly identified as jamaicensis by Bartsch,

this is neither the jamaicensis of Chemnitz (non-

binomial), nor of Dillwyn (1823) and Wood

(1828), nor of Sowerby (1848).

Incerticyclus, n. gen.

Genotype: (Neocyclotus (Ptychocochlis) bakeri

Simpson) = Incerticyclus bakeri (Simpson, 1895).

The “pseudogeneric term” Incerticyclus seems

worthy of preservation for two Jamaican species

possessing a shell with only an angulation at the

outer edge of the umbilicus, and fine or coarse

rugose shell sculpture on the later postnuclear

whorls. The operculum is unknown.

The genotype, J. bakert, was described and

figured by Bartsch (1942, p. 137, pl. 18, figs.

1-3). The only other probable member of this

genus known to me is Incerticyclus perpallidus

(C. B. Adams, 1852) (Bartsch, 1942, p. 139, pl.

18, figs. 4-6).

Genus Cycladamsia Bartsch, 1942

See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 125. 1942.

Genotype: (Cyclostoma seminudum C. B.

Adams) = Cycladamsia seminudum (C. B.

Adams, 1851), by original designation.

Cycladamsia seminudum (C. B. Adams, 1851)

See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 130, pl. 18, figs.

82-34; pl. 42, figs. 4, 5. 1942.

The head and verge of male animals of this

species from near Balaclava, St. Elizabeth,

Jamaica, are figured herewith (Fig. 24).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 5

Genus Neocyclotus Crosse and Fischer, 1872

See U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 203. 1942. Geno-

type: (Cyclostoma dysoni Pfeiffer) = Neocyclotus

dysoni (Pfeiffer, 1851), by subsequent designa-

tion by Pilsbry and Brown (Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sci. Philadelphia, 1910: 533).

Austrocyclotus Bartsch, 1942, pp. 132, 195. Geno-

type: (Cyclostoma straminea Reeve) = Neo-

cyclotus stramineus (Reeve) 1843, by original

designation.

Austrocyclotus must be considered a synonym

or an incompletely separated section or phase of

Neocyclotus. The opercula and the radular for-

mulae of the two groups are identical (8: 3: 3: 2),

and the external male characters are essentially

alike. The shell sculpture, which was the chief

basis of distinction given by Bartsch in 1942, is

not separable into two patterns. There are

intergrading conditions of sculpture on the shells

of some species from the South American region.

Neocyclotus wetmorei (Bartsch and

Morrison, 1942)

See U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 208, pl. 41, figs.

13-15. 1942.

Originally described from Tierra Nueva,

Sierra Negros, at 3,700-5,000 feet elevation,

this species is now also known from near a

Motilon Indian village, Arioca, between 4,000

and 6,000 feet elevation, in the Sierra Perija,.

also in Dept. Magdalena, Colombia. Questions

raised during the identification of these addi-

tional specimens of wetmorei led to the reexamina-

tion of the sculpture of all the species of Neo-

cyclotus and of Austrocyclotus in the United

States National Museum collections. Upon

complete analysis of the shell sculpture, it became

evident that the sculpture pattern is identical in

the two groups. At one extreme the sculpturing

is weak and partly obsolete; at the other end of

the scale it is strongly marked. With such a

series in front of us, including species such as

wetmoret which possess sculpture of intermediate

strength, it becomes immediately apparent that

an artificial separation of two generic groups

distinguished only by the relative strength of the

same pattern of sculpture is biologically in-

correct.

Neocyclotus grenadensis mcsweeni (Bartsch, 1942)

See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 135, pl. 17, figs.

22-24. 1942.

The head and verge of the male of this sub-

species from the Lesser Antilles is illustrated

May 1955

herewith (Fig. 19). This sketch should be com-

pared with the anatomic details given by Crosse

& Fischer (1890, vol. 2, pp. 150-156, pl. 43,

figs. 8, 10; and pl. 47, fig. 1) of the Central

American genotype NVeocyclotus dysoni (Pfeiffer).

Neocyclotus fuscescens (Swainson) 1840

Cyclotus fuscescens Swainson, Treatise on mala-

cology: 186. 1840.

Poteria vincentina Pilsbry, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philadelphia 87: 4, pl. 1, figs. 2, 2a. 1935.

Aperostoma (Austrocyclotus) vincentinum Bartsch,

U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 133, pl. 17, figs. 1-3.

1942.

According to Swainson, Guilding was the first

to collect this species “in the woods of St.

Vincent.” Critical analysis shows that this name

was taxonomically validated in 1840, in connec-

tion with the generic description, and with a

stated locality. As the only such species known

from St. Vincent, fuscescens is clearly the correct

specific name, almost a century ahead of vin-

centina.

Genus Cyclohidalgoa Bartsch, 1942

See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 136, 268. 1942.

Genotype: (Cyclostoma translucidum Sowerby)

= Cyclohidalgoa translucidum (Sowerby, 1848),

by original designation.

Cyclohidalgoa translucidum bejumense (H. B.

Baker, 1923)

See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 270, pl. 30, figs.

4-6. 1942.

The male anatomy of this subspecies, men-

tioned in the generic description, is here figured

for the first time (Fig. 23). The animals sketched

were collected by H. B. Baker and lent to the

United States National Museum for examination

of the animal characters.

Genus Incidostoma Bartsch and Morrison, 1942

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 187. 1942.

Genotype: /ncidostoma malleatum Bartsch and

Morrison, 1942, by original designation.

Since Aperostoma was restricted to or fixed

upon the group of neopupine snails from Mexico

by Herrmannsen’s 1852 designation of the

species mexicanum Menke 1830 as genotype,

that name cannot be used for this Central and

South American genus of snails. The name

Pseudaperostoma H. B. Baker, 1948 (p. 135)

published as a replacement for Aperostoma

Bartsch, 1942 (not Troschel, 1847) has proved

MORRISON: AMERICAN LAND SNAILS 157

to be unnecessary in the light of present knowl-

edge. Recent examination at the United States

National Museum of a lot of the species Jnci-

dostoma incomptum (Sowerby), collected at

Aguadita (Vicente de Guerrera), Colombia, and

sent by Ralph W. Jackson, has proved very

interesting. This one sample contains one fine

large individual possessing the full siphonal

notch at the posterior angle of the aperture.

The remainder are smaller, either young or not

completely matured shells, but are identical

except for lack of this characteristic notch.

Because this single characteristic of distinction

between Jncidostoma and Pseudaperostoma is

seen as an unbroken transitional series when all

known species are considered, and because

members of one species (¢ncomptum) are now

known to exhibit the same transition, these two

named groups must be considered as one, or at

most artificial sections of one genus, which does

not show biological separation.

Incidostoma duffianum (C. B. Adams, 1845)

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 276. 1942.

Aperostoma (Aperostoma) brujense Bartsch and

Morrison, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 241, pl. 34,

figs. 13-15. 1942).

There can be no real question that this is

Adams’s species duffianum, with almost exactly

the same measurements in millimeters. In fact,

there is also a possibility that the named form

portobellense Bartsch and Morrison is also a

synonym of duffianwm. There is not enough

material available at present to clarify the

probable sexual dimorphism of size and other

characters of the shells of this group of species

from the Panama region.

Incidostoma giganteum (Reeve, 1842)

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 237, pl. 33, figs. 7-9.

1942.

The two described and figured shells, collected

from the Cerro de Garagara, Panama, by

Pittier, contained the animals. Of the two, one

was a male. A sketch of the head and verge of

this species is furnished here (Fig. 5) for com-

parison with the other genera of the Neocyclo-

tinae.

Group of IncrposToMA BOGOTENSE Pfeiffer

The three new species described herewith

belong to the group of medium-sized to small

species centering around Incidostoma bogotense

158

Pfeiffer. All were submitted to the United States

National Museum for identification by Ralph

W. Jackson, whom we wish to thank for this

opportunity to study and describe additional

new forms of tropical American operculate land

snails.

Incidostoma jacksoni, n. sp.

Figs. 13-15

Shell medium sized, depressed helicoid, of

about 4 whorls, above variable in color from

fleshy buff to dark greenish horn, usually buff

or pale fleshy color on the apex, shading to

darker brownish (or greenish) on the body

whorl. Nucleus of about 11g whorls, smooth;

postnuclear whorls finely transversely ribbed,

on the body whorl with the fine ribs irregularly

scalloped, producing marked malleations on the

upper half of the body whorl. Last whorl little

or not at all depressed at the aperture. Suture

well impressed, but not deep. Periphery marked

by a low revolving angularity, produced by the

impressing of the whorl just above and below

the narrow blackish peripheral color band.

Base openly umbilicate, the inner zone lighter,

the outer half darker than the upper surface;

base smoother than the upper surface and a

little malleated, the finer growth lines being a

little irregular and not forming riblets. Umbilicus

contained 334 times in the shell diameter.

Aperture bluish white within, oblique, circular,

the obtusely pointed protraction at the posterior

angle feebly grooved. Peristome entire, feebly

protracted below the posterior angle at the lower-

most junction of parietal wall and penultimate

whorl. Operculum typical for the genus, of

about 10 turns.

The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 5438524, was re-

ceived from Ralph W. Jackson. It comes from

near Mera, Oriente Province, Ecuador, has 4.3

whorls, and measures: Height 15.4 mm; greater

diameter 27.0 mm; lesser diameter 21.0 mm;

aperture height 11.5 mm; aperture diameter

11.8 mm.

US.N.M. no. 543525 contains 14 paratypes

from the original lot. Numerous paratypes com-

prising the remainder of this lot are in Mr.

Jackson’s collection. Another locality, Agoyan,

Ecuador, is represented by one specimen, no.

543526, in the National Museum collection and

three in the Jackson collection.

The animal of this species has not been

observed. This species is closest in appearance to

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 5

Incidostoma allantayum from Peru but is much

smaller. The subcorded, dark, peripheral band

seems very characteristic. J. jacksoni is likewise

very similar to J. diminutum but is larger and

usually more greenish in color, especially on the

body whorl. It is also larger than but not so

polished in appearance as J. chocolatum.

Incidostoma chocolatum, n. sp.

Figs. 10-12

Shell small, depressed helicoid, covered with a

dark brown epidermis, usually dark chocolate-

brown on the body whorl. The bronzy tan nucleus

(eroded in the type) consists of 115 smooth

whorls. Postnuclear whorls marked by very fine

growth riblets, becoming somewhat irregular due

to scalloping on later whorls, producing the

finely malleated or ‘‘chicken-scratched” ap-

pearance characteristic of the upper side of the

body whorl. Periphery well rounded but marked

by an impressed line immediately above the

feeble peripheral ridge which gives the shell the

appearance of having had a layer peeled off the

surface above this line. Base well rounded,

smoothish, less malleated than upper surface of

body whorl, lightest around the umbilicus which

is open, narrowly exhibiting all the whorls to the

apex. Aperture bluish white, oblique, almost

circular; peristome entire, a little effuse in the

region of the subperipheral ridge which tends to

become obsolete at the aperture. Umbilicus

contained 4.1 times in the shell diameter. Oper-

culum and animal not seen.

The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 543527, was re-

ceived from Ralph W. Jackson and collected

near Papallagta, Ecuador. It has 3.8 whorls

remaining and measures: Height 13.5 mm;

Greater diameter 23.0 mm; lesser diameter 17.4

mm; aperture height 8.5 mm; aperture diameter

9.0 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 543528 contains five paratypes

from the same source; additional paratypes from

the original lot are in the collection of Mr.

Jackson. One of two other specimens seen from

Napo, Ecuador, is catalogued as U.S.N.M. no.

543529. This species has also been seen from

Runtan Hill, near Banos, Ecuador, in the Zetek

collection (U.S.N.M. no. 618858).

With smaller size approaching J. diminutum,

this new species has a more polished appearance,

with the “scratched” type of malleations more

evident at first glance than the growth riblets.

This more polished appearance as well as its

May 1955 MORRISON:

usually deep chocolate brown color and_pro-

portionately larger aperture will easily distinguish

it from J. diminutum, which is of about the same

size. The color and polished appearance are much

more useful in separating individuals of these two

species collected together as at Papallagta and

at Napo than is their absolute size. There is more

than enough variation in size between the

smallest individuals (believed to be males) and

the largest (believed to be females) of J. choco-

latum, to overlap the slight difference in size of

these species. J. chocolatum is markedly smaller

and more polished in appearance than is J.

jackson.

Incidostoma diminutum, n. sp.

Figs. 7-9

Shell small, depressed helicoid, of about 4

whorls, fuscous or occasionally greenish fuscous;

nucleus rufous, of 113 smooth turns; postnuclear

whorls marked by fine growth ribs, more or less

irregularly scalloped above the subperipheral

angulation, reduced in height over this band,

and extending across the base and into the

umbilicus, of undiminished strength or even a

little coarser and more prominent in the um-

bilical area. The malleation or ‘“‘scratched”’

sculpture is always present, but much less evi-

dent than the fine ribs. Whorls well rounded

above and below, separated by a well-impressed

suture throughout. The body whorl exhibits a

narrow, dark, subperipheral color band bordered

above by a lighter band; the dark band some-

times obsolete near the aperture; the peripheral

half of the base is a little darker than the um-

bilical area, darkened by numerous _hair-line

revolving bands. In addition the upper slope of

the whorls usually shows more hair-line bands of

the same brownish color. Aperture subcircular, a

little effuse peripherally, oblique, highest at the

center not the columellar margin; peristome

entire, characteristically biangulatedly produced

at the obtuse posterior angle. The umbilicus is

contained 415 times in the shell diameter.

Operculum typically incidostomid, of about 9

turns.

Nine of the specimens received from Papallagta,

Ecuador, proved to have the animals dried in the

shells. Of these, the holotype, U.S.N.M. no.

543530, and four paratypes were females; the

other four were males. Their measurements (in

mm.) follow:

AMERICAN

LAND SNAILS 159

Aper- Aper-

Number of Greater Lesser ture ture

whorls Ht. diameterdiameter ht. diam.

Holotype female 4.1 12.1 19.8 15.8 8.1 8.6

U.S.N.M. no.

543530.

Paratype females 4.2 14.0 21.2 16.5 8.2 8.8

U.S.N.M. no. 4.1 12.8 20.8 16.3 8.2 8.8

543531. 4.2 13.2 20.5 16.1 8.2 8.8

3.8 11-5 18.7 14.6 7.8 8.0

Average (females) 4.1 WP e/ 20.2 15.9 8.1 8.6

Paratype males 3.9 11.9 19.3 ibysal 7.6 8.5

U.S.N.M. no. 3.9 lez 18.9 14.8 7.6 8.4

543532. 3.7 11.2 18.9 14.9 7.4 8.2

3.7 nS2 17.0 13.3 7.5 leo)

Average (males) 3.8 5 18.5 14.5 (feb) 8.1

The verge in the male is that characteristic of

the genus and of the entire subfamily Neocyclo-

tinae, namely, a ribbonlike process on the back

of the neck behind the right tentacle, traversed

at least in part by only a seminal groove. In this

species it has a slightly swollen base and a

minute terminal appendage as is typical of the

genus Incidostoma.

Additional paratypes from Papallagta are

in the National Museum collection, U.S.N.M.

no. 543533, and in the Jackson collection. One

fully typical specimen has been seen in the

Jackson collection from Napo, Ecuador. One lot

from the Zetek collection is labeled simply

Oriente Province (U.S.N.M. no. 618856);

another, U.S.N.M. no. 618857, comes from

Runtan Hill, near Banos, Ecuador.

With the exception of J. inconspicuwm, this is

one of the smallest of all known Incidostoma

species. It may be readily distinguished by the

finely ribbed satin finish and rufous color, and

the proportionately small, orbicular aperture.

Family AMPHICYCLOTIDAE

As reported earlier, this group is anatomically

close to the marine gastropod family Lacunidae.

The external gross anatomy of the males of the

genera Crocidopoma (subgenus Cyclocubana) from

Cuba (Fig. 25), Cyclohaitia from Hispaniola

(Fig. 3), and Amphicyclotulus from Martinique

(Fig. 6) and other West Indian islands, is now

known. It should be made clear however, that

male animals of all the American “mainland”

species of this family are still unknown and

undescribed. In the absence of such anatomical

proof, other characters of the shells and opercula

are accepted as indicators of their relationships

as members of the family Amphicyclotidae. It is

160

hoped that anatomical material will become

available soon, to prove what is still assumed to

be true biological relationship.

This family includes some genera that possess

no calcification on the operculum, some that

have only the upright lamella calcified, as well as

some such as Crocidopoma in which all but the

projecting fringe of the basal chondroid plate

appears to be calcified. In other words, in this

complex of land operculate snails, the amount

of calcification of the operculum is strictly a

generic character, just as surely as is the pattern

of such calcification and ornamentation.

Genus Amphicyclotus Crosse and Fischer, 1879

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 183. 1942.

Genotype: (Cyclophorus boucardi (Salle Mss)

Pfeiffer) = Amphicyclotus boucardi (Pfeiffer), by

original designation.

Material sent to the United States National

Museum by Miss Marie A. Bourgeois, of Mixcoac,

D. F., Mexico, included a form of Amphicyclotus

which has proved to be undescribed. This brings

the number of species of the genus known, from

Veracruz, Mexico, to Honduras, to five.

Amphicyclotus megaplanus, n. sp.

Figs. 29-31

Shell large, depressed, of about 514 well-

rounded, regularly increasing whorls, separated

by a distinct suture lving in the bottom of a wide

sutural depression; in life with a chestnut brown

periostracum. Nuclear whorls small, well rounded

(smooth in our eroded paratype). The earliest

postnuclear whorls are sculptured by fine axial

riblets most prominent at the suture; the riblets

becoming obsolete on the upper whorl slopes

exposed in the spire. The later postnuclear

sculpture consisting of fine irregular axial

vermiculate ribbing begins at the fourth whorl

and continues undiminished to the aperture.

This characteristic vermiculation tends to become

more diagonal on the penultimate and body

whorls. Spire very low. Periphery well rounded;

base widely openly umbilicate, the umbilicus

three-tenths of the shell diameter, and showing

all the whorls to the apex. Aperture oblique,

almost round, very slightly sinuous in plane.

The posterior angle is produced slightly on the

parietal wall, and is slightly grooved. The last

quarter of the body whorl descends markedly to

the oblique aperture.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 5

The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 618777, is a

weathered shell, collected by a peon who sold

firewood at Ocozocoantla, Chiapas, Mexico,

from the forests of El Ocote, at an elevation

between 600 and 1,000 meters. It is a shell of

about 514 whorls (4 remaining after loss of the

apex), and measures: Height 22.5 mm; greater

diameter 42.0 mm; lesser diameter 32.5 mm;

aperture height 20.0 mm; aperture diameter 18.0

mm. These measurements of the aperture were

made on the plane of the aperture. The apparent

aperture height in a straight aperture view of

the shell is 16.0 mm.

An immature paratype from the same sourée,

U.S.N.M. no. 618778, has 5 whorls and measures:

Height 18.0 mm; greater diameter 32.5 mm;

lesser diameter 27.0 mm; aperture height 15.3

mm (apparent 14.0 mm.); aperture diameter

14.0 mm.

This new species is of the same size and very

close in most characters to A. texturatus known

from the region southeastward along the Chiapas-

Guatemala boundary, but is easily distinguished

by the much more depressed spire and the wide

sutural depression above. The well rounded body

whorl of megaplanus slopes downward con-

siderably to the wide ‘‘valley”’ depression around

the suture.

Genus Calaperostoma Pilsbry, 1935

See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 159. 1942. Geno-

type: (Cyclostoma cumingii Sowerby) = Cal-

aperostoma cumingt (Sowerby) 1832, by original

designation.

Aperostomops Pilsbry, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philadelphia 87: 4. 1935. Genotype: (Cyclostoma

purum Forbes) = Aperostomops purum (Forbes)

1850, by original designation.

Aperostomops should be included in the

synonymy of the genus Calaperostoma Pilsbry,

published on the same page in 1935. The two

genotypes, cumingi and purum, are so close to

each other that the zoological synonymy can

hardly be questioned. Although not traceable

In any way in Bulletin 181, the use of Cala-

perostoma on p. 159 of that bulletin actually

constituted a selection from two names of equal

(identical) publication date. In case such un-

declared selection be considered insufficient, the

selection and use of Calaperostoma in Bulletin 181

is hereby declared a deliberate action.

Genus Amphicyclotulus Kobelt, 1912

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 54. 1952.

| May 1955 MORRISON:

Genotype: (Cyclostoma rufescens Sowerby) =

‘| Amphicyclotulus rufescens (Sowerby), 1843, by

|} subsequent designation by Bartsch (1942, p. 54).

As reported on p. 54 of Bulletin 181, this genus

| was proved to belong to the Amphicyclotidae by

examination of the animals of the species rufescens

| from Martinique, and of mznert from Dominica.

Amphicyclotulus rufescens (Sowerby), 1843

Cyclostoma rufescens Sowerby, Thes. Conch. 1:

94, pl. 24, figs. 36, 37. 1843.

Cyclostoma rufescens Sowerby, Proc. Zool. Soc.

11: 60. 1843.

| Cyclophorus acutiliratus Drouet, Ess. moll. terr.

| et fluy. de la Guyane frangaise: 89, pl. 3, figs.

42-44. 1859.

Amphicyclotulus rufescens Bartsch, U. 8. Nat.

Mus. Bull. 181: 56, pl. 10, figs. 4, 5. 1942.

Amphicyclotulus acutiliratus Bartsch, U.S.N.M.

Bull. 181: 56, pl. 10, figs. 1-3. 1942.

The external anatomy of the male animal is

| sketched in Fig. 6. The sculpture of the shell of

this species is highly variable in its strength.

The form named rufescens by Sowerby is the

extremely highly sculptured variation at the

end of the series, with the spiral ridges crenulated

or scalloped. The medium-sculptured part of the

series, minus the scalloping of the ribs, received

the name acutiliratus.

Genus Cyclohaitia Bartsch, 1942

See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 52. 1942.

Genotype: Cyclohaitia haitia Bartsch, 1942, by

original designation.

Cyclohaitia haitia Bartsch, 1942

See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 53, pl. 10, figs.

12-14. 1942.

The male anatomy of this species from southern

Haiti is illustrated here in our Fig. 3.

Genus Crocidopoma Shuttleworth, 1857

See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 39, 62. 1942.

Genotype: (Cyclostoma (Cyclotus) jfloccosum

Shuttleworth 1857 = Cyclostoma orbellum

Lamarck) = Crocidopoma orbellum (Lamarck)

1822, by subsequent designation by Crosse

(Journ. Conchyl. 39: 160. 1891).

The male anatomy of this genus was reported

in 1942 as resembling that of Amphicyclotulus.

Even though its operculum is mostly calcified,

Crocidopoma is here allocated to its proper place

in the Amphicyclotidae on the basis of anatomy.

The only character now separating Crocido-

AMERICAN LAND

SNAILS 161

poma, s.s., from the subgenus Cyclocubana, is the

suture sharply accentuated by the extreme

prominence of the single largest spiral keel next

to the suture. The opercular character, a differ-

ence in the length of the chondroid fimbriations,

is hardly of generic value. At present such differ-

ences are known to be a matter of abrasion rather

than of differential development.

Crocidopoma orbellum (Lamarck, 1822)

Cyclostoma orbella Lamarck, Anim. sans Vert.

6(2): 148. 1822.

Cyclostoma distinctum Sowerby, Thes. Conch. 1:

106: 24, fig. 38. 1843.

Cyclostoma (Cyclotus) floccosum

Journ. Conchyl. 5: 268, 272. 1857.

Cyclostoma vortex Weinland, Mal. Blatt. 9: 90.

1862.

Crocidopoma vortex Bartsch, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull.

181: 63, pl. 11, figs. 13-15. 1942.

Crocidopoma floccosum Bartsch, U. S. Nat. Mus.

Bull. 181: 64, pl. 12, fig. 16. 1942.

Incerticyclus distinctus Bartsch and Morrison,

U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 275, pl. 39, fig. 11.

1942.

Shuttleworth,

The synonymy of the genotype species is now

known to include the names distinctum Sowerby,

floccosum Shuttleworth, and vortex Weinland.

The variability of the species, and the lack of an

adequate number of specimens in the hands of

the early writers, both contributed to the con-

fusion surrounding the correct name for this

species. Dr. Forcart of the Geneva Museum has

recently furnished us with photographs of the

type specimens of orbellwm and of floccosum,

proving their specific identity.

Crocidopoma lamarcki (Petit, 1850)

Cyclostoma lamarcki Petit, Journ. Conchyl. 1:

48. 1850.

Crocidopoma casuelense Crosse, Journ. Conchy].

39: 160. 1891.

Crocidopoma casuelense Bartsch, U. 8. Nat. Mus.

Bull. 181: 65, pl. 41, figs. 7-9. 1942.

Petit was first to recognize the fact that a

second distinct species of the group was figured

and incorrectly identified as orbellum, and named

it as above. Unfortunately, very few molluscan

authors, even those interested in the group, have

read Petit’s remarks, and name for this common

low-spired species, since they were printed a

century ago.

Subgenus Cyclocubana Bartsch, 1942

See U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 39. 1942.

Genotype: (Cyclotus perdistinctus Gundlach) =

162

Crocidopoma (Cyclocubana) peridistinctum (Gund-

lach, 1858), by original designation.

Male animals of Cyclocubana have become

available for study in the past couple of years.

Their examination has confirmed the biological

position of this subgenus of Crocidopoma in the

Amphicyclotidae, and cleared up the last question

of the zoogeographic picture of this family in the

West Indies.

Crocidopoma (Cyclocubana) perdistinctum

Gundlach, 1858

See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 39, pl. 8, figs. 10-15.

1942.

Included in the collection of the late Dr.

Charles Ramsden, of Santiago de Cuba, recently

donated (in part) to the United States National

Museum, were four lots of this species. One of

these consisted of a number of specimens col-

lected at San Andres, near Reuter, Oriente

Province, Cuba, by Dr. Ramsden. Six of these

contained the animals dried in place in the shells.

These specimens were boiled in water to soften

them for extraction from the shells, and for

examination. Of these six, three were males and

three were females, indicating the essentially

equal ratio of sexes in the population.

The male animal of perdistinctum Gundlach

is illustrated by Fig. 25. These males are typically

amphicyclotid; that is the verge is located on the

back of the neck behind the tentacles. It is

traversed by a closed tube (the vas deferens)

throughout, and has a long slender terminal

filament almost equal in length to the stouter

basal portion of the verge. In fact, there is no

measurable difference (other than size) apparent

between the verges of the generic groups Cyclo-

blandia, Amphicyclotulus, Cyclohaitia, Crocido-

poma, and Cyclocubana, that represent the family

Amphicyclotidae in the West Indian region.

REFERENCES

Baker, H. B. Aperostomatinae. Nautilus 35: 14-16.

1922.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 5

Two new subgeneric names in Poteria.

Nautilus 56: 135-138. 1943.

Bartscu, Pauu. See Torre, Bartsch, and Morrison.

Bartscu, Pau, and Reuper, H. A. Notes on the

names Poteria, Ptychocochlis, and Apero-

stoma. Nautilus 57: 62-64. 1943.

Bequaert, J., and Criencu, W. J. Studies of

Africian land and freshwater mollusks, VIII.

New species of land operculates, with descrip-

tions of a new genus and two new subgenera.

Rev. Zool. et Bot. Africanes 29: 97-104,

pls. 1-2. 1936.

Crossg, H., and Fiscuer, P. Mission scientifique

au Mexique et dans l’Amérique Centrale.

Zoology, part 7, Mollusks, 1-2. 1878-1894.

Dittwyn, L. W. An index to the Historia Con-

chyliorum of Lister, with the name of the species

to which each figure belongs, and occasional

remarks: 1-48. 1828.

HERRMANNSEN, A. N. Indicis generum malacozoorum

1, 2 et Supplementa. 1847-1852.

HervupeE, P. M. Notes sur les mollusques terrestres

de la Vallee du Flewe Bleu., Mem. concern.

UHist. Nat. Emp. Chinois: 1-188; pls. 12-43.

1882-1890.

Koreit, W., and Mortienporer, O. F. Catalog

der gegenwartig lebend bekannten Pnewmonopo-

men. Nachr. deutschen malak. Ges. 29: 73

et seq. 1897-1898; idem, reprinted, 1-140.

1898.

Morrison, J. P. E. Zoogeography, subfamilies, and

jamilies. Amer. Malacol. Union Ann. Rep.

for 1953: 12-14. 1954.

Petit, M. Notice sur le genre Cyclostoma, et

catalogue des especes appartenant a ce genre.

Journ. Conch. 1: 36-55. 1850.

Piusspry, H. A. Descriptions of Middle American

land and freshwater Mollusca. Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sci. Philadelphia 87: 1-6, pl. 1. 1935.

Pory, F. Memorias sobre la historia natural de la

Isla de Cuba 1-2. 1851-1861.

Smupson, C. T. Distribution of the land and fresh-

water mollusks of the West-Indian region,

and their evidence with regard to past changes

of land and sea. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 17:

423-450, pl. 16. 1895.

Swainson, Wm. A treatise on malacology. In:

Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopaedia. 1840.

TorRE, CARLOS DE LA, Bartscu, P., and Morrt-

son, J. P. E. The cyclophorid operculate land

mollusks of America. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181,

306 pp., 42 pls. 1942.

WASHINGTON SCIENTIFIC NEWS

DISCOVERY AND ENCOURAGEMENT OF

SCIENCE TALENT

Michael Faraday is a prime example of the

discovery of science talent. The son of a black-

smith and a humble bookbinder’s apprentice,

Faraday was started on his brilliant and versatile

scientific career when a kindly customer at his

shop, a Mr. Dance, took him to hear four lectures

by Sir Humphry Davy, a great scientist of the

early 1800’s. Faraday made careful notes of the

lectures which he sent to Davy on the urging of

Mr. Dance. Davy’s response was immediate,

kind, and favorable, with the result that Faraday

was hired as his laboratory assistant. In the course

WiMay 1955

of time Faraday became professor of chemistry

at the Royal Institution, London, and made

many important discoveries in chemistry, al-

though he is best known for his work in electricity

and magnetism. Davy himself, when asked what

he regarded as his greatest scientific discovery,

promptly responded—Michael Faraday.

The present acute shortage of scientists has

focused attention on the urgent need for recogniz-

ing potential scientists among gifted young people

and lending them encouragement in embarking

on scientific careers. In recognition of this need,

the Washington Academy of Sciences instituted

in 1950 the award of Certificates of Merit to high-

school graduates of the area who demonstrate

especial promise by scholarship or original experi-

mental work.

In 1952 the Academy instituted an award for

the teaching of science on a par with the awards

for outstanding accomplishment in the biological,

engineering, and physical sciences. Two persons

have thus far been honored for the teaching of

science—Howarp B. Owens, biology teacher of

the Prince Georges County Schools; and Kerra

C. JoHNSON, In charge of science teaching in one

division of the District of Columbia Schools.

This year the Board of Managers recognized a

notable contribution to the discovery and en-

couragement of science talent in the work of Miss

Marearet E. Patrerson as Executive Secretary

of Science Clubs of America, and voted Miss

Patterson a Special Award of the Academy.

Science Clubs of America is the activity of

Science Service, which sparks, inspires, and im-

plements America’s science-youth movement.

Miss Patterson, as head of this organization, is the

personification of the widespread interest that

many thousands of persons—teachers, scientists,

engineers, editors, business men, industrialists,

and others—are taking in young scientists.

Miss Patterson probably knows more young

scientists than any other person. Many thousands

who have won honors in the National Science

Talent search, the National Science Fair, and

local clubs and fairs have known her and she

knows them, even when they meet some years

after the exciting days of the contests that gave

them their push toward careers in science.

Science clubs now number about 15,000, with

at least one in nearly every county in the United

States. Miss Patterson channels to the teachers

who sponsor these clubs the material and the

advice and encouragement that allows them to

WASHINGTON SCIENTIFIC NEWS

163

counsel and inspire the science-eager youngsters

in their classes. One important aid is an annual

Sponsor’s Handbook for Science Clubs of America

that enables any interested teacher to organize

and conduct a science club. One feature of this

publication is a comprehensive list of free and

low-cost literature, materials, and supplies that

may be used in developing science projects.

Assistance of this kind means much in remote and

underprivileged areas.

The National Science Talent Search for the

Westinghouse Science Scholarships is Miss Pat-

terson’s particular charge. This significant senior-

year event has just completed its fourteenth year.

Forty boys and girls from all over the United

States were brought to Washington for the final

selection; and 260 others, including 11 from

Greater Washington, were granted honorable

mention.

After the papers are rated in the national

competition those of local contestants are made

available to the Academy Committee on the

Encouragement of Science Talent and are re-

viewed again as the basis for selecting young

people to be honored by the Academy with Cer-

tificates of Merit. The Committee gives especial

consideration to the originality, experimental

skill, and accomplishment shown in the students’

scientific projects, and takes into account the

fact that different students have widely different

resources available to them.

This year awards were made to the following 16

students graduating from high schools in the

Greater Washington area. Eleven of these re-

ceived honorable mention in the National com-

petition. Their names are starred in the following

list.

AMBROSE, Ropert Epwin. Age 17.

Northwestern High School, Hyattsville, Md.

Project: Development of Algae of High

Protein Content

*GaGER, JANE Cono.tey. Age 17.

Northwestern High School, Hyattsville, Md.

Project: Measuring the Charge-Mass Ratio

of the Electron

*GAISER, FREDERICK JOHN. Age 17.

Washington-Lee High School, Arlington, Va.

Project: The Synthesis of Organic Com-

pounds

*GREENLEE, Hatrorp R. Age i6.

Arundel High School, Gambrills, Md.

Project: An Advanced Radio Receiver De-

sign

Harms, Carta GRETCHEN. Age 17.

Oxon Hill High School, Washington, D. C.

Project: A Research Study of Space-Heating

Oil Furnaces

164

*Kantor, Paut Breru. Age 16.

Montgomery Blair High School,

Spring, Md.

Project: Some Applications of

Logic

*Levirt, Epwarp Isaac. Age 17.

Anacostia High School, Washington, D. C.

Project: An Electronic Computer

LicHTMAN, Puriie Ropert. Age 17.

Woodrow Wilson High School, Washington,

IDs Cy

Project: Photography of Emission Nebulae

in Hydrogen-Alpha Light and Projection

Photography of the Planet Mars

McANAtiy, WriiuiaAmM Jerrerson. Age 16.

Woodrow Wilson High School, Washington,

D.C.

Project: The Evolution of My Four-Inch

Refracting Telescope and the Resulting

Celestial Photography

*Mourpuy, Frep V., Jr. Age 16.

Georgetown Prep. School, Garrett Park, Md.

Project: The Attainment of High Magnifica-

tion with a Telescope Objective of Rela-

tively Short Focal Length

*Myprs, GARDINER HuBBArp. Age 16.

Western High School, Washington, D. C.

Projects: (1) Spot Test Analysis, (2) A

Study of Hydrofoils

*PEARLSTEIN, Roper? MiutTon. Age 17.

Washington-Lee High School, Arlington, Va.

Project: An Analysis of the Alternating

Electromagnetic Field

*PLATNIK, STANLEY R. Age 18.

Roosevelt High School, Washington, D. C.

Project: Triode Type Effects Produced by

Varying the Electrostatic Field Surround-

ing an Oxide-Cathode Material Used as a

Silver

Symbolic

Resistor

SHANK, GrorGE Epwarp. Age 17.

Northwestern High School, Hyattsville,

Md.

Project: Time-Lapse Photography

*SHeAR, Davin Ben. Age 17.

The Sidwell Friends School, Washington,

D.C.

Project: Differences in Individual Diagnoses

of Color Vision Among Three Separate

Testing Systems

*Witson, Roperr Marron. Age 17.

Montgomery Blair High School,

Spring, Md.

Project: An Investigation into the Possible

Relationship Between Container Size

and Shape and Protozoan Vitality

Silver

Virtually all these young people got their

start in scientific activities through participation

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, NO. 5

in science fairs. In these fairs students, beginning

with the first year of junior high school, exhibit

projects that they themselves have developed,

largely outside of school hours, with guidance and

assistance from teachers and scientists of their

acquaintance. These projects are judged in the

light of the background of the students and the

resources available to them. Many students con-

tinue in one field for several years so that when

they reach their senior year they have attain-

ments that warrant national recognition.

The first Science Fair for Washington was held

in 1947 under the joint sponsorship of the District

of Columbia Board of Education, and Science

Service, and was financed by a grant of $500

from the American Philosophical Society through

Science Service. The Academy participated

through furnishing judges and presenting the

awards.

One year the Academy sponsored the showing

of a documentary film, Kon-Tiki, as a means of

raising the necessary funds for the Fair. When

the Washington Junior Academy of Sciences was

organized in 1952, it took over the conduct of

the Science Fair. In this activity it has had the

financial support of the scientific and engineering

societies associated with the Academy and the

D. C. Council of Architectural and Engineering

Societies and the continuing sponsorship of

Science Service and the Board of Education.

The science-fair movement has now grown to

the extent that there are many fairs in individual

schools and groups of schools in the District,

and nearby Maryland and Virginia. Only a

fraction of the participants can now be accom-

modated in the Washington Fair.

Scientists and engineers affilated with the

Academy and the D. C. Council work actively

with the schools throughout the school year in

their science programs. Many individuals of

international note in their respective fields regard

it as a privilege to participate in the judging of

the Fair and the presentation of awards. The

most significant feature of the entire program,

however, is the personal acquaintance and

friendship developed between gifted students

and outstanding scientists.

A. T. McPHERSON.

ERRATUM

In the March 1955 issue of the JouRNAL (this volume, p. 100) the name of our new mem-

ber J. KAMPE DB FErinr was incorrectly spelled. The Editors regret the error.

Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Presidente noes Seah oc ko on ee eek MarGaArReEt Pittman, National Institutes of Health

Prestdent-Cleck foc som ya ck Se ea RaupH EH. Gipson, Applied Physics Laboratory

ISRETOLOTY sone icfe Tae Ko sre Sesion eS oe eS Hernz Specut, National Institutes of Health

VOGSULET So. <5/<065) 5.3 Howarp S. Rappinye, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired)

PUREREUES EE Sho Sacre eae oe aoe eae Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Indusiry Station

Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications

Harawtp A. Reuper, U. 8. National Museum

Vice-Presidenits Representing the Affiliated Societies:

Philosophical Society of Washington......................... Lawrence A. Woop

Anthropological Society of Washington....................... FranK M. SETzLer

iBrelorical society, of Washington. .2...-...0c-.0---+-+---<:- HERBERT G. DIEGNAN

@hemical Society: of Washington: (.....0082-.--6.---0e- sees Wiiiram W. WauLtTon

Rmetoemolozical Society, of Washington. . 22... .cesc- ee o5ses secs sees soe F. W. Poos

Wanronals Geographic SOClet yess so oa. oe accesses ade tiie ALEXANDER WETMORE

Geological Society of Washington. ......................-... Epwin T. McKnicut

Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. Con

Walumbia Historical Society. <.0. .csctcseceeees ce greene cee GILBERT GROSVENOR

Buyanicaly society, ob Washingtonen a4. sens scie ce oe oon ee S. L. EMswELLER

Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Grorce F, Gravatr

Washmeaton Society of Mngmeers. 2. -.-....2secee sees: HERBERT GROvE DorskEy

Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr

Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers........ R. 8. Dinu

Helminthological Society of Washington. ...................... Joun 8. ANDREWS

Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists....... Luoyp A. BuRKEY

Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers......FLoyp W. Houecu

Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................ H. G. Dorsry

District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons

District of Columbia Section, Society Experimental Biology and Medicine

W. C. Hess

Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............ Tuomas G. DiacEs

Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research

Ropert M. StepHan

Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences.......F. N. FRENKIEL

District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society

Francis W. ReicHELDERFER

Elected Members of the Board of Managers:

Tha Jipmmenae OR eee eas aie rnin coe eine ace ene M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER

POMERAT ODT <= «<5 a1c syoe cece Ses a eens end ve oe A. T. McPuerson, A. B. Gurney

PROM UAINUAT AN QOS eerie Aiicse: coset ste Fe tuate es euabel eeees wesc W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwaLten

FS OULASOIMMENAG CTS 200 cc .siscch cca ved seen All the above officers plus the Senior Editor

ERaTgRE! OFF PUGEDRS Serer teas Ree RE CICEES OCICR oe Ce oe ceca tc ere [See front cover]

WETCOCUILUC (COMMIULLEE «occ... cece ec aeceesteies M. Pirrman (chairman), R. E. Grsson,

H. Specut, H. 8S. Rappieye, J. R. SwALLEN

Committee on Membership....Rogrer W. Curtis (chairman), JoHNn W. ALDRICH, GEORGE

Anastos, Haroup T. Cook, JosepH J. Fanry, Francors N. FRENKIEL, PeTprR KING,

Gorpon M. Kurne, Louis R. Maxwe.u, Ftorence M. Muars, Curtis W. SaBrosky,

BENJAMIN ScHWaARTZ, Bancrort W. SitTeriLy, WILLIE W. SmitH, Harry WEXLER

Committee on Meetings...... ARNOLD H. Scort (chairman), Harry 8S. Bernron, Harry

R. Bortuwick, Herpert G. Dreignan, WayNE C. Hatt, AuBert M. Strong

CaminiiiicoronmVMonognapns.. 22. 545-2 -assnee e721 G. ArrHuR Coopsr (chairman)

PROMIMANUATY VO5Gie scene se ene ec eorreees G. ArtHurR Coopsr, James I. Horrman

phombantany G5... 625 c005.556 2822002 ones k Haratp A. REHpDER, Wituiam A. DayToNn

MOM PANU Aye OOS «ace cas cis este Sess o caw es Dian B. Cows, Josepu P. HE. Morrison

Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement. .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman)

For Biological Sctences..... Sara EH. Branuam (chairman), JoHn 8. ANDREWS,

James M. Hunptey, R. A. St. Grorce, Bernice G. Scuusert, W. R. WevEL

For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. Trent (chairman), JosepH M. CALDWELL,

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Herman Branson, Cuartes K. TRuEBLOOD

Committceion Policyland Planning -.--e2 66) se E. C. CrirrenpEN (chairman)

U@ Hermensy WHS ooscccocnsndsooondavace E. C. CritrenpEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE

MRopanimary. W951: accceees bs ee beace ein cen JoHN E. Grar, Raymonp J. SEEGER

Ihe, deminenay IOS. pocunaoconnosouase: Francis M. Deranporr, FRANK M. Serzuer

Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent..ARcHIBALD T. McPuerson (chairman)

IO, deiiininy? IN aon os ongeeodbue bacdoep En ae Haro.p E. Finury, J. H. McMrInien

Rog JamuaryylO5 to ckcle te seis eat at oe Bere ae L. Epwin Yocum, Wiuu1am J. YOUDEN

PROV anUanyelODSe ye x wy meee tees wy em ee ahr A. T. McPuHerson, W. T. Reap

Committee on Science Education....RayMonp J. SEEGER (chairman), RoNaLp BamMFrorp,

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Recina FLANNERY, RaupH E. Gipson, Fuoyp W. Hoven, Martin A. Mason,

Grorce D. Rock, Wrut1am W. Rusey, Wruiiam H. Sesreti, Waupo L. Scumrrt,

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ingarascntinae on. Counc! Of A Al Aldo: s00centnosconsespoovesnanusssoae Watson Davis

Committee of Auditors...FRaNcts H. Jounston, (chairman), S. D. Couurns, W. C. Hess

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CONTENTS

Editorial

@ 0 ©) 8) .¢ @ 8) © ee ee © 1c © © (e = ©\1s\(0| 5\ 6 (© «(0 © © © ©, © 0 0) 0 ¢ © |» \s| 5]\e © © 0 @ © ew celleieliclsiteltslne

BIocHEMISTRY.—The influence of intramuscular and oral cortisone and

hydrocortisone on liver glycogen formation by DL alanine. W. C.

Hess and I. P. SHAFFRAN

e) [<)ce jn| e} ep ole) (9) /e) = he (s (0! (0/0 \0/)\s <0) (0| 1e) 0! 0) (0) (6) ol lvilelhelicliolelelalate

ZooLtogy.—TIwo new Nephtys (Annelida, Polychaeta) from San Fran-

cisco Bay. R. B. Ciark and Merrepits L. Jonrs

Mammatocy.—New bats of the genus Corynorhinus. CHARLES O.

HANDLEY, JR

silo) Je) Jeijie/il a) ie) 6) (ev ie\e)fe iets! slime, le) Jefis\ elle /elie\lsl(e) e\elle) el e)leiieilielielelleliel sel sit>MemeMaMclisite

MatacoLtogy.—Notes on American cyclophoroid land snails, with two

new names, eight new species, three new genera, and the family

Amphicyclotidae, separated on animal characters. J. P. E. Mor-

134

135

143

147

Vou. 45 JuNE 1955 No. 6

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 45

JUNE 1955

No. 6

ANNOUNCEMENT OF ELECTION OF EDITOR

From time to time special committees

have studied ways and means whereby the

Journal of the Washington Academy of

Sciences could better serve its members. Last

year a new committee was appointed by

President Defandorf. Under the chairman-

ship of Dr. Frank L. Campbell a compre-

hensive study was made. As an outgrowth,

the Academy recently voted to change

Article III, Section 5, of the Bylaws. This

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Board of Managers any policy it so desires.

At the meeting of the Board of Managers,

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elected Editor of the Journal. Dr. Page and

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With this note, Dr. Page is submitting

some of his plans for the Journal.

Maraarer Pirrman, President

MESSAGE FROM THE EDITOR-ELECT

Although I do not assume editorial re-

sponsibility until several months hence, I

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165

JUL 13 1955

166

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In keeping with the above philosophy, I

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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 6

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CHESTER H. PAGE

MATHEMATICS.—Table of characteristic values of Mathieu’s equation for large

values of the parameter. GERTRUDE BLANcH, Wright Air Development Center,

and Ipa RuHopks, National Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by R. K.

Cook.)

(Received February 28, 1955)

This paper is dedicated to Dr. Lyman J. Briaas, whose sympathetic encouragement and generosity of

spirit gave the much needed impetus to mathematical computing in this country.

1. BASIC EQUATIONS AND SCOPE OF

TABULATION

The present work completes the tabula-

tion of characteristic values of Mathieu’s

equation, for orders r less than or equal to

15, and supplements the tables published!

in [5]. For ease of reference, basic definitions

and formulas that will be required subse-

quently are given below. Detailed deriva-

tions and historic background can be found

in [3] and [4].

Mathieu’s equation can be written in the

form

(1.10) y” + (b — scosx)y = 0.

For a fixed value of s, there exists a count-

ably infinite sequence of characteristic values

b, corresponding to which the solutions y

are periodic, and of period a or 27. The set

1 Numbers in brackets refer to items in the

bibliography.

of characteristic values giving rise to even

periodic solutions of the form

in a)

(r) Daas

i >> A$? cos 2nax;

n=0

(GD)

(1.12) y = D> ASy cos (Qn + 1a

n=0

will be denoted by be,(s), r = 0, I, 2, --:

Similarly, the characteristic values giving

rise to odd periodic solutions of the form

fo ¢)

> ee

y = DL Bs sin 2nz:

n=()

(1.13)

Cie) oy = yy BS”,, sin (Qn + 1)a

n=0

will be denoted by bo,(s). When no am-

biguity is likely to arise, the superscript

attached to the coefficients will be dropped,

for the sake of simplicity.

The coefficients in (1.11)—(1.14) satisfy

JUNE 1955

3-term recurrence relations, and the char-

acteristic values are therefore conveniently

obtained by means of continued fractions.

Let us define the following:

Vn = (4b — 2s — 4m?)/s ;

Gen = A m A m—2 5

GO, = Be Bees ;

(1.15)

where b = be,(s) or bo,(s). Further, wherever

the same formulas apply to both Ge,, and

Go, , both will be denoted by G,,. The

following can be readily verified:

(1.16) Ga=Ve; Ga=V-@

(elierGe,;—V;—1; Go, =Vit1

(1.18) 1/Goz = 0; Gos = Ve.

For all four types

(1.19) Gms = Vn -7 : m > A.

It follows that each G,,, is expressible by two

types of continued fractions, namely one in

terms of G,,4; (type 2) and the other in terms

of Gre, k > O (type 1). The continued

fraction of type 2 can be written as follows:

Eee Va — Cu

(1.20)

if! if iL

Wes ae V mie =

Wim mee

When sg is small with respect to 7, the

characteristic values can be computed from

a relatively simple power series in s, [3],

[4], [5]. Similarly, when s is large with re-

spect to 7, the following asymptotic formula

is available:

ber(s) © dorils) & v/a — E EY

i (v° + 37) EK (5v' + 34y° + 9) Le

VE ig )

where vy = 27 + 1.

The most extensive table of characteristic

values now available is that given in [5|

for r < 15 and s < 100. An examination of

the tables show that for s in the neighbor-

hood of 100, (1.21) yields about five deci-

(Pa)

BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION

167

mals, when r = O or 1, and gives progres-

sively poorer results for large orders; when r

is larger than 8, it is not possible to obtain

even the first significant figure from (1.21).

In view of the importance of the character-

istic values, the present table is now being

made available. From it the characteristic

values of orders no higher than 15 can be

obtained for any value of s between 100

and o.

An inspection of (1.21) suggests that for

large values of s the parameter t = 1/+/s

might be a useful one; it was therefore

chosen as the independent variable for this

table. Moreover, since b becomes infinite

with v/s, the function to be tabulated

should be one that is finite at s = «©, and

is simply related to b. The functions chosen

are defined below:

(1.22) Be,(t) = be,(s) — v1v/s ;

b= 2/8, mm = Bre Il

(1.23) Bo,(t) = bo,(s) — v2v/s ;

2p = Ale

2. ACCURACY OF ENTRIES

The values in [5] are given to eight dec-

imals, at intervals of the argument small

enough to permit interpolation to about the

same accuracy by Everett’s formula stop-

ping with second modified differences.

Ideally it would have been desirable to

give a similar tabulation for the range

covered here, but the attainment of such an

objective would have necessitated doubling

the size of the present table. The chief aim

of the authors was to produce a tabulation

that showed the behavior of the character-

istic functions over the entire range of s

beyond 100 (¢ < 0.1). For this purpose the

scope of the present tables seemed adequate.

The intervals have been reduced to the point

where interpolation with second and fourth

modified? central differences, in conjunction

with Everett’s formula, will give the fullest

attainable accuracy. For a few functions of

2The modified second and fourth differences

are defined as follows:

6* = 6% — 0.184 64 ; 6** =5* — 0.20697 5°.

They are used exactly like ordinary central dif-

ferences in interpolation.

168

low order fourth differences are unnecessary ;

the latter are given wherever they are re-

quired.

Although eight decimals are given in the

entries, the last place is not everywhere re-

hable. The method of computation was such

that for t < 0.01 only six decimals could be

guaranteed. [It should be noted that when

t = 0.008, an accuracy of six decimals in

Be,(t) or Bo,(t) means an accuracy of nine

or ten significant figures in be,(s) and bo,(s),

respectively.| An examination of the entries

revealed that the seventh decimal place,

while not completely reliable in this range,

is In error by at most two units for the first

few entries, and that the accuracy improves

as t increases. For values of ¢ greater than or

equal to 0.01, the entries should be correct

to eight decimals. However, since the method

of checking the table was by differencing it,

a random error of two units in the eighth

decimal place could have escaped detection.

For this reason the eighth decimal is to be

considered reliable only to within two units

for t = 0.01 and is completely uncertain for

smaller values of ¢. It was deemed best not

to cut the number of places to those that

could be fully guaranteed.

An examination of (1.21) shows that

Bo,4,1(t) approaches Be,(t) for sufficiently small

t. The functions Bo,(t) and Be,(t) were

generated independently for all values of ¢.

The range where Bo,(t) agreed with Be,_1(t)

to eight decimals was then discarded, in

order not to duplicate tabulations. The

reader is therefore reminded that, when

seeking Bo,(t) for an argument t < ¢, , where

i, is the first entry in the table of Bo,(t), he

can find the entry in the table of Be,_1(t), by

inspection or by interpolation. Moreover,

for t > 0.1, the table in [5] is fully adequate.

At the beginning of each table, a few

central differences were obtained by ex-

trapolation. Interpolation in this region

may be slightly less accurate in the last

place, because of the extrapolated differ-

ences. However, since the eighth decimal

place is itself uncertain for small values of

t, the added error is immaterial.

3. ASYMPTOTIC PROPERTIES

At s = 0, the periodic solutions are y =

C1 COS 7X, OF Y = Cy sin rx, where c; and C2

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 6

are constants depending only on the nor-

malization desired. Thus the only non-zero

coefficient of the trigonometric series for y,

at s = 0, is A, or B,. For relatively small

values of s, the coefficients A, imerease in

magnitude with 7 up to the r* coefficient;

thereafter they steadily decrease numeri-

cally. This is not true for the larger values

of s. Consider the function bes,(s) and the

periodic solution associated with it. From

the definition of V,, in (1.15), we have

A>/ Ao = Ges S Vo

(3.10)

V/s

In the above, be,(s) has been replaced by

vv/s from (1.21). Thus for sufficiently large

s,| Ao| & 2A, . Similarly,

Aly Ale = G4 = V2 ain? G,

(321)

aie 6

Se a + 0(1/s).

Hence | Gy | < 1, and for sufficiently large s,

all ratios G, are numerically less than unity

when k is greater than 4. Thus A> is the

largest coefficient numerically in the trig-

onometric series expression for y. This

property is already evident from the coef-

ficients tabulated in [5]. Thus for the func-

tion of order four, at s = 100, A» (and not

A) is the numerically largest coefficient.

Similarly it can be shown that | B, | is the

largest coefficient of the set for sufficiently

large values of s. One might be tempted to

conjecture that similar properties hold for

the even solutions of period 27 and for the

odd solutions of period m—that is, that

either the first or the second coefficient of

the set is the largest one numerically. The

conjecture might be strengthened by the

fact that at s = 100 and r = 5, | A3|/is

indeed the largest numerical coefficient.

However, some of the auxiliary computa-

tions performed in conjunction with the

present tabulation show that the conjecture

is a false one. For a fixed ¢, the coefficients

of the trigonometric series can be divided

into three subsequences. In the first one, the

ratios G, , Gero, °°: , Gm,—2 are numerically

JUNE 1955

equal to or greater than unity, with k = 2,

3, or 4, depending on the type of solution

that is under discussion. Then follows an

intermediate subsequence in which G,,, is

the first G; that is numerically less than one,

and succeeding G; may be of any magnitude,

and even infinite. In this range the coef-

ficients 4; and B; can go through zero. The

last subsequence consists of the range where

all G, are numerically less than unity. It is

clear that in the first subsequence, A,,,,-2 or

B,,-2 is the numerically largest coefficient.

There may conceivably be some coefh-

cient in the intermediate range that is

larger in absolute value, although this is

not likely. The remarkable fact is that for

very large values of s, A; is not the largest

coefficient for even solutions of period 27;

neither is | B, | or | By | the largest coefficient

for odd solutions of period 7. The computing

routine incorporated provisions for reading

out, from time to time, the value of m,

associated with G,,, (the first G; in the inter-

mediate subsequence). We present below a

part of the record for Be,(t) listing ¢ and

corresponding value of m, — 2.

t Mo — 2

002 23

004 15

006 13

-008 11

010 9

Another interesting asymptotic property

can be tested from the entries published

here. Meixner [4] gives the following?

formula:

bo,+1(s) — be,(s) = Bo,41(t) a Be,(t)

(3.12) ZS V, 2 opr t(7/2) Sr+(B/4) -—2V5 77

——a aE )

where

2 Z

ft Sa se ee a

16+/s

Clearly it is impossible to test the formula

in a region where Bo,,;(t) is equal to Be,(t)

to eight decimal places. However, the

formula can be tested in other regions. Some

3 Meixner’s notation is different from the one

used here.

BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION

169

cases are given below:

Roru(l) — Pe;(t)

r | t oie

By Meixner’s (3.12) True value

GN) sa 00000 026 | 00000 026

Oi) sR] .6900? 173 .00002 168

0 | 25 02158 02134

® | 36533 34489

eee eG .00001 S98 00001 896

I 5 44818 42887

2 080 09091 953 00001 987

2 096 .00060 978 00062 591

2 125 02538 02666

3 064 .00000 286 | 00090 304

.096 .01002 01220

4 059 00000 005 .00000 007

060 =| 00001 099 00001 347

4 .072 .00073 00108

5 048 00000 024 00000 024

Sees O60 00011 00026

Gian | es048 00600 162 .09009 684

7 .040 00000 O14 -00009 017

It is to be noted that for 7 = 0, Meixner’s

approximation is very good, even for large

values of t, some in fact outside the range of

the present table. As 7 increases, the agree-

ment of (3.12) with the true value becomes

poorer, and at r = 7, not even the order of

magnitude is correct. Much more remains

to be done in the way of obtaining a satis-

factory asymptotic expansion for the charac-

teristic functions, perhaps in terms of the

parameters vt and »v, rather than ¢ and v. It

is hoped that the accessibility of the present

table will stimulate further study of the

problem.

4. METHOD OF COMPUTATION AND CHECKING

OF MANUSCRIPT

The values were computed on SKAC

from the continued fractions (1.16) and

(1.20), as outlined in [1] and [2]. The values

printed out by SEAC were later recorded on

IBM ecards and differenced. Doubtful

entries were recomputed on SEAC, and the

regions where errors had occurred were re-

differenced by hand. (There were only a few

errors.) The printer’s galleys were carefully

proofread against the final manuscript.

Much help has been obtained from col-

leagues with the checking of the manuscript

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

by differencing and in supplying modified

differences near the beginning of each table.

It would be difficult to mention everyone

who had a hand in producing these tables,

but special thanks are due to Dr. Dan

Teichroew and Mr. Albert Rosenthal, who

differenced the manuscript on an IBM

tabulator, and to Miss Elizabeth Godefroy,

who helped with computations on a desk

calculator.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Buancu, GerrrRupDE. On the computation of

VOL. 45, NO. 6

Standards MT37 (Reissued April 1950;

published originally in Journ. Math. and

Phys., Feb. 1946.)

[2] — . Programming for finding the character-

istic values of Mathieu's equation and the

spheroidal wave equation. Proc. Electronic

Computer Symposium, IRE, Los Angeles,

April-May 1952.

{3] McLacuian, N. W. Theory and application of

Mathieu functions. Oxford, 1947; reprinted

1951.

[4] Mrerxner, J. AND ScHAFKE, F. W. Mathieusche

Funktionen und Sphdroidfunktionen. Berlin,

1954.

[5] NatronaL BurEAU OF STANDARDS. Tables re-

lating to Mathieu functions. Columbia Univ.

Mathieu functions. National Bureau of Press, New York, 1951.

CHARACTERISTIC VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION

y + (6 — s cosx) y = 0

Definitions

Even periodic solutions, of period z or

27, are associated with b = be,(s).

Odd periodic solutions, of period z or 27,

are associated with b = bo,(s)

Be,(t) = be,(s) — (2r + 1)V/s, s=1/¢

Bo,(t). =) bo;(s) =r = 1)x/s, s = 1/2

lim Be,(t) = lim Bo,4(t) = — [(2r +1)’ + 1]/8

t=0 t=0

Tas iE 1. Values of Be,(t)

Index

r | Range of Page

| =

On| 0(.002)0.1 171

1 | 0(.002)0.1 171

| 0(.002)0.1 172

3 | 0(.002)0.1 172

4. | 0(.002)0.1 173

a] 0(.002)0.088 (.001)0.1 173

6 0(.002)0.064(.001)0.1 174

q | 0(.002)0.046(.001)0.1 174

S| 0(.002)0.040(.001 )0.062 (.0005)0.076 (.001)0.1 175

9 | 0(.002)0.034(.001)0.050(.0005)0.076(.001)0.1 176

10 | 0(.002)0.030(.001)0.045(.0005)0.076 (.001)0.1 177

TAL 0(.002)0.026 (.001)0.037 (.0005)0.070(.001)0.1 178

Wa 0(.002)0.022 (.001 )0.033 (.0005 )0.043 (.00025)0.052 (.0005)0.065(.001)0.1 180

13 | 0(.002)0.018(.001)0.030(.0005)0.037 (.00025)0.051 (.0005)0.064(.001)0.1 181

14 | 0(.002)0.014(.001)0.027 (.0005)0.034 (.00025)0.050(.0005 )0.062(.001)0.1 183

15 | 0(.002)0.012(.001)0.026(.0005)0.032 (.00025)0.049(.0005)0.061(.001)0.1 185

For t > 0.1 (i.e. for s < 100), see tables be,(s) in Tables Relating to Mathiew Functions, National

Bureau of Standards. Columbia University Press, New York, 1951.

JUNE 1955

BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION

TABLE 1. Characteristic Values Be,(t)

i Ben(!) 62* | l Reo(t) 6*

0.000 | —0.25000000 38 | O05) | —O.oRpanIg Nag

“002 — _25012518 38 | .052 | —.25338461 245

“004 — 125025074 —39 (054 | —.25352052 = 45

006 — .25037669 —38 | .056 | —.25365688 —46

“008 — 25050302 —39 | 058 | —.25379370 7;

0.010 | —0.25062974 —38 | 0.060 | —0.25393098 —46

‘012 — |25075684 —39 | ‘062 | —.25406872 —47

014 — (25088433 —40 | 064 | —.25420693 47

016 — (25101222 —39 066 | —.25434562 _48

‘O18 — 125114050 —40 | 068 | —.25448478 _48

0.020 | —0.25126918 —40 | 0.070 | —0.25462442 —48

022 — 125139826 —40 | .072 | —.25476454 —49

024 — (25152774 =41 | ‘074 | —.25490515 749

026 — (25165763 —4 | .076 | —.25504625 —50

“028 = (25178793 —4] 078 | —.25518785 —50

0.030 | —0.25191865 _42 0.080 | —0.25532994 —50

“032 — 25204978 —42 082 | —.25547254 ari

034 | =.25218132 —42 084 | —.25561565 —51

036. | — .25231329 —42 086 | —.25575927 —52

038 | —.25244569 = 43 | 088 — | 25590341 —52

0.040 | —0.25257851 | —43 0.090 | —0.25604808 —53

042 | 25971176 | —43 092 | —.25619328 ay

044 | — 25984545 244 094 | —.25633901 _55

046 | —.25297958 —44 096 | —.25648530 —56

048 | —.25311414 —44 098 — (25663214 Ly

0.050 | —0.25321915 | —45 0.100 | —0.25677955 —58

1 Pei(t) | 62* t Bei(t) ee

0.000 | —1.25000000 —565 0.050 | —1.28005681 ~752

foo2 | 1.25112781 | —570 052 | —1.28134796 2761

(004 | —1.25226132 | —575 054 | —1.28264673 rl

006 | —1.25340058 | —581 056 | —1.28395321 —781

008 | —1.25454565 | —587 (058 | —1.28526750 ~792

0.010 | —1.25569658 | —594 0.060 | —1.28658972 —802

012 | —1.25685345 | —600 062 | —1.28791995 —813

014 | —1.25801632 | —607 064 | —1.28925832 —824

016 | —1.25918526 | —614 ‘066 | —1.29060493 —836

018 | —1.26036033 | —620 068 | —1.29195990 = 347

0.020 | —1.26154161 —627 0.070 | —1.29332334 —860

022 | —1.26272917 | —635 072 | —1.29460538 —872

024 | —1.26392307 | —642 074 | —1.29607614 —885

026 | —1.26512340 | —650 076 | —1.29746576 —899

028 | —1.26633022 | —657 078 | —1.29886437 =914

0.030 | —1.26754361 | —665 0.080 | —1.30027212 —930

032 “| —1.26876365 | —673 082 | —1.39168917 —947

034 | —1.26999042 | —681 084 | —1.30311570 —967

losene |) i27122400 | “Eso 086 | —1.30455189 —989

f038 || =1.27246447 | 607 088 | —1.30599798 | —1014

0.040 | =1.27371191 —706 0.090 | —1.30745422 | —1043

042 | —1.27496641 LAG 092 | —1.30892089 | —1077

(044 | —1.27629806 | —724 094 | —1.31030833 | —1116

046 | —1.27749695 | —733 096 | —1.31188696 | —1163

Kos) |) 2127877317 |) 2742 098 | —1.31338722 | —1218

0.050 | —1.28005681 ~752 0.100. | —1.31489969 | —1283

WAZ, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6

TaBLeE 1—Continued

t Bea(t) 6’* t Bex(t) 62*

0.000 —3. 25000000 —31138 0.050 —3.37050707 — 4726

.002 —3.25439064 — 3159 .052 —3.37586291 —4818

004 —3.25881287 — 3206 .054 —3.38126695 — 4913

.006 —3. 26326716 — 3255 .056 —3.38672012 — 5011

.008 —3.26775401 — 3305 .058 —3.39222340 —5113

0.010 —3.27227390 — 3356 0.060 —3.39777782 — 5218

.O12 —3.27682735 — 3408 . 062 —3.40338443 — 5327

.O14 —3.28141489 — 3462 064 —3.40904432 — 5441

.016 —3.28603705 —3517 .066 —3.41475863 — 5561

.018 —3.29069438 — 3573 .068 —3.42052856 — 5687

0.020 —3.29538745 — 3631 0.070 —3.42635538 — 5822

.022 —3.30011683 — 3691 072 —3.43224044 — 5967

.024 —3.30488313 — 3752 O74 —3.438818519 — 6128

.026 —3.30968695 —3815 .076 —3.44419127 — 6307

.028 —3.31452892 — 3879 .O78 —3.45026046 — 6512

0.080 —3.31940969 — 3946 0.080 —3.45639483 — 6750

.032 —3.32482992 —4014 082 —3.46259679 — 7030

034 —3.32929030 — 4084 084 —3.46886914 — 7363

.036 —3.38429151 — 4156 .O86 —3.47521524 —7763

.038 —3.33933429 — 4230 O88 —3.48163912 — 8243

0.040 —3.34441988 — 4307 0.090 —3.48814561 — 8821

.042 —3.34954755 — 4386 .092 —3.49474053 —9514

044 —3.35471957 — 4467 094 —3.50143083 — 10339

.046 —3.35993627 — 4551 .096 —3.50822480 —11317

.048 —3.36519848 — 4637 098 —3.51513226 — 12466

0.050 —3.37050707 —4726 0.100 —3.52216473 — 138805

t Be3(t) 62* t Bes(t) 62 64*

0.000 —6. 25000000 — 10680 0.052 —6.58939211 — 19310

.002 —6. 26142878 — 10894 054 —6.60458739 — 19855

004 — 6. 27296651 —11111 .056 —6.61998129 — 20428

.006 —6. 28461535 — 11329 .058 —6.63557952 — 21031

.008 —6.29637750 — 11556 .060 —6.651388138 — 21671

0.010 —6.30825523 —11793 0.062 —6.66741354 — 22355

.012 —6.32025091 — 12035 064 —6.68366260 — 23095

014 —6.33236695 — 12287 .066 —6.70014275 — 23911

.016 —6.34460588 — 12547 .068 —6.71686220 — 24828

O18 —6.35697030 —12815 .070 —6.73383018 — 25884

0.020 —6.36946288 — 13093 0.072 —6.75105737 — 27130

.022 —6.38208640 — 13380 074 —6.76855633 — 28631

024 —6.39484375 — 13678 .076 —6.78634223 — 30470

.026 —6.40773790 — 13987 .078 —6.80443363 — 32745

.028 —6.42077195 — 14807 . 080 —6.82285351 — 35572

0.0380 —6.43394908 — 14639

.032 —6.44727263 — 14984 0.080 —6.82285351 — 35698 — 683

.034 —6.46074604 — 15342 082 —6.84163037 — 39236 — 826

.036 —6.47437290 — 15714 084 —6.86079959 — 43601 —976

.038 —6.48815692 —16101 .086 —6.88040481 — 48942 —1127

0.040 —6.50210198 — 16504 0.088 —6.90049947 — 55410 —1272

042 —6.51621211 — 16923 .090 —6.92114822 — 63146 — 1403

044 —6.538049150 — 17360 .092 —6.94242843 — 72281 —1511

.046 —6.54494454 —17816 094 —6.96443145 — 82920 — 1587

.048 —6.55957577 — 18292 .096 —6.98726367 —95138 — 1622

0.050 —6.57488997 — 18790 0.098 —7.01104727 — 108969 — 1607

.052 —6.58939211 — 19310 .100 —7.03592056 — 124395 — 15387

In Be,(t) the values of 6? have been modified for ¢ ranging from 0.052 to 0.080.

JUNE 1955

BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIBU’S EQUATION

TaBLE 1—Continued

t Bea(t 52 i Bea(t) | 82 oie

0.000 —10. 25000000 — 27824 0.054 —11.01847009 — 62292

.002 —10.27376498 — 28464 .056 —11.053857619 — 64847

O04 —10.29781468 — 29151 .058 —11.08933122 — 67644

006 —10.32215597 — 29877 .060 —11.12576330 —70766

008 —10.34679608 —30635 .062 —11.16290391 — 74343

0.010 —10.37174259 —31418 0.064 —11.20078916 — 78569

.012 —10.39700335 — 32235

O14 —10.42258652 — 33086

.016 —10.44850062 — 33974 0.064 —11.20078916 — 78743 —927

.018 —10.47475452 — 34899 .066 —11.23946185 — 83969 — 13809

0.020 —10.50135748 — 35865 0.068 —11.27897423 —90527 —1807

-022 —10.52831917 —36875 .070 —11.31939188 —98917 — 2426

.024 —10.55564969 —37930 072 —11.36079869 — 109756 —3161

.026 —10.58335960 — 39035 074 —11.40330307 — 123775 —3989

-028 —10.61145996 — 40192 076 —11.44704520 — 141794 —4873

0.030 —10.63996234 — 41405 0.078 —11.49220526 — 164686 — 5759

.032 —10.668S7889 — 42679 O80 —11.53901218 — 193322 — 6574.

.034 —10.69822234 — 44016 082 —11.58775232 — 228499 — 7232

.036 —10.72800608 — 45423 084 —11.63877745 — 270853 —7631

.038 —10.75824418 | —46903 086 —11.69251111 — 320762 —7657

0.040 —10.78895146 — 48464 0.088 —11.74945238 — 378225 —7192

-042 —10.82014355 —50111 .090 —11.81017591 — 442754 —6112

044 —10.85183691 —51851 .092 —11.87532698 — 513245 — 4304

046 —10.88404897 — 53692 094 —11.94561050 — 587874 — 1682

048 —10.91679815 | —55644 .096 —12.02177276 — 664012 1794.

0.050 —10.95010400 | —57717 0.098 —12.10457513 —738191 6085

.052 —10.98398727 | —59926 .100 —12.19475942 — 806154 11039

t Bes(t) | 62 ote t Bes(t) 2 ote

0.000 —15.25900090 — 69385 —30 0.050 —16.56743795 —151835 —732

.002 —15.29292998 — 62172 —55 .052 —16.63459395 — 159898 — 967

004 —15.33648169 — 64017 —79 054. —16.70334893 — 168963 — 1367

.006 —15.38867356 — 65942 —93 056 —16.77379354 —179451 — 2031

008 —15.42552485 — 67959 —100 .058 —16.84603265 — 192049 —3076

0.010 —15.47105574 —70077 —104 0.060 —16.92919225 — 207827 — 4630

-012 —15.51728740 — 72299 —115 062 —16.99643012 — 228360 — 6801

.014 —15.56424204 | —74636 —120 064 —17.07495159 — 255832 —9650

.016 —15.61194305 —77093 —131 066 —17.15603137 — 293082 | —13147

.018 —15.66041499 —79681 —140 .068 —17.24004198 —343575 | —17142

0.020 —15.70968373 — 82410 —151 0.070 —17.32748833 —411244 | —21334

.022 —15.75977658 — 85289 —164 .072 —17.41904713 —500179 | —25240

.024 —15.81072231 | —88332 —177 074 —17.51560771 —614147 | —28185

.026 —15.86255137 —91552 —191 .076 —17.61830977 —755909 | —29283

.028 —15.91529595 — 94964 — 208 .078 —17.72857092 — 926344 | —27453

0.030 —15.96899017 — 98583 —227 0.080 —17.84809551 — 1123376 | —21478

.032 —16.02367023 — 102429 — 246 082 —17.97885385 —1340797 | —10162

.034 —16.07937457 — 106522 — 269 084 —18.12302018 — 1567137 7343

.036 —16.13614414 — 110886 —295 .086 —18.28285787 —1784921 31019

038 —16.19402257 — 115546 —325 .088 —18.46054477 — 1970806 59336

0.040 | —16.25305645 — 120532 —359

.042 —16.31329566 — 125878 —398 0.088 —18.46054477 — 493629 3706

044 — 16.37479365 — 131624 —445 089 —18.55668240 —511969 4632

046 —16.43760788 — 137818 — 506 .090 —18.65793973 — 525682 5537

.048 —16.50180029 — 144524 — 593 .091 —18.76445387 — 533872 6374.

In Be,(t) the values of & have been modified for ¢ ranging from 0.054 to 0.064.

174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — VOL. 45, NO. 6

TaBLE 1—Continued

t Bes(t) 82 6s t Bes(t) 82 oi*

0.091 —18.76445387 — 533872 6374 0.096 —19.37638388 — 468115 7913

092 —18.87630673 — 535712 7094 097 —19.51372569 — 431465 7471

093 —18.99351671 — 530493 7647 .098 —19.65538217 — 387397 6777

O94 —19.11603162 — 517669 7989 .099 —19.89091260 — 336597 5854

.095 — 19. 24372321 — 496907 8084 100 —19.94980901 — 279976 4775

t Bes(t) 82 61* t Bes(t) 82 ait

0.000 — 21. 25009000 —116101 —215 0.065 — 24. 55055908 — 269921 — 4980

002 —21.32046179 — 120043 — 225 .066 — 24 63418937 — 305137 — 5393

. 004 — 21.39212402 — 124210 — 237 .067 — 2472087104 — 345724 — 5699

.006 — 21.46502833 — 128614 —251 .068 —24.81100994 —391977 — 5848

008 —21.53921879 — 133270 — 267 .069 — 24 90506862 — 444033 — 5782

0.010 —21.61474195 — 1388194 — 289 0.070 — 25.00356762 — 501812 — 5434

012 —21.69164705 — 143408 —319 071 —25.10708475 — 564953 — 4734.

.014 —21.76998623 — 148940 —341 072 —25.21625140 — 632739 — 3608

.016 —21.84981480 —154815 —374 .073 — 25.33174545 — 704032 —1989

.018 —21.93119153 — 161065 —407 074. —25.45427982 — 777203 173

0.020 —22.01417890 — 167722 — 446 0.075 — 2558458622 —850085 2901

.022 — 22.09884350 — 174827 —489 .076 — 25.72339347 —919958 6167

024 — 22.18525636 — 182422 — 537 077 — 25.87140030 — 983574 9883

.026 —22.27349345 — 190555 —593 .078 — 26 .02924287 — 1037253 13882

.028 — 22.36363609 — 199283 —655 .079 —26.19745797 — 1077044 17917

0.030 — 22.45577156 — 208668 —727 0.080 — 26 .37644351 — 1098980 21664

.032 —22.54999371 — 218783 —810 .081 — 26. 56641884 — 1099387 24756

.034 — 22.64640370 — 229711 —905 .082 — 26.76738805 — 1075247 26829

.036 — 22.74511079 — 241547 —1016 .083 — 26.97910974 — 1024546 27581

.038 — 22.84623335 — 254403 —1146 084 — 27 .20107687 — 946568 26829

0.040 —22.94989994 — 268411 —1302 0.085 — 27 .43250969 — 842069 24556

.042 — 23 .05625064 — 283731 —1499 086 — 27 .67236319 —713289 20924

044 —23.16543866 — 300568 —1773 .087 —27.91934959 — 563797 16250

.046 — 23 .27763236 —319215 — 2209 .088 —28.17197396 — 398183 10952

.048 —23.39301821 — 340146 —2981 .089 — 28 .42858015 — 221653 5483

0.050 — 23.51180553 — 364198 — 4396 0.090 — 28 .68740287 — 39594 258

052 — 23.63423483 — 392883 —6927 091 — 28 .94662153 142838 — 4394

054 — 23 .76059296 — 428856 —11197 092 — 2920441181 321034 — 8257

056 —23.89123965 — 476521 —17883 .093 —29.45899174 491152 | —11235

:058 — 2402665155 — 542666 — 27543 094 —29.70866016 650216 | —13326

0.060 —24.16749011 — 636975 — 40347 0.095 — 29 .95182642 796119 | —14606

.062 —24.31469842 —772125 — 55758 .096 —30.18703149 §27558 | —15194

064 —24.46962799 —963181 —72180 097 —30.41296097 1048919 | —15226

.098 -—30.62845127 1145140 | —14842

.099 —30.83249018 1231579 | —14168

0.064 — 2446962799 — 239671 — 4503 0.100 — 31 .02421328 1303891 | —13309

t Bex(t) 62 ae t Bez(t) 82 6i*

0.000 — 28 . 25000000 — 203754 —443 0.020 — 29 43582156 —312677 —1164

002 — 28 .35790683 — 211758 —488 .022 — 2956949480 — 328454 —1297

004 — 28 .46793124 — 220250 — 535 024. —29.70645258 — 345533 — 1453

.006 —28.58015815 — 229279 — 588 .026 —29.84686570 —364070 — 1633

008 — 28 .69467785 — 238898 —649 .028 — 2999091952 — 384247 — 1844

0.010 —28.81158653 — 249165 —707 0.030 —30.13881580 — 406275 —2091

012 — 28. 93098687 — 260141 —776 032 —30.29077484 — 430404 — 2385

.014 — 29.05298861 — 271896 — 856 .034 —30.44703792 — 456930 — 2735

.016 —29.17770932 — 284508 —944 .036 —30.60787030 — 486208 —3158

.018 — 29. 30527510 — 298068 —1047 .038 —30.77356476 — 518666 — 3682

JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 7/5)

TABLE 1—Continued

Bex(t) rE a t Be;(t) 8 aut

0.040 —30. 94444588 — 554848 — 43875 0.071 —35.22625220 | —2055385 59360

042 —31.12087548 | — 595489 | — 5423 .072 —35.52042922 | —2066771 71507

044 —31.30325998 — 641744 | — 7283 .073 —35.83527395 | —2007554 79203

046 —31.49206191 | — 695684 — 10931 O74 —36.17019423 | —1870378 80708

O75 —36.52381827 | —1653892 75213

0.046 —31.49206191 — 173745 —692 || 0.076 —36.89398124 | —13863503 63160

047 —31.58903408 — 181448 — S882 I 077 —37.27777924 | —1010941 46181

.048 —31.68782068 —190039 —1145 || .O78 —37.67168665 | — 612716 26672

-049 —31.78850767 —199798 —15083 || .079 — 38 .07172122 — 187834 7170

.050 —31.89119264 — 211085 —1980 || .O80 — 38 .47363412 244625 — 10217

0.051 | —31.99598846 | — 224383 — 2602 0.081 —38.87310078 667549 — 24149

.052 | —82.10302811 — 240316 — 3391 .082 —39.26589196 1067118 — 34108

053 | —32.21247092 — 259680 — 4367 .083 —39.64801195 1433352 — 40248

-054 | —32.32451053 | — 283450 — 5540 084 —40.01579842 1760001 — 431438

055 : —32.43938464 | —312800| —6908 085 | —40.36598488 | 2044020 | —43555

| : |

0.056 | —382.55738676 | — 349093 — 8452 0.086 — 40 .69573114 2284845 — 42248

.057 | —32.67887980 | — 393864 —10129 .O87 —41.00262895 2483646 — 39884.

.058 —32.80431149 | — 448775 —11865 -O88 —41.28469030 2642681 — 36978

.059 | —832.93423092 — 515537 — 13549 -089 — 41 .54032485 2764781 — 33891

.060 | —33.06930573 | — 595804 — 15026 .090 —41.76831158 2852985 — 30850

0.061 | —33.21033858 | — 691007 —16081 0.091 —41.96776847 2910307 —27975

-062 —33.35828149 | —802143 | —16438 | .092 —42.13812227 2939615 — 25305

.063 —33.51424583 | — 929502 —15774 || .093 —42.27907993 2943578 — 22831

.064 —33.67950519 | —1072334 — 13649 .094 —42.39060181 2924678 — 20514

-065 —33.85548789 | —1228436 — 9707 .095 — 42 .47287691 2885242 — 18302

0.066 —34.04375494 — 1393780 — 3474 0.096 — 42 .52629959 2827492 —16148

.067 —34.24595980 — 1562084 5287 .097 — 4255144734 2753588 — 14015

.068 —34.46378549 — 1724587 16621 .098 —42.54905922 2665668 — 11887

.069 —34.69885706 — 1870040 301388 .099 — 42.52001441 2565860 — 9762

.070 —34.95262902 | —1985121 44899 .100 —42.46531100 2456284 —7659

i Bes(t) 62 64* t Bes(t) 52 61*

0.000 —36.25900000 | —334060| —1030 |) 0.040 | —40.31415161 | —272811 —933

002 —36.40681895 | —348838 | —1078 || .041 | —40.45279259 | —285256 =?

004 —36.56712628 | —364700| —1155 042 | —40.59428614 | —298830 —1370

.006 —36.73108061 — 381723 — 1262 .043 —40.73876798 — 313891 —1751

-008 —36.89885217 — 400014 — 1407 044 —40.88638783 — 330559 — 2308

0.010 —37.07062386 — 419715 — 1554 0.045 —41.03731327 — 349677 —3115

.012 — 37. 24659271 | — 440976 —1738 .046 —41.19173547 — 371981 — 4259

.014 —37.42697132 — 463980 — 1937 .047 —41.34987749 — 398634 — 5839

.016 — 37 .61198973 — 488927 — 2173 .048 —41.51200584 — 431236 —7952

-O18 —37.80189740 — 516055 — 2447 .049 — 41.67844656 —471919 — 10691

0.020 — 37 .99696564 — 545640 — 2768 0.050 —41.84960647 — §23432 — 14114

.022 —38.19749027 — 578005 —3144 051 —42.02690069 — 589198 — 18230

.024 —38.40379496 | — 613528 — 3592 .052 —42.20828689 — 673316 — 22958

.026 — 38 .61623493 — 652661 — 4124 .053 — 42..39730626 — 780470 — 28096

-028 — 38 .83520150 — 695941 — 4767 054 —42.59413932 —915715 — 33264

0.036 —39.06112748 — 744017 — 5547 0.055 —42.80011153 | —1084090 — 37847

.032 — 39. 29449364 | —797677 — 6503 .056 —43.01693364 | —1289984 — 40923

.034 — 39 .53583656 — 857891 —7691 -057 — 4324665559 | — 1536208 — 41204

.036 —39.78575840 — 925873 —9208 .058 —43.49173962 | —1822697 — 37006

-038 — 40 .04493896 — 1003209 —11308 .059 —43.75505962 | —2144854 — 26336

0.040 —4().31415161 — 1092187 — 14745 0.060 —44.08981015 | —2491618 —7174

061 —44.34948587 | — 2843569 219138

062. —44.68759727 | —3171689 60810

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 6

TasBLe 1—Continued

t Bes(t) 82 5 t Bes(t) & ai*

0.0620 —44.68759727 —793879 3799 || 0.0760 —51.93485750 987777 —6889

0625 —44.86836095 — 830092 5191

.0630 —45 05742556 — 861089 6653

.0635 —45. 25510106 — 885421 8123 | 0.076 —51.93485750 3944233 | —110389

-0640 —45.46163077 —901628 9547 O77 —52.39628243 4416545 | —105177

0.0645 —45.67717676 — 908298 10832 | 0.078 —62.81354192 4784177 —97742

.0650 —45.90180573 — 904167 11905 079 —53. 18295964 5054234 —89651

.0655 —46. 13547637 — 888173 12686 080 —53.50183501 5234636 —81701

.0660 —46.37802874 — 859556 13105 O81 —53.76836403 5333272 —74129

0665 —46.62917667 — 817907 13125 082 — 53 .98156033 5357730 — 66827

0.0670 —46.88850367 — 763216 12712 || 0.083 —54.14117933 5315358 —59541

.0675 —47 .15546283 — 695902 11871 084 —54.24764475 5213491 —52017

- 0680 —47.42938102 — 616797 10653 085 —54.30197526 5059678 —44113

0685 —47.70946718 — 527103 9119 086 —54.30570898 4861822 — 35841

0690 — 47 .99482438 — 428337 7351 O87 — 54.26082448 4628161 — 27373

0.0695 —48 . 28446495 — 322250 5447 |) 0.088 — 54. 16965837 4367107 — 18994

.0700 —48.57732801 — 210724 3498 089 —54.03482120 408697 1 —11036

.0705 —48 .87229831 — 95692 1596 .090 —53.85911431 3795650 —3815

.0710 —49. 16822554 20961 —186 O91 —53.64545091 3900315 2427

0715 —49 46394315 137463 —1790 092 —53.39678437 3207179 7545

0.0720 —49.75828614 252219 —3181 } 0.093 —53.11604602 2921351 11500

.0725 —50.05010693 363842 — 4338 094 —52.80609417 2646795 14339

.0730 —50.33828930 471174 — 5260 095 — 52.46967436 2386372 16178

0735 —50.62175993 573292 — 5957 096 —52. 10939083 2141952 17167

.0740 — 50.89949764 669496 — 6448 097 —51.72768778 1914557 17470

0.0745 —51.17054038 759289 —6758 | 0.098 —51.32683916 1704523 17250

.0750 —51.43399023 842356 —6917 099 —50.90894530 1511660 16651

.0755 —51.68901652 918532 — 6951 . LOO — 50.47593483 1335394 15795

t Bes(t) 62 64% t Beg(t) & o4*

0.000 —45 25000000 — 518845 —1844 |} 0.039 —650.94571032 | —494100 — 2833

002 —45.46876033 — 544553 — 2049 040 —51.15352446 —§22572 — 3667

004 —45.69296618 — 572313 — 2269 041 —51.36656432 — 554809 — 4955

006 — 4592289517 — 602349 — 2524 042 —61.58515227 | —592143 — 6922

008 — 46. 15884765 — 634919 — 2824 043 —51.80966164 | —636603 — 9862

0.010 —46.40114931 — 670323 —3177 || 0.044 —52.04053705 | —691197 —14118

O12 —46.65015420 —708917 — 38589 045 —52.27832442 | —760255 — 20052

014 —46 .90624826 —751114 —4070 046 —52.52371435 | —849773 — 27989

016 —47. 16985347 —797400 — 4639 047 —652.77760200 | —967721 — 38117

.018 —47 .44143267 — 848347 —5315 048 —53.04116687 | —1124202 — 50353

0.020 —47.72149533 — 904636 —6124 | 0.049 —53.31597375 | —1331326 — 64147

.022 —48 .01060436 —967085 —7102 050 —53.60409390 | — 1602606 —78212

024 —48 .30938423 — 1036680 —8293

026 —48.61853091 — 1114627 —9758

.028 —48.93882386 | —1202408 | —11583 || 0.0500 —63.60409390 | —399433 — 4881

0.030 —49.27114088 | —1301872 | —13881 | 0.0505 —53.75396534 | —440332 — 5280

032 —49.61647662 | —1415358 | —16816 0510 —53.90824011 — 486499 — 5620

034 —49.97596594 | —1545878 | —20671 0515 —54.06737986 | —538265 — 5866

0520 —654.23190227 | —595870 — 5978

0525 —54.40238338 | —659414 — 5907

0.034 —49 97596594 — 386143 —13800 || 0.0530 —54.57945863 | —728816 — 5595

035 —650.16141840 — 404318 — 1457 0535 — 54.76382203 | —803748 —4978

036 —650.35091404 — 423959 — 1656 -0540 —64.95622292 | —883583 — 3991

037 —50.54464927 — 445269 —1918 0545 —655.15745964 | —967318 — 2565

0388 — 50. 74283719 — 468522 — 2287 0550 —55.36836954 | — 1053516 — 645

JUNE 1955

BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIBU’S EQUATION

TaBLE 1—Continued

t Bea(t) 62 oe t Bes(t) 62 6a*

0.0555 —55.58981460 | —1140250 1811 | 0.0725 | —66.86955856 | 2276696 | —11881

.0560 —55.82266216 | —1225063 4810 | .0730 | —67.02495288 2285678 | —11267

.0565 —56.06776035 | —1304964 8315 0735 | —67.15749041 2283399 | —10622

.0570 —56.32590S18 | —1376468 12232 0740 | —67.26719396 2270505 | —9938

0575 —56.59782068 —1435691 16395 0745 | —67.35419246 2247683 | —9209

0.0580 —56.88409010 | —1478520 20571 | 0.0750 | —67.41871413 2215661 —8430

0585 —57.18514471 | —1500837 24463 || .0755 | —67.46107918 2175220 | —7605

.0590 —57.50120769 | —1498818 27742 || .0760 | —67.48169205 2127180 | —6740

.0595 —57.83225886 | —1469251 30078 || |

.0600 —58.17800253 | —1409854 31192 ||

0.0605 —58.53784475 | —1319550 30903 | 0.076 —67.48169205 | 8501988 | —107874

.0610 —58.91088246 | —1198637 29162 || .077 — 67 .45965009 8042226 | —78982

0615 —59.29590655 | — 1048838 26065 || .078 —67.35718587 7503471 | —50093

.0620 —59.69141901 —873200} 21848 || .079 — 67. 17968695 6914203 | —23306

0625 —60.09566348 —675876 16843 | 080 — 66 .93304600 6300873 — 297

0.0630 —60.50666670 —461792 11435 | 0.081 — 6662339632 5686281 17896

0635 —60.92228785 | —236281 | 6003 || 082 — 66. 25688383 5088562 31021

.0640 —61.34027181 —4707 | 877 || 088 —65.83948572 4520904 39435

0645 —61.75830284 227854 | —3696 | .084 —65.37687857 3991868 43879

0650 —62. 17405533 456863 | —7558 || .085 —64.87435274 3506072 45246

0.0655 —62.58523920 | 678470 | —10646 | 0.086 —64.33676619 3065063 44414

.0660 —62.98963837 889588 | —12967 || .087 —63.76852901 2668164 42138

.0665 —63.38514166 1087882 | —14586 | .088 —63. 17361019 2313223 39025

.0670 —63.76976613 1271716 | —15598 | .089 —62.55555914 1997220 35521

.0675 —64. 14167344 1440054 | —16115 | .090 —61.91753589 1716713 31912

0.0680 —64.49918022 1592357 | —16249 || 0.091 —61. 26234551 1468140 28435

0685 —64.84076342 1728469 | —16104 | .092 —60.59247373 1248043 25154

0690 | —65.16506194 | 1848517 | —15767 | —.093 —59.91012152 1053161 22192

0695 | —65.47087528 1952825 | —15308 094 —59.21723770 880529 19501

0700 § = —65.75716037 2041840 | —14779 || 095 —58.51554859 727463 17136

0.0705 —66.02302705 | 2116084 | —14216 || 0.096 —57.80658485 591591 15046

.0710 —66.26773291 | 2176114 | —13640 .097 —57.09170520 470820 13228

0715 — 66. 49067762 2222505 | —13060 || .098 —56.37211735 363324 11633

0720 —66.69139728 | 2255838 | —12476 .099 — 55. 64889626 267505 10263

0725 —66.86955856 | 2276696 | —11881 100 —54.92300012 181979 9054

t Bero(t) | 62 | oi 1 Beto(t) 82 oa"

0.000 —55.25000000 | —771643 | —3254 | 0.030 — 60.82394833 | —550068 | —2092

.002 —55.54530121 —814032 | —3683 031 —61.06940956 | —577803 | —2347

.004 —55.84874272 | —860115 | —4163 .032 —61.32064883 | —607895 | —2648

.006 —56.16078539 | —910375 | —4710 | .033 —61.57796705 | —640649 | —3013

008 | —56.48193181 —965364 | —5345 034 —61.84169176 | —676438 | —3479

0.010 —56.81273187 | —1025721 —6092 || 0.035 —62.11218085 | —715743 | —4107

012 —57.15378914 | —1092200 | —6982 .036 —62.38982737 | —759218 | —5026

O14 —57.50576841 | —1165698 | —8044 .037 —62.67506606 | —807831 —6451

.016 —57.86940466 | —1247286 | —9326 .038 —62.96838307 | —863083 | —8749

018 —58.24551377 | —1338258 | —10889 .039 —63.27033090 | —927390 | —12479

0.020 —58.63500546 | —1440195 | —12804 | 0.040 —63.58155264 | —1004646 | —18435

.022 —59.03889910 | —1555033 | —15186 O41 —63.90282083 | —1101016 | —27642

.024 —59.45834307 | - — 1685185 | —18174 || .042 —64.23509919 | —1225940 | —41276

.026 —59.89463889 | —1833686 | —21984 043 —64.57963694 | —1393271 | —60471

.028 —60.34927157 | —2004408 | —26904 044 —64.93810740 | —1622329 | —85954

0.030 — 60.82394833 | —2202374 | —33367 || 0.045 —65.31280115 | —1938494 | —117442

178

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

TasBuE 1—Continued

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 6

t Beio(t) 62 54* t Beyo(t) 62 64*

0.0450 —65.31280115 — 482786 —7340 || 0.0675 —81.97307885 3589201 — 20488

.0455 —65.50717760 — §32581 —8421 .0680 —82.03822832 3509859 —17998

.0460 —65.70687985 — 590801 —9526 .0685 — 82.06827921 3412552 — 15347

.0465 —65.91249011 — 658541 — 10604 .0690 —82.06420457 3299917 — 12604

.0470 —66. 12468579 — 736864 —11581 0695 — 82 .02713075 3174681 —9849

0.0475 — 66.34425010 — 826724 —12357 || 0.0700 —81.95831013 3039581 —7165

.0480 —66.57208165 — 928871 — 12803 .0705 —81.85909370 2897286 — 4627

.0485 —66.80920191 — 1043717 — 12756 .0710 —81.73090441 2750322 — 2300

.0490 — 67 .05675935 —1171176 —12018 .0715 —81.57521189 2601005 — 230

.0495 —67.31602854 — 1310461 — 10362 0720 —81.39350934 2451399 1555

0.0500 — 67 .58840234 — 1459869 —7543 || 0.0725 —81.18729279 2303289 3043

.0505 — 67 .87537483 — 1616532 — 3324 .0730 — 80.95804335 2158161 4239

.0510 —68.17851264 — 1776194 2482 0735 —80.70721231 2017215 5157

.0515 — 68 .49941239 — 1933037 9957 0740 —80.43620912 1881374 5825

0520 — 68 .83964251 — 2079608 19002 0745 —80. 14639218 1751313 6270

0.0525 — 69. 20066872 — 2206936 29275 || 0.0750 —79.83906212 1627482 6527

.0530 —69.58376428 — 2304879 40135 .0755 —79.51545724 1510146 6626

.0535 —69.98990864 — 2362768 50648 .0760 —79.17675090 1399410 6599

.0540 —70.41968068 — 2370320 59664

.0545 —70.87315593 — 2318759 65982

0.0550 —71.34981876 — 2201969 68581 0.076 —79.17675090 5604218 105807

.0555 —71.84850129 — 2017468 66856 .077 —78 .45839749 4796474 100518

.0560 —72.36735850 — 1766987 60781 .078 —77 .69207935 4088500 91790

.0565 —72.90388559 — 1456484 50947 .079 —76.88487620 3471992 81651

.0570 —73.45497751 — 1095575 38441 .080 —76.04295314 2937085 71383

0.0575 —74.01702517 — 696499 24614 || 0.081 —75.17165923 2473669 61715

.0580 —74.58603783 — 272812 10812 .082 —74.27562864 2072154 52998

.0585 —75.15777861 161907 —1852 .083 —73.35887650 1723853 45354

.0590 —75.72790032 595150 — 12625 .084 —72.42488584 1421122 38770

.0595 —76.29207053 1016220 —21146 .085 —71.47668395 1157362 33163

0.0600 —76.84607855 1416605 — 27389 || 0.086 —70.51690844 926944 28420

.0605 —77.38592051 1790023 —31570 .087 — 69.54786348 725100 24423

.0610 —77 .90786224 2132223 — 34038 .088 — 68 .57156753 547810 21059

.0615 —78.40848174 2440659 — 35190 .089 — 67 .58979348 391690 18226

.0620 —78 .88469465 2714100 — 35403 .090 — 66. 60410252 253889 15836

0.0625 — 79 .33376656 2952270 — 34997 || 0.091 — 65 .61587268 132000 13815

.0630 —79.75331576 3155524 — 34214 .092 — 64.62632283 23991 12100

.0635 — 80.14130972 3324611 — 33220 .093 — 63 .63653307 — 71867 10637

.0640 — 80.49605758 3460504 — 32108 .094 — 62.64746198 — 157042 9387

0645 — 80.81620039 3564308 | —30911 .095 — 61.65996131 — 232794 8312

0.0650 — 81.10070013 3637222 — 29621 0.096 — 60 .67478859 — 300204 7384

.0655 — 81.3 ‘882764 3680541 — 28204 .097 — 59.69261791 — 360205 6579

.0660 — 81.56014974 3695692 — 26612 .098 — 58.71404928 — 413605 5878

.0665 — 81.73451493 3684274 — 24808 .099 — 57.73961670 — 461108 5265

.0670 — 81 .87203737 3648097 — 22767 . 100 — 56.76979520 — 503331 4727

t Beu(t) 62 5a* t Beu(t) 62 Rie

0.000 — 66 . 25000000 — 1107665 — $5711 0.010 — 68 .31522765 — 1515445 —11091

.002 — 66 .63801953 — 1174367 — 6427 -012 — 68 .77006984 — 1625144 — 12916

004 — 67.03778273 — 1247527 — 7296 .014 — 6924116348 — 1747844 — 15129

.006 — 6745002121 — 1328021 — 8346 .016 — 69.72973556 — 1885782 — 17867

.008 — 67 87553990 — 1416906 — 9606 .018 — 70.23716545 — 2041729 — 21278

JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 179

TABLE 1—Continued

i Beu(?) é oi* t Beu(t) 2 51*

0.020 —70.76501264 — 2219144 — 25587 0.0535 —89.84933333 — HO295 9369

.022 —71.31505127 — 2422402 — 31100 .0540 — 90.608 10769 717523 — 18017

.024 —71.88931392 —2657113 | —38271 .0545 —91.36130683 1473487 — 39504

.026 — 72.49014769 — 2930592 | —47759 .0550 — 92.09897109 2191183 — §4834

.0555 — 92.81472352 2855160 — 64678

0.026 —72.49014769 | — 731897 — 2993 || 0.0560 — 93 .50192435 3455352 — 70182

.027 —72.80136578 | — 770352 = BER .0565 — 94.15457165 3986008 — 72590

.028 —73.12028739 | — 812185 — 3800 .0570 — 94.76735888 4444500 — 72993

.029 —73.44733085 | — 857834 — 4312 .0575 — 95.33570110 4830258 — 72208

.030 —73.78295264 — 907816 — 4926 .0580 — 95 .85574074 5143961 — 70739

0.031 —74.12765259 | — 962756 —iV/7/ 0.0585 — 96.32134077 5387029 — 68813

.032 —74.48198010 — 1023419 — 6636 .0590 — 96.73907050 5561383 — 66439

-033 | —74.84654180 | —1090797 — 7946 .0595 — 97.09818640 5669419 — 63489

.034 | —75.22201147 — 1166266 — 9899 .0600 — 97 .40060811 5714120 — 59791

.035 —75.60914380 — 1251903 Sol ts 0975) 0605 — 97 .64588863 5699211 — §5203

0.036 —76.00879516 — 1351078 — 18416 0.0610 — 97 .83417703 5629289 — 49673

.037 — 76.42195729 — 1469494 — 27610 .0615 — 97 .96617255 5509869 — 43275

.0620 — 98 .04306939 5347309 — 36204

.0625 — 98 .06649314 5148622 — 28752

0.0370 — 76.42195729 — 366934 —1739 .0630 — 98 .03843066 4921192 — 21258

0.0375 — 76.63396516 — 384135 — 2164 0.0635 — 97 .96115627 4672444 — 14063

.0380 — 76.84981437 — 403526 — fl) .0640 — 97 .83715744 4409513 — 7459

.0385 —77.06969885 — 425657 — 3401 .0645 — 97 .66906347 4138961 — 1661

.0390 — 77 .29383989 — 451225 — 4269 .0650 — 97 .45957989 3866557 3204

.0395 —77.52249319 — 481105 — 5338 .0655 — 97 .21148075 3597159 7094

0.0400 = 71 «195957153 — 516370 — 6638 0.0660 — 96 .92731001 3334661 10040

.0405 — 77 .99458557 — 558324 — 8188 .0665 — 96 .60984267 3082025 12122

.0410 — 78. 23879686 — 608521 — 10002 .0670 — 96. 26155507 2841358 13456

.0415 —78.48909335 — 668773 — 12078 .0675 — 95.88485389 2614017 14166

-0420 —78.74607757 — 741150 — 143890 0680 — 95.48201254 2400740 14381

0.0425 — 79 .01047329 — §27954 — 16883 0.0685 — 95 .05516378 2201765 14216

.0430 —79.28314855 — 931654 — 19454 .0690 — 94.60629738 2016948 13776

-0435 — 79 .56514035 — 1054787 — 21941 0695 — 94.13726149 1845868 13147

-0440 —79.85768002 — 1199790 — 24101 0700 — 93 .64976691 | 1687910 12398

0445 — 80.16221758 — 1368748 — 25587

0.0450 — 80.48044263 — 1563052 — 25933 0.070 — 93.64976691 6764025 198625

.0455 — 80.81429820 — 1782925 — 24540 .071 — 92 .62559620 5644110 172004

-0460 — 81.16598301 — 2026825 — 20685 .072 — 91.54498438 4696153 145644

.0465 — 81.53793607 — 2290737 — 13568 .073 — 90.41741104 3894289 121764

.0470 — 81.93279650 — 2567395 — 2429 .074 — 89. 25089481 3214837 101177

0.0475 —82.35333088 — 2845560 13266 0.075 — 88 .05223020 2637236 83935

.0480 —82.80232086 — 3109546 33543 .076 —86.82719324 2144194 69735

.0485 —83.28240631 — 3339252 57602 BO —85.58071483 1721426 58146

.0490 — 83 .79588427 — 3511007 83557 078 —84.31702117 1357253 48723

.0495 —84.34447230 — 3599465 108404 .079 —83.03975548 1042170 41063

0.0500 —84.92905499 — 3580529 128358 0.080 —81.75206809 768447 34821

.0505 —85.54944296 — 3434986 139639 -081 —80.45669624 529781 29713

.0510 —86.20418079 — 3152087 139512 .082 —79.15602658 321017 25509

.0515 —86.89043949 — 2732104 127198 .083 —77.85214674 137915 22030

.0520 —87.60401924 — 2187051 104234 . 084 —76.54688776 — 23037 19129

0.0525 —88 .33946949 — 1539215 74071 0.085 —75.24185915 — 164762 16696

.0530 — 89.09031189 — 817903 41074 .086 —73.93847815 — 289712 14639

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6

Tasiue 1—Continued

t Beu(t) e2 64° t Beu(t) 6 6i*

0.087 —72.63799428 — 399959 12889 0.094 —63.69376285 — 880864 5749

O88 —71.54150999 — 497265 11391 .095 —62.44693642 —920179 5164

-089 —70.04999836 — 583136 10101 .096 —61.20931178 — 954316 4644

.090 —68.76431807 — 658870 8983 097 —59.98123031 — 983798 4181

O91 —67.48522649 —725591 8010 098 —58.76298681 — 1009089 3767

0.092 — 66.21339081 —784277 7158 0.099 —57.55483420 — 10306038 3397

.098 —64.94939791 — 835784 6409 . 100 —56.35698762 — 1048710 3064

t Bei2(t) 6? 64* t Beix(t) 62 64*

0.000 —78. 25000000 — 1542967 — 8478 0.0410 —94.65886566 — 1699644 —44485

002 —78.74850196 — 1644524 — 10477 0415 —95 .05715246 — 1969787 — 48410

004 —79. 26344916 — 1756505 — 12261 0420 —95.47513713 — 2287803 — 49836

. 006 —79.79596141 — 1880772 —14190 0425 —95.91599982 — 2654772 —47081

.008 —80.34728137 — 2019305 — 16506 .0430 —96.388341023 — 3067509 — 38019

0.010 —80.91879439 —2174457 — 19372

.012 —81.51205198 — 2349123 — 22903 0.04300 —96.38341023 — 766294 — 2360

.014 —82.12880080 — 2546876 — 27312 .04325 —96.62834483 — 821630 —1881

.016 —82.77101839 — 2772187 — 32883 . 04350 —96.88149573 — 878816 —1248

O18 —83.44095784 — 3080714 —40019 .04875 —97.14843479 —937215 —445

0.020 —84.141204438 — 3329715 — 49300 0.04400 —97.41474601 — 996022 540

022 —84.87474817 — 3678660 — 61590 .04425 —97.69601744 —1054251 1714

.04450 —97.98783139 —1110727 3073

.04475 — 98. 29075261 — 1164097 4605

022 —84.87474817 — 918697 — 3859 . 04500 —98.60531479 — 1212831 6280

0.023 —85. 25507425 — 967820 —4340 0.04525 —98 .93200529 — 1255266 8058

.024 —85.64507852 — 1021300 —4902 .04550 —99.27124844 —1289634 9878

.025 —86.04529579 — 1079703 — 5564 .04575 —99 .62338794 —1314131 11667

.026 —86.45631009 — 1148696 — 6347 .04600 —99.98866875 — 1326986 13341

027 —86.87876135 — 1214068 —7285 .04625 | —100.36721942 — 1326542 14808

0.028 —87.31385329 — 1291765 — 8414 0.04650 | —100.75903551 — 1311352 15977

.029 —87.76086288 — 13877933 — 9804 .04675 | —101.16396511 — 1280262 16765

.030 — 88. 22215179 — 1473989 —11572 .04700 | —101.58169734 — 1232498 17110

-031 —88.69818060 — 1581761 — 13966 .04725 | —102.01175454 — 1167723 16970

.032 —89. 19002703 — 1703770 — 17534 04750 | —102.45348898 — 1086079 16337

0.033 —89.69891115 — 18438438 — 23430 0.04775 | —102.90608421 — 988194 15233

.04800 | —103.36856139 — 875161 13712

.04825. | —103.838979017 — 748487 11850

-0330 —89.69891115 — 460588 —1477 .04850 | —104.31850383 — 610013 9743

-0835 —89.96017153 —480179 — 1760 .04875 | —104.80331760 — 461825 7494

0.0340 — 90. 22623371 — 501551 —2141 0.04900 | —105.29274963 — 306151 5204

.0345 —90.49731138 — 525092 — 2656 .04925 | —105.78524317 — 145264 2964

.0350 —90.77363998 — 551326 — 3348 .04950 | —106.27918935 18612 851

.0355 —91.05548183 — 580957 —4273 .04975 | —106.77294941 183378 —1078

.0360 —91.34313326 — 614923 — 5494 .05000 | —107.26487569 347110 — 2785

0.03865 —91.63693392 — 654458 — 7084 0.05025 | —107.75333087 508107 — 4254

.0370 —91.93727916 —701171 — 9123 .05050 | —108.23670497 664899 — 5478

-0375 —92.24463612 — 757116 —11689 .05075 | —108.71348009 816260 — 6473

.0380 —92.55956423 — 824872 — 14852 .05100 | —109.18199261 961193 —7254

0385 —92.88274107 — 907612 — 18660 .05125 | —109.64094319 1098910 —7849

0.0390 —93.21499402 — 1009145 — 23125 0.05150 | —110.08890468 1228810 — 8287

.0395 —93.55733842 — 1183921 — 28186 .05175 | —110.52457807 1350450 — 8593

.0400 — 93 .911022038 — 1286967 — 33682 -05200 | —110.94674696 1463519 —8798

.0405 —94.27757530 — 1473708 — 39295

JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 181

TaBLe 1—Continued

t Bex(t) | & | 6i* t Bei(t) 62 5i*

| | 0.068 —104.67908888 4225784 158160

| .069 —108.12444111 3405509 127510

0.0520 —110.94674696 | 5845294 | —140950 || .070 —101.53573826 2714121 103509

.0525 | —111.74613631 | 6643765 | —148881 | .071 | —99.91989419 2127335 84742

05380 | —112.47908800 | 7299011 | —148860 O72 —98 .28277677 1626137 70018

| |

0.0535 | —113.13904959 | 7810812 | —142015 0.073 | —96.62939798 1195608 58394

.0540 | —113.72090306 | 8180960 | —138548 O74 —94.96406311 823971 49141

-0545 —114. 22094693 | 8412986 | —133059 .075 —93 . 29048853 501857 41704

.0550 | —114.63686094 8512491 | —124945 || .076 —91.61189538 221741 35666

-0555 —114.96765003 | 8487670 | —113760 O77 —89.93108482 — 22481 30714

0.0560 | —115.21356243 | $349703 | —99499 0.078 —88 . 25049907 — 235811 26612

-0565 | —115.37597780 | $112748 —82683 .079 — 86 .57227144 — 422387 23182

.0570 | —115.45726568 | 7793425 — 64295 .080 | —84.89826767 — 585668 20289

0575 | —115.46061931 | 7409876 —45569 O81 | —83.23012058 —728570 17828

.0580 —115.38987419 | 6980582 —27738 .O82 —81.56925920 — 853571 15720

0.0585 —115. 24932323 | 6523169 —11817 0.083 —79.91693352 — 962790 13902

0590 | —115.04354060 6053423 1538 O84 —78. 27423574 — 1058058 12325

0595 | —114.77722372 5584636 12028 .O85 —76.64211854 — 1140957 10951

.0600 —114.45506050 | 5127304 19704 .086 —75.02141092 — 1212870 9748

-0605 —114.08162423 | 4689154 24829 O87 —73.41283200 — 1275005 8689

0.0610 | —113.66129643 | 4275390 | 27803 0.088 —71.81700313 — 1328425 7756

-0615 —113.19821471 | 3889077 | 29079 .089 — 70. 23445851 — 1374066 6930

~ .0620 — 112.69624222 3531577 29077 .090 — 68. 66565455 — 1412759 6196

.0625 — 112.15895396 | 3202966 28181 -O91 — 67.11097817 — 1445238 5544

.0630 —111.58963604 2902413 26704 .092 — 65.57075417 — 1472159 4962

0.0635 —110.99129399 2628491 24886 0.093 — 64.04525176 — 1494104 4443

.0640 —110.36666703 | 2379419 22902 094 — 62.53469039 — 1511595 3978

.0645 — 109 .71824589 2153241 20888 .095 — 61.03924497 — 1525098 3562

-0650 _ | —109.04829234 | 1947960 18923 .096 — 59.55905053 — 1535030 3188

.097 — 58 .09420638 — 1541766 2853

0.065 — 109 .04829234 7810782 302782 || 0.098 — 56 .64477989 — 1545642 2551

.066 — 107 .65180982 6384850 245159 .099 — 55.21080982 — 1546961 2279

-067 —106.19147881 5205891 196968 . 100 — 53.79230936 — 1545996 2034

t Bei3(t) R2 61* t Beis(t) 62 64*

0.000 — 91 .25000000 — 2096837 — 15485 0.025 — 101 .30409740 — 1644407 — 113867

-002 — 91 .87834297 — 2245549 — 17164 .026 — 101 .85129899 — 1757944 — 13261

- 004 — 92.52914143 — 2411613 — 19768 .027 — 102.41608001 — 1884837 — 15602

-006 —93 .20405603 — 2597612 —23157 .028 —102.99970940 — 2027470 — 18565

.008 — 93 .90494675 — 2806946 — 27385 .029 — 103 .60361349 — 2188892 — 22500

0.010 — 94 .63390693 — 3043880 — 32614 || 0.030 — 104.22940651 — 2373229 — 28198

-012 — 95 .39330590 — 3313715 — 39209

.O14 — 96 . 18584203 — 3623147 — 47630

.016 — 97 .01460963 — 3980739 — 58546 0.0300 — 104. 22940651 — 592861 —1774

-018 — 97 .88318462 — 4397618 — 72933 .0305 — 104.55107700 — 618434 — 2031

0.0310 — 104.87893183 — 646056 — 2369

0.018 — 97 .88318462 — 1098258 — 4569 .0815 — 105.21324721 — 676072 — 2828

-019 — 98 .33367575 — 1156890 — §130 .0320 — 105. 55432331 — 708952 — 3456

.020 — 98 .79573579 — 1220671 — 5784 .0325 — 105.90248894 — 745340 — 4331

.021 — 99. 27000253 — 1290259 — 6550 -0330 — 106. 25810796 — 786132 — 5554

0.022 — 99.75717187 — 1366426 — 7453 0.0335 — 106 .62158830 — 832575 — 7234

.023 — 100. 25800547 — 1450082 — 8528 .0340 — 106 .99339439 — 886383 — 9545

.024 — 100.77333989 — 1542310 — 9814 .0845 — 107 .37406431 — 949903 — 12658

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 6

TaBLE 1—Continued

! Beis(t) 82 ae ! Beis(t) 82 ga

0.0350 — 107 .76423326 | —1026289 | —16775 || 0.04850 | —129.81942639 2322675 | — 16809

.0355 —108.16466510 | —1119700 | —22107 .04875 | —130.30967573 2474218 | —17018

.0360 — 108 .57629394 | —1235504 | — 28839 .04900 | —130.77518289 2608764 | —17130

.0365 — 109 .00027783 | —1380457 | —37093 .04925 | —131.21460241 2726197 | —17161

.0370 — 10943806628 | —1562804 | —46858 .04950 | —131.62675996 2826485 | —17116

0.04975 | —132.01065266 2909675 | —16989

0.03700 | —109.43806628 — 389967 — 2930 .05000 | —132.36544861 2975895 | —16769

.03725 | —109.66268988 — 416928 — 3266 .05025 | —132.69048561 3025369 | — 16440

.03750 | —109.89148277 — 447158 — 3618 .05050 | —1382.98526892 3058428 | —15986

.03775 | —110.12474724 — 481008 — 3979 .05075 | —183.24946795 3075531 | —15394

0.03800 | —110.36282179 — 518838 — 4344 || 0.05100 | —133.48291168 3077269 | — 14657

.03825 | —110.60608473 — 561010 — 4698

.03850 | —110.85495777 — 607874 — 5029

.08875 | —111.10990954 — 659759 — 5319 || 0.0510 | —133.48291168 12294450 | — 234721

.03900 | —111.37145890 — 716948 — 5542 .0515 | —183.85760993 12138254 | — 204242

0.03925 | —111.64017774 — 779661 — 5673 | 0.0520 | —134.11092565 11779347 | — 166030

.03950 | —111.91669319 — 848020 — 5676 .0525 | —134.24644789 11255310 | —123306

.03975 | —112.20168883 — 922020 — 5512 .0530 | —134.26941703 10608062 | —80155

.04000 | —112.49590468 | — 1001487 — 5134 .0535 | —184.18630555 9879994 | —40429

.04025 | —112.80013539 | — 1086035 — 4495 .0540 | —134.00439413 9110267 — 6913

0.04050 | —113.11522645 | —1175012 — 3540 || 0.0545 | —133.73138005 8332109 19014

.04075 | —113.44206763 | — 1267453 — 2219 .0550 | —1383.37504489 7571414 37265

.04100 | —113.78158333 | — 1362028 — 487 .0555 | —182.94299558 6846586 48658

.04125 | —114.13471932 | —1456999 1689 .0560 | —182.44248042 6169269 54486

.04150 | —114.50242529 | — 1550188 4320 .0565 | —131.88027256 5045574 56151

0.04175 | —114.88563315 | — 1638969 7388 || 0.0570 | —131.26260897 4977426 54944

.04200 | —115.28523070 | —1720285 10836 .0575 | —130.59517112 4463836 51923

.04225 | —115.70203110 — 1790709 14560 .0580 | —129.88309490 4001952 47897

.04250 | —116.13673858 | — 1846549 18407 .0585 | —129.13099917 3087867 43437

.04275 | —116.58991155 | —1884000 22175 .0590 | —128.34302476 3217202 38926

0.04300 | —117.06192453 | — 1899341 25629 || 0.0595 | —127.52287834 2885497 34600

.04325 | —117.55293091 | —1889171 28515 .0600 | —126.67387695 2588455 30593

.04350 | —118.06282900 | —1850651 30591 .0605 | —125.79899102 2322082 26965

.04375 | —118.59123360 | —1781747 31656 .0610 | —124.90088426 2082755 23733

.04400 | —119.13745567 | — 1681420 31576 .0615 | —123.98194994 1867241 20887

0.04425 | —119.70049194 | —1549758 30311 | 0.0620 | —123.04434322 1672687 18399

-04450 | —120.27902579 | — 1888014 27921 | .0625 | —122.09000963 1496598 16234

.04475 |. —120.87143978 | —1198548 24556 .0630 | —121.12071007 1336803 14357

.04500 | —121.47583925 — 984679 20444 .06385 | —120.13804247 1191418 12732

.04525 | —122.09008551 — 750464 15853 .0640 | —119.14346069 1058809 11325

0.04550 | —122.71183641 — 500438 11065

.04575 | —123.33859169 — 239337 6336 || 0.064 — 119.14346069 4246601 180799

.04600 | —123.96774034 28156 1884 065 — 117 .12374529 3314912 144464

.04625 | —124.59660742 297619 — 2137 066 — 115.07088079 2529554 116991

.04650 | —125.22249832 565052 — 5629 067 — 112.99272074 1862554 95986

0.04675 | —125.84273869 826971 —8557 || 0.068 — 110.89593516 1292540 79710

.04700 | —126.45470935 1080447 | —10927 .069 — 108.78622418 802973 66914

.04725 | —127.05587554 1323101 — 12785 .070 — 106 .66848347 380866 56708

.04750 | —127.64381072 1553063 | — 14193 O71 — 104.54693410 15879 48453

04775 | —128.21621527 1768909 | —15229 072 — 102 .42522593 — 300340 41688

0.04800 | —128.77093073 1969588 | —15965 | 0.073 — 100.30652117 — 574629 36078

04825 | — 12930595031 2154350 | — 16473 074 — 98. 19356270 — 812649 31378

JUNE 1955

BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION

TaBLe 1 (Continued)

183

t Bas(t) 52 | a t Beis(1) 52 aa

| |

0.075 — 96.0S8S873072 — 1019139 27401 || 0.088 —70.11190558 — 2082516 5565

076 — 93 .99409012 — 1198104 24012 .O89 — 68 . 24773623 — 2096181 4938

077 — 91.91143057 — 1352958 | 21102 .090 — 66.40452868 — 2104892 4380

.O78 — 89 .84230060 — 1486626 | 18589 O91 — 64.58237006 — 2109212 3881

79 — $7. 7SS03688 — 1601636 16407 | .092 — 62.78130355 — 2109640 3436

0.080 —85.74978953 | —1700181 14505 0.0938 — 61 .00133344 — 2106622 3037

-OS1 — 83 .72854399 | —1784172 12840 094 — 59 . 24242955 — 2100558 2681

.O82 —§1.72514018 | —1855279 11379 -095 — 57.50453123 — 2091805 2362

.083 —79.74028915 | —1914972 10092 | .096 — 55.78755097 — 2080684 2076

-OS4 —77 .77458785 — 1964541 8956 | .097 — §4.09137755 — 2067482 1819

0.085 —75.82853195 | —2005127 7950 0.098 — §2.41587895 — 2052455 1589

.O86 — 73 .90252733 — 2037739 7060 .099 — 50.76090490 — 2035834 1383

-O87 —71.99690010 — 2063271 6268 . 100 — 49 .12628919 — 2017826 1198

t Be s(t) | 82 a t Beu(t) 82 aie

0.000 — 105. 25000000 — 2786859 — 21936 0.0330 — 124.68417902 — 1411529 — 26178

.002 — 106 .02914592 — 3000426 — 26164 .0335 —125.19022446 — 1549230 — 35657

. 004 | —106.83829610 | —3240275 — 30946 .0340 SOR o220 — 1723192 — 48084

.006 | —107.67984903 — 3511281 — 36737 |]

.008 | —108.55651477 — 3819330 — 44001

0.010 — 109 .47137382 — 4171798 — 53239 0.03400 | —125.71176220 — 430043 — 3011

.012 |} —110.42795084 — 4578067 — 65130 03425 | —125.97886695 — 456016 — 3476

.014 te 4 3080854 |) — 5050245 — 80678 03450 | —126.25053186 — 485476 — 3994

03475 | —126.52705153 — 518942 — 4567

03500 | —126.80876062 — 556984 — 5187

0.014 — 111.43030854 — 1261293 — 5056 0.03525 | —127.09603956 — 600223 — 5855

.O15 — 111.95010092 — 1327538 — 5654 03550 | —127.38932073 — 649324 — 6554

.016 — 112.48316869 — 1399457 — 6354 03575 | —127.68909514 — 704982 — PE

O17 -—113.03023102 | —1477754 — 7168 03600 | —127.99591936 — 767914 — 7988

.O18 | —113.59207089 — 1563249 IPA 03625 | —128.31042273 — 838826 — 8668

0.019 —114.16954325 — 1656900 — 9249 0.03650 | —128.63331435 — 918389 — 9268

.020 — 114.76358461 — 1759845 — 10586 03675 | —128.96538986 — 1007192 — 9735

.021 —115.37522442 — 1873431 — 12190 |] 03700 | —129.30753730 — 1105688 — 9998

.022 — 116.00559854 — 1999276 = hi} 03725 | —129.66074161 — 1214121 — 9970

.023 — 116.65596543 — 2139333 — 16481 03750 | —130.02608712 — 1332441 — 9546

0.024 | —117.32772565 — 2295986 — 19380 | 0.03775 | —130.40475705 — 1460200 — 8607

.025 — 118 .02244573 — 2472169 — 22991 .03800 | —130.79802898 — 1596432 — 7020

.026 — 118.74188750 — 2671553 — 27562 .03825 | —131.20726522 — 1739523 — 4653

.027 — 119.48804480 — 2898812 — 33518 .03850 | —131.63389669 — 1887080 — 1379

.03875 | —132.07939896 — 2035812 2895

0.0270 — 119.48804480 = THEN = POP 0.03900 | —132.54525936 — 2181439 8206

.0275 — 119.87183951 — 755599 — 2340 .03925 | —133.03293414 — 2318660 14504.

.0280 — 120.26319022 — 789373 — 2628 .03950 | —133.54379553 — 2441213 21625

.0285 — 120 .66243465 — 825790 — 2986 .03975 | —134.07906905 — 2542040 29262

.0290 — 121 .06993699 — 865216 — 3451 .04000 | —134.63976296 — 2613596 36967

0.0295 — 121 .48609149 — 908127 — 4074 0.04025 | —135.22659283 — 2648292 44168

.0300 —121.91132726 — 955164 — 4938 .04050 | —135.83990562 — 2639056 50222

.0305 — 122.34611468 — 1007215 — 6163 .04075 | —1386.47960897 — 2579962 54498

.0310 — 122.79097424 | ,— 1065543 = OR .04100 | —1387.14511194 — 2466837 56472

.0315 — 123 . 24648925 — 1131956 — 10451 .04125 | —137.83528328 — 2297771 55828

0.0320 — 123 .71332381 — 1209048 — 14064 0.04150 | —138.54843232 — 2073417 52516

.0325 — 12419224886 — 1300511 — 19150 .04175 | —139.28231553 — 1797038 46780

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 6

TABLE | (Continued)

t Bews(t) 62 64* t Beis(t) 62 64*

0.04200 | —140.038416912 | —1474275 39105 0.0575 — 141.57645396 2231530 27807

.04225 | —140.80076546 | —1112669 30147 .0580 — 140.39356161 1983890 24195

.04250 | —141.57848849 — 721036 20619 .0585 — 139.19083035 1760560 211388

.04275 | —142.36342188 — 308770 11186 .0590 — 137 .97049349 1558466 18551

.04800 | —148.15144297 114807 2390 -0595 — 136 .73457197 1375005 16356

0.043825 | —143.938831599 540976 — §395 0.0600 — 135.48490040 1207968 14488

.043850 | —144.71977925 961992 — 11983 .0605 — 134.22314915 1055475 12893

.043875 | —145.49162259 1371280 — 17309 .0610 — 132.95084315 915923 11525

.04400 | —146.24975314 1763496 — 21483 .0615 — 131.66937792 787936 10347

.04425 | —146.99024873 2134441 — 24619 .0620 — 130.38003333 670328 9326

0.04450 | —147.70939992 2480939 — 26929

.04475 | —148.40374173 2800643 —28588 || 0.062 —130.38003333 2690665 148921

.04500 | —149.07007710 3091859 — 29765 .063 —127.78231685 1856808 122380

.04525 | —149.70549389 3353385 —30591 .064 —125.16603229 1146615 191876

.04550 | —150.30737682 3584377 — 31152 .065 —122.53828158 539224 85729

0.04575 | —150.87341598 3784264 — 31496 0.066 —119.90513863 18242 72787

.04600 | —151.40161250 3952700 — 31628 .067 —117.27181325 —429445 62251

.04625 | —151.89028203 4089556 — 31530 .068 —114.64278233 —814492 53558

.04650 | —152.33805600 4194939 —31157 .069 —112.02189633 — 1145680 46302

.04675 | —152.74888058 4269232 — 30464 .070 —109.41246713 — 1430326 40187

0.04700 | —153.10701283 43131385 — 29408 0.071 —106.81734119 — 1674592 34993

.04725. | —153.42701373 4327709 — 27964 .072 —104.23896116 — 1883707 30551

.04750 | —153.70373754 4314399 — 26128 .073 —101.67941821 — 2062142 26730

.04775 | —153.93731736 4275036 — 23925 O74 —99.14049669 — 2213739 23428

.04800 | —154.12814682 4211812 — 21406 .075 —96.62371255 — 2341816 20563

0.04825 | —154.27685816 4127231 — 18648 0.076 —94.13034656 — 2449252 18069

.04850 | —154.38429720 4024033 —15738 O77 —91.66147310 — 2538553 15891

.04875 | —154.45149590 3905107 —12778 .078 —89.21798517 — 2611908 13983

.04900 | —154.47964354 3773395 —9861 .079 —86.80061632 — 2671230 12310

.04925 | —154.47005722 3631796 —7075 .080 —84.40995977 — 2718201 10838

0.04950 | —154.42415295 3483080 —4492 0.081 —82.04648523 — 2754298 9541

.04975 | —154.34341787 3329820 — 2166 .082 —79.71055367 — 2780822 8397

.05000 | —154.22938460 3174334 —129 .083 —77 .40243034 — 2798921 7386

084 —75.12229621 — 2809610 6492

.085 —72.87025819 — 2813785 5700

0.0500 —154.22938460 12697145 —1618 0.086 —70.64635802 — 2812241 4998

.0505 —153.90764481 11461053 48952 .087 — 68 .45058025 — 2805683 4375

.0510 —153.47129448 10270173 80958 -088 — 66 . 28285932 — 2794735 3822

.0515 — 152 .93224243 9157111 97602 .089 —64.14808574 — 2779953 3330

.0520 —152.30161927 8139301 102918 .090 —62.03111168 — 2761830 2893

0.0525 —151.58960310 7222825 100715 0.091 —59.94675593 — 2740804 2504

.0530 —150.80535868 6406110 94071 .092 —57.88980822 — 2717266 2157

.0535 — 149 .95705317 5682978 85223 .093 —55.86003317 — 2691562 1849

.0540 — 149 .05191787 5044896 75656 .094 —53.85717375 — 2664003 1575

.0545 — 148 .09633362 4482492 66277 .095 —51.88095435 — 2634862 1330

0.0550 — 147 .09592444 3986493 57580 0.096 —49 .93108357 — 2604385 11138

.0555 — 146 .05565033 3548255 49792 .097 —48 .00725664 — 2572791 919

.0560 —144.97989368 3160006 42975 .098 —46.10915762 — 2540272 747

.0565 — 143 .87253696 2814923 37095 .099 —44 23646133 — 2507003 594

.0570 —142.73703102 2507112 32073 . 100 —42.38883506 — 2473137 457

JUNE 1955

BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION

TABLE | (Continued)

t Beis(t) & 54* t Beis(t) & 5i*

0.000 | —120.25000000 | —3635858 | —33368 || 0.03450 | —147.46947271 | —1253289 | —15619

002 =| —121.20252185 | —3934396 | —30518|| .03475 | —147.88465023 | —1387767 | —16538

(004 | —122.19438766 | —4272745 | —47077 | .03500 | —148.31370543 | —1538692 | —17028

(008 | —123 29898002 | —4658586 | —56617 | .03525 | —148.75814754 | —1706510 | —16874

008 | —124 31016004 | —5101605 | —6ssi4 || .03550 | —149.21965475 | —1891014 | —15322

0.010 | —125.44235521 —5614204 | —84619 | 0.03575 | —149.70007210 | —2091091 | —13569

‘012 =|: —126.63069243 | —6212489 | —105416 | .03600 | —150.20140037 | —2304421| —9788

| | 03625 | —150.72577284 | —2527159 | . —4162

| <03650 | —151.27541690 | —2753629 3575

0.012 =126.63060243 1551465 | —6604 | 03675 | —151.85259725 | —2976060 | 13552

| |

0.013 —127 .24774509 — 1635677 | —7414 || 0.03700 | —152.45953829 — 3184526 25678

.O14 —127.88115453 —1727330 | —8355 || .03725 | —153.09832458 — 3366960 39548

-015 —128.53183727 — 1827373 | —9460 || .03750 —153.77078048 — 3509662 54379

.016 —129.20079373 —1936915 | —10757 .03775 —154.47833299 — 3598041 68996

O17 —129.88911935 — 2057265 | —12299 || .03800 —155.22186592 — 3617777 81932

0.018 —130.59801762 —2189976 | —14137 || 0.03825 | —156.00157662 — 3556245 91616

.019 —131.32881565 — 2336903 | —16352 | .03850 —156.81684977 —3404038 96662

.020 —132.08298271 — 2500281 —19039 || .03875 — 157 .66616329 — 3156288 96162

.021 —132.86215258 —2682826 | —22334 || .03900 | —158.54703969 — 2813533 89918

022 —133.66815072 —2887870 | —26415 | .03925 — 159 .45605142 — 2381903 78502

0.023 —134.50302755 — 3119549 — 31532 || 0.03950 —160.38888217 — 1872568 63160

.024 —135.36909987 —3383056 | —38035 | .03975 —161.34043860 — 1300549 45500

025 —136. 26900274 —3685019 —46454 | .04000 —162.30500052 — 683165 27237

.026 —187.20575581 | —4034097 | —57731 .04025 —163.27639409 —38386 - 9816

| .04050 —164.24817152 616583 —5703

0.0260 —137.20575581 — 1007613 —3627 | 0.04075 —165.21378312 1266342 — 18754

.0265 —137.68902069 | —1056428 —4091 | .04100 —166.16673130 1897873 —29195

.0270 —138.18284984 | —1109358 —4671 .04125 —167.10070075 2500705 — 37202

.0275 —138.68777258 | —1166996 —5418 .04150 — 168 .00966315 3066757 — 43152

0280 —139. 20436527 | —1230110 | —6430 .04175 —168.88795798 3589993 —47482

0.0285 —139.73325906 —1299742 —7852 || 0.04200 —169.73035289 4065997 — 50618

.0290 —140.27515028 — 1377366 —9920 .04225 —170.53208782 4491565 — 52896

-0295 —140.83081514 — 1465121 —12982 || .04250 —171.28890711 4864374 — 54538

0300 —141 .40113122 | —1566177 | —17543 .04275 —171.99708265 5182759 — 55649

0305 —141.98710907 — 1685237 — 24294 .04300 —172.65343060 5445609 — 56221

0.0310 — 14258993928 — 1829238 — 34134 || 0.043825 —173. 25532246 5652369 —56171

-0315 —143.21106187 — 2008242 —48153 .04350 —173.80069062 5803112 — 55373

0320 — 143 .85226688 — 2236508 —67555 .04375 —174.28802767 5898662 — 53700

.04400 —174.71637809 5940708 — 51067

| -04425 —175.08532143 5931885 — 47459

0.03200 | —143.85226688 | — 558063 —4233 || 0.04450 —175.39494593 5875788 — 42944

.03225 | —144.18108943 — 592498 —4989 .04475 —175.64581254 5776899 — 37675

.03250 | —144.51583697 —631945 — 5853 .04500 —175.83891017 5640444 — 31874

.03275 | —144.85690395 | — 677267 — 6829 .04525 —175.97560335 5472171 — 25801

.03300 | —145.20474360 | —729442 —7919 .04550 —176.05757481 5278099 —19726

0.03325 | —145.55987767 —789556 —9113 || 0.04575 —176.08676529 5064251 — 13899

.03350 | —145.92290730 — 858802 — 10398 .04600 —176.06531325 4836412 — 8526

.03375 | —146.29452495 — 938459 —11747 .04625 —175.99549710 4599924 — 3756

.03400 | —146.67552719 — 1029865 —13114 .04650 —175.87968169 4359541 325

-03425 | —147.06682808 — 1134374 — 14435 .04675 —175.72027089 4119334 3684

186

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF

TaBLeE 1 (Continued)

SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 6

Beis(t)

oi*

Beis(t)

6i*

0.04700

04725

.04750

04775

.04800

0.04825

04850

04875

.04900

0.0490

0495

.0500

.0505

-0510

0.0515

.0520

0525

.0530

0535

0.0540

0545

0550

.0555

.0560

0.0565

.0570

-0575

.0580

0585

0.0590

-0595

0600

-0605

.0610

0.061

.062

—175.51966673

—175.28023591

—175.00428308

—174.69403082

—174.35160534

—173.97902722

—173.57820637

—173. 15094020

—172.69891454

—171.72678794

—170.67321722

—169.54809208

—168 .35998905

— 167 .11635577

— 165.82367939

—164.48763396

—163.11320608

—161.70480038

— 160. 26632713

—158.80127475

—157 .31276962

— 155 .80362562

—154.27638505

—152.73335284

—151.17662505

—149 .60811295

— 148 .02956335

— 146 .44257601

— 14484861852

— 143. 24903922

— 141 .64507841

—140.03787819

—138.42849110

— 135. 20696389

3882667

3652200

3429943

3217322

3015263

2824274

2644531

2475950

2318252

9283478

8144412

7155441

6297790

5553025

4904310

4336905

3838245

3397782

3006755

2657914

2345274

2063888

1809656

1579165

1369558

1178432

1003749

843774

697015

562181

438151

323941

218687

121621

493990

— 196076

6336

8330

9740

10648

11140

11300

11202

10913

10488

168059

150535

131249

112556

95615

80862

68325

57830

49121

41925

35986

31079

27011

23625

20791

18405

16382

14656

13174

11891

10775

9797

8935

8171

7491

119690

101237

—131.98739744

— 128 .77567278

—125.57680325

—122.39505964

—119.23407445

— 116 .09692954

—112.98623039

—109 .90416932

— 106 .85257972

— 103 .83298262

— 100.84662697

— 97.89452446

—94.97747978

—92.09611697

— 89 .25090236

—86.44216471

—83.67011272

—80.93485048

—78 . 23639094

—75.57466788

—72.94954628

—70.36083161

— 67 .80827786

—65.29159478

—62.81045414

— 60. 36449533

— 57 .95333028

—55.57654780

—53.23371743

— 50. 92439283

—48.64811478

— 46 40441382

—44.19281256

—42.01282780

— 39 .86397227

—37.74575626

— 35.65768901

— 33 ..59927996

—784179

— 1285513

—1712592

— 2075842

— 2384029

— 2644575

— 2863808

— 3047146

—3199251

— 3324145

— 3425314

— 3505783

— 3568186

— 3614821

— 3647695

— 3668566

— 3678974

— 3680271

— 3673647

— 3660147

— 3640692

— 3616093

— 3587067

— 3554244

— 3518183

— 3479376

— 3438257

— 3395211

— 3350577

— 3304655

— 3257708

— 3209971

— 3161649

— 3112923

— 3063952

— 3014877

— 2965819

— 2916888

86215

73822

63485

54786

47413

41126

35738

31102

27099

23630

20618

17996

15709

13709

11959

10424

9077

7892

6850

5933

5124

4410

3781

3225

2734

2301

1918

1580

1281

1018

785

580

399

241

101

—21

—129

—222

JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 187

TABLE 2. Values of Bo,(t)

Index

r Range of ¢ Page

1 0.074(.002)0.1 188

2 0.054 (.002)0.1 188

3 0.054 (.002)0.1 188

4 0.050(.002)0.1 188

5 0.038 (.002)0.1 188

6 0.038 (.002)0.1 189

a 0.038 (.002)0.1 189

8 0.036 (.002)0.058 (.001)0.1 189

9 0.032 (.002)0.040(.001)0.1 190

10 0.028 (.002)0.036 (.001)0.1 191

11 0.024 (.002)0.032(.001)0.050(.0005)0.060(.001)0.1 191

12 0.028 (.001)0.039 (.0005)0.058 (.001)0.1 192

13 0.027 (.001)0.035(.0005)0.062(.001)0.1 193

14 0.025 (.001)0.031 (.0005)0.059(.001)0.1 194

15 0.021 (.001)0.029 (.0005)0.056 (.001)0.1 195

For values of ¢ smaller than the first one listed for each r, Bo,(t) = Be,.(t) to eight decimals or

better. (See tables of Be,(t) in this volume)

For t > 0.1 (i.e. for s < 100), see tables of bo,(s) in Tables Relating to Mathieu Functions, National

Bureau of Standards. Columbia University Press, New York, 1951

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 6

TaBLE 2. Values of Bo,(t)

t Boi(t) 62* t Box(t)

0.074 —0.25490515 —49 0.088 —0. 25590337 —52

076 — .25504625 —49 .090 — .25604801 —52

.078 — .25518784 —50 .092 — .25619316 —52

080 — .25532994 —650 094 — . 25633884 —52

082 — .25547253 —5l 096 — . 25648504 —52

0.084 —0.25561563 —5l 0.098 —0. 25663175 —52

086 — .25575925 —51 100 — .25677898 —5l

Seay Bo2(t) ee { Boo(t)

0.054 —1.28264673 = 0.078 —1.29886410 —906

056 —1.28395321 —781 O80 —1.30027164 Oily

.058 —1.28526750 —792 082 —1.30168834 —927

060 —1.28658971 —802 084 —1.30311431 —936

062 —1.28791995 —813 086 —1.30454963 —943

0.064 —1.28925832 — 824 0.088 —1.30599438 948

066 —1.29060492 —835 .090 —1.30744859 —949

.068 —1.29195989 — 847 092 —1.30891229 — 947

070 —1.29332332 — 859 O94 —1.31038545 —940

072 —1.29469534 —870 096 —1.31186800 —926

0.074 —1.29607606 — 882 0.098 .—1,31835979 —906

076 —1.29746561 — 894 . LOO sail . 31486062 —876

t Bos(t) 62* t : » Bos(t)

0.054 —3.38126695 —4913 0.078 —3.45024892 —6194

056 —3.38672012 —5011 080 —3.45637497 —6261

.058 —3.39222340 —112 .082 —3.46256358 —6299

060 —3.39777781 —5217 084. —3.46881510 —6297

062 —3.40338439 —§325 .086 —83.47512950 — 6244

0.064 —3.40904423 —5435 0.088 —3.48150622 —6125

066 —3.41475842 — 5549 .090 —3.48794403 — 5926

.068 —3.42052811 — 5664 092 —3:49444093 — 5630

.070 —3.42635445 —5780 094 —3.50099392 —6221

072 —3.43223858 —5895 096 —3.50759889 —4681

0.074 —3.43818166 — 6005 0.098 —3.51425039 — 3993

076 —3.44418477 —6107 . LOO —3.52094153 —3140

t Bos(t) &2% t Bos(t)

0.050 —6.57438997 — 18790 0.076 —6.78616623 | —25694

.052 —6.58939210 — 19309 078 —6.80413169 — 25492

054 —6.60458737 —19853 080 —6.82235131 — 24877

056 —6.61998122 — 20421 082 —6.84081872 — 23731

058 —6.63557932 —21014 084 —6.85952224 — 21930

0.060 —6.65138761 —21631 0.086 —6.87844361 — 19343

062 —6.66741223 — 22267 088 —6.89755673 — 15839

064 —6.68365955 — 22916 .090 —6.91682633 —11297

066 —6.70013603 — 23565 092 —6.93620681 — 65610

068 —6.71684811 — 24193 094 —6.95564113 1308

0.070 —6.73380202 — 24770 0.096 —6.97506001 9513

.072 —6.75100345 — 25252 .098 —6.99438137 19030

O74 —6.76845713 — 25584 . LOO —7.01351005 29845

t Bos(t) & oa* t Bos(t) o4*

0.038 —10.75824418 —46918 —80 0.048 —10.91679814 — 55663 Ili?

.040 —10.78895146 — 48480 —86 050 —10.95010395 — 57732 —125

042 —10.82014355 — 50128 —93 052 —10.98398708 — 59925 —129

044 —10.85183691 —51869 —101 054 —11.01846945 — 62244 —124

046 —10.88404897 —§3712 —109 056 —11.05357427 — 64685 —104

JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 189

TABLE 2 (Continued)

é Bos(t) & 5i* t Bos(t) 62 6i*

0.058 —11.08932593 | — 67224 | —57 0.080 —11.58046855 — 39846 5045

.060 —11.12574983 — 69811 30 | .O82 —11.57447265 — 19833 5535

.062 —11.16287184 —72357 | 176 O84 —11.61867508 5673 5822

.064 —11.20071743 | —74711 398 .O86 —11.66282079 36948 5854

.066 —11.23931012 — 76647 714 .O8S —11.70659701 74020 5602

0.068 | —11.27866929 —77849 1132 0.090 —11.74963303 116634 5054

.070 —11.31880695 — T7897 1658 .092 —11.79150270 164246 4227

072 —11.35972359 —76269 2280 .094 —11.83172991 216035 3160

O74 —11.40140291 —72346 2973 .096 —11.86979678 270947 1913

.076 Pgs 11.44380569 | — 65443 3702 .098 —11.90515419 327749 551

0.078 —11.48686291 — 54843 4412 0.100 —11.93723410 385102 — 820

t Bos(t) o 63* t Bog(t) 2 641*

0.038 —16.19402257 — 115546 —325 0.070 —17.31871445 —147885 15427

.040 —16.25305645 — 120532 —358 .072 —17.40366023 — 105442 18308

.042 —16.31329566 — 125877 — 397 O74 —17.48966044 — 44852 20407

044 —16.37479363 —131619 —437 .076 —17.57610917 35900 21301

.046 —16.438760780 — 137798 —478 .O78 —17.66219889 137644 20667

0.048 —16.50179996 — 144453 —508 0.080 —17.74691218 259718 18360

.050 —16.56743664 —151608 — 508 .082 —17.82902829 399829 14448

-052 —16.63458941 — 159255 —435 084 —17.90714611 554124 9227

.054 —16.70333473 — 167308 —227 .O86 —17.97972270 717476 3166

-056 —16.77375313 —175541 205 .O88 —18.04512453 883937 —3168

0.058 —16.84592694 —183500 969 0.090 —18.10168699 1047285 — 9220

.060 —16.91993576 — 190399 2178 .092 —18.14777660 1201566 — 14501

.062 —16.99584856 —195011 3920 .094 —18.18185055 13841567 — 18685

.064 —17.07371148 —195590 6229 .096 —18.20250883 1463141 —21591

.066 —17.15353030 —189839 9050 .098 —18.20853570 1563386 — 23208

0.068 ee 17 . 23524752 —174972 12213 0.100 —18.19892871 1640665 — 23641

t Boz(t) 8 ae t Box(t) Fa ean

0.038 — 22 .84623335 — 254402 —1145 0.070 — 24 90724364 234545 64464

.040 — 22 .94989993 — 268407 —1294 .072 — 25 .05684615 542328 55841

.042 — 23 .05625058 — 283709 —1459 074 — 25 .20102537 904489 39846

.044 — 23 .16543832 — 300467 —1618 .076 — 25 .33615971 1305403 18358

-046 — 23 .27763073 — 318823 —1703 .078 —25.45824001 1724167 — 5648

0.048 — 23 .39301137 — 338832 —1568 0.080 — 25 .56307864 2137424 — 28886

.050 —23.51178033 — 360301 —939 .082 —25.64654303 2522496 — 48542

-052 — 23 .63415230 — 382513 606 -084 —25.70478246 2860097 — 62802

-054 — 23 .76034940 — 403816 3617 .086 —25.73442092 3136109 —71006

-056 — 23 .89058467 —421088 8665 .O88 — 25 .73269830 3342274 — 73476

0.058 — 24 .02503081 —429207 16157 0.090 —25.69755294 3475937 —71176

.060 — 24 .16376903 — 420694 26077 .092 —25.62764821 3539151 — 653859

.062 — 2430671419 —385775 37745 .094 — 25 .52235196 3537479 — 57287

064 —24.45351710 — 3138083 49684 .096 —25.38168093 3478768 — 48061

-066 — 2460345084 —191111 59722 .098 — 25 .20622222 3372065 — 38544

0.068 — 24 .75529569 —10311 65372 0.100 — 24 .99704285 3226756 — 29362

t Bos(t) & 64* t Bos(t) & 6i*

0.036 —30.60787030 | —486206 | —3156 || 0.048 —31.68770893 | —742222 128

.038 —30.77356474 | —518653 | —3657 .050 —31.89080650 | —793718 8990

.040 —30.94444571 —554766 | —4223 052 —32.10184125 | —834698 25396

042 —31.12087435 | —595081 | —4740|| .054 —32.32122297 | —848446 51147

.044 —31.30325380 — 640033 — 4854 .056 —32.54908916 — 809378 85721

0.046 —31.49203358 — 689557 — 3738 0.058 —32.78504912 — 683834 124749

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6

TABLE 2 (Continued

t Bos(t) & 64* t Bos(t) & éa*

0.058 —32.78504912 —172901 7783 || 0.079 — 34 .62241003 1586669 — 12509

.059 —32.90571600 — 146456 8939 080 —34.59908069 1622264 —12231

.060 — 33 .02784743 —111103 9944 O81 —34.55952871 1645676 —11727

061 —33.15108989 — 65857 10704 082 — 34.50351998 1657398 —11043

062 — 33 .27499093 —9976 11129 .083 — 3443093726 1658104 — 10226

0.063 —33.39899174 56949 11143 |) 0.084 —34.34177351 1648604 —9317

064 —33 .52242304 134924 10695 085 — 34 .23612372 1629798 — 8352

.065 —33.64450511 223495 9762 086 —34.11417595 1602646 —7364

.066 — 33. 76435223 321732 8359 087 —33.97620172 1568129 —6378

067 —33.88098202 | 428243 6539 088 — 33 .82254620 1527230 —5415

0.068 —33.99332939 | 541225 4386 || 0.089 — 383 .65361837 1480909 —4491

069 —34. 10026452 658547 2009 090 — 33.46988146 1430085 — 3620

.070 —34.20061418 777856 —469 O91 —33.27184370 1375629 — 2809

O71 —34.29318527 896702 — 2923 092 — 33 .06004964 1318351 — 2064

.072 — 34.37678934 1012653 — 5237 093 —32.83507206 1258995 — 1388

0.073 —34.45026689 1123415 —7315 || 0.094 —32.59750454 1198236 —783

074 —34.51251027 | 1226926 —9083 095 —32.34795466 1136680 — 247

.075 — 34. 56248440 1321425 — 10497 .096 —32.08703798 1074863 222

.076 —34.59924428 1405505 — 11534 097 —31.81537268 1013255 627

O77 —34.62194911 1478126 —12199 098 —31.53357483 952261 971

0.078 — 34 .62987267 1538621 —12512 | 0.099 —31. 24225437 892227 1259

. LOO —30.94201165 833441 1496

t Bos(t) & é4* t Bos(t) & 5a*

0.032 — 39 . 29449364 —797677 —6504 || 0.063 —44 .20921055 1205803 3012

034 — 39. 53583656 — 857888 —7691 064 —44.36117981 1453787 —4249

.036 —39.78575836 — 925841 —9156 .065 —44.49861119 1697580 —11223

.038 —40.04493857 — 1002981 — 10862 066 —44.61906677 1930295 —17476

040 —40.31414860 — 1090889 — 12362 067 —44.72021939 2145744 — 22688

0.068 —44.79991457 2338756 — 26664

0.040 —40.31414860 — 272533 —764 .069 —44 .85622219 2505370 — 29335

041 —40.45278490 — 284631 —T11 .070 —44.88747611 2642907 — 30740

042 —40. 59426750 — 297495 —738 071 —44 89230095 2749940 — 30993

043 — 40 .73872506 — 311078 —615 072 —44 .86962640 2826183 — 30260

0.044 —40.88629339 — 325249 —359 || 0.073 —44.81869001 2872331 — 28730

045 —41.03711421 —339738 91 074 —44.73903032 2889874 — 26597

046 —41.19133241 — 354080 808 .075 —44 63047188 2880907 — 24044

047 —41.34909142 — 367543 1872 .076 —44 49310437 2847951 — 21233

048 —41.51052585 —379047 3357 077 —44 32725735 2793788 —18303

0.049 —41.67575075 —387095 5324 || 0.078 —44 13347244 2721324 — 15370

050 —41.84484660 —389717 7797 .079 — 43 .91247430 2633473 —12523

051 —42.01783962 — 384445 10748 .080 —43.66514143 2533068 —9829

052 —42.19467710 — 368351 14078 081 —43 .39247788 2422793 —7338

053 —42.37519808 — 338142 17604 .082 — 43 .09558639 2305132 — 5080

0.054 —42.55910049 — 290346 21062 | 0.083 —42.77564358 2182340 —3072

.055 —42.74590636 — 221574 24113 084 —42.43387737 2056423 —1318

.056 —42.93492797 — 128850 26382 085 —42.07154693 1929137 184

057 — 43 . 12523809 —9981 27498 .086 —41.68992512 1801986 1447

058 — 4331564801 136091 27157 087 — 41. 29028344 1676236 2486

0.059 —43.50469703 308987 25175 || 0.088 —40.87387941 1552929 3320

.060 —43 .69065618 506721 21530 .089 —40.44194609 1432904 3969

061 —43.87154813 725681 16383 .090 —39 99568373 1316815 4456

.062 — 44 04518327 960785 10060 O91 —39 . 53625322 1205153 4803

JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 191

TABLE 2 (Continued)

t Bos(t) & | os t Bos(t) & éi*

0.092 —39 06477119 1098268 5028 || 0.096 — 37 .07894679 721673 5082

093 —38.58230647 | 996391 | 5152 097 — 36 .56222412 640335 4957

-O094 —38.08987785 899648 5193 || .098 — 36 .03909809 563948 4801

-095 — 37 .58845274 SOSO84 5165 099 —35.51033258 492357 4620

. 100 —34.97664350 425383 4424

t Boiolt) | & 6s* t Boio(t) 53 6i*

0.028 —48.93882386 | —1202408 | —11584 || 0.065 —56.52998671 4602315 | —69824

.030 —49.27114088 | —1301872 | —13884 || .066 —56.48517156 4711483 | —66433

.032 —49.61647662 | —1415353 | —16830 | .067 —56 39324157 4754647 | —60969

034 —49.97596589 | —1545821 | —20620 | .068 —56.25376511 4737135 | —54105

.036 —50.35091338 | —1697009 | —25236 | .069 —56.06691731 4665687 | —46444

| 0.070 —55.83341263 4547860 — 38492

0.036 —950.35091338 — 423861 — 1566 O71 —55.55442936 4391521 — 30652

037 — 50. 54464716 — 445002 —1702 072 — 55. 23153088 4204449 — 23227

.038 —50.74283095 — 467836 —1800 073 —54.86658790 3994025 — 16426

-039 —50.94569311 | —492449 — 1806 O74 —54.46170468 3767020 — 10881

0.040 —51.15347975 — 518828 —1628 || 0.075 —54.01915126 3529467 — 5154

O41 —51.36645468 | —546768 | —1132 .076 —53.54130316 3286590 —758

042 —51.58489728 | —575732 | —128 || .077 —53.03058917 3042791 2839

-043 —51.80909721 | —604668 1625 O78 —52.48944726 2801677 5691

- O44 —52.03934382 | —631769 4397 079 —51.92028859 2566116 7875

0.045 —2.27590812 — 654210 8454 || 0.080 —51.32546875 2338310 9474

046 —52.51901452 — 667897 13993 O81 —650.70726582 2119874 10574

O47 —52.76879988 | —667285 21059 082 —50.06786415 1911926 11258

-048 — 53 .02525809 — 645352 29454 083 —49 40934321 1715166 11605

049 —53.28816983 — 593812 38662 084 —48 .73367061 1529955 11682

0.050 —53.55701968 — 503635 47807 || 0.085 —48 .04269846 1356383 11552

051 —53.83090588 — 365917 55702 || = .086 —47 33816248 1194329 11265

-052 — 54. 10845125 — 173034 60986 087 — 46 .62168320 1043517 10865

053 —54.38772696 80041 62366 088 —45.89476876 903552 10386

054 —54.66620225 394504 58895 089 —45.15881879 773963 9858

0.055 —054.94073251 766818 50239 | 0.090 —44.41512920 654226 9303

056 — 55. 20759459 1188415 36819 -091 — 483 .66489735 543790 8737

057 —55.46257251 1646104 19779 092 —42.90922759 442091 8173

058 —55.70108939 2123175 783 093 —42.14913693 348567 7621

059 — 55.91837453 2601005 | —18306 094 —41.38556060 262668 7088

0.060 — 56. 10964961 3060851 — 35762 || 0.095 —40.61935759 183861 6578

-061 —56.27031619 3485526 — 60254 096 —39.85131597 111639 6094

-062 —56.39612751 3860706 — 60975 097 — 39 .08215796 45516 5638

063 —56.48333176 4175730 — 67650 .098 — 38 .31254479 — 14963 5210

064 —56.52877871 4423895 —70443 099 — 3754308125 —70225 4810

0.100 —36.77431996 — 120672 4438

t Bou(t) e 64* t Bou(t) & ea*

0.024 —59.45834307 | —1685185 | —18175 || 0.036 —62.38981746 | —757890 | —3908

-026 — 59. 89463889 — 1833686 — 21984 037 —62.67503599 — 804358 — 3906

.028 — 60 .34927157 — 2004408 — 26912 .038 — 62.96829809 — 854613 — 3358

030 — 60.82394833 — 2202369 — 33415 039 — 63. 27010633 —908010 —1807

032 —61.32064878 — 2434168 — 42147 040 — 63 .58099467 — 962866 1391

0.041 —63.90151167 — 1015822 7043

0.032 —61.32064878 — 607882 — 2631 042 — 64. 23218690 — 1061056 16013

033 —61.57796683 — 640603 — 2956 043 — 64.57347268 — 1089466 29007

034 —61.84169091 — 676284 — 3310 044 — 64 .92565313 — 1088026 46249

035 —62.11217783 —715271 — 3654 045 — 65. 28871383 — 1039641 67094

192

JOURNAL

OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

TABLE 2 (Continued)

OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 6

t Bou(t) & 64* t Bout) & 6i*

0.046 lca 65 .66217095 — 923852 89689 0.066 — 67 .91867853 6420178 — 39783

047 —66.04486658 —718709 110863 067 — 67 .40653772 6018292 — 24154

.048 — 66 .43474930 — 403867 126434 .068 — 66 .83421399 5591764 — 10927

049 — 66 .82867070 35383 132018 .069 — 66. 20597261 5153808 —160

050 — 67 .22223827 603971 124219 .070 —65.52619315 4715211 8258

0.071 —64.79926159 4284433 14551

0.0500 — 67 . 22223827 149069 7742 O72 —64.02948570 3867828 19004

.0505 —67.41716182 231926 7155 .073 —63.22103152 3469908 21921

.0510 — 67 .60976612 321892 6344 O74 —62.37787828 3093651 23599

0515 —67.79915150 418160 5329 .075 —61.50378852 2740792 24312

0.0520 —67.98435528 519720 4136 0.076 —60.60229083 2412093 24296

0525 —68.16436186 625389 2806 .O77 — 59 .67667222 2107578 23750

.0530 —68.33811455 738845 1382 .078 — 58 .72997782 1826736 22838

0535 —68 .50452879 843673 —88 079 —57.76501606 1568682 21687

.0540 — 68. 66250631 953414 — 1557 O80 —56.78436747 1332283 20394

0.0545 —68.81094968 1061607 —2978 || 0.081 —55.79039606 1116264 19034

.0550 — 68. 94877698 1166841 —4312 .082 —54.78526200 919276 17660

.0555 —69.07493587 1267788 — 5523 .083 —53.77093519 739952 16310

.0560 —69.18841688 1363242 — 6586 084 —52.74920886 576948 15009

.0565 — 69. 28826547 1452145 —7483 .O85 —51.721713805 428966 13774

0.0570 —69.37359261 1533601 — 8202 0.086 — 50.68992758 294774 12613

.0575 — 69 .44858373 1606892 —8742 .087 —49 65519437 173212 11532

.0580 —69.49750593 1671478 —9105 .O88 —48.61872905 63197 10531

.0585 —69.58471335 1726993 —9300 .089 —47.58163174 — 36270 9608

.0590 — 69 .55465084 1773240 —9339 .090 —46.54489715 — 126114 8761

0.0595 —69.55685594 1810177 — 9237 0.091 —45. 50942369 — 207182 7985

. 0600 —69.54095926 1837903 —9012 .092 —44.47602205 — 280252 7277

093 —43 .44542293 — 346032 6630

094 —42.41828414 —405169 6041

0.060 —69 .54095926 7342622 | —144387 095 —41.39519703 — 458255 5505

0.061 —69.45384146 7458610 | —132304 0.096 —40.37669248 — 505826 5017

.062 —69.29213755 7443238 | —115693 .097 —39 36324618 — 548371 4573

063 —69 .05600127 7312698 —96611 .098 — 38 .35528359 — 586335 4168

064 —68.74673801 7085719 —76778 .099 — 37 .35318435 — 620123 3801

.065 —68 .36661756 6781859 — 57521 . 100 — 36. 35728633 — 650104 3465

t Boi2(t) & 6i* i Bois(t) & oi*

0.028 —73.12028739 — 812184 —3800 || 0.0400 —77.75009965 —422901 2858

.029 —73.44733084 —857831 —4308 .0405 —77.98577289 —427722 3883

.030 —73.78295260 —907806 —4910 .0410 —78 . 22572336 — 428626 5079

031 —74.12765243 — 962709 — 5609 0415 —78.46996009 —424419 6435

.032 —74.48197934 — 1023238 —6401 .0420 —78.71844101 —413750 7924

0.033 —74.84653864 — 1090169 —7222 0.0425 —78 .97105943 — 395140 9502

084 —75. 22199963 — 1164281 — 7894 .0430 —79.22762925 — 367023 11108

.035 —75.60910343 — 1246157 —8014 .0435 —79.48786930 — 327810 12661

.036 —76.00866880 — 1335749 — 6804 .0440 —79.75138745 — 275965 14070

037 —76.42159166 — 1431577 — 2965 -0445 —80.01766525 — 210103 15230

0.038 —76.84883029 —1529411 5420 || 0.0450 — 80. 28604407 — 129084 16036

.039 —77 . 29136303 — 1620389 20758 .0455 —80.55571374 —32121 16390

0460 —80.82570461 81123 16214

.0465 —81.09488426 210462 15454

0.0390 —77.29136303 — 405433 1313 .0470 —81.36195929 355132 14094

0.0395 —77.51865541 —415186 2005 || 0.0475 —81.62548300 513778 12152

JUNE 1955

BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION

TABLE 2 (Continued)

193

Bois(t) & a | t Bois(t) & ean

0.0480 —S1.S88386893 684470 | 9692 0.068 —75.37454332 4397549 47529

.0485 —$2.138541015 S64768 | 6809 | 069 —74.21716655 3827973 47567

-0490 —§2.37830369 1051813 | 3626 | .070 —73.02151004 3305671 46221

-0495 —S82.61067910 1242451 | 282 | O71 —71.79279683 2829400 43983

.0500 —$2.83062999 1433368 | — 3078 | .072 —70.53578961 2397000 41220

0.0505 —§$3.03624720 1621231 —6318 0.073 —69.25481240 2005763 38201

.0510 —§3.22565211 1802825 | —9315 O74 — 67 .95877756 1652709 35110

-0515 —§3.39702876 1975173 | —11975 || .075 — 66 .63621562 1384775 32071

.0520 —§83.54865369 | 2135630 | —14228 | O76 —65.80530593 1048937 29163

-0525 —8$3.67892232 2281956 | —16019 | .O77 —63.96390688 792297 26432

0.0530 —83.78637139 | 2412359 | —17344 0.078 —62.61458485 562131 23900

.0535 —§3.86969688 2525514 | —18202 .079 —61.25964152 355907 21577

.0540 —83.92776723 | 2620557 | —18618 | -O80 —59.90113912 171302 19458

.0545 —83.95963201 | 2697067 ee: 18627 | -O81 —58.54092370 6196 17537

-0550 —§$3.96452612 | 2755023 —18277 | .O82 — 57.18064633 — 141335 15800

0.0555 —83.94186999 | 2794767 | —17618 0.083 —55.82178230 — 273031 14234

.0560 —§3.89126621 2816945 — 16705 . O84 —54.46564858 — 390460 12825

.0565 —§3.81249297 2822460 | ~—15591 .085 —53.11841946 —495034 11557

.0570 —8$3.70549514 2812414 | —14329 -086 —51.76614068 — 588025 10418

0575 —§3.57037317 2788061 | —12965 O87 —50.42474215 — 670574 9395

0.0580 —83.40737058 2750755 | —11544 0.088 —49 .09004937 — 743707 8475

| 089 —47.76279365 — 808345 7648

.090 —46.44362138 — 865318 6904

0.058 —§3.40737058 10991480 | —184794 O91 —45.133102380 —915372 6235

.059 —82.99933123 10563138 | —138812 .092 —43.83173693 —959176 5632

0.060 —82.48566049 9995505 — 95416 0.093 —42.53996333 — 997336 5089

-061 | —§81.87203471 9331454 — 57108 094 —41.25816308 — 1030396 4599

. 062 —81.16509439 8609015 —25181 .095 — 39 .98666680 — 1058846 4158

.063 - —§80.37206392 7860033 28 .096 — 38 .72575897 — 1083129 3758

064 —79.50043311 7109779 18863 097 — 387 .47568243 — 1103647 3397

0.065 —78 .55770452 6377234 32081 0.098 — 36. 23664236 — 1120759 3071

.066 —77 .55120358 5675804 40625 .099 —35.00880988 —1134795 2776

.067 —76.48794461 5014231 45474 . 100 — 33 .79232535 — 1146048 2508

t Bois(t) & é4* t Bois(t) & 6a*

0.027 —86.87876135 — 1214067 —7283 0.0390 —93.19200725 — 642383 11936

.028 — 87 .31335328 —1291759 — 8404 .0395 — 983 .52271860 — 625137 15115

.029 —87.76086279 — 1377901 —9751 .0400 — 93 .85968132 — 592735 18506

-030 —88 . 22215132 —1473841 —11343 -0405 —94.20257140 — 541820 21937

.031 —88 .69817826 — 1581152 —13122 .0410 —94 .55087968 — 469009 25179

0.032 —89.19001672 — 1701545 — 14810 0.0415 —94.90387805 — 371115 27962

-033 —89.69887063 — 1836529 — 15637 .0420 —95.26058757 — 245413 29996

.034 —90. 22608983 — 1986560 — 13907 .0425 —95.61975123 — 89926 31001

-035 —90.77317463 — 2149247 — 6477 .0430 —95.97981415 96303 30742

.0435 —96.33891404 312986 29063

0.0350 —90.77317463 — 537225 — 381 0.0440 —96 .69488406 558434 25918

-0355 —91.05467178 — 558296 81 -0445 —97 .04526975 829517 21385

-0360 —91.34175189 — 579241 758 .0450 —97.38736027 1121743 15662

.0365 —91.63462441 — 599372 1701 .0455 —97 .71823336 1429452 9052

.0370 —91.93349065 —617737 2965 .0460 —98 .034811938 1746106 1923

0.0375 — 92. 23853426 — 633060 4598 0.0465 —98 . 33392945 2064657 — 5326

0380 —92.54990848 — 643703 6634 .0470 —98.61240040 2377934 —12312

0385 —92.86771973 — 647627 9088 .0475 —98 .86709201 2679021 — 18697

JOURNAL OF

THE WASHINGTON

TABLE 2 (Continued)

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 6

l Bois(t) 6 é4* 1 Bos(t) 6 oi*

0.0480 | —99.09499341 2961585 — 24219 0.066 —84.79156871 3597857 74666

.0485 —99 . 29327896 3220144 — 28698 .067 —83.15850583 2971198 68187

.0490 —99 .45936308 3450236 — 32040 .068 —81.49573096 2412718 61711

.0495 —99 .59094482 3648526 — 34227 .069 —79.80882891 1915999 55499

. 0500 —99.68604132 3812815 — 35305 .070 —78. 10276687 1474862 49701

0.0505 —99 .74300966 3942009 — 35366 0.071 —76.38195621 1083522 44384

.0510 —99.76055791 4036020 — 34536 .072 —74.65031033 736669 39567

0515 —99.73774597 4095650 — 32959 .073 —72.91129775 429483 35239

.0520 —99.67397752 4122444 — 30788 074 —71.16799035 157632 31372

.0525 | —99. 56898463 4118541 — 28172 075 —69.42310662 — 82760 27929

0.0530 —99 .42280633 4086530 — 25254 0.076 —67.67905050 — 295142 24871

0585 —99 . 23576274 4029300 — 22164 O77 —65.93794580 — 482582 22158

.0540 | —99.00842614 3949920 — 19016 .O78 —64.20166691 — 647800 19752

0545 —98 .741590385 3851516 — 15906 079 —62.47186603 —793209 17619

.0550 —98.43623940 3737182 — 12914 .O80 —60.74999724 — 920949 15726

0.0555 —98 .09351662 3609899 — 10098 0.081 — 59 .03733794 — 1082919 14046

. 0560 —97.71469486 3472473 —7505 .O82 — 57 .33500782 —1130805 12553

.0565 —97.30114836 3327490 —5159 .083 —55.64398576 — 1216103 11225

.0570 —96.85432697 3177294 —3079 084 —53.96512473 — 1290147 10043

.0575 —96.37573263 3023965 — 1265 .O85 —52.29916517 — 1354121 8989

0.0580 —95.86689865 2869317 288 0.086 — 50.64674682 — 1409083 8049

.0585 —95.32937150 2714906 1592 087 —49.00841929 — 1455974 7209

.0590 —94.76469528 2562040 2666 088 —47.38465151 — 1495638 6458

.0595 —94.17439867 2411797 3529 .O89 —45.77584011 — 1528827 5786

.0600 —93.55998409 2265043 4205 .090 —44.18231699 — 1556216 5184

0.0605 —92 92291907 2122460 4714 0.091 —42.60435602 — 1578407 4644

.0610 —92. 26462946 1984561 5082 -092 —41.04217913 — 1595943 4159

.0615 —91.58649423 1851719 5327 .093 —39.49596166 — 1609308 3724

.0620 —90. 88984181 1724183 5471 094 — 37 .96583727 — 1618941 3332

.095 — 36 .45190230 — 1625233 2980

0.062 | —90.88984181 6902184 87710 0.096 —34.95421966 — 1628538 2663

.063 —89.44603233 5947633 88438 .097 —33.47282240 — 1629174 2377

064 —87 .94274653 5080769 85633 .098 —32.00771688 — 1627426 2119

.065 —86.38865303 4299082 80707 .099 — 30. 55888562 — 1623554 1887

. 100 — 29. 12628990 —1617791 1677

t Boua(t) 6 64* l Bous(t) & 64*

0.025 —101.30409740 — 1644407 — 11366 0.0345 —107.37139628 —871710 2729

.026 | —101.85129899 — 1757942 — 13259 .0350 — 107 .75962562 —902403 5215

.027 —102.41607998 — 1884823 — 15579 .0355 — 108. 15687900 —927712 8532

.028 —102.99970921 — 2027389 — 18427 .0360 — 108 .56340950 — 944300 12772

.029 — 103 .60361234 — 2188483 — 21834 .0365 —108.97938300 — 947924 17959

0.030 — 104. 22940030 — 2371437 — 25551 0.0370 —109.40483574 — 933416 24015

.031 —104.87890263 — 2579705 — 28519 .03875 —109.83962264 — 894762 30729

.0380 —110.28335717 — 825327 37731

0385 —110.73534496 —718217 44488

0.0310 —104.87890263 — 644487 —1768 0390 —111.19451493 — 566812 50329

0.0315 | —105.21318682 — 673100 —1788 0.0395 —111.65935301 — 365421 54511

.0320 —105.55420201 —703480 —1712 .0400 —112.12784531 — 110007 56304

.0325 —105.90225200 — 735540 — 1486 -0405 —112.59743767 201105 55121

.0330 — 106. 25765740 —769039 — 1034 -0410 —1138.06501899 566664 50617

.0335 —106.62075319 — 803505 —261 .0415 —113.52693367 982165 42783

0.0340 —838141 949 0.0420 —113.97902669 1439848 31974

| —106.

99188403

JUNE 1955

BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION

TABLE 2 (Continwed)

195

Bais(t ) & 5i* | t Boia(t) & 6i*

0.0425 —114.41672124 1929039 | 18871 | 0.062 —98 . 13350366 4159602 | 114497

0430 —114.83512539 2436822 | 4394 | — .063 —96.04389419 3321140 | 101883,

0435 —115.22916133 2948925 | —10433 || .064 —93.92107332 2584730 90139

0440 —115.59370802 3450724 | —24613 | .065 —91.77240515 1938675 79474

0445 —115.92374746 3928211 | —387295 | .066 —89. 60435024 1372324 69938

0.0450 —116.21450480 4368834 | —47844 | 0.067 —87 .42257208 876135 61496

0455 —116.46157379 4762126 | —55869 || .068 — 85. 23203258 441651 54069

0460 —116.66102152 5100094 —61223 || .069 —83.03707657 61426 47559

-0465 —116.80946831 53877374 | —63956 | 070 —80.84150630 — 271071 41861

-0470 —116.90414135 5591193 | —64278 | — .071 —78.64864674 — 561559 36880

0.0475 —116.94290247 | 0741165 —62505 || 0.072 —76.46140277 —815037 32523

.0480 —116.92425195 | 5828986 | —59013 073 —74. 28230916 — 1035879 28710

0485 —116.84731156 o858067 — 54203 O74 —72.11357435 —1227913 25369

-0490 —116.71179050 | 5833138 —48469 | .075 —69.95711866 — 1394493 22438

-0495 —116.51793807 5759855 | —42183 || .076 —67.81460789 — 1538561 19863

0.0500 —116.26648709 | 5644439 | —35669 | 0.077 —65.68748273 — 1662701 17598

-0505 —115.95859172 | 5493346 — 29205 078 — 63 .57698459 — 1769188 15601

-0510 —115.59576288 | 5312995 | —23010 || .079 —61.48417833 — 1860026 13839

-0515 —115.17980410 | 5109546 —17251 080 —59.40997232 — 1936982 12282

0520 —114.71274985 | 4888735 | —12037 || .081 — 57 35513615 — 2001619 10904

| |

0.0525 —114.19680825 | 4655762 —7434 || 0.082 —55.32031616 — 2055320 9682

-0530 | —113.63430903 4415225 — 3466 083 — 5330604938 — 2099311 8598

0535 —113.02765756 4171092 —125 | .084 —61.31277571 — 2134678 7635

-0540 | —112.37929518 3926712 2620 085 —49 . 34084881 — 2162388 6779

-0545 | —111.69166567 3684839 4816 086 —47 .39054579 — 2183299 6016

0.0550 —110.96718777 3447679 6521 | 0.087 —45.46207576 — 2198177 5336

.0555 | —110.20823308 3216953 7797 088 —43 55558751 — 2207704 4730

-0560 —109.41710886 2993948 8707 089 —41.67117630 — 2212487 4189

0565 — 108 .59604516 2779585 9307 .090 —39.80888996 — 2213070 3705

.0570 =| —107.74718562 2574477 9655 O91 — 37 .96873432 — 2209938 3272

0.0575 — 106 .87258130 2378982 9798 || 0.092 — 36. 15067806 — 2203523 2885

0580 —105.97418715 2193252 9781 093 — 34.35465703 — 2194215 2539

0585 — 105 .05386050 2017276 9639 094 —32.58057815 — 2182361 2229

0590 —104.11336108 1850920 9403 095 — 30 .82832288 — 2168271 1951

096 — 29 .09775032 — 2152225 1702

0.059 —104.11336108 7413070 150624 || 0.097 — 27 .38870001 — 2134471 1478

060 —102.17840430 6193041 140062 098 — 25.70099441 — 2115235 1278

061 —100.18151711 5112626 127517 099 — 2403444116 — 2094717 1098

. LOO — 22.38883508 — 2073097 937

t Bois(t) & eae t Bois(t) @ ot

0.021 —115.37522442 — 1873431 —12190 | 0.0300 —121.91125518 — 950918 —3174

022 —116.00559855 — 1999276 — 14122 .0305 —122.34596066 — 998951 — 3049

023 —116.65596543 — 2139333 — 16481 .0310 —122.79065566 — 1049965 — 2602

024 —117.32772565 — 2295985 — 19381 .0315 —123.24585029 —1103475 — 1657

025 —118.02244572 — 2472166 — 22989 0320 —123.71207968 — 1158488 23

0.026 —118.74188746 — 2671526 — 27523 || 0.0325 —124.18989393 —1213264 2726

027 —119.48804445 — 2898635 — 33213 0330 —124.67984084 — 1265038 6772

028 —120.26318780 — 3159160 —40110 0335 —125.18243812 — 1309697 12488

-029 —121.06992276 — 3459746 —47378 .0340 —125.69813237 — 1341474 20135

0345 — 126. 22724136 — 1352702 29837

0.0290 —121.06992276 — 864204 —2942 || 0.0350 —126.76987737 — 1333709 41466

0295 — 121.48605888 — 906017 —3109 .0355 | —127.32585047 | —1272966 54550

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6

TABLE 2 (Continued)

t Bois(t) & 64* | t Bois(t) 62 é41*

0.0360 —127.89455322 | —1157576 68184 || 0.057 —116.10010101 6616027 | 201004

.0365 —128.47483174 —974181 81026 .058 —113.55371568 5272839 | 176777

.0370 —129 06485206 —710278 91385 | 059 —110.95460197 4106766 | 154352

0375 —129.66197516 — 355875 97433 060 —108.31442060 3095506 | 134244

0380 —130.26265701 | 94751 97525 O61 —105.64328416 2218978 116545

0.0385 —130.86239135 641476 90557 | 0.062 —102.94995795 1459466 | 101145

.0390 —131.45571093 1277282 76262 .063 —100.24203708 801526 87812

0395 —132.03625768 1988020 55362 064 —97 .52610095 231778 76319

0400 —132.59692424 2753117 29485 .065 —94.80784704 — 261322 66412

0405 —133.138005962 3547148 899 066 —92.09220636 — 687726 57874

0.0410 — 133 .62772353 4342030 —27889 | 0.067 —89 38344293 — 1056012 50507

0415 —134.08196713 5109448 — 54530 068 — 86 .68523962 — 1373583 44140

.0420 —134.48511625 5823143 —77150 069 —84.00077214 — 1646836 38627

0425 —134.83003395 6460747 —94514 .070 —81.33277302 —1881310 33845

0430 —135.11034417 7005020 — 106050 071 —78.68358699 — 2081809 29687

0.0485 —135.32060420 7444425 —111777 || 0.072 —76.05521905 — 2252509 26066

0440 —135.45641997 7773146 —112164 .073 —73.44937620 — 2397047 22904

0445 | —135.51450429 7990640 — 107988 074 —70.86750382 — 2518599 20141

0450 —135.49268221 8100891 — 100194 .075 —68.31081742 — 2619938 17719

0455 —135.38985122 8111491 —89786 .076 —65.78033041 — 2703497 15594

0.0460 —135.20590531 8032648 —77736 || 0.077 — 63 .27687838 — 2771409 13726

0465 —134.94163293 7876232 — 64925 .078 —60.80114043 — 2825548 12083

0470 —134.59859823 7654900 —52096 .079 —58 .35365796 — 2867563 10634

.0475 —134.17901453 7381362 — 39837 O80 —55.93485112 — 2898909 9356

.0480 —133.68561721 7067788 — 28573 O81 —53.54503336 — 2920868 $226

0.0485 —133.12154201 6725384 —18573 0.082 —51.18442429 — 2934575 7226

0490 —132.49021297 6364122 —9975 .083 —48 .85316096 — 2941032 6342

0495 —131.79524272 5992592 — 2804 084 —46.55130795 — 2941126 5558

.0500 —131.04034654 5617978 2996 085 —44 27886621 — 2935645 4862

0505 —130.22927059 5246100 7535 086 —42.03578091 — 2925285 4245

0.0510 —129.36573364 4881527 10959 || 0.087 —39.82194845 — 2910665 3697

.0515 —128.45338142 4527715 13425 .088 — 37 .63722264 — 2892336 3210

.0520 —127.49575205 4187162 15091 089 —35.48142020 — 2870785 2777

0525 —126.49625107 3861565 16107 .090 — 33 .35432560 — 2846447 2393

0530 —125.45813444 3551967 16606 091 —31.25569546 — 2819707 2050

0.0535 —124.38449814 3258892 16706 || 0.092 —29.18526240 — 2790910 1746

0540 — 123. 27827293 2982461 16506 098 — 27 .14273844 — 2760359 1475

.0545 —122.14222310 2722489 16086 . 094 —25.12781808 — 2728328 1234

0550 —120.97894839 2478572 15513 095 —23.14018099 — 2695057 1020

0555 —119.79088795 2250146 14838 096 —21.17949447 — 2660762 829

0.0560 —118.58032606 2036544 14102 || 0.097 —19.24541557 — 2625632 660

.098 —17.33759299 — 2589839 510

099 —15.45566881 — 2553533 376

0.056 —118.58032606 8160273 225765 . 100 —13.59927996 — 2516848 258

_ forsan

TUNE 1955

SMITH: BRAZILIAN

PHANEROGAMS 197

BOTAN Y — Votes on Brazilian phanerogams. LyMAn B.Suitu, Department of Bot-

any, U.S. National Museum.

(Received March 31, 1955)

The following miscellany is the result of

studies toward the identification of various

sollections of Brazilian phanerogams. In

some instances I have had the advice of

specialists as noted below. Dr. John D.

Dwyer of St. Louis University has kindly

zonsented to publish his new species of

Luxemburgia here in order to facilitate early

ase of the name.

Family PoLyGoNAcEAE

Coccoloba rubra L. B. Smith, sp. nov.

Fies. 1-4

Imperfecte solum cognita sed verisimiliter

arbor parva; ramulis 3-4 mm diametro, glabris,

leviter striatis, lenticellis ellipticis; ochreis

oblique truncatis, 10 mm longis, paulo divergenti-

bus, basi herbaceis, apice tenuioribus; petiolis

supra canaliculatis, ad 2 cm longis, glabris, ad

1, altitudinis ochreae insertis; foliorum laminis

obovatis, emarginatis, basi rotundatis vel sub-

truncatis, 16 cm longis, 12 cm latis, tenuiter

coriaceis, plus minusve bullata, supra glabra,

subtus ad nervos puberulis, nervulis utrinque

prominulis, inflorescentia terminale in ramulis

lateralibus brevibus, racemosa, solitaria, laxiflora,

20 cm longa, pedunculo ca. 1 em longo, rhachi 2

mm diametro, sulcata, glabra, nodulis 1-floris

sed saepe aggregatis; bracteis late ellipticis, quam

pedicellis subduplo brevioribus, membranaceis;

ochreolis bracteas simulantibus sed latioribus;

pedicellis gracilibus, 3.5 mm longis; floribus 4 mm

longis; tubo perianthii late obconico, 1.5 mm

longo, lobis late ellipticis, obtusis; staminibus

juvenilibus profunde inclusis; ovario

ovoideo, stylis 3, brevibus; fructu ignoto.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

2120041, collected in Mata do Hoffmann (Hoff-

_mann’s woods), Brusque, Santa Catarina, Brazil,

November 21, 1951, by Roberto Klein (Instituto

de Malariologia no. 33).

In Lindau’s “Monographia generis Coccolo-

_bae” (Bot. Jahrb. 13: 106-229. 1891), this species

would fall next to C. schwackeana in the key.

However, unlike that species, its large leaves are

emarginate at the apex and merely rounded or

truncate at the base. Also the inflorescence is

about twice as long as that of C. schwackeana.

Family CoNNARACEAE

Connarus rostratus (Vell.) L. B. Smith, comb. nov.

Canicidia rostrata Vell. Fl. Flum. 184. 1825;

Icon. 4: pl. 139. 1835.

Connarus marginatus Planch. Linnaea 23: 429.

1850.

Connarus cymosus Planch. op. cit. 480.

Connarus beyrichii Planch. loc. cit.

Neotype in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

282298, collected by F. Sellow in Brazil without

further locality.

The above type has been selected because, of

the material available, it most nearly resembles

the illustration in Vellozo’s Icones, both in the

form of the leaflets and in the much branched

inflorescence.

In view of the variation in a single collection,

Planchon’s species do not appear to be more than

forms.

Family MALPIGHIACEAB

Heteropteris ocellata L. B. Smith, sp. nov.

Fias. 5-9

Frutex erectus; ramulis teretibus, gracilibus,

novellis ferrugineo-velutinis, mox — glabratis,

eriseis, lenticellis minimis notatis, internodiis 3-6

cm longis; foliis oppositis, petiolis ad 5 mm

longis, basi biglandulosis, laminis late ellipticis

vel elliptico-obovatis, acutis cuspidatisque, basi

rotundatis, ad 14.5 em longis, 7.5 em latis, sub-

coriaceis, margine integerrimis, supra sparse

albido-pilosis, subtus ferrugineo-velutinis et basi

glandulosis, utrinque glabratis, biglandulosis;

inflorescentiis axillaribus vel in ramulis 4-foliatis

terminalibus, anguste pyramidatis, 14 cm longis,

6 cm diametro, ferrugineo-velutinis, umbellis

3-floris sed saepe aggregatis, bracteis ovatis, 3 mm

longis, glandulis 2 orbicularibus ocellatis;

pedunculis floriferis gracilibus, ad 5 mm longis;

bracteolis parvis, ellipticis, eglandulosis; pedicellis

gracilibus, ad 8 mm longis; sepalis erectis vel

leviter incurvatis, ovatis, obtusis, 3.5 mm longis,

glandulis calycinis 8 (sepalo unico nudo),

oblongis; petalis luteis, ad 8 mm longis, margine

subintegris; staminibus paulo inaequalibus,

glaberrimis; stylis gracilibus, dorso apicis plus

minusve angulatis; samaris late obliquo-obovatis,

25-30 mm longis, brunneo-alutaceis, puberulis,

198

margine superiore basi in appendiculam parvam

producto, nuce obscura, obtuso-conoidea, crasse

nervata sed sine alulis, areola applicatoria fere

total faciem ventralem orbicularem occupante.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

1997224, collected in campo, Municipio Ituiu-

taba, Minas Gerais, Brazil, June 29, 1950, by

Amaro Macedo (no. 2445).

This species appears to be related to Heterop-

teris catingarum Juss. and H. leschenaultiana

Juss. Unlike the former it has its pedicels

articulated at the ends of slender peduncles,

and differs from the latter in the dense sub-

persistent indument and two basal glands on the

underside of the leaves and the elongate in-

florescences.

Banisteriopsis macedoana L. B. Smith, sp. nov.

Fies. 10-12

Frutex erectus; ramis teretibus, gracillimis,

glabris, rubiginosis sublucidisque, internodiis ca.

15 mm longis; foliis oppositis, graciliter ad 5 mm

petiolatis, lineari-lanceolatis, cuneatis, longe

acuminatis, 45 mm longis, 5 mm latis, margine

integerrimis supra fuscentiis, glabris, ex sicco

lineato-rugosis, subtus viridibus, primo pube

sparse vestitis, mox glabratis, biglandulosis;

ramulis axillaribus 6-folioliferis, sparse pubescen-

tibus, umbellis 2-3-flores vel flore unico termina-

tis; bracteolis lanceolatis, 1.5 mm longis; pedicellis

gracillimis, ad apicem versus haud incrassatis, 12

mm longis, glabratis, floribus 12-14 mm diametro;

sepalis ovatis, acutis, 3 mm longis, ferrugineo-

tomentosis, glandulis calycinis 8 (sepalo unico

nudo), oblongis, 2 mm longis; petalis roseis, valde

inaequalibus; staminibus haud exsertis, filamentis

1.5 mm longis, alvo-pubescentibus, antherarum

loculis pilosis, connectivo nullo modo producto;

stylis aequalibus, apice incrassatis; samaris usque

24 mm longis, ferrugineo-pubescentibus, nuce

cristis parvis lateralibus ornata, ala falcato-

elliptica, 10 mm lata.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, nos.

2046573 and 2046574, collected in chapada

(brushy field), near Kilometer 210 along the high-

way from Sao Paulo to Cuiabdé, Municipio of

Cruz Verde, Minas Gerais, Brazil, June 28, 1951,

by Amaro Macedo (no. 3226).

In Niedenzu’s Monograph of the Malpighia-

ceae in the Pflanzenreich (IV. 141: 1-870. 1928),

this species would fall next to Banisterva stellaris

Griseb. However, it differs in its shrubby habit,

and in its narrow acuminate cuneate biglandular

leaves.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 6

In using the generic name Banisteriopsis I am

following the interpretation of C. V. Morton that

Banisteria, being made a nomen rejiciendum by

the conservation of Heteropteris, is thereby barred

from any other use.

Family OcHNACEAE

Luxemburgia macedoi Dwyer, sp. nov.

Fiaes. 13-17

Arbusta; folia crebra apice ramulorum, stipulis

saepe persistentibus lineari-subulatis, ad 0.4 cm

longis, ciliis laxis ad subrectis paucis aut multis

villosisque saepe arborescentibus ad 1.0 cm longis,

petiolis glabris sublatis ad 0.7 cm longis, laminis

glabris gracili-coriaceis oblongis, ad 9 cm longis,

ad 3.5 cm latis, apice subobtusis (rare sub-

truncatis) solitario cilio ad 0.5 em longo, basi

attenuatis costa utrinque prominente venis

prominulis (eis in medio ad 0.2 cm distantibus)

marginibus vix serrulatis dentibus (praeter cilia

pauca basi) subfaleatis aut uncinatisque, 0.3-0.5

mm longis; flores in racemis dispositi, rhachidibus

glabris gracilibus superiora folia excedentibus,

pedicellis gracilibus in medio cire. 0.5 mm latis,

ascendentibus, ad 2.5 cm longis, locis articula-

tionis a basi ad 0.5-4.5 cm _ extendentibus,

bracteolis basalibus plerumque persistentibus

lineari-oblongis, ad 0.5 cm longis, ad 0.12 cm

latis, ciliis laxis distantibus (eis basi subfimbri-

catis), ad 0.9 mm longis; gemmae ovatae, ad 1.1

cm longae, sepalis anthesi laxis imbricatis

inaequalibus subrotundis oblongis ad 4-5 mm

latis, apicibus obtusis marginibus tenuibus

irregularibus ciliis apice diffusis, petalis flavis,

oblongis, ad 1.5 em longis, ad 1.0 cm latis;

staminibus + 60 antheris subsessilibus, 0.5-0.6

cm longis, ovarils coriaceis substipitatis, oblongis,

ad 0.7 cm longis, stylibus ad 2 mm _ longis,

capsulis lignosis sublaevibus turgidis circ. 1.0 em

longis, pedicellis gracilibus, ad 2.5 cm longis.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

2059866, collected in campo on the slopes of the

Serra dos Pireneos, Municipio of Corumba,

Goids, Brazil, December 18, 1951, by Amaro

Macedo (no. 3536).

Luxemburgia macedot, named in honor of its

collector, is apparently the first species of the

genus to be described from the State of Goids. It

is readily placed in the Petiolatae section of the

genus and is obviously related to L. polyandra

St. Hil. Its much larger flowers borne on pedicels

with obvious articulation stalks, readily dis-

tinguish it from L. polyandra. Of all species of

Luxemburgia known from flowering material

Fries. 1-23.—1, Coccoloba rubra, leaf, X15; 2, stipule, X1; 3, inflorescence, X's; 4, flower, X5. 5,

Heteropteris ocellata, branch, X14; 6, bracts, X1; 7, stamens, X2; 8, style, X5; 9, samara, X1. 10.

Banisteriopsis macedoana, section of branch, X1; 11, samaras, X1; 12, base of samara, X2. 13. Luxem-

burgia macedoi, leaf, X19; 14, stipule, X5; 15, flower bud, X1; 16, flower, X1; 17, pistil and androecium,

2. 18, Microlicia lutea, leaf, X2. 19, Microlicia macedot, leaf, X2; 20, apex of branch, X1; 21, flower,

X5; 22, petal, X5; 23, stamen, X5.

NY)

200 JOURNAL OF THE

L. macedoi the largest number of

stamens.

possesses

Family MbuasroMAckaAr

Microlicia macedoi L. B. Smith & Wurdack,

sp. nov.

Fias. 19-23

Fruticulosa, 28 cm alta et ultra, fastigiatim

dichotome ramosissima, glaberrima, glutinosa;

caule erecto, gracili, tereti, inferne non articulato;

ramis erectis vel divaricatis, distincte articulatis,

tetragonis; foliis sessilibus, strictis, subapproxi-

matis, carnosulis rigidisque, ovato-oblongis,

subacutis, haud pungentiis, basi cordatis, ad 4.5

mm longis integris vel levissime crenulatis,

utrinque pallide viridibus, sparse pallideque

glanduloso-punctatis, nervo mediano basi valde

dilatato; floribus breviter pedicellatis; calyce

viride, tubo subturbinato, 2 mm longo, superne

non setoso, 5-costato, segmentis erectis, subulatis,

1 mm longis, basi valde remotis; petalis obovato-

oblongis, acutis, 5 mm longis, fulgide aureis;

staminibus distincte inaequalibus, antheris oblon-

gis, aureis, margine undulatis, apice longe

rostellatis, majoribus 2 mm longis, connectivo

basi valde dilatato; capsula globosa, laeve, calyce

persistente vestita.

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no.

2059764, collected in the mountains, Municipio

of Niquelandia, Goids, Brazil, July 24, 1952, by

Amaro Macedo (no. 3636).

Its bright vellow petals distinguish Microlicia

macedot from all but a very few species in the

genus, and of these it resembles M. lutea Markgraf

(Fig. 18) much more closely than any other. Its

main distinction is in its leaves which have a

sparser paler punctation and a base enclosing the

pulvinus.

Family GrsNERIACEAE

Rechsteineria macrostachya (Lindl.) L. B. Smith,

comb. nov.

Gesnera macrostachya Lindl. Bot. Reg. 14: pl.

1202. 1828.

Gesnera latifolia Mart. in Otto & Schlecht.

Verh. Preuss. Gart.-Ver. 5: 219, pl. 1. 1829.

Rechsteineria latifolia O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. 2:

474. 1891.

Corytholoma latifolium Fritsch, Bihang till K.

Sv. Vet. Akad. Handl. 24: Afd. 8, no. 5: 22.

1898.

The necessity of the above combination

became evident in the course of checking some

bibliography for Dr. F. C. Hoehne’s treatment of

the Gesneriaceae for the ‘‘Flora Brasilica.”’

WASHINGTON SCIENTIFIC NEWS

INSULATING SEAL FOR HIGH-PRESSURE

EQUIPMENT

In connection with work on high-pressure

standards, the National Bureau of Stand-

ards has devised a special insulating seal

which effectively solves the problem of

leakage around electrical connections to

high-pressure vessels. Simply constructed of

inexpensive materials, the high-pressure

seal utilizes a sapphire bushing to obtain

the necessary combination of high mechani-

cal strength and good electrical insulating

properties. The device has successfully with-

stood pressure up to 170,000 pounds per

square inch. It was designed by H. A.

Bowman and associates of the Bureau staff

working under the sponsorship of the Army

Ordnance Corps.

HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCE FAIR

Two high-school seniors from the Wash-

ington metropolitan area won a trip to

Cleveland as top prize in the Ninth Annual

Science Fair of Washington, held late in

April. The trip enabled the winners, Bette

Coder, 17, of Northwestern High School,

and Joel F. Lubar, 16, of Montgomery-

Blair High School, to participate in the Na-

tional Science Fair held in Cleveland in the

middle of May. Miss Coder’s entry ex-

hibited the effect of pregnancy on mammal-

lary cancer in mice, and Mr. Lubar’s was an

astrophotoscope, through which _ stellar

photographs could be studied. The Wash-

ington Fair, with over 600 entries, was run

by the Washington Junior Academy of

Sciences and was sponsored by the District

of Columbia Board of Education, Science

Service, and the Washington Academy of

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CONTENTS

Page

Announcement of election’ of Editor ...-.5.......422 5.2.4...) eee 165

Message from therMditor-elect:. . 20.0022. 2 osc cos a oe oe Cre 165

Martuematics.—Table of characteristic values of Mathieu’s equation for

large values of the parameter. GERTRUDE BLANCH and Ipa RHopES 166

Botrany.—Notes on Brazilian phanerogams. LYMAN B.SMITH......... 197

Washington ScientificiINewsi rae soe ea ne core cine eee 200

Vot. 45 Juty 1955 No. 7

JOURNAL

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PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY

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ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY

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JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 45

Juty 1955

No. 7

PALEONTOLOGY .—Reclassification of the Rotaliidea (Foraminifera) and two new

Cretaceous forms resembling Elphidium'. Auan H. Smovt, Iraq Petroleum

Co., Ltd., London, England. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.)

(Received March 9, 1955)

The two species of Foraminifera to be de-

scribed herein, Elphidiella multiscissurata, n.

sp., and Fissoelphidium operculiferum, n. gen.

and n. sp., are small, planispiral forms with

shell material of radially arranged, perforate

calcite. They show secondary thickening and

have a canal system. They usually occur to-

gether in Maestrichtian marls that contain

many well known index species, notably

Siderolites calcitrapoides Lamarck, 1801,

Omphalocyclus macropora Lamarck, 1816,

and Trechmanella persica L. R. Cox, 1934.

The accuracy of the age attribution can be

taken as of a very high order. HL. multiscis-

surata has a close resemblance to species

referred to Elphidiella Cushman, 1936, but

differs in having a carinate margin and

slight grooves on the chamber walls, origi-

nating from the rows of pores on the radial

sutures. F. operculiferum is an unusual

species with a system of fissures and gran-

ules arranged very similarly to those on the

ventral side of the test in Rotalia trochidi-

_ formis Lamarck, 1804.

The systematic position of these species

presents a nomenclatorial problem that has

1 This work is published by permission of the

chairman and directors of the Iraq Petroleum Co.

and was carried out under the direction of Dr.

F. R. S. Henson. My thanks are due to Dr. P.

Bermudez, Dr. P. Bronnimann, and Dr. R.

Bataller for gifts of comparative material and to

G. F. Elliott for bibliographical assistance. The

new species were first named, described, and

figured by A. N. Dusenbury in an unpublished

company report on which we collaborated, and

use has been made of his observations. The type

_ specimens are deposited in the British Museum

(Natural History), South Kensington, London.

Topotypes are deposited in the U. 8S. National

Museum, Washington, D. C

been confused by the inclusion with the ra-

dial, canaliculate Foraminifera of others that

have shell material of a different nature. The

superfamily Rotalidea has been shown

(Smout, 1954) to have a type species, Ro-

talia trochidiformis Lamarck, 1804, in which

the shell material is radial, perforate calcite

(Wood, 1949), deposited in laminae that

correspond each to a chamber, each cover-

ing the whole test. A canal system is present.

The Foraminifera that have tests of this

character form a compact group within

which phylogeny is relatively easy to trace.

In addition, there is no known case where

intergradation with non-canaliculate genera

occurs, with the exception of some highly

complex derivatives of canaliculate species.

There is a strong case for restricting the

superfamily Rotaliidea to the laminated, ra-

dial, canaliculate genera. The otherwise sim-

ilar but non-canaliculate genera (Discorbidea

Smout, 1954) are the nearest group to the

Rotaliidea, and are probably ancestral to

them. They typically have an aperture while

the Rotalidea have no aperture or a few

pores on the terminal face. The interiomar-

ginal slit found in the septa of many Rotali-

idea does not correspond to a former aper-

ture. The remainder of the Foraminifera

that are traditionally placed in the Rotali-

idea are completely unrelated to them. These

include the Spirillinidae, Nonionidae (ex-

cluding Elphidium etc.), and the genera

Archaediscus Brady, 1873, and Nummulo-

stegina Schubert, 1907. The trochoid, granu-

late, perforate group of Wood (1949), eg.

Gyroidina d’Orbigny, 1826, must also be

removed from the Rotaliidea. The more

201

E11 98%,

202

recent taxonomic work, by Glaessner (1945)

Hofker (1951), Sigal in Piveteau (1952),

Bermudez (1952), Loeblich and Tappan

(1953), and others, shows a_ progressive

tendency to sort out the canaliculate Fo-

raminifera from the others, but the process

has not been carried to its logical conclusion

because there was no underlying theory. It

is now possible to set up a classification with

clear morphological definitions and reduce

the points of ambiguity to those cases where

the critical characters have not been re-

corded for a genus, or their determination

cannot readily be undertaken. Practical diffi-

culties do arise. In particular, the secondary

thickening of fossil species may be over-

looked, for it may be removed by solution,

leaving only the primary chamber walls ex-

ternally. Those whorls that are covered by

later ones can be seen in thin sections to have

been thickened. All the radial, perforate, spi-

ral Foraminifera, other than the Lagenidea,

may have to be reincorporated in the Ro-

taliidea, and may contain the ancestral spe-

cies of the canaliculate families; but as no

connection has yet been traced, the non-

canaliculate families can be omitted at

present.

One may proceed to a major classification

of the foraminifera that build the test of

radial, laminated calcite:

Superfamily Lagenidea: Noncanaliculate with a

terminal or peripheral aperture.

Superfamily Discorbidea: Noncanaliculate with

an interiomarginal aperture, areal aperture,

or showing derivation from such a form.

Superfamily Rotaliidea: Canaliculate with no

aperture, or pores on the apertural face, or

pores elsewhere, sometimes with interio-

marginal intercameral foramina, or showing

derivation from such a form.

Superfamily RoranmprEa

The accompanying table of stratigraphical

occurrences and probable phylogeny has been

compiled with the characters of numerous species

in mind, rather than the diagnostic generic

characters. It is found that a number of phyletic

groups can be recognised which have simple

distinguishing characters, provided one is willing

to redefine genera and families where necessary.

The result is a classification that differs sig-

nificantly from any proposed before but without

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, NO. 7

any general appearance of unfamiliarity. Five

families can be very readily distinguished, and

are natural phyletic groupings. The Nummu-

litidae have a distinctive marginal cord, the

Elphidiidae have retral processes to the chambers,

the Miogypsinidae have orbitoidal habit with an

eccentric nucleoconch, the Rupertiidae are

initially trochoid and are attached and the

Baculogypsinidae have solid spines or spherical

growth. Apart from a few highly specialized forms

that obviously evolved from a member of these

families, there is no necessity to make exceptions

to these simple definitions. The Rotaliidae for

the most part form an equally distinct group,

being trochoid and not attached. They are the

parent forms of the Miogypsinidae and the

Rupertiidae. The family Miscellaneidae is used

for all the difficult cases, but these have a

similarity between themselves which, although it

does not yield to simple definition or appear to

indicate a monophyletic group, is reassuring to

the taxonomist. It includes numerous species that

are almost bilaterally symmetrical and are not

easy to separate from species of Rotalia (Neo-

rotalia) that have the dorsal and ventral sides

similarly ornamented. It is suspected that genera

of the Miscellaneidae have been differentiated

repeatedly from Neorotalia. The strictly sym-

metrical species of the Miscellaneidae are thought

to be related to asymmetrical ones in several

cases. The Miscellaneidae have strong radial

canals in all genera excepting Sulcoperculina,

which is a very unusual form and a misfit in any

family.

Family Roraimpab

The test is trochoid and the dorsal and ventral

surfaces are differentiated; all external openings

being ventral, except for perforations. The canal

system is various, but all genera have radial

canals or fissures or umbilical cavities and

intraseptal and subsutural canals are common if

not universal.

Rotalia (Streblus, Tur- Sakesaria (Horupertia)

binulina, Ammonia, Dictyoconoides

Hammonium)? Dictyokathina

Neorotalia Notorotalia ?

Kathina

Lockhartia

There is little to add to the discussion of this

family given in a previous paper (Smout, 1954),

* Genera in parentheses are considered to be

synonyms.

ROTALIIDEA

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IVAINISAANOINIVE

ATINGS

204

except as regards Neorotalia Bermudez, 1952.

Bermudez has separated a group of species

including R. mexicana Nuttall, 1928, and R.

viennott Greig, 1935. R. calcar d’Orbigny, 1826,

should be included. The practical distinction

between Rotalia and Neorotalia is not easy, but

it is of great theoretical importance because

Neorotalia is probably the persistent primitive

stock of the superfamily Rotaliidea, and has

probably given rise to a number of genera of the

Miscellaneidae, as well as to the initial forms of

some if not all families. Its most important

characteristic is a distinct asymmetry without

strong differentiation of the dorsal and ventral

sides. From the origin of Miogypsinoides, it is

known that this genus can give rise to bilaterally

symmetrical families. It is obviously closely

related to many species of the Miscellaneidae,

but no more closely than to Rotalia itself. The

definitely trochoid Rotaliidae give rise only to

the family Rupertiidae.

Occurrence—Upper Cretaceous to Recent.

Family RupERTIDAE

The test is primitively trochoid but may be

arborescent or acervuline. It is attached by the

apex.

Homotrema Carpenteria

Sporadotrema Acervulina ?

Miniacina Victoriella

Rupertia

Rupertia and Homotrema are often placed in

different families, but they merely represent

evolutionary stages of one lineage. Sakesaria, of

the Rotaliidae is thought to have become

attached by the apex in the early stages; be-

coming Rupertia. The latter genus shows two

tendencies. The axis may branch, as in the

arborescent genera, or the chambers may be

irregularly added in later stages, leading to

Carpenteria and probably to Acervulina. There is

a possibility that Gypsina belongs here, rather

than in the Baculogypsinidae.

Occurrence.—Eocene to Recent.

Family MioGypsiNIDAE

The test has orbitoidal median chambers,

eccentrically arranged around the nucleoconch,

often with lateral chambers. The adult is bi-

laterally symmetrical but the nepionic stage is

primitively like Neorotalia.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 7

Miolepidocyclina

Miogypsinopsis

Miogypsina

Miogypsinoides

The position and character of this family are

generally recognized. These genera form a lineage

derived from Neorotalia.

Occurrence.—Upper Oligocene and Miocene.

Family DiscocycLINIDAE

This family belongs to the radial, perforate

group of Foraminifera but its origin is not known.

There are no obvious canals and there is a

probability that the Discocyclinidae are derived

from the Discorbidea.

Occurrence.—Eocene.

Family ORBITOIDIDAE

This family as at present recognized as poly-

phyletic. None of the genera have an obvious

canal system. Some genera are suspected of being

derived from the Rotalidae.

Occurrence-—Upper Cretaceous to Recent.

Family ELPHIDIIDAE

“Tests free, planispiral, trochoid or uncoiling;

wall calcareous, hyaline, perforate radial in

structure, with a canal system opening into a

single or double row of pores along the sutures,

and with retral processes projecting across the

sutures; aperture consisting of a single slit or row

of pores at the base of the apertural face, or

scattered pores on the face.”

Elphidium (Polysto- Elphidioides

mella) Ozawaia

Faujasina Polystomellina

Cribroelphidiwm

Loeblich and Tappan (1953) proposed the

definition given above. There is practical dif-

ficulty in separating those species that really

have retral processes from those that have

lateral ornament that gives a similar appearance.

The general resemblance between genera of the

Miscellaneidae and the Elphidiidae can be very

great (see Figs. 6 a, b and 10 a, b). By definition

Elphidiella has no retral processes and therefore

has been removed to the Miscellaneidae. Noto-

rotalia Finlay, 1939, probably is without retral

processes and is provisionally placed in the

Rotaliidae. The Elphidiidae- retain the canal

system and variability of the symmetry which are

shown by their ancestral family, although it is

JuLyY 1955

unusual for one species to show such variability

as do those of the Miscellaneidae. It is not proven

that any genus has an interiomarginal aperture,

although it is sometimes present as an inter-

cameral foramen.

Occurrence —Upper

Recent.

Eocene?, Oligocene to

Family BAcULOGYPSINIDAE

The test is primitively planispiral or trochoid,

but the dorsal and ventral surfaces are not dif-

ferentiated. The canal system is diffuse and

confused with the perforations. The margin is

rounded or absent. Advanced genera may

become globular. Large spines are often present

and are formed by the thickening and not by

marginal projections of the chambers.

Gypsina ?

Sphaerogypsina ?

Siderolites (Tinoporus)

Baculogypsina

Baculogypsinoides

Silvestriella)

The spinose genera show a close resemblance

to each other that leaves little doubt that they

should be associated in one family. The canal

system is very diffuse and should not be con-

sidered the same as that of the Miscellaneidae.

The origin of Gypsina Carter, 1877, and Sphae-

rogypsina Galloway, 1933, is obscure and it is

not certain that they should be included here;

perhaps they belong to the Homotremidae.

Occurrence —Upper Cretaceous to Recent.

Family NUMMULITIDAE

The test is planispiral and bilaterally sym-

metrical. The canal system is fine and ramifying

without vertical canals or fissures and the margin

has a differentiated marginal cord containing

ramifying canals.

Subfamily NummutitinaE®

Nummulites (Camerina) Assilina

Operculina Ranikothalia

Operculinoides Parasptroclypeus

Operculinella

Subfamily HreTERostEeGININAE

Heterostegina

Sptroclypeus

Cycloclypeus

3 The inclusion of these genera is not intended

to indicate an opinion on their validity. A number

of names not in general use have been ignored.

SMOUT: RECLASSIFICATION OF THE ROTALITDEA

205

There has been a very great measure of agree-

ment about this family, but a failure to state

categorically that it is the nature of the canal

system, particularly that of the marginal cord,

that is the distinctive character from the other

Rotaliidea, particularly from the Miscellaneidae.

The marginal cord of the Heterosteginidae is

sometimes suppressed by the reduction of

thickening that automatically occurs in cyclical

genera.

Occurrence-—Upper Paleocene to Recent.

Family MIsceLLANEIDAE

The test is planispiral or trochoid but not dif-

ferentiated in structure into obviously dorsal and

ventral sides. The canal system is strongly de-

veloped with subsutural and intraseptal canals

and either vertical canals or a system of fissures.

There is no differentiated marginal cord. There

are no spines or retral processes. A few aberrant

genera have a complex spire or have lateral

chambers.

Laffitteina Daviesina

Pellatispira Sulcoperculina

Biplanispira Fissoelphidium

Miscellanea Elphidiella

Arnaudiella ‘Siderolites’ vidali and ‘8S.’

Siderina? heracleae

Pellatispirella ?

The differences between some of these genera

become very slight when the protean nature of

the group is realized and the changes of canal

system and tendency to asymmetry are no longer

regarded as features on which to distingush

families in this particular group of genera.

Advanced forms such as Biplanispira Umbgrove,

1937, are included when they are isolated end-

forms and clearly derived from typical genera of

the family. Hlphidiella is traditionally classified

with Elphidium Montfort, 1808, and is probably

the ancestral genus to the Elphidiidae, but it

lacks the retral processes that are the only real

justification for recognizing the Hlphidiidae as a

family distinct from the Miscellaneidae. It is

logical to include difficult primitive forms in the

Miscellaneidae. Sulcoperculina has no canaliculate

marginal cord but it has a highly differentiated

margin, which is unusual in the Miscellaneidae.

The genera Calcarina d’Orbigny, 1826, and

Siderolites Lamarck, 1801, have been used as

familial types without a clear decision about their

characters. Calcarina is variously stated to have

206

C. calcar d’Orbigny, 1826, and Nautilus spengleri

Gmelin, 1756, as the type species. D’Orbigny

based his generic description and model on C.

calcar, but the species was neither described nor

figured. No reference to any previous work was

cited for this species and the model does not

constitute a valid indication of a species according

to the Rules of Zoological Nomenclature. C.

calcar d’Orbigny, 1826, is therefore a nomen

nudum and its subsequent validation cannot

affect the designation of NV. splenglert by Cushman

(1915), for this was a valid species included in

the original list of species of Calcarina by

@Orbigny. C. calcar is not congeneric with

N. spenglert for the spines of the former are

produced from the marginal regions of the

chambers, whereas the spines of N. spengleri are

formed by the thickening, and are of the same

nature as pillars and pustules. C. calcar is either

a Rotalia or belongs to a genus closely related to

Rotalia. N. spenglert belongs to the genus

Siderolites Lamarck, 1801. The resemblance

between it and S. calcitrapoides Lamarck, 1801,

the type species of Szderolites, is so close that

arguments have been put up for their identity.

A specific distinction can be maintained but

there is no necessity for generic distinction and

similar species are found at various Tertiary

horizons to link the geological record of Sidero-

lites from the Upper Cretaceous to the Holocene.

The refusal to admit Siderolites as a long-ranging

genus with Tertiary species has coincided with

the attribution of the Cretaceous species Sidero-

lites vidali Douvillé, 1907, and SS. heracleae Arni,

1932, to it. They have no spines and no closer

resemblance to Siderolites than to Laffitteona

Marie, 1946, Daviesina Smout, 1954, or Elpha-

diella Cushman, 1936. They resemble Daviesina

in the planispiral, very feebly trochoid habit but

have definite vertical canals while Daviesina has

a combination of canals and fissures. Laffitteina

and Elphidiella have distinct canal patterns. A

new generic name is required.‘ All this establishes

4 Pseudosiderolites, n. gen. Type _ species,

Siderolites vidali Douville, 1907. Test lenticular to

biconical, bilaterally symmetrical ; equitant

chambers arranged in a plane spire. Shell material

radially fibrous, laminated, perforate, composed

of calcite. Radial canals numerous. Without

spines, marginal canal or other marginal dif-

ferentiation.

Other genera of the Miscellaneidae have the fol-

lowing distinctive characters: Pellatispira and Bi-

planispira are evoJute; Elphidiella, Laffitteina and

Pellatispirella have characteristic canal patterns;

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 7

clearly that Calcarina should not be used as the

type of a family and that the Siderolitidae, if

the name is to be used, must include S. calcitra-

poides but not necessarily S. vidali or S. heracleae.

It has already been remarked that Neorotalia

of the family Rotaliidae has a similarity to

Laffitteina and Daviesina and forms a plexus of

primitive species that is probably the origin of

the more distinctive forms of both the Rotaliidae

and the Miscellaneidae. The Miscellaneidae may

represent derivatives of Neorotalia that tend to

be planispiral rather than be a monophyletic

group. The inclusion of Neorotalia in the Miscella-

neidae would fit better with a phyletic picture,

but the morphological distinction of Neorotalia

from Rotalia is difficult and a family distinction

between these genera is unthinkable at present.

The majority of the genera of the Miscella-

neidae are bilaterally symmetrical and the

inclusion of Daviesina and Laffittevna is therefore

debatable. These genera are frankly intermediate

between the Rotaliidae and the Miscellaneidae

but the structure on the two sides of the test is

essentially the same, as in the typical Miscella-

neidae while the structure of the dorsal and

ventral sides of the test in any species of the

Rotaliidae is different as regards the development

of canals and ornament as well as perforation and

the alar prolongations of the chambers.

Occurrence.—Senonian to Recent.

Genus Elphidiella Cushman, 1936

Type species, Polystomella arctica Parker and

Jones, in Brady, 1864.

The test is bilaterally symmetrical and plani-

spiral, with a simple spire of equitant chambers

that usually leave an axial plug. There are sub-

sutural and vertical canals that open along the

radial and spiral sutures, usually forming a double

row along each radial suture. The aperture

consists of pores on the terminal face.

The species of this genus have no retral

processes. Striate ornament that resembles them

is sometimes present, caused by grooves that

originate at the sutural pores and run on the

chamber walls after the manner of trabeculae. In

fossil specimens, it is sometimes very difficult to

determine if retral processes are really present.

Miscellanea and Fissoelphidium have fissures, not

radial canals; Siderina and Daviesina are obviously

asymmetrical; Siderolites has spines; Sulcopercu-

lina has a marginal sulcus and lacks radical canals;

Arnaudiella has extra-spiral chambers.

IOUT: RECLASSIFICATION OF THE ROTALIIDEA 207

JuLy 1955 s

- IF res. 1-5.—Fissoelphidium operculiferum, n. gen. and sp.: 1, Edge view, to show septum and broken

chambers (B.M.N.H. P.42154); 2a, b, lateral and edge views of holotype (B.M.N.H. P.42155); 3, tan-

gential section to show figures (B.M.N.H. P.42166); 4, axial section (B.M.N.H. P.42167); 5, equatorial

section (B.M.N.H. P.42168). All X30.

Frias. 6-9.—Elphidiella multiscissurata, n. sp.: 6a, b, Lateral and edge views of holotype (B.M.N.H.

P.42169) X30; 7, equatorial section (B.M.N.H. P.42175) X30; axial section (B.M.N.H. P.42176) X30;

9, axial section (B.M.N.H. P.42177) 100.

Fie. 10.—Elphidium cf. E. crispum Linné: Pliocene, Abu Shareb, Levant. 10a, b, Lateral and edge

views for comparison with Figs. 6a, b (B.M.N.H. P.42178) X30.

208

Some species that have been described as

Elphidium lack retral processes; even in some

cases when the latter have been recorded as

present there is a doubt of the accuracy of the

observations.

Elphidiella is already known to occur through-

out the Tertiary. Brotzen records EH. prima (Ten

Dem, 1944) from the Paleocene. Nummulites

mengandi Astre, 1924, is possibly an Elphidiella,

but the typical canal system has not been

demonstrated in this Upper Cretaceous species.

The typical unornamented species have little

resemblance to Laffitteina, but there is no further

difference between the two genera other than the

symmetry of the test, itself not a marked feature.

Occurrence-—Maestrichtian to Recent.

Elphidiella multiscissurata, n. sp.

Figs. 6-9

Holotype P.42169 and paratypes P.42170-7,

British Museum (Natural History), and topo-

type P.2026, U. 8. National Museum.

Description.—The test is composed of hyaline,

radially fibrous, perforate calcite and is laminated

in the usual manner of the Rotaliidea. It is small

and lenticular to biconical with a subacute,

feebly carinate margin. The spire is simple and

planispiral and the chambers are involute and

equitant. The umbonal region on each side is

about one third of the diameter of the test and

occupied by a boss that is usually slightly raised.

The chambers of the last half whorl are separated

from the boss by a groove, which is continued as a

spiral of about one and a half turns of pores.

Only the last whorl of chambers is_ visible

externally. The sutures are radial and slightly

curved, limbate mostly but incised for the last

few chambers. Each suture has a row of about 10

pores on each side of the test. They incline

alternately forward and backward over the

chambers, with tributary grooves that are in-

conspicuous over the latest chambers, but become

more obvious on the older, thickened chamber

walls. The alternate inclination of the sutural

canals makes the row of pores appear double.

There are no retral processes, nor any rudiments

of them, but this can only be seen clearly on the

last two or three chambers, which are often not

preserved. The aperture is cribrate, being a row

of about 10 pores in the interiomarginal position.

No intercameral foramina have been observed

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 7

with certainty. The proloculum is small and

spherical. Dimorphism has not been observed.

Dimensions.—Diameter, 0.9 to 0.5 mm;

thickness, 0.5 to 0.2 mm; diameter of nucleo-

conch, about 0.01 mm.

There are about three whorls with 20 to 25

chambers in the last whorl.

Distribution —It has been found in Maestrich-

tian marls in deep boreholes on Jebel Dukhan,

Qatar, Arabia, associated with Siderolites

calcitrapoides Lamarck, 1801, Omphalocyclus

macropora (Lamarck, 1816), Loftusia morgant

Douvillé, 1904, Lepidorbitoides socialis (Leymerie,

1851). Orbitoides apiculata Schlumberger, 1902,

and Fissoelphidvum operculiferum gen. et sp. nov.

It is also found at Aqra, N. E. Iraq in Maestrich-

tian limestones with the same associated species

and in addition -Loftusia persica Brady, 1869,

Cyclolites spp. and Trechmanella persica L. R.

Cox, 1934.

Remarks.—There is a difficulty in deciding the

correct generic attribution of this species. The

formal resemblance to Elphidiella is very con-

siderable, but the latter genus typically has a

rounded margin, whereas H. multiscissurata has a

marked differentiation of the marginal region. A

similar difference appears to occur between

species of Hlphidiwm, and it need not be taken as

a generic character. The slight grooving on the

chamber walls of #. multiscissurata is not typical

of Elphidiella, but again is not a character that.

need be considered as generic.

The very striking resemblance of H. ‘multi-

scissurata to Elphidium crispum (Linné, 1758) is

more apparent than real because this species has

no retral processes. ‘Nummulites’ mengaudv

Astre, 1924, from the Upper Cretaceous of

Aquitaine is possibly an Hlphidiella. It resembles

E. multiscissurata very closely but has a rounded

margin without a carina and the canal system

may be different. In any case they are distinct

species. Hlphidiella prima (Ten Dam, 1944),

fide Brotzen, 1948, from the Danian and Paleo-

cene of Sweden and Holland also lacks a carinate

margin and cannot be the same species.

Fissoelphidium, n. gen.

Type species, Fissoelphidium operculiferum,

n.sp.

Description—The test is planispiral and bi-—

laterally symmetrical with a single spire of |

equitant chambers. The shell material is radially —

Juny 1955

fibrous, perforate calcite, deposited in laminae

that correspond to the chambers and build up a

spiral lamina and polar plugs as in Nwmmuilites.

The septa are double and there is a lateral system

of wide meandrine fissures. The septa are double

in appearance in thin section, particularly in

tangential sections, for the fissures penetrate

slightly into them. The margin is rounded and

without a marginal cord.

Remarks—This monotypic genus has a

system of fissures resembling that of the ventral

surface of Rotalia, but in Fissoelphidiwm they are

found on both sides of the test. The dendritic

fissures along the sutures recall the patterns

formed by the canals in Laffitteina. The general

appearance is suggestive of the Elphiidae, but

there are no retral processes and there is no close

resemblance to any species of Elphidium.

Occurrence—Maestrichtian.

Fissoelphidium operculiferum, n.sp.

Figs. 1-5

Holotype P.42155 and paratypes P.42154,

42156-69, British Museum (Natural History),

and topotypes P.2027, U.S. National Museum.

Description—The shell material is hyaline,

radially fibrous, perforate calcite, deposited in

laminae that correspond each to a chamber, and

thus form a spiral lamina and supplemental

thickening in the same manner as in Nwmmiuitites.

The slightly curved septa appear double in section

and there is a canal system. The test is stoutly

lenticular with a rounded margin and no trace of

a marginal cord or carina. The chambers are

arranged in a simple, plain spire. They are

equitant with nearly straight, radial, alar pro-

longations that do not reach the poles. The radial

sutures are incised. On the latest chambers they

are straight, but small alternating branches of

them increase in strength on the older parts of

the test. Toward the periphery they render the

suture line zig-zag, while nearer the poles they

form anastomoses and cut the supplementary

skeleton into incised granules. These grade

imperceptibly into the incised granules of the

umbonal regions. The initial branches of the

septal sutures tend to be directed forward,

producing a pattern that has a similarity to that

of Laffitteina. The lowest parts of the fissures

| seem to be cut off to form a canal system of

| lateral spiral canals and tributary canals, all

SMOUT: RECLASSIFICATION OF THE ROTALIIDEA 209

these running in the sutures. At the periphery

the tributary canals become narrower and open

into the fissures, and the spiral canals open into

the fissures near the terminal chamber. The

canals lie deep, but still in the peripheral part of

the septum, and the sutural fissures penetrate a

short way into the septa. There is no evidence of

canals in the more central part of the septa. The

perforations are coarse and evenly distributed.

The proloculum is small and no dimorphism has

been observed. The aperture consists of pores

round an apertural plate that bulges outward.

This is removed when the next chamber is formed,

leaving an interiomarginal intercameral slit in

the septum.

Dimensions—Diameter, 2.2 to 1.38 mm;

thickness, 1.0 to 0.5 mm; diameter of proloculum,

0.08 to 0.04 mm.

There are about three whorls with 12 to 15

chambers in the last whorl.

Distribution —Type locality: Maestrichtian of

Dukham Oilfield, Qatar Peninsula of Arabia, with

Elphidiella multiscissurata and the fauna listed

as accompanying that species.

Other localities: Maestrichtian of N. Iraq at

Aqra, with HE. multiscissurata and the same

associated fauna and at Jebel Gara; in 8S. Iraq

in the Maestrichtian of the Zubair Oilfield, near

Basra; at Ras Sharwain, Qishn, (Mahra, Persian

Gulf) where it is also of Maestrichtian age.

The system of deep fissures is probably a

primitive character. As in Miscellanea and

Kathina grooves and fissures are the equivalent

of the canal system of more advanced genera. This

aberrant species shows little similarity to any

other but is probably closely related phyletically

to the other Cretaceous Miscellaneidae. ‘Nwm-

mulites’ mengaudi Astre has a similar appearance

in photographs of thin sections. This is odd

because neither fissures nor canals are mentioned

in the type description. These two species might

prove to be congeneric on further investigation,

but they are unlikely to be identical. The

dimensions of F’. operculiferum are considerably

greater than those of ‘N.’ mengaudii.

REFERENCES

ArnI, P. Hine neue Siderolites Spezies (S. hera-

cleae) (aus dem Senon von Eregli an der

kleinasiatischen Schwartzmeerkiiste) und

Versuch eine Bereinigung der Gattung. Ecl.

Geol. Helv. 25: 204-205, pls. 8-10. 1982.

Astre, G. Htude paléontologique des Nummulites

du Crétacé Superiewr de Cézan-Lavardens

210

(Gers). Bull. Soc. Géol. France 23: 360-368,

pl. 12. 1923.

Bermupez, P. J. Estudio sistematico de los fora-

miniferos rotaliformes. Bol. Geol. Caracas 2

(4): 1-230, pls. 1-85. 1952.

Brapy, H. B. Contribution to the knowledge of the

Foraminifera: On the rhizopodal fauna of the

Shetlands. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 24: 463-

476, pl. 48. 1864.

Brorzen, F. Die Foraminiferengattung Gave-

linella nov. gen. und die Systematik der Rotalii-

formes. Sver. Geol. Unders., ser. C, 451: 1-60,

1 pl. 1942.

——. The Swedish Paleocene and its foraminiferal

fauna. Sver. Geol. Unders, Ars 42, no. 2:

1-140, pls. 1-19. 1948.

Carrer, H.J.Onamelobesian form of Foraminifera

(Gypsina melobesioides, Mihi): and further

observations on Carpenteria monticularis.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) 20: 172. 1877.

Caupri, C. M. B. The larger Foraminifera from

San Juan de los Morros, State of Guarico,

Venezuela. Bull. Amer. Pal. 28: 1-54, pls.

1-5. 1944.

Cote, W.S. Internal structures of some Floridian

Foraminifera. Bull. Amer. Pal. 31: 1-30, pls.

1-5. 1947.

. Criteria for the recognition of certain as-

sumed camerinid genera. Bull. Amer. Pal. 35:

1-22, pls. 1-3. 1953.

CusHMAN, J. A. A monograph of the Foraminifera

of the North Pacific Ocean; Pt. V. Rotaliidae.

U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 71: 1-83, pls. 1-31. 1915.

——.. The relationships of the genera Calearina,

Tinoporus and Baculogypsina, as indicated by

Recent Philippine material. U. 8S. Nat. Mus.

Bull. 100, vol. 1, pt. 6: 363-868, pls. 44-45.

1919.

———. A monograph of the foraminiferal family

Nonionidae. U. S. Geol. Surv. Paper 191:

1-100, pls. 1-20. 1939.

———. Foraminifera, their classification and

economic use, ed. 4: 1-605, pls. 1-55. Harvard

University Press, 1948.

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p’Arcutac, A., and Harmn, J. Description des

animaux fossiles du groupe nummulitique de

UInde etc.: 1-373, pls. 1-36. Paris, 1853. ##

Dovvit_e£, H. In Morgan, J., Misszon scientifique

en Perse. Mollusques fossils. 3: Etudes Geol.:

4 (Pal.): 367. Paris, 1904.

——.. Evolution et enchainments des Foramini-

feres. Bull. Soc. Géol. France (4) 6: 599, 1907.

pd’OrBIGNyY, A. Tableau méthodique de la classe des

céphalopodes. Ann. Sei. Nat. Paris, 1826 (1):

7. 1826.

Finuay, H. J. New Zealand Foraminifera: Key

Species in stratigraphy—No. 1. Trans. Roy.

Soc. New Zealand 68: 504-533, pls. 68-69.

1939.

Gattoway, J. J. A manual of Foraminifera:

1-483, pls. 1-42. Bloomington, Ind., 1933.

Guarssner, M. F. Principles of micropaleontology:

1-296, pls. 1-14. Melbourne University Press,

1947.

Horker, J. The toothplate-Foraminifera. Arch.

Néerl. Zoo. Leider. 8: 256. 1951.

Kupper, K. Note on Schlumbergerella Hanzawa

and related genera. Contr. Cushman Found.

Foram. Res. 5: 26-30. 1954.

Lorsuicu, A. R., and Tappan, H. Studies of

Arctic Foraminifera. Smithsonian Mise. Coll.

121: (7): 1-142, pls. 1-24. 1953.

PaumeEr, D. K. Some large fossil Foraminifera from

Cuba. Mem. Soc. Cubana Hist. Nat. 8: 245.

1934.

Steau, J. Foraminiferes, in J. Piveteau, Traité de

Paleontologie: 1: 133-301. Paris, 1952.

Smout, A. H. Lower Tertiary Foraminifera of the

Qatar Peninsula. Monogr. British Mus. Nat.

Hist.: 1-96, pls. 1-15. 1954.

Tren Dam, A. Die Stratigraphische Gliederung des

Niederldndischen Paldéozins und Eozéns nach

Foraminiferen. Medd. Geol. Stichting, ser.

‘5 (3): 109, pl. 5, fig. 15. 1944.

Woop, A. The structure of the wall of the test in the

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13-15. 1949.

BOTANY .—New Korean grasses and new names of grasses to be validated before

publication of a manual of the grasses of Korea. Ix-CHo Cuune, Botanical

Gardens, University of Michigan. (Communicated by H. H. Bartlett.)

(Received February 3, 1955)

The writer has prepared a Manual of the

grasses of Korea which, before publication as

a book, will be microfilmed, since it has been

presented as a dissertation at the University

of Michigan. Since publication by microfilm

is not recognized as valid by the Interna-

tional Rules of Botanical Nomenclature, it

is necessary to extract for prior journal

publication the new Korean taxa which are

proposed, as well as certain names in new

combinations required for uniformity of

treatment in the Manual.

The purpose of the Manual is to give full

descriptions, with clear-cut keys to all cate-

gories, of all known grasses of Korea, both

South and North. The only grasses excluded

Juny 1955

from the work are cultivated bamboos. The

treatment is based as largely as possible

upon material actually collected in Korea,

which is available in the United States Na-

tional Herbarium at the Smithsonian Insti-

tution, the Gray Herbarium of Harvard

University, the University Herbarium of the

University of Michigan, and the Herbarium

of the New York Botanical Garden.

If material from Korea or closely adjacent

regions was not available, the descriptions

were either translated from the original ones,

or, if those were too old and inadequate,

from the best and most dependable mono-

graphs, or floras of the type regions.

So far as now known thereare two hundred

species of grasses in eighty-five genera in

Korea, excluding cultivated bamboos.

One Siberian species, Poa sibirica Roshe-

vitz, isnew to Korea, and one Korean species,

Stipa pubicalyx Ohwi, has been found to

extend to the Soviet Far East, and so far as

can be ascertained, is new to that country.

Three species, three varieties, and five

forms are newly proposed; seven varieties

and three forms have required framing new

combinations in order to bring their names

into conformity with the general treatment.

The descriptions of the new taxa follow:

Poa hamhungensis Chung, sp. nov.

P. viridulae similis sed differt culmis longiori-

bus, lemmatibus obscure 5-nerviis, et palea

Jemma aequante.

Culmi pauci in caespite singulo, ascendentes,

55-65 cm alti, graciles, subteretes, 3-nodii, nodo

ultimo infra culmi mediam, striati, scaberuli;

vaginis superioribus quam internodiis breviori-

bus, scaberulis; laminis linearibus, acuminatis,

plerumque brevioribus quam vaginis, 8-10 cm

longis, 1.5-2 mm latis, scaberulis, ligulis 1-2 mm

longis, obtusis, dorso scaberulis. Panicula an-

gusta, 9-11 cm longa, ramis 2-4 ad nodum

singulum; rachi et ramis scabris; ramis inferiori-

bus 1.5-3 em longis, in parte tertia inferiore

nudis; spiculis viridibus 4.5-5 mm longis, 3- —

4-floris; glumis lanceolatis, chartaceo-membra-

naceis, Margine scariosis, 3-nerviis, scaberulis,

prima acuminata, 2—2.5 mm longa, secunda

acuta, 2.4-2.8 mm longa; lemmatibus 2.7-3 mm

longis, acutis vel acutiusculis, apicem versus

flavis purpureisque, obscure 5-nerviis, sursum

scaberulis, villosis deorsum in parte carinae

CHUNG: GRASSES

OF KOREA 211

dimidia et in tertia parte vernarum marginalium,

glabris in vena intermedia et inter venas, basi

arachnoideo-lanosis; palea lemma aequante,

ciliolata in carinis ambabus; staminibus 3;

antheris 1 mm longis, flavidis; rhachilla glabra,

minute scaberula. Specimen typicum legit T.

Suzuki sub num. 8, anno 1941, ad locum Ham-

hung (“Kanko”’ dictum), in Hamkyong-Namdo,

in U. S. Nat. Herb. conservatum sub num.

1,964,757.

Similar to P. viridula but differs from it in the

taller culms, the faintly 5-nerved lemmas, and

the palea equaling the lemma.

Culms few in a tuft, ascending, 55 to 65 cm

tall, slender, nearly terete, 3-noded with the

uppermost node below the middle of the culm,

striate, scaberulous; upper sheaths shorter than

the internodes, scaberulous; leaf-blades linear,

acuminate, mostly a little shorter than the

sheath, 8 to 10 em long, 1.5 to 2 mm wide,

scaberulous, ligules 1 to 2 mm long, obtuse,

scaberulous on the back. Panicle narrow, 9 to

11 cm long, with 2 to 4 branches at each node;

axis and branches scabrous; the lower branches

1.5 to 3.5 cm long, naked on the lower third;

spikelets green, 4.5 to 5 mm long, 3- or 4-flow-

ered; glumes lanceolate, chartaceous-membra-

naceous with scarious margins, 3-nerved, sca-

berulous, the first acuminate and 2 to 2.5 mm

long, the second acute and 2.4 to 2.8 mm long;

lemmas 2.7 to 3 mm long, acute or acutish,

yellowish and purplish near the tip, faintly

5-nerved, scaberulous above, villous on the

lower half of the keel and on the lower third of

the marginal veins, glabrous on the intermediate

vein and between the veins, wavy-haired at

base; paleas equal to the lemma, ciliolate on the

2 keels; stamens 3; anthers 1 mm long, yellowish;

rachilla glabrous, minutely scaberulous.

Type specimen: T. Suzuki 8 (US 1,964,757)

collected in 1941 at Hamhung, Hamkyong-

Namdo.

Poa kyongsongensis Chung, sp. nov.

Poae matsumurae similis sed differt spicula

majori 5- —8-flora, vagina longiore quam inter-

nodio.

Culmis ca. 57 cm longis, compressiusculis,

basi 2 mm crassis, 2-nodosis, nodo superiore

infra culmi mediam, infra nodos et infra inflor-

escentiam scaberulis; vaginis quam internodiis

longioribus, compressiusculis, striatis; laminis

planis, linearibus, acutis, 10.5-13 cm_ longis,

212

2-2.2 mm latis, glabris, scaberulis, infima basi

purpurascenti; ligula membranacea, 2-3 mm

longa, obtusa, in dorso scaberula; panicula

laxa, ca. 18.5 cm longa, rhachi ramisque scabris,

ramis ascendentibus, infra mediam nudis, in-

ferioribus quinis fasculatis, fasciculis ex ramis 2

brevibus, 2 intermediis et 1 longissimo (9.7 cm

longo) constantibus; spiculis viridibus, 5.5-

7.5 mm longis, 5- —8-floris; glumis lanceolatis,

acutis, chartaceis, margine scariosis, 3-nerviis,

in costa scaberulis, prima 2.8-3 mm longa, se-

cunda 3-3.5 mm. longa; lemmatibus 3.3-3.5 mm

longis, 5-nerviis, obtusis, chartaceis, margine

scarlosis, apice flavescentibus purpurascenti-

busque, secus margines purpurascentibus, punc-

tatim scaberulis, glabris in vena intermedia et

inter venas, pubescentibus deorsum in parte

carinae dimidia et in tertia parte venarum mar-

ginalium, basi arachnoideis; palea paulum bre-

viore quam lemmate, ciliolata in costis; antheris

(immaturis) 1-1.8 mm longis; rachilla glabra,

minute scaberulaa—Specimen typicum _ legit

Ohwi prope Kyongsong in provincia Ham-

kyong-Pukto, Korea, 881 pro parte (!) in U. 8.

Nat. Herb. conservatum sub num. 1964478.

Partes inferiores desunt. Specimen alterum est

Poa sphondylodes.

Similar to Poa matsumurae but differs from

it in the longer, 5- to 8-flowered spikelet and the

sheath which is longer than the internode.

Culm 57 ecm long, slightly compressed, 2 mm

wide at base, 2-noded with the uppermost node

below the middle of the culm, scaberulous below

the inflorescence and nodes; sheaths longer than

the internodes, slightly compressed, striate,

scaberulous; leaf-blades flat, lmear, acute, 10.5

to 138 cm long, 2 to 2.2 mm wide, glabrous,

scaberulous, the lowermost purplish at base;

ligules membranaceous, 2 to 8 mm long, obtuse,

scaberulous on the back. Panicle open, 18.5 em

long; axis and branches scabrous; branches

ascending, naked below the middle, the lower-

most ones in a fascicle of 5 (2 shortest, 2 inter-

mediate, the other longest and 9.7 cm long).

Spikelets green, 5.5 to 7.5 mm long, 5- to 8-

flowered; glumes lanceolate, acute, chartaceous,

with scarious margins, 3-nerved, scaberulous on

the keel, the first 2.8 to 3 mm long, the second

3 to 3.5 mm long; lemmas 3.3 to 3.5 mm long,

5-nerved, obtuse, chartaceous, with scarious

margins, yellowish and purplish near the tip,

purplish near the margins, punctate-scaberulous,

glabrous on the intermediate nerve and between

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 7

the veins, pubescent on the lower half of the keel

and on the lower third of the marginal veins,

wavy-haired at base; paleas a little shorter than

the lemma, ciliolate on the 2 keels; anthers (im-

mature) 1 to 1.3 mm long; rachilla glabrous,

minutely scaberulous.

Type specimen: Ohwt 881 (US 1,964,478) P.P.,

collected at Kyongsong, Hamkyong-Pukto. This,

without the basal part, is one of the two plants

found on US 1,964,478 collected by Ohwi on

June 2, 1930, at Kyongsong, the other being Poa

sphondylodes. Poa penicellata Kom. in Kam-

chatka may be remotely related to Poa matsu-

murae and Poa kyongsongensis.

Poa ullungdoensis Chung, sp. nov.

Poae nemorali affinis, sed differt panicula an-

gustiore ramis appressioribus foliisque plerumque

involutis. A P. kumgansani differt culmis com-

pressis, 5- —8-nodiis et spiculis parvioribus, glu-

mis brevioribus.

Perennis; culmis caespitosis, 25-40 cm altis,

gracilibus, simplicibus, basi geniculatis, 5- —8-

nodis; vaginis haud apertis, saepe quam inter-

nodiis longioribus, eis inferioribus purpurascen-

tibus, ut culmis compressis, striatis, glabris,

laevibus; laminis anguste linearibus, 9-17 cm

longis, saepissime involutis, 1-2 mm latis si ap-

planatis, glabris, margine scaberulis; ligulis trun-_

catis, 0.2 mm longis. Panicula 5-10 cm longa, 1—1.7

cm lata, ramis 2-5 ad nodos inferiores, appressis,

haud verticillatis sed fasciculatis; ramis plus mi-

nusve scaberulis, vel simplicibus vel circa mediam

partem ramosis, prope apicem pauci-spiculiferis,

infimis 2.2-4.8 cm longis. Spiculae 2.8—-5 (raro 7)

mm longae, 2- —6-floriferae, plerumque 4-flori-

ferae; glumis subaequalibus vel vix inaequalibus,

prima 1.2—2.2 mm longa, 1-costata, secunda 1.7—

2.8 mm. longa, 3-costata; carinis scaberulis vel

laevibus; lemmate obscure vel conspicue 5-nervio,

basi pilis undulatis praedito, subtus in costa pu-

bescenti etiamque prope basem venarum mar-

ginalium, sed sursum et inter venus glabro; palea

lemmate subaequali, 2-costata, costis scaberulis,

apice indistincte 2-dentata vel integra; stamini-

bus 3; antheris 1.2—2 mm longis, luteolis; lodiculis

2, membranaceis, cuneatis, emarginatis, 0.2-0.3

mm longis. Specimen typicum legit Chung (no.

1673) ex insula Ullung Do, 1 Jul. 1948; Oh 2479

etiam ex Ullung Do (ambobus in herb. Univ.

Michiganensis conservatis).

Close to P. nemoralis but differs from it in the

narrow panicle with appressed branches and the

Juny 1955

usually involute leaves. Also distinguished from

P. kumgansani by the compressed 5- to 8-noded

elums and the smaller spikelets with shorter

glumes.

Perennial; culms tufted, 25 to 40 cm tall, slen-

der, simple, bent at base, 5- to 8-noded; sheaths

closed, usually longer than the internodes, the

lowermost ones purplish; culms and sheaths com-

pressed, striate, glabrous, smooth; blades very

narrowly linear, 9 to 17 cm long, usually involute,

1 to 2 mm wide when spread, glabrous, scaberu-

lous on the margins; ligules truncate, 0.2 mm

long. Panicle 5 to 10 cm long, 1 to 1.7 em wide,

with 2 to 5 appressed branches (not whorled) at

lower nodes; branches more or less scaberulous,

simple or branched near or above the middle,

bearing a few spikelets at the ends, the lower-

most branches 2.2 to 4.8 cm long. Spikelets 2.8

to 5 rarely 7 mm long, 2- to 4-, rarely 6-flowered;

glumes slightly unequal to subequal, the first 1.2

to 2.2 mm long and 1-nerved, the second 1.7 to

2.8 mm long and 3-nerved, keels scaberulous or

smooth; lemma faintly or conspicuously 5-nerved,

wavy-haired at base, pubescent on the keel below

and near the base of the marginal veins, glabrous

elsewhere; palea subequal to the lemma, 2-keeled,

seaberulous on the keels, slightly 2-toothed or

entire at apex; stamens 3; anthers 1.2 to 2 mm

long, yellowish; lodicules 2, membranaceous, cu-

neate, emarginate, 0.2 to 0.3 mm long.

Type specimen: Chung 1673 (MICH) collected

on 1 July 1948 in Ullung Do. Other Korean speci-

men examined: Ullung Do (Oh 2479 MICH).

Agropyron yezoense Honda var. glaucispiculum

Chung, var. nov.

A forma typica differt praecipue spiculis glau-

cis 7--9-floris glumis 3--—5-nervis.—Specimen

typicum et unicum legis Nakashima 25 Jun. 1942

prope Seoul, et conservatum in U.S. Nat. Herb.

sub numero 1,964,760.

This differs from the typical form mainly in

the glaucous 7- to 9-flowered spikelets and 3- to

5-nerved glumes.

Culms glaucous especially near the nodes;

sheaths sometimes glaucous; blades linear, acu-

minate, 15 to 21 cm long, 4 to 6 mm wide, scab-

erulous, rarely pilose; ligules 0.5 to 0.8 mm long,

truncate, brownish, membranaceous; spikelets 20

to 22 mm long, 7- to 9-flowered, glaucous; glumes

7.5 to 9 mm long, 3- to 5-nerved; lemma 9 to 11

mm long, 5-nerved, punctate on the back, hispid

or hispidulous near the margins and more or less

CHUNG: GRASSES OF KOREA

213

on the veins, glaucous; with a terminal scabrous

awn 20 to 25 mm long; palea a little shorter than

the lemma or equal, obtuse at apex, serrate-

scabrous on the 2 keels, punctate and glaucous on

the back; lodicules 2, membranaceous, 1 mm

long; pilose beak of the caryopsis about 0.5 mm

long; the hairs 1 mm long; rachilla scaberulous,

1.2 to 1.5 mm long, glaucous; callus 0.5 to 0.7

mm long; rachis scabrous on the edges, glaucous.

Type specimen: Nakashima June 25, 1942

(US 1,964,760), Seoul.

Eulalia speciosa (Debeaux) Kuntze var. glauca

Chung, var. nov.

A forma typica differt vaginis inferioribus

etiamque nodis culmorum glaucis, lodiculis cilio-

latis, et antheris longioribus. A Eulalia quadri-

nervt distincta gluma prima pilosa et eaedem

venis marginalibus supra mediam extinctis, lem-

mate fertile longiore et laminis foliorum longiori-

bus.—Specimen typicum in Herbario Grayano

conservatum legit R. K. Smith s. n. 20 Sept. 1934,

prope ‘“‘Sorai Beach” in Provincia Whanghaedo.

This differs from the typical form of Hulalia

speciosa in the glaucous lower sheaths and nodes

of the culm, the ciliolate lodicules, and the longer

anthers. It is distinguished from Hulalia quadri-

nervis by the densely pilose first glume, the two

marginal nerves of which disappear above the

middle, the longer fertile lemma, and the longer

leaf-blade.

Culms 115 em tall, erect, unbranched, pubes-

cent below the inflorescence, glaucous at nodes;

sheaths open, longer or shorter than the inter-

nodes, lower sheaths glaucous; leaf-blades linear,

acuminate, 30 to 40 em long, about 6 mm wide,

scabrous on margins, pruinose-glaucous above,

pilose behind the ligules; ligules thickish, 0.7 to

1 mm long, truncate. Panicle 15 cm long, with

subdigitate racemes; rachis obliquely jointed,

compressed, densely whitish-pilose chiefly on

edges and nodes; rachis-segments 4 to 4.5 mm

long; spikelets 5 to 5.5 mm long, pilose; pedicels

3 to 3.2 mm long, sulcate, densely pilose on edges;

glumes equal, broad-lanceolate, narrowly in-

flexed on margins; first glume subcoriaceous, 4-

nerved, with the 2 marginal nerves disappearing

above the middle, densely pilose on the usually

slightly depressed back and on sides, hispidulous

on edges near the tip; second glume chartaceous,

3-nerved, pilose on the rounded back, ciliate

above the middle, puberulent on both surfaces

near the tip; sterile lemma as long as the glumes,

214

lanceolate, chartaceous-membranaceous below,

membranaceous and ciliate above, 2-nerved;

fertile lemma 3.5 to 4 mm long, very narrow,

membranaceous, puberulent above, slightly con-

stricted on the back at the lower fourth, awned

from between the teeth of the bifid apex; the awn

16 to 17 mm long, bent, twisted, puberulent;

palea 1.5 to 2 mm long, narrowly linear, mem-

branaceous, ciliolate at apex, thick, 0.6 to 0.7 mm

long; callus very short; hairs of callus 0.8 to 1.5

mm long; stamens 3; anthers 3 to 3.2 mm long,

brown; stigmas 2 to 2.5 mm long, plumose, dark-

purple; style long.

Type specimen: Smith 9-20-1934, Sorai Beach

in Whanghai-Do, GH.

Setaria lutescens (Weigel) Hubb. dura

Chung, var. nov.

var.

A forma typica differt lemmate flosculi infe-

rioris convexo, chartaceo vel cartilagineo, trans-

verse rugoso.—Specimen typicum et unicum

legit Oh sub. no. 8090 in insula Sohuksan Do,

conservatum in Herb. Univ. Michiganensis. This

differs from the typical form of Setaria Intesceus

in the lemma of the lower floret which is convex,

chartaceous to cartilaginous and slightly trans-

versely rugose.

Annual; culms erect, about 80 cm_ tall,

branched, compressed, striate, scaberulous below

the inflorescence; leaf-blades linear-lanceolate,

acuminate at apex, rounded at base, 15 to 35 cm

long, 6 mm wide, scaberulous to smooth beneath,

scabrous on the margins; sheaths compressed,

glabrous; ligule a fringe of white hairs, 1.5 mm

long, fused at base. Panicle spikelike, cylindric,

dense, 5 to 11 em long, yellowish; bristles yellow-

ish, 5 to 12 in a cluster, the longer 2 to 4 times as

long as the spikelet; spikelets 3 mm long, 1.8 to

2 mm wide, ovoid, acute; first glume 1.2 to 1.5

mm long, 3-nerved, ovate, obtuse to acute at

tip, cordate at base, embracing the spikelet; sec-

ond glume 1.5 to 2 mm long, 5-nerved, ovate,

acute; lower floret staminate with 3 stamens, or

rarely with abnormal bristles, with palea; lower

lemma convex, chartaceous to cartilaginous,

slightly transversely rugose, 5-nerved; its palea

membranaceous, equal to and as broad as the

upper palea, 2-nerved, with inflexed margins;

upper floret perfect; upper lemma and palea car-

tilaginous, strongly transversely rugose, with in-

flexed margins, the lemma strongly convex and

3- to 5-nerved, the palea flat and 2-nerved; lodi-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, NO. 7

cules cuneate, truncate; stamens 3; anthers 0.8

mm long, brown; caryopsis orbicular, grayish.

Type specimen: Oh 8090, Sohuksan Do,

MICH. Other Korean specimen examined: Seoul

(?) (Kim, anno 1948, MICH).

Agropyron kamoji Ohwi f. muticum Chung, forma

nov.

A forma typica differt glumis sterilibus acutis

vel acuminatis.—Specimen typicum legit Naka-

shima 25 Jun. 1942 in colle Poukhansan prope

Seoul, in U. 8. Nat. Herb. sub num. 1,964,758.

This differs from the typical form in the acute

or acuminate glumes.

Type specimen: Nakashima June 25, 1942

(US 1,964,758), Poukhansan.

Ischaemum crassipes (Steud.) Thell. f. pilosum

Chung, forma nov.

A forma typica differt lamina utrinque dense

pilosa.—Specimen typicum prope locum ‘Cheju

Do” dictum, legit collector sub num. Chungii

4843, in herbario Univ. Michiganensis.

This differs from the typical form of Ischae-

mum crassipes in the densely pilose leaf-blade.

Type specimen: Chung’s collector 4843, Cheju

Do, MICH. Other Korean specimen examined:

Taquet 38555, US.

Poa ussuriensis Roshev. f. angustifolia Chung,

forma nov.

A forma typica differt lamina 1.5-2 mm lata,

ligula 0.3-0.5 (0.7) mm longa.—Specimen typi-

cum legit Ohwi (num. 844) anno 1930 prope

Kyongsong in provincia Hamkyong-Pukto, con-

servatum in U.S. Nat. Herb. sub num. 1,964,476.

This differs from the typical form in the nar-

rower leaf-blade and the shorter ligule.

Culms compressed, glabrous, smooth or sca-

berulous below the nodes; sheaths compressed,

glabrous, smooth or scaberulous near the node

and on the keel; leaf-blades 7 to 9 cm long, 1.5 to

2 mm wide; ligules 0.3 to 0.5 or rarely 0.7 mm

long; anthers 0.5 to 0.7 mm long.

Type specimen: Ohwi 844 (US 1,964,476),

Kyongsong, Hamkyong-Pukto.

Poa ussuriensis Roshev. f. scabra Chung, forma

nov.

A forma typica differt culmis scabris infra

nodos.—Specimen typicum legit Ohwi sub. num.

857, anno 1930, prope oppidum Kyongsong in

provinsia Hamkyong-Pukto, in U. 8. Nat. Herb.

conservatum (n. 1,964,477).

JuLy 1955

This differs from the typical form in the culm

which is scabrous below the nodes.

Culms compressed, 3- or 4-noded, striate, sca-

brous below the nodes; sheaths shorter than the

internodes, compressed, keeled, striate, scabrous

at least near the nodes, purplish near the base;

leaf-blades about 10 cm long, 2.5 to 6 mm wide;

ligules 1 to 2 mm long; panicle 14 to 18 cm long,

with 3 to 5 branches below, those branches 5 to

14 em long; glumes scaberulous on the keel, the

first 1-nerved and the second 3-nerved; lemmas

5-nerved, glabrous on the intermediate nerve and

between the nerves, pubescent on the lower third

to half of the keel and on the lower fourth of the

marginal nerves, wave-haired at base; anthers

0.8 to 1 mm long; rachilla glabrous, minutely

scaberulous.

Type specimen: Ohwi 857

Kyongsong, Hamkyong-Pukto.

(US 1,964,477),

Polypogon higegaweri Steud. f. muticum Chung,

forma nov.

Folia 4-8 cm longa, 2.5-3 mm lata. Ligula 2-4

mm longa. Panicula 6-6.5 cm longa, 7 mm lata;

glumis 1.5-2 mm longis, muticis vel submuticis;

lemmatibus muticis; antheris 0.3-0.4 mm longis.

—Specimen typicum legis Oh sub num. 8257 in

insula Sohuksan Do.

Leaf-blades 4 to 8 cm long, 2.5 to 3 mm wide;

ligules 2 to 4 mm long. Panicle 6 to 6.5 cm long,

7 mm wide; glumes 1.5 to 2 mm long, awnless or

nearly so; lemmas awnless; anthers 0.3 to 0.4

mm long.

Type

MICH.

New combinations are as follows:

Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth var.

heterogluma (Nakai) Chung, comb. nov. (Cala-

magrostis longiseta Hack. var. heterogluma Nakai

in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 35: 149, 1921.)

Diarrhena fauriet (Hack.) Ohwi var. koryoen-

sis (Honda) Chung, comb. nov. (Diarrhena koryo-

ensis Honda in Koryo-shikenrin-no-ippan 79,

1932.)

Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. coreensis

(Hack.) Chung, comb. nov. (Miscanthus coreensis

Hack. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. 2 ser., 4: 531, 1904.)

Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. ionandros

(Nakai) Chung, comb. nov. (Miscanthus ionan-

dros Nakai in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 41: 13, 1917.)

Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. longiberbis

(Hack.) Chung, comb. nov. (Miscanthus matsu-

specimen: Oh 8257, Sohuksan Do,

CHUNG: GRASSES OF KOREA

215

murae Hack. var. longiberbis Hack. in Bull. Herb.

Boiss. 2 ser., 4: 532, 1904.)

Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. nakaianus

(Honda) Chung, comb. nov. (Miscanthus nakata-

nus Honda in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 42: 130 & 179,

1928, also in Journ. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo see. 3,

3: 389, 1930.)

Tripogon chinensis Hack. var. longiaristata

(Honda) Chung, comb. nov. (Tripogon longiaris-

tata Honda in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 41: 11 & 16,

1927, also in Journ. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo sec. 3,

3: 145, 1930.)

Eragrostis pilosa (L.) Beauv. f. multicaulis

(Steud.) Chung, comb. nov. (Hragrostis multi-

caulis Steud., Synop. Pl. Glum. 1: 426, 1855.)

Ischaemum eriostachyum Hack. f. stenopterwm

(Hack. ex Nakai) Chung, comb. nov. ([schaemum

anthephoroides (Steud.) Mig. var. stenopterum

Hack. ex Nakai in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 33: 3, 1919.)

Polypogon higegawert Steud. f. demisus (Steud.)

Chung, comb. nov. (Polypogon demissus Steud.,

Synop. Pl. Glum. 1: 422, 1855.)

Thirteen species and eleven varieties of grasses

are endemic in Korea: eight species and three

varieties in Northern Korea, three species and

three varieties in Central Korea, two species and

three varieties in Southern Korea, and two varie-

ties in Central and Southern Korea.

Endemic grasses are as follows:

Alopecurus aequalis Sobal. var.

(Ohwi) Ohwi in Hamgyong-pukto,

Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth var. hymeno-

glossa Ohwi in Hamgyong-pukto,

Calamagrostis paishanensis Nakai in Mt. Paektu,

Hamgyong-pukto,

Calamagrostis subacrochaeta Nakai

Nangnim, Pyongan-pukto,

Elymus mollis Trin. var. coreensis (Hack.) Honda

in Wonsan, Hamgyong-namdo,

Festuca blepharogyna (Ohwi) Ohwiin Mt. Sullyong,

Ischaemum coreanum Nakai ex Honda in Seoul,

Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. coreensis (Hack.)

Chung in Sepo, Cheju Do, and Tong Do,

brachytrichus

in Mount

Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. longiberbis

(Hack.) Chung in Changwoni,

Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. nakaianus

(Honda) Chung in Kangwondo,

Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) Beauv. var.

elongatus Honda in Kwangnung, Kyonggido,

Poa deschampsioides Ohwi in Mt. Duryu, Kwan-

mobong, and Chailbong, Hamgyong-pukto,

Poa hamhungensis Chung in Hamhung, Hamgyong-

namdo,

Poa kanboensis Ohwi in

Hamgyong-pukto,

Poa kumgansani Ohwi in Mt. Kumgang, Kang-

wondo,

Mt. Kwanmobong,

216

Poa kyongsongensis Chung in Kyongsong, Hamg-

yong-pukto,

Poa takeshimana Honda in Ullungo Do,

Poa ullungdoensis Chung in Ullung Do,

Puccinellia coreensis Honda in Mokpo and Cheju

Do,

Sasa coreana Nakai in Hamgyong-pukto,

Sasa quelpaertensis Nakai in Cheju Do,

Sasamorpha borealis (Hack.) Nakai var. chiisanen-

sis (Nakai) Chung in Mt. Chiri,

Setaria lutescens (Weigel) Hubb. var. dwra Chung

in Sohuksan Do,

Tripogon chinensis Hack. var. coreensis Hack. in

Chinnampo, Sorai in Whanghaedo, and Cheju

Do,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 7

Tripogon chinensis Hack. var.

(Honda) Chung in Cheju Do.

longiaristata

Distribution of the grasses in Korea and the

nearest systematic and geographic relationships

of endemic species are fully discussed in the Man-

ual. A brief classification of the grasses by habi-

tats and a list of the important collections of

Korean grasses in four herbaria of U. 8. A. are

given. A map of Korea with three divisions

(North, Central, and South) is included, and the

latter indicates location of the important locali-

ties represented by collections in the four her-

baria which have been cited.

ZOOLOGY.—A new species of Pararchinotodelphys (Copepoda: Cyclopoida) with

remarks on its systematic position. PauL L. Inte, Department of Zoology, Uni-

versity of Washington.!

(Received March 15, 1955)

Important revisions of concepts long held

regarding ascidicolous copepods have re-

sulted from recent contributions of Karl

Lang (1948, 1949). His family Archinotodel-

phyidae (1949) is significant because it pre-

sents anatomical and ecological features

which illustrate transition from casually oc-

curring associates of ascidians to anatomi-

cally modified forms reflecting ecological

dependence on these host organisms as

providing either shelter or nutrition. He

considers this family to occupy an inter-

mediate position serving as the directly

connecting link between the families Cyclo-

pinidae and Notodelphyidae. The whole

series then readily conforms to the long

existing definition of the Cyclopoida Gnath-

ostoma. The use of the order Notodelphyoida

Sars is accordingly abandoned by Lang, and

he further points out the logic of incorpo-

rating various ascidicolous copepods, other

than notodelphyids, but included by Sars

in his suborder, in some of the other sub-

divisions of the Cyclopoida. Two monotypic

genera are recognized by Lang in the new

family. The species here to be described is a

congener of Pararchinotodelphys phallusiae

(Hansen), 1923.

1 Acknowledgment is made of technical as-

sistance furnished through a research grant from

Initiative 171 Fund, State of Washington.

Family ARCHINOTODELPHYIDAE Lang, 1949

Pararchinotodelphys Lang, 1949

The urosome in the female consists of the

segment of the fifth legs, a complex genital

segment, representing fusion of 1 anatomically

thoracic segment and one anatomically abdominal

segment, and three free abdominal segments. The

antennule consists of many segments, 16 or 17

being the number so far known. The antenna is

4-segmented. The mandible palp has a 2-seg-

mented endopodite and 4-segmented exopodite.

The maxilliped is 3- or 4-segmented. The natatory

legs have both rami 3-segmented. The fifth legs

are 2-segmented; four setae are borne on the

terminal segment, one on the basal segment at

the distolateral corner. Type species, P. phallusiae

(Hansen), 1923.

Pararchinotodelphys gurneyi, n. sp.

Fias. 1-14

Specimens examined.—4 females, all adult;

from branchial cavities of specimens of Styela

partita (Stimpson) (U.S.N.M. no. 3181), off

Marthas Vineyard, Mass., Fish Hawk station

940, August 4, 1881, depth 134 fathoms.

Types.—Holotypic female, U.S.N.M. no.

97608; paratypes no. 92536; all from the one

known collection.

Description —FEMALE (Figs. 1-14): The body

presents in outward aspect (Fig. 1) the gen-

eralized cyclopoid characters, such as those seen

JuLy 1955 ILLG: NEW SPECIES OF PARARCHINOTODELPHYS 217

Figs. 1-14.—Pararchinotodelphys gurneyt, n. sp., female: 1, Habit, dorsal view (the accompanying

scale represents 0.5 mm); 2, urosome, ventral view; 3, antennule; 4, antenna; 5, mandibular palp; 6,

maxillule; 7, maxilla; 8, maxilliped; 9, first leg; 10, second leg; 11, third leg; 12, fourth leg; 13, fifth leg;

14,"caudal ramus.

218

in the near relative Cyclopina. The cephalosome

consists of the long segment of the head and

maxillipeds; there is a free segment for each of the

four pairs of swimming legs. The metasome

accordingly is 5-segmented. The 5-segmented

urosome (Fig. 2) consists of the somite of the

fifth legs, a long genital somite, probably con-

sisting of a posteriormost thoracic segment fused

with the first segment of the abdomen, and three

free abdominal segments, counting the segment

supporting the caudal rami, which includes the

anal aperture. Egg-sacks were not found. The

structure of the urosome of the female demon-

strates the fully adult condition. No incubatory

cavity is developed.

The antennules (Fig. 3) are of moderate

length, much greater in diameter basally than at

the tip. There are 16 segments, of which the

proximal is longest, although no segment is

particularly elongate. There is a short second

segment and the third approaches the first in

length. These proximal three segments are of

fairly uniform thickness and are succeeded by

two short segments, each sharply graduated in

diameter so that the appearance has a telescope

effect tapering the appendage to the sixth and

seventh segments, which are subequal in length

and fairly sharply graduated in width. The

succeeding segments are subequal in length and

taper gradually to the narrow terminal segment.

The setation is relatively profuse and exhibits

no differentiation of particularly distinctive

elements.

The antennae (Fig. 4) are 4-segmented. The

lengths of the segments are graduated distally,

the basal segment being somewhat over double

the length of the distal one. In available prepara-

tions some of the details of ornamentation cannot

be thoroughly made out. The basal segment has

1 long, fine inner seta, borne subterminally. The

second segment has a single seta placed about

midway on the margin opposite the setiferous

edge of the basal segment. The third segment has

two (or three) setae, originating from a common

base on the distal margin. Forming an elaborate

articulation with the tip of the terminal segment

is a heavy, spirally curved, tapered hook. This

structure is accompanied by three curved setae,

in length about equal to the hook, and inserted

in the articulating region. There are at least three

additional minor subterminal setae.

The base of the mandible includes an expanded

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 7

coxa produced medially into a masticatory

process. The medial portion of this process is a

flat dentate plate, heavily chitinized. The upper

medial corner of the plate terminates in a stout,

tapered tooth, and there is a wide curved

emargination between this tooth and a lower saw-

like row of several closely spaced subequal teeth

which form the remainder of the medial margin.

The palp of the mandible (Fig. 5) consists of a

basipodite and two rami. The ornamentation of

the basipodite consists of a single, slight seta

inserted somewhat distal to the midpoint of the

medial margin. The endopodite is placed termi-

nally on the elongate basis and is 2-segmented.

Four setae are arranged in a close-spaced row on

the distolateral portion of the medial margin of

the proximal segment. The somewhat larger

distal segment is ornamented with 10 setae,

arranged in a compact row from the midpoint of

the medial margin across the slightly expanded

terminal margin. The endopodite is inserted con-

siderably subterminally on the basis and consists

of four segments. Each of the three proximal

segments bears a long stout seta; there are 2

subequal setae on the terminal segment. The five

setae of the ramus are graduated in length; all

are stout and plumose.

The maxillule (Fig. 6) is the most complicated

structurally of the mouthparts. The greatest

mass of the appendage is the expanded and

foliose proximal segment of the apparently

bimerous protopodite, which seems to include,

however, more than 2 of the several theoretically

present protopodite segments of the generalized

copepod maxillule. There are what appear to

represent three endites disposed along the medial

margin of the basal segment. The most proximally

placed endite takes a wide insertion along most of

the length of the axis of the segment and flares

to form an expanded plate bearing medially along

its margin eight tapered setae of varying propor-

tions, all of which are directed medially.

Proximally, the insertions of the setae tend to be

removed progressively farther onto the anterior

face of the process. Overlain by the flare of this

major process are 2 small’ protuberances at the

distal medial corner of the flattened segment.

Each protuberance bears a slender, distally

directed seta. The three setiferous processes of

the segment would seem to represent 3 laciniae

and indicate a coalescence of three archetypical

segments to produce the arrangement here seen.

JtLy 1955 ILLG: NEW SPECIES OF

The basal segment supports a small lateral

protuberance which seemingly represents a

coalesced epipodite. This prominence bears two

markedly unequal setae. The principal seta is

elongate and tapering and proximally placed. It

is directed proximally. The distal seta, which

originates from a base very closely placed to that

of the principal seta, is slender and short.

The distal segment of the protopodite is

expanded medially and distally so that the

apparently lateral margin bears both the rami

of the limb. The medial margin of the segment

supports two groups of setae, a proximal couple

and a more distal group of four.

The endopodite is monomerous, tapered, with

a more or less straight lateral margin and curving

medial margin. Along most of the length of the

medial margin and across the narrow apex are set

10 graduated slender setae. The apical setae are

the longest. The exopodite is subquadrate and the

wide distal margin supports four uniformly

spaced, long, subequal setae, all profusely

plumose.

The manilla (Fig. 7) is 6-segmented. The basal

segment is broadly expanded, although very flat,

and bears two endites, each of which is somewhat

suppressed to form a conical protuberance. The

proximal prominence bears an apical group of

four setae, of graduated size and with an intricate,

closely spaced pattern of articulation. The distal

endite has a single seta. The second segment,

which narrows apically, bears two projections. A

proximal conical endite, like those of the proximal

segment, bears two setae. Distally there is a

distinctly articulated rectangular arthrite which

supports two long subequal setae and a much

finer, shorter seta, the three arranged linearly

along the medial margin.

The third segment is produced medially as a

heavy, tapering, somewhat curved hook. There

is no articulation of this structure with the main

mass of the segment. Two slender subequal setae

are borne on the hook-process, inserted at a point

which should approximate the medial edge of the

segment.

The distal portion of the appendage is a

minute, trimerous cone, tapered apically. The

two more proximal segments each bear a medial

seta. The apical segment bears four setae, three

terminal and one borne on the surface of the

basal portion of the segment.

The maxilliped (Fig. 8) is tetramerous. The

PARARCHINOTODELPHYS 219

basal segment much exceeds in mass the combined

remainder. Five setae are inserted into a pattern

composed of a proximal solitary seta, midmargin

couple and distal couple, all on the medial margin

of the segment. The second segment is about half

the width of the first segment and its ornamenta-

tion consists of a single long seta set subterminally

on the medial margin. The third segment is still

slenderer and shorter than the second and

supports two medial setae and a seta at the

distolateral corner. The minute terminal segment

has 2 long slender apical setae.

The 4 pairs of swimming legs are generalized

in plan and seem to exhibit no modifications for

other than a free-living existence. The segmenta-

tion and armature of these appendages may be

represented as follows: Setae are designated in

Arabic numerals following designation of spines

in Roman. The segments of each ramus are

accounted for in order from the basal segment

distally. The armatures of the termina] segments

are designated by listing in order lateral elements

—terminal elements—medial elements. First

exopodite I-1; I-1; III-I, 1-3; first endopodite

0-1; 0-1; 1-2-3. Second exopodite I-1; I-1; III-I,

1-4; second endopodite 0-1; 0-2; 1-2-8. Third

exopodite I-1; I-1; II-I, 1-4; third endopodite

0-1; 0-2; 1-2-3. Fourth exopodite I-1; I-1; II-I,

1-4; fourth endopodite 0-1; 0-2, 1-2-2.

In the first legs (Fig. 9), it was impossible in

the available material to determine whether the

usual medial coxal setae are present. The legs of

the pair are united by a well-developed intercoxal

plate. The basipodite exhibits an oblique distal

margin, the lateral edge of the segment being of

such slight extent as barely to provide insertion

for its slender seta. The medial margin is long,

accommodating the marked distal prolongation

which supports a stout, tapered, curved spine.

Each of the rami consists of three subequal

segments. The spines of the two proximal

segments of the exopodite are roughly equal in

dimension with the three subequal marginal

spines of the distal segment.

The second legs (Fig. 10) consist each of a

bimerous protopodite and of trimerous rami, the

coxae yoked by the intercoxal plate. Each coxa

bears a.slender, relatively short seta at the distal

medial corner. The very short lateral margin of

the basis is set with a short, slender seta.

The third legs (Fig. 11) are almost identical in

220

proportion and ornamentation with the second

legs.

The fourth legs (Fig. 12) consist of bimerous

protopodites and trimerous rami. The intercoxal

plate unites the paired legs. Hach coxa bears a

slender, rather short medial seta. Hach basis

bears a slender lateral seta.

The fifth legs (Fig. 13) are bimerous. The basal

segment, probably representing the protopodite,

although the exact homology is not clear, equals

about half the bulk of the dista] segment. The

presence of a slender seta on the distolateral

corner of the proximal segment lends weight to

the established practice of referring to it as the

basipodite. The distal segment is a flat plate,

elongate and with its width about a third of its

length. A seta is set at about the midpoint of the

lateral margin, there is a stout long apical seta

and 2 slenderer, subequal setae arranged sub-

terminally rather close together on the apical

fifth of the medial margin.

The caudal rami (Fig. 14) are of generalized

cyclopoid aspect, the length of each about five

times its greatest width. Basally each is more

expanded than distally, with the lateral edge

exhibiting a sharp emargination about a third of

the length of the ramus distal from the base. The

emargination is set with a slender seta, in length

equal to about half that of the ramus.

There are four apical setae, the central two of

the quartet long and stout. These measure about

1.5 times the length of the ramus. In the available

specimens the exact relative lengths of these 2

setae could not be made out. The slender medial

seta is somewhat exceeded by the lateral seta. A

slender seta is set on the medial portion of the

dorsal surface of each ramus subterminally about

one-eighth the length of the ramus. The ciliation

of all the setae is well developed.

No male has been found.

Remarks.—In comparing the present species to

P. phallusiae, a number of differentiating charac-

ters are established which have been made use

of in some slight revisions of the generic definition.

In P. gurney? the antennule is 16-segmented, that

of P. phallusiae is apparently 17-segmented. The

antennae seem basically similar in the two

species but the terminal prehensile hook in

P. gurneyt is much stouter and more highly

developed. The mandibles correspond in the two

species, but in P. gurneyt the exopodite is shorter

and the segments more compressed together. The

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 7

maxillule is somewhat more complicated in

P. gurneyt and the protopodite bears a medial

setiferous projection not accounted for in P.

phallusiae. The maxillae cannot adequately be

compared in the two species on the basis of

available information. The maxilliped in P.

phallusiae is 3-segmented evidently exhibiting a

coalescence of terminal segments which are free

in the tetramerous appendage of P. gurneyt.

The first three swimming legs are not described

for P. phallusiae. In the fourth legs the formula

for armature is apparently exopodite I-1; I-1;

1-4; endopodite 0-1; 0-2; 1-2-2, which would

correspond exactly to P. gurneyt. The fifth legs in

the two species are essentially similar except that

in P. gurneyi the medial seta of the distal segment

is much more nearly subterminal in position.

Body segmentation in the two species corresponds

in general.

It is necessary here to consider also the species

Pseudocyclopina belgicae (Giesbrecht). Lindberg

(1952) has pointed out the close relationship of

this copepod to Pa. phallusiae; in fact he has

made the two species congeneric. Agreement

with this view would have to shift generic

assignment of Pa. phallusiae and Pa. gurneyt to

Lang’s prior genus Pseudocyclopina (1946) and

in turn might then logically require removal of

the genus from the Cyclopinidae to the Archino-

todelphyidae.

In antennular segmentation Pa. phallusiae and

Ps. belgicae correspond; Pa. gurneyi differs by

possession of 1 less segment. The difference is

scarcely to be regarded as other than of specific

importance. In the antenna Ps. belgicae lacks the

inner seta of the basal segment and in the two

terminal segments shows neither the tendency to

shortening of the segments nor development of

prehensile elements among the terminal armature,

all of which features characterize the other two

species.

The mandible of Ps. belgicae exhibits the

distinctive cyclopinid feature of reduced setation

of the segments of the endopodite, possessing

three setae on the basal segment, six on the distal

segment, contrasting thus with the other species.

The maxilliped of Ps. belgicae is more distinctively

cyclopinid in the possession of seven segments.

The development of the two basal segments is

more or less comparable to that in the three

archinotodelphyid species.

The first leg is not known for Pa. phallusiae.

JULY 1955 ILLG: NEW SPECIES

In possession of two setae on the second segment

of the endopodite Ps. belgicae presents a notable

difference from Pa. gurneyi. The presence of

three spines on the terminal segment of the

exopodite in Ps. belgicae as compared to four such

spines in Pa. gurneyi is a less distinctive dif-

ference. The fourth leg corresponds in the 3

species but might further be said to conform to a

widespread condition found among cyclopinids

and notodelphyids in general, at this level

offering no significant clue to generic affiliation.

TIn the fifth leg all three archinotodelphyids agree

and Ps. belgicae markedly disagrees in the

possession of two setae on the basipodite in the

female.

Taxonomic separation of Ps. belgicae is then

readily made on the basis of differences in the

armature of the mandibles, segmentation of the

maxilliped, armature of the first legs and in the

structure of the fifth legs. These differences are

at a level customarily held to be of generic rank

in the treatment of related copepods. Several still

unknown quantities leave room in certain

measure for a future reopening of the issue.

Comparison of the maxillules and maxillae of

Ps. belgicae and Pa. phallusiae must await re-

description of the species. Description of the first

leg of Pa. phallusiae is also a desideratum.

Further, a most striking sexual dimorphism in

Ps. belgicae separates it strongly from all cyclo-

pinids. No male is yet known from any of the

three archinotodelphyid species. However, the

present conclusion must be to retain Giesbrecht’s

species in systematic separation and Pseudo-

cyclopina must currently be regarded as a genus

placed without any undue difficulty in the family

Cyclopinidae.

The differentiation. of Pararchinotodelphys

from Archinotodelphys, as set forth by Lang

(1949) is readily maintained. The difference in

segmentation of the urosome in the female, the

difference in number of setae of the basal antennal

segment, the differences in segmentation of the

maxilla and maxilliped and the possibility of

difference at generic level of the armature of the

maxillule are here recognized as the basic con-

siderations.

The distribution of taxonomic characters

through the cyclopinids, archinotodelphyids and

notodelphyids presents at the current stage of

information certain puzzling aspects. Discussion

of some of these is pertinent in explanation of the

OF PARARCHINOTODELPHYS

221

systematic disposition applied in the present

study. With reference to body segmentation,

two important characters found among archino-

todelphyids deserve analysis. The first character

is the condition of the thoracic segment of the

first pair of swimming legs. All three species

exhibit this as a free segment. In cyclopinids this

segment is typically fused in a cephalosome

complex. Among notodelphyids this segment may

be free or fused. In Notodelphys it probably is

typically free (cf. Stock, 1951, p. 1). The claim

has frequently been made that fusion is the

primitive condition. Evidence, however, is so

contradictory and confusing that it seems

impossible to assign this character as a criterion

at a high level of systematic significance: It

seems to be a character of sufficient plasticity as

to have no pertinence at other than the specific

or generic level.

The segmentation of the urosome presents an

ambiguous morphological situation. The forma-

tion of a “genital segment’? in the female by

coalescence of the last thoracic segment with the

first abdominal segment is a character of wide-

spread distribution through the cyclopoids.

Information from development is only frag-

mentary but the indication seems to be that free

and separate segments appear as a first stage

with the fusion secondary and appearing at the

last molt. More information on the subject is

needed. The very extent of occurrence of this

fusion lends strong support to the view of it as a

primitive character. The typical condition among

the cyclopinids seems to be fusion. It simply is

not possible to say, however, that no female

cyclopinid can possess the alternative condition

of completely free segments. In WNotodelphys

females the separated genital segment is typical.

In some other notodelphyids with some otherwise

primitive characters, as illustrated by Do-

ropygopsis, the segments are fused. In Pararchi-

notodelphys, the segments are fused, therefore

more like the cyclopinids; the segments are free

in Archinotodelphys. It becomes almost impossible

here to say which of the conditions must be the

primitive one; and, further, whether the primitive

state in this one family is the same as that for

the entire cyclopinid-archinotodelphyid-noto-

delphyid series.

Morphological features of some of the ap-

pendages offer equally puzzling patterns of

distribution. The species of Pararchinotodelphys,

9992

aL JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

in bearing a single medial seta on the basal

antennal segment, conform to a generally

prevalent condition among the cyclopinids.

Information is not available as to whether the

condition is invariable in the family, but no

contrary instance seems to occur among available

records. In Notodelphys and some other noto-

delphyid genera, two setae, conforming very well

to the condition in Archinotodelphys, occur here.

If long-standing concepts of the structure of

the maxillule are correct, the most primitive

condition now known in the lineage could with

almost equal justice be assigned to a noto-

delphyid, Doropygopsis, or to an archinoto-

delphyid, Pararchinotodelphys gurneyt.

In the latter, the correspondence with Gurney’s

scheme (1931, p. 57) of the generalized maxillule

of the Copepoda is of interest. The elements of

the most primitive grade of organization of the

appendage would seem to be present here

although in a different arrangement than is seen

in the generalized types of other major sections of

the copepods. The elements of the four segments

of the basic protopodite would here be found

arranged as two segments. The proximal segment

bears three of the possible four laciniae internae

and the single epipodite. The distal segment

bears setae presumably representing a single

endite, and articulates with the endopodite and

exopodite. (What would explain the subdivision

into two groups of setae as here seen, is difficult

to explain in view of considering that a single

lacinia interna supposedly is involved). In the

main, however, this arrangement furnishes a neat

correspondence to the basic calanoid arrangement

and is in these regards the most primitive example

of the maxillule among the Cyclopoida.

By comparison the maxillule of Doropygopsis

would offer on one line of structural evidence a

phylogenetic advance over the condition just

described; on still another line, it exhibits what is

seemingly a more primitive grade of construction.

The medial setae and protuberances in this

maxillule seem to offer grounds for interpretation

as representing one less endite than would

be found in P. gurneyi. In Doropygopsis there is

the medial group of masticatory setae, a single

seta inserted on a more distal protuberance, and

finally a distal series of setae apparently ref-

erable to the basipodite. However, on this

appendage the endopodite is bimerous. This

condition is not known at all among the cy-

VOL. 45, NO. 7

clopinids or archinotodelphyids so its occurrence

here, as well as in Pachypygus, among the noto-

delphyids is difficult of explanation. It would

contradict all experience with specializations

among crustacean appendages to maintain

that here the addition of a segment and addition

of a number of setae would represent an advance

inspecialization rather than a primitive condition.

The endopodite is bimerous in the primitive

calanoid maxillule and combination of the two

lines of occurrence in Doropygopsis then would

indicate that such would be the case in the

archetypical cyclopoid, although there is no

known example combining the primitive features

of Pararchinotodelphys and of Doropygopsis. In

Canuella, as an example of a primitive harpacti-

coid maxillule (Gurney, 1931, fig. 44), the ap-

pendage is seemingly more generalized than any

known among cyclopoids and shows satisfactory

correspondence to the archetypical condition

hypothesized above.

In the case of the maxilla, a case much

paralleling that of the maxillule occurs, but in

less extreme measure. Reference to Sars (1918,

pls. 8, 10) indicates that the cyclopinids Pteri-

nopsyllus aimsignis Brady and Cyclopinella

tumidula Sars exhibit in this appendage charac-

ters which would customarily be regarded as

primitive. Strong indications of a 6-segmented

condition are present. The most distal portion of

the appendage is a small trimerous unit, the

apical segment bearing 4 setae. Reductions in this

appendage are characteristic for the majority of

cyclopinids. Among notodelphyids Doropygopsis

exhibits the best approach to the 6-segmented

condition. Among species of Doropygus the

terminal segmentation and armature are most

highly developed. Assembling these characters

would produce a grade of structure approaching

the basic cyclopinid condition. The condition in

P. gurneyi would approach this generalized

structure. In Archinotodelphys the segmentation

is considerably suppressed and the armature

reduced.

In the segmentation and armature of the

swimming legs, the archinotodelphyids tend to

resemble the cyclopinids closely. Their charac-

ters in this regard would enable them to fit with

no question among the species in the parental

family. Paradox again enters this situation when

among the notodelphyids instances are found to

the number of elements of

occur in which

Juny 1955 ILLG: NEW SPECIES OF

armature for a given segment exceeds that found

for the same member in any archinotodelphyid.

This would be illustrated by some Doropygus

species, in which the terminal segment of the

fourth exopodite bears four spines and five setae.

As representative of the cyclopinids exhibiting

this armature there seems to be known only

Paracyclopina nana, a species admittedly well

removed from a primitive position in the family

by the reduced condition of other of its ap-

pendages. Perhaps this form hes close to the

lineage of the archinotodelphyids, however.

The characters of the archinotodelphyids most

strongly suggesting the intermediate position of

the family between cyclopinidae and _ noto-

delphyidae are the antennae, the maxillipeds and

the fifth legs.

In the antenna the bimerous terminal portion

characteristic of the archinotodelphyids, and

corresponding well to the cyclopinid condition,

has never been found in notodelphyids. In all

the latter the appendage is markedly more

modified in segmentation, but as we have seen

above, with reference to the setae of the basal

segment, more primitive than in a_ typical

eyclopinid.

The mawxillipeds are not completely satisfactory

as possibly directly ancestral structurally to the

appendages found in the descendent family.

However, in rough outline they indicate what the

archetypical condition might have been with

regard to segmentation. Indications as to the

evolutionary development of the setal armature

are not apparent.

In the Archinotodelphyidae, with the small

number of 3 known species, the group as a whole

exhibits a complex of primitive and advanced

characters with no one member corresponding to

the demonstrable archetypical requirements. A

similar distribution of characters occurs in the

obvious parental group, the Cyclopinidae, where

in various members advanced characters combine

with primitive, so that again no actual archetype

occurs as a reality. Further, the descendent

group of the Notodelphyidae repeats again the

same combination. The situation is carried to its

extreme by the fact that for various of the

characters involved, the most primitive expression

so far found has been in a representative of the

notodelphyids, by common consent the most

advanced group in the series. Our extension of

knowledge among these groups has reenforced

PARARCHINOTODELPHYS 223

our idea as to what the archetype for each and

for all must have been, but these interesting

creatures must still be numbered among the

missing.

The foregoing discussion leads to the important

decision as to the proper systematic treatment of

the lineage under consideration. A most. sig-

nificant implication immediately appears, in

that combinations of characters take great

importance in here defining the taxonomic

categories. By taking characters singly, logical

application would most aptly lead to inclusion

of all the cyclopinids, archinotodelphyids and

notodelphyids within a single family. The

naming of such a group would alone be a most

unfortunate task to assign to any one. To

submerge the historically significant implications

of either of the genera Notodelphys or Cyclopina

in deference to the other on any grounds should

certainly lead to most aggravated nomenclatorial

unpopularity. Further, such consideration of

individual characters as are already available

leads to the strong suspicion that the cyclopinids,

archinotodelphyids and the notodelphyids are

each polyphyletic as they now stand. The recent

intensive fractionation of the cyclopinids in

rapidly successive treatments by authors working

with them would seem to bear out this point.

There will doubtless be an eventual reconciliation

of these groups within a single systematic

category. By conventional applications within

the classification of the copepods, however, it

does not seem likely that the designation of this

ultimate synthetic group will be at the familial

level. Present lumping at this level then would

be undesirable.

For present practice, as an alternative, the

Archinotodelphyidae could be returned to the

Cyclopinidae, retaining the Notodelphyidae in

familial separation. This would involve only the

submergence of a name of but a few years’

standing. Such taxonomic treatment of these

organisms is in line with the treatment of Lind-

berg. To qualify as perfectly acceptable cyclo-

pinids, the 3 archinotodelphyid species would

require little anatomical alteration, but actually

considerably more than was pointed out in

Lindberg’s comparison of P. phallusiae (the only

archinotodelphyid then known) with Pseudo-

cyclopina belgicae.

The familial status of the Notodelphyidae is

readily defended; they do present a complex of

224

distinctive characters. No known notodelphyid

antenna shows the subdivision of the terminal

portion into the clear-cut segments found

throughout the cyclopinids and _ archinoto-

delphyids. The extremely high development of

the terminal prehensile hook of notodelphyids is

not equalled in the other groups. The maxilliped

presents a difference of organization, especially

with regard to the profuse setal armature on the

basal segment in the notodelphyid. The fifth

legs are distinctive in basic plan. Finally, the

dorsal brood pouch is a feature which is universal

in notodelphyids and unknown in the other

groups. This series remains then a fairly strongly

separated one.

A final consideration must be added. Lind-

berg’s classification was proposed without his

having opportunity to consider thoroughly the

family Archinotodelphyidae (cf. Lindberg, 1952,

footnote, p. 318). This family is now on the

record and the definition is an adequate one. The

addition of a new species has demonstrated, in

the reappraisal of defining characters that there

is strong evidence for a natural group here,

defined by a complex of characters. The charac-

ters show overlapping in two directions, some

occurring in the antecedent group, some in the

descendent family. No purely archetypical species

occurs in any one of the 3 separable lineages. Nor

does there occur an actual transitional species for

either of the gaps in continuity of distribution of

the characters. The belated recognition of the

existence of cyclopinids as forerunners of noto-

delphyids and the recent discovery of the

archinotodelphyids combine to bring about the

situation where the ultimate offshoot group is

much better known anatomically and the range

of variations more exhaustively explored than is

the case for the parental series. Further, the

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VOL. 45, NO. 7

number of genera and of species described in the

notodelphyids exceeds those of both the other

families. On the basis of these features, with the

strongly reenforcing conviction that a con-

siderable majority of species remains undis-

covered in this whole assemblage, the present

treatment then maintains the separation of the 3

families.

REFERENCES

GIESBRECHT, WILHELM. Copepoden. Résultats du

voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 1897-1898-1899 sous

le commandement de A. de Gerlache de Gomery.

Rapports Scientifiques, Zoologie: 49 pp., 13

pls. 1902.

GurRNEY, Ropert. British fresh-water Copepoda

1: lui + 238 pp., 344 figs. Ray Society, London,

1931.

Hansen, Hans Jacos. Crustacea Copepoda, II.

Copepoda parastta and hemiparasita. Danish

Ingolf-Expedition 3 (7): (2) + 92 + (2) pp.,

5 pls. 1923.

Lane, Karu. EHinige fiir die schwedische Fauna

neue marine ‘‘Cyclopoida Gnathostoma’’ nebst

Bemerkungen tiber die Systematik der Unter-

familie Cyclopininae. Ark. Zool. 38A (6):

1-16, 7 figs. 1946.

Copepoda ‘‘Notodelphyoida” from the

Swedish west-coast with an outline on the

systematics of the copepods. Ark. Zool. 40A (14) :

1-36, 1 pl., 17 text figs. 1948.

On a new copepod family related to Noto-

delphyidae and on two new copepod species from

South Georgia. Ark. Zool. 42B (4): 1-7, 16

figs. 1949.

LinpBerGc, Knut. La sous-famille des Cyclo-

pininae Kiefer (Crustacés copépodes). Ark.

Zool. ser. 2, 4 (16): 311-325, 1 fig. 1952.

Sars, GreoreG Osstan. An account of the Crustacea

of Norway with short descriptions and figures

of all the species 6: Cyclopoida: xili + 225 pp,

118 pls. Bergen, 1918.

Stock, J. H. Some notes on Notodelphys

rufescens Thorell, 1860, new to the Dutch fauna.

Beaufortia (Miscellaneous series, Amsterdam

Museum), no. 6: 1-4, 7 figs. 1951.

ZOOLOGY —The isopod genus Chiridotea Harger, with a description of a new species

from brackish waters. THoMAS E. BowMan, U.S. National Museum. (Communi-

cated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.)

(Received January 31, 1955)

During the examination of samples col-

lected by the Shad Investigations of the U.

S. Fish and Wildlife Service from 1937 to

1941, numerous specimens of an unde-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

the Smithsonian Institution.

scribed valviferous isopod of the genus Chari-

dotea Harger, 1878, were discovered. In this

paper the new species is described, and cer-

tain additions and corrections are made to

published accounts of the two previously

known species of the genus.

JuLty 1955

Chiridotea Harger, 1878

Examination of the three species has made it

possible to give the following revised definition

of the genus (family and subfamily characters

omitted) :

Mandible without molar. Inner lobe of first

maxilla bearing one long, plumose seta and a

minute seta. Palp of maxilliped formed of three

segments; lateral margins of the two distal

segments fringed with fine setae. Epimeral

plates distinct on pereion somites 2-7, their free

margins spinose. Propodus of pereiopod 1 some-

what larger than that of pereiopod 2 or 3.

Pereiopods 1-5 of female with oostegites. Pleo-

telson composed of four somites, with lateral

sutures of another partially coalesed somite.

Medial sternal process of first somite of pleon

bearing long spines. Inner ramus of uropod

about half or a little more than half as long as

outer ramus. Type, by original designation, C.

coeca (Say).

Members of this genus are small species,

known only from the east coast of the United

States and Canada, from Florida to Nova Scotia,

on sandy bottoms.

The most closely related genus, Saduria

Adams,? differs from Chiridotea in that the

mandible possesses a molar; the inner lobe of the

first maxilla bears two long setae and a minute

seta; the palp of the maxilliped is formed of 5

segments; the propodus of pereiopod 1 is about

the same size as those of pereiopods 2 and 3;

the inner ramus of the uropod is much less than

half as long as the outer ramus. Members of this

genus are large species, limited to arctic and

subarctic waters.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF CHIRIDOTEA

1. Flagellum of antenna 2 much shorter than

peduncle, 5 segmented; antenna 1 nearly as

lonowasmanvenn ay 2an chee ss een ase C. coeca

Flagellum of antenna 2 longer than peduncle,

8-12 segmented; antenna 1 much shorter

uaa GEMM 2 ry aac enrace minmistesciccemdaas ae 2

2. Posterior margin of dactyl of pereiopod 1 armed

with strong spines; pleotelson as in Fig. 2 7

C. tuftsi

Posterior margin of dactyl of pereiopod 1 armed

with a few setae; pleotelson as in Fig. 1 a

C. almyra, n. sp.

2 The name Mesidotea Richardson, 1905, now

commonly applied to this genus, can no longer be

used, since there are two older available names:

Idotaega Lockington, 1876, p. 44, and Saduria

Adams, in Sutherland, 1852, appendix, p. cevii.

BOWMAN: ISOPOD GENUS CHIRIDOTEA HARGER 225

Chiridotea coeca (Say)

IME 24, Oy Gy 0

Idotea coeca Say, 1818, pp. 424-425.—Gould, 1841,

Pp. 337.

Idotaea caeca Say, Gould, in Hiteheock, 1835, p. 29.

Idotea caeca Say, Milne-Edwards, 1840, p. 131.—

Guérin-Méneville, 1843, p. 35—DeKay, 1844,

p. 42.—White, 1847, p. 94.—Verrill and Smith,

1874, p. 340 (46), 569 (275), pl. 5, fig. 22.

Chiridotea coeca (Say), Harger, 1878, p. 374; 1879,

p. 159; 1880, pp. 338-340, pl. 4, fig. 16-19.—

Richardson, 1901, p. 539.

Chiridotea coecas (Say), Richardson, 1900, p. 226.

Chiridotea caeca (Say), Richardson, 1905, pp.

353-354, fig. 380-381.—Racovitza and Sevastos,

1910, p. 195.—Collinge, 1918, pp. 73-74, pl. 7,

hig

Glyptonotus caecus (Say), Miers, 1881, pp. 17-18.

Diagnosis.—Lateral margins of head with

U- or V-shaped clefts, the anterior margins of the

clefts often bearing plumose setae; head pro-

duced into quadrate lobes anterior to the clefts.

Antenna 2 only slightly longer than antenna 1;

flagellum with 5 segments. Propodus of pereiopod

1 more robust than in the other species; greatest

width a little more than 24 the length; lateral

surface bearing a few long setae. Pleotelson

narrowing gradually in basal half, more abruptly

in terminal half. Length, excluding antennae, up

to 13 mm.

Range——From Florida to Halifax, Nova

Scotia, on sand bottoms, usually intertidally, but

occasionally found as deep as 17 fm. The collec-

tions of the National Museum contain specimens

from as far south as Beaufort, North Carolina.

Inclusion of Florida in the range is based on Say’s

statement, ‘‘...found as far south as Florida.”

Say gave no information about the type locality.

Chiridotea tuftsi (Stimpson)

Fig. 2, a, ¢,9

Idotea tuftsii Stimpson, 1888, p. 39.—Verrill and

Smith, 1874, p. 340 (46), 569 (275). —Verrill, 1874,

p. 362.

Chiridotea tuftsii (Stimpson), Harger, 1878, p.

374; 1879, p. 159; 1880, p. 340-341, pl. 4, fig.

20-23.—Richardson, 1900, p. 226; 1901, p. 539;

1905, p. 354-355, fig. 382-3883.—Racovitza and

Sevastos, 1910, p. 195.—Collinge, 1918, p. 74,

pl. 7, fig. 2.

Glyptonotus tuftsii (Stimpson), Miers, 1881, p.

18-19.

Diagnosis—Lateral margins of head with V-

shaped clefts; head produced into quadrate lobes

anterior to the clefts. Antennae 2 more than

twice as long as antenna 1; flagellum of 11-12

VoL. 45, NO. 7

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

226

0.5 mm.

0.2 mm.

Fra. 1—Chiridotea almyra, n. sp., male paratype: a, Dorsal view of entire animal; b, antenna 2, dorsal;

c, antenna 1, dorsal; d, right mandible, distal portion; e, left mandible, distal portion; f, maxilla 1; g,

maxilla 2, inner plate displaced; h, maxilliped; 7, penis and medial sternal process of first somite of pleon,

ventral view. b and c, same scale; d-g, same scale.

Juny 1955 BOWMAN: ISOPOD GENUS CHIRIDOTEA HARGER PH |

segments. Propodus of pereiopod 1 a little more on posterior margin, the distal ones longer.

than half as wide as long, lateral surface with a Pleotelson tapering evenly from base to posterior

few short spines; dactyl armed with strong spines end, so that its basal half appears relatively

Fie. 2.—Chiridotea almyra, n. sp., male paratype; C. coeca (Say), male, from Cohasset, Mass., U.S.

N.M. no. 30195; C. tuftsi (Stimpson), male, from S.E. Amherst Island, Gulf of St. Lawrence, U.S. N.M.

no. 63744: a, C. tuftst, head, dorsal view; b, C. coeca, head, dorsal view; c, C. tufts?, pereiopod 1; d, C.

almyra, pereiopod 1; e, C. coeca, pereiopod 1, distal segments; f, C. almyra, pereiopod 2; g, C. almyra,

pereiopod 7; h, C. almyra, pleopod 2; 7, C. coeca, terminal part of pleotelson; 7, C. tuftsi, terminal part of

pleotelson; k, C. almyra, uropod. c-f, same scale; 7—j, same scale.

228

narrower than in the other two species. Length,

excluding antennae, 5-6 mm.

Range.—Long Island Sound to the Gulf of

Saint Lawrence (Amherst Island). The type was

dredged in 10 fathoms, off Cheney’s Head,

Grand Manan Island, New Brunswick. C.

tufts’ inhabits deeper water than C. coeca, being

found in bottoms of fine, uniform sand (Tait,

1927), from the level of low tide to a depth of 30

fathoms.

Chiridotea almyra,’ n. sp.

Fig. 1, a-2; fig. 2,d,f, 9, h,k

Diagnosis—Lateral margins of head divided

by V-shaped clefts; anterior to the clefts the head

is evenly rounded, not produced into quadrate

lobes. Antenna 2 about twice as long as antenna

1; flagellum of 7-9 segments. Propodus of

pereiopod 1 a little more than half as wide as

long; lateral margin devoid of spines; dactyl

with a few small setae on posterior margin.

Sides of pleotelson almost parallel for more than

half their length, then converging gradually;

posterior end more broadly rounded than in the

other species. Length, excluding antennae,

4.5-6.5 mm.

Color (after 14 years in formalin).—Dorsal and

ventral surfaces of body, antennae 1 and 2,

proximal segments of pereiopods, and uropods

covered with black chromatophores.

Types, deposited in the U. S. National

Museum.—Holotype, adult male, 5.8 mm in

length, no. 96960; allotype, female with oostegites

developed, 4.6 mm in length, no. 96961 and 44

paratypes, no. 96962, all from a 1-meter net haul

made at Willtown Bluff, Edisto River, S. C.,

April 1, 1940.

Remarks.—The cuticle of the body and

appendages is sculptured as shown in the drawing

of the maxilliped. Young specimens, 2.6 mm in

length, have 3-segmented maxillipedal palps as

in the adult. Pereiopod 3 resembles pereiopod 2

in all details. Pereiopods 4-6 resemble pereiopod

7; pereiopods 5 and 7 are about equally long,

somewhat longer than pereiopod 4, but shorter

than pereiopod 6. Both lobes of pleopods 1 and

2 and the exopod of pleopod 3 are natatory,

bearing plumose setae on their margins; the

endopod of pleopod 3 and both lobes of pleopods

4 and 5 are respiratory in function. This division

of the pleopods is found throughout the genera

Chiridotea and Saduria. In very young specimens

of C. almyra, the second antennae are not

nearly as much longer than the first antennae as

3 From the Greek adyvupos, brackish.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 7

they are in mature specimens. This might lead to

confusion with young specimens of C. coeca,

but the two species can be easily separated by the

difference in shape of the pleotelson.

In addition to the type locality I have identi-

fied C. almyra from Kings Ferry, Ogeechee

River, Ga., and from two localities in the Hudson

River, N. Y., near Barrytown and Haverstraw,

respectively.

The salinity must be very low at all these

localities, since they are well upstream from the

river mouths, but I unfortunately have no data

on the salinity at the sites of collection. In the

samples collected at Willtown Bluff and Kings

Ferry, a number of species known to be eury-

haline and frequently found in brackish water

were present. These include the copepod Eury-

temora hirundoides Nordquist, the amphipod

Corophium lacustre Vanhoffen, the isopod

Cyathura carinata (Kréyer), and the polychaete

Scolelepides viridis (Verrill).4 In addition, the

freshwater copepods Osphranticum labronectum

Forbes and species of Diaptomus, Cyclops, and

Macrocyclops were present. Taken at Haverstraw

were such brackish-water forms as the amphipods

Leptocheirus plumulosus Shoemaker and Coro-

phium lacustre WVanhoffen, and the isopod

Cyathura carinata Kryer.

Chiridotea almyra is clearly limited to water of

low salinity, and perhaps even enters fresh

water. The strictly marine species, C. coeca and

C. tuftsi, are scavengers on sandy bottoms, where

they burrow just beneath the surface of the sand

(Tait, 1927). Presumably C. almyra has a similar

way of life in its brackish environment.

DISCUSSION

Of the mouthparts of Chiridotea, only the

maxillipeds have been previously figured. Both

Harger and Richardson illustrate the palp as

3-segmented; Collinge shows the palp as 3-

segmented in C. coeca, 4-segmented in C. tuftst.

I have examined mazxillipeds from both species

and found only 3-segmented palps. It is likely

that Collinge’s specimen of.C. tuftst was anom-

alous. The fine setae on the outer margins of

the palp are shown by Harger, but not by the

other authors.

The remaining mouthparts are similar in all

three species of Chiridotea. The presence of a

single seta on the inner lobe of the first maxilla is,

as far as I know, unique among idotheid genera.

4 Identified by Marian H. Pettibone.

JuLy 1955

The absence of a molar on the mandible is also an

unusual feature.

Although both C. coeca and C. tuftst are re-

ported to have eyes on the dorsal surface of the

head, medial to the lateral incisions, I have been

unable to find them in either of these species or in

C. almyra. This is undoubtedly due to the action

of the preservative, for eyes were noticed in

living specimens by Tait (1927) in his interesting

paper on the natural history of C. coeca and C.

tuftsz.

LITERATURE CITED

Apams, ArtHur. Jn: Sutherland, Peter C. Journal

of a voyage in Baffin’s Bay and Barrow Straits

in the years 1850-1851, performed by H. M.

ships Lady Franklin and Sophia, wnder the

command of Mr. William Penny ...2, ap-

pendix: cevi-cevil. London, 1852.

CoLLINGE, WALTER Epwarp. On the oral append-

ages of certain species of marine Isopoda.

Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. 34: 65-93, pls. 7-9.

1918.

DeKay, JAMes ELtusworts. Zoology of New-York

or the New-York fauna. Part VI. Crustacea:

1-70, pls. 1-18 (colored). Albany, 1844.

Gottp, Aucustus Apptson. VI. Crustacea: In:

Hitchcock, Edward, Catalogues of the animals

and plants of Massachusetts: 28-30. Amherst,

1835.

. Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts

comprising the Mollusca, Crustacea, Annelida,

and Radiata: 1-xiii + 1-373. Cambridge, 1841.

GUERIN-MENEVILLE, Faux Epouarp. Icono-

graphie du Regne animal de Cuvier. Crustacés.

1-48, pls. 1-35. 1829-1843.

Harcer, Oscar. Descriptions of new genera and

species of Isopoda, from New England and

adjacent regions. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts

15: 373-379. 1878.

. Notes on New England Isopoda. Proc. U.S.

Nat. Mus. 2: 157-165. 1879.

. Report on the marine Isopoda of New Eng-

land and adjacent waters. Rep. U.S. Comm.

Fish and Fisheries, pt. 6, for 1878: 297-458,

pls. 1-13. 1880.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

229

Lockineton, Wriiram Neaur. Description of

seventeen new species of Crustacea. Proc.

California Acad. Sci. 7: 41-48. 1877.

Miers, Epwarp Joun. Revision of the Idoteidae,

a family of sessile-eyed Crustacea. Journ.

Linn. Soe. Zool. 16: 1-88, pls. 1-3. 1881.

Mitne-Epwarps, Henri. Histoire naturelle des

crustacés 3: 1-638. Paris, 1840.

Racovitza, Emrute-G., and Sevastos, R. Proidotea

Haugi, n. g. et n. sp., isopode oligocéne de

Roumanie, et les Mesidoteini, nowvelle sous-

famille des Idotheidae. Arch. Zool. Exp. et

Gen. (5) 6 (5): 175-200, pls. 9-10. 1910.

RicHarRpDson, Harriet. Synopses of North-Amert-

can invertebrates. VIII. The Isopoda. Amer.

Nat. 34: 207-230, 295-309. 1900.

. Key to the isopods of the Atlantic coast of

North America, with descriptions of new and

little-known species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 23:

493-579. 1901.

. Monograph on the isopods of North America,

Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 54: i-liii + 1-727. 1905.

Say, THomas. An account of the Crustacea of the

United States. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-

delphia 1 (1): 57-63, 65-80, 97-101, 155-169;

(2): 235-253, 313-319, 374-401, 423-441, pl. 4.

1817-1818.

Stimpson, Wiuiram. Synopsis of the marine

Invertebrata of Grand Manan. Smithsonian

Contr. Knowl. 6: 1-66, pls. 1-3. 1853.

Tait, Joun. Hxperiments and observations on

Crustacea. Part VII: Some structural and

physiological features of the valviferous isopod

Chiridotea. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 46:

334-348. 1927.

VERRILL, AppISON Emery. Explorations of Casco

Bay by the United States Fish Commission in

1873. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Portland

Meeting, 1873: 34-395, pls. 1-6. 1874.

and SmitH, Sipney Irvina. Report wpon

the invertebrate animals of Vineyard Sound

and adjacent waters, with an account of the

physical features of the region. Rep. U.S.

Comm. Fish and Fisheries, 1871-1872: 1-478,

pls. 1-88. 1874.

Waiter, Apa. List of the specimens of Crustacea in

the collection of the British Museum: 1-141.

London, 1847.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

The Electrometer at High Frequencies.*

It is not generally appreciated, I think,

that the quadrant (or string) electrometer

is a useful instrument at high frequencies,

although this was suggested as early as

1881 by Ayrton and Fitzgerald, and also by

Potier (see ‘‘Electrometer,’’ Encyclopedia

Britannica, 11% ed). So far as I am aware

the use of electrometers on a-c has been

*Received May 27, 1955.

restricted to power measurements at line

frequencies. This application is described in

the standard books on electrical measure-

ments (e.g., Laws, Michals, Harris). The

high resistance and low capacity of an

electrometer suggest an extension of its use

to the megacycle range.

We denote the potentials of the two fixed

members (plates) by A and B, and that of

the needle by N, all with respect to the

230

case which is at ground. According to the

elementary theory (Maxwell) the deflec-

tion @ is proportional to the product of the

potential difference between the plates and

the potential of the needle with respect to

the mean potential of the plates, 1.e.

(AB) N= (ACB) 21)

In the higher order theory, K depends on @

and on the potentials, but eq. 1 is appro-

priate to the null methods to be described,

for which @ is always zero. Two applications

of eq. 1 are given below as examples.

i) =

(1) MEASUREMENT OF HIGH-FREQUENCY

VOLTAGE

The needle is grounded to the case so that

N = 0. Suppose A is the unknown po-

tential and B is an adjustable known

potential, and that B is adjusted so that

= (0. Then eq. | gives

A? = B?. (2)

If B is a steady potential B, and A is an

alternating potential 4, then on account

of the slow response of the needle, eq. 2

gives

| A? = B, (3)

so that the rms value of A is determined by

direct comparison with a known d-c volt-

age. The sensitivity of an electrometer de-

pends on the applied potentials. I have

found that with a Lindemann-Ryerson

electrometer the potentials of eq. 3 should

exceed about 5 volts to enable the com-

parison to be made to 1 percent. At 25

volts the sensitivity 1s about 1 in 5,000 and

for somewhat higher voltages the instru-

ment is unstable. The unknown potential

thus needs to be amplified or attenuated by

a known amount to put A in a favorable

range. No difficulty was experienced in

using the instrument for voltage measure-

ments at 1 Mc/s and much higher fre-

quencies could doubtless be used.

(2) A SLIDE-BACK “LOCK-IN’’ AMPLIFIER AND

PHASE-METER

Suppose A to be an alternating, and B a

steady potential as before, but that N is

the sum of a steady and an alternating

potential, ie, VN = N + WN. Then eq. 1 is

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, NO. 7

OK =

in which time averages are understood so

that N-A and B-N = 0. The needle is

temporarily grounded so that N = 0

and either A or B is adjusted so that the

deflection 6 = 0; eq. 3 then applies. The

potential N is restored and N adjusted so

that 6 = 0. Eq. 4 becomes

Ne as (| A = 8).

If N and A are of different frequencies, then

the time average of N-4 will be zero and

balance will be achieved with N = 0.

Thus the device acts as a “lock-in ampli-

fier’ of the square-law type; it is not sen-

sitive to harmonics. If the two frequencies

are alike, eq. 5 gives

|N||A| cos ¢ =

or GOS OG =

IN| B cos ¢ =

N/| N |, (6)

in which ¢ is the phase between A and N.

The alternating potential || may be

measured independently, or, if either of the

a-c circuits be supplied with a variable

(uncalibrated) phase shifter, ¢ may be

adjusted to maximize N to the value

| N |.

Eq. 6 thus shows how a phase ¢ may be

determined from d-c measurements only,

e.g. from the readings of a potentiometer

used to supply NV.

The operation of the Lindemann-Ryerson

electrometer as a phase meter was checked

at 1 Mc/sec using a calibrated phase shifter

as a reference. Twenty values of 6, at equal

intervals of O.lm radian were set by the

phase shifter and the corresponding values

of N and N were measured with commercial

voltmeters. A curve of the form

y = a cos (@ + a) (7)

was fitted to the data by least squares. The

value of y calculated from eq. 7 differed

from the known value by more than 1 per

cent only for the two values of ¢ for which

cos @ was less than 0.1, and at these points

the least square values of @ were in error

by 0.005 radian.

MARTIN GREENSPAN

National Bureau of Standards

Juny 1955 PROCEEDINGS:

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

231

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Anthropological Society of Washington

held its annual business meeting on April 19,

1955, and elected the following officers: President,

LAWRENCE KRrRaperR; Vice-President, Mark

Hanna Watkins; Secretary, JosePH Casa-

GRANDE; Treasurer, Berry J. MrGacrErs; Coun-

cilors to the Board of Managers, Joun M.

CorBetr (1957), Marcus Goupstern (1958),

GEORGE TRAGER (1958); Representative to the

Washington Academy of Sciences, Frank M.

SETZLER.

A report of the membership and activities of

the Society since the last meeting follows: The

membership on April 19, 1955, totaled 107, a

decrease of 2 from the total reported in January

1954. New members elected during the year

totaled 21 and were: THomas G. Baker, Nancy

Baytey, Catvin L. Beate, Ruta E. Brown,

Poiuip H. Crark, Lucy Kramer CoHEN,

YeHupI A. CoHEN, Francis W. FELSMAN,

THomMas GLADWIN, ALIcE ParKER HUNT,

Norman Key, CuHarnotre Levin, May I. B.

MacratH, Marcaret A. Matus, Haroup

ORLANS, CARROLL QuIGLEY, BarBaro L. RicH-

ARDSON, Mark E. RicHarpson II, Josnpx E.

Smons, RupoLF SoBERNHEIM, and RoseErt C.

Wrenn. Three deaths were reported: C. J.

CoNNOLLY, DIETHER VON DEN STEINEN, and

Henry P. Erwin. Five members resigned, and 15

were dropped from the rolls.

The report of the Treasurer for the year ending

April 19, 1955, was read and conditionally

accepted.

Activities: The panel of integrated papers repre-

senting a series of theoretical and interpretative

phases on New World prehistory was continued

under the program committee consisting of Drs.

Betty J. Meccrrs, MarsHatt T. Newman, and

CLIFFORD Evans (chairman). The following is a

list of speakers and their subjects:

February 12, Dr. ALBERT SpauLpine: The

new interpretations of prehistoric cultural develop-

ment in the eastern United States.

March 12, Drs. Joun Corpetrr and MarsHauu

NEWMAN: American Indians in the Pacific: An

appraisal of Heyerdahl’s theories.

April 23, Dr. Berry J. Mreacrrs: The coming

of age of American archeology.

At the beginning of the new academic year a

new series of symposia concerning the relation-

ship of anthropology to other fields with special

emphasis on its contribution to administrative

problems and programs were arranged by Drs.

THoMAS GLADWIN, JOSEPH CASAGRANDE, and

Gorpon MacGregor. The following is a list of

speakers and their topics:

October 22, Dr. JoHN BENNETT: Anthropology

and the study of intercultural experience.

November 16, Dr. GrorGE DrEvEREUX: Psy-

chiatry and mental health.

December 16, Dr. BENJAMIN

health.

January 18, Drs. Wrturam Keniy and THomas

Guapwin: Administration of native peoples—

Southwestern United States and the Pacific Islands.

February 15, Dr. Lauriston SuHarp: Technical

assistance programs.

March 15, Dr. E. Apamson Horse: Anthro-

pology and law.

April 19, Dr. W. Montacus Coss: The relation-

ship of physical anthropology to medicine.

Pau: Public

Revised statement of the Treasurer to cover

the period of January 1, 1954, through April, 19,

1955, to conform with the changes of the new

fiscal year as amended in bylaws, follows:

Receipts:

Balance forward, Dee. 31, 1953:

Washington Loan & Trust:

Checking account........... 715.93

Perpetual Building: Savings

EXGCOIM Gs coacccncnaceonscce O(N)

$1, 284.93

Dues collected (1954 and 1955).......... 230.00

Sales of old Anthropologists............. 92.87

Sales of 75th anniversary volume...... 96.00

Sale of Washington Sanitary stock...... 997.88

Dividends and interest (cash):

Investment Co. of America... 75.66

Mass. Investment Trust Co.. 114.35

Perpetual Building & Loan

(CEXAINED)s ocopaansnsbacdans 33.45

Washington Sanitary Housing 10.00

233.46

MNotalicasherecelptsspeeer cee ere er eerie $2,935.14

Expenditures:

Printing announcements, etc........... $163.04

AAA dues (Treas., Sect., Life Member

Tore NOM C5 WOH). sokpdococoudaboseren 45.00

Treasurer’s and Secretary’s expenses. ... 5.43

Connolly memorial fund................ 5.00

Speaker’s expenses (10 meetings)........ 409.51

ASW 75th anniversary volume—pub-

lishing and manuscript typing costs 996.16

Cost of distribution of ASW volume—to

members and sales.................. 19.46

Total cash expenditures............. 1,643.60

232

Cashibalancesa ei eee ner ny eee

Distributed as follows:

Wash. Loan & Trust (Riggs Bank)—

$1,291.54

Checking account.......... 291.21

Perpetual Building & Loan—Sav-

ingsrAccountaesseeeee eee eel COO Koo

$1,291.54

Statement of investments as of closing of books April 19, 1955:

Investment Company of America:

100 shares *L6754 Issued: January 29, 1951

10 shares ¥ L05141 January 29, 1951

5 shares * L08905 December 24, 1952

3 shares * L013096 December 21, 1953

118 shares ¥LU1619 February 19, 1954

11 shares * L019868 December 21, 1954

247 shares: @iSSe3de eee: cee oe ee $2,059.98

Massachusetts Investors’ Trust

50 shares ¥M23522 Issued: January 24, 1951

1lshare *M378627 February 8, 1954

51 shares * M378626 February 8, 1954

lshare ¥* M378625 February 8, 1954

lshare *M436033 February 25, 1954

lshare (Returned for reissue due to incorrect

name on share—March 8, 1954)

105isharesi@i$28alaskecne oe te eee 3,014.55

Totaliinvestmentss re-create eee eee eee $5,074.53

In December 1954 the Board of Managers

voted to authorize the expenditure of funds to

publish the lectures delivered in the program

year of 1953-54 and three additional papers on

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 7

interpretative archeology in honor of the 75th

anniversary of the founding of the Society. One

thousand copies were delivered in March 1955,

and copies were distributed at the close of the

Annual meeting. After members of the Society

received their copies, the others were offered for

sale for the below-cost price of $1. The 144-page

volume, edited by Drs. Clifford Evans and Betty

J. Meggers, is entitled ‘““New Interpretations of

Aboriginal American Culture History” and con-

tains the following papers:

EIsELEY, LorEN C.—The Paleo-Indians: Their

survival and diffusion.

SPAULDING, ALBERT C.—Prehistoric cultural de-

velopment in the Eastern United States.

WiLLEY, Gorpon R.—The interrelated rise of the

native cultures of Middle and South America.

Reep, Err K.—Trends in Southwestern Ar-

cheology.

Drucker, Purtr1p—Sources of Northwest Coast

culture.

Evans, Currrorp—New archeological interpreta-

tions in northeastern South America.

Exuoim, Gorpon F.—The new orientation toward

problems of Asiatic-American relationships.

Tracer, GEorGE L.—Linguistics and the recon-

struction of culture history.

Meceers, Berry J.—The coming of age of Ameri-

can archeology.

Cart F. Miturr, Secretary

WASHINGTON SCIENTIFIC NEWS

ALLEN F, WoopHowur has received $200 from

the Academy as a grant-in-aid for researches on

a quantitative acid-fast technique, to be used in

connection with research on mycobacterium

tuberculosis. He is carrying on this work under

Prof. E. R. Kennedy in the Biology Department

at Catholic University. The funds are provided

by the American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science, on the recommendation of the

Academy. Some funds are still available, and the

Academy’s Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Re-

search is willing to receive additional applications.

The National Bureau of Standards has devel-

oped a type of statistical design that makes it

possible to reduce greatly the effect of systematic

errors in physical-science experiments without

increasing the number of measurements. Known

as generalized chain blocks,! the NBS designs

require no more than two measurements for every

experimental condition.

1For further details, see Chain block designs

with two-way elimination of heterogeneity, by John

Mandel, Biometrics 10, 251. 1954.

Systematic errors are often comparatively

large in physical-science experiments, but the

random errors in such measurements are usually

very small, and so the reduction of systematic

errors engages most of the experimenter’s atten-

tion. Common methods for minimizing systematic

errors are careful control of experimental condi-

tions and the use of reference materials for peri-

odic calibration of the measuring equipment.

However, through the use of statistical designs

it is often possible to eliminate, at least partially,

the need for such elaborate precautions. This is

done by dividing the measurements into “blocks,”

that is, groups of measurements that are either

subject to the same systematic effects or contain

measurable trends. Thus, for example, four sheets

of rubber that are cured simultaneously in the

same mold constitute a block even if systematic

differences exist between the cavities of the mold.

So long as these systematic differences are con-

stant from one cure to the next, they can be sta-

tistically determined, and appropriate corrections

can be applied to the data.

Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences

PPEGSRIONE a Perens ois Sa ins Otho MarGaret Pitrman, National Institutes of Health

HAC OSSULENE-CLOCE. rane Cosme seis Sees RaupH EH. Grpson, Applied Physics Laboratory

ISCEROLRE I so tee rc aris oa tentontacin esas Hetnz Sprecut, National Institutes of Health

Treasurer... ..Howarp 8S. Rappuere, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired)

REEERGHES Beco ocd he See ars EE Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station

Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications

Haraup A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum

Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies:

Philosophical Society of Washington....................-.... LAWRENCE A. Woop

Anthropological Society of Washington.................... ... FRANK M. SErzLER

Biological Society of Washington.......................... HERBERT G. Dimeanan

hemicalisocieby of Washington... ..c2++-sseedse.o os. dees- Wiii1am W. WALTON

Pntomolorical Society of Washington... j-2-..+-- 4... s-.e.se: ss asoe see F. W. Poos

Natrona) Geographic) Society. ..-05. eae e eee tees oes ALEXANDER WETMORE

Geological Society of Washington...................--.--+-- Epwin T. MckKnieur

Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. Cogn

Wolambiavristorieal (Society. <:25 057 6 <.Secsede chen ee eas GILBERT GROSVENOR

Bocanical society of Washington... .«ascesock - os se dese odes S. L. EMswEeLLer

Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Grorcs F.. Gravatr

Washington Society of Engineers.................-...-. HERBERT GROVE DorRsEY

Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr

Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers........ R. 8. Dinu

Helminthological Society of Washington. ...................... JouHNn S. ANDREWS

Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists.......Luoyp A. BurKEyY

Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houcu

Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................ H. G. Dorsry

District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons

District of Columbia Section, Society Experimental Biology and Medicine

W. C. Huss

Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............ Tuomas G. Diaers

Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research

Rosert M. STEPHAN

Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences.......F. N. FRENKIEL

District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society

Francis W. REICHELDERFER

Elected Members of the Board of Managers:

ED Ue ey7 AI Oe eae Sener aennee Sites a eee ee er M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER

Te Jieinein Ih 6 Spon ciee eee eee AC Oar A. T. McPHerson, A. B. GuRNEY

Ram OOSE ey. cscs sings. cae se dgaudeesielns seven W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwatLen

POUL MROMMNIONAGETS. << oc.0. 5200050022 ces net All the above officers plus the Senior Editor

BaGre Bi LIGBUDS , Seto eRe Os OTRO cee [See front cover]

IZECULIDE \COMMIULEE . ... cdc ec eco ce ew eeves M. Pirrman (chairman), R. E. Grgson,

H. Specut, H. 8S. Rappinys, J. R. SwaLLen

Committee on Membership....RogeR W. Curtis (chairman), J HN W. ALDRICH, GEORGE

Awnastos, Harotp T. Coox, JosppH J. Fanny, Francois N. FRENKIEL, PETER Kine,

Gorpon M. Kunz, Louis R. MaAxwe.u, Ftorence M. Mza‘rs, Curtis W. SaBrosky,

BENJAMIN ScHwarRTz, BaNcrort W. SITTERLY, WILLIE W SmitH, Harry WEXLER

Committee on Meetings...... ARNOLD H. Scort (chairman), Harry 8. Bernton, Harry

R. Bortuwick, Herpert G. Detenan, Wayne C. Hatt, AtBert M. STONE

Conintceron MOnograplSnn.++.2- ++ 0422528020 004- 08" G. ArtHuR Cooper (chairman)

pllomiannany1956e.55 26 craceat basi geesaces G. ArTHUR CoopER, JAMES I. Horrman

pRomantrary 19D hs. 0.0 baw a seve aiesjee bees Haraup A. Reuper, Witiiam A. Dayton

Mlowanuary 1958), J) ee ee ne eee Dean B. Cowin, JosppH P. E. Morrison

Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement. .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman)

For Biological Sciences..... Sara E. BranHam (chairman), JoHN 8. ANDREWS,

James M. Hunotey, R. A. St. Grorce, Bernice G. ScousEertT, W. R. WepEL

For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. Trent (chairman), JosepH M. CALDWELL,

R.S. Drit, T. J. Hicxtny, T. J. Kinit1ran, Gorpon W. McBripz, EH. R. Priore

For Physical Sciences...... Bensamin L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonn,

Scotr E. Forsusu, Marcarer D. Foster, M. E. FREEMAN, J. K. Taytor

For Teaching of Science. . .Monroer H. Martin (chairman), Keira C. JOHNSON,

Loutse H. MarsHauu, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. Owrns

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francs 0. RIce (chairman),

HERMAN Branson, Cuarutes K. TRUEBLOOD

Committee on Policy and Planning...................... E. C. CritTeEnDEN (chairman)

horanuanyel95605. 2.05.58 e oeeseee. E. C. CrittEnDEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE

pRopanuatsyat G5 eso tera evn i er teeee Joun E. GraF, Raymonp J. SEEGER

MowlanuanyelO58ie seer ere ec Francis M. DEFANDORF, Frank M. Setzer

Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent..ARCHIBALD T. McPuErson (chairman)

pop amuary, V95Gi ccc. cine severe A nesshere ater Haro.wp H. Frnury, J. H. McMILLen

Ito diemomenay IGEY/ oon on esadoeaaaadanecdeusce L. Epwin Yocum, Wiiu1am J. YOUDEN

Mopaniany al O58 ite cy. se se clssicie eee mach anes Av. McPHERSON, W. T. READ

Committee on Science Education....RayMonpD J. SEEGER (chairman), Ronaup BaMFoRD,

R. Percy BaRNEs, Watuace R. Bropg, LEonarp CARMICHAEL, HucuH L. DRYDEN,

REGINA FLANNERY, Raupu EF. Grson, Froyp W. Hoveu, Martin A. Mason,

Grorce D. Rock, Wititam W. RuBEY, Winuram lal. SEBRELL, Watpo L. Scumrrr,

B. D. Van Evera, WILitam E. WRaATHER, FRANCIS E. JOHNSTON

Hue DI CSENIALVELOM COUNncUNOf PALAU AL Senate seen een. Watson Davis

Committee of Auditors...FRANcIS E. Jonnston, (chairman), 8S. D. Couiins, W. C. Hess

Committee of Tellers.. Ratpu P. Trvrser (chairman), 1B}, Ch Hampp, J. G. THompson

CONTENTS

Page

PALEONTOLOGY.—Reclassification of the Rotaliidea (Foraminifera) and

two new Cretaceous forms resembling Elphidium. ALAN H. Smout 201

Botany.—New Korean grasses and new names of grasses to be validated

before publication of a manual of the grasses of Korea. IN-CHo

Zootocy.—A new species of Pararchinotodelphys (Copepoda: Cyclopoida)

with remarks on its systematic position. Paun L. Inue.......... 216

Zootocy.—The isopod genus Chirztotea Harger, with a description of a

new species from brackish waters. THomAs E. BowMAN......... 224

LETTERS TO THE Eprror.—The electrometer at high frequencies. MARTIN

(GREENSPANited «272.5 ciNU) Pace wiftelsbaalere «jo abel cele Stent ates te 229

PROCEEDINGS: Anthropological’ Society... 05-42 ee ee eee 231

Washington Scientific News: que. oa. © oscleieiceie cee een eee ee 232

Vot. 45 Aueust 1955 No. 8

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

R. K Coox FEenNER A. CHACE

NATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

OF BTANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

J. I. HoFFMAN BERNICE SCHUBERT

CHEMISTRY BOTANY

Dean B Cowie PuiLtie DRUCKER

PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY

ALAN STONE Davin H. DUNKLE

ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY

PUBLISHED MONTHLY

1855

LIBRARY

BY THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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Authorized February 17, 1949

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

This JOURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes:

(1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2)

proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3)

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Subscriptions or requests for the purchase of back numbers or volumes of the JouR-

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 45

METALLURGY .—HAigh-strength

STRAUSS,

Thompson.)

August 1955

No. 8

cast iron: Appraisal and forecast.!. JEROME

Vanadium Corporation of America. (Communicated by J. G.

(Received March 25, 1955)

The art of metallurgy is indeed old, with

its beginnings lying in prehistory many

millennia behind us. By contrast, metal-

lography, and more particularly metal

microscopy, 1S young. As a science its age is

only a few years. Thus many still living, in-

cluding myself, can well remember pleasant

and profitable associations with many of

the pioneers.

A substantial proportion of those recently

and even at present engaged in assuring that

metallography (i.e., physical metallurgy)

shall continue to grow as a science began

their mature intellectual activities as physi-

cists, and so it was with Dr. George Kimball

Burgess to whose memory this evening is

dedicated. On me, as on others, he left many

lasting impressions—his scientific approach,

his convincing presentation, his easy manner,

his understanding consideration of a human

problem.

Review of the 53 papers of which he was

author or coauthor during his 29 years at the

National Bureau of Standards is a reminder

of his early interest in the measurement of

high temperatures, so closely linked with

the thermoelectric properties and the radia-

tion characteristics of metals as well as of

the products of their oxidation. How natural

then for him to become deeply interested

in all the fundamental properties of metals

and, subsequent to his appointment as chief

of the Division of Metallurgy upon its or-

ganization, to utilize his knowledge of these

1The sixth George Kimball Burgess Memorial

Award Lecture to the Washington Chapter,

American Society for Metals, on February 21,

1955.

233

fundamentals, of metallography in its

broadest sense, and of pyrometry in the

study of practical metallurgical problems.

Toward these he developed, if it was not

actually latent, an extremely keen appre-

ciation and a great capacity for their solu-

tion.

Understandably, lecturers are prone to

select subjects for discussion that represent

advances in fields in which the one memo-

rialized undertook considerable work or that

are closely related to this work. Only one of

Dr. Burgess’s papers, however, touched the

subject of cast iron, although that one dealt

with research in a phase of use of the product

representing most severe service and a prob-

lem even now not completely under control.

I may therefore embark upon this presenta-

tion without feeling that I am departing

completely from the realm of his interest.

We are so surrounded by the products of

modern technology and as technologists de-

vote so much attention to the details of

today’s practice that we are inclined to

regard steel and wrought iron as invariably

the products of refining of cast iron (L.e.,

carbon-rich iron) and to forget that direct-

reduced iron, in spite of all our efforts to

produce it economically in these times, was

the foundation of what has been termed the

Tron Age. What appears to be a significant

exception to this sequence of first wrought

iron, then cast iron, is the appearance of ob-

jects of cast iron in China a hundred or two

hundred years prior to the dawn of the

Christian Era. Actually this is not an excep-

tion—evidence is accumulating to show that

AUG 3 1195°

234

this iron was first reduced from ore in cruci-

bles and then recarburized beyond the range

of steels, again in crucibles. In many, if not

all, ancient lands early iron objects appear

as wrought meteoric iron or direct-reduced

iron of malleable quality resulting from the

smelting of local ores at low temperature and

with limited, if any, fusion. Especially is

this true in the Near East. In Europe also

the bloomery came long before the “‘Sttic-

kofen,”’ which was the forerunner of the

blast furnace. Only when the height of this

“Sttickofen”’ was increased above the initial

10 to 15 feet, and the reduced product re-

mained for a longer time in contact with the

fuel, did it become possible to obtain a

molten high-carbon product consistently,

and to produce cast forms deliberately

rather than accidentally and occasionally.

Thus began European cast iron—some 14

or 15 centuries after its development in

China and by a completely different ap-

proach.

Why this historical survey? It is a natural

question. The recitation is solely a means of

recalling that cast iron, known since the

second or surely the first century B.C. in

China and since the early fourteenth century

A.D. in Europe, has attracted the attention

of those concerned with metallography and

the science of metals to a lesser degree, and

only more recently, than its forbear or its

offspring (according to your approach being

from East or West), namely, steel, with its

age as a molten product of only 200 years.

Assign such reasons as you will, and very

many may claim attention, cast iron since

the days of serious metallographic investiga-

tion has been the laggard—at least with

respect to widespread application of new

knowledge. Ultimately the forward move-

ment began, so that one finds in the past

30 years a voluminous literature represent-

ing the striving of many foundrymen and

researchers seeking not only practical im-

provements but more knowledge of the

fundamentals.

Beginning as an engineering material in

Western Europe (unfortunately as always

with new materials and processes, most

prominently in military engineering) cast

iron reached rather later into the field of

domestic apphances. First came cannon,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 8

then shot for the cannon, and afterward

firebacks, cooking utensils, and other arti-

cles of daily use. But in the growth of the

mechanical industries, the metal played a

major role. It was accepted for its advan-

tages, but with its limitations, and applied

accordingly. It was easy to produce, whether

directly from the blast furnace or by remelt-

ing and subsequent casting. It lacked duc-

tility but served well under compression

loading and presented an excellent bearing

surface. Early measurements of strength

were no doubt indirect and comprised

primarily performance testing to determine

adequacy, but it was known as greatly in-

ferior in strength and ductility to steel and

to bronze. Prior to about 1920 (no strength

measurements of reasonable reliability may

be found earlier than about 1880) it is rare

in machinable gray iron to encounter a

tensile strength value above 40,000 psi,

while in most instances values were below

35,000 psi and very many well below this

figure.

Until about that time (i.e., 1920) the old

and well-worn saying that cast iron was the

product of a process was not at all untrue.

It was just not complete in that, in addition

to the process, the character and the proper-

ties of iron were dependent upon its hered-

ity or more precisely the origin and the

character of the raw materials entering the

process. It was not a question of the chem-

ical composition of pig iron, iron scrap, steel

scrap, ete., but principally of the ores and

other raw materials from which the pig iron

was produced. Thus the blast furnace giving

birth to the iron was all-important, and

names had greater significance than the

analytical chemist’s findings, even though

the latter were regularly reported and de-

manded, and definite limits for silicon,

manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus were

often insisted upon. Nevertheless, if the re-

sults of the process were poor it was more

common to look toward or change the origin

of the iron; second on the list of blameworthy

items was the chemical composition and last

the process. The latter was nearly blameless

and all else had to fit its demands.

Then came a major change. For 30 or 40

years, sporadic use had been made of large

proportions of steel scrap in the cupola

Aveust 1955

charge. The reason was essentially economic,

but occasionally it was lack of pig iron.

Records of such charges may be found as

far back as the 1880’s. A side result of this

economic pressure was, however, the produc-

tion of the higher of the then known mechan-

ical properties. The now obsolete terms of,

primarily, semisteel and, secondarily, high-

test cast iron came into being. The high

strength was traceable to lower carbon con-

tent or lower carbon equivalent (C + 14 81),

although often in the later years of the period

another factor had been introduced, namely

ferrosilicon and ferromanganese added dur-

ing melting. The great change, however, was

not entirely due to the addition of steel

scrap and the low carbon content; of at least

equal importance was the very large in-

crease

stimulated, and subsequently combining

in melting temperature that it

both with inoculation through deoxidation.

The possibilities presented for practical

improvements and more significantly for re-

search came from the recognition on the one

hand of the effects of starting a cycle of

solidification and subsequent cooling from a

melt fully liquid, of uniform though per-

haps higher gas content but devoid of solid

nuclei, and on the other hand (though often

interrelated) from altering the character

and distribution of the graphite and control-

ling the matrix microstructure. Research

was undertaken in great volume, largely by

a few captive foundries, a few forward-

looking independents, some associations of

-manufacturers, and the principal alloy pro-

ducers. A substantial share of the actual

work was performed in universities or under

consultation with their staffs. Ultimately

the effects of heredity were very greatly

minimized and the results were sufficient to

command a new respect for an ancient prod-

uct.

Theoretically—and we omit from con-

sideration other elements of the composition

—cast iron is an iron-carbon-silicon alloy

_ produced via the liquid state and containing

in excess of 1.7 percent of carbon and suf-

ficient silicon to result in adequate castabil-

ity. The definition is admittedly loose in view

of the partial interdependence of carbon and

silicon, but it serves the present purpose.

The region here under consideration is

STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON 235

principally in the range of 2.4 to 3.7 percent.

of carbon and 0.5 to 4.0 percent of silicon.

There is no novelty in the statement that

the subject is exceedingly complex, not only

because of the range of essential composi-

tion, impurities, alloys, and other additives

but also because of the great sensitivity of

the microstructure and therefore of the

properties of cast iron to section thickness

and to all the elements of the manufacturing

operation—principally raw materials, melt-

ing techniques, maximum temperature in the

molten state, pouring temperature, and cool-

ing rate. In the three decades just behind us,

the desire for understanding and control of

these many factors and their interrelation

have supplied the driving force in the search

for improvement.

While the subject I have selected as just

noted is largely limited to irons with not

less than 2.4 percent carbon, there is need

in view of a few product types to refer to

some irons close to the theoretical minimum

of 1.7 percent. Hence a statement of cover-

age comprises:

1. The combined effects of high propor-

tions of steel scrap as raw material, carbon

content just above and below the middle

of the range and the concomitant high melt-

ing temperature extended to a higher level

than thereby required.

2. Inoculation of this high-temperature-

melted iron through the creation of nuclei

for graphite precipitation.

3. The effects of alloying elements.

4. Changes in the pattern of malleable iron

production and use.

5. The introduction of irons containing

spherolitic graphite.

The treatment is intended to be partly

historical, partly technical, and to include

comments on some elements of the picture

that remain to be filled in, the data for which

may reasonably be anticipated.

LOW CARBON IRONS: APPLICATION OF STEEL

SCRAP AND SUPERHEAT

Prior to any systematic studies, the recog-

nition of the benefits to strength resulting

from low-carbon content due to large steel

scrap additions to the cupola charge, and the

moderate temperature increase that followed

automatically, had been supplemented by

236

recognition of the value of a completely

pearlitic matrix microstructure.

With respect to low-carbon iron via steel

scrap, it should be noted that an alternate

means of reaching this objective has been

patented by Zenzes (/) as early as 1905, his

process consisting of blowing pig iron to re-

move silicon, manganese, and part of the

carbon and subsequently mixing with a

silicon-rich iron melt. However, the history

of steel scrap use shows that McPherran

(2) went beyond earlier charge limits and

reported adding as much as 60 percent steel

scrap to the cupola as early as 1913. Later

(in 1924) Emmel (3) patented a process com-

prising the addition of 50 percent steel

scrap along with ferrosilicon and_ ferro-

manganese, all in the cupola. However, I

can record the interesting experience of

watching McKinney at the U.S. Naval Gun

Factory carrying on the same procedure as

Emmel 4 or 5 years earlier and extending the

scrap addition to well over 90 percent. Be-

fore the warnings and criticisms regarding

quality and control by those eminent au-

thorities Ledebur and Wuest, McKinney

had noted the low quality and the great dif-

ficulty of predetermining composition, it

being beyond our knowledge at that time to

predict whether a tap would carry 2.25 or

2.75 percent carbon. But with improvements

in both equipment and analytical control,

the principle of Zenzes is now or has re-

cently been in operation, and similarly

cupola charges high in steel scrap are not

uncommon.

With respect to the production of irons

with a 100 percent pearlitic matrix micro-

structure there had also been early accom-

plishment. Diefenthaler and Sipp (4) work-

ing for the Lanz Company had developed

prior to 1916 their production practice of

preheating the molds to temperatures de-

termined by casting cross-section and iron

composition; the latter was specified for each

cross-section as the total of carbon and

silicon but with individual maxima specified

for each of the two elements. The excellent

results of the Lanz method ultimately led

to simpler procedures involving high-con-

ductivity molds and high cupola tempera-

tures but an important point is that, while

high strength was obtained, it was not

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 8

specifically sought, the objective being to

produce the pearlite matrix for its tough-

ness, wear-resistance and dimensional sta-

bility.

It is both appropriate and necessary to

continue the discussion at this point with

some details of the pearlitic matrix and sub-

sequently return to the use of high melting

temperatures. In supplementing rule of

thumb and progressing from qualitative to

quantitative knowledge, the relationship

carbon-silicon-cooling rate-and-section size

(these last two are not entirely separable)

were given early consideration. As a point of

beginning I can do no better than quote the

concise statement of Schneidewind and

McElwee (4):

The iron-carbon-silicon eutectic may solidify

from the liquid state in one of two forms under

commercial rates of cooling: either as austenite

and carbide or as austenite and graphite. At room

temperatures, these will be pearlite and cementite

and pearlite and graphite respectively. In the

absence of alloying elements the mode of silidifi-

cation into one or the other of the above mentioned

forms or in a mixture of the two is determined by

(a) the silicon content, and (b) the rate of cooling

from the molten state.

The quantitative relationships began with

the publications of Honda and Murakami

(6) in 1923 and Maurer (7) in 1924. Their

structure diagrams, representing the results

of the simplest approach, were based upon a

single section size and cooling rate. To estab-

lish the type of graph into which each

foundry might incorporate its own special

conditions of raw materials, process, and

range of products, the section size-cooling

rate variable was superimposed by the

researches of Uhlitzsch and Weichelt (8)

in 1933, giving rise to the well-known

“Modified Maurer Diagram” of Fig. 1. The

permissible region for 100 percent pearlite

in thicknesses of 14 inch to 114 inches, and

that for carbon contents 2.4 to 3.7 percent

are shown slightly offset from each other

to permit easy identification.

In plain irons, namely those to which

alloying elements have not been added, a

full pearlitic structure corresponds to a

lower limit of tensile strength of 30,000 to

35,000 psi and an upper limit of 45,000 to

50,000 psi. Below this range free ferrite is in

Aveuwust 1955

STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON

0 im. OO)

3-0 4-0 5.0 %

Siticon

_ Fre. 1.—Graphic representation of structure of cast from by Maurer (7) for medium section (light

ines) with results of Uhlitzsch and Weichelt (8) superimposed for medium to light sections (heavy

lines.

evidence, and above it mottling is certain

to be encountered. In extending the work of

the early investigators on the relationship

carbon-silicon-section size, having in mind

especially the outlines of the area of 100

percent pearlite, Sipp (9) and also Angus,

Dunn, and Marles (/0) set forth the area

for sand castings on a carbon equivalent—

section thickness plot. The latter authors

employed data from many hundred tests,

made on irons produced in a large number of

British foundries; since British practice with

respect to melting temperature tends to be

appreciably lower than that in the United

States and Germany, it may be assumed in

the absence of specific information that these

data do not include many, if any at all,

resulting from the use of high superheating

temperatures. Fig. 2 shows the curves

of Angus and coworkers along with those

resulting from computations by Schneide-

wind and McElwee (4) in an effort to estab-

hgh a formula for computing strength from

composition.

Although the term “high-strength cast

iron” has not been defined in numerical

terms, it is obvious that only the upper

portion of the tensile strength range quoted

for pearlitic irons has any reason to be placed

within its indefinite scope. And while Fig.

2 does reach into the range of low-carbon

irons it does not set forth the results that

have been achieved by high melting and

pouring temperatures, by inoculation, by

alloying.

It is in order now to return to the question

of steel scrap in the cupola and the effects

of increasing melting temperatures. In the

long history of this practice, with the at-

tendant increased temperatures and in-

creased strengths, one may find many in-

teresting examples. Among them is one

quoted by Pfannenschmidt (/7) concerning

comparisons of cylinder blocks made in 1907

using practices then in vogue, with identical

articles produced from the same cupola in

1932 with cast iron and steel scrap compris-

2.00

(Te +

FERRITE

1.50

cS)

fe}

THICKNESS, INcHES

3.0 3.5 4.0 45 5.0

CARBON EQUIVALENT

Fre. 2.—Section thickness, carbon equivalent,

and microstructure of cast iron, according to

Schneidewind and McElwee (65). ;

238

ing the charge and no pig iron included, fol-

lowed by superheating in an electric furnace

with the added touch of desulphurization.

The average strength rose from an initial

28,000 psi to 52,500 psi. Earlier, in 1929,

McPherran (2) reported using 94 percent

steel scrap, adding ferrosilicon and ferro-

manganese and obtaining an average tensile

strength of 58,300 psi with close to 90 per-

cent of his tests falling between 50,000 and

70,000. It should be noted, however, that 1

percent nickel was added to this iron in the

ladle. Consideration of large scrap additions,

especially if an alloy addition is included,

necessitates reference to the paper of Coyle

and Houston (1/2). With a charge of 75

percent steel scrap in the cupola and 25

percent iron scrap or pig iron, tensile

strengths of 50,000 to 70,000 psi were ob-

tained through the addition of 1 to 4.5

percent nickel. This, of course, is not inocula-

tion (shortly to be discussed) but graphitiz-

ing pressure by nickel rather than silicon

and the strengthening effect of nickel on the

matrix.

The study of high melting temperatures

per se had an erratic beginning. While

Hailstone (73) in 1913 had found improved

strength due to superheating to 1,425°C.,

others including Longmuir (7/4), the first to

report such experiments (in 1903), disagreed

in recording maximum strength when melt-

ing and pouring at an intermediate tempera-

ture below 1,400°C. Elliot (15) carried his

studies farther, namely to 1,510°C., but

stated emphatically the undesirability of

higher superheat. Actually it remained for

Piwowarsky (/6), in a series of researches

beginning about 1924 and extending over a

period of more than 15 years, to set forth

systematically the effects of superheating

and to demonstrate that these effects upon

strength, microstructure, chilling tendency,

etc., are associated with the undercooling of

the eutectic solidification. His work at times

was carried to as high as 2,000°C. although

the later tests were largely concentrated in

the vicinity of 1,600-1,650°C. Constructive

additions to this literature on the effect of

superheat were made by Krynitsky and

Saeger (/7) in 1939. Their experiments

covered the melting temperature range from

1,400 to 1,700°C., with pouring effected at

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 8

100 to 250°C. above the liquidus. Strength

increased with increase in temperature with

the best values reported for the iron of low-

est carbon equivalent (3.91).

The significance of these strength improve-

ments goes somewhat beyond the quoted

values, taken principally from standard ar-

bitration bars of about 1.2-inch section. The

benefits persist in larger sections, even in

plain irons up to more than 3 inches in thick-

ness. For example, Piwowarsky and Szubin-

ski (18) pointed out that raising the melting

temperature from 1,250°C. to 1,500°C. pro-

duced a tensile strength increase of 50 per-

cent and increasing the section from 0.8

inch to 3.2 inches reduced this increase by

only half. Von Frankenberg (79) in a series

of tests ranging from 1.8 to about 3.6 per-

cent carbon studied the effect of temperature

change over the range 1,300 to 1,600°C. in

sections from about 1.6 to about 3.2 inches.

He recorded practically constant numerical

increases due to this rise in temperature,

which meant higher percentage improve-

ments for the lower initial strengths of the

higher carbon alloys and the heavier sec-

tions.

It is necessary now to return to Fig. 2.

Briefly, superheating moves both of the

curves of Fig. 2 to the right thus increasing

the carbon equivalent at which, for any given

section thickness, free ferrite may be avoided

and similarly increasing the carbon equiv-

alent below which free cementite will be

encountered. The latter feature is of great

importance for the present purpose in that it

means a greater tendency to chill and, owing

to brittleness of chilled metal, inability to

develop inherent higher strength. Of major

importance, however, is the fining of the

graphite due to supercooling, regarded by

various investigators as the result of (a)

complete solution of the graphite of the raw

materials, (b) a higher gas content perhaps

principally oxygen or dissolved iron oxide,

and/or an iron silicate slime as proposed by

v.Keil and coworkers (20) permeating the

molten iron but eliminated in the course of

superheating. Accompanying the fining of

the graphite is a more or less pronounced

eutectiform arrangement of the short flakes,

the extent of which varies according to com-

position, section and thermal history; this

Aveust 1955

condition effects a further restraint upon the

development of the full inherent tensile

strength of any iron.

INOCULATION

The history of inoculation is not quite

clear cut, involving some complexities such

as the cross-currents of developments in

several countries, delays in publication, ete.

Mere mention of the possible effects of de-

oxidizers, or their use in inadequate or other-

wise incorrect amounts or by ineffective

methods, is no assurance of initiating this

practice. Based upon published records and

actual commercial practice, credit would

seem to belong to Meehan (2/) who treated

iron sometime before February of 1922 with

calcium silicide, producing thereby high-

strength gray iron from molten metal that

would otherwise have cast white. Sometime

prior to the issuance of his patent in 1924

I remember being astonished at a test from

a keel block received from Meehan recording

60,000 psi in the first examination at the

U.S. Naval Gun Factory and a most com-

petent analyst named Faust establishing the

presence by wet chemical analysis of calcium

in the order of 0.01 percent! On the other

hand, there is also clearly fixed in my

memory a visit in the early twenties to the

foundry of the Wm. Sellers & Sons Co. in

Philadelphia and there watching A. E.

Outerbridge (apparently mentioned only by

Moldenke (22)) add in the ladle 75 percent

ferrosilicon to iron made with partial scrap

charges, and listening to him proclaim the

excellence of the product. I recall no tests,

but if any appreciable amount of iron oxide

or silicate was in that iron he may very well

have been inoculating. This statement

should naturally be viewed in the lightof the

fact that in cupola practice the oxygen con-

tent of the iron is not likely to be high unless

the temperature is high or there is moisture

in the charge materials.

Piwowarsky (23) tried to set forth in a

long tabulation the sequence of develop-

ments in inoculation but failed to demon-

strate that such were the results secured by

each investigator listed. Some of the refer-

ences appear to be merely a listing of possi-

ble deoxidizers without recognition of the

STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON

239

limits of their activity or effectiveness. At

about the time of his earlier references to

what is assuredly inoculation, namely in

1929, he wrote (24), rather inadequately:

Observing the favorable influence of the deoxi-

dation of east iron prior to its pouring, the author

was able to show on the basis of a substantial,

but as yet unpublished, experimental series that

cast irons with between 68,000 and 74,000 psi?

bend strength (39,000 to 42,000 psi tensile strength)

were improved by the addition of between 0.05

and 0.15% silicon as ferrosilicon or alsimin, re-

sulting in an increase in bend strength by about

6,000 to 8,000 psi, i.e. to about 74 to 82,000 psi.

“Hot-produced”’ cast iron types require for the

production of dense blow-hole-free castings al-

ways a final treatment with a little silicon, alumi-

num, titanium or vanadium.

Since that date our knowledge of this

subject has been considerably expanded and

refined. It is known for example that the

first additions of vanadium and also chro-

mium (25) effect a measure of deoxidation

and modification of eutectiform graphite,

subsequent amounts serving as alloying ad-

ditions to the matrix. Many years of suc-

cessful practice have shown that the most

efficient inoculants are rich ferrosilicon (75

percent silicon or higher) and complex agents

containing one or more of Ca, Ti, Zr, Li, Al,

usually along with high silicon content and

in some cases limited amounts of manganese.

A further improvement, by Chandler (26),

specifies a complex alloy of this type con-

taining chromium in addition to manganese,

thus simultaneously effecting mild alloying,

strengthening of the pearlite and reducing

the hardness gradient in heavy sections.

Mexican graphite has also, since about 1937,

found a small field of use as an inoculant but

is mild in its effect.

Referring once again to Fig. 2, it has been

amply proved by experiment and extensive

practice that the use of adequate additions

of effective inoculants moves the left curve

farther to the left (somewhat farther than

superheating moved it to the right) while

affecting not at all the right hand curve of

Fig. 2. Thus the usable zone of 100 percent

pearlite is widened. It then becomes possible

to realize the strengths that cannot be de-

2 These values are the author’s conversions.

240

veloped when chilling occurs; in other words,

the full pearlite zone has been moved out

into the cementite area making possible

pearlitic structures with over 45,000 to

50,000 psi tensile strength. Not only is chill

reduced but there is benefit from reduction

or complete elimination of any eutectiform

arrangement of the graphite without much

coarsening of the refined graphite flakes.

Somewhat differently expressed, the pos-

sibilities for the occurrence of chilled iron

are reduced or confined to thinner sections;

a section that exhibited eutectiform graphite

is changed to one containing small random

flakes and only one that after superheating

was chilled will, after moculation, display

eutectiform graphite in a pearlitic matrix.

Discussion of inoculation would not be

complete without reference to the work of

Norbury and Morgan (27). These investi-

gators stated that adding titanium to iron

and subsequently oxidizing it, preferably by

bubbling CO, through the melt, resulted in

under-cooling and the formation of fine

graphite. The cause was believed to le in

the molten surface of the insoluble titanate

particles formed in this reaction. Subsequent

treatment with hydrogen avoided the under-

cooling and produced coarse graphite, as

did also the replacement of titanium by

additions of silicon, calcium-silicide or

aluminum which latter were stated to be

inoculants that produce solid nuclei and

therefore coarse graphite. It is somewhat

dificult in view of operation at 1,350°C.

(thus no superheat) to coordinate these ob-

servations with the results of present high-

temperature melting followed by inoculation

through deoxidizing additions. This is

especially true in view of operation over

many years and in many foundries with

Meehan’s practice of large additions of

steel scrap, therefore high temperatures and

the final addition of calcium silicide, with

resultant high strength and random ar-

rangement of graphite flakes that are not

large, as well as the Drant-Kessler process

producing similar results, also with high

scrap charges but with final additions of

complex finishing alloys to the low-carbon

irons thereby produced. It is difficult not to

conclude that there is a distinct difference

between the Norbury-Morgan product and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 8

that resulting from superheating and inocu-

lating if only because of the lack of eutecti-

form graphite in the former work undertaken

without superheat and the lack of coarse

graphite resulting from the latter method

(1.e., current practice in the United States)

following inoculation. Moreover, the func-

tioning of titanium is not clear. Many pig

irons now reaching the American market

contain substantial quantities and this is

even more true in Western Europe. Its be-

havior may differ according to its presence in

pig and other raw materials and whether, if

added to a molten bath, it is as a simple or

complex alloy. Furthermore, combination

with both oxygen and nitrogen needs to be

considered. The presence of silicon in most

titanium alloys thus far used for inoculation

also needs reexamination.

In reviewing the voluminous literature

and the unpublished records of foundry

practice dealing with high-temperature

melting in both cupola and electric furnace,

followed by the effective use of inoculants,

one cannot escape the impression of the need

for experiment or theory that will fully cover

the recorded data. Granted that many of

the observations (to say nothing of the

theories advanced) may be inadequate or

faulty and that metallurgical investigators

may be expected never to be in full accord,

there is, despite the excellent work of v.

Keil and coworkers (20) and of Boyles (28),

obvious need for more complete coverage of

the mechanism of solidification. Under what

conditions as to raw materials, temperatures

of melting and pouring, composition (es-

pecially carbon and_ silicon), details of

inoculation and cooling rate does graphite

separate on the one hand directly from the

melt and on the other hand, form by carbide

decomposition? What are the details of

nucleation and growth of the graphite?

Gillett in 1934 (29) expressed the opinion

that much remains to be explained. Since

then, Schafmeister (30) has produced what.

may prove to be adequate support for the

hypothesis of v.Kkeil using stereoscopic

photomicrography and _ detecting silicate

films or coatings on coarse graphite particles

separated by dissolving away the surround-

ing iron. Confirmation of these and other

related researches is needed.

Avewust 1955

ALLOYING

Interwoven with the changes in produc-

tion practice here described are the contribu-

tions to high strength of the alloying ele-

ments. They have been in use by the iron

foundryman for 40 years or more, but their

value became more thoroughly and precisely

recognized when used in conjunction with

improved melting, deoxidation and molding

practices. The principal metals in current

use for their contributions as alloying addi-

tions are chromium and vanadium with their

influence on carbide formation and increased

chill as well as temperature-stability and

graphite-refinement, manganese (above

about 0.3 percent) for its stabilization of

pearlite, molybdenum for its mild carbide

effect, strong graphite refinement, and

contribution to temperature-stability, cop-

per for its pearlite stabilization, mild re-

straint of chill and precipitation hardening

and nickel for its strong chill reduction,

graphite-refinement and strengthening of

the matrix by large additions. As in steels,

the alloying elements are almost always

employed in conjunction with one another

to secure in any desired measure the con-

STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON

241

tribution obtainable from each at minimum

total cost.

For the purpose of this discussion, in-

terest centers in the strength values pro-

duced, even though the alloy irons are de-

signed only in part for their strength and

often in larger measure for their wear re-

sistance, for their ability to sustain repeated

thermal shock and for other special proper-

ties. A few selected examples are shown in

Table 1. In some instances the tensile

strength values are accompanied by compu-

tations of this property, made in accordance

with the formula devised by Schneidewind

and McElwee (4) in their last paper under

joint authorship. Their successful formula

for predetermination of tensile strength

from chemical composition was adequately

proven on unalloyed irons initially, then

given greater significance by determining

the increases due to alloy additions. Within

the limits of avoiding chill, the percentage

increases in strength for one percent of each

element are:

Vanadium, 50 percent

Molybdenum, 45 percent

Chromium, 22.5 percent

TABLE 1.—STRENGTH OF ALLOY Cast IRONS

(Mn at 0.5-0.6 unless otherwise noted)

Chemical composition, percent Tensile Strength, p.s.i.

Group and Pour Temp.

No. irl rs Actual Tf un- *F

Cc Si Ni (Ge Cu Mo V Iie Alloyed alloved

Al 3.05 2.00 1.00 -40 — 45 10 62,000 64, 600 40, 600 2,860

2 3.10 1.95 -80 -20 — 385 10 54,400 55,400 39, 600

3 3.20 2.20 — 20 50 325 20 49,300 48, 400 36, 200

47 3.00 1.00 1Ey75) = — 60 10 74,300 74,600 48, 300 Inoculated

5 3.30 1.60 -80 -40 — a0) 10 58,400 Inoculated

6 3.30 1.85 = 30 85 30 10 57,500 Inoculated

Bl* 3.20 2.10 — 55 — 55 = 56, 800

2 2.85 2.40 65 — 70 _— 68, 800 61,000 42,000 2,700

3 3.45 lee - 80 — — 85 — 50, 200

4 2.70 1.90 1.50 — — 1.30 — 70,400 2,710

St 2.50 1.90 1.00 _— —_— 1.05 — 82, 800 85,500 52,300

6 3.00 2.00 — _ 1.00 5d — 70, 800 Elec. fee. iron

Clt 2.70 2.35 85 15 — 1.06 — 70,000

2 2.90 2.10 85 = — 50 _ 60,000

on 2.95 2.10 Sg) - 15 80 — 65, 000

4* 3.00 2.00 — — _ -70 mall) 55, 000

5 | 2.90 135) 1575) B30) — _— — 88, 200

6 2.60 1.75 1.50 = — . 60 5 tly) 65, 800

7 3.00 1.30 1.00 .50 — -70 = 59, 400 |

* With 0.70-0.80 Mn.

7 With 0.90-1.05 Mn.

t Quenched and tempered.

A—Vanadium Corporation Records; B—Climax Molybdenum Publications; C—A.F.A. Alloy Cast Irons.

Nickel, 6.5 percent

Copper, 8.0 percent

Manganese, 4.0 percent

For irons that as cast possess an acicular

structure in the matrix, such as B5 in

Table 1, computed and actual values are in

agreement only after low-temperature tem-

pering to convert residual austenite to

bainite. These acicular irons with their fine

graphite have contents of carbon, silicon,

nickel, molybdenum, and sometimes chro-

mium that are adjusted to section size, re-

quired chill and shrinkage limitations. They

are not as readily machined as _ pearlitic

irons but as cast in green sand up to about

2 inch sections show tensile strengths of

70,000 to 85,000 psi and after transforming

retained austenite by tempering at about

325°C., 80,000 to 95,000 psi. These acicular

structures are a reminder that alloying ele-

ments judiciously adjusted to carbon-sili-

con-cooling rate criteria are being employed

to alter the rate of transformation of aus-

tenite and that this alteration may be car-

ried somewhat beyond that required for

strengthening while retaining the pearlitic

and readily machinable matrix.

Heat treatment of alloyed iron is still

practiced to a considerable degree, yet over-

all apparently to a lesser extent than for-

merly. When it is used, it is largely limited to

a stress-relief by subcritical tempering or to

full annealing. Except for malleable and

nodular irons, quenching and tempering and

practiced to only a minor degree even though

as shown by the single example of Table 1,

very high strengths may be developed.

Among the irons still being employed in the

quenched and tempered (or stress-relieved)

condition in light sections, mention needs be

made of an acicular alloy composition of

3.25 percent carbon and 2.00 percent silicon

with 1.10 percent chromium, 0.50 percent

molybdenum and 0.30 percent nickel. The

structure is naturally heavy with carbides

and of importance for wear-resistant parts.

Values as high as 100,000 psi are not too

difficult to secure in the various quenched

and tempered nonductile irons, but the

products then lack toughness. The decline

in this practice in the fields thus far dis-

cussed may well be related to the desire for

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 8

some measure of ductility in cast irons of

very high strength in view of the more or

less stressed conditions resulting from the

methods necessary to the attainment of this

high strength and hardness.

A quick recast of the development. of

strength in gray irons of predominantly

pearlitic matrix structure may be had by

glancing at Fig. 3 which indicates solely

the direction of movement of the cementite-

pearlite boundary and of the zone of mottled

structure resulting from superheating,

change of cooling rate, inoculation, and al-

loying. It affords merely a quick qualitative

indication, taking no account of these in-

fluences upon the size, shape, quantity, and

distribution of the graphite particles which

determine the degree to which the matrix

structure is restrained from full development

of its inherent strength.

MALLEABLE IRONS

Thus far consideration has been given

only to improvements in the strength of

cast iron, using the value in tension as the

indicator. For many engineering uses, how-

ever, ductility of metals in addition to

strength is of great importance, not only

where simple tensile loading is concerned but

even more critically with multiaxial stresses

and sudden applications of stress. The

ability to deform under occasional overload,

rather than to rupture suddenly without

deformation, is a frequent requirement.

Many uses are satisfied, however, by limited

elongation in the tension test and many

metallic parts with such qualifications have

rendered eminent service over long periods.

Brief cognizance must therefore be taken

of several products falling within that por-

tion of the cast iron carbon range that is in

part or totally below 2.4 percent. First, of

course, is malleable cast iron, cast white,

with temper carbon formed through any one

of many variants of annealing, having a

chemical composition ordinarily within the

wide limits of 2.25 to 3.10 carbon with

silicon 0.70 to 1.20 and properties in tension

ranging from a strength value of 53,000 psi

minimum to 90,000 psi minimum with cor-

responding minimum elongations of from 18

to 2 percent. Minimum values of 60,000

Aveust 1955

WHITER: Lower SILICON

STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON

Higher Cootine Rate

243

Tuiwner Cross SECTION

Hich Mect + Pour TEMPERATURE

Ca on V (acso Mo)

—_

Grayer:

SSE

Hicner Siticon in Cuarce

Lower Cootinc Rate

THICKER Cross SECTION

INOCULATION

Ni oa Cu

Fra. 3.—Basic variables in iron founding.

and 18 may be secured by suitable alloying,

such as with copper plus molybdenum. The

temper carbon aiding this development of

ductility yet interfering with the full realiza-

tion of the inherent strength of the steel

matrix as in all cast irons, comprises more

or less rounded graphite particles of irregular

outline carrying innumerable projections

that serve as points of stress concentration

and initial fracture. Nevertheless, with their

appreciable ductility, products within the

range have enjoyed extensive use for very

many years and have been the subject of

much research, a large proportion of it de-

voted to shortening and cheapening the

long cycle of heat treatment once uni-

versally required to effect the change from

its white state as cast. In part this research

has been very successful, but more in the

direction of the higher strength varieties

with their lower ductilities and pearlitic

matrix. Owing to ease of fabrication, the

softer grades have until now been produced

in greater tonnage. Pressure from other

ductile high-strength products is, however,

enlarging the sphere of application of pear-

litic malleable iron and may well be expected

to attract the attention of users to an in-

creasing degree. Driving minimum tensile

strength to 100,000 psi will add interest

even though the minimum elongation is

quite small. As always, for any application,

decision must be on the basis of engineering,

metallurgy, and economics.

Over the past 25 years there have ap-

peared now and then a goodly number of

suggestions for irons that have been close

relatives of malleable iron, not requiring

more than short-time heat treatments or

falling within the broad limits of chemical

specifications for malleable irons, yet par-

taking of their properties. Some have en-

joyed considerable industrial use and are

worthy of brief mention. In a patent to

McCarroll and Vennerholm (37) one finds an

early version. With carbon just under the

malleable iron range (1.90 to 2.30 percent)

and silicon appreciably above (1.50 to 2.20

percent) the metal as cast is white but heat

treatments of just a few hours duration

precipitate about half of the carbon as

temper carbon. With cooling rate after heat-

ing above the transformation range adjusted

to suit exact composition and section size

and reheating to yield a desired hardness,

tensile strengths above 90,000 psi were ob-

tained with presumably some ductility in

view of the temper carbon. Further develop-

ment of the idea by these investigators led

to a lower-carbon content with silicon at

about the same level or somewhat lower and

a considerable copper content to insure good

244

castability and easy machining; chromium

was added to develop a measure of hardness

and wear resistance. The composition has

been variously reported (32) (33) (34) as

carbon 1.30 to 1.70, with silicon spread over

the range 0.85 to 2.50 percent, copper 1.00

to 4.00 percent (usually 1.75), and chromium

0.30 to 2.00 but usually 0.40 to 0.75 percent.

Of interest is the claim that with the

higher silicon, precipitation hardening by

copper may be avoided. Large tonnages of

this product were made and there was much

discussion of a proper designation, 1.e. cop-

per-malleable or copper-steel, but temper

carbon is present in quantity after the usual

short-time step-annealing and entitles the

metal to inclusion here. The tensile strength

has been variously reported between 105,000

and 120,000 psi with elongation ordinarily

1 or 2 percent but frequently higher.

From the same very active research group

has come an additional malleable iron va-

riety but in this instance within malleable

iron limits for both carbon and silicon. It is

produced by trace additions of bismuth and

boron and is reported (35, 36) to extend the

useful range of malleable iron that may be

cast completely white, from about the stand-

ard 2 inches to at least 4 inches. Here is an

interesting modification of an early discovery

now finding practical employment.

IRON WITH NODULAR GRAPHITE

The discovery of methods for producing

iron castings with all or nearly all of the

graphite or free carbon in spherolitic or

nodular form has introduced into the field a

contender of major stature. Whether dis-

covery was accidental or the result of

deliberate and painstaking search is unim-

portant; the contributions of Morrogh (37)

and of Millis, Gagnebin, and Pilling (38)

have opened a new vista in the field of fer-

rous metallurgy. Not that the transition

from the old to the new was abrupt, for

there are clear evidences in the work of v. Keil

and associates (20), Krynitsky and Saeger

(39) and Adey (40) that this end point was

being approached and there were those such

as Bolton (4/7), Gillett (29), Meyersberg

(42) and possibly many others who had ex-

pressed a fervent hope that the graphite of

cast iron would one day be precipitated or

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 8

caused to grow in perfect spheroidal form.

Nevertheless the accomplishment came as a

pleasant jolt and represents notable achieve-

ment.

It is not the intention to review here many

details of the properties of nodular cast iron.

The interest that these properties have

stimulated has resulted in a flood of experi-

mentation, production, and _ publication

beyond the possibilities of quick assimilation.

The literature, however, is all so recent as to

be readily located. Suffice it to point out

that strength values, as cast, in plain and

mildly alloyed iron with spheroidal graphite

range from about 60,000 to 120,000 psi with

elongations in the tension test from (in in-

verse order) about 3 to well over 20 percent.

Annealing has the effect of greatly narrow-

ing this range as .will shortly be set forth

while quenching and tempering indicates the

possibility of attaining values well above

150,000 psi with appreciable elongation.

Methods of production, as is well known,

have revolved about the patented practices

of adding cerium to irons low in sulphur or of

magnesium in sufficient amount to remove

sulphur above about 0.02 percent while

leaving an adequate amount after loss by

volatilization of some magnesium to provide

a residual of about 0.04 percent minimum.

Effective use has been made of the two

metals in association. For best results, i.e.

to yield graphite completely or nearly com-

pletely in spheroid form along with a

machinable matrix, silicon in the form of a

suitable alloy such as 75 percent ferro-silicon

is added just before pouring into molds. The

amount of silicon added has been the sub-

ject of much discussion, especially in view

of somewhat lower machinability at higher

silicon contents in the iron, but the details

of mechanical properties up to about 4

percent silicon have been clearly set forth by

Schneidewind and Wilder (43) who have

pointed to the increasing strength and de-

creasing elongation as silicon rises but that

within the selected range, existing specifica-

tion limits can be met without difficulty.

However, as concerns iron composition

and alloying, much opinion that is not sound

and many data established on madequate

coverage or too limited foundations have

been published. No more striking example

Aveust 1955

exists than in the case of copper. Recent

publications have covered territory from

sweeping conclusions based on amounts of

addition far beyond those in use, to precise

establishment of the method of matrix struc-

ture control by this element (44, 45, 46, 47,

48, 49). Tt is time to realize that copper may

either have no influence on the properties of

nodular iron or it may make definite con-

tribution, according to the amounts added,

the properties desired, any heat treatment

that may be used and what is most impor-

tant, the level of manganese in the iron.

The elements copper and manganese both

stabilize pearlite so that with manganese at

0.50 percent copper should be low. By low is

meant about 0.30 percent, which is far above

what will be obtained by ample use of a mag-

nesium addition agent with 5 percent cop-

per, normal copper content in scrap and

foundry returns at the very maximum. If

manganese is lower, copper may be much

higher with a moderately favorable effect

upon as cast strength and slight, if any, de-

erease in ductility. On the other hand,

manganese and copper may both be raised,

with or without other alloying elements

added, to produce nodular iron in the tensile

strength range of 85,000 to 115,000 psi with

the expectable shift in elongation. And such

irons may be annealed to produce the usual

lower strengths (about 65,000 psi) and higher

) elongations if desired. The details are

shortly to be published. The sole require-

ment is understanding use of two mutually

dependent elements.

_ Titanium in nodular iron may have been

equally maligned and improperly used. The

‘metal has been reported (44) as very damag-

ing to the properties of ferritic nodular iron.

Work in the laboratories of the author’s

company confirms this provided the amount

of titanium is quite high as, for example, in

the range of 0.05 to 0.10 percent. The metal

is being introduced through many varieties

of pig iron but not enough studies have been

undertaken to detect differences, if any,

between titanium added as pig, as iron-rich

alloys or silicon-rich alloys. Likewise in-

sufficient study has been devoted to smaller

percentages of titanium which are more com-

mon in nodular iron. Nor has adequate at-

| tention been given to the simultaneous

STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON 245

presence of varying amounts of nitrogen. It

is quite true that cerium corrects the ill ef-

fects of the amounts of titanium referred to

above as detrimental, but it 1s necessary to

know whether smaller amounts of this cor-

rective may be adequate, or even none at

all, required.

At this point it seems proper to refer to

what may be termed seminodular irons—

those that have part of their graphite as

nodules and the remainder as stubby flakes

or other partly converted forms. Millis and

co-workers (38) indicate such products

from very low magnesium additions. A

paper by Estes and Schneidewind (50)

soon to be published shows that irons in this

category, which they call ‘‘upgraded irons,”’

may be produced at various carbon equiv-

alents (4.3 to 5.1 having been thoroughly

examined) with tensile strengths of 50,000

to 60,000 psi and a nominal elongation of 5

percent, by the ladle injection of calcium

carbide, magnesium oxide, and the rare earth

oxides. Iron fully nodular resulted from sub-

stitution of magnesium metal powder for

the oxides, as would be expected. Other

intermediate cast irons, not quite so far ad-

vanced have already been mentioned and it

is to be expected that still different ap-

proaches will be profitable. The pressure of

possible decrease in cost should be con-

siderable.

FUTURE POSSIBILITIES

I have pointed to past accomplishments in

the development of high strength in one of

the lowest cost metal products—a readily

castable material of varied uses. What are

the prospects for and directions of further

change or improvement? I have indicated a

few—there are surely many more. To recall

those mentioned and comment upon them

while introducing others should not be amiss.

First consideration should be given to

the mechanism of solidification. Some of the

important investigations have been noted;

recent additions to these studies have come

from the laboratories of Hultgren (57) and

Morrogh (52, 53). In a measure the methods

are refinements of conventional procedures.

One cannot help looking forward to the

likelihood of some skillful and resourceful

experimenter devising means for selective

246

behavior of a radioactive isotope to watch

the progress of the solidification reactions.

The foundryman may be led thereby to bet-

ter control of small graphite flakes, of stubby

flakes, of mixtures with imperfectly formed

spheroids and perhaps the control of the

number and size of perfect spheroids.

More investigative work should and will

be done to evaluate the performance of

titanium in irons, not only of itself but in

conjunction with its origin and also its as-

sociation with nitrogen.

Some work has been accomplished on the

effects of aluminum in irons (54), but the

investigations recorded, with a single excep-

tion, all deal with what may be termed al-

loying quantities. The oft-quoted limits of

0.03 percent maximum to avoid porosity

when using green sand molds and 0.06 per-

cent for dry sand molds needs reexamination.

These values require questioning; under

controlled production methods or associa-

tion with some other metals, the limits may

not hold and desirable results may accrue.

Improved methods of inoculation need

study. The production of cheap calcium

seems not far away, and it is necessary to

know whether present alloys are most effec-

tive or whether introduction of commercially

pure or very pure metal by methods effect-

ing reaction only in the molten iron and with

its oxygen and nitrogen, will present im-

provement. Similar studies with other alkali

and alkaline earth metals may be profitable.

Additionally, attention should be directed

to sulphur, for the general sulphur problem

as it affects the entire ferrous metallurgical

industry is of great importance to the econ-

omy of nodular iron processes as now known

and practiced. Lowering sulphur makes

possible savings through lower magnesium

or cerium additions or both. Contributions

in this direction have been made by means

of reactions with alkali compounds, lime-

rich slags in the electric furnace, ladle reac-

tions with calcium-aluminate slags, ladle

injection of calcium carbide and application

of new cupola designs providing for basic

linings, hot blast and controlled slags.

Slag control holds out hope for reduction

in the quantity of present metallic additions

and may eliminate them; it should be worth-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 45, No. 8

while to read again the paper by v.Keil

and associates (20) already mentioned.

Finally, I return to the comment on per-

fect spheroids. Quenching and tempering

of nodular iron are now an accepted prac-

tice. The limitation in reaching for very

high strength is low ductility or none at

all, even brittleness. If the smaller the nod-

ules the more perfect their form, it may be

possible mathematically to estimate the

most desirable size distribution and spacing.

If control can be effective, I’d guess that

close to 200,000 psi tensile strength would

be possible and that with measurable

elongation. This should be the ultimate in

the strength of cast iron.

The great Albert Sauveur in a discussion

of one of Dr. Burgess’s papers (55) com-

mented that there was need for the definite-

ness and finality of the latter’s conclusions.

It is, therefore, fitting to close with two

quotations, the first of which is from that

paper:

May we not state the axiom that in a basic

industry if there is a factor, . . . which is generally

felt to play a capital role, limiting in an as yet

undetermined way, the quality, output or cost of

product; then, in such eases, all reasonable effort

should be devoted to ascertaining the effects of

the factor in question.

The second is from one of those many illu-

minating reviews of Dr. Burgess’s successor,

H. W. Gillett (29):

Whether a theory that leads us to try out some-

thing ...is a correct theory or not is of little

moment if the trial leads to a solution of the

difficulty.

Yet we must hope for and search for an entirely

correct theory, for were such...evolved and

proven, one could use it with certainty tolead .. .

to an immediate solution ... rather than merely

as a guide for experimentation in each recurring

case.

Much too much time and energy have

been spent in hammering away at these

“recurring cases” in the field of cast iron.

A great amount of information has already

been accumulated. It is time that the

chaff be tossed aside and some strenuous

effort devoted to a search for a few more

kernels of grain.

Aveust 1955

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STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON

247

nuclei on graphite formation in cast tron.

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VOL. 45, NO. 8 |

high strength cast trons produced by injection

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1915.

HYDROGRAPHY .—A comparison of the environmental characteristics of some shelf

areas of eastern United States. Francis E. Exuiorr, Witt1am H. Myers, and

Wiuuis L. Tressuer, U. 8. Navy Hydrographic Office.

(Received April 27, 1955)

Recently surveys have been conducted of

certain portions of the continental shelf

along the eastern coast of the United

States. The present paper attempts to bring

together certain over-all aspects of the en-

vironmental features of this region. The

parameters considered include physiog-

raphy, temperatures, salinities, currents,

sea level, transparency, color, climatology,

and fouling.

PHYSIOGRA PHY

The continental shelf is part of the con-

tinent rather than a part of the oceans. It is

the authors’ belief that for a better under-

standing of the shelf, one can not divorce

it from the coast and its hinterland. It is

therefore suggested that the continental

shelf, and the adjacent coastal lands to the

first major break in physiography, be treated

as belonging to the same _ physiographic

province. In the northern part of a belt

extending from Boston to Charleston,

8. C., the land includes the Seaboard Low-

lands, and in the southern part the Coastal

Plain as defined by Fenneman. This seems

entirely justified if one remembers that dur-

ing the last glaciation, most of the continental

shelf was emerged, and it seems reasonable

to assume that the gross features of the

relief were formed subaerially and only the

microrelief was formed under submarine

conditions, because only comparatively little

time has elapsed since the return of the sea.

From a geomorphological point of view one

can divide this belt into a northern glacial

part and a southern alluvial part. The -

boundary between the two runs in a westerly

direction through Staten Island.

Going into more detail, in the northern

part one can make further subdivisions from

its position with respect to the ice sheet.

The configuration of the shelf near Boston

is typical of an eroded ground moraine

dominated by drumlins. One should also

expect to find other glacial features such as

eskers, roches moutonnées, etc., however,

bathymetric charts are not good enough

at present to recognize these features. The

Narragansett Bay area (Fig. 1, a, b) is

located at the margins of glaciation and its

dominant features are a_ succession of

terminal moraines divided by a narrow

outwash plain. The Harbor Hill moraines

seem to extend from Long Island, at Orient

Point, through Fishers Island to the shore

of Rhode Island, while the Ronkonkoma

moraine extends from Montauk Point

through Block Island probably to Cutty-

hunk Island, etc. The latter one particularly

Aveust, 1955

ELLIOTT, MYERS, AND

TRESSLER: SHELF AREAS

COASTAL APPROACHES

From

NARRAGANSETT BAY TO NEW YORK BAY

Fie. la

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NARRAGANSETT BAY TO NEW YORK BAY

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Aveust 1955

is easily recognizable on the bathymetric

chart by its knob and kettle topography.

The comparatively smooth areas between

the moraines probably represent the out-

wash plain. Some of the deep holes south of

Fishers Island may very well be kettles.

The approaches to New York (Fig. 2,

a, b, c) are just beyond the ice limits and

represent the outwash plain. The topography

becomes considerably smoother and rolling.

The elongated narrow ridges south of Jones

Beach cannot be adequately explained;

they may be submerged sand dunes or sub-

merged off-shore bars which have encroached

on each other. The Hudson has eroded a

channel through the unconsolidated ma-

terial, probably before the sea returned.

The southern part of our coastal belt is

much less diversified than the northern part

and a clear cut distinction between the in-

dividual areas can not be made.

The Delaware River, like the Hudson, has

eut a channel which in this case is recogniz-

able to about 15 fathoms where it ends at a

ridge, which could be a submerged coastal

terrace. The same terrace, if it is one, can be

seen off Chesapeake Bay at about the same

depth (Fig. 3). A Susquehanna channel,

on the other hand, cannot be traced. The

assumption that this ridge represents a former

coastal terrace is not unreasonable in the

light of the fact that there is a succession of

such terraces on the adjacent embayed

coastal plain.

Off Charleston no terrace appears within

the limits of the chart (Fig. 4). However,

numerous shallow depressions exist whose

origin is unknown to the authors. It is sug-

gested, however, that they may be a sub-

merged continuation of the Carolina bays.

TEMPERATURE

Along the shelf from Narragansett Bay to

Chesapeake Bay, in winter, the surface

water isotherms run approximately parallel

to the shoreline with temperature increasing

in a seaward direction. At equal distances

from land along this area of the shelf there

is a latitudinal increase of temperature of

only 1.5°-3°C. The water column from sur-

face to bottom is isothermal in all localities.

The isothermal condition may occasionally

be disrupted by indrafts from river dis-

ELLIOTT, MYERS, AND TRESSLER: SHELF AREAS 251

charges. Such an interruption of the winter

pattern might conceivably be felt off the

Chesapeake Bay during January when there

is an increased river discharge.

Spring warming begins any time between

the middle of February and the middle of

March and becomes more rapid after late

April or early May. During May the lati-

tudinal gradient along the shelf from

Narragansett Bay to Chesapeake Bay in-

creases to about 6°C. at the surface and

about 4°-5°C. on the bottom. In the areas

for which there is record, the temperature

profiles show an inversion during late spring

at varying levels in each locality. Off

Martha’s Vineyard and Montauk Point in

the Narragansett Bay area, the inversion

occurs between 20 and 40 meters, the only

difference between the two locations being

the slightly higher temperatures at Montauk

Point. Off New York the inversion occurs

between 30 and 40 meters and off Delaware

Bay at approximately 40 meters. Immedi-

ately off the entrance to Chesapeake Bay

the inversion is not at all prominent, but far-

ther northward along the Virginia coast at

Winterquarter Lightship, the inversion be-

comes evident at approximately 40 meters.

In June, surface temperature rises rapidly.

The following values are reported across the

shelf in the first to second week of the

month: Off Martha’s Vineyard and New

York, 12-14°C.; off Delaware Bay, 16-

18°C; and off Chesapeake Bay, 19-20°C.

Maximum surface temperatures generally

occur throughout the area early in August.

Thermoclines which have been developing

since late spring generally become steepest

just before autumnal cooling. The upper

10-15 meters at this time are almost homo-

geneous with the thermocline generally

present between the 15 and 30 meter levels.

During the summer, the thermocline ex-

tends downward about 20 meters off

Delaware Bay, which is the location of the

thickest thermocline in the areas under

consideration; in the other areas its spread

includes usually not more than 10 meters.

The thermocline off Martha’s Vineyard is

not as pronounced as in the other areas;

here a temperature inversion occurs between

40 and 60 meters.

With autumnal cooling the thermocline

voL. 45, No. 8

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AL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIE

JOURN

APPROACHES

COASTAL

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Aveust 1955 ELLIOTT, MYERS, AND TRESSLER: SHELF AREAS 253

COASTAL APPROACHES

FROM

NARRAGANSETT BAY TO NEW YORK BAY

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254

sinks to about 40-60 meters in all areas and

is generally 20 meters in thickness. The

upper layers become more homogeneous, and

by the third week of October the surface

waters across the shelf have cooled to 14°

15°C. off Martha’s Vineyard, 15°-17°C. off

New York, and 18°-19°C. off Chesapeake

Bay. With decreasing temperature, by mid-

December, mean temperatures are about

5°-8°C. along shore and 10°-13° C. along the

outer edge of the shelf.

SALINITY

Salinity patterns along the continental

shelf show greater seasonal stability than

temperature patterns of corresponding

periods. The basic salinity pattern is gen-

erally only altered close to shore by the

freshening effect of river water and offshore

by the salting from indrafts of more saline

slope waters. The most striking change in

the salinity pattern appears during the peak

river discharge in March, April, and May.

During this period minimum values which

might be expected 8-10 miles from shore are:

off Montauk Point, 30.8% ; off New York,

27% 0; off Cape May, 30.5%; off the coast of

Virginia, 31.8%,; and off Chesapeake Bay,

about 27% . Surface water less than 32% is

greatest in width off New York Harbor

where it may extend offshore between 90 and

100 miles; off Delaware Bay it is never more

than about 50 miles broad. Surface salinity

values tend to increase during the autumn

while the vertical range tends to decrease.

In July and August steep vertical gradients

may occur off New York and even more

strikingly may occur off the mouth of the

Chesapeake, where a gradient of 12.24% per

20 meters has been recorded.

TIDAL CURRENTS

Currents resulting from tides are at a

minimum in the offings of Boston Harbor

and Chesapeake Bay. At Boston Lightship

current velocities average less than 0.1

knot, setting in an almost clockwise direc-

tion. At Chesapeake Lightship the velocity

is generally less than 0.2 knot. The max-

imum tidal current velocity occurs off the

entrance to Delaware Bay, where an aver-

age velocity of 1.4 knots occurring 0 hours

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 8

after Greenwich transit, setting in a north-

westerly direction, has been determined.

Here, as at Boston, the current shifts

continuously in a clockwise direction. At

Charleston the current velocity is nearly

the same throughout the cycle, with the

direction shifting continuously clockwise.

Off New York the velocities are nearly as

weak as at Chesapeake Bay, but the current

rotates clockwise as at Charleston and

Boston.

NONTIDAL CURRENTS

A seasonal change in direction of nontidal

currents is noted at Boston. During the

winter (January—March) the predominant

direction is ESE, in late spring and summer

(May-July) the predominant direction is

NE, and in fall (September—November) the

direction is approximately N. Average

nontidal current velocity is less than 0.1

knot. Off Narragansett Bay there seems to

be no seasonal periodicity; the maximum

velocity occurs in March with an average of

0.2 knot in a_ southwesterly direction.

Off New York the major flow is to the south

or southeast. Off Delaware Bay the major

current set is to the south or southwest,

seemingly following the shore. Off Chesa-

peake Bay, nontidal current directions vary

from northeast to due south. At Charleston

the nontidal currents are distinguished by

having a pronounced northeast set in July

with an average velocity of 0.22 knot.

WIND CURRENTS

Wind currents vary considerably in all

areas; however, all areas are similar in that

the deflective force of the earth’s rotation

causes the wind currents to set to the right

of the wind direction. Off Boston and

Narragansett Bay the directions of wind

currents are not restricted to any particular

quadrant. Off New York, wind current direc-

tions are restricted to the ESE to SW sector

of the compass, off Delaware Bay to the

NE to WSW sector, and off Chesapeake Bay

to the NE to SW sector. There is no avail-

able record for wind currents off Charleston.

SEA LEVEL

The annual cycle of sea level is the same

in all localities except Boston. Boston is

SHELF AREAS

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unique in that the maximum sea level height

occurs in June, while maximum height does

not occur until September in the other

areas. The range of mean sea level increases

southward. At Boston the range is .34 feet;

in the Narragansett area, .35 feet; in the

New York area, .60 feet; and in the Chesa-

peake area, .61 feet. The annual means of

sea level along the coast show a constant

rise from 1928. All areas except New York

show approximately the same pattern for the

years 1928-1950. The exception noted at

New York occurred in the years 1938-

1940 when sea level remained practically

static, whereas in the other areas there was a

general rise.

TRANSPARENCY

Transparency of shelf water appears to be

correlated with salinity; i.e., areas of low

salinity concentration are generally low in

transparency. The low salinity water prob-

ably represents river effluent which is made

turbid by suspended pollutants and sedi-

ments or large phytoplankton populations.

In all areas transparencies are lowest within

_ the bays, especially near the mouths of their

' tributaries. From the entrances of the bays

shelf water becomes increasingly trans-

parent in a seaward direction. This appears

to be consistently true except in the offing

of Narragansett Bay where a confused

pattern of distribution results from the

complex current running in and out of Long

Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, Buzzards

Bay, and Vineyard Sound.

WATER COLOR

The only complete coverage of water

color in the area under consideration is in

the region off Narragansett Bay and New

York. The shelf water is predominantly blue-

green, but local differences occur near land

areas. Off Narragansett Bay and surround-

ing Montauk Point the water is yellow-

green; the eastern and southern coasts of

Block Island are surrounded by an area of

light-green water, while the northwestern

coast is surrounded by yellow-green water.

Extensive areas of yellow-green water also

appear off the coasts of western and central

Long Island. A broad area of brown-green

water extends across the entrance to New

ELLIOTT, MYERS, AND TRESSLER: SHELF AREAS

257

York Bay, and two similar areas of brown-

green water are found off the western and

south-western coasts of Block Island.

CLIMATOLOGY

Climatological characteristics of the six

shelf areas are fairly similar and generally

show differences only in degree. Mean

annual temperature range decreases from

Boston to Charleston except at New York.

The precipitation pattern indicates that the

greatest amount of rainfall occurs during the

summer months, generally July and August,

at most stations. Mean annual rainfall is

ereatest at Charleston and least at Dela-

ware Bay and Block Island. Wind speeds are

greatest at New York and off Narragansett

Bay, where they may average as much as

16 knots. There is a seasonal variation in all

areas with wind velocities lowest during

the summer months and highest during the

winter. Heavy fogs occur most frequently in

the Narragansett Bay area and least fre-

quently at Charleston. During the colder

months of the year heavy fogs are most fre-

quent off New York, Chesapeake Bay, and

Charleston. In the other areas they are most

frequent during the warm months. Ap-

preciable swell occurs similarly in all areas,

being least during July and August and

greatest in late fall and winter.

FOULING

Fouling in Boston Harbor is very variable

from year to year, the chief fouling or-

ganisms being hydroids, barnacles, bivalves,

and tunicates. Other organisms occurring

occasionally are tube worms and bryozoans

(both filamentous and encrusting). Max-

imum growth of hydroids occurs in the

Boston area in August. In Narragansett

Bay, limited data indicate that fouling

organisms are mainly bivalves, bryozoans,

and algae with barnacles occurring at only

one locality. Fouling has been estimated to

occur on bottom objects in the entrance to

Narragansett Bay at the rate of .05 pounds

wet weight per square foot per month.

Surface objects in the entrance to the bay

accumulate fouling organisms at the rate of

between 0.1 and 0.3 pounds per square foot

per month. The fouling rate decreases in

Narragansett Bay and in all other areas of

258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 8

CHARLESTON

APPROACHES TO

Fie, 4

Aveust 1955

the shelf as one proceeds seaward. Fouling

in lower New York Harbor is light with

barnacles and hydroids the principal or-

ganisms, and only traces of other forms.

Conditions are similar from year to year

but vary considerably within the area.

Upper New York Harbor is only lightly

fouled, with barnacles the prevalent form.

Hydroid fouling is very light and no other

forms are of any significance. Setting and

growth of barnacles progresses during early

spring and summer; once attached they

may remain for several years. The growth

of barnacles average about one-half inch

in thickness of encrustation during the

first four months of attachment. Rates of

fouling of both surface and bottom sub-

merged objects show a marked increase

shoreward directly opposite the entrance to

New York Harbor. In the Delaware, and

Chesapeake areas, barnacle fouling appears

to become less serious, and fouling by such

organisms as mussels, bivalves and hy-

droids assumes greater importance. Barna-

cles again become of importance as fouling

organisms at Charleston. On the north side

- of Delaware Bay, heavy fouling is caused by

slime-producing diatoms, silt, and oysters,

with barnacles present in small numbers

only. Oysters disappear as fouling organisms

on the ocean side of Cape May but the rest

of the fouling picture is substantially that

found in the bay proper. At Stone Harbor,

north of Cape May on the ocean, mussels are

heavy fouling agents and seem to be on the

increase. In the Norfolk and Portsmouth

areas of the Chesapeake Bay, fouling varies

from moderate to heavy and is caused

mainly by hydroids, barnacles and mussels.

Bryozoans, sea-anemones, and tube worms

also contribute to the fouling mass. Growth

of the fouling mass takes place during the

ELLIOTT, MYERS, AND TRESSLER: SHELF AREAS 259

greater part of the year in this more southern

region and at Charleston as well. Average

fouling by mussels in the Norfolk area is

approximately 1.5 pounds per square foot

per year. Fouling at Charleston is caused

mainly by hydroids and barnacles, while

encrusting and filamentous bryozoa, marine

worms, and miscellaneous nonboring mol-

lusks occur more or less sporadically.

Marine borers appear to be a_ serious

menace to wooden structures in all areas

thus far examined except New York Harbor,

where the damage caused is negligible. In

Boston Harbor, borers are abundant and

have reached an intensity of 100 per square

inch in one month. In the Narragansett Bay

region, borers are abundant at Block Island

but are seen only occasionally at the Brenton

Reef Lightship. Within the bay proper, there

is a heavy infestation of marine borers. At

Cape May at the entrance to Delaware Bay,

borers are present to a limited extent only

and then only during the period from May

through July. The abundance of borers is

very variable at different locations in the

Chesapeake Bay area. At Norfolk, borers

are abundant in some years and only

moderate in others, while at Portsmouth,

there seems to be a heavy infestation every

year. Marine borers cause considerable

damage at Charleston and are present in

moderate to heavy amounts. The breeding

season for borers in this region lasts from

May through October or November.

The freedom which New York Harbor

enjoys from marine borers is believed to be

caused by the shape of the bay and the

large inflow of freshwater from the Hudson

River, both of which factors tend to decrease

salinities and make an unfavorable environ-

ment for these organisms.

260

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 8

PALEONTOLOGY —Cenozoic pearls from the Atlantic Coastal Plain. H. E. Vokus,

The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

(Received April 28, 1955)

Recently (April 3, 1955) while on a field

trip with an undergraduate class in geology

from The Johns Hopkins University, I

collected a large pair of valves of the pelecy-

pod Isognomon maxillata (Deshayes) from

the lower part of the Choptank formation in

an exposure approximately one-half mile

south of Kenwood Beach (Governor’s

Run), Calvert County, Md. Unfortunately,

and characteristically, the specimen broke

up almost as soon as collected, owing to the

fact that, in life, the nacreous calcareous

layers were apparently separated by un-

usually thick layers of organic conchiolin

that now have decayed. As a result the shells

tend to break into thin platy sheets as

soon.as removed from the enclosing matrix.

As I was about to discard the ruined

specimen I noted an unusual structure lying

in the matrix that had been adjacent to the

left valve. When removed it proved to be a

large, almost spherical pearl (Figs. 1, 2)

whose outer layers, like those of the enclos-

ing shell tended to exfoliate, apparently due

to the destruction of the conchiolin. For-

tunately the inner layers were more re-

sistant and the specimen as finally secured

has a greatest diameter of 10.2 mm; com-

plete it is estimated that the diameter was

somewhat in excess of 15 mm. The portion

of the pearl that was adjacent to the shell is

flattened by the breaking away or in-

complete deposition of approximately five

lamina of that portion of the pearl that is

yet preserved. These lamina, as measured on

their broken edges are 0.2 to 0.25 mm thick.

It is probable that the pearl was originally

attached to the inner side of the valve in this

area after the manner quoted by Brown

(1940, p. 369) from Kunz and Stephenson

(1908, p. 57). The structure of the shell of

I. maxillata, and the fact that most speci-

mens from the Choptank formation show,

even today, a considerable degree of mother-

of-pearl luster, suggest that this specimen

was originally a highly lustrous gem pearl.

Brown, while describing a number of

pearls from the Upper Cretaceous of Kansas,

has tabulated (1940, table 1, p. 370) the

reported occurrences of fossil pearls, which

are known from all periods of the Mesozoic

and Cenozoic eras. No definite pearls have

been reported from the Paleozoic deposits,

although Brown (p. 370) notes that minute

pearl-like forms have been reported from the

Upper Silurian. The absence of these

structures from the Paleozoic seems almost

certainly an accident of collecting, rather

than an indication of the fact that such

structures were not produced by Paleozoic

pelecypods. More of the reported fossil

pearls have been found in association with

species of the family Isognomonidae which

includes IJnoceramus and Isognomon (=

Perna, Pedalion, and Melina) than have been

found in association with species referable

to any other of the families of pelecypods.

This family is represented in the upper

Paleozoic by the genus Bakevellia. Six

records listed by Brown are from species

referable to the family Mytilidae (Mytilus

and Volsella). This family is well represented

in the Paleozoic and Newell (1942, p. 32)

has shown that the related Myalinidae,

abundant in the upper Paleozoic, had

nacreous shells.

The specimen here described is the first

“true” pearl to be reported from the

American Miocene. Berry (1936, p. 464)

has described a large ‘‘blister’”’ pearl oc-

curring in a specimen of Panope americana

Conrad from the Choptank formation near

Jones Wharf, Md., and Brown (1940, p.

367) has recorded a second occurrence in

the same species from the same locality.

A specimen in the collections of The Johns

Hopkins University from the Choptank at

Governor’s Run, Md., has two smaller and

very irregular pearls that are located im-

mediately in front of the posterior adductor

scar.

Species of the genus Panope, a burrowing

pelecypod with a wide posterior gape where

the large siphons emerge, seem to have been

peculiarly subject to injury and to the

possible entry between the shell and the

Aveust 1955

mantle of irritant material, probably sand

grains. A pair of large valves of P. floridana

Heilprin from the Caloosahatchie beds of the

Florida Pliocene, in the Aldrich collection

of The Johns Hopkins University show

definite evidences of injury in the siphonal

region of the shell, and on the inside of both

valves there are a number of small, irregular

pearls. There are 24 of these inside the right

valve (Figs. 3, 6) and 22 in the left. The

largest, in the right valve, has a diameter of

7.5 mm, one is 4.4 mm, and the rest are 3.5

mm or less. One of the smaller ones was

ground in an effort to determine the struc-

ture; since Panope is a non-nacreous shell,

the pearl, as to be expected, did not reveal

well-developed laminar texture.

— .

VOKES: CENOZOIC PEARLS

261

In addition to these specimens, the writer

has collected two specimens from the upper

Miocene Duplin marl at the Natural Well

near Magnolia, N. C., that show ‘‘blister”’

pearls. One (Fig. 5), a left valve of Glycy-

meris subovata (Say), has a pearl of 6.5

mm greatest diameter located in the apex of

the valve immediately below the umbo and

behind the hinge-plate below which it

projects slightly. There is no external

evidence of injury or boring that penetrated

the shell to account for the location of the

“blister” in this part of the shell. The second

specimen (Fig. 4) is a left valve of the

common Mulinia lateralis (Say), the most

abundant species in the fauna at the Natural

Well. In the present specimen a_ large

Fies. 1, 2.—Pearl from Isognomon maxillata (Deshayes): 1, Dorsal view; 2, Base showing some of the

concentric laminae (X 1.5). The original specimen before exfoliation of the outer laminae was approxi-

mately the size of this illustration. Choptank formation, Governor’s Run, Md.

Fires. 3, 6.—Panope floridana Heilprin: 3, Right valve (X 0.5) with many irregular pearls (note the

evident damage and repair to the posterior end of the valve); 6, oblique view of part of interior of shell

(X 1); the large specimen in the upper right has a greatest diameter of 7.5 mm normal to the plane of

the photograph. Caloosahatchie formation, Pliocene, Fla.

Fie. 4.—Blister pearl in interior of broken valve of Mulinia lateralis (Say) (X 1.2). Duplin marl,

Miocene, Natural Well, N. C.

_ Fie. 5.—Glycymeris subovata (Say), oblique view showing pearl under the umbone and behind the

hinge-plate (X 1.2). Duplin marl, Miocene, Natural Well, N. C.

262

“blister” 11.3 mm in greatest diameter,

occupies much of the upper half of the in-

terior of the valve between the adductor

scars. The thickest development of the

“blister is toward the posterior part of the

structure, and coincides with a boring on the

exterior of the valve, indicating that the

initial irritant was probably an organism.

However, a cut made in the “blister” re-

vealed that it was hollow and contained a

considerable amount of sand and mud,

suggesting that the enlargement of the

“‘blister’’ had been caused by this secondary

irritant. Neither Glycymeris nor Mulinia

has a nacreous shell, hence neither of these

“nearls” like those of Panope, are true

pearls in the commonly accepted sense of the

term, although both types have a similar

mode of origin.

To date the following ‘‘pearls”’ have been

reported from the Atlantic coastal Cenozoic

deposits:

“BLISTER PEARLS”’:

Panope americana Conrad, two specimens

from the Choptank formation, Miocene, at

Jones Wharf, Md. (Berry, 1936, p. 464;

Brown, 1940, p. 367).

Glycymeris subovata (Say), one specimen from

the Duplin marl, Miocene, at Natural Well,

N.C.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 8

Mulinia lateralis (Say), one specimen from

the Duplin marl, Miocene, at Natural

Well, N. C.

“TRUE OR SPHERICAL PEARLS:

Isognomon maxillata (Deshayes), one speci-

men from the Choptank formation, Mio-

cene, at Governor’s Run, Md.

Panope americana Conrad, one specimen

from the Choptank formation, Miocene, at

Governor’s Run, Md.

Panope floridana Heilprin, one pair of valves

with numerous pearls, Caloosahatchie for-

mation, Pliocene, Fla.

Anadara_ transversa (Say), one specimen

from the Pleistocene at Wailes Bluff, Md.

(Brown, 1946, p. 75).

REFERENCES

Berry, Cuarues T. A Miocene pearl, Amer. Midl

Nat. 17(2): 464-470, 3 figs. 1936.

Brown, Rotanp W. Fossil pearls from the Colo-

rado group of western Kansas. Journ. Washing-

ton Acad. Sci. 30(9) : 365-374, 20 figs. 1940.

A Pleistocene pearl from southern Mary-

land. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 36(3):

75-76, 2 figs. 1946.

Kunz, Grorce F., and Stevenson, CHARLES H.

The book of the pearl: 548 pp. New York, 1908.

NEWELL, Norman D. Late Paleozoic Pelecypoda:

Mytilacea. Univ. Kansas, State Geol. Surv.

Kansas, Publ. 10(pt. 2): 1-115, 15 pls., 22 figs.

1942.

ENTOMOLOGY .—New names in the Homoptera.’ Z. P. Mrrcaur, North Carolina

State College. (Communicated by H. Friedmann.)

(Received May 27, 1955)

The new names proposed herewith seem

to me to be necessary for the reasons stated.

The names are listed under the appropriate

family, subfamily, and tribe, according to

the classification which I now use in the card

catalogue of the Homoptera of the World.

This should enable any student to locate the

forms concerned.

Primary homonyms have been replaced

even where the species are no longer in-

cluded in the same genera. All references

have been checked against the originals.

1Contribution from the Entomology Depart-

ment, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment

Station, Raleigh, North Carolina. Published with

the approval of the Director of Research as Paper

No.642 of the Journal Series.

Family Crxiipar

Subfamily CrximNakE

Tribe Crxrrnt

Oliarus ovatus, n. n.

pro Oliarus lactetpennis, Kusnezov, Ent. Nachr.

10: 161. 1937.

nec Oliarus lactetpennis Fowler, Biologia Cen-

trali-Americana 1: 93. 1904.

Family ARAEOPIDAE (DELPHACIDAE)

Subfamily DELPHACINAE

Tribe DELPHACINI -

Nilaparvata caldwelli, n. n.

pro Nilaparvata muiri Caldwell and Martorell,

Journ. Agr. Univ. Puerto Rico 34: 198. 1951.

nec Nilaparvata muiri China, Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (9) 16: 480. 1925.

Aveust 1955

Family DicTtYoPHARIDAE

Subfamily DicrroPpHARINAE

Tribe DicTYOPHARINI

Dictyophara lindbergi, n. n.

pro Fulgora acuminata Lindberg, Comm. Biol.

10 (7): 106. 1948.

nec Fulgora acuminata Olivier,

méthodique . . . 6: 571. 1791.

Encyclopédie

Family FuLGORIDAE

Subfamily PHENACINAE

Levia, n. n.

pro Helvia Melichar, Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse

der Zweiten Deutschen Zentral-Afrika-Expe-

dition 1910-1911 1: 123. 1912.

nee Helyia Stal, Bih. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl.

4: 80. 1877.

Orthotype: Helvia schubotzi Melichar.

Family FLATIDAE

Subfamily FuatTinaE

Tribe PoEKILLOPTERINI

Poekilloptera walkeri, n. n.

pro Poeciloptera producta Walker, List of homop-

terous insects in the British Museum 2:

452. 1851.

nec Poeciloptera producta Spinola, Ann. Soc. Ent.

France 8: 432. 1839.

Tribe NEPHESINI

Name to be restored: Dalapax Amyot and Serville.

nec Pseudoflata Guérin-Méneville.

Haplotype: Flata postica Spinola.

Dalapax was established by Amyot and Ser-

ville, Histoire naturelle des insectes. Hémiptéres:

521. 1848, for the species Flata postica Spinola,

Ann. Soc. Ent. France 8: 420. 1839.

— Pseudoflata was established by Guérin-Méne-

ville, Iconographie du régne animal 1844: 360,

as a subgenus of Ricania for Pseudoflata nigri-

cornis, Ni. sp.

Nigricorms Guérin-Méneville is a synonym of

postica Spinola.

Melichar, Ann. Nat. Hofmus. Wien 16: 251.

1901, accepts the year 1838 as the date of the

publication of Guérin-Méneville and therefore

gives precedence to Pseudoflata over Dalapaz.

According to Hagen, Bibliotheca entomologica

1: 309. 1862 and Horn and Schenkling, Index

litteraturae entomologicae (1) 2: 470. 1928, the

-entomological part of Guérin-Méneville’s paper

was not published until 1844. This date has also

been accepted by Sherborn, Index animalium

METCALF: NEW NAMES IN HOMOPTERA

263

21: 5195. 1929; Neave, Nomenclator zoologicus

3: 982. 1940; and Schulze, Kikenthal, and

Heider, Nomenclator animalium 4 (21): 2907.

1935. Previously Marschall, Nomenclator zool-

ogicus: 378. 1873, gave the date as 1846.

Scudder, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 19: 266. 1882,

also gave the date as 1846.

Panormenis melichari, n. n.

pro Ormenis suturalis Melichar, Wien. Ent. Zeit.

24: 289. 1905.

nee Ormenis striolata var. suturalis Melichar, Ann.

Nat. Hofmus. Wien 17: 95. 1902.

Family IsstpaE

Subfamily HemispHAERIINAE

Gergithus formosanus, n. n.

pro Gergithus reticulatus Matsumura, Trans.

Sapporo Nat. Hist. Soc. 6: 101. 1916.

nec Hemisphaerius reticulatus Distant, The fauna

of British India 3: 361. 1906.

nune Gergithus reticulatus Distant.

Family CERCOPIDAE

Subfamily CeRcoPrINnaE

Tribe CERCOPINI

Triecphorella kirschbaumi, n. n.

pro Cercopis fasciata Kirschbaum, Jahrb. Ver.

Nat. Nassau 21-22: 63. 1868.

nec Cercopis fasciata Fabricius, Mantissa insec-

torum 2: 275. 1787.

Tribe EoscartTiINnI

Eoscarta (Eoscarta) lombokensis, n. n.

pro Eoscarta tristis Jacobi, Zool. Jahrb. (Syst.

Okol.) 74: 282. 1941.

nec Koscarta borealis var. tristis Lallemand, Trans.

Ent. Soc. London 1927: 112.

Keducarta walkeri, n. n.

pro Triecphora antica Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc.

Zool. 10: 289. 1870.

nec Triecphora antica Walker, List of homopterous

insects in the British Museum 3: 674. 1851.

Tribe CosMOSCARTINI

Cosmoscarta sundana, n. n.

pro Cercopis liturata Walker, Journ. Linn. Soe.

Zool. 10: 287. 1870.

nec Cercopis liturata Le Peletier and Serville,

Olivier’s Encyclopédie méthodique... 10:

606. 1825.

Opistarsostethus walkeri, n. n.

pro Cercopis dorsalis Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc.

Zool. 10: 283. 1870.

nec Cercopis dorsalis Walker, List of homopterous

insects in the British Museum 3: 658. 1851.

264

Family APHROPHORIDAE

Subfamily APHROPHORINAE

Tribe PHILAENINI

Neophilaenus exclamationis var. lindbergi, n. n.

pro Philaenus exclamationis var. nigerrimus Lind-

berg, Not. Ent. 3: 40. 1923.

Philaenus exclamationis var. nigerrimus

Strobl, Mitt. Naturw. Ver. Steiermark 36:

208. 1900.

nec

Philaenus leucophthalmus var. zetterstedti, n. n.

pro Cercopis spumaria var. obscura Zetterstedt,

Fauna insectorum Lapponica 1: 515. 1828.

nec Cercopis obscura Fabricius, Entomologia

systematica 4: 49. 1794.

Tribe APHROPHORINI

Jophora compactilis, n. n.

pro Aphrophora compacta Matsumura, Annot.

Zool. Japonenses 5: 35. 1904.

nec Aphrophora compacta Walker, List of homop-

terous insects in the British Museum 3:

701. 1851.

Family TETrTiGELLIDAE

Subfamily TETTIGELLINAE

Tribe TETTIGELLINI

Amblyscarta crocea, n. n.

pro Tettigonia aestuans Walker, List of homop-

terous insects in the British Museum 3:

750. 1851.

Tettigonia aestuans Fabricius, Entomologia

systematica 4: 20. 1794.

nec

Amblyscarta frontaliana, n. n.

pro Tettigonia frontalis Germar, Mag. Ent. 4: 64.

1821.

nee Tettigonia frontalis Donovan, Natural history

of insects of China: [2]. 1798.

Amblyscarta nigrifascia var. albidissima, n. n.

pro Tettigonia albida Walker, List of homopterous

insects in the British Museum 3: 777. 1851.

nec Tettigonia albida Walker, List of homopterous

insects in the British Museum 3: 767. 1851.

Amblyscarta transversalis, n. n.

pro Tettigonia transversa Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent.

France (3) 1: 342. 1853.

nec Tettigonia transversa Costa, Cenni Zoologici

1834: 89.

Dasmeusa flavescens, n. n.

pro Tettigonia lurida Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent.

France (3) 1: 662. 1853.

nec Tettigonia lurida Germar, Mag. Ent. 4: 70.

1821.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 8

Poecilocarda nigripennis, n. n.

pro Tettigonia scutellata Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent.

France (3) 8: 203. 1860.

Tettigonia scutellata Fabricius,

rhyngotorum 1803: 44. 1803.

nec Systema

Tettigella alba, n. n.

pro Tettigonia concinna Walker, List of homop-

terous insects in the British Museum 3:

755. 1851.

nec Tettigonia concinna Perty, Delectus animalium

articulatorum 3: 180. 1833.

Tettigella borneonensis, n. n.

pro Tettigonia elongata Walker, Journ. Proc. Linn.

Soc. 1: 167. 1857.

nec Tettigonia elongata Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent.

France (3) 2: 495. 1854.

Tettigella chinensis n. n.

pro Tettigonia trilineata Melichar, Ann. Mus.

Zool. St. Petersburg 7: 132 (57). 1902.

nec Tettigonia ruficeps var. trilineata Fowler,

Biologia Centrali-Americana 2: 236. 1899.

Tettigella distanti, n. n.

pro Tettigoniella cornelia Distant, Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (8) 1: 521. 1908.

nec Tettigoniella cornelia Distant, The fauna of

British India 4: 209. 1908.

Tettigella druryi, n. n.

pro Tettigonia sanguinea Westwood, Illustrations

of exotic entomology 2: 81, 1837.

Tettigonia sanguinea Fabricius,

rhyngotorum emendanda: 39. 1803.

nec Systema

Tettigella gabonensis, n. n.

pro Tettigonia nigrolineata Taschenberg, Zeitschr.

Naturw. 57: 446. 1884.

Tettigonia nigrolineata Herrich-Schaffer

Deutschlands Insecten 164: 17. 1838.

nec

Tettigella montrouzieri, n. n.

pro Tettigonia flavescens Montrouzier, Ann. Soc.

Agr. Lyon (2) 7: 118. 1855.

nec Tettigonia flavescens Fabricius, Entomologia

systematica 4: 24, 1794.

Tettigella pallidicornis, n. n.

pro Tettigonia festiva Melichar,

Fauna von Ceylon: 159. 1903.

nec Tettigona festiva Fabricius, Systema rhyngo-

torum: 41. 1803.

Homopteren-

Tribe GRAPHOCEPHALINI

Amahuaka angustula var. fowleri, n. n.

pro Tettigonia angustula var. immaculata Fowler,

Biologia Centrali-Americana 2: 292. 1900.

Aveust 1955

nee Tettigonia immaculata Walker, List of homop-

terous insects in the British Museum 3:

740. 1851.

Astenogonia fabricii, n. n.

pro Cicada bicolor Fabricius, Systema rhyngo-

torum: 65. 1803.

nee Cicada bicolor Olivier, Encyclopédie méthodi-

que . . . 5: 748. 1790.

Conogonia ceramensis, n. n.

pro Tettigonia tripunctata Walker, Journ. Linn.

Soe. Zool. 10: 303. 1870.

nec Teitigonia tripunctata Fitch, Ann. Rep. State

Cab. Nat. Hist. 4: 55. 1851.

Epiacanthus guttiger var. aurantius, n. n.

pro Tettigonia guttigera var. dispar Horv ath

Term. Fuzétek 22: 371. 1899.

nec Tettigonta dispar Germar, Mag. Ent. 4: 71.

1821.

Graphocephala flavovittata, n. n.

pro Tettigonia multicolor Signoret, Ann. Soc.

Ent. France (8) 1: 363. 1853.

nec Tettigonia multicolor Walker, List of homop-

terous insects in the British Museum 3:

760. 1851.

Family LEDRIDAE

Subfamily KoEBELINAE

Tribe THYMBRINI

Rhotidus kirkaldyi, n. n.

pro Ledropsis stdli Kirkaldy, Bull. Hawaiian

Sugar Planters Assoc. Div. Ent. 3: 26. 1907.

nec Ledropsis stali Melichar, Homopteren-Fauna

von Ceylon: 148. 1903.

Family EvsceLiDAE

Subfamily EvsceLINaE

Tribe EuscELINnI

Anoplotettix fuscovenosus var. horvathi, n. n.

Thammotettix fuscovenosus var. tnornatus

Horvath, Rev. Ent. 14: 165. 1895.

nee Thamnotettix inornatus Van Duzee, Trans.

Amer. Ent. Soc. 19: 303. 1892.

pro

-Hesium falleni, n. n.

pro Cicada biguttata Fallen, Nya Handl. Svenska

Vet.- Akad. 27: 27. 1806.

nec Cicada biguttata Fabricius, Species insectorum

2: 325. 1781.

Tribe ATHYSANINI

Athysanus argentarius, n. n.

pro Cicada argentata Fabricius, Entomologia

systematica 4: 38. 1794.

nec Cicada argentata Olivier, Encyclopédie métho-

diqué .. . 5: 759. 1790.

METCALF: NEW NAMES IN

HOMOPTERA 26

Athysanus fabricii, n. n.

pro Cicada reticulata Fabricius, Entomologia

systematica 4: 44. 1794.

nee Cicada reticulata Linnaeus, Systema naturae

1: 436, 1758.

Nephotettix apicalis de Motschulsky

In Metcalf, Bull. Bernice P. Bishop Museum

189: 126. 1946, I reported that I could not dis-

tinguish between Nephotettix bipunctata and the

commonly accepted varieties apicalis de Mot-

schulsky and cincticeps Uhler. Unfortunately, I

did not discover that Fabricius (1803) described

his species as Cicada bipunctata, Systema rhyn-

gotorum: 78, which was preoccupied three times:

Cicada bipunctata Scopoli, Entomologie Carniolica:

115. 1763.

Cicada bipunctata Linnaeus,

(ed. 12) 1 (2): 710. 1767.

Cicada bipunctata Gmelin, Caroli a Linné Systema

naturae 1 (4): 2111. 1789.

Systema naturae

The next available name for Fabricius’s spe-

cies is Pediopsis apicalis de Motschulsky, Etud.

Ent. 8: 110. 1859. The bipunctata of Fabricius

and the cincticeps of Uhler, either as species or

varieties, will become synonyms of apicalis.

Phlepsius bergi, n. n.

pro Deltocephalus variegatus Berg, An. Soc. Cient.

Argentina 8: 264. 1879.

nec Deltocephalus variegatus de Motschulsky,

Etud. Ent. 8: 112. 1859.

Remadosus osborni, n. n.

pro Euscelis (Athysanus) magnus var. piceus

Osborn, Florida Ent. 6: 20. 1922.

nec Athysanus piceus Scott, Ent. Monthly Mag.

12: 97. 1875.

Tribe THAMNOTETTIXINI

Thamnotettix matsumuri, n. n.

pro Thamnotettix acuminatus Matsumura, Journ.

Coll. Sci. Tokyo 28 (6): 27. 1908.

nec Deltocephalus acuminatus Uhler, Proc. Zool.

Soc. London 1895: 80.

nune Thamnotettiz acuminatus Uhler.

Neobala boliviensis, n. n.

pro Thamnotettix pallidus Osborn, Ann. Carnegie

Mus. 15: 67. 1923.

nec Thamnotettix karrooensts var. pallidus Cogan,

Ohio Journ. Sci. 16: 192. 1916.

266

Family DELTOCEPHALIDAE

Subfamily DELTOCEPHALINAEB

Tribe DELTOCEPHALINI

Deltocephalus amuriensis, n. n.

pro Deltocephalus bilineatus Lindberg, Comm.

Biol. 3 (6): 7. 1929.

nec Deltocephalus bilineatus Gillette and Baker,

Bull. Colorado Agr. Exp. Stat. 31: 85. 1895.

Deltocephalus marginellanus, n. n.

pro Deltocephalus marginellus Osborn, Ann. Ent.

Soc. Amer. 19: 346. 1926.

Deltocephalus marginellus

Carnegie Mus. 15: 41. 1923.

nec Osborn, Ann.

Deltocephalus obtusus, n. n.

pro Deltocephalus simplex Haupt, Bull. Palestine

Agr. Exp. Stat. 8: 29. 1927.

nec Deltocephalus simplex Van Duzee, Trans.

Amer. Ent. Soc. 19: 304. 1892.

Ederranus subangulatus, n. n.

pro Cicada lutea Sahlberg, Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae

1: 88. 1842.

nec Cicada lutea Olivier, Encyclopédie méthodi-

que... 5: 758. 1790.

Gillettiella labiata var. gillettei, n. n.

pro Deltocephalus labiatus var. rufus Gillette,

Bull. Colorado Agr. Exp. Stat. 43: 28. 1898.

nec Deltocephalus abdominalis var. rufus Sahl-

berg, Not. Fennica (n. s.) 9 (12): 329, 1871.

Jassargus (Jassargus) distinguendus var.

gallicus, n. n.

pro Deltocephalus distinguendus var. longiceps

Rey, Echange 10: 46. 1894.

nec Jassus (Deltocephalus) longiceps Kirschbaum,

Jahrb. Ver. Nat. Nassau 21-22: 135. 1868.

Jassargus (Jassargus) distinguendus var.

reyi, n. n.

pro Deltocephalus distinguendus var. confinis Rey,

Echange 10: 46. 1894.

nec Deltocephalus confinis Dahlbom, (1850) Handl.

Svenska Vet.-Akad. 1850: 193.

Unoka gillettei, n. n.

pro Athysanus ornatus Gillette, Bull. Colorado

Agr. Exp. Stat. 48: 29. 1898.

nec Athysanus ornatus Perris, Ann. Soc. Linn.

Lyon 4: 174 (94). 1857.

Tribe XESTOCEPHALINI

Xestocephalus izzardi, n. n.

pro Xestocephalus minutus Izzard, Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (10) 17: 598. 1936.

nec Xestocephalus minutus Distant, The fauna of

British India 7: 58. 1918.

= Ootacamundus minutus Distant.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 8

Tribe CrcaDULINI

Cicadula capensis, n. n.

pro Cicadula nigrifrons Naudé, Ent. Me. Dept.

Agr. Union of South Africa 4: 86. 1926.

nec Cicadula nigrifrons Forbes, Report of the

State entomologist of Illinois 14: 67. 1885.

Tribe BALCLUTHINI

Balclutha haupti, n. n.

pro Balclutha flava Haupt, Bull. Palestine Agr.

Exp. Stat. 8: 37. 1927.

nec Gnathodus impictus var. flavus Baker, Can.

Ent. 28: 36, 38. 1896.

Family CorLipiipAE

Subfamily TarrEssINAE

Tartessus evansi, n. n.

pro Tartessus obscurus Evans, Pap. Proc. Roy.

Soc. Tasmania 1936: 54. 1936.

nec Tartessus obscurus Schmidt, Stett. Ent. Zeit.

81: 54. 1920.

Family AGALLIDAE

Subfamily AGALLINAE

Agallia lindbergi, n. n.

pro Agallia insularis Lindberg, Comm. Biol. 14

(1): 196. 1954.

nec Agallia insularis Berg, An. Soc. Cient. Argen-

tina 17: 39. 1884.

Family IassipaE

Subfamily [assinagE

Tribe Iassin1r

Batrachomorphus fabricii, n. n.

pro Cicada prasina Fabricius, Entomologia sys-

tematica 4: 38, 1794.

nec Cicada prasina Pallas, Reise durch russischen

Reichs 1: 729. 1773.

Stragania matsumuri, n. n.

pro Macropsis dorsalis Matsumura, Journ. Coll.

Agr. Sapporo 4 (7): 301. 1912.

nec Macropsis dorsalis Provancher, Petite faune

entomologique du Canada 3: 292. 1889.

Tribe KRISNINI

Krisna walkeri, n. n.

pro Bythoscopus testaceus Walker, Journ. Proc.

Linn. Soc. 1: 173. 1857.

nec Bythoscopus testaceus Walker, List of homop-

terous insects in the British Museum 4:

1163. 1852.

Family IproceRIDAE

Idiocerus bakeri, n. n.

pro Idiocerus trifasciatus Osborn, Ann. Carnegie

Mus. 15: 19. 1923.

Avetst 1955

nec Bythoscopus trifasciatus Kirschbaum, Jahrb.

Ver. Nat. Nassau 21-22: 167. 1868.

nune Jdiocerus trifasciatus Kirschbaum.

Family TypHLocyBIDAE

Subfamily TypHLocyBINAE

Tribe EMPoaAscINt

Empoasca canariensis, n. n.

pro Empoasca unicolor Lindberg, Comm. Biol. 6

(9): 8. 1986.

nec Empoasca unicolor Gillette, Proc. U. 8. Nat.

Mus. 20: 731. 1898.

Empoasca martorelli, n. n.

pro Empoasca incisa Caldwell and Martorell,

Journ. Agr. Univ. Puerto Rico 34: 125. 1952.

nec Empoasca incisa Gillette, Proc. U. S. Nat.

Mus. 20: 735. 1898.

Tribe ERYTHRONEURINI

Erythroneura canariensis, n. n.

pro Erythroneura affints Lindberg, Comm. Biol. 14

(1): 248. 1954.

nec ELrythroneura affinis Fitch, Ann. Rept. State

Cab. Nat. Hist. 4: 63. 1851.

Family CrcaDIDAE

Subfamily TrsprcENINAak

Tribe PLATYPLEURINI

Platypleura (Platypleura) schumacheri, n. n.

pro Platypleura fenestrata Schumacher, Zoologische

und anthropologische Ergebnisse einer For-

schungsreise 5: 86. 1913.

nec Platypleura fenestrata Uhler, Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sci. Philadelphia 13: 282. 1861.

Tribe CycLocHILINI

Psaltoda plaga, Walker

Psaltoda plaga Walker, List of homopterous in-

sects in the British Museum 1: 109. 1850.

Will replace:

Cicada argentata Germar, Rev. Ent. Silbermann 2:

66. 1834.

nec Cicada argentata Olivier, Encyclopédie Métho-

dique .. . 5: 759, 1790.

Tribe TrBIcENINI

Tibicen walkeri, n. n.

pro Cicada marginalis Walker, List of homopterous

insects In the British Museum 4: 1128. 1852.

Cicada marginalis Scopoli, Entomologie

Carniiloca 1763: 113. 1763.

nec

Tribe FrprciNini

Fidicina africana, n. n.

pro Cidcaa plebeja Linnaeus, Systema naturae.

(ed. 12) 1 (2): 707. 1767.

METCALF: NEW NAMES

IN HOMOPTERA 267

nec Cicada plebeja Scopoli, Entomologie Car-

niolica: 117. 1768.

Tribe DuNDUBINI

Terpnosia obscurana, n. n.

pro Terpnosia obscura Liu, Bull. Mus. Comp.

Zool. 87: 98. 1940.

nec Terpnosia obscura Kato, Bull. Cicadidae Mus.

2: 3, 17. 1988.

Tribe PLATYLOMIINI

Platylomia kingvosana var. viridescens, n. n.

pro Platylomia kingvosana var. virescens Liu, Bull.

Mus. Comp. Zool. 87: 92. 1940.

Platylomia virescens Distant, Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (7) 15: 66. 1905.

nec

Subfamily CrcapINakE

Tribe Crcaptnt

Cicada signoreti, n. n.

pro Cicada punctipes Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent.

France (3) 8: 180. 1860.

Cicada punctipes Zetterstedt, Fauna insec-

torum Lapponica 1: 525. 1828.

nec

Family TrsiciINIDAE

Subfamily TrBrcrnInaE

Tribe TErtTrGoMyINI

Xosopsaltria thunbergi, n. n.

Tettigonia punctata Thunberg, Dissertatio

entomologica de hemipteris rostratis capensi-

bus 1: 7. 1822.

Tettigonia punctata Fabricius, Supplementum

entomologiae systematicae 1798: 516. 1798.

pro

nec

Family MEMBRACIDAE

Subfamily CenTROTINAE

Tribe LEPTOCENTRINI

Leptocentrus formosus, n. n.

Leptocentrus formosanus Kato, Trans. Nat.

Hist. Soc. Formosa 18: 32. 1928.

Leptocentrus formosanus Matsumura, Annot.

Zool. Japonenses 8: 15. 1912.

pro

nec

Tribe GARGARINI

Umfilianus gerstaeckeri, n. n.

Centrotus fenestratus Gerstaecker, Claus’s

Decken’s Reisen in Ost-Afrika 8 (2): 429. 1873.

Centrotus fenestratus Thunberg, Dissertatio

entomologica de hemipteris rostratis capensi-

bus 1: 3. 1822.

pro

nec

Tribe CENTROTINI

Centrotus cornutus var. kirschbaumi, n. n.

pro Centrotus abbreviatus Kirschbaum, Jahrb. Ver.

Nat. Nassau 21-22: 67. 1868.

Centrotus abbreviatus Fabricius,

rhyngotorum 1803: 23. 1803.

nec Systema

268

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No.8

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

A Consequence of Inequalities Proposed

by Baker and Erickson*

The purpose of this note is to point out

that the mequalities for Reiner-Rivlin fluids

proposed by Baker and Ericksen! imply that

the rate at which the stresses do work in

distorting the fluid is always positive when

the distortion matrix is nonzero. The latter

condition is often imposed on theories of

plasticity and fluid dynamics.

It is a trivial matter to verify that, for any

quantities ¢; and d; (¢ = 1, 2, 3),

3 Se t;A; = (t = to) (dy iG dy)

i=1

+ (ty ear ts) (d» ai ds) (1)

(ts oa t) (ds ors a1),

where A; = d; — 4(di + dy + ds). In a

Reiner-Rivlin fluid,? the stress matrix T is

given in terms of the rate of deformation

matrix D by

T= fol all fiD ae f,D?, (2)

Here fi and fo are scalar invariants of D,

while fo is a scalar invariant of D if the fluid

be compressible, an arbitrary hydrostatic

pressure if it be incompressible. Hence the

principal directions of T and D coincide

and the principal values ¢; of T are given in

terms of the corresponding principal values

d; of D by

ts = fo + fd: + fod. (3)

* Received June 27, 1955.

1 Baker, M., and Ertcksen. J. L. Inequalities

restricting the form of the stress-deformation rela-

tions for isotropic elastic solids and Reiner-Rivlin

fluids. Journ. Washington Acad. Sei. 44: 33-35.

1954.

? For a discussion of these fluids, see TruEs-

DELL, C. Vhe mechanical foundations of elasticity

and fluid dynamics. Journ. Rat. Mech. and Anal.

1: 125-300. 1952.

The inequalities considered require that

t; > t; whenever d; > d;, or, equivalently

(t; — t;)(d; — d;) > 0

whenever d; # d;. (4)

The distortion tensor A is the deviator of

D,A = D — 4 tr D 1, so its principal

values are the quantities A;. The rate at

which the stresses do work in distorting the

fluid is, by definition,

tr TA = >> & Aj. (5)

i=1

If (4) holds, it follows immediately from (1)

that (5) is positive unless d; = d) = d; = 0,

in which case A = 0, which is the desired

result.

One Gan construct counter-examples to

show that (4) does not follow from the re-

quirement that (5) be positive. For incom-

pressible materials, we always have tr D = 0

so that A = D. We then have, from (2),

tr TA =f, ir D? + fy tr D8.

Suppose that fi = a, f. = b tr D?, where a

and b are positive constants. Then, since

tr D’ 2 0, the equality holding only if D = 0,

it is clear that (5) is positive. For incom-

pressible materials, it is known! that (4) is

equivalent to

i ip Gs Ont Ws = ap

Oi Gh == ah,

(0, de k A),

In = Ja Ge. 2 (G, is 18 =),

It is easily shown that the example con-

sidered here does not satisfy these condi-

tions if, with a suitable choice of units,

dy = 2V/c, dy = Vet te Vc, ds =

—V/e+% — Ve, where c = a/b.

J. L. ErRicksen

Naval Research Laboratory

Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences

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CONTENTS

Page

Meratiturcy.—High-strength cast iron: Appraisal and forecast.

JEROME STRAUSS © «....0¢0(ie Foe osteo tele seh = 3). 6 cee 233

HyproGrapuy.—A comparison of the environmental characteristics of

some shelf areas of eastern United States. Francis E. Exiiort,

Witu1am H. Myers, and Wiuuis L. TRESSLER.................. 248

PALEONTOLOGY.—Cenozoic pearls from the Atlantic Coastal Plain.

TAD OB. VO KES. 25.6 0) aise ool On adie Secs ee 260

ENToMOLOGY.—New names in the Homoptera. Z.P. MnrcatF........ 262

LETTERS TO THE Epiror.—A consequence of inequalities proposed by

Baker and Bricksen)(J., Li, ERICKSEN)!...2).554.5.. 00000 268

Vou, 45 SEPTEMBER 1955 No. 9

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

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RATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

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CHEMISTRY BOTANY

DEAN B. CowlE PuHitie DRUCKER

PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY

ALAN STONE Davip H. DUNKLE

ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY

PUBLISHED MONTHLY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

| Vou. 45

H. Oehser.)

Pehr Kalm, the first trained scientist to

visit North America, arrived in Philadelphia

in September 1748 for a 21-year visit. A

student of Linnaeus, his mission was to

search for plants of sufficient economic sig-

nificance to merit their introduction into

Sweden and Finland and to supply scientific

information and specimens to Linnaeus and

fellow members of the Royal Swedish

Academy of Science. Kalm, with his scien-

tifie training, wide interests, and natural

curiosity, left for posterity records not only

of the natural phenomena that he observed

but also a detailed account of the cultural

history of the period. His journal, Hn Resa

till Norra America (A Journey to North

America), published in three volumes in

Stockholm, 1753-1761, is invaluable to the

student of colonial history, because it in-

cludes details which the chronicler of the

familiar scene tends to omit.

Linnaeus, judging the climate of lke

latitudes in North America to be the same

as those in Sweden, was insistent that Kalm

explore the region of Hudson’s Bay. Surely

here plants would be found that would

make agriculture possible in Lapland!

Linnaeus had no conception of the inacces-

sibility of northern Canada. Kalm did travel

12 Swedish miles north of Quebec and was

convinced that the vegetation beyond that

point held nothing of economic consequence.

Anders Celsius, professor of astronomy

at Uppsala, had given Kalm an excellent

background in astronomy. His meteorolog-

ical observations for Pennsylvania, made

1 With the support of a grant from the American

Philosophical Society.

269

September 1955

METEOROLOGY .—Pehr Kalm’s meteorological observations in

| Translated and edited by EstHrer Loutsr LarsEen.'! (Communicated by Paul

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

No. 9

North America.

(Received June 17, 1955)

with the aid of the centigrade thermometer

invented by his former professor, were pub-

lished in his journal. However, Kalm’s re-

action to the climate of the new world is

best described in his letter for October 14,

1748, which was published in Kongl. Svenska

Vetenskaps Academiens Handlingar 10:

70-75. 1749. He says:

Various members of the Royal Society asked me

to investigate why plants, which come from Amer-

ica, bloom so late in Europe that their seeds seldom

ripen. This is true in Sweden; it is also the case in

London. The cause of all this is a difference in

weather conditions. The heat here is usually

dreadful during the summer and lasts further into

autumn. The months of September and October

are neither hot nor cold and tend to be the loveliest

of the year. In reference to heat, September re-

sembles most closely the month of July in Sweden

and October the month of August. There are

seldom cloudy days. The winds are rarely strong.

The weather is usually calm or the breeze mild.

These are generally considered the most pleasent

of the year... . This is a remarkable place so far

as weather is concerned. When the wind is from

the south or the weather is calm, it is like summer

until late autumn. If, however, the wind turns to

the northwest and blows from the Hudson Strait

where there is always ice, it becomes so cold in a

few hours that one can scarcely go out, and the

cold penetrates to the marrow of the bone.?

The results of Kalm’s scientific observa-

tions are published in a series of articles

that appeared in Kongl. Svenska Veten-

skaps Academiens Handlingar from 1749 to

1778. In them he discusses agriculture,

animals, insects, and the economic value of

2 Pehr Kalm’s observations on the natural history

and climate of Pennsylvania. Excerpts from his

letter of October 14, 1748. Agricultural History

17: 174. 1943.

Qi? 158

270

trees, shrubs, and herbs, together with their

characteristics and medicinal uses. Two of

the papers in this series are of interest to

meteorology. Nagra Nordsken observerade

2 Norra America was published in Kongl.

Svenska Vetenskaps Academiens Hand-

lingar 13: 145-155. 1752. It is part I of this

article and is here translated under the title

Some observations on northern lights in North

America. In this paper Kalm speculates on

the origin of this phenomenon and its me-

teorological significance. Thermometric Ron

vid Hafs och Sjoars Vatten was published

in the Handlingar 32: 52-59. 1771. It is

part II of this article and is here translated

under the title Thermometric observations on

sea and lake water.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON NORTHERN

IN NORTH AMERICA

LIGHTS

The northern lights, or the so-called aurora

borealis, have received considerable attention

from naturalists durmg recent years. Among

them various ideas are current on the subject.

Some think the phenomenon has its origin in the

exhalation of our lower air; others feel it origi-

nates above our atmosphere; while still another

group consider it electricity.

In the natural sciences, the interpretation of

these phenomena is dependent on observation

and investigation. Without them a_ physicist

eropes in the dark.

European naturalists have diligently observed

and recorded the northern lights, but few Amert-

cans are interested. Observations on the northern

lights in America are given in a few places in the

English Philosophical Transactions. However,

it should be noted that the explorers, who have

been sent out recently by the English Govern-

ment to find a new passage to the East Indies by

way of Hudson’s Bay, have recorded the northern

lights they observed in their published journals.

During my stay in North America I not only

kept weather reports but also recorded the

northern lights which I observed and supplied

myself with the reports of others. These reports

were obtained from the following sources: 1. The

Pennsylvania Gazette, which is published weekly

in Philadelphia. 2. Mr. Breintnal’s observations

which were communicated to me by the learned

Mr. Franklin. Mr. Breintnal, an assiduous ob-

server, kept meteorological records at Philadel-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 9

phia covering the period of 1731 through Novem-

ber 11, 1745. On that date, the mental anguish

which he endured because of unchristian treat-

ment got the upper hand and he departed this

life too hastily and too pitiably. His records

contain much useful information not included in

other meteorological observations. 3. Dr. Colden,

New York’s elder statesman, who is also an out-

standing mathematician and physician, supplied

some information. 4. Mr. Gauthier’, a physician

well versed in botany, made extensive and accu-

rate observations in meteorology.* He gave me

his journal which covers a period of two years. I

plan to turn the original over to Kongl. Svenska

Vetenskaps Academien.

Most of these observations on the northern

lights are entirely unknown in Europe, and some

of them are in manuscripts which might easily be

lost. Therefore, it seems to me that I would be

doing the natural sciences a service if I presented

part of the information. Some light might be

thrown on the cause of this phenomenon when

the observations made in America are compared

with those which have been made in Europe. We

have quite an impressive collection of observa-

tions on the northern lights in America if we

include those published in the Philosoph. Trans.

as well as those which are recorded by the clerk

of the ship California, Capt. Middleton, Mr.

Hillis, and other voyagers to the region of Hud-

son’s Bay. The following information is taken

from the journals mentioned above or from my

own records.

1730. In Philadelphia on October 22, the aurora

borealis appeared toward the NE. According to

information received by letter from Boston, it

had also been seen there and was the largest ever

observed in that locality. The same information

was also given in a letter from New Hampshire.

The northern lights were so bright that it was

possible to read the finest print by them. At Bos-

ton they lasted from shortly after six o’clock in

the evening until day break the following morn-

ing. The Penns. Gaz.

3 At the time of Kalm’s visit to Canada he had

the good fortune to meet Jean Frangois Gauthier

(1711-1756), the royal physician at Quebec. The

name Gauthier was spelled in various ways, ap-

pearing as Gautier and Gaulthier. Linnaeus

honored the royal physician by naming the genus

Gaultheria for him.

* Footnote by Kalm: “Part of Mr. Gauthier’s

meterological observations were published in the

Transactions of the French Academy last year by

H. Du Hamel.”’

SEPTEMBER 1955

1731. September 21. Northern lights during the

night in Philadelphia. Breintnal.

1736. December 29. Strong northern lights ap-

peared in Philadelphia during the evening. They

were brighter and redder than those which had

been observed years before. At first, a number of

inhabitants in the southern part of the city

thought that there was a fire in the northern part

and they hastened to help put it out. Penns. Gaz.

Mb. Breintnal mentioned this in a letter to Col-

linson. It was published in the Phil. Trans. n. 456.

p. 359. In the same letter, Breintnal says that the

remarkable aurora borealis which appeared over

most of Europe in December of 1737, was not

observed by anyone in America.

1737. August 11. In Rhode Island, New York,

Philadelphia, and elsewhere, large northern lights

appeared which lasted from shortly after dark in

the evening until the following morning. They

extended from the NW to NE. Both ends were

quite red, but the west end was redder than the

east. At three in the morning they covered half

of the northern horizon forming a large white arc.

The upper part of the arc gave rise to innumerable

rays which reached 60° in height. These rays

varied from pure white to a mixture of red and

white. Their appearance changed constantly like

fire which blazes brightly and then glows faintly.

Dr. Colden, The Penns. Gaz. Breintnal.

1739. March 29. In Philadelphia, the aurora

borealis appeared shortly after ten in the evening.

It was centered below the north star. Breintnal.

May 22. In Philadelphia at nine in the evening

a bright light: appeared in the north. Later, at

some distance above the horizon and in the same

general direction, clouds arose which were quite

red. When they vanished an aurora borealis

appeared on the horizon which lasted half an

hour. Breintnal. The Penns. Gaz.

September 12. The aurora borealis was seen

shortly after seven o’clock in the evening at

Philadelphia. It was red in color with some white

rays and in height it reached a little beyond the

north star. Breintnal.

1741. March 26. Between seven and eight

o’clock in the evening the northern lights were

observed in Philadelphia. Breintnal.

1746. February 22. Brilliant northern lights

were seen in Philadelphia. The Penns. Gaz.

March 1. Conspicuous northern lights appeared

to the NW and NE at Quebec, Canada. Mr.

Gauthier.

LARSEN: KALM’S METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

PAA

June 1. Extraordinary northern lights were

observed in a clear sky. The northern horizon was

spanned by a large pink are which pointed toward

the south but extended its rays east and west.

Perpendicular ight rays were given off. The dis-

play lasted until midnight when it disappeared.

According to Mr. Gauthier the aurora borealis

is often seen in the spring in Canada. It usually

covers the NW, NE, and N part of the sky.

1748. December 9. I saw red streaks in the sky

in the north at six in the evening at Racoon. This

village lies four Swedish miles SEE of Phila-

delphia.

1749. February 4. At eight o’clock in the

evening, northern lights appeared on the horizon

in the north. They disappeared within a half an

hour.

July 10. I saw northern lights in the sky at

10:30 in the evening at Fort Jean, Canada.

Several short white rays stood next to each

other, like the pipes of an organ. There were also

northern lights in the area which lies between the

north star and Cassiopeia. A long ray which had

its origin on the NW horizon touched Charles’s

Wain in the south. Later, a few rays arose paral-

leling those on the north horizon. Practically

without motion they disappeared.

1750. February 16. At a quarter of eight in the

evening, I saw two meteors in the sky at Philadel-

phia. One, a northern light, which paralleled the

horizon at a height of 20°, extended from NW to

NE. I saw no color or motion. It was as light and

clear as daybreak in fair weather. The other was

a blood red pyramid which extended upward in

the WNW part of the horizon to a point just

above Cassiopeia. It now stood in an approxi-

mately horizontal Ime with the north star and

Charles’s Wain. Cassiopeia formed the apex of

the pyramid. It was broader and redder below

but contracted above into a sharp apex which

disappeared directly above Cassiopeia. Rays and

waves arose from the white light. The sky was

clear and cloudless. There was an inch of snow on

the ground and the air was extremely cold. Al-

though I watched the compass carefully during the

entire period that the northern lights lasted, I could

not detect the slightest movement or vibration. It

is quite possible that the needle of the compass

was not sensitive enough for such observations.

A fallmg star fell from SW to NE. The northern

lights lasted until 10 o’clock, when they vanished.

I later learned from New York newspapers that

the same observations had been made there at

exactly the same time. This phenomenon is at-

tributed to electricity by some who aspire to the

title of philosopher. They claim to have predicted

the occurrence of northern lights days in advance

by studying the shape and action of clouds. How-

ever, I fear they have not yet perfected their art

since their predictions for a later date were a

month off.

April 3. In Philadelpbia at 9:50 in the evening

a light appeared on the horizon in the north.

Within 54 minutes the sky became red to the

height of 80° to the N and NNW. By 10 o’clock

the sky was red entirely to the zenith from NE

to NW. At 10:05 the sky became red toward the

east, and the redness lessened somewhat in the

NW. At 10:15, the red grew faint and the light

became stronger in the north producing a pale red

glow which eventually disappeared.

April 19. Late in the evening quite large

northern lights appeared. The sky was so light in

the north that I could read in a book. Except for

a few thin clouds in the north, the sky was clear

and the stars bright. The light extended from NW

to ENE. The arc, most of which was over 42° in

height, was quite faint near the horizon. Red was

seen in the sky in the N, W, and even in the E,

but it was very faint. At half past 11, a large spot

appeared at the height of about 22° in the sky

to the WNW. A little later another appeared at

the height of 30° in the NE. Both of these spots

remained for some time, and they were much

brighter than the other lights. Waves of light

were seen passing through the air from the spot

in the NE to the one in the WNW. These waves

were very weak. The spots disappeared at 11:33.

However, during their existence the northern part

of the sky was conspicuously lighted to a height

of 30°. At 11:34 the spot in the WNW reappeared

at its original position of 22° height. The spot

disappeared at 11:36. The red color in the WNW

grew stronger at 11:42. The sky, then as before,

was very light in the north, but the brighter-

colored lights had moved WNW. At 11:43 the

large spot in the WNW, previously mentioned,

moved NW and became quite red. Another large

spot, much paler than the one just mentioned,

appeared in the sky in the W. The red in the east

was still evident. The center of the largest spot

in the NW was at 18° height. The red spot, which

now stood at 39° in the east, seemed to go directly

across the sky toward the one standing opposite

in the west, although they could not meet in the

7 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 9

zenith. At 11:57 the red spot in the east began to

disappear, and the one in the west was so faint

it could scarcely be seen, but the red glow remain-

ing was very faint. At 12:15 there was a pale red

glow in the sky in NNE which extended almost

to the north star. At 12:20 it was still light near

the horizon, but the red color had disappeared.

Shortly thereafter all signs of the northern lights

had vanished. On this night the moon rose at 2:06

in the morning.

Oldsters could remember no other winter when

there had been so many displays of northern

lights. The months of April and May in 1750 were

reported to be the windiest in years. However, I

do not believe that there is any relation between

northern lights and bad weather.

Another atmospheric phenomenon, which re-

sembles the northern lights, is sometimes seen in

the region formerly known as New Sweden. At

night when the sky is overcast, a red ight appears

near the horizon. At that point the glow gives the

effect of a burning building. The Swedes in this

locality call it Sné-eld, or “snow fire.” In the

winter they consider it a sure sign of snow, and in

the summer it is a sign of rain. The clouds are

always in the same position when this phenome-

non occurs; consequently this fire light disappears

when the clouds leave. It usually appears in a

SSW direction; rarely in the north, where it could

readily be confused with the northern lights. At

various times I have observed ‘‘snow fires”. They

were S, SW, or WSW except for one which was in

the north and might well have been caused by the

northern lights. I have found that the ‘snow

fire” is an accurate harbinger of rain or snow. If

snow does not fall where the light is first observed,

it is certain to have fallen somewhere in the im-

mediate vicinity. At Racoon on February 25,

1749, at 7 o’clock in the evening, I saw a peculiar

“snow fire” just above the horizon directly to the

south. It lasted until 9 o’clock, which is the

longest I have ever known one to last. The entire

sky was clear except for the clouds which sur-

rounded the snow fire. When they vanished, the

“snow fire’ disappeared. At 8 o’clock, I observed

a bright light in the horizon at the SW. I meas-

ured between the centers of these two meteors

with an astrolabe are and found them to be

5219°. The sky was entirely clear in the position

of the bright light, which was quite strong and

white. It remained after the ‘‘snow fire’ disap-

peared. I have never detected the slightest move-

ment of the needle of the compass by the “snow

SEPTEMBER 1955

fire” or the lights in the 8, SW, or WSW. These

lights usually follow the “‘snow fire”. I have seen

them when the sky was clear as well as when it

was overcast.

June 6. A comparison of these observations,

with those in the meteorological journal kept here

in Sweden, shows that the northern lights here

were strong on the same nights as they were seen

in North America but not vice versa.

The observations that Kalm made in

America on February 6 and April 3, 1750,

may be compared with those made in

Sweden on the same dates by referring to

the Handlingar 11: 56-58. 1750. On April 19

of the same year, we had magnificent north-

ern lights comparable to those mentioned

above. They covered the entire sky, being

conspicuous toward the south. The mag-

netic needle was deflected 2°.

THERMOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ON SEA

AND LAKE WATER

During my American travels I occasionally

sought to ascertain the difference between the

temperature of the air and water. Since some are

desirous of such information from various loca-

tions, I hereby take the opportunity to present

to Kongl. Vetenskaps Academien a part of the

observations I had the opportunity to make. I

am fully aware of the inadequacy of these reports,

especially in regard to the lack of past records.

However, since complete records are lacking, we

must content ourselves with those of recent years.

They may throw some light on the situation but

definite conclusions cannot be drawn until more

is known.

My observations were made as follows: An

ordinary Swedish thermometer was used, the

degrees given refer to the degree above the freez-

ing point, dates used are new style. The ther-

mometer, when used in the open air, was always

hung in the shade. When an experiment was con-

ducted in a lake, river, or spring, the water was

not dipped up in a pail or any other vessel, but the

thermometer was dropped directly into the lake,

river, or spring and allowed to remain for a suffi-

cient period of time. In determining the tempera-

ture of sea water while sailing, it was necessary

to take the water up in a bucket. The thermome-

ter was then submerged more than halfway down

into the water in the bucket at the moment the

LARSEN: KALM’S METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Pe

water was drawn up. I was not satisfied with one

bucket but used a number, at least four for each

test. The thermometer nearly always gave the

same reading for each bucket. The sea water was

from the surface and not from the depths from

which I had no way of obtaining samples. Deep

wells also necessitated the use of buckets. The

thermometer was placed in the bucket as soon as

it was drawn and several buckets were tested.

1. Observations on sea water in the ocean.

1748. August 11, in the channel directly opposite

Plymouth.

12:30 p.m. The thermometer

in the open air 181!4°

in sea water 1814°

4 p.m. The thermometer

in open air 201¢°

in sea water 18°

August 20, in the ocean between Hurope and

America.

2 p-m. at 44°30’ lat., 27° long. west of

London.

The thermometer

In open air

in sea water

—

201°

Later, when I took the thermometer up out of

the water and held it in the air, it dropped to 19°

- but went up again. This shows that the air is

cooler after it has touched the water since the

temperature always drops a little when the

thermometer is first drawn from the water.

August 22, 1:30 p.m.

Temperature of the air 2314°

Temperature of the water 2314°

The thermometer registered 2114° immedi-

ately after being withdrawn from the water.

A sharp drop in temperature occurred if a

wind was blowing when the thermometer was

removed from the water.

August 28, 2 p.m. at 40° 50’ lat., 44° long.

west of London.

Temperature of the air 231°

Temperature of the water 2419°

Might not the wind which came from the

north have made the air cooler than the

water?

August 30, 2 p.m.

Temperature of the air 2416 °

Temperature of the water 241°

Sept. 4, noon. 40° 29’ lat., 49° 30’ long. west

of London.

Temperature of the air 2716°

Temperature of the water 231°

Sept. 4,8 p.m.

Temperature of the air 24°

Temperature of the water 22!°

Sept. 6, was the warmest day we had during

the entire voyage. 1 p.m.

Temperature of the air —_28!3°

Temperature of the water 27°

Sept. 10, 38° 24’ lat. at 3:30 p.m.

Temperature of the air 2334°

Temperature of the water 23!9°

1751, on the return voyage from America.

February 21, 36° 56’ lat. 2 p.m.

Temperature of the air 14°

Temperature of the water 18°

February 26, 34° 10’ lat. 10 a.m.

Temperature of the air 1314°

Temperature of the water 17°

March 3, 37° lat. 10:30 a.m.

Temperature of the air 1216°

Temperature of the water 1623°

March 20, 48° 58’ lat. 4 p.m.

Temperature of the air 101°

Temperature of the water 10°

2. Observations of various kinds of fresh water,

1749, June 12, between New York and Albany at

3 p.m.

Temperature of the air oy”

Temperature of the water

in the Hudson river 24°

1750, May 19, 5 p.m. The temperature of the water

in a deep well was determined.

Temperature of the air 30°

Temperature of the well

water 111%6°

On July 4 of the same year the temperature

of the water in the same well was taken

at 5 p.m.

Temperature of the air 3014°

Temperature of the well

water 11144°

Thus the high temperature of the air for the

entire period of May and June, when tempera-

tures were never less than 22° and often as high

as 33° or 384°, had not affected the low tempera-

ture of well water. The same temperature pre-

vailed in the water of three other deep wells

investigated on this date.

A Dutchman who lives in the so-called Blue

Mountains! between New York and Albany, had

an extremely deep well. The water of this well

was reputed to be the coldest in the summer of

any well in the community. It was tested July 21,

1750, at 6:30 a.m. The temperature of the air

was 181° but that of the well water was 9°. For

the entire previous month, the heat in this region

was such that the afternoon temperature at its

height varied from 28° to 32°.

4 Apparently Kalm used the term ‘‘Blue Moun-

tains’’ for all the mountains in the eastern part of

the present United States. ‘‘These mountains

which the English call the Blue Mountains, are of

considerable height and extend in one continuous

chain from north to south or from Canada to

Carolina.”—A. B. Benson, ed., The America of

1750; Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America1: 65.

New York, 1937.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 9

August 3, 7 p.m. The temperature of the water

in a brook several miles west of Albany was de-

termined. The sun shown on the water all day.

The temperature of the air was 15°, that of the

brook 141¢°.

August 14, 1 p.m. At Fort Oswego, the tem-

perature of the air was 241°. Near the shore of

Lake Ontario, the water at a depth of 1 aln® was

2516°.

Lake Ontario is one of the five large inland

lakes lying between 42° and 44° lat. Its length

from east to west is about 80 French miles and its

width about half that of the length. It receives all

the water from the other four large lakes, Lake

Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie, which

later flows into St. Lawrence River to the sea.

There are only a few small islands in Lake On-

tario, and these occur near the shore. The water

is clear, fresh and 60 famnar® deep in some places.

It may prove to be both laxative and diuretic to

a stranger in the region. Except for the ice along

the shore, the water never freezes. A peculiarity in

the lake, which I ascertained by several experi-

ments, is an ebb and flow or a daily rise and fall,

which is not associated with the moon or the hour

of the day. Occasionally, if infrequently, when the

water is completely calm, it suddenly becomes

agitated forming large waves like those produced

by a heavy storm. The air is so completely still

that scarcely a leaf or feather moves. Then 2-4

hours later, the waves disappear and the water

becomes almost motionless. I myself had a much

too realistic proof of this in 1750, when I was

returning by way of the lake from Niagara to

Oswego on August 29. During a dead calm, the

waves began to run heavily, although there was

not the slightest sign of a wind. Had we not

reached land, we could have suffered quite a

misadventure.

August 18, 3 p.m. Between the Oswego and

Niagara forts, the temperature of the water of

Lake Ontario was taken about a mile from shore

at a depth of several famnar. The temperature of

the air was 25° but that of the water 22°.

August 19. Temperature readings of the water

of the same lake were taken several miles nearer

to Niagara. They were taken half a mile from

the shore at the depth of a famn. The temperature

of the air was 24°. I held the thermometer under

water for one half hour and it registered 222°.

5 An aln is 24 to 36 inches.

6 A famn equals the compass of the arms, or

about 6 feet.

SEPTEMBER 1955 WEBER:

August 20. The temperature of the water was

tested at another location in the same lake. The

‘test was made at 5 a.m. near the shore in water

half an aln deep. The thermometer registered 14°

} in the air but 18° in the lake. At 5:30 a.m. the

temperature of the air was 14° and that of the

lake water 18° at a rifle-shot distance from shore

and a depth of a famn.

On a hillside between Burnets field and Albany

there was a spring whose water seemed unusually

- cold for drinking. It was tested on September 8

at 11:30 a.m. in the year just mentioned. Part of

the spring was exposed to the sun, and part of it

lay in the shade. The temperature of the open air

was 22°, but that of the spring was 6° as shown

by several tests. To find water registering only 6°

was most remarkable because the temperature of

the air had for a long time prior to these tests

ranged from 22° to 31° This was the coldest

spring water I found in America.

1751, January 17. I again tested the tempera-

ture of the water of the same deep well in Phila-

delphia which I had tested on May 19 and July 4

of the previous year. At 7:30 a.m. on January 17,

the temperature of the air was 7° below the

FUNGUS-GROWING

ANTS 275

freezing point, but the temperature of the water

pumped from the well registered 11° to 1115°

above the freezing point. The thermometer re-

mained in the bucket during the entire time that

the water was being pumped. The pumping con-

tinued until the water flooded the board covering

of the well. The temperature for the entire pe-

riod varied from 11° to 111¢° above the freezing

point. It is obvious from the foregoing that the

well water in Philadelphia has nearly the same

temperature for both summer and winter. How-

ever, it should be noted that the wells were very

deep, and those that I tested had pumps. The

wells were covered, preventing both daylight or

sunlight from reaching into them.

January 28. At 7 a.m. in Philadelphia the

temperature of the air was 4° above the freezing

point. The temperature of the water in the Dela-

ware River, which was full of floating ice. was

tested several times, and it remained at 15° above

the freezing point. At 2 p.m. the temperature of

the air was 9° above the freezing point. However,

the temperature of the water in the river, which

still contained floating ice, remained the same as

in the morning, 13° above freezing.

BIOLOGY —Fungus-growing ants and their fungi: Cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus

Mayr. Neau A. Weper, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa. (Communi-

eated by F. L. Campbell.)

(Received May 10, 1955)

The most widespread fungus-growing

ant, Cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus Mayr, is

also one of the smallest and least con-

spicuous. It is the only fungus-grower gen-

erally distributed on the West Indian

islands, and the species occurs with sub-

specific differences from the Gulf States of

the United States south to Bolivia and

Brazil. Wheeler (1907) described the habits

of the species (as the variety comalensis)

in Texas and its fungus as Tyridiomyces

formicarum, a yeast belonging to the Exo-

aceae. The general biology in_ several

countries has been described in a series of

studies (Weber, 1941-1947). The morel-like

growth on sterile nutrient agar from a pure

culture of the ant’s fungus was obtained in

1935 and again in 1954 (Weber, 1955). No

other species is known to grow a fungus re-

sembling this.

In the present study hitherto unknown

relations with another ant and with mites are

described and information given on the

culture of the fungus. The field studies in

south-central Florida were made possible

through the assistance of Richard Archbold

and the Archbold Biological Station; ad-

ditional material was secured by Leonard

Brass here.

HABITAT

The ant is versatile in the American

Tropics and may be found in a great variety

of sites where the humidity is high and

temperatures uniform. The most common

sites are in clay soil on the forest floor, in

humus, or in vegetal debris comprising the

floor litter. An empty snail shell, a curled

dead leaf, a rotted twig may suffice for a

colony of these small ants and they may

276

find requisite conditions among the roots of

epiphytes or in dead wood high in the

tropical rain forest canopy. Reflecting their

versatility in Panama City, Panama, during

the rainy season in July 1954 was a nest on

the concrete cylinder above ground which

protected a gas meter. The cylinder was 17

em high by 386 cm in diameter and was

covered loosely by a concrete cover. In the

narrow space on the rim under the cover,

a colony had walled off an elliptical area

36 by 17 mm and 1-2 mm high in which

the entire nest with fungus-garden was

formed. During dryer periods the ants

would move down into the soil.

The ants show less versatility in southern

Florida where the humidity and temper-

atures are more variable. At Key West the

ants nested in porous limestone soil whose

surface layer would quickly dry out. Winged

males and females August 18 were clinging

under a dry, flat rock while the brood and

garden were kept in much deeper chambers.

At Parker Islands (Highland County) the

ants nested at the base of a large cabbage

palm (Sabal palmetto (Walt.)) in a swampy

area. In Highland Hammock State Park

the ants nested at the base of a pine tree

(Pinus elliotti Engelm.) in the midst of a

large colony of Wasmannia auropunctata

Roger. Both species nested between the

paper-thin layers of bark at and just below

soil level. During the rainy season at the

Archbold Biological Station in August 1954

the ants were found nesting under wood in

soil chambers, in soil about fern roots at the

edge of a pool and in a rotted stump of wax

myrtle (Cerothamnus ceriferus (l.)), all in

shaded sites as in the Tropics. The rains

were too intermittent to permit more wide-

spread nesting.

THE NEST

The Florida nests were representative of

those in the Tropics. The ants form irregular

chambers when they do not occupy a cavity

already made and these are a few millimeters

in dimensions. The fungus-garden consists of

the small, compact masses or bromatia

stuck to the substrate. Insect excrement is

commonly used and frequently the bromatia

rest on pieces of insect integument that the

ants bring in to the nest. The brood is kept

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 9

separate from the garden in contrast to all

other species, which keep the brood in the

cells of the garden.

One of the Archbold Station nests was at

the edge of an artificially-maintained pool

among fern roots and humus in the shade.

Since the roots and humus extended to

water line, the site was always moist. The

ants had irregular chambers in the top 2-5

em of material and were in the midst of a

large nest of Wasmannia auropunctata

Roger. Thirty meters distant from this nest

was one in the above-noted wax myrtle

stump, that itself was in the midst of a

thicket of palmetto and other plants. In

August the ants nested slightly above and

below the general ground level. This colony,

too, was in the midst of a far larger Was-

mannia nest.

ADAPTATIONS TO THE FLORIDA WINTER

Of the two fungus-growers at the Arch-

bold Station, this species and T’rachymyrmex

septentrionalis seminole Wheeler, the latter

is far more tolerant of winter coolness and

dryness. During a few days visit in December

1954 the coldest weather of the winter oc-

curred and permitted observations on

winter tolerance.

At the pool margin where an active nest

had existed in August, the pool water was

14° C. at 7 am. on December 21; lawn

grass in the open was covered with frost at

0° C. The humus surface at the pool was

5.6° C. and at 100 cm in the air it was

5.2° C. These were the lowest temperatures

in the December 20-26 period and daily

search of the area, including superficial

layers of roots and humus at the exact

summer nest site, showed the Cyphomyrmex

to be absent until the 26th. By this time the

weather had gradually warmed so that

by 2:10 p.m. the humus surface temperature

in the shade was 22.5° C. (in the sun 24.7°

C.) and the shade air temperature at 100

em was 23.7° C. At a depth of 2.5 cm in the

humus at 2:53 p.m. the temperature was

18.5° C. and at 5 em 18.0° C. Several workers

were carrying others and this would be a

habit permitting a few, which had become

warmed, to carry out others, thereby mak-

ing possible a more general activity of the

colony at the temperature threshold. The

SEPTEMBER 1955

ants went down irregular openings among

the roots close to a large orange spot con-

sisting of solidly packed Wasmannia workers

under a dry leaf, which were also becoming

warmed at the surface. One Cyphomyrmex

worker carried a larva that was covered

with the characteristic fungus of the species.

It seemed that a few of the ants were mov-

ing from one site near the pool water to a

more distant site.

The waxmyrtle stump appeared to contain

only the large Wasmannia colony on

December 20-26. The ants were sluggish

during the cooler weather and still more

adaptable than the Cyphomyrmex in toler-

ating dryer conditions of the rotted wood.

None of the fungus-growers was found in

deeper and adequately moist portions.

It would appear that about 18° C. is the

critical lower limit of Cyphomyrmex activity

and that even at 22° C. there is little moving

about. Close to the Gulf coast at Fort

Myers on December 23 several workers

were found at the same shaded place as in

August and the soil surface temperatures

here were more generally in the 20°’s C.

BEHAVIOR OF THE ANTS

Though the workers are usually slow-

moving and become immobile at the slightest

disturbance, they frequently moved faster

in Florida during the summer than at the

usual tropical site because of the higher

temperatures. The air temperature was

often 30° C., to a high of about 37° C., and

the soil surface also markedly warmer

(30° C. and more) than they generally en-

countered in the tropics. Instead of moving

slowly, they would, when pursued, some-

times run as rapidly as the average ant and

sought to escape rather than “feign death.”

In “feigning death,” the ants quickly curl up

their legs, fold their antennae close to the

head and bend their heads and gasters to-

gether so that they appear almost invisible

bits of dirt when casually examined.

The ants spend much time in grooming

the forelimbs and antennae and other parts

of the body. Regardless of how dusty an

ant may become momentarily, it keeps its

antennal funiculus immaculate by drawing

it through its mouthparts, with mandibles

WEBER: FUNGUS-GROWING ANTS

277

widespread, and licking and cleaning it.

The comb at the base of the foretibiae is

used to clean all parts of the body within

reach, particularly the antennae and other

legs. They also clean one another. In

grooming each other the ant may carefully

go over a large portion of the body. In one

instance a_ slightly callow worker was

watched as it groomed another of the same

age. The one being groomed turned over on

its side, like a dog or monkey would, and

permitted the other to lick the entire gular

surface thoroughly, the entire dorsal sur-

faces of the thorax and gaster, the apex of

the gaster and other parts for over three

minutes. The groomer kept its mandibles

closed, extruding the other mouthparts, and

continually played its antennal tips against

the parts being cleaned. The grooming of

each other and the cleaning of the brood is a

significant and vital part of their activities.

It removes alien bacteria and fungi and

may also have a nutritive function so far

as the brood is concerned.

Though the normal food of the ants

consists of their bromatia, they will feed on

their own damaged brood. A larva that was

accidentally damaged in collecting the

colony was seen to be pinched hard by the

mandibles of two workers and its Juices were

lapped up. The mandibles could be seen

meeting through the integument. Four

ants were later on it, feeding intently. The

integument is sufficiently tough and turgid

in the healthy large larvae and pupae so that

the ants would have considerable difficulty in

piercing it. On another occasion the carcass

of a shrivelled white pupa was seen carried

that had been treated in the same manner.

The behavior of the ants with their

bromatia is described under the fungus

gardens.

CARE OF BROOD

The brood is kept separate from the

garden and is segregated according to size;

large larvae may be mingled with pupae.

The brood is usually enveloped in a my-

celium that differs from that in other attines

in being almost granular in superficial

appearance, consisting of dense masses or

tufts that are always connected by ordinary

hyphal strands. Under a 32 binocular the

tufts show as a more concentrated form of

bromatia than in other attine species. This

type of mycelium with hyphae differs

markedly from the cheese-like bromatia

found in the garden of these ants. About 200

tufts were estimated to be on one pupa.

Eggs and the smallest larvae as well as

larger brood may be covered with the

mycelium. The position and frequency of

the tufts indicate that they sometimes may

be planted by the workers.

Fia. 1.—Nest of Cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus

Mayr in a Petri dish. The brood and fungus-garden

are segregated, larvae at the left, pupae at the

upper center, and bromatia of the garden at the

right. The brood is covered with a mycelium of

different form from the bromatia but developed

from them.

Larvae are fed as in other attines by

placing the fungus on the mouthparts. In

this species the fungus fed to the larvae

seems to consist only of the cheeselike

bromatia. As the larva feeds, the mouth-

parts go in and out like pistons while the

bromatium is rasped and the juices imbibed.

CYPHOMYRMEX FUNGUS-GARDENS

The fungus-gardens consist of polygonal

masses one-quarter to one-half millimeter

in diameter that are termed bromatia al-

though the bromatia of all other species are

very different. Instead of aggregates of

clavate hyphae (gongylidia) clustered to-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 9

gether in varying degrees of compactness,

the bromatia of Cyphomyrmex rimosus are

solid masses of cells. They usually grow on

insect feces, but carcasses of insects are

commonly found in the nest with bromatia

stuck to them. In feeding, an ant will pick

up a bromatium, hold it between its fore

feet and mandibles, rotate it with the fore

tarsi while the mouthparts abrade the sur-

face or score it, and imbibe the juices. If

the mandibles are kept closed, the other

mouthparts do the abrading; if they are

kept open, they are used to score the surface

of the bromatium. The antennal tips play

over the bromatial surface continually.

One ant may take a bromatium from another

and commence eating without evoking

hostility. During this treatment the broma-

tium becomes much reduced in size and

glistening from its Juices and the saliva of

the ant. It is then placed back on the sub-

strate, sometimes after defecating a drop of

feces on it.

At times a score or more of the bromatia

may be piled together in the nest away from

substrate. Small bromatia may be somewhat

of an opaque, dead white; larger ones are

commonly pale amber or grayish with a

touch of brown. In a pile the bromatia may

develop a short, scanty growth of hyphae

and this is particularly true of the small,

pale type. This hyphal development is ap-

parently intermediate between the bare

bromatia and the tufted mycelial covering

of the brood.

ARTIFICIAL FUNGUS CULTURES

Bromatia were transferred to tubes of

sterile Sabouraud’s dextrose agar and com-

monly contaminations developed which

overwhelmed the ant fungus. An August 5,

1954, series of transfers, for example, de-

veloped by August 9 (at 24° C.) concentric

layers of dark and light hyphae about a

white center which produced an “eyed”

effect; another contaminant produced a

luxuriant cottony mycelium; a third de-

veloped a bacterial or yeasty slime about the

bromatia. From a single bromatium trans-

ferred August 11, however, an entirely

different growth developed. It was kept

until August 22 at 24° C. and thereafter

under variable temperatures. On August 12

SEPTEMBER 1955 WEBER:

it appeared to have grown, and on August 14

it had a few thin hyphae growing out on the

-agar surface from a definitely larger mass.

By August 17 it had not only increased in

size but had developed a raised base that

was covered with hyphae. By August 22 the

much larger mass was transferred to a

flask. In the meanwhile, an August 11

transfer of a cluster of about a score of

bromatia, kept under the same conditions,

by August 20 had increased in number

through budding and the individuals had

also grown larger. By August 21 this mass

had increased in height from an original

1-2 mm to 5 mm on a broad base 1 mm.

thick.

Both cultures and their transfers de-

veloped during September a morel-type of

fungus covered with a thin growth of short

hyphae that closely resembled that which

I grew in 1935 in Trinidad (Weber, 1945)

from the same species of ant. This was

verified as the true ant fungus as follows:

On September 13 the flat basal layer of

one of the cultures was cut into two pieces

and introduced into separate containers,

each containing ants from a colony different

from that which served as the original

source for the artificial cultures. The layer

was tough in consistency. These ants had

been deprived of their fungus since ap-

proximately August 26 but had access to

corn sugar syrup in the interval. At first

the ants only occasionally investigated the

cultured fungus and seemed to feed briefly,

but it was not clear whether they were

feeding on a film of agar or on the fungus.

Five hours later it was clear that the fungus

was the attraction and seven, then eight,

ants were in attendance in one container, all

busily engaged in cutting or attempting to

eut the tough piece. This fungus had the

same color and consistency as their normal

bromatia. Two ants were similarly engaged

with the second portion. Within two more

hours the ants had cut small pieces about

the size of their normal bromatia, or smaller,

and had piled them in a moist situation. On

following days the ants cared for these

pieces as though they were their own

bromatia and by September 22 consumed

all in one of the containers. The experiment

was then repeated with this group of ants

FU NGUS-GROWING ANTS 279

and a third fungal mass, with similar results.

The morel growth proved to be 0.43-0.49

mm thick, whether folded or lying flat.

Within three hours the ants had cut much

of the fungus into bromatia-size particles.

Five days later the remainder and uncut

fungal mass was sprouting hyphae wildly

and was clearly abandoned, while the arti-

ficial bromatia were being cared for and

carried about normally.

Fic. 2.—Morel-like growth from bromatia of

Cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus Mayr developing

in a flask of Sabouraud’s agar. Phot. Lloyd Mer-

ritts.

During October various portions of

colonies were similarly given the artificially

cultured fungus with the same result. They

were also given feces of wood-boring beetles

which they accepted and used as substrate

for the bromatia. The ants were often seen

clearly to ingest the fungus as in nature.

The ants were able to keep these bromatia

or their successors alive for more than six

months.

RELATIONS WITH WASMANNIA

AUROPUNCTATA ROGER

The ranges of Cyphomyrmex rimosus

minutus Mayr and the much smaller

Wasmannia auropunctata Roger are com-

parable in the American Tropics, and both

are common ants on many of the West

Indian islands. The only previous record of

the two being more than casually related

appears to be from Venezuela (Weber,

1947, p. 145) where I found that ‘‘associated

with the Cyphomyrmex (C. rimosus curio-

pensis Weber) was a nest of the tiny myr-

280

micine ant, Wasmannia auropunctata Roger,

whose chambers must have anastomosed

with those of the other ant.”

Of seven nests of Cyphomyrmex examined

in southern Florida, three were intimately

associated with more populous Wasmannia

nests and two had the latter nesting in the

immediate vicinity. One of the remaining

two had recently been formed under a

temporarily wet piece of wood and the other

nested at the base of a palm in a swampy

situation where Wasmannia was not taken.

Wasmannia occurred at two of the sites in

December as they did in August and showed

a greater tolerance to dry conditions, and

perhaps cold, than did the fungus-grower.

When portions of any of these nests were

gathered with adjacent Wasmannia cham-

bers and placed in observation nests, there

was no mass slaughter of either. Rather

there was a milling about, with few of the

two species meeting in combat, and a rapid

reassortment of brood and ants with the

two taking up separate places. Nevertheless,

with the passage of time, dead ants of both

species were commonly found with enough

observations to suggest strongly that

combats between the two were responsible.

Occasionally a Cyphomyrmex would be seen

with a dead Wasmannia attached to an

appendage. One, for example, had the

smaller ant attached to the left posterior

leg and walked easily, considering the

impediment. Some of the larger ants were

found with all appendages intact and lying

on their backs or sides. The observation

below shows the effectiveness of the sting

of the smaller species.

A Wasmannia worker that was not one-

third the bulk of the Cyphomyrmex found

a partly shriveled larva attached to the

surrounding soil by a strand of tissue. It

fed by licking abrasively and did not attempt

to carry the larva away. Immediately one,

then two other Cyphomyrmex came up to it,

stalking like miniature rhinoceroses and

walking directly up to the smaller ant.

It ignored them, though hostility was in-

dicated by their stance, and kept on feeding.

A fourth Cyphomyrmex approached the

tableau but went off. One of the larger ants

finally pushed its head against the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 9

Wasmannia, which kept on feeding. I then

saw that this ant had the common Cypho-

myrmex type of mite attached to its gular

surface and this, too, was extending its

palps to the food.

The Cyphomyrmex with head next to the

smaller ant suddenly attempted to sieze the

food, whereupon the Wasmannia quickly

curled its gaster forward and stung the

other ant in the mouth. It recoiled on its

back as though momentarily paralyzed,

then regained its feet and went off. Close

to this scene was another of the larger ants

on its back, feebly waving its appendages

as though paralyzed and unable to regain its

feet. Other Cyphomyrmezx in this and other

nests were in similar attitudes and it is

probable that these also had been stung

by Wasmannia. Ten minutes later the

Wasmannia was still feeding.

MITES WITH THE CYPHOMYRMEX

The common occurrence of mites with

this fungus-grower in Florida is a complica-

tion that seems never to have been realized.

It has not been observed to a comparable

extent in any of the numerous species that

I have kept under observation in Tropical

America nor is it so recorded in the liter-

ature. Hidmann (1937, pp. 403-404) lists

mites from Alta sexdens nests in Brazil but

mostly as coprophiles or neutral synokoetes

and never as ectoparasites or in phoresy.

All colonies taken at the Archbold Bio-

logical Station contained mites that were

riding on the worker ants. Since the ants

are small and the mites much smaller they

were commonly recognized under the

binocular microscope. In this restricted

field of vision as many as seven out of

sixteen ants in view at once had mites on

them although commonly two or three ants

out of ten might show mites. Since the mites

can quickly leave their hosts and some may

be hidden on underparts of the ants a

complete census cannot readily be made.

Frequently an ant will have more than one

mite. Two mites may occupy opposite sides

of the ant thorax, may face each other here

or be in tandem position. One ant had two

on the thorax and one on the underside of

the gaster. The head and gaster are also

SEPTEMBER 1955

common sites. The mites have no difficulty

/in moving from one site to another on an

ant and hold on tightly with body appressed

and mouthparts porrect.

These mites, unfortunately not yet

identified, closely resemble those taken on

Trachymyrmex septentrionalis seminole nest-

ing nearby and may well be the same. Two

collections from the latter ant were identi-

fied as Garmania sp. (Phytoselidae) by

G. W. Wharton.

A transfer of a mite from one ant to

another was watched under the binocular.

It had been riding on the gaster of one ant

when another brushed by, waving its an-

tennae over the other ant as is customary.

In a flash the mite grabbed the left antennal

tip, taking a position with its head facing

proximally, and held tightly. The ant did

“not attempt to dislodge the mite and had

already two others, one on the thorax, the

other on the gaster. The mite on the an-

tenna grasped firmly with all legs and kept

its palpi appressed as the ant attempted to

force its way through a narrow passageway,

antennae probing the meanwhile. The

mite had a rough ride but was not dislodged.

A mite was watched for more than ten

minutes as it fed on a bromatium. It fed

from below only, “pecking” at the fungus

repeatedly and clearly ingesting it. The

palps played continually over it. Some mites

had their short mouthparts, in addition to

the lateral palpi, appressed to the integu-

ment of the ants and may have been in-

gesting the epidermal secretions.

ANTIBIOTIC AND GROWTH-PROMOTING

ASPECTS OF THE SYMBIOSIS

This ant fungus has not been recognized

outside of the nest and appears easily to be

overwhelmed by other fungi in artificial

WEBER: FUNGUS-GROWING ANTS 281

culture. It is clearly maintained by the

activities of the ant and is cultivated only

in the form of small compact masses or

bromatia. The same fungus grows regularly

on the eggs, larvae and pupae in a hyphal

form. In feeding on a bromatium, the ant

adds its saliva to the fungus and may def-

ecate on it before replacing it in the garden.

In licking the brood, a regular feature of

attine ant behavior, saliva must also be

added to the integument. This may be

nutritive for the mycelium, or the mycelium

may digest substances from the integument.

The ants keep each other immaculate by

constant grooming, in which the integument

is well licked. The saliva added to the inte-

gument may prevent the development of

alien fungi and bacteria.

From the above review of behavioral

features it would appear that distinctive

antibiotic and growth-promoting features

are produced in the symbiosis. A study of

the roles of the ant feces and saliva is in-

dicated.

REFERENCES

Emmann, H. Die Gédste und Gastverhdltnisse der

Blatischneiderameise Atta sexdens L. Zeit-

sehr. Morph. und Okol. Tiere 32: 391-462. 1937.

Weser, N. A. The biology of the fungus-growing

ants, Part VII. Rev. de Entomologia 12: 93-

130. 1941.

. The biology of the fungus-growing ants.

Part VIIT. Rev. de Entomologia 16: 1-88. 1945.

The biology of the fungus-growing ants.

Part IX. Rev. de Entomologia 17: 114-172.

1946.

Lower Orinoco River fungus-growing ants

(Hymenoptera: Formicidae, Attini). Bol. Ent.

Venezolana 6: 143-161. 1947.

Pure cultures of fungi produced by ants.

Science 121(3134): 109. 1955.

WHEELER, W. M. The fungus-growing ants of

North America. Bull. Amer. Nat. Hist. 23: 746-

753. 1907.

282

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 9

ENTOMOLOGY .—Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States National

Museum: I, The genera Armigeres, Psorophora, and Haemagogus (Diptera,

Culicidae). ALAN Stonen, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, and KENNETH

L. Knicur, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, Department of the Navy!

(Received April 13, 1955)

Holotype designation by mosquito tax-

onomists has become a standard practice

only within comparatively recent times. As

a result, many mosquito species are presently

represented by more than one type speci-

men (syntypes or cotypes). Since the

fixation of a specific name to a single speci-

men is essential to sound taxonomy, it is

desirable practice in such situations for

subsequent workers to designate one of the

original type series as a lectotype. The

mosquito collection of the United States

National Museum contains many such

syntype series, and it is proposed to prepare

a series of papers for the purpose of designat-

ing lectotypes from them. In addition,

pertinent notes will be given on some of the

holotypes in the collection. The present

paper deals with the genera Armigeres,

Psorophora, and Haemagogus.

The types are stored separately from the

main body of the collection, the pinned

specimens being in separate trays in drawers,

and the slides lying flat in metal cabinets.

These are holotypes, lectotypes, or selected

syntypes pending lectotype designation.

They are arranged alphabetically by species,

subspecies, or varietal name, regardless of

their original or present generic position or

specific synonymy.

In checking over the older species,

particularly those of Coquillett and of

Dyar and Knab, it has not always been

possible to determine whether or not a

holotype had been designated in the original

description. Several localities may have been

given, followed by the line ‘‘Type.—Cat.

No. US.N.M.” In the collection,

sometimes only one specimen bears this

type number, sometimes several or all of

them. If a single specimen only is labeled as

1The opinions or assertions contained here are

the private ones of the writers and are not to be

construed as official or reflecting the views of the

Navy Department or the Naval service at large.

type, we accept it as the holotype, and if

this is not considered a validly proposed

holotype, acceptance of such a specimen as

type in this paper is to be considered as

lectotype designation. Where more than one

specimen is labeled type, we have always

selected a lectotype. Most, but not all, of

the types bear catalogue numbers, and

where we refer to red U.S.N.M. labels we

mean labels bearing the words ‘Type (or

“Paratype,” “or ~ Cotypem aN

WESsNeMvieZ

In this paper the names are arranged

alphabetically within the genera and are

listed under the original generic combi-

nations. Taxonomic notes are given only

where something has been discovered that

alters the present concept of the species, or

are otherwise pertinent. We have placed

lectotype labels on all the specimens

selected as lectotypes in this paper.

Genus Armigeres Theobald

Desvoidea fusca var. joloensis Ludlow, Can. Ent.

36: 236. 1904.

According to the original description, the

series consisted of “‘23 (males and females).’’ The

collection has 2 males and 3 females bearing the

label ‘“T'ype No. 27789, U.S.N.M.,” and only

these are listed in the type catalogue. One of the

males bears a determination label in Ludlow’s

handwriting, ‘‘Desvoidea joloensis Ludl. Jolo Jolo,

P.I. May. Type C.8.L.” The other specimens

bear only the red U.S.N.M. type labels. We have

selected the male bearing Ludlow’s label as lecto-

type, and have mounted the genitalia on a slide.

Culex subalbatus Coquillett, Proc. U.S. Nat.

Mus. 21: 302. 1898.

This species was described from 6 females,

each spread on a card mounted on a separate pin.

We consider the holotype to be the only speci-

men bearing the label “Type No. 3962, U.S.

N.M.” It also bears a determination label in

Coquillett’s handwriting.

SEPTEMBER 1955

Genus Psorophora Robineau-Desvoidy

Psorophora agogglyia Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens.

10: 115. 1922.

U.S.N.AL) are in the collection, bearing the data

“Museum Paris, Gran Chaco, bords du Rio

Tapenaga, Colonie Florencia, E.-R. Wagner

1903.’ We have selected one of these, in excel-

lent condition, as the lectotype.

Janthinosoma champerico Dyar and Knab, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 134. 1906.

This species was described from a single female

labeled ‘“‘Champerico, Guatemala/Fredk. Knab

Collector/Type No. 9968, U.S.N.M.” and bear-

ing the determination label in Dyar’s hand-

writing, “Janthinosoma champerico D. & K.

Type.” This specimen is in good condition except

for the loss of segments 4 and 5 of the left hind

tarsus.

Janthinosoma coffini Dyar and Knab, Proce. Biol.

Soc. Washington 19: 134. 1906.

The original ‘‘8 specimens, Nassau, Bahamas,

B. W.1., June 22, 1903 (T.H. Coffin)” are in the

collection. All are females and one bears the red

label “Type No. 9969, U.S.N.M.” and the

determination label in Dyar’s handwriting,

“Janthinosoma coffini D. & K. Type.” This

specimen, which we consider the holotype, is in

good condition except for the loss of three legs.

Janthinosoma columbiae Dyar and Knab, Proc.

Biol. Soe. Washington 19: 135. 1906.

Of the 59 specimens of this species originally

listed (‘“Type—Cat. No. 9974, U. 8S. Nat.

Mus.’’), 42 are now in the collection. Only one

bears the red U.S.N.M. type label. It also bears

the label ‘Iss. [X.27 Grassym.” and the deter-

mination label in ODyar’s handwriting,

“Janthinosoma columbiae D. & K. Type” and

is a female in good condition. This is one of the

Grassymead, Va., specimens and we here con-

sider it to be the holotype.

Psorophora (Psorophora) ctites Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 6: 126. 1918.

This was described from three syntype females

collected at Brownsville, Tex., August 28, 1916,

by M. M. High, Type no. 21717, U.'S.N.M. These

are all in the collection and the one bearing the

determination label ‘‘Psorophora ctites Dyar,

Type” in Dyar’s handwriting is here selected as

lectotype.

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOBRS. I 283

Culex cyanescens Coquillett, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 10: 137. 1902.

Six females are mentioned in the original

description, ‘““Type: Cat. No. 6308, U.S.N.M.”;

these, each bearing a red type label, are to be

found in the collection and only two are listed in

the type catalogue. One specimen, dated June 4,

bears a determination label in Coquillett’s hand-

writing, but the other syntype, bearing the labels

“Coll. Townsend/Brownsville, Tex./May,” is in

better condition and is here designated as lecto-

type.

Culex discolor Coquillett, Can. Ent. 35: 256. 1903.

This species was based on a single female in

good condition, bearing the labels ‘‘Delair,

N. J. V1.28/Type No. 6894, U.S.N.M.”.

Janthinosoma echinata Grabham, Can. Ent. 38:

311. 1906.

The description gives no indication of the num-

ber of adults in the original series nor where the

specimens were deposited. There is a female in the

collection bearing the labels ‘Kingston, Jamaica /

M. Grabham Collector/See slide No. 373/

Janthinosoma echinata Gbm [Dyar’s hand-

writing].”’ The slide is of the female genitalia and

is labeled “Type” by Dyar. The specimen is in

moderately good condition. Mr. Mattingly wrote

us that there are “4 pinned adults labeled

‘Kingston, Jamaica, Dr. Grabham’ in the British

Museum which were included by Theobald in

his description of Janthinosoma sayi var. jamai-

censis. That they formed part of Grabham’s type

series is, I should say, doubtful and certainly it

could not be proved.” From Dyar’s correspond-

ence with Grabham it is evident that part or all

of Grabham’s collection in Jamaica was de-

stroyed by an earthquake. In the absence of any

information to the contrary, we consider this

female labeled by Dyar to be the holotype.

Janthinosoma floridense Dyar and Knab, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 135. 1906.

This species was described from 105 speci-

mens which were entered by Dyar in the US.

N.M. Type Catalogue as “Type and cotypes,”

all collected in Florida. The collection now con-

tains 95 of these, and all bear the collector label

“Pyar and Caudell” and a field number. A fe-

male bears the number “48,” red label ‘Type

No. 9972, U.S.N.M.,” and the determination

label in Dyar’s handwriting, ‘“Janthinosoma

floridense D. & K. Type.” This specimen is the

284

only one bearing a red type label, and we con-

sider it to be the holotype. Dyar and Caudell’s

notes show no. 43 to have come from Alligator

Creek, Fla.

Psorophora funiculus Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 8:

141. 1920.

This species was originally described from

“Types, two males, two females, No. 23088,

U.S. Nat. Mus., Rio Frio, Dept. Magdalena,

Colombia, March 4, 1913 (J. H. Egbert). The

collection has these syntypes with the exception

noted below. The date on all of them is ‘3-5

March 1913.” One of the males is intact and this

is here designated as lectotype. The second male

is lost from the pin but most of the abdomen is

mounted on a slide. The two females are in good

condition.

Aedes haruspicus Dyar and Knab, Proc. U. 8.

Nat. Mus. 35: 56. 1908.

This species was described from ‘“T'wenty-one

specimens, Port Antonio, Jamaica, bred from

larvae in seaside pools, November 15, 1906 (M.

Grabham).”’ The collection contains 8 males and

8 females of this series. One of each sex bears a

red label, “Type No. 11995,.U.S.N.M.,” and the

female, in good condition, bears the determina-

tion label in Dyar’s handwriting,’ “Aedes

haruspicus D. & K. Type.” We select this fe-

male as lectotype.

Aedes horridus Dyar and Knab, Proc. U. 8. Nat.

Mus. 35: 56. 1908.

The original description lists 56 specimens

from a number of localities, with no sex given,

followed by the lne “Type.—Cat. No. 11999,

US.N.M.” The collection now contains 42 of

these 56 specimens. One female bears the labels

“Victoria, Texas V.30/W. E. Hinds/Type No.

11999 U.S.N.M. [red]/Aedes horridus D. & K.

Type [Dyar’s handwriting].”” A second female

from Greenville, Texas, bears the same red type

label. These two specimens are designated speci-

mens I and II respectively in the following dis-

cussion. In addition, there are 40 specimens

labeled by one of us [A. §.] with red U.S.N.M.

cotype labels at the time the series was being

restudied.

When Roth (1945) restudied these specimens,

he discovered that two species were involved. He

selected as a lectotype not one of the two speci-

mens marked with a red type label in the collec-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 9

tion, but one of those marked ‘“‘cotype” that was

listed in the original description, from Corinth,

Mississippi. The identity of Psorophora horrida,

as based upon this lectotype, has become ac-

cepted in current mosquito literature in the

United States. For the reasons that follow, we

accept this as a validly selected lectotype and

reject the specimen (No. I) labeled by Dyar as

type, as the type of horridus.

1. Two specimens (I and IT) out of the original —

56 were originally labeled with identical red type

labels, and these were from different localities.

A lectotype designation was necessary, since

these are obviously syntypes.

2. The U.S.N.M. Type Catalogue gives a

number of localities and several collectors, and

there is no distinction between types and co-

types or paratypes in the catalogue, these all

being designated as “Types.” More than just

the two specimens bearing the type labels were

considered as types in the catalogue.

3. Roth examined all but one of the speci-

mens listed in our first paragraph. His opimion

that two species were involved in determinations

of Psorophora horrida was based on both female

and male characters, but since only females were

included in the original series he selected a female

from Corinth, Miss., as the lectotype. Specimen

I was not at the Museum at the time Roth

studied the series, since types or selected syn-

types were removed from wartime dangers.

4. Howard, Dyar, and Knab (1917) accepted

Felt’s (1904) description and photograph of the

male genitalia of Janthinosoma lute as being of

the male of horrida, and redrew it. Roth accepted

this opinion and showed that the species having

silvery white knee spots and other external

characters had genitalia of this sort. The original

description of horridus states, “the knees silvery

white,” in this respect not agreeing with speci-

men I. All the characters of specimen I agree

with P. longipalpis Roth, while specimen II

appears to be horrida as defined by Roth. He

could have selected II as the lectotype, but ap-

parently preferred to take a specimen from

nearer the center of distribution of the species.

Psorophora howardvi Coquillett, Can. Ent. 33:

258. 1901. :

The original 38 males and 1 female of this

species, from Hartsville, S. C., July 238, 1901,

W. K. Coker, are in the collection. One of the

males, in good condition, bears the red label

SEPTEMBER 1955

“Type No. 5793, U.S.N.M.” and Coquillett’s

determination label, and we consider it the

holotype.

Janthinosoma indoctum Dyar and Knab, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 161. 1906.

In the original description this name was said

to be proposed “‘for the larvae called ‘/Janthino-

soma scholasticus Theobald’ (Journ. N. Y. Ent.

Soe. xiv, 182, 1906), but the authors described

the adult and gave as material ‘22 specimens,

Trinidad (F. W. Urich; A. Busck). Type—Cat.

No. 10026, U.S. Nat. Mus.” We find in the col-

lection one male bearing this type label and the

labels “17.3/Trinidad, W. I. Jan./Aug. Busck

Collector.”” This specimen, which has associated

with it a pupal skin on a slide, we consider the

holotype.

In addition there are 18 other specimens (14

females, 4 males) bearing the labels ‘42 [some

with subnumber]/Trinidad, W. I. Jun./Aug.

Busck Collector.” There is also one female

labeled ‘Trinidad, W. I., F. W. Urich.” These

19 specimens are presumably also of the type

series but do not bear type labels. Five of the

no. 42 series have associated pupal skins and

some of them fragments of larval skins mounted

on slides.

Janthinosoma infine Dyar and Knab, Journ.

New York Ent. Soc. 14: 181, 182. 1906.

The larva of this species is described in the key

on p. 181, and additional characters are given on

p. 182, and portions of the larva are figured. There

is no indication of the number of specimens in-

cluded nor is the adult described. Dyar and Knab

state that the larvae were collected by Busck in

Trinidad and Santo Domingo. The collection

contains no specimen bearing a type label, but

there are 19 males and 17 females collected by

Busck in Santo Domingo, a number with asso-

ciated larval and pupal skins. We have selected

as lectotype a larval skin bearing the number

103.1. Associated with this is a pupal skin on the

same slide and a pinned male in good condition

but with a portion of the abdomen separately

glued on the point. This male bears the labels

“103.1/St. Domingo, W. I. Aug./Aug. Busck

collector/See slide no. 193/infine [Dyar’s hand-

writing].”’ Slide no. 193 of genitalia did not come

from this specimen, however, since it has more

of the abdomen on the slide than is gone from

the pinned specimen, and it bears Busck no. 105.

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. I

285

Slide no. 192 bears Busck no. 103.1 and the

genitalia on this slide is with little doubt from

specimen no. 103.1. Data on this slide, no. 192,

are given under no. 193 in Dyar’s slide catalogue.

Janthinosoma insularius Dyar and Knab, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 135. 1906.

This species was described from “8 specimens,

Santo Domingo, W. I. (A. Busck), Type—Cat.

No. 9975, U.S. Nat. Mus.” These specimens, all

bearing Busck no. 108, are in the collection (5

females, 3 males), and one female, which we con-

sider the holotype, bears the red U.S.N.M. type

number label and Busck’s number 108.1. The

specimen is in fair condition and has associated

with it the larval and pupal skins on a slide.

Psorophora tracunda Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 19: 133. 1906.

This species was described from “5 specimens,

Puntarenas, Costa Rica (F. Knab), Type.—Cat.

No. 9965, U.S. Nat. Mus.” The collection now

contains 4 of these, 3 females and 1 male. We

consider the holotype to be a female bearing the

determination label in Dyar’s handwriting,

“Psorophora iracunda D. & K. Type” and the

U.S.N.M. red type label. The others do not bear

the red type numbers. All the specimens have

associated larval and pupal skins on slides, and

the genitalia of the male are mounted on a slide.

Psorophora (Janthinosoma) longipalpis Roth,

Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 47: 13. 1945.

The holotype is a male in good condition, with

the entire abdomen on a slide. There are 40

paratypes.

Culex nanus Coquillett, Can. Ent. 35: 256. 1903.

The original material consisted of ‘Four

specimens collected at Key West, Florida, in

August 1901 by Mr. August Busck and six speci-

mens by Mr. E. A. Schwarz, April 1 to 3, 1903.

Type—No. 6893, U. 8. National Museum.” All

10 of these female specimens are in the collection

and all bear identical red type labels. We select

as lectotype the one bearing Coquillett’s deter-

mination label, collected August 1901. It* is in

rather good condition, lacking one leg and part

of one wing.

Psorophora pisces Lassmann, Bol. Salub. y Asist.

no. 28-29, Jalapa, Veracruz, Agosto, p. 4,

11-12. 1944.

The total number of specimens was not indi-

286

cated in the original description, nor was a holo-

type designated, but the National Museum

possesses 10 females and 3 males of the original

series from Tempoal, Veracruz, Mexico, July

1944. The slide of the genitalia of one male is

labeled “Type” by the author, and that of

another “Paratype,” but these slides are not so

labeled as to tell which set of genitalia came

from which pinned male. It seems best, however,

to select the male slide labeled type as the lecto-

type, leaving the rest of the specimen uncertain.

There is no evidence that the series does not all

represent one species, and no reason to believe

that Lane (1953) was incorrect in considering P.

pisces Lassmann to be a synonym of P. champerico

(Dyar & Knab).

Psorophora saeva Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 19: 133. 1906.

Of the three original specimens only one can

be certainly recognized. This is a female, in good

condition except for lacking most of three legs

and the tip of one wing. It bears the red label

“Type No. 9964, U.S.N.M.” and the labels

“Trinidad, W. I./F. W. Urich/B4-1/Psorophora

D. & K. Type [Dyar’s handwriting].”’ This we

consider to be the holotype. No larval or pupal

skin has been found to bear the number B4-1.

Janthinosoma schwarei Dyar and Knab, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 135. 1906.

The single specimen from Cayamas, Cuba,

Type no. 9970, U.S.N.M., is a female in good

condition except for the loss of segments 4 and 5

of the left hind tarsus.

Taeniorhynchus signipennis Coquillett, Proc.

Ent. Soc. Washington 6: 167. 1904.

The original material of this species was stated

to be from ‘‘Monterey, Mexico. One female and

four males (the latter much abraded), bred by

Dr. Goldberger. Type—No. 8029, U.S. National

Museum.” All 5 of these specimens bear identical

red type labels. The female is in much better con-

dition than the males and it bears Coquillett’s

determination label, so we select it as lectotype.

Psorophora stigmatephora Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens.

10: 116. 1922.

The types were given as “two females, and one

male, No. 25756, U. S. Nat. Mus.”’ These syn-

types are in the collection, bearmg red type

number labels. We select as the lectotype the

male bearing the labels ‘““Museum Paris, Gran

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 9

Chaco, bords du Rio Tapenaga, Colonie Flo-

rencia, H.-R. Wagner 1903/1660.” This specimen

lacks one wing, one antenna, one palpus, and

three legs and the other wing is in poor condition.

The genitalia are mounted on slide no. 1660. One

female is in poor condition, the other in rather

good condition.

Janthinosoma teranum Dyar and Knab, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 135. 1906.

The original series consisted of “7 specimens,

Brownsville, Texas, May 21, 1904 (H.S. Barber).

Type.—Cat. No. 9971, U.S. Nat. Mus.” In the

type catalogue these are listed as 5 specimens,

“Type and cotypes.” The collection now con-

tains one female in good condition with the

determination label and red U.S.N.M. type

label, and 5 females bearing only date, locality,

and collector labels. We consider the specimen

labeled type to be the holotype.

Janthinosoma toltecwm Dyar and Knab, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 135. 1906.

This species was described from 89 specimens

entered by Dyar in the U.S.N.M. Type Cata-

logue under no. 9973, as “Type and cotypes.”

The collection now contains 72, all from Mexico,

the Dallas, Tex., specimens collected by Hinds

not having been found. The one specimen bearing

the red U.S.N.M. type label, which we here con-

sider to be the holotype, is a female in good con-

dition from Tehuantapec, Oaxaca, Mexico. It

bears the label “No. 286. See F. Knab’s Entom.

notes.”” These notes show the specimen to have

been collected as a larva, June 29, 1905, from

ditches of very foul water along railroad tracks.

This specimen also bears the label in Dyar’s

handwriting “Janthinosoma toltecum D. & K.

Type.”

Psorophora totonact Lassmann, Proc. Ent. Soc.

Washington 53: 285. 1951.

The holotype is an intact male in good con-

dition except for being somewhat greasy.

Janthinosoma vanhalli Dyar and Knab, Proce.

Biol. Soc. Washington 53: 285. 1906.

This species was described from 7 specimens

entered by Dyar in the U.S.N.M. Type Cata-

logue under no. 9967, as “Type and cotypes.”

All these specimens (5 females and 2 males) are

in the collection, and bear the label ‘““Paramaribo,

Surinam, Dr. Van Hell.” A female bearing the

red U.S.N.M. type label also bears the label

SEPTEMBER 1955

“called tigri-makoe” and the determination label

in Dyar’s handwriting ‘“Janthimosoma vanhalli

D. & K. Type.” This specimen is considered to

be the holotype.

Conchyliastes varipes Coquillett, Can. Ent. 36:

10. 1904.

The original description states “Five female

specimens, Type No. 7341, U.'S.N.M. Las Penas

and Tonala, Mexico (Dr. A. Dugés), and Agri-

cultural College, Mississippi (May 18, Glenn W.

Herrick).”” The collection has 4 of these speci-

mens, the Tonala specimen not having been

found, and two (Mexico and Mississippi) bear

identical red U.S.N.M. type labels. We select

the female bearing Coquillett’s determination

label, from Las Pefas, Mex. 7-18-03, A. Dugés, as

the lectotype. This is in fair condition except for

having two legs missing.

Psorophora virescens Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 19: 133. 1906.

The original description mentions 35. speci-

mens from Mexico and Costa Rica, ‘“Type.—

Cat. No. 9966, U. S. Nat. Mus.’ The collection

now contains 32 of these. We consider the holo-

type to be a female, in good condition, bearing

labels ““No. 309g See F. Knab’s Entom. Notes/

Almoloya, Oax. Mex./Type No. 9966 U.S.N.M./

Psorophora virescens D. & K. Type [Dyar’s

handwriting].”” None of the other specimens

bears the type number.

Genus Haemagogus Williston

Aedes affirmatus Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 19: 164. 1906.

The four original specimens, all females, are

in the collection bearing identical U.S.N.M. type

labels. The specimen from Salina Cruz, Oaxaca,

Mexico, bears the determination label “Aedes

affrmatus D. & K. Type” in Dyar’s handwrit-

ing. Later Dyar (1921:103) restricted the type

to this locality, thereby fixing this specimen as

lectotype.

Haemagogus anastasionis Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens.

9: 155. 1921.

This species was described from two males and

six females from Puntarenas, Costa Rica. These

eight specimens are in the collection, bearing

identical red U.S.N.M. type labels. One male

bears the number 1529 and the determination

label in Dyar’s handwriting ‘Haemagogus

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. I

287

anastasio [sic] Type.’’ The number refers to the

slide of the genitalia on which the specific name

is spelled in the same way. This specimen is here

designated lectotype. It should be noted that

this species been frequently misspelled

“anastationis”’ in the literature.

has

Haemagogus andinus Osorno-Mesa, Proc. Ent.

Soc. Washington 46: 170. 1944.

The holotype is a male bearing the original

data with the genitalia dissected and mounted on

a slide. The collection also contains the allotype

with its larval skin on a slide, 11 adult paratypes

and 16 topotypic larvae or larval skins.

Haemagogus argyromeris Dyar and Ludlow,

Military Surgeon 48: 679. 1921.

This species was described from eight males

taken at Corozal, C. Z., October 27, 1920, four

being deposited in the U. 8. National Museum

and four in the Army Medical Museum. The four

National Museum specimens are still in the col-

lection, all bearing red U.S.N.M. type labels.

One, with a slide-mounted preparation of the

genitalia (no. 1456) is here designated as lecto-

type. Two of the syntypes are in poor condition.

Haemagogus boshelli Osorno-Mesa, Proc. Ent.

Soc. Washington 46: 165. 1944.

The holotype is a male bearing the original

data with the genitalia dissected and mounted on

a slide. In addition, the collection contains an

allotype, 10 adult paratypes, and 5 topotypic

larvae or larval skins.

Haemogogus celeste Dyar and Nunez Tovar, Ins.

Inse. Mens. 14: 152. 1927.

This species was described from two males,

Maracay, Venezuela, November 11 and 15, 1926.

The two specimens were found in the collection

bearing the original data and Nunez Tovar num-

bers, but no type labels. We have selected the

specimen bearing the labels “2270/Maracay

Aragua, Venez. XI.11.26 / Nunez Tovar Coll. /

No. 3” as the lectotype. This has the genitalia

on slide No. 2770. A mounted pupal skin also

bears the number 2270, although the date on

this slide is given as ‘‘5-11-926.”’

Haemagogus chalcospilans Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens.

9: 110. 1921.

The type is a male with the abdomen on a

slide. It bears the labels ‘“247/Caldera I., Porto

Bello Bay, Panama/March 27, 08/A. H. Jenn-

288

ings Coll./Type No. 24334, U.S.N.M./Haemag-

ogus chalcospilans Dyar Type [Dyar’s hand-

writing].”’ The genitalia are on slide No. 1481.

The three paratypes listed by Dyar are in

the collection so labeled.

Haemagogus spegazzinu falco Kumm, Osorno-

Mesa and Boshell-Manrique, Amer. Journ.

Hyg. 43: 25. 1946.

The authors of this subspecies give no formal

description but scatter the characters through

several tables and keys, and give one character

of the male genitalia for separating it from typi-

cal spegazzinit. They, “suggest that the type lo-

cality for H. spegazzinii subspecies falco should

be the forest known as Volcanes in the valley of

the Pitas River, municipality of Caparrapf, De-

partment of Cundinamarca, Colombia. Specimens

from this area have been deposited in the United

States National Museum.” In the collection are

two pinned adults and 18 larval skins from this

suggested type locality. One of the adults is a

male with genitalia missing, the other a female.

The larval skins are not associated with adults

in the collection. Since the subspecies is based on

a male genitalic character it does not seem advis-

able to select a lectotype from the material be-

fore us.

Haemagogus gladiator Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 9:

108. 1921.

The type and paratype are in the collection

with red U.S.N.M. labels. The type male has the

abdomen mounted on slide no. 1488. The frag-

mentary larval skin and the pupal skin of the

paratype (Jennings no. 39.3) are mounted on a

slide.

Haemagogus iridicolor Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 9:

106. 1921.

This species was originally described from two

male types and eight male and seven female

paratypes. All these are in the collection with

corresponding red U.S.N.M. labels. Komp (1955)

has selected the male with the genitalia slide no.

1468 as lectotype. This also bears Dyar’s hand-

written determination and type label.

Haemagogus janthinomys Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens.

9: 112. 1921.

This species was originally described from two

male types and four male and three female para-

types. These are in the collection with corre-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 9

sponding red labels. One of the two specimens

labeled “Type” also bears the number 17-1 and

the slide number 219. The number 17-1 refers to

the larval skin which is mounted on a slide, and

no. 219 to the slide of the male genitalia. We

have selected this specimen as lectotype.

Stegoconops lucifer Howard, Dyar, and Knab,

Mosquitoes of North and Central America

and the West Indies 2: pl. 23, fig. 164. 1913.

Although the date on the title page of volume

2 of this work is 1912, a copy before us has

stamped in it, “Copies of this book were first

issued Feb. 24, 1913.” The name Stegoconops

lucifer is first associated with a figure in this vol-

ume with no other description. Dyar (1921:107)

fixed the type as “‘a specimen from Tabernilla,

Canal Zone, Panama (A. H. Jennings, breeding

number 299).’’ This specimen is in the collection

bearing slide label 309 and the label “lucifer H.

D. & K. Type” in Dyar’s handwriting, and can

be considered the lectotype selected by Dyar.

The slide was also labeled “Type” by Dyar.

Haemagogus mesodentatus Komp and Kumm,

Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 40: 253. 19388.

The adult type material of this species was

never received at the National Museum and Mr.

Komp tells us that the slide of the male geni-

talia of the type was destroyed in transit from

Panama. There are no topotypic adults in the

collection but there are 11 larval skins mounted

on slides. Ten are from San José, Costa Rica

(nos. 206 and 207) and one is from Parque Bo-

lfivar, San José, Costa Rica. The latter is labeled

as a male, and may be the larval skin of the

type, but this is not certain.

Haemagogus (Stegoconops) panarchys Dyar, Ins.

Inse. Mens. 9: 104. 1922.

The type series is as given in the original de-

scription, the holotype being specimen no. 70, a

male with most of the abdomen mounted on

slide no. 1466. The specimen is in poor condi-

tion, lacking all but one wing and one leg.

Aedes philosophicus Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 190, 195. 1906.

Dyar (1921:103) restricted the type of this

species as follows: “The type locality of philo-

sophicus may be restricted to Tehuantepec,

Oaxaca, Mexico, Knab’s breeding number 295,

the type being a male, figured in the monograph,

SEPTEMBER 1955 DRAKE AND MALDONADO-CAPRILES: APTEROUS ARADIDAE

plate 23, figure 162.’ The collection contains a

specimen with the following labels: “No. 295b

See F. Knab’s Entom. notes/Tehuantepec, Oax.

Mex./See slide No. 330/Type No. Restrict

US.N.M. Dyar 1921 [red]/philosoph.’’ Slide

No. 330 is labeled “‘philosophicus D. & K. Type.”

The original description is of the larva alone, but

the only immature material of this type series

under no. 295b consists of 1 fragmentary larval

skin and 6 pupal skins. These have been mounted

on a slide. All 6 adults from these pupae are in

the collection, 5 males and 1 female. Since only

the larva was originally described, one must con-

sider the fragmentary larval skin under no. 295b

as the lectotype. Under Knab’s number 295 this

was the only larva collected, all the other collec-

tions being pupae from which adults were reared.

Haemagogus regalis Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol.

Soe. Washington 19: 167. 1906.

Of the original 22 specimens, 17 are now in

the collection. Only one of these bears the red

U.S.N.M. label and we consider it the holotype.

Tt also bears the labels ‘‘No. 330v See F. Knab’s

Entom. notes/Sonsonate, Salv./Slide 36.1.8b/

Haemagogus regalis D. & K. Type [Dyar’s hand-

writing].”’ It is a male with the genitalia mounted

on a slide and the pupal skin and fragmentary

larval skin on another slide.

Haemagogus uriartei Shannon and Del Ponte,

Rev. Inst. Bact. 5: 68. 1927.

The collection contains a male bearing the

289

labels “Ins. Bac. Ent. nota 128-3/Vipos, Tuc.

4.11.27 /2353/Type No. U.S.N.M. [red] /Hae-

magogus uriartei Snn & D P [Shannon’s hand-

writing].”” The original reference gives ‘“‘Distribu-

cién: Tucumén (Vipos, 22.3.27; Shannon y Del

Ponte, localidad del tipo.” Since the authors

refer to one male reared from a larva collected

in Vipos, the difference between the published

date and the date on the label may be due to

the difference in times of collection of the larva

and emergence of the adult. The genitalia are

mounted on slide No. 2353 and what is probably

the pupal skin of the type on a slide labeled

“Pupa V3 Vipos 4.11.27 Haemago.” There is also

a female (Raco, 13.2.27) from the original series

in the collection. We consider the male to be the

holotype.

LITERATURE CITED

Dyar, H. G. The genus Haemagogus Williston.

Ins. Insc. Mens. 9: 101-114. 1921.

Fer, E. P. Mosquitos or Culicidae of New York

State. New York State Mus. Bull. 79: 241-400.

1904.

Howarp, L. O., Dyar, H. G., and Knas, F. The

mosquitoes of North and Central America and

the West Indies. Carnegie Inst. Washington

Publ. 159, 4: 525-1064. 1917.

Komp, W. H. W. The larva of Haemagogus iridi-

color Dyar. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 55:

29-31. 1955.

Rotu, L. M. The male and larva of Psorophora

(Janthinosoma) horrida (Dyar and Knab) and

a new species of Psorophora from the United

States. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 47: 1-28.

1945.

ENTOMOLOGY .—_New apterous Aradidae from Puerto Rico (Hemiptera). Caru J.

Drake, Iowa State College, and J. MaLtpoNapo-CapriLes, University of

Puerto Rico.

(Received May 27, 1955)

Very little is known relative to the aradid

fauna of Puerto Rico. Barber (1939, pp.

329-330) recorded two genera, each repre-

sented by a single species, from the island.

These species were Mezira abdominalis

(Stal) from Mayagtiez and Hispaniola and

Aneurus minutus Bergroth from Adjuntas.

Fifteen years later, Harris and Drake (1944,

pp. 130-131) described a new genus and

new species of an apterous aradid as Hretmo-

coris tate. from a male specimen taken at

Lares.

The present paper contains data on three

genera and four species of Aradidae, includ-

ing the characterization of one new genus

and two new species of apterous aradids.

As adults are needed for their identification,

the records do not include these two genera,

each represented by nymphal stages, taken

in forest litter near Mayagtiez by means of

a Berlese funnel. The two forms heretofore

listed in the literature are as follows:

Aneurus minutus Bergroth, two adults and

one last instar nymph, found under loose

bark of a tree, Yauco, March 5, 1955; and

Eretmocoris tatei Harris and Drake, Maya-

giiez, March 5, 1955, taken by means of a

Berlese funnel from forest litter on the

290

ground. Field records for the new species

are given under their respective descriptions.

The types of the new species are in the Drake

Collection, paratypes in the collections of

both authors.

In order to facilitate future work and to

clarify generic characters, the following

genotypes of described species have been

illustrated: Hretmocoris tatec Harris and

Drake, type (male); Acaricoris ignotus

Harris and Drake, type (female); Glypto-

coris sejunctus Harris and Drake, type

(male); Asterocoris australis Drake and

Harris, type (male); and Allelocoris dryadis

Drake and Harris, type (male), all illus-

trated by Mrs. Margaret Poor Hurd. The

figures of the two new species described be-

low were made by J. Maldonado-Capriles.

Eretmocoris disparis, n. sp.

Apterous, obovate, widest behind middle of

abdomen, considerably narrowed anteriorly,

very little narrowed behind, reddish to blackish

fuscous, prominently sculptured; mesonotum at

middle fused with metanotum; metanotum fused

with first two abdominal tergites, the rest of

abdominal tergite (save seventh, but not con-

nexiva) fused. Abdominal stigmata all lateral.

‘Female broader than male. Length, 3.20-3.50

mm; width, 1.30-1.70 mm.

Head longer on median line than width across

eyes (54:46), obliquely narrowed behind eyes,

with fairly large neck, with prominent median

longitudinal ridge, furrowed on each side of ridge;

tylus convexly longitudinally raised, prominent;

Fia. 1.—EKretmocoris disparis, n. sp. (head).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. Y

Fic. 2.—Hretmocoris disparis, n. sp. (body,

dorsal aspect).

juga a little longer than tylus, the parts surpassing

tylus divergent, rounded, with blunt tips. Anten-

niferous tubercles quite large, divergent, cone-

like. Antennae rather short, twice as long as

head (94:46), finely granulate, each minute

granule beset with a short, inconspicuous, fine

hair, basal segment much thicker and much

longer than others, measurements—I, 32; II, 18;

III, 22; IV, 22. Rostrum dark fuscous, not quite

attaining apex of sulcus; sulcus broad, deep, not

extending to base of head.

Pronotum wider at base than width across

eyes (75:46), only a little wider in front (52:46);

mesonotum wider than pronotum, subequal in

length, fused at middle with metanotum; meta-

notum fused with first two abdominal tergites,

the triangular median part of both mesonotum

and metanotum longitudinally carinate, the

median carina longer and slightly more elevated

than lateral ones, the latter convergent anteriorly.

Metasternal orifice visible from lateral aspect.

Legs rather short, plain, fuscous to dark fuscous.

Abdomen with the fused dorsal tergites almost

quadrate in outline, with a definite pattern of

impressions and ridges, the glandular area prom-

inent; seventh tergite not fused, similar to #.

tater in shape. Abdomen above without. hairs,

with all spiracles visible from above. Legs dark

brownish to dark fuscous, inconspicuously

pubescent.

Type (male) and allotype (female), Mayagiiez,

Puerto Rico, March 1955, collected by means of

a Berlese funnel from ground litter in forest.

Paratypes: 4 specimens, taken with type. Also

4 or 5 nymphs of H. disparis and nymphs of two

alate species of aradids were found in the same

batch of litter.

SEPTEMBER 1955

Fie. 3.—Aglaocoris nataliz, m. sp. (head).

Ditiers from #. tatez Harris and Drake by form

of body (slowly roundly narrowed anteriorly;

pronotum narrower than tergite VII), and the

| appendages inconspicuously pubescent. In tatet

(Fig. 1), the body is obovate and the appendages

distinctly beset with short, pale, setal pubescence.

The two species are not readily confused.

Aglaocoris, n. gen.

Apterous, oblong, broad, with dorsal surface

coarsely punctate, irregularly rugulose, the ab-

domen with regular patterns of impressions and

ridges. Head subquadrate, juga and tylus sub-

equal in length; eyes small, distinctly stylate, each

placed on the outer end of a lateral pedicel; each

side of head with a postocular tubercle placed

about half way between an eye and the neck.

Collar distinct, short and rather narrow. Anten-

niferous tubercles large, divergent, terminating

anteriorly in a fingerlike projection. Antennae

rather short, fairly slender, indistinctly pubes-

cent; segment I stout, slightly bent, extending

more than half its length beyond apex of juga,

much longer and much stouter than other seg-

ments; segments II and IV subequal in length,

III slenderest, slightly shorter (subequal, includ-

ing nodular segment). Legs rather short, plain.

Abdomen convex beneath. Pronotum much wider

than head across eyes, not fused, free; mesonotum

a little wider than pronotum, also feebly extended

laterally but not lobate, partly fused at middle

with metanotum; metanotum fused behind with

first tergite (judging from last instar nymph,

also second tergite); abdomen with tergites III

to VI fused into a quadrate area, with dorsal

glandular organ prominent; seventh tergite not

fused; connexiva fairly wide, with segments IV to

VII distinct, the anterior segments fused. Stig-

mata on VI, VII and VIII (genital segment)

DRAKE AND MALDONADO-CAPRILES: APTEROUS ARADIDAE

291

lateral, V sublateral (partly visible from above),

and II, III and IV a little removed from outer

edge and thus not visible from dorsal aspect

(each more progressively removed anteriorly).

Spiracles VII and VIII placed on small pro-

jections.

Genotype, Aglaocoris natal, n. sp.

Two other American genera of apterous

Aradidae have the eyes pedicellate—A sterocoris

Drake and Harris and Allelocoris Drake and

Harris. Aglaocoris may be distinguished from

both of these genera by the much shorter legs and

antennae (antennal segment I much longer than

any other), tylus and gula subequal in length,

body without lateral lobes or fingerlike projec-

tions, head with postocular tubercle on each side,

metanotum fused with first two abdominal

tergites, the rest of tergites (except VII) fused

together, and the position of abdominal spiracles.

Aglaocoris natalii, n. sp.

Large, broad, blackish ferrugineous, without

vestiture on dorsal surface; legs beset with short,

pale, setal hairs; antennae with short, pale, pu-

bescent hairs, the pubescence slightly longer and

more setose on first segments. Length, 5.50-6.10

mm; width, 2.70-3.00 mm. Female wider than

male.

Head slightly wider across eyes than median

Fia. 4.—Aglaocoris nataliz, n. sp. (a, dorsal;

b, ventral).

292

Fie. 5.—EHretmocoris tatei Harris and Drake (type).

length (115:110); ocular pedicel moderately

large, the eyes fairly prominent; postocular

pedicel shorter, knoblike, not as thick, placed

about midway between an eye and neck, more

densely setose than other parts of head. Antennae

rather short; segment I much stouter and longer

than others, III thinnest and practically as long

Fic. 6.—Allelocoris dryadis Drake and Harris

(type).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, NO. 9)J

as II (ncluding modular segment); measure-

ments—I, 48; II, 29; III, 28; IV, 30. Rostrum

stout, ferrugmeous, almost as long as channel;

mandibular and labial stylets (when fully ex-

tended) reaching almost to end of abdomen.

Pronotum short, much wider than head across _

eyes (105:150); mesonotum slightly wider than

pronotum, with outer margins slightly extended,

with a large median carina, partly fused with

metanotum; metanotum fused with first two

abdominal tergite, the rest of abdominal tergites

(save seventh) fused into a subquadrate area.

Fic. 7.—Acaricoris ignotus Harris and Drake

(type).

Connexiva segmented, the anterior three fused.

Entire dorsal surface coarsely punctate, the

venter with smaller punctures; abdominal

tergites with a definite pattern and arrangement

of impression and ridges; stigmata of seventh and

eighth segments placed on small projections, the

seventh segment with a prominent, smooth, sub-

conelike projection beneath each projection

bearing a spiracle. In all comparative measure-

ment, 80 units equal one millimeter.

Type (male) and allotype (female), Yauco,

Puerto Rico, under loose bark of a tree, March,

1955, collected by Antonio Natali, after whom

the insect is named. Paratypes: 60 specimens,

SEPTEMBER 1955

DRAKE

Fie. 8—Asterocoris australis Drake and Harris

(type).

taken with type, and from Mayagiiez, April 1955,

also under loose bark of a dead tree. Some large

nymphs were also taken with the adults.

An examination of last instar nymphs indicates

that the metanotum is fused with both first and

second abdominal tergites. The first two basal

ventrites are also fused. The other two species of

Fie. 9.—Glyptocoris sejunctus Harris and Drake

(type).

AND MALDONADO-CAPRILES: APTEROUS

ARADIDAE 293

apteous aradids found in Puerto Rico (#. tatei

and #. disparis) are much smaller, eyes not

stalked, and all spiracles are lateral. The dis-

cussion under the generic description distin-

euishes A. natalii from the South American

apterous aradids having pedicellate eyes.

GENERA AND SPECIES OF AMERICAN

APTEROUS ARADIDAE

The following checklist enumerates the

genera and specis of apterous aradids listed

in the literature. It should be noted that

Acaricoris brasiliensis Wygodzinsky (1948),

A. teresonolitana Wygodzinsky (1948) and

Emydocoris usingert Wygodzinsky (1948)

have been transferred recently by Kormilev

(1953) to the genus Prctinus Stal.

Family ARADIDAE Costa, 1848

Subfamily MEZIRINAE Oshanin, 1908

Tribe CARVENTINI Usinger, 1941

Genus Acaricoris Harris and Drake, 1944

Type, Acaricoris ignotus Harris and Drake

1. ignotus Harris and Drake, 1944: United States

(La., Miss., Ga.).

Genus Agiaocortis Drake and Maldonado,

1955

Type, Aglaocoris natal Drake and Mal-

donado

2. natalii Drake and Maldonado, 1955: Puerto

Rico.

Genus ALLELOcORIS Drake and Harris, 1944

Type, Allelocoris dryadis Drake and Harris

3. dryadis Drake and Harris, 1944: Brazil.

Genus AsrpRocoris Drake and Harris, 1944

Type, Asterocoris australis Drake and Harris

. australis Drake and Harris, 1944: Brazil.

. schubarti Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil.

Genus DrnopeastEeR Kormilev, 1953

Type, Dihybogaster incrustatus Kormiley

6. incrustatus Kormilev, 1953: Brazil.

Genus Emypocortis Usinger, 1941

Type, Emydocoris testudinatus Usinger

7. testudinatus Usinger, 1941: Brazil.

Genus ErRetmocoris Harris and Drake, 1944.

Type, Eretmocoris tatei Harris and Drake

8. disparis Drake and Maldonado, 1955: Puerto

Rico.

9. tatei Harris and Drake, 1944: Puerto Rico.

Genus Guyprocoris Harris and Drake, 1944

Type, Glyptocoris sejunctus Harris and

Drake

10. annulatus Kormilev, 1953: Brazil.

11. confusus Kormilev, 1953: Brazil.

12. espiritosantensis Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil.

13. fluminensis Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil.

14. milleri Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil.

15. plaumanni Kormilev, 1954: Brazil.

ou He

294

16. sejunctus Harris and Drake, 1944: Brazil.

Genus Noropiocortis Usinger, 1941

Type, Notoplocoris montei Usinger

17. mendesi Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil.

18. montei Usinger, 1941: Brazil.

19. potensis Drake and Harris, 1944: Brazil.

20. sobrali Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil.

Tribe MEZIRINI Usinger, 1941

Genus Pictinus Stal, 1873

Type, Pictinus cinctipes, Stal

21. brasiliensis (Wygodzinsky), 1948: Brazil.

22. dureti (Kormilev), 1953: Argentina.

23. intermediarius (Kormilev), 1953: Brazil.

24. montrouzieri Kormilev, 1953: Brazil.

25. plaumanni Kormilev, 1953: Brazil.

26. teresopolitanus (Wygodzinsky), 1948: Brazil.

27. usingeri (Wygodzinsky), 1948: Brazil.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barper,H.G. Insectsof Porto Rico and the Virgin

Islands: Hemiptera-Heteroptera (excepting the

Miridae and Corizxidae). Sci. Surv. Porto Rico

and Virgin Islands, N. Y. Aead. Sci., 14(3):

263-441, 36 figs. 1939.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 45, No. 9

Drake, C.J., and Harris, H.M. Two new genera

and two new species of apterous aradids from

Brasil. Rev. Bras. Biol. 4(8): 363-364, 1 fig.

1944.

———. South American Aradidae (Hemiptera) in

the Carnegie Musewm. Ann. Carn. Mus. 30:

39-43. 1944.

Harris, H. M., and Draxn, C. J. New apterous

Aradidae from the Western Hemisphere (Hem-

iptera). Proc. Ent. Soc. 46 (5): 128-132. 1944.

Kormiteyv, Nicouas A. The first apterous aradid

from Argentina (Hemiptera). Dusenia 4(2):

125-126, 1 fig. 1953.

———. Notes on Neotropical Aradidae III

(Hemiptera). Dusenia 4(4-5) : 229-242, 1 pl. 11

figs. 1953.

Notes on Neotropical Aradidaz IV (Hem-

iptera) on some apterous Mezirinae from

Brazil. Dusenia 5(3—4): 125-130, 2 figs. 1954.

WyaGopzinsky, P. Studies on some apterous

Aradidae from Brazil (Hem.). Bol. Mus. Nac.

Rio de Janeiro Zool. 86: 1-23, 14 pls. 115 figs.

1948.

ZOOLOGY .—Remarkably preserved fossil sea-pens and their Recent counterparts

Freprerick M. Baynr, U. 8. National Museum.

(Received May 23, 1955)

The material to be described below,

including as it does specimens of Recent and

Tertiary pennatulaceans showing close mor-

phological similarity, is indeed remarkable.

It is even more so in view of the fact that

the sea-pens in question are soft-bodied

creatures that do not lend themselves to

fossilization. The Recent material, four lots

containing in all seven specimens, was

collected in the Gulf of Mexico by the

vessels Albatross, Grampus, and Pelican, and

by C. T. Reed. The interesting suite of

fossils from the Tertiary of Trinidad,

collected by Dr. H. G. Kugler of Pointe-

a-Pierre, was submitted to me for study by

Dr. W. P. Woodring of the U. 8. Geological

Survey. Photographs of some of the speci-

mens had earlier been sent by Dr. Kugler to

Dr. Fred B. Phleger, who suggested that

they might represent molds of some pen-

natulacean. This suggestion, passed along to

Dr. Woodring, resulted in my seeing the

photographs and, eventually, the specimens

themselves. Subsequently, Dr. Kugler

visited the Basel (Switzerland) Museum

and arranged for similar fossils housed in

that institution to be sent to me for con-

sideration with the material from Trinidad.

The specimens from the Basel Museum were

collected in the Kei Islands, from a stratum

of undertermined age.

I am greatly indebted to Dr. Woodring

for the opportunity of seeing the fossil

material and for arranging its transmittal

to me. Needless to say, this study could

not have been made but for the kindness of

Dr. Kugler, collector of the Trinidad

specimens. Dr. G. Arthur Cooper, curator

of the Division of Invertebrate Paleon-

tology, U. S. National Museum, made the

excellent photographs reproduced on Fig.

2, for which I express sincere thanks. In the

preparation of the specimens for study I

have been greatly assisted by M. L. Peter-

son, Jr., of Arlington, Va., who has done the

necessary cutting.

Except for Cancellophycus from the Lias,

Jurassic and Cretaceous, as reported by

Lucas (1938, 1940), pennatulacean octo-

corals are known in the fossil state only by

their calcareous axes. Several genera have

been erected for these fossils, and at least

one “‘species’” has been assigned to the

Recent genus Pavonaria (= Balticina). It is,

SEPTEMBER 1955 BAYER:

of course, difficult, if not impossible, to base

specific determinations of sea-pens upon

characters of the axial rod alone. Therefore,

it is of no small interest to discover re-

mains of pennatulaceans referable to a

modern genus by virtue of the remarkable

| preservation of the external gross mor-

phology of nearly entire colonies. This was

accomplished by the infilling of molds in

soit mud by a coarser material. It is neces-

sary to assume that the specimens were

dislodged from their living positions and

strewn over a mud bottom in which they

left impressions that became filled with

sand. Artificial fossils of very similar ap-

_ pearance were made by taking rubber casts

from plaster molds of Recent specimens;

two of these are shown on Fig. 2, d and e,

made from the specimens bearing catalogue

numbers 49758 and 43023 described below.

Several of the fossils were sectioned but

none show any indication of the calcareous

axial rod, so it must be concluded either

that the axial rods were swept away from

the area after decomposition of the soft

parts, that conditions during the infilling

of the molds were sufficiently acid to have

dissolved away the axes, or that the entire

animals were somehow transported away

from the molds.

Although even generic determinations of

Pennatulacea depend upon spicular, caly-

cinal and zooidal characters none of which

are preserved in the fossils, enough can be

seen of the colonial morphology of the casts

here described to warrant assigning them to

the genus Vzrgularia. In this genus, the

auto-zooids are fused into leaf-like out-

growths arranged biserially along most of

the stem (rhachis); these polyp-leaves do

not quite meet along one side of the rhachis

and thus leave open what is usually called

the dorsal track. Along the opposite side of

the rhachis the leaves may meet or even

fuse, but a distinct suture line is usually

detectable. Siphonozooids occur on or be-

tween the polyp-leaves and commonly also

along the dorsal track. No _ calcareous

spicules occur in the leaves, but small,

corpuscle-like sclerites may sometimes be

found in the rhachis and stalk. The lower

part of the stem, known as the stalk (Stiel)

is free of polyp-leaves and serves to anchor

the colony in soft bottoms.

FOSSIL AND R®CENT

SEA-PENS 295

Differentiation of the species depends

upon, among other things, the position of

the siphonozooids, the number of autozooids

per leaf, and the degree of fusion of the

autozooids making up the leaves. These

features, like all other details of the soft

parts, are not preserved in the casts. There

is no way to distinguish the fossil specimens

from the Recent species now living in the

Gulf of Mexico, so they must be assigned to

the same species. This is not so radical a

course as it may at first seem, inasmuch as

two Recent pennatulaceans now live on

both sides of the Panamanian isthmus.

The Atlantic and Pacific populations of one

species are looked upon as indistinguishable,

and of the other as representing only forms,

although they certainly have been sepa-

rated since sometime in the Miocene. The

species thus seem to be quite stable and

presumably have undergone little change

since the Tertiary.

The four lots of Recent Virgularia from

the Gulf of Mexico have been compared

with specimens of V. mirabilis from Kiel,

and with the various descriptions of that

species in the literature. They prove to be

not the same. The West Indian material

more closely resembles Virgularia rumphar

and V. abies, both East Indian forms, but

differs in detail from those species also.

It is therefore necessary to establish for the

specimens from the Gulf of Mexico a new

species, which will include the fossil casts

from Trinidad as well. This species may

be known as:

Virgularia presbytes, n. sp.

Figs. 1; 2, a-e

Virgularia spec. Deichmann, 1936, p. 274.

Virgularia mirabilis Bayer, 1952, p. 189; 1954, p.

281. Not Pennatula mirabilis O.F. Miiller, 1776.

Diagnosis.—Virgularias with thick, fleshy

polyp-leaves composed of 13-30 autozooids

united by the full length of their anthosteles,

showing no distinct projecting calyces and with-

out marginal tubercles; leaves in pairs fused

more or less completely on the ventral side of

the rhachis but well-separated on the dorsal side,

leaving free a distinctly grooved dorsal track;

siphonozooids in 2-7 irregular, crowded rows be-

tween the polyp-leaves, in the larger specimens

extending out onto the dorsal track in an irregu-

lar longitudinal row or field on either side of the

Fia. 1.—Virgularia presbytes, n.sp.: a-c, Specimen no. 49758, off Mobile, Ala. (a, ventral; b, lateral;

c, dorsal views of rhachis); d-f, holotype, no. 50148, off Cape Canaveral, Fla. (d, ventral; e, lateral; f,

dorsal views of rhachis); g-7, specimen no. 43023, off Galveston, Tex. (g, ventral; h, lateral; 7, dorsal

views of rhachis).

296

SEPTEMBER 1955 BAYER: FOSSIL AND RECENT SHA-PENS

Fra. 2.—a-e, Virgularia presbytes, n.sp: a—c, Fossil specimens from the Pointe-A-Pierre formation of

Trinidad; d-e, rubber casts of plaster molds made from the specimens shown in Fig. 1, a and g. F-9,

Pteroeides argenteum (Ellis and Solander)?, fossil from Great Kei Island: f, Entire slab, reduced; g, part

of same specimen, natural size (Basel Museum). All photographs by G. A. Cooper.

298

median groove. Axis stout, in cross section round

toward the apex, oval or dorso-ventrally flattened

toward the base. No spicules were found in either

the polyp-leaves or the rhachis.

Descriptions —The type lot, U.S.N.M. no.

49755, contains four specimens, one of which

has been selected as the holotype and given the

catalogue number 50148. Off Cape Canaveral,

Fla., 28° 54’ N., 80° 39’ W.; 9 fathoms; Pelican

station 171-5, January 19, 1940.

SPECIMEN A: Length 164 mm; the axis is

nearly round, 2.25 xX 2.50 in diameter. At the

upper end of the rhachis, where the polyp-leaves

diminish in size, the axis is very stout and ob-

viously once projected far beyond the tip of the

fleshy rhachis. The diameter of the rhachis with

its polyp-leaves is 5-7 mm. The leaves are thick,

fleshy, directed upward, obliquely placed on the

rhachis, their ventral ends higher; 14 pairs occur

in 3 cm of rhachis length at about the middle of

the specimen. There is a distinct dorsal track

with a deep median groove; none of the pairs of

leaves meet across it. The members of the pairs

of polyp-leaves regularly meet and are fused

along the ventral midline. The leaves are com-

posed of the united anthosteles of 24-28 autozo-

oids in single series. There are no free, projecting

calyces, and the zooidal apertures are entire. Au-

tozooids with well-developed gonads occur in the

leaves throughout the length of the rhachis. The

siphonozooids occur on the rhachis in three or

four rows beneath each leaf, and extend out as

an irregular row along the dorsal track on each

side of the midline.

SPECIMEN B: Length 159 mm.; the axial rod

is incomplete at both top and bottom, and part

of the rhachis and the stalk are missing below.

At the distalmost part, the axis is round, 1.5

mm in diameter. The rhachis, mecluding the

polyp-leaves, is 5.0-6.5 mm in diameter. The

leaves are thick and fleshy, situated as in speci-

men a; 12 or 13 pairs occur in 3 cm of length

about the middle of the rhachis. The leaves do

not overlap dorsally, and the dorsal track is dis-

tinct and grooved; ventrally the leaves of each

pair meet and are fused together. The leaves are

composed of 25-27 autozooids united by the full

length of their anthosteles; no projecting calyces,

no calycinal teeth. Well-developed gonads are ob-

servable in the autozooids of leaves at all levels

except at the distal tip, where there are about

six pairs of undeveloped leaves decreasing in size

distad. The siphonozooids occupy all the rhachis

surface between the leaves, closely packed in four

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 9

or five indistinct rows; they extend out as an ir-

regular row along each side of the dorsal track.

Specimen c: A specimen 151 mm in length is

incomplete, like the other specimens of the lot,

which it resembles closely. The rhachis, with

leaves, is 5.0-6.5 mm in diameter; 13-15 leaves

appear in 3 cm of length about the middle of the

rhachis; the leaves contain usually 25 autozooids

in a single series. Members of the leaf-pairs par-

tially or completely fused ventrally. Siphonozo-

oids between the leaves in three or four irregular

rows, extending out onto the rhachis to form an

irregular row along each side of the dorsal track.

The autozooids in the fully developed leaves are

fertile.

Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 50148, selected from

the foregoing lot, is a specimen 157 mm in length,

with the axis incomplete both above and below,

and the stalk and lower part of the rhachis miss-

ing. At its distal end the axis is round, 2 mm in

diameter; at the proximal end it is slightly flat-

tened, 2.25 < 2.5 mm in diameter. The rhachis

with its polyp-leaves is 6-7 mm in diameter. The

holotype closely resembles the other three mem-

bers of the same lot as described above. There

are 13 or 14 pairs of polyp-leaves in 38 cm of

rhachis in the midregion; the leaves are made up

of 24 or 25 autozooids completely fused in a

single series, without any projecting, free calycu-

lar portion. The leaves of each pair are partially

or completely fused along the ventral midline

(Fig. 1, d); the dorsal track is distinct and shows

the usual median groove (Fig. 1, f); the siphono-

zooids occur in 2-4 indistinct, crowded rows be-

tween the leaves (Fig. 1, e), and in an irregular

row along each side of the dorsal track (Fig. 1, f).

The autozooids of the fully developed leaves are

fertile.

The salient characters of the holotype and of

the paratypes from the same and other localities

may be summarized in tabular form:

No. of | No. of

: Diane : Number|/Number| rows of Buen

Specimen Steal Diameter jof auto- of siphon- Senate

Cat No. Tea of axis | zooids | leaves | ozooids a

per leafjin 3 cm.|between orca

leaves ‘ial

49758 3.5-4.5 | 1.5-2.25 | 13-15 10-15 3-4 0

43214 5-6 1.5-2 24-25 13-21 2-4 0

49755 (a) 5-7 2.25-2.5 24-28 14 3-4 1

(b) | 5-6.5 Tho6) 25-27 | 12-13 4-5 1

@) I a 2-2.25 | 24-25 | 13-14 | 2-4 1

50143 5-6.5 2-2.25 25 13-15 3-4 1

43023 10 3-4 30 9-16 6-7 2-3

SEPTEMBER 1955 BAYER:

Localities —Holotype and three paratypes

(US.N.M. no. 50148; 49755) from Pelican

station 171-5; off Cape Canaveral, Fla., 28° 54’

N., SO° 39’ W., 9 fathoms; January 19, 1940.

Paratypes as follows:

| US.N.M. no 48023. Grampus station 10470;

off Galveston, Tex., 29° 03’ N., 94° 26’ W., 9

fathoms; February 28, 1917.

U.S.N.AM. no 438214. Near Corpus Christi, Tex.

C.T.Reed.

- US.N.M. no. 49758. Albatross station 2387;

off Mobile, Ala., 29° 24’ N., 88° 04’ W., 32 fath-

oms; March 4, 1885.

Remarks——Although there is some diversity,

especially in size and stoutness, among the speci-

mens examined, it is impossible to separate them

on any scientific grounds into species conforming

with the three size groups represented.

All the specimens agree in: (1) the thick,

strongly adherent, closely placed polyp-leaves

made up of completely fused autozooids; (2) the

absence of any free calycular part of autozooids;

(8) the absence of any teeth or tubercles around

the autozooid apertures; (4) the multiple rows of

siphonozooids between the polyp-leaves; and (5)

the very stout, rigid axial rods.

There is variation, often between specimens of

very similar appearance, in (1) the number of

rows of siphonozooids between the leaves; (2) the

number of siphonozooids extending out onto the

dorsal track; and (3) the relative stoutness of the

axis.

It seems preferable to retain all of the speci-

mens under a single species, at least until enough

material becomes available to permit a re-evalu-

ation of characters.

The specimen from Corpus Christi was briefly

mentioned by Miss Deichmann (1936, p. 274),

who noted a similarity with Virgularia schultzet.

That species, however, has its siphonozooids on

the polyp-leaves, unlike the present material.

In some respects, Virgularia presbytes re-

sembles V. abies (Kélliker) from Japan. The

latter has a larger number of autozooids (40) in

the leaves, which have sinuous margins, a single

row of siphonozooids between the leaves, and a

double row on either side of the dorsal track. The

species must therefore be considered distinct.

Fossil specimens.—The specimens are all three

dimensional sandstone casts of molds in silt or

silty shale. They have previously been deter-

mined as the tracks of mollusks and called ‘“‘bilo-

bites” or “Palaeobullias.”” The manner in which

individuals may lie one upon another precludes

FOSSIL AND RECENT SEA-PENS

299

their being the trails of any organism, and their

great similarity in form to certain sea-pens sug-

gests that in reality they are casts of those ani-

mals. The fact that a Recent pennatulid now

living in the Gulf of Mexico can be distinguished

by no known scientific means from the casts from

Trinidad lends further support to this view.

Although the three dimensional preservation

of a soft-bodied organism may seem remarkable,

it is surely no more so than the preservation of a

molluscan trail in the mud. Pennatulaceans live

on muddy substrates in which they are anchored

by the fleshy, often bulblike, lower end of the

stalk. The colony stands erect, with the polypifer-

ous portion projecting from the mud. It must be

assumed that the living specimens were torn from

their normal positions and strewn about over a

muddy surface in which they left their impres-

sions. Such impressions would have been very

fugitive and to be preserved must have been in

very quiet waters or exposed to air until filled in

and covered over by the material that is now

sandstone.

The general nature of the formation in which

these fossils occur is pertinent to the problem of

preservation, and Mr. Kugler’s description of it

reads as follows:

At its type locality the Pointe-a-Pierre forma-

tion consists of about 120 feet of fine-bedded dark

grey silt and silty shale with regular intercalations

of cubical fracturing quartzitic sandstones and

massive coarse grit up to 10 feet thick. The sand-

stones show graded bedding and some of the con-

glomeratic layers are the result of turbidity cur-

rents. Floweasts, the infills of fine-grained

sandstone in grooved silt surfaces, are frequent

and so are flowage structures inside some very fine

grained quartzitic sandstones. An arenaceous as-

semblage of foraminifera indicate muddy bottom

environment during part of the Claiborn and/or

Wilcox time when the Pointe-a-Pierre formation

was deposited in a thickness of up to 700 feet,

forming some topographically prominent features

in the Central Range of Trinidad and Eastern

Venezuela.

The only megafossil remains found in the

Pointe-a-Pierre formation are occasional ‘‘tracks”’

termed ‘‘Bilobites’’ or ‘‘Palaeobullias’’ in private

reports. These and also some ‘‘Helminthoides”’

are indicative of ‘‘Flysch’’-like rocks as known

from the Carpathians and Alps where they repre-

sent foredeep deposits associated with advancing

thrust sheets. The nature of such rocks is char-

acterized in Trinidad by coarser grains, often silt

pebbles; at the bottom of a sand layer. Upwards

the coarse material is graded into a finer sandstone

and finally into almost varved silt with films of

fine comminuted carbonaceous matter separating

the silt laminae of 1 to 2 mm. thickness.

300

None of the ‘‘tracks’’ collected was actually

found in situ, but mostly amongst the block debris

at the base of the cliff at Pointe-a-Pierre or along

the coast where the sandstone blocks are exposed

to the action of waves. However, amongst the

flow casts on the bottom side of some flaggy sand-

stones other ‘“‘tracks’’ were found in situ, and the

same tracks were also noticed together with

“Bilobites,”’ thus rendering a co-existence most

likely. All the protruding casts of tracks on the

flaggy sandstone surfaces must be infills of hollows

formed in the top layer of the silt below. Fig. 305,

p. 368, of O. Abel’s ‘“‘Vorzeitliche Lebensspuren”’

(1935) represents conditions almost identical to

those at Pointe-a-Pierre. In fact specimen K.9628

from the San Fabian Quarry in the Marie Douleur

Valley east of Pointe-a-Pierre, is almost a direct

proof of this assertion. When this specimen was

found at the face of the quarry, it was still covered

with a light grey, silty clay which in fragments is

still found sticking between the “‘ribs’”’ of the

“‘Bilobites.”? The sand must have filled a mold in

the silt and this observation was made on all the

samples collected, with the exception of one where

the mold of a ‘‘Bilobites’? was found in a fine-

grained quartzitic sandstone. This mold must have

been filled with silt or a coarser sandstone that

subsequently weathered and left the original mold.

The grain size and material of the ‘‘Bilobites”’

casts are the same as that of the adjoining part of

the flaggy sandstone, hence there could not be a

replacement of the tissue of the original animal or

plant by mineral matter. This point is stressed

on account of the suggestion that ‘‘Bilobites”’

may actually have been a Virgularza-like fossil.

The specimens themselves show a wider varia-

tion in size than do the Recent individuals thus

far examined. They range in width of rhachis

from about 3 mm to over 25 mm. The casts are

hemicylindrical, usually straight or nearly so; on

either side of a median longitudinal groove or

suture, which represents the dorsal track or the

ventral midline of Recent colonies, there are ob-

lique transverse grooves which cut the half-cyl-

inder into lappets representing the polyp-leaves.

On some specimens the median track is wide,

distinct, and grooved, and from the orientation

of the leaves obviously represents the dorsal

track; on others it is narrow or remains only as

a junction line of the leaves of opposite sides and

thus represents the ventral midline. The smaller

specimens (under 15 mm in diameter) have 8-16

pairs of leaves in 3 cm of length, while the larger

ones (17-30 mm in diameter) have only 5 or 6

pairs in the same length.

Fig. 2 a-e shows the range of sizes among the

fossil individuals, and compares them with casts

of Recent specimens, Fig. 2 d-e. All are natural

size.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Virgularia sp.

In the collection of the Basel Museum is a large

sandstone slab measuring about 26 x 22 cm, from |

Great Kei Island, which is crossed by a cast of

what appears to be a large Virgularia. The width

of the cast itself is about 20 mm; there are ap-

proximately 35 pairs of obliquely placed lappets

roughly 1 cm apart; they converge proximad, in-

dicating that it is the dorsal aspect of the colony

that is exposed. Although the general configura-

tion of the cast indicates a Virgularia, it is not at

present possible to assign it to any of the known

species.

Horizon—Kocene or Oligocene?

Locality. Near the village of Ohowait, east

coast of the middle part of Great Kei Island, south

eastern Moluccas. F. Weber, 1926. Basel Museum.

Pteroeides argenteum (Ellis and Solander, 1786)?

Fig. 2, f-g

A smaller slab from Great Kei shows a cast

probably represents a different pennatulid. From

the jagged edges of the lappets, one concludes that

the species was one with a stong armature of spic-

ules in the polyp-leaves. In size and apparent pro-

portions it agrees reasonably well with Ellis and

Solander’s Pennatula argentea, a Recent species of

she East Indies, that has such armature.

The photographs, Fig. 2, f and g, show the en-

tire slab, reduced, and a detail, natural size. It can

be seen from Fig. 2, f, by the way several individ-

uals lie on top of one another, that these are the

casts of solid objects and not of trails in the mud.

Horizon and locality—Same as for the fore-

going. Basel Museum.

REFERENCES

ABEL, OTHENIO. Vorzeitliche Lebensspuren:

xv +644 pp., 530 figs. Jena, 1935.

Bayer, Frepprick M. New western Atlantic

records of octocorals (Coelenterata:Anthozoa) ,

with descriptions of three new species. Journ.

Washington Acad. Sci. 42(6): 183-189, 1 fig.

1952.

Anthozoa: Alcyonaria. In: Galtsoff, P.S.

(ed.) Gulf of Mexico; its origin, waters and

marine life. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Fish.

Bull. 89: 279-284. 1954.

DrIcHMANN, EvisapetH. The Alcyonaria of the

western part of the Atlantic Ocean. Mem. Mus.

Comp. Zool. 58: 1-317, pls. 1-37. 1936.

KtKenruant, Witty. Pennatularia. Das Tier-

reich. Lief. 48: xv-+132 pp., 126 figs. Berlin,

1915. :

Lucas, GasBrieL. Les Cancellophycus du Juras-

sique sont des Alcyonaires. Compt. Rend.

Acad. Sci. Paris 206(25): 1914-1916. 1938.

Précisions sur les Cancellophyucus du

Jurassique. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris

230(13): 1297-1299, fig. 1. 1950.

VoL. 45, No. 9 |

Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences

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ito demuray IQR: os boeeeboconnc sawansomnndes Harrop FE. Fintey, J. H. McMiItien

PRopanuarys 1 OS ee ko seiko eae ee hae L. Hwan Yocum, WiLiiam J. YOUDEN

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Committee on Science Education. ...RayMOND J. SrEGER (chairman), RoNaLD BAMFORD,

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CONTENTS

Metrorotocy.—Pehr Kalm’s meteorological observations in North

America. EstHER Louise LARSEN

BioLocy.—Fungus-growing ants and their fungi: Cyphomyrmezx rimosus

minutus Mayr. Neau A. WEBER

in je) (ay 8) (2) 10s) Jel la} s| e| 1e\ (0 je) 0\- 0) 10) )0! lel felielioheiisiisiiellisieielta

EntomMoLocy.—Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States Na-

tional Museum: I, The genera Armigeres, Psorophora, and Haema-

gogus (Diptera, Culicidae). ALAN Stonr and KENNETH L. KNIGHT.

EntomoLocy.—New apterous Aradidae from Puerto Rico (Hemiptera).

Cart J. Drake and J. MALDONADO-CAPRILES

ZooLtocy.—Remarkably preserved fossil sea-pens and their Recent coun-

terparts. HREDERICK, Me BbAYER=o-e----c ace oe ee el eee

Page

275

282

289

. 294°

OcToBER 1955 No. 10

Vou. 45

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 45

October 1955

No. 10

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— Tritium in nature. W. F. Lipsy, U.S. Atomic Energy

Commission. (Communicated by R. K. Cook.)

(Received July 29, 1955)

I. INTRODUCTION

Among the products of the collisions of

the cosmic rays with the atmosphere which

one might expect to find in detectable

quantities in nature is tritium, radioactive

hydrogen of mass 3, 12.5 half life, 18 years

average life, which disintegrates to form the

stable isotope of helium of mass 3. Tritium

had been sought in natural waters prior to

the discovery of its natural radioactivity.

The methods used in this early search were

inappropriate since they assumed that

tritium would be a stable isotope and were

not of sufficient sensitivity to detect natural

tritium. It was fortunate, however, that the

samples prepared for this original search of

Lord Rutherford? and his colleagues at the

Cavendish Laboratory were available for the

search for radioactive tritium. It had been

shown from earlier researches’ that the bom-

bardment of nitrogen by fast neutrons of

energies above 5 million volts produced

tritium and the cross section for this reac-

tion was such that the neutrons which had

been observed by Korff* to be formed by

the bombardment of the atmosphere by

cosmic rays would produce tritium in suf-

ficient yield to cause one to expect it to be

observable.® It was speculated at the time

that the amount of tritium produced in this

manner could easily explain the extra-

ordinary abundance of helium 3 in at-

1 The Twenty-fourth Joseph Henry Lecture of

the Philosophical Society of Washington, de-

livered before the Society on March 25, 1955.

*Lord RutTHERFORD, Nature 140: 303. 1937.

3 Cornog, R., and Lipsy, W. F., Phys. Rev.

59: 1046. 1941.

4 Rev. Mod. Phys. 11: 211. 1939.

5 Lippy, W. F., Phys. Rev. 69: 671. 1946.

mospheric helium. Helium 3 in atmospheric

helium is about | part per million of the

total helium, whereas in well or terrestrial

helium it is only one-tenth as abundant as

in atmospheric. Therefore, we understand

that the helium 3 in atmospheric helium is of

cosmic ray origin, probably.

There is reason to believe that tritium

produced by the cosmic rays would be pro-

duced in the high levels of the atmosphere,

probably above the tropopause, between 30

and 50 thousand feet on the average. It, of

course, could be produced at all levels to

some extent though it would be most

abundantly produced at the highest levels.

We further expect that there would be op-

portunity for most of the tritium atoms

formed to burn to form water and conse-

quently that the water of the atmosphere

should be radioactive with tritium. An

analogous research undertaken in Germany®

at about the same time as our first work

showed that the tritium might have some

difficulty burning to form water by showing

that atmospheric hydrogen is especially rich

in tritium as compared to atmospheric water,

it being about 10,000 times more concen-

trated. However, it is still true that over 99

percent of the tritium burns to form water

since the atmospheric hydrogen is so ex-

tremely rare relative to the moisture of the

atmosphere.

The Rutherford sample was obtained by

Dr. A. V. Grosse and was electrolyzed and

converted into deuterium gas, after which

the deuterium gas was placed inside a geiger

counter. It is necessary to count tritium in

6 Fautines, V., and Harreck, P., Zeit. Natur-

forsch. 5A: 438. 1950.

301

wov'7 1958

302

the internal volume of a geiger counter for

the reason that its radiation 1s so extremely

soft, 19 kilovolt energy upper limit to the

beta spectrum. Because of this softness it

will not penetrate with any reasonable ef-

ficiency througha wall of any finite thickness

nor emerge from a solid sample. The

deuterium gas obtained by electrolysis and

reaction of the heavy water produced with

hot zine metal was mixed with a small pro-

portion of ethylene gas (1 or 2 em of mercury

pressure) and a small amount of argon

(about 3 em mercury pressure). This count-

ing gas 1s a good geiger counter mixture and

performs very well. The counter was shielded

by standard anticoincidence techniques and

by a thick metal shield.’ The geiger counter

had a natural background of about. five

counts per minute when so shielded though

the volume was nearly eight-tenths of a

litre. The electrolyzed heavy water sample

produced for Lord Rutherford at an extreme

enrichment of any tritium present of nearly

ten million fold showed a very appreciable

radioactivity. In fact, the radioactivity was

so strong that it was several weeks before

the failure of the counter to operate in a

reliable fashion was understood by diluting

the deuterium samples with ordinary hydro-

gen gas and observing that the cause of the

troubles was the excessive radioactivity of

the deuterium gas from the Rutherford

sample. The sample had been prepared by

the Norsk Hydro heavy water concern by

electrolyzing heavy water to further concen-

trate any tritium which might have been

present in the original water used to make

the heavy water. The original water used to

make the heavy water in the Rutherford

sample came from the Lake Mésvan, which

lies on the mountain plateau just east of

Bergen in Norway. It was therefore quite

certain that the water electrolyzed to form

the Rutherford sample was fresh snow water

and therefore had not had an opportunity to

lose its tritium by radioactive decay. Dr.

Grosse, Dr. Wolfgang, Dr. Johnston, and I

all worried that the excessive radioactivity

found in Rutherford’s sample might be in-

advertent in that in 1936 when the sample

prepared for Lord Rutherford’s search for

7 ANDERSON, E. C., ARNoLD, J. R., and Lipsy,

W. F., Rev. Sci. Instr. 22: 225. 1951.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. IC

tritium in nature had been studied in the

Cavendish Laboratory heavy water was

quite a rare commodity and it might have

been used in the deuteron accelerator.

Tritium is produced in prolific quantities by

the reaction between deuterons and _ this

tritium would have easily explained our

observations. We therefore asked the Norsk

Hydro Company to prepare a duplicate of

the Rutherford sample. This was done, and

it completely confirmed the assay found in

the Rutherford sample. The abundance of

tritium® using modern values’ for the frac-

tionation factor of the Norsk Hydro plant

was 2.4 X 107" atoms of tritium per atom

of ordinary hydrogen, a value close to that

expected.> As a result of the discovery that

rain and snow do, indeed, contain tritium im

about the concentration expected, it was

decided to pursue the assay of the natural

waters of the earth for cosmic ray tritium

and to study its possible practical useful

applications.

Il. METHOD OF MEASUREMENT

The water sample to be assayed for tritium

content is first distilled in a standard 2-gallon

gas-fired still, then is mixed with sodium

hydroxide to produce a 3-percent (by weight)

solution, and finally is electrolyzed in an

iron-nickel anode plant!® to a volume of

about 1 ce or less and the deutertum and

tritium content of the final product deter-

mined. It has been observed that the ratio

of the separation factors for tritium and

deuterium can be taken as 2.0 within the

experimental error of the data which is about

5 percent." This results in the very simple

expression,

a ne N X Vo

T» No X V

In this equation 7’ and Ty are the final and

original concentration of tritium respec-

8 Grosse, A. V., Jonnston, W. H., Woireane,

R. L., and Lipsy, W. F. Science 113: 1. 1951.

Material in this article was presented at the First

Research Day of Temple University’s Research

Institute, September 14, 1950.

9 Harteck, P., private communication.

10 Brown, W. G., and Daaaert, A. F. Journ.

Chem. Phys. 3: 216. 1935.

11 KAUFFMAN, S., and Lipsy, W. F. Phys. Rev.

93: 1337. 1954.

OcTroBER 1955 LIBBY:

tively in the water samples. N is the final

concentration of deuterium and WN, is the

‘initial concentration of deuterium which

is” 0.0156 percent for ocean water, Chicago

rain, 0.0149 percent, Chicago snow, 0.0141

percent.’ If one takes the original volume of

water to be 10-20 liters in the case of rains

and rivers and 100 liters in the case of ocean

water and the final volume to be 0.3 to 0.5

ees the resulting concentration of tritium,

T, Is adequate to allow several counts per

minute of observable count rate above the

i background of about four counts per minute.

With this arrangement it has been possible

to complete a considerable number of as-

says for natural tritium." The general result

has been that the average tritium production

rate by the cosmic rays 1s about 0.14 tritium

atoms per cm? per second of the earth’s sur-

face, with a probable error of about 20 per-

cent of this number. This is a very large

2 Craig, Harmon, private communication.

13 Figures quoted in earlier publication were

incorrect. Numbers given here are the correct

numbers.

144 yvonBurtiar, H., and Lissy, W. F., Journ.

Inorg. and Nuclear Chem. 1: 75. 1955.

TRITIUM IN NATURE

303

yield considering that the intensity of the

cosmic rays themselves is somewhere be-

tween 0.5 and 1 primary particle per cm?

per second. In other words, between one-

third and one-seventh of all the primary

radiations hitting the earth succeed in pro-

ducing a tritium atom. These high yields are

being confirmed in studies in progress with

Lloyd Currie, Dr. R. L. Wolfgang, and Dr.

M. L. Kalkstein in progress at the present

time at the Brookhaven Cosmotron which

furnishes 2.05 billion volt protons and at the

Berkeley Bevatron which furnishes 5.7 bil-

lion volt protons. The cross sections for the

production of tritium for a wide range of

targets encompassing the range of elements

have been large. In fact, as an average result

one finds that about one-tenth of all the col-

lisions in this billion volt energy range

produces tritium. This is a large yield con-

sidering the small binding energy which

tritium has and the essential instability of

this particle. However, it does indicate that

the cosmic-ray production rate given by the

study of the tritium in the waters of the

earth is essentially correct. The assay results

are given in Table 1.

Tie LAB TE al

Sa Description of sample (T ean

A. Chicago Rains and Snows

5 May 11, 1951. Collected from 1000 to 1200. Storm lasted from evening} 33 + +2

of 10th to afternoon of 11th. 3.81 in. rain.

14 October 14, 1952. Collected throughout storm. Storm lasted from) 20.4 + 0.7

1700 to 2400. 0.70 in. rain.

16 November 17, 1952. Collected throughout storm. Storm lasted from] 37 se 3}

0030 to 0100; 0600 to 0630. 0.31 in. rain.

17 November 18, 1952. Collected throughout storm. Storm lasted from 66.0 + 1.0

2100 of 17th to 1200 of 18th. 0.70 in. rain.

18 November 22-24-25, 1952. Collected throughout storms. Rained 19.3 4+ 1.5

afternoon of 22nd, evening of 24th, all day 25th. 1.13 in. rain.

19 December 2, 1952. Fell during night. 0.29 in. snow. 1352) 421.2

21 January 6, 1953. Fell during afternoon. 0.05 in. snow. 7.1 +4 0.5

22 January 23, 1953. Collected from 1515 to 1530. Storm lasted from 9.0 + 1.0

1200 to 1900. 0.32 in. rain.

30 February 11, 1953. Collected from 0930 to 1245. Light rain all morn- 50 es O.0

ing. 0.03 in. rain.

33 February 16, 1953. Collected 1030. Fell from 0300 to 1400. 0.19 in.| 10.8 + 1.0

snow.

34 February 20, 1953. Collected 1615. Storm lasted from 1530 to 1645. Bo) as (lea)

0.94 in. rain.

38 March 3, 1953. Collected throughout storm. Rain, sleet, and snow 9.4 + 1.0

fell from 1300 to 2000. 0.38 in. rain.

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 1(

TaBLE 1 (Continued)

Sample | Description of sample (T PEC eons)

39 March 7, 1953. Collected 1200. Fell from 0800 to 1500. 0.18 in. snow. 9.6 + 0.8

40 March 12, 1953. Collected 1030. Storm lasted from 0900 to 1700. 0.98 4.75 + 0.20

in. rain.

45 March 14, 1953. Collected throughout storm. Rained from 1000 to 1.16 + 0.18

| 1600; 2000 to 2200. 1.05 in. rain.

46 | March 18, 1953. Collected throughout storm. Light rain from 1300 to 19 3208

| 1700. 0.13 in. rain.

48 March 21-22, 1953. Collected throughout storms. Rained night of 3.10 + 0.13

21st, night of 22nd. 0.06 in. rain.

50 | March 31, 1953. Collected from 1030 to 1100. Rained lightly from 9.5 + 0.4

1000 to 1200. 0.07 in. rain. Wtd. Ave. (December to March): 5.5

51 April 3, 1953. Collected from 1000 to 1200. 0.07 in. rain. Yell Ss (oe

56 | April 15, 1953. Collected from heavy rain 1130. 0.60 in. rain. 10.0 + 0.3

61 April 30, 1953. Rained heavily from 1830 to 1915 with thunder and 6.6 + 0.4

lightning. 0.87 in. rain.

67 May 22, 1953. Collected at 0945. Heavy thunderstorm. 0.82 in. rain. 6.7 + 0.3

74 June 5, 1953. Collected from 1530 to 1610. Thunderstorm. 0.43 in, rain. 6.2 + 0.2

76 June 25, 1953. Collected from intermittent rain between 2130 and 7.9 + 0.1

2400. 0.02 in. rain.

77 July 1-2, 1953. Collected between 2300 on July 1 and 0300 on July 2. 4.3 + 0.3

Trace rain on July 1, 0.06 in. on July 2.

79 July 5, 1953. Collected from July 3 to July 6. Storm occurred about CoO Se 16

2200 on July 5. 0.39 in. rain.

86 July 17-20, 1953. Collected from 0930 July 17 to 1600 July 20. Rain- 7.1 + 0.4

storms on morning of July 17, afternoon of July 17, night of July

18, and morning of July 20. Rainfalls were: 0.57 in. July 17; trace

July 18; 0.10 in. July 20.

91 August 3, 1953. Collected 1930 to 1945. Trace rain. 3.60 + 0.4

92 August 4, 1953. Collected 1445 to 1455. 0.06 in. rain. 17.0 + 0.4

96 September 4, 1953. Collected 0400 to 1100. 0.50 in. rain. This was the 7.3 + 0.6

first rain after 38 weeks drought.

97 September 18, 1953. Rained very hard—thunderstorm. Collected at| 12.0 + 0.4

2145. 0.63 in. rain.

101 October 18, 1953. Trace rain. 9.8 + 0.9

102 October 26, 1953. First drops collected. Total rainfall was 0.31 in.,| 19.9 + 1.0

but this sample consisted of the first drops. Collected at 1530.

103 October 26, 1953. Same storm as sample No. 102 except water col-| 20.0 + 1.0

lected after three hours of continuous rain. Collected at 1800. 0.31

in. rain.

106 November 20, 1953, Collected 9000 to 1100 from the first part of the 7.8 + 0.9

rainstorm. 0.56 in. rain.

107 November 20, 1953. Collected 1600 at end of rainstorm. 13.5 + 1

109 November 27, 1953. Collected in the morning after an overnight| 34.5 + 0.6

snow.

132 December 2, 1953. Rain. Collected at 1500. 7.85 + 0.25

134 December 2, 1953. Rain. Collected at 1700. 8.3 + 0.3

135 December 3, 1953. Rain. Collected from 0925 to 0930. 5.8 + 0.4

142 December 12, 1953. Rain. 7.8 + 0.3

136 January 20, 1954. Rain. Collected from 0845 to 0855. 10.56 + 0.3

137 January 21, 1954. Snow. Collected at 1700. 18.7 + 0.4

138 January 26, 1954. Rain. Collected from 1000 to 1400. 19.4 + 0.5

139 February 5, 1954. Rain and Snow. Collected after 1700. 23.0 + 1.5

140 February 15, 1954. Heavy rain with thunder and lightning. Collected 9.5 + 0.4

from 1900 to 2200.

141 February 16, 1954. Snowy rain. Collected from 1500 to 1600. 15.6 + 0.7

147 March 2, 1954. Snow fell 1500 to 2400. Shoveled from the ground on} 20.8 + 0.5

March 3, 1954 at 1480.

151 February 20, 1954. Rain. Collected from 1230 to 1315. A ss (O52

166 March 19, 1954. Rain. Collected from 1430 to 1540. 385 + 5

JeTOBER 1955 LIBBY: TRITIUM IN NATURE 305

TABLE 1 (Continued)

pample Description of sample (T cree cance

167 March 24-25, 1954. Rain. 283 =

168 March 29, 1954. Fresh snow. 196 sz 3

169 March 29, 1954. Collected March 31, 1954, after most of snow had| 145 ss 5)

melted.

170 April 7, 1954. Heavy shower. Collected 1530. 248 ss 6

171 April 15, 1954. Short, heavy storm. Rain. Collected 1130-1145. 360 + 6

17. _ April 19, 1954. Collected at 1745. It had been raining since about| 425 + 20

| noon.

175 April 20, 1954. Collected at 0900 during rain on April 21, 1954. 260 + 4

181 | May 26-27, 1954. Collected during rainfall at night. 450 + 10

182. May 27, 1954. Collected at 1105-1110. Different rainstorm from sam-| 416 + 15

| ple No. 181.

183 | June 1, 1954. Collected 0930-0935. Rained previous night and all day.| 390 + $8

| Average tritium content from December 1, 1952 to December 1, 1953 8.2

| weighted according to the total rainfall for storm samples for 27

samples amounting to 12 inches out of the total rainfall of 26

inches.

Unweighted average for the samples between December 1, 1952, and 7.8

| December 1, 1953.

| Calculated average for rainfall over the past 18 years (Lake Michi- 7.4

|) gan).

B. Rains and Snows from Other Areas

42 | Fayetteville, Arkansas, snow. January 23, 1953. 1.17 in. snow. 5.5 0.6

43 | Wilson Springs, Arkansas, rain. Collected on February 10, 1953 in a 2.25 0.8

heavy thunderstorm.

49 | Honolulu, Hawaii, rain. Collected on morning of March 26, 1953 at 0.61

_ Honolulu, 5329 Keikilani Cirele by Mrs. Terry Yoshida.

95 |-Hickham Field, Oahu, Hawaii, rain. Collected at Hickham Field, 0.59

| July 17, 1953.

98 | Manila, Philippine Islands, rain. Collected 5 June, 1953 at 0.90

the Bureau of Quarantine by Dr. R. Abriol.

110 | Tantalus, Koolau Range, Oahu, Hawaii, rain. Collected 13 Novem- 0.73

ber 1953. The rain was collected by residents of Tantalus.

120 | Oahu, Hawaii, rain. Collected by pooling the catches of several rain 0.67

gages located at: Lower Laukaka, Nuuahu Reservoir No. 4, Wil.

Rise No. 4, Manoa Valley, Palolo Valley, Nuuahu Pali, Kalihi,

U.S.G.S. Station, Kaliha, Tunnel No. 2, Kaliha Reservoir Site,

Tantalus Peak, Bureau of Water Supply, City and County of

tH Ht Ht H It

i=)

Honolulu.

121 | Manoa Valley, Hawai, rain. December 1953. Single rain. 1.53 + 0.11

125 Wellington, New Zealand, rain. Collected October 1, 1953 on the Wii. 0.2

roof of the American Embassy at Wellington, New Zealand. The

roof had recently been painted and consisted of galvanized iron.

The meteorology: a vigorous depression was located at the Tas-

man Sea west of Cook’s Strait. It moved ESE and came over

Wellington in the early hours of October 2, 1953. Rainfall from the

forward side of the depression began when the cloud base was at

3 kilometres. After it began to rain the cloud base moved down to

1 to 2 kilometres and the freezing level was at 2 kilometres.

The clouds were alto stratus and nimbo stratus.

126 | Harwell, England, rain. Two gallons collected after a windless week 22.5 + 0.6

on October 24-25, 1953. Artificial tritium from Harwell may have

been present in this sample. Sample sent by J. M. Fletcher.

127 Harwell, England, rain. Collected October 26 to 28, 1953. Artificial 25.5 + 0.4

tritium from Harwell may have been present in this sample.

128 Santa Barbara, California, rain. Rain fell on January 23 and Jan- 4.0 + 0.1

uary 24, 1954. Collected by Dr. V. L. Vanderhoof on January 24,

1954 from Mission Creek, Santa Barbara. Total rainfall was 3

| inches.

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 10

TABLE 1 (Continued)

Sample

Hae Description of sample | eee Tae tons)

164 | iene Japan, rains. November, 1953 (4 or 5 storms). Sent by Prof. 6.5 + 0.4

Seishi Kikuchi, Osaka University.

165 Puerto Rico, rain. March 26, 1954. Drained off a tin roof at Ramez 65.6 + 1.2

| Air Force Base. Total rainfall 0.42 inches.

179 | Valparaiso, Chile, rain. April 4 or 5, 1954. After 3 months’ drought. a0) se (0).7

| Rained very heavily for about 36 hours.

| Water from Lake Mésvan used to supply the Norsk-Hydro. The| 2.4

Lake Mosvan water probably was melted snow from the winter of

1946 and 1947. The water was taken from the lake at the end of

January, 1948. (S)

C. Mississippi River

23 Mississippi River, St. Louis, January 31, 1953.

5.6 + 0.6

24 Mississippi River, Rock Island, January 29, 1953. | yoo) se 0.8}

26 | Mississippi River, St. Louis, February 4, 1953. 4.5 + 0.6

27. | Mississippi River, Rock Island, February 6, 1953. | 3.7 + 0.4

28 | Mississippi River, Memphis, February 4,-1953. | 6.0 + 1.0

29 | Mississippi River, New Orleans, February 8, 1953. | 4.7 + 0.3

31 Mississippi River, St. Louis, February 10,-1953. G0 se OY

36 Mississippi River, St. Louis, February 20, 1953. 6.4 +. 0.5

37 Mississippi River, Rock Island, February 24, 1953. | 44 4+ 0.2

44 Mississippi River water from Rock Island. Collected March 16, 1953.) 32) ee OR2

47. Mississippi River water from St. Louis. Collected 0900 on March 17, 5.4 + 2.4

| 1953.

57 | pee River water from Rock Island. Collected 1315 on April] oa) es (0.3)

| , 1953.

58 | NRskeiod River water from St. Louis. Collected 1300 on April 17, a0) se (od

1953.

80 | Mississippi River water from Rock Island. Collected on June 30,) 7.2 + 0.7

| 1953.

88 | Mississippi River water from St. Louis. Collected 1320 on July 22,) 7.3 + 0-4

1953.

| Average for Rock Island | 4.7

Average for St. Louis 6.0

D. Other Rivers

10 Columbia University distilled water. Collected August 5, 1944. 24 = O01

| (4.5 + 0.2 as of 1953)

15 | Sangamon River, Decatur, August 6, 1952. 1.15 + 0.08

52 | Arkansas River, Conway, Arkansas, March 20, 1953. 3.12 + 0.10

104 Riber Elbe. Collected at Hamburg, Germany, on August 31, 1953. 2.57 + 0.12

105 River Weser. Collected at Bremen on September 1, 1953. 1.76 + 0.10

108 River Rhone. Collected near Lyon, France, on September 10, 1953.| 2.64 + 0.16

111 River Main near Wiirzburg, Germany. September 13, 1953. Collected 1.76 + 0.19

| by Dr. H. V. Buttlar, who collected all the European samples.

112. | River Loire. Collected at Digoin, France, on September 9, 1953. | 2.11 + 0.14

114 Iinglish stream near river Cam. Water taken about one mile from the} 1.25 + 0.10

source (a spring). Collected near Cambridge, England.

122. River Donau. Collected near Ulm, Germany, on September 12, 1953 | | 2.13 + 0.38

123 | River Mosel. Collected near Metz on Senrember 7, 1953. Pyealy ay (0514

124 | River Seine. Collected near Nogent, France, on September 8, 1953. 1.80 + 0.3

131 | River Fulda. Collected near Kassel on September 24, 1953. 2.35 + 0.1

132 | River Rhine. Collected between Geisenheim and Rtidesheim on 3.0 + 0.3

September 7, 1953.

133. | River Marne ae Joinville, collected September 8, 1953. 2.1 + 0.2

143 Shasta Dam, California. January 30, 1954. 2.7 + wil

OcTOBER 1955 LIBBY: TRITIUM IN NATURE

TABLE 1 (Continued)

Saraple Description of sample a A rea

144 El Rito de los Frijoles, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. Collected) 27.2 + 0.4

February 7, 1954, at Bandelier National Monument. Sample prob-

ably represents average over the winter snowfall in the Jamez.

Mountains. Sent by I. C. Anderson.

145 Rio Grande, northwest of Santa Fe, February 7, 1954. The spring @.6 se Os)

thaw was beginning to raise the river level, but it had not yet)

reached peak volume by any means. Sent by E. C. Anderson.|

146 Winsor Creek, taken February 22, 1954, at Cowles, New Mexico, just 9.9 == 0:2

above junction with Pecos River. Sent by E. C. Anderson.

152. | Rio Guajataca, Puerto Rico, at Lares, collected March 2, 1954. 0.7 3 0.2

153 Rio Arecibo, Puerto Rico, at Utuado, collected March 2, 1954. | eat 02

155 River Tomokoa, Florida, on Route 92 near Daytona Beach, collected) 45.4 + 0.6

March 19, 1954. |

156 Alafia River, Florida, on Route 60 about 20 miles east of Tampa,) @0) se 3

March 22, 1954. |

E. Lake Michigan and Other Lakes

7 Distilled water from the Jones Chemical Laboratory at the Uni- Ag) vas Osi

versity of Chicago. The intake for the water supply for the

southern part of the city is two miles off the shore in southern)

Lake Michigan. Collected on May 12, 1952.

8 Jones Laboratory, Tap water, July 7, 1952. 1.35 + 0.25

13 Oak Park tap, hot water heater, ca 12 years old. 0.62 + 0.06(1.2)

25 Jones Chemical Laboratory distilled water. Collected on February) 2.4 + 0.4

6, 1953.

32. ~~ Jones Laboratory, Tap water, February 13-16, 1953. 1.73 + 0.06

100 Jones Chemical Laboratory tap water. Collected on October 26, 1953. 1.59 + 0.10

_ Average for Lake Michigan 1.64 + 0.04

_ Calculated average rain from the depth and area of the lake and the

| mean assay for tritium in the lake:

143 | Lake behind Shasta Dam, California, collected by Dr. L. R. Libby 2.7 + 0.15

| probably January 30 or 31, 1954, certainly not later than February

| 15, 1954.

148 | Roundout Reservoir, south shore, collected February 6, 1954, by 7.2 + 0.3

| Seth Harris, Lamont Observatory, 500 yards in front of gate off

New York 55. Ice cap over whole reservoir.

149 Shandakan Tunnel effluent from Schoharie Reservoir at Allaben, 8.4 + 0.3

| New York, right off route N.Y. 28. Collected February 6, 1954,

| by Seth Harris.

F. Hot Springs

453. | Water from the main reservoir at Hot Springs, Arkansas. Collected 2.5 1.4

| on March 18, 1953.

93 Water from the Lardarello, Italy, hot springs near Pisa. These hot} —0.56 + 0.538

springs furnish about 1 of the electric power in the whole of Italy.

The water actually was steam from the volcanic fumaroles.

157 Bowers Hot Springs, Bowers Mansion, Nevada, collected on March 10.8 + Il

| 11, 1954.

158 | South Steamboat Well, Steamboat Springs, Nevada. Collected 6.2 + 0.4

| March 11, 1954.

159 ~~ Spring No. 24, Steamboat Springs, Nevada, collected March 11, 1954. 7.1 + 0.4

160 Spring No. 50, Steamboat Springs, Nevada, collected March 11,1954.) 47 se 9

161 | Wilbur Springs, Colusa County, California, collected probably on i5@) se Oa

March 23, 1954, by Donald E. White, T = 127.2°F. This water is

exceptionally high in alkali chlorides, bicarbonates, boron, sul-

phide, iodine, and other compounds.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vol. 45, No. 104

308

TABLE 1 (Continued)

Sample Description of sample (T FeO aerac)

162 Devil’s Kitchen and Range Spring, The Geysers, collected March 10.8 + 0.4

23, 1954, by D. E. White. T = 202°F. No surface discharge, but)

probably slight sub-surface. Vigorous boiling, evaporation from)

pool about 15 feet in area. Acid reaction.

163 Magnesia Spring, The Geysers, California, collected March 23, 1954, 11.8 + 0.6

by D. E. White. T = 122°F. Discharge estimated 2 gpm.

176 Hot Springs, Arkansas, main reservoir. Collected at Government 2).92, = 302

| free Bath House, April 29, 1954. |

177. ~~ ~Wilson Springs, Arkansas, drill hole No. 1, collected April 29, 1954.) 2.06 + 0.15

185 Morgan Spring, Lassen Park. Growler Spring. This is near neutral 0.57 + 0.88

alkali chloride-boron-bicarbonate-sulphate spring opposite in

type from sample 186. T = 205.4°F; discharge about 8 gpm. Water,

believed to be in part voleanic but dominantly of surface origin,

circulating deeply and mixing. Collected June 8, 1954. |

186 Sulfur Works, Lassen Park. Big boiling spring. This is an acid spring) 54.2 + 1.2

| typical of most of the Lassen hot springs. T = 190°F, no dis-

| charge. These springs appear to result from partial condensation

of steam that is probably meteoric in origin. Some direct con-|

| tribution of recently fallen snow. Collected June 5, 1954. |

G. Well Water

41 | Drill core water from the Wilson uranium prospecting area in Wilson 0.17 + O.11

| Springs, Arkansas. Taken from the drill core on March 6, 1953.)

99 | Water from the 900 feet deep well at the McDonald Observatory at) —0.48 + 0.37

Fort Davis, Texas. Sample given by Dr. Gerard Kuiper of Yerkes (age greater than 50

was pumped in June of 1953. | years)

89 | Champaign-Urbana city well water. Water taken in July 1953 from) 0.18 + 0.05

and | well No. 51, located west of Champaign. This well is 296 feet deep) (age greater than 50

119 and is producing at a rate of 2,225 gallons per minute. The first) years)

hundred feet of formation is Wisconsin glacial drift and the next!

| 200 feet are Illinoisan and Kansan drift. The very bottom of the

| well at 300 feet is at the top of the Pennsylvania system. No-|

where in the entire log of the well is any clay formation which

would prevent the downseepage of rain. It was therefore thought)

that perhaps the well could contain some rainwater. It is gen-

| erally thought that the well water which supplies the area is)

| ancient and possibly of melted glacier origin. Sample furnished)

| by T. E. Larson, Head, Chemistry Sub-division of State Water|

| Survey.

H. Vintage Wines

54 | Widmer’s New York Riesling wine, Vintage 1952, Naples, New York) 5.3 + 0.3

| | (5.6 + 0.3)

55 | Widmer’s New York Riesling wine, Vintage 1940, Naples, New York, 3.2 + 0.2

| | (6.6 + 0.4)

62 Widmer’s New York Riesling wine, Vintage 1946, Naples, New York 3.63 + 0.16

I" (5.4 + 0.3)

63. | Hermitage Rhone wine, Vintage 1929, Tain, Droéme, France. 1.13 + 0.38

| | (4.8 + 1.4)

64 Hermitage Rhone wine, Vintage 1942. Tain, Dréme, France | 2.15 + 0.21

(8.92 + 0.4)

65 Hermitage Rhone wine, Vintage 1947, Tain, Dr6éme, France. | 2.15 + 0.28

| (3.0 + 0.3)

66 | Hermitage Rhone wine, Vintage 1951, Tain, Dréme, France. | 3.4 + 0.4

| | (3.8 + 0.5)

69 | Chateau Laujac Bordeaux wine, Vintage 1928, France. | 1.16 + 0.16

(4.6 + 0.7)

OcroBER 1955

LIBBY: TRITIUM IN NATURE

309

TABLE 1 (Concluded)

pample Description of Sample (T Saree

70 Chateau Laujac Bordeaux wine, Vintage 1934, France. 1.16 + 0.30

(3.3 + 0.9)

71 Chateau Laujac Bordeaux wine, Vintage 1939, France. 2.6 = 0.4

(5.6 + 0.9)

72 Chateau Laujac Bordeaux wine, Vintage 1945, France. 2.70 + 0.18

| (4.2 + 0.3)

83 Sherry, Vintage 1942, Jerez de la Frontera, Spain. | 1.93 + 0.27

(8.55 + 0.5)

S4 Sherry, Vintage 1947, Jerez de la Frontera, Spain. | 1.99 + 0.55

(2.67 + 0.75)

85 Sherry, Vintage 1951, Jerez de la Frontera, Spain. 2.73 + 1.0

(3.0 + 1.0)

K. Sea Water Samples

75 Sea water collected from the beach at Santa Moniea, California, on 0.54 + 0.02

June 8, 1953.

115 Sea water collected from the surface of the Gulf Stream on Septem- 0.19 + 0.05

ber 11, 1953, at 38° 5’ N, 69° 30’ W. The water temperature was

82°F. This was collected by the ship, Vena, by Mr. Bruce Heezen,

Chief Scientist from the Geophysics Section of the Geology De-

partment, Columbia University, the Lamont Laboratory. This

is Lamont Sample No. T-32.

116 ~| Atlantic sea water taken in Sargasso Sea at 34° 00’ N, 62° 50’ W. 0.29 + 0.02

Temperature of the water was 81.5°F. Collected following a light’

drizzle. Lamont Sample No. T-28.

117 Atlantie sea water taken from 300 miles from New York on the con- 0.55 + 0.04

tinental slope at 30° 20’ N and 71° 30’ W. The water temperature

was 75°F. Lamont Sample No. T-34. |

154 Atlantic sea water from the Sargasso Sea at 34° 00’ N. 52° 35’ W. IG se Ozil

Temperature of the water was 81.5°F. Collected September 7,

1953, immediately following a light drizzle of 1 hour. Lamont)

Sample No. T-25.

L. Miscellaneous

9 | Cistern, Decatur, collected August 6, 1952. Covered loosely about 29 5.9 + 0.5

| years ago.

12 | Cistern, Sullivan, Illinois, collected August 6, 1952. Covered with 2.9 + 0.2

| tight iron lid about 14 years ago. (6.38 + 0.4)

20 | Fire extinguisher, Skokie, [llinois. Filled June 5, 1936. 12.5 + 0.5

| (82 + 1.2)

75 | Pacifie Ocean, Santa Monica, California. June 8, 1953. 0.54 + 0.02

IV. DISCUSSION

Recently it has been shown that the

tritium produced by the cosmic rays is pro-

duced only in part by the neutron reaction

mentioned earlier, a large fraction of the

tritium being produced by the direct inter-

action of the primary cosmic rays with the

air.!° It would seem reasonable that whatever

the mechanism be by which the cosmic rays

produce tritium by bombarding the air, the

15 FIREMAN, E. L. Phys. Rev. 91: 922. 1953.

production rate should vary with latitude in

a manner not too dissimilar from that in

which the secondary neutrons vary.!® Simp-

son has published data for the variation in

neutron intensity with latitude at 30,000

feet altitude. Using these data, we can calcu-

late the expected ratio of the worldwide

average production rate of tritium, Q (T

atoms per cm? per second) to the local pro-

duction rate, Q, for various localities. For

16 Simpson, J. A., Jr., Phys. Rev. 83: 1175.

1951; 84: 335. 1951.

310

example, at Lake Mésvan, Norway, the

local Q should be multiplied by 0.58 to

obtain Q. At the approximate center of the

Mississippi Valley the factor would be 0.64,

and at Chicago it would again be 0.58. In

this way the data given in Table 1 can be

treated and corrected for the expected varia-

tion in latitude, though this variation has

not yet been completely proved for natural

tritium.

The most striking new development in the

nature of the results of the assay of natural

tritium is included in section K of Table 1,

the data on surface sea-water samples.

Whereas we had originally supposed that the

waves would certainly mix the sea to such an

extent that the tritium would be undetect-

able in surface sea water, we find that indeed

this is not so and that surface sea water does

contain tritium. Four results given in Table

1, the beach water at Santa Monica (sample

75), the continental shelf Atlantic water

(sample 117), the Gulf Stream sample

(sample 115), and the Sargasso Sea (sample

116) all strongly indicate that there is

definitely measurable tritrum in the surface

waters. In order to understand this we should

know that uniform mixing to a depth of 113

meters would give an average T-value just

equal to Q. This result is obtained if one

assumes that all tritium finds its way into

the sea eventually before decaying into

helium 3—in other words, that the storage

in ground water and in the atmosphere is

negligible relative to the runoff and direct

rain into the oceans. Since, as we will show

later, there is little doubt that Q is between

0.1 and 0.2 T atoms per cm? per second, one

observes that the results in Section K_ of

Table 1 would correspond to a mixing depth

of about 100 metres. This comment assumes

that the two coastal water samples are high

because of rains from the neighboring conti-

nents, which are richer, and takes the

samples from the Gulf Stream and the Sar-

gasso Sea as being more typical of the open

ocean. It seems likely that Q is probably

less than 0.25, the average of the Gulf

Stream and the Sargasso Sea samples, so

we may expect that future measurements

will show that the sea mixes to a depth of

about 50 metres in the lifetime of tritium.

This result is in agreement with the notion

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 10

that some stratification exists in the sea

below the surface at a depth of 50 to 100

meters. Measurements of the isotopic oxy-

gen in air dissolved in Pacific Ocean water

as a function of depth showed a point of

inflection in the isotope ratio at a depth of

about 100 meters,’ and the Baltic is known

to behave as almost completely stratified —

with the bottom of the surface layer lying at

about forty meters.'®

Though further measurements will be re-

quired to establish the tritium content of

the surface of the ocean, it is clear that this

tritium content is low, and water vapor

evaporated from the sea is essentially

tritium-free. It probably would be well to

calculate Q assuming sea-water vapor on

the average to have about 0.25 T atoms per

10° H atoms. Using this we can set up an

equation which expresses the balance be-

tween the production and decay processes:

7, (T, — 0.25) = 4.70, (2)

where r, is the average annual precipitation

over the seas in meters, T, is the average

tritium content of sea rain in T atoms per

108 H atoms, and Q is the cosmic-ray tritium

production rate in T atoms per em? per

second. The factor 4.7 is a numerical con-

stant arising from the units. Equation (2)

simply assumes that no appreciable storage

of tritium in the atmosphere for times com-

parable to the lifetime of trittuam—18 years,

average life—occurs, and that essentially all

the tritium forms water. The latter assump-

tion is well justified by the measurements of

the tritium contents of atmospheric hydro-

gen that have been made, which indicate

well less than 1 percent of the tritium is

found in this form. The value of rf, used is

0.77 meter per year.!® Using the data in

Table 1 and the latitudinal variation factor

described above, we see that T, should lie

between 0.9 and 1.0. This gives Q values of

0.11 and 0.12, respectively.

This calculation involves the implicit

assumption that the tritium made over the

17 RaKEsTRAW, N. M., Rupp, E. P., and Mr.

Doug, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 73: 2976. 1951.

18 GUSTAFSON, T. and KULLENBERG, B. Svenska

Hydrografisk-Biologiska Kommissionens Skrifter

Ny Serie: Hydrografi XIII.

19 RaANKAMA, K. and Sawama, Th. G., Geo-

chemistry, Chicago, 1950.

OcTroBER 1955

oceans is precipitated into the oceans. We

know, however, that on the western coasts

of the continents considerable tritium from

the skies over the seas precipitates on land.

Also, our measurements show that rains on

the east coast of continents are much higher

in tritium. Thus the sea rain just east of the

eastern continental coasts must be much

richer in tritium than T, as though land-

born tritium were precipitating into the

sea. In view of the prevailing westerly direc-

tions of the winds in the regions measured,

these results suggest that Q may be some-

what higher than indicated by the ocean

data.

We can make similar calculation for the

land areas by using the Mississippi Valley

average of 6 multiplied by the latitudinal

factor 0.6 as a worldwide average for land

rain.

It seems that the continental rains must

be richer than sea and coastal rains, for two

reasons. First, the length of time that the

moisture is exposed to contamination by

cosmic-ray tritium after leaving the ocean

is greater, and secondly, there is less moisture

in the air over the continents than over the

oceans and coastal regions. This raises the

specific activity, that is, the number of

tritium atoms per hydrogen atom.

We thus obtain

pi(6 X 0.6 — T.) = 4.70 (3)

where p; 1s the worldwide average runoff

from the land, and the average composition

of ocean rain is subtracted to correct for the

tritium content of the sea-water vapor com-

ing in over the western coasts and the Gulf

of Mexico. The value of p; used is 0.28." The

runoff must be used in equation (3) because

re-evaporation allows a given tritium atom

to be precipitated more than once over land.

Only transport into the sea where wave ac-

tion dilutes the tritium accomplishes the

fixation on the surface, and even in this case

as we have seen previously the fixation is not

complete. The value of Q so derived is 0.16.

Therefore we conclude Q is likely to be close

to 0.14, probably to within 20 percent.

Using this result, we calculate the ex-

pected tritium contents for average ocean

rain and surface-ocean waters on the as-

sumption of uniform mixing to 50 meters.

LIBBY: TRITIUM IN NATURE

dll

These results are given in Table 2. It is

pleasant to observe the agreement with the

data given in Table 1.

TABLE 2.—CaLcULATED LocaL Tritium Propuc-

EXPECTED

TION Rates, Q, AND OcEAN

Rain AND SuRPACE WATER TriTIUM ConTENTS

SS o *

E “S ate

Locality E 3e ES

3 | et] 6&

2 & | $s] 83

Sle Ie ie

Chicae ona cea es eee 0.58'0.24 |2.0 |0.55

Norway and the North At-

lantichOceanken sss eee en: 0.55|0.26 |2.2 |0.58

Mississippi Valley........... 0.60/0.23 |1.9 |0.58

Honolulu and the Hawaiian

TS Va'cl Siete re te epee te setae a 1.90)0.073/0.65}0.17

New Orleans, San Francisco,

Southern Italy, Southern

SDAIN reer ret 1.00/0.14 |1.2 |0.32

IRUCTEORRICOMe en an eee 1.25)0.17 |0.96/0.26

Marshall Islands:...........- 2.40/0.058)/0.48/0.13

It is obvious that the data in Table 1 for

samples collected later than March 15, 1954,

are not germane to our principal point—the

cosmic ray tritium. These high numbers

were the consequence of the thermonuclear

tests in the Pacific in the spring of 1954.

Most of our considerations in this paper will

ignore them, except in connection with the

samples from the hot springs. In this case,

the principal question, whether the springs

run rain water or not, can be answered nearly

as well with the contaminated rain as with

the normal rain. In fact, the appearance of

unusually radioactive water in the effluent

water in several springs must indicate turn-

over times of a few days or weeks, at most,

since the test series began on about March 1.

The one rain from Chile collected on April

4, 1954, showed no contamination, while all

Northern Hemisphere rain and river waters

tested showed it for March 15 onward. Ap-

parently the mixing of water vapor across the

equator is much slower than is the east-

west mixing.

The large fluctuations in the tritium con-

tents of successive rains in the Chicago area,

excluding the large rise in March 1954 due

to the test activities in the Pacific, require

special consideration in a meteorological

312

sense. Our basic equations (2) and (3) for the

relations between the tritium content, T, and

the cosmic-ray production rate, Q, are based

on the assumption that tritium cannot stay

in the air for years even if it is formed well

above the tropopause—the stagnant layer at

30,000 to 50,000 feet between the strato-

sphere and the troposphere in which the

normal weather phenomena occur. Half of

the tritium probably is produced on the

average above the tropopause. We assume

that it cannot stay up there for times com-

parable to 18 years—the average life of

tritium. This assumption does not mean,

however, that it may not mix horizontally

in an east and west and in a north and south

direction rather well due to stratospheric

winds before penetrating through the tropo-

pause and being precipitated. Whatever evi-

dence for latitudinal variation of Q is to be

found in Tables 1 and 2 should be taken as

indicating that the stratospheric storage

time is less than the north and south horizon-

tal mixing time.

Assuming perfect vertical mixing, we can

speak of the atmospheric moisture content,

w, in meters of water per cm’, and the

storage time, 7 in years, for the moisture in

the air, counting total time elasped in the

air after the moisture leaves the ocean and

until it returns eventually to the sea as rain

or snow or runoff river water. These quanti-

ties then will be related to the tritium con-

tent of rain, T,, and the production rate Q,

for the open sea by

_ 4.7Qr

ee hil To ae w (4)

where Ty is the tritium content of ocean-

water vapour. For the continental areas this

simple equation does not hold, because re-

evaporation of precipitated moisture without

dilution is an important phenomenon.

The values of w are not well known, but

it seems likely from available studies?®: 2!

20 Jacoss, W. C., The energy exchange between

sea and atmosphere Bull. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr.

6(2): 22-122. 1951.

21 BenTON, G.S., Estoque, M. A., and Domrn-

11z, J.. Johns Hopkins Univ. Department of Civil

Engineering Scientific Report no. 1, Contract

AF 19(122)-365 of the Geophysics Research

Division of Air Force Cambridge Research Center.

1953.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 10

that the range of values will be 0.01 to 0.03,

with corresponding average +r values of

0.013 and 0.039 or 4.7 days and 14 days,

respectively. At an average wind velocity

of ten miles per hour these numbers corre-

spond to transport distances of 1,100 and

3,300 miles respectively.

It is clear that in general land rain

should be richer in tritium than sea rain

because the atmospheric residence time

should be longer and because the mositure

content, w, should in general be lower.

However, it remains to apply the equa-

tion to air masses of known w and with

known trajectories so that the variation of

Q with latitude can be introduced. It is

to be hoped that careful coordination of

meteorological data with tritium assays

will yield results of importance to meteor-

ology in general.

An attempt has been made to understand

the variations of the tritium activity in

single rainstorms. Forty samples of indi-

vidual storms were collected on the campus

of the University of Chicago over a period of

more than a year. These samples correspond

to 16.23 inches of rain, or 46 percent of the

total rainfall during this period. The T

average of these rains, weighted by the

amount of rainfall, gives 8.8 units, which

compares reasonably well with the Lake

Michigan assay of 7.4. (The Lake Michigan

assay of 1.64 is used to calculate the com-

position of the rain supplying the lake.)

Approximate values for w were computed

from radio sounding data for the period of

December 2, 1952, to November 20, 1953:

monthly means from the Weather Bureau

Technical Paper no. 10 had to be employed

for the period from November 20, 1953, to

March 2, 1954. Values for w(T — To) are

given in Table 3.

While the measured values for T show a

minimum in winter, it can be seen that this

effect is over-compensated by multiplica-

tion with the amount of precipitable water

in the air, thus yielding the total tritium ac-

cumulated in the air mass. One then ob-

tains a maximum in summer. This is prob-

ably due to the following causes: (1) In

summer the wind velocities are lower, there-

fore the air mass is exposed longer to the

tritium production. (2) It is known that the

OcTOBER 1955

continent is a water donor during the sum-

mer-time. This means that the air mass

| picks up tritiated water from the continent.

In winter the large water sources for the

atmosphere is the ocean, which is almost

dead in tritium.

TABLE 3.—RAINFALL DATA AT THE

UNIVERSITY OF CHiIcaGco Campus

} | Monthly

} nonin | exceantiat

Date | Ds E—To} cfeme | Joliet, Il. |w (L — To)

| | iegee | for win

g/cm?

| |

12-252 | 13.2 |12.95| 1.2 | 1.0 1505

mosey | 6.85 | 0.5 | 0.8 3.4

oO), | 8.75 | 1.8 a5 e7

2-11 EeOM 4.75: |. 2.0 | 9.5

irons 10.55 | 0.7 | 0.85 | 7.4

2-20 ese st05. |) 2.1 6.4

oa omens 9215; | 01.0 9.2

27 feotGn| 9.35 | 0.8 7.5

312 Aerio | 2.2) | 0.98 9.9

eigen | 7.65 | 2.1. | 16.1

BE /22)\) 3 DB |) =

3-31 9.5 | 9.25] 2.5 Dorel

4-3 Ouieelins85'|| 1.8 15.9

159) |) 1050) | 9.75 | 1.5 1.48 14.6

4-24 GLOMSL75 | 4.2 36.7

430 GRGMNIGS35 | 216). | 16.5

5-22 Ceion4 5) 8) 215, |) 30.9

6-5 Guignjseg) | 8.25 || 3h2 19.2

6-25 eon meee | 401 31.4

7D) 43 | 4.05) 4.5 See

7-5 7.6 708 | BO | BLES | BG

TAT/20\" 71 Gia | =

S28) 2G || Bowe CeO. A eis) 16.4

S-4 MOM Garb: | 2401 68.8

9-4 7.3 7.05 | 4.3 30.3

2:5

9-18 1OzOMa 753) 3-3 38.8

10-18 9.8 | O65) 10 1.8 13,9

10-26 | 19.9 | 19.65 | 2.6 51.1

11-20 es 70S |) 98 20.4

11-20) |) 1325: | 13.25 1,2 15.9

He Ovaeg4e5) || 34.25 41.2

10" 2/3027 .3 7.05 1.0 Gol

1-20-54 | 10.5 | 10.25 8.2

1-21 18.7 | 18.45 0.8 14.7

1-26 19.4 | 19.15 15.3

2-5 23.0 | 22.75 19.3

2-15 9.5 | 9.25 0.85 7.9

2-16 15.6 | 15.35 13.0

2-20 AD |) B08 3.4

3-2 20.8 | 20.55 0.03 || 20.0

LIBBY: TRITIUM IN

NATURE 313

The argument that the vertical mixing

may not be complete would yield a high

value in summer also, since thunderstorms in

summer are known to reach higher up than

snowstorms in winter. But our measure-

ments do not support this thesis, since

thunderstorms do not average higher than

rains, while snow in general seems to be

quite active.

The data given in Table 1, section H, on

the tritium contents of vintage wines, to-

gether with the comparison of the Lake

Michigan average as shown in section E

with the general average for the rainfall in

the Chicago area, show that without doubt

the tritium content of rain up to March 15,

1954, was essentially the same as it had been

for the last eighteen years. It is clear, also,

of course, that if the calculation can be made

for Lake Michigan in which the hydrology is

known, and if the checks are satisfactory,

that in the case of an unknown lake the

measurement of the tritium and a compari-

son with the rainfall for the general region

should give the hydrology, or at least some

data on it. For example, the average depth

might be calculated, or the average storage

time for water in the lake.

The application of natural tritium to the

determination of the storage or holdup

time for ground waters may be of consider-

able importance. Some applications have

been made and are given in sections F and G

of Table 1. In section F data are given for

natural hot springs. It seems likely that all]

of the hot springs utilize surface water except

the Lardarello (sample 93) near Pisa, which

actually was steam from volcanic fumaroles,

the Wilbur Springs at Colusa, Calif. (sam-

ple 161), and the Morgan Spring at Lassen

Park, Calif. (sample 185).

The wells tested and reported in section

G gave old water in agreement with ex-

pectations. The lower limit of the age of

these waters is 50 years. Thus we cannot

distinguish water older than 50 years from

very old or juvenile water.

It is clear from an examination of the

data in section H of Table 1 that tritium

allows one to determine the age of wine. It

is also clear that the water in the wines has

essentially the same tritium content as the

314

rain of the general area. For example, the

Widmer Winery near Rochester, N. Y.,

shows a general tritium assay of 5.8 + 0.3,

in good agreement with what one might

expect in view of the results for the Missis-

sippi Valley as a whole. The French wines

in the Rhéne Valley near Bordeaux run

around 31% or 4 of our units; Spanish wines

about 3, which within the experimental

error agrees with the general rainfall average

for the area which is shown by the river-

water assay. Therefore it is relatively cer-

tain that agricultural products can be dated

and also that the presence of rainwater in

the agricultural products can be determined.

It would be interesting, of course, to test

for pumped irrigation water which might

possibly be ancient in character, just how

effectively the water was incorporated into

the crop.

To balance the cosmic-ray production of

tritium, there must be some mechanism for

the product of the radioactive disintegra-

tion of tritium, helium 3, to escape from the

earth. Being helium, no chemical compounds

can be formed, and being nonradioactive,

no nuclear transformations. Therefore, every

second for each square centimeter of the

earth’s surface, 0.14 helium 3 atoms must

escape on the average if the cosmic rays

have been constant in intensity. A direct

analysis of the air shows that there are 1.5 X

10" helium 3 atoms per em? of the earth’s

surface. Therefore, we calculate that on the

average a helium 3 atom must stay on the

earth 34 million years. This escape time

may well be about half this, since it 1s

probable that the cosmic rays can also pro-

duce helium 3 directly as well as through

the tritium, but it seems unlikely that this

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 10 |

would do more than double the total rate

of production of helium 3. Therefore we

rather definitely can say that if the cos-

mic rays have remained constant for the |

past 50 or 100 millon years, the amount of

helium 3 on earth is such as to indicate an

escape time of between 20 and 40 million

years. This is a rather reasonable magnitude

considering the probable escape time for

helium 4, as judged from other evidence.

One finds in the acceptability of this result

some evidence that the cosmic rays indeed

have remained constant for this great pe-

riod of time.

It is by no means obvious that on a time-

scale of 18 years the cosmic rays should re-

main completely constant, if any appre-

ciable portion of them are connected with

the solar sunspot cycle of 11 years’ duration.

The data given in this report so far, however,

indicate that there is no real evidence that

the present rate of cosmic-ray generation of

tritium is any different from what it has

been over the past 18 years.

V. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author and his colleagues, Drs.

Grosse, Wolfgang, Johnston, Kauffman,

vonButtlar, Begeman, and Martel, are all

extremely indebted to the Office of Scientific

Research of the Air Research and Develop-

ment Command of the U. 8. Air Force for

the support of this research. We wish to

thank also the many individuals who fur-

nished samples of water and other materials

used. We are very grateful to Wiliam Tim-

mons for extremely able and devoted opera-

tion of the electrolytic plant for concentrat-

ing the water samples.

OcToBER 1955 C. LANZCOS:

SPECTROSCOPIC EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS

315

MATHEMATICS.—Spectroscopic eigenvalue analysis. C. Lanzcos,! Dublin In-

stitute for Advanced Studies, Dublin, Eire. (Communicated by R. K. Cook.)

In honor of Lyman J. Briggs on his eightieth birthday

(Received May 20, 1955)

A method is herein described which trans-

forms the search for the real eigenvalues

and eigenvectors of a matrix into the search

for hidden periodicities of a function com-

posed of periodic components. The applica-

tion of the Fourier transform displays the

entire eigenvalue spectrum of the matrix

in the form of sharp maxima of a Fourier

spectrum, in analogy to the operation of a

spectroscope. The method is well suited for

the big electronic calculators and has the

advantage of simple programming, com-

bined with high precision. The same method

yields an iterative solution of large-scale

lmear algebraic systems.

1. The search for hidden periodicities. The

spectroscope is a physical instrument con-

structed for the purpose of resolving an

arbitrary superposition of periodic functions

into its components. Let f(t) be of the fol-

lowing form:

f@) = a cos mt + --- + Gy COS Vat

(1.1)

+ by sin vyt + --- + 6, sin vy.

Then the spectroscope transforms this func-

tion of ¢ ito a new function F(v) of the

frequency v, in the following manner. At

certain definite values y = »; sharp lines ap-

pear, the “spectral lines,’ whose intensity is

proportional to ~/az + b2. In view of the

finite resolving power of the instrument,

however, the lines are not sharp but have

a finite width. This means that the light

intensity is not concentrated at the discrete

frequencies vy = v; but falls off continuously

according to the law

sin (v — v,) rN

(vy — v;) rN

The larger the \, the greater is the resolving

power of the spectroscope.

The following method of analyzing the

eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a symmetric

1 Former staff mathematician, National Bureau

of Standards.

matrix (or more generally of any matrix

whose eigenvalues are all real) is called

“spectroscopic”? because it imitates mathe-

matically the operation of a spectroscope.

The great accuracy of spectroscopic ob-

servations is caused by the high resolving

power (large N) of spectroscopic instru-

ments. In our operations the value of V will

remain within limits which are modest in

comparison to the values encountered in

physical spectroscopy. And yet the high

precision of spectroscopic measurements will

be realizable (order of magnitude 10°),

because of the great accuracy with which

the basie function f(¢) is available.

Let us assume that f(é) is given at the

equidistant values of ¢.

(UA) b= 0, me Ber, 2° 5 Ae

We introduce the notation .

(GES) pe =

and restrict all 6; to the range [0, 7]. More-

over, for our present purposes the sine

analysis will not be needed. Hence we assume

that the following sequence of ordinates is

at our disposal:

Yr = a cos k6, + ae cos kd,

+ --- + a, cos ké, .

(eS OF ly BH eee 5 IN)

(1.4)

The aim of the spectroscopic analysis (also

called ‘“‘search for hidden periodicities’’)

may be characterized as follows: Given the

ordinates y, = Yo, Yi, °°: , Yn, find the

hidden frequencies », (or the @, which are

proportional to them), and the associated

amplitudes a; .

2. Solution by Fourier analysis. The solu-

tion of our problem can be given by the

method of the Fourier transform (cf. [1],

p. 99) suitably modified for the case of dis-

crete data. The process of cntegration has

thus to be changed to a process of swmma-

316

tion. We define the following function of the

continuous variable é:

F(E) = 14 yo + 1 COS a8

(Pall)

+ Yo COs mes a 888 Se Wy COS ae:

This function is periodic with the period 2N.

Moreover, it is an even function of £:

JO(=(3) = IN

Hence it suffices to reduce the range of &

to [0, N]. We will restrict ourselves to

integer values of £:& = k, which are of par-

ticular interest. Hence we will put

Pk) = ux = 14 Yo

ar Oe cos a5; k + 16 yw cos N Sh.

These u can be plotted as isolated ampli-

tudes at the equidistant abscissas k =

0, 1, 2, --- , N. The sharp maxima of these

amplitudes? will reveal the frequencies

which are present in the original function

f(t) and the strength with which they are

represented.

We shall first write down the Fourier

transform F(£) of the specific function

yx = a; cos k0;. However, for the purposes

of mathematical operations it will be con-

venient to replace the frequencies 6; by

proportional quantities, to be denoted by

Pi:

(2.3)

0, = Pin:

Let us introduce the following function of x:

14 sin rx eos 55

(2.4) a

g(x) =

Then we obtain

Cx) 1) = WO = 8) sr OW ar &)

2 For the sake of distinction we will refer to

the y; (equidistant ordinates of the given function

f(t)) as the ‘‘ordinates,’’ and the uz (equidistant

ordinates of the Fourier transform) as the ‘‘ampli-

tudes.”

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 10

For all practical purposes the function (2.4)

can be replaced by the simpler function

. sin TL

(2.6) o(x) =

An ideal situation exists when all the p; of |

a given problem are integers. Then

6; = is

2. +

(2.7) N?

where m; is an integer between 0 and JN.

The Fourier transform u; of the function

(2.8)

Ya = ean ay”

is now reduced to a single line at the point

The dis-

tribution of the wu, consists now of isolated

lines. The position and magnitude of these

lines determine directly the 6; and the a; .

In the general case we can put

(2.9) p=m+.,

where m is an integer and ¢ a quantity be-

tween 0 and 1. In this case we no longer ob-

tain a single line for the Fourier transform

of a cosine function, but a group of lines

clustered around the maximum at k = m,

with slowly decreasing amplitudes. We will

write

k = m;, with the amplitude ae ;

(2.10) k=m+u

(u = integer) and obtain as the transform

of the function cos @a the amplitudes

N sin ex (—1)*

aT mS

(Zz)

om C= fp

The sharp peak at u» = 0 is still there but

the neighboring amplitudes are no longer

zero. They fall off rather slowly (if € is near

to 14), with alternating signs, and influence

the position of other maxima, if these max-

ima are not separated by large distances,

e., If N is not excessively large.

We can greatly reduce the mutual inter-

ference of neighboring peaks if instead of

operating with the amplitudes themselves we

OcToOBER 1955 Ce

investigate each combination of three neigh-

boring amplitudes. The second difference of

the function 1/(e — x) falls off with the

third power of « — x and hence becomes

quickly negligible. In view of the factor

(—1)° in (2.11), the second difference has

to be replaced by the second swm:

(2.12) UR = U-1 — Qu. ~ Unk41 -

The sign of the u;, generally alternates be-

tween + and —, but this regular + pattern

is occasionally disturbed by a + +, or — —

sequence. This irregularity reveals the near-

ness of a peak, regardless of the magnitude

of the w.. We underline each + + or — —

pair and draw all further conclusions from

them and their neighbors. The order m of

the amplitude w,,, belonging to the first

member of the pair, constitutes the integer

part of p. The fractional part ¢ is now deter-

mined as follows. We can put

(2.13) Vian = GD

e—

Then

2 1 ]

fee e= ae)

214 = ——.,,

( ) e(1 — &)

Om1 = 28

e(1 — &)(2 — &)

We now form the ratio

2 Vm 2 —= G

(2.15) a Peas Tee,

whence

: 27

(2.16) e= eras

The strength 8 of the peak is evaluated as

follows:

(ali) — el — 6) (Wim Uni)

Finally, going back to the original frequency

and amplitude of the cosine component of

the function (1.1), we get

LANZCOS: SPECTROSCOPIC EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS

317

(2:18) SW GEE B

and

(2.19) 6, = (m+) =

This method of resolving a function, given

in equidistant ordinates, into its periodic

components is more accurate than the

customary numerical schemes pursued in

the “search for hidden periodicities” (cf.

[9], p. 349). It is shaped to the demands of

a problem in which the basic ordinates ya

are given with high accuracy; we need not

rely on the assumption that the frequencies

which are present in f(t) are necessarily

widely separated. If N is sufficiently large

(order of magnitude 1,000) and the func-

tional ordinates given with an accuracy of

10 °, we can obtain an accuracy of 10 ° or

higher, for the determination of the 6; .

3. The Chebyshev polynomials. Let x be

an ordinary algebraic quantity, lmited to

a real positive range between 0 and 1. We

generate a succession of polynomials by the

following recurrence relations (cf. [10], p.

XI):

= | — 2%

by => (al = 2x)b; = bo

3 = AC = Zan = (oh

by = 2(1 i 2x) by—1 = Dito

The quantities thus generated have the fol-

lowing significance:

(3.2) b. = cos k6,

where

(3.3) sin’ 5 = 4p.

We now replace x by the matrix A. If

we assume that the eigenvalues of A are all

real, positive, and lmited to the range

(0, 1], we may construct the ‘operating

matrix”

318

(3.4) C = 2] — 4A

and generate a succession of vectors by the

following iteration scheme; where bo is an

arbitrary trial vector:

b, = 146Cbo

bo = Cb. =z bo

b; = Ch. — by

(SED)

by = Coy wa by» :

Let us analyze bo in the reference system of

the principal axes of A. We will call these

principal axes w,, We, °°* , Wn;

(3.6) bo = Bw; +— Bows -= +>: + BrW .

Then

by.

(B, cos k0;)wi + (2 cos kA.) we

(B21)

+ --- + (8, cos k0,)w,

where the 6; are in the following relation to

the eigenvalues \; of the matrix A:

ele COSC,

bo] S

~S)

(3.8) \; = sin’

We will now pick out one definite component

b.—e.g., the first component of each suc-

cessive vector b,—and consider this one-

dimensional sequence of quantities as the

yx.-sequence (1.4):

(3.9) Us OS, One, OS”. wa ae Oe

We subject this sequence to a Fourier analy-

sis, obtaining the amplitudes (2.2). The

isolated maxima of this sequence, evaluated

according to sec. 2, will determine all the

é—and thus also all the \;—with high

precision.

4. Programming for the large electronic

calculators. In contrast to the author’s

earlier method of ‘‘minimized iterations”

(cf. [4]; see also [2] and [8]), the present

method is far less economical in the number

of iterations employed. The total number of

iterations N must exceed the order n of the

matrix by a factor of 10 to 20, in order to

guarantee the proper independence (and

thus easy separability) of the peaks. On the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 10

other hand, the present method recommends |

itself by the simplicity of the operations and

the ease of its programming for the elec-

tronic computer. Since the successive itera- |

tions follow each other quite automatically

without any disturbance, the generation of

the b, vectors is a quick process, even in the

case of large matrices. Moreover, in the

previous method the eigenvalues )\; did not

appear explicitly but had to be obtained as

the roots of an algebraic equation. In the

present procedure, the eigenvalues come

directly in evidence by the position of the

maxima of a set of Fourier amplitudes.

Furthermore, the usual difficulty of properly

protecting the small eigenvalues against the

encroachment on the part of the large

eigenvalues is here completely circumvented

by the method of projecting them on a

semicircle with the radius 14. On the circle

the question of magnitude loses its meaning,

and all eigenvalues come into play on an

equal footing. In this manner, a_ single

Fourier analysis is able to display the entire

spectrum of a matrix.

=k $ cos 6 |

The procedure consists of two phases:

1. The generation of the vectors b, .

2. The Fourier analysis of these vectors.

The latter analysis need not be carried out

with the entire vector but only with a

single component of each of these vectors.

In actual practice, it is advisable to isolate

two sets of components. We can use the

second set for checking purposes and also

for the testing of multiple eigenvalues, as

we will see later, in sec. 9.

The symmetry of the matrix A is not

required. It suffices to know that all the

eigenvalues of A are real.’ However, the

3 The case of complex eigenvalue will be treated

in a subsequent paper.

OcToBER 1955 C. LANZCOS:

symmetry of 4 has an important advantage.

li A is symmetric, then the eigenvectors w;

are orthogonal to each other. Since we de-

fined the vectors }, by a process which

never multiplies the eigenvectors by any-

thing larger than 1, we know in advance that

the absolute value of the vectors b;, (in the

ease of a symmetric matrix) can never grow

beyond that of the first vector bo . Hence we

need not program for overflow. If the

capacity of the machine is, let us say, 10

decimal digits, we can fill up the cells con-

nected with bo with 9 decimal random num-

bers. Since the magnification factor in any

component cannot go beyond the factor

—/n, the provision of one empty digit in

front of the number suffices to take care of

the overflow, no matter how far we extend

the procedure.

5. Generation of the vectors b,. If the

original matrix A is an arbitrary matrix,

except for the fact that the reality of the

eigenvalues is known in advance, we can

estimate the absolutely largest eigenvalue by

Gersgorin’s method. Taking the sum of the

absolute values of each row (or column) and

choosing the largest of these n positive

numbers, we obtain an upper bound, s, on

the eigenvalues of A. If we now put

(5.1) C=-A

we can be sure that the eigenvalues of this

matrix will be limited by —2, +2.

If, moreover, we know in advance that

all the eigenvalues of A are positive, we put

C= ek

(5.2)

Gersgorin’s method generally overestimates

the largest eigenvalue of A. This has the

disadvantage that the A-spectrum will be

squeezed into a too small portion of the

semicircle, leaving the remaining part un-

used. It is advisable therefore to go through

a preliminary Fourier analysis for a closer

evaluation of the smallest and the largest

eigenvalue of A, but with no demands of

precision. For this purpose a relatively small

value of N, e.g. 40, is sufficient, since we do

not mind if the \-spectrum is crowded. We

are interested only in the lower and the

SPECTROSCOPIC EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS

319

upper limits \; and Ay (in rough approxima-

tion). Then we put

GS) @ ao Se ey

eae

and thus ascertain that the eigenvalues will

spread over the entire semicircle.

The generation of the vectors b, occurs

with the help of the simple iteration scheme

(3.5).

6. Fourier analysis of the b, . We isolate

one component (or possibly two compo-

nents) of each vector and subject this one-

dimensional sequence of numbers y, to a

Fourier analysis. The very first and the very

last element, 1.e. the components belonging

to bp and by , are immediately divided by 2.

In our subsequent formulae we will assume

that yo and yy refer to the halved ordinates.

The Fourier analysis consists in multiplying

the given sequence y; by the coefficients of

a preassigned matrix I’, defined by

(6.1) va = Cos tk e

U: = yy, Vka Yo

a=0

We can generate the coefficients ya of Ye

concurrently with the summation, on the

basis of the following recurrence scheme:

y= 1

VA ae Pk

(6.3) v2 = 2p:71 — Yo

vs = 2prv2 -— 11

Yn = 2pKyn-1 — Yn-2

where the keyvalues p, = cos ke can be

taken from a trigonometric table. But it is

still simpler to let the machine evaluate and

store the p; , by taking only the single value

pi = Cos = from the trigonometric table

and then generate the remaining p, on the

basis of the recurrence relation (6.3).

320

We have now obtained the amplitudes

(6.4) Un, U1, Us, °°: , Un

which will now be examined for peaks, fol-

lowing the procedure of sec. 2. The presence

of a peak is demonstrated by a + +, or

— — sequence which interrupts the regular

-+- sequences. Such pairs are underlined

and the calculation of the eigenvalues is

based on these pairs, augmented by one

neighbor to the left and to the right:

(6.5)

Um—-1 ) Um ) Um-+1 ’ Um+42 .

We form the ratio

Um—1 SF 2m =P Um+1

(6.6) q a Um lia 2Um+1 ote Um-+2

and

Dees

— = q

(6.7) Tear

Then

1 — cos (m+ 6)

(6.8) SoS

The corresponding eigenvalue of the original

matrix A finally becomes

(6.9) A= dy + Ag — do)A!

Since the customary trigonometric tables

divide the semicircle into 180°, it is conve-

nient to choose for NV, the total number of

iterations, some multiple of 180. If for

example NV = 180, the angle 6; , determined

by the integer m; plus the correction €e; ,

is directly given in degrees. If N = 1800,

the circle becomes divided into tenths of

degrees (i.e. 6’), and a gives 6; di-

rectly in degrees.

7. The problem of noise. We would assume

that an iterative scheme, if pushed too far,

might lead to a dangerous accumulation of

rounding errors. In actual fact the genera-

tion of the vectors b, seems to be remarkably

free of rounding errors. The rounding errors

accumulate rather slowly and in the same

ratio as the peaks increase in size. Hence the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 45, No. 10 |

“signal to noise ratio” does not deteriorate

with increasing V. Many hundreds, and even

thousands of iterations can be performed

without affecting the precision with which

the 6; are obtainable. The detection of cer-

tain very small eigenvalues demands oc-

casionally a very large number of iterations.

Our experience seems to indicate that the

rounding errors have no vitiating influence

on the result, even under such unfavorable

conditions.

The problem of noise can best be studied

with the help of a matrix C’ which is so con-

structed that all its eigenvalues are of the,

form

\; = 2 cos m; —

(710) v

where m; is an integer between 0 and N

(ef. (2.8)). In this case the field of the u;,

should consist of n isolated amplitudes only,

separated by completely blank spaces. Any-

thing found in the blank spaces is due to

noise. Experiments with matrices of low

order have shown that even after hundreds of

iterations the blank spaces remained blank

with an accuracy of 10 *. Experiments with

large matrices and thousands of iterations

are not yet available.

8. Higenvectors. The effect of the Fourier

analysis is that of isolating one particular

periodic component out of a mixture of

periodic components. This is precisely our

alm when attempting to obtain the eigen-

vectors w; of the matrix A. As the equation

(3.7) shows, the vector b, is a superposition

of periodic components with amplitudes

which are proportional to w;. This makes

it possible to extend the technique of the

Fourier analysis from the determination of

the eigenvalues to the determination of the

eigenvectors. Let a peak be near to a certain

k = m. Then the operation

y T

Un = 16 bois (cos m | by

(8.1) aP (cos 2m a ly te oe

+1% (cos Nm =) by

OcTOBER 1955

will generate a vector which strongly empha-

sizes the eigenvector w; . We may thus apply

the process of (6.2), now extended over the

entire vector and not merely over one ele-

ment of the vector. The vectors b, must be

preserved in their entirety for this computa-

tion. In contrast to the previous Fourier

‘analysis, which demanded a_ systematic

scanning for all values of k between 0 and

_N, the present process has to be carried out

only for those specific m-values which be-

long to the eigenvalues.

_ Again the purification can be enhanced if

we operate with second differences which in

actual fact become second swms. In addition

to the w,,-value which is nearest to a peak, we

also evaluate the wu; for the left and right

neighbors k = m — 1 and k = m + 1 and

then take the combination

(8.2) Um = Um-1 = PAY i-s SF Um41

‘This vector will be proportional to w; with

smaller contamination on the part of the

other w; than if w,, alone were taken.

9. Multiple eigenvalues. If we count the

number of maxima of the Fourier analysis

and find that their total number adds up to

the order of the matrix, we may conclude

that all the eigenvalues of our problem have

become evident. If the total number is less

than vn, then a further investigation is needed

concerning the missing eigenvalues. One

possible reason for the lacunae is that the

trial vector bo possesses accidental ‘‘blind

spots” in the direction of some of the eigen-

vectors. This possibility is considerably

diminished by the fact that the components

of bo were chosen as 9-digit random numbers.

At all events, if we have isolated a second

set of b, components, it is advisable to repeat

the Fourier analysis for this set and see

whether more peaks can be recorded in the

second analysis.

If this is not the case, the question of the

missing eigenvalues can be further clarified

by repeating the entire procedure with a

new random vector b,. If this analysis re-

veals new peaks, this demonstrates that our

original trial vector had accidental de-

generacies which were removed in the new

analysis. But if the deficiencies still exist, we

may assume that some of the eigenvalues are

C. LANZCOS: SPECTROSCOPIC

EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS 321

multiple eigenvalues or eigenvalues which

fall too close together.

In this case it becomes imperative to find

out which of the eigenvalues can be trusted

to be single and which cannot. The decision

can be made by the following procedure. We

assume that we possess the Fourier analysis

of two elements of the original trial vector,

and the same analysis of the corresponding

elements of the new trial vector. We form

the second sum in the neighborhood of a

peak, for both elements in the original set

and compute the ratio

(4) 9,,()) d)

Uses PH Se Veet

(2) @y (2

Um—1 2Um ar Um+1

(9.1) —

Now we do the same for the new trial vec-

tor. If r turns out to be the same in both

cases, we have demonstrated that the eigen-

value in question is sengle. If the two ratios

are not the same, we have demonstrated that

the eigenvalue in question represents two

(or more) collapsing eigenvalues, or at least.

two (or possibly more) maxima which are

very nearly the same and which have to be

separated by further efforts.

10. Separation of two very close eigen-

values. The separation of several excessively

close eigenvalues is not an easy problem

since two such eigenvalues operate also

physically together and exceedingly refined

observations (‘fine structure analysis’’)

are demanded for their separation. However,

two very close eigenvalues can still be sepa-

rated with relatively simple tools. We start

with w,, and u,,.41 knowing that a maximum

exists between them. However, we have

good reasons to suspect that not one but two

peaks can be found between these two ampli-

tudes. We will now operate with five succes-

sive amplitudes, viz.

(10.1) Um—2 ) Um-1 5) Um 5) Um+1 ) Um+2

and assume that two eigenvalues exist in

this region. Hence we now have two p-

values, namely p) = m+ aandp=m+e.

We introduce

€1é2 = p

(10.2)

at+e=oa

322

and obtain two linear equations for the de-

termination of p and c. These two equations

are as follows:

Cp ap Bien ap Bie ap Wa)

+ (2Un—2 + 3Um—1 — Um41)

+ 4ttme 3Umo1 Uma)

(Chm sp Sia ap Oli ae Ua)

(10.3) = 0

ra (2Um+2 ar 3Um41 ay Um-1)

=F (4tm4e ar 3Um44 ae Win) = 0.

We solve these two equations for p and o

and then find the roots of the quadratic

equation

(10.4) x —oxtp=0

which gives us e, and e .

If the determinant of this linear set be-

comes too small, this is an indication that

the two peaks are too close together to be

numerically separable (except by an increase

of NV). In that case the two equations collapse

into one but this one equation suffices for

the localization of the double-peak since

now we can put p = 0,0 = «e.

This separation technique could be ex-

tended to more than just two nearly equal

peaks. The difficulty is, however, that the

calculations become very sensitive to the

contaminating influence on the part of the

external peaks. For this reason we should

first obtain the critical eigenvector by the

Vm-method described in sec. 8. This vector is

now a linear superposition of the two or

more eigenvectors which belong to the

closely bunched eigenvalues, without bemg

contaminated by the external eigenvectors.

If we use this vector as the trial vector bo

of the recurrence scheme (3.5), the subse-

quent Fourier analysis has a better chance

of separating the closely spaced eigenvalues

since the interference from the external

peaks is removed.

11. Very small eigenvalues. In the case

of positive definite matrices we are some-

times interested in the determination of a

few excessively small eigenvalues. For very

small eigenvalues of A (largest eigenvalue

not exceeding 1) the relation (3.8) becomes

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 10°

(11.1)

i eeu

Mie eo

The appearance of N* in the denominator |

makes even very small eigenvalues detect- |

able. However, the case of very small eigen-

values requires special attention, because of

the following circumstance. The amplitudes

u; belong to a circle and do not terminate at

either end. The full period includes 2N terms.

Every peak on the positive side has an ac-

companying peak on the negative side, due

to the relation

(11.2)

Uj}; = UU:

The very small eigenvalues are thus dis-

turbed by the presence of a near peak on the

negative side. Beyond k = 5 the influence

from the negative side becomes negligible

but this is not the case in the realm of the

smallest eigenvalues. In this realm a special

numerical scheme comes into operation.

It is of advantage to avoid eigenvalues in

the range between k = 0 and k = 2 alto-

gether since in this range it is difficult to

keep down the interference from the larger

eigenvalues. We can push out the spectrum

of the matrix A by putting a properly chosen

constant in the main diagonal. We assume

that the eigenvalues of A are already nor-

malized to the range [0, 1]. We now modify

A to

A’=A+ @ I

This means that the matrix C will be defined

Tv g

'=12 — == [ — 4,

The effect of this modification is that the

eigenvalues of the new problem become

ps 7

ye)

This means—since A has no negative eigen-

values—that the eigenvalues of the modified

matrix cannot start below p = 2. After ob-

taining the eigenvalues of the new matrix,

we finally return to the original matrix by

OR Es))

(11.4)

(11.5)

~OcToBerR 1955

subtracting from all \; the same constant

(3).

We will now assume that the range be-

tween p = 2 and p = 4 may contain two

,eigenvalues. The separation of these close

eigenvalues occurs again in analogy to the

procedure of sec. 10. Once more we introduce

the sum and the product of the e-values, but

-with the following modification. They now

appear in squared form:

(11.6)

qe + 6&6 — «a

Moreover, « and e& are not restricted to the

range [0, 1] because the roots are measured

_ from zero and we obtain for the associated

eigenvalues directly

U S T

a ()

_ The two linear equations which determine

_@ and p have coefficients which are linear

conbinations of the first five wu,-values:

Up, U1, --- , us. The coefficients of the first

equation are displayed in the following

scheme:

ne =

: (11.7)

p —o 1

Uo 10

Uy 15 15 15

(11.8) Us 6 24 96 = 0

Us il 9 81

(This means that the factor of p is for

example

10u) + 15m, + Ow + wu,

and so on.) The coefficients of the second

equation become similarly:

p —o 1

Uo —105

Uy 0

Us 252 1008 4032 = 0

Us 192 1728 15552

Us 45 720 11520

If the two linear equations are not solvable

due to the smallness of the determinant,

we obtain only one eigenvalue but again we

C. LANZCOS: SPECTROSCOPIC EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS

323

can put p = 0, ¢ = «, and the second equa-

tion can be discarded. Beyond k = 4 the

determination of « by the ratio of two second

sums (cf. sec. 2) and the separation of two

close eigenvalues according to sec. 10 be-

comes applicable again.

12. Acknowledgments. The “‘spectroscopic

eigenvalue analysis’? was developed in the

winter 1953-54, during the author’s stay

with North American Aviation, Los Angeles,

Calif. The splendid support he received in

his lecturing and research activities during

this time will remain indelible in his memory.

The almost daily discussion with Charles

Davis and his staff was a constant source of

inspiration. The access to the “701,” the

electronic calculator of the I.B.M. Com-

pany, made it possible to test the practical

feasibility of the methods. The programming

and coding for the 701 were planned and

carried out by Owen Mock with great in-

genuity. Although only matrices of low

order (6 to 8) were employed, the generation

of the b, vectors and the subsequent Fourier

analysis could be studied in detail. Runs

first of 180, then of 720, and finally of 1280,

iterations were generated, and the non-

accumulation of noise was demonstrated.

Results were checked by applying another

precision method for finding the eigenvalues

of a matrix.

Experiences with large-scale matrices and

a statistical investigation of the noise prob-

lem and its relation to the position of the

Fourier peaks are not yet available.

REFERENCES

[1] Courant, R., and Hiupertr, D. Methods of

mathematical physics 1. New York, 1953.

[2] Hesrenss, M. R., and Stipren, H. Nat. Bur.

Standards Journ. Res. 49: 409. 1952.

[3] JAHNKE, E., and Empg, F. Tables of functions

with formulae and curves. New York.

[4] Lanczos, C. Nat. Bur. Standards Journ. Res.

45: 255. 1950.

[5] Lanczos, C. Nat. Bur. Standards Journ. Res.

49: 33. 1952.

[6] Lanczos, C. Proc. Assoc. Computing Mach.:

124. 1953.

[7] Miunz, W. E. Numerical calculus. Princeton,

1949.

[8] StrereL, E. Zeits. Ang. Math. Phys. 3: 1.

1952.

[9] Wurrraker, E. T., and Rosrnson, G. Cal-

culus of observations. London, 1924.

[10] Tables of Chebyshev Polynomials,

Applied Math. Series No. 9. 1952.

NBS

324

BOTANY.—A 2-4-2 chimera of McIntosh apple.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 10

Hare DermMeEN, Horticultural |

Crops Research Branch, U. 8. Department of Agriculture.

(Received August 3, 1955)

In 1948, a large-fruited sport of var.

‘McIntosh’ apple, now known as ‘Kimball

Giant McIntosh’, was reported as being a

2—4—4 chimera (Dermen and Darrow, 1948).

This particular chimeral makeup was deter-

mined by examination of a shoot tip of one

of six one-year-old plants propagated from

the sport portion of the mother tree. Two of

the five remaining trees were potted and dis-

budded to induce endogenous (adventitious!)

shoot development (for the method to induce

endogenous shoots in the apple see Dermen,

1948). Along with the tree that was examined

cytologically, they were left in the green-

house until fall when they were planted in

the orchard. The other three trees were

planted in the orchard when they were re-

ceived. One of these was left intact but two

were disbudded and died subsequently. The

present report is based principally on the

cytohistological study of the tree planted

intact in the orchard. Some portions of this

report, including illustrations of material in

Fig. 1 have appeared previously (Dermen,

195la, b). They are given here to elucidate

certain points in this report and to help to

enable the reader to follow some pertinent

discussions.

On one of the two greenhouse disbudded

trees, a single endogenous bud developed and

a cluster of shoots grew from it. On cyto-

histological examination, the shoots were

found to be homogeneously diploid instead

of tetraploid as expected (Dermen, 195la).

On the other disbudded tree, four endog-

enous buds (a, b, c, d) developed (Fig. 1-A).

Buds a, b, and c were along a vertical line on

the stem, whereas bud d was located at a

point off the line from the other buds. Sub-

sequently shoots developed from buds a and

d only (Fig. 1-B).

A cluster of shoots from bud a was found

to be diploid like the cluster of shoots from

the first disbudded tree. The shoot from bud

1 For the use of the term endogenous in place of

or along with adventitious, see the article by the

author (Dermen, 1955).

d, however, was homogeneously tetraploid.

These findings suggested that the young

trees from which the endogenous shoots were _

obtained were chimerically either 2-4-2 or a

modification of it (Dermen, 195la, b). They

could not have been 2-4-4 chimeras since

only homogeneously tetraploid shoots can

develop endogenously from this type (Der-

men, 1955).

Cytohistological examination of a number

of shoot tips from the tree grown intact in

the orchard revealed the true condition.

Some of these were found to have the 2-4-4

constitution, like that previously reported

(Dermen and Darrow, 1948); but others

were found to be of a 2-4-2 chimeral type. A

shoot tip of one twig with the latter consti-

tution is illustrated in Fig. 2-A, a longisection

through the center of the growing point.

Layers of cells in the growing point are

marked L-I (first layer), L-II (second layer)

and L-III (third layer). In this material,

L-II appears as a wide band because of its

being composed of larger cells as compared

with the adjacent narrow layers with smaller

cells. Nuclei in cells of L-II were definitely

larger than those in cells of other layers.

This was determined by the study of sec-

tions under high magnification. It has been

demonstrated on several occasions (Dermen,

1947, 1951b, 1953) that large nuclei in such

meristematic tissues are associated with

tetraploidy. Nevertheless adequate cyto-

logical examinations were made and the

exact ploid nature of each apical layer and

tissues derived from them was determined.

In Fig. 2-B, a transverse section of the

stem about four millimeters back of the tip

shown in Fig. 2-A, a solid ink line was drawn

to indicate the boundary line between tetra-

ploid and diploid regions in the cortical tis-

sue (for method of determination of the

boundary line see Dermen, 1947, 1951b,

1953). The tetraploid part of the cortex in

this material extended from the epidermis

to the solid ink line. The epidermis and the

tissue inside the solid line were diploid. The

; OcToBER 1955 DERMEN: 2—4+-2 CHIMERA OF McINTOSH APPLE 325

SN ee Soy

€

Fie. 1.—A, A disbudded one-year-old tree propagated from the large-fruited sport of a McIntosh

apple tree, with four endogenous buds, a, b, c, and d; natural size. B, The same tree as in Fig.

1-A photographed a month later. A cluster of shoots developed from bud a, none from b and c, and one

from bud d; shoots from a were diploid and the one shoot from d was tetraploid. X14.

326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 10

coe

¥ AE)

Socee

eS sone

SO-colaS care eatan eee,

Gee. Bey Oe

a = a,

Via. 2.—A, Longisection of a shoot tip from a tree also from the McIntosh sport; L-II was tetra-

ploid and L-I and L-III were diploid. 400. B, Transection of stem back of the tip shown in Fig.

9-A. Details are given in the text. 130.

OcTOBER 1955

significance of the dotted line in this figure

is pointed out in the discussion.

DISCUSSION

The chimeral nature of the Kamball Giant

MelIntosh sport was first reported to be the

24-4 type (Dermen and Darrow, 1948).

However, the development of both diploid

and tetraploid shoots from a disbudded tree

propagated from the sport tree suggested

that its constitution must have been 2-4-2

and that the 2-44 chimera represented a

form derived from the 2-4-2 chimeral con-

dition (Dermen, 195la and b).

It has been pointed out that endogenous

buds on the stems of apple originated in the

outer phloem (Dermen, 1948, 195la, 1955).

In the stem section of the 2-4-2 chimeral

twig (Fig. 2-B), the phloem, derived from

diploid L-II1, is diploid. From such a twig,

only diploid endogenous buds can arise. If a

shoot is constituted as a 2-44 chimera, only

tetraploid endogenous buds can arise from it

(Dermen, 1955). When both diploid and

tetraploid shoots develop from two separate

buds on a stem situated at different points

of the stem circumference as shown in Fig. 1

(buds a-and d), it would indicate that in one

part of such a stem the phloem is tetraploid

and in another part it is diploid. This is illus-

trated diagrammatically in Fig. 2-B. The

dotted line in this figure was drawn to indi-

cate that often part of the stele in the stem

may arise from L-IIJ. This was shown to

occur in cranberry (fig. 16, 18, Dermen,

1947) and in peach (fig. 11, 12, Dermen,

1953). Similar developments were observed

in apple stems but because of lack of good

preparations for illustration, they are not

shown. The development of diploid and

tetraploid shoots from endogenous buds on

the same plant is evidence that a condition

similar to that in the cranberry and peach

was present in the tree shown in Fig. 1. Such

a cytochimeral makeup may have been

DERMEN: 2—+-2 CHIMERA OF McINTOSH APPLE 327

similar to that indicated in Fig. 2-B in which

case it is assumed that growth from L-II in

the stem had extended in part to the solid

ink line and in part to the dotted ink line.

Thus a shoot developed from an endogenous

bud originating in the phloem in the area

bounded by the dotted line would have been

tetraploid and one from a bud in the phloem

in the rest of the stele would have been

diploid.

SUMMARY

A large-fruited sport of var. ‘McIntosh’

apple, ‘Kimball Giant McIntosh’ was re-

ported earher to have the 2-4-4 constitu-

tion. This conclusion was based on a study

of one tree propagated from the mother

sport tree. When some sister trees propa-

gated from the sport tree were used to

produce endogenous shoots, some of the

endogenous shoots were diploid and one

shoot was tetraploid, indicating that origi-

nally the sporting in the mother tree must

have been to the 2-4-2 form. The present

study shows this to be the case and that the

2-4-4 condition must have represented a de-

rived form from the 2—4—2 type.

LITERATURE CITED

DerRMEN, Hara. Periclinal cytochimeras and histo-

genesis in cranberry. Amer. Journ. Bot. 34:

32-43. 1947.

——. Chimeral apple sports and their propaga-

tion through adventitious buds. Journ. Hered.

39: 235-242. 1948.

———. Tetraploid and diploid adventitious shoots

from a giant sport of McIntosh apple. Journ.

Hered. 42: 144-149. 195la.

——. Ontogeny of tissues in stem and leaf of cyto-

chimeral apples. Amer. Journ. Bot. 38: 753-

760. 1951b.

——. Periclinal cytochimeras and origin of

tissues in stem and leaf of peach. Amer. Journ.

Bot. 40: 154-168. 1953.

. Three additional endogenous tetraploids

from giant apple sports. Amer. Journ. Bot.

In press.

——— and Darrow, G. M. A tetraploid sport of

McIntosh apple. Journ. Hered. 39: 17. 1948.

328

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 10

MAMMALOGY.—A new subspecies of wood rat from Nayarit, Mexico, with new

name-combinations for the Neotoma mexicana group. KE. Raymonp Haut, Uni-

versity of Kansas Museum of Natural History.

(Received July 29, 1955)

At lower elevations on the west coast of

the Republic of Mexico the big, rich brown,

dark-tailed rodent Neotoma (Hodomys) allent

is the common wood rat. Nevertheless,

Neotoma mexicana also occurs there in lesser

numbers. At the lower elevations, indi-

viduals of N. mexicana are small. Smallness

may be a response to warmth; anyhow

Neotoma mexicana tends to be smaller in

southern than in northern localities. Speci-

mens from the coast of Nayarit pertain to

an unnamed subspecies, which may be

named and described as follows:

Neotoma mexicana eremita, n. subsp.

Type—Female, adult, skin with skull and

body-skeleton, no. 64532 KU; 1 mile south of

San Francisco, 50 feet, Nayarit; January 27,

1955; obtained by J. R. Alcorn; original no.

17830.

Range.—Known only from the type locality.

Diagnosis.—Smallest-skulled of the subspe-

cies of Neotoma mexicana; dark grayish to dull

ochraceous above.

Comparisons.—From N. m. parvidens, N. m.

eremita differs in smaller average size, less ochra-

ceous upper parts, and less whitish (more plum-

beous) underparts. N. m. eremita is less ochra-

ceous even than the larger, geographically

adajcent, NV. m. tenuicauda.

Remarks.—The holotype of this small, dull-

colored, rat, judged by the height of the crowns

of the upper molariform teeth, is slightly younger

than the holotype (71586 USNM) of parvidens

and slightly older than the holotype (33594/

45629 USNM) of tenwicauda. All three are fe-

males. Among named kinds of Neotoma, N. m.

eremita resembles N. m. parvidens more closely

than any other.

Measurements—The holotypes of eremita,

parvidens and tenuicauda, in that order, yield

measurements (in millimeters) as _ follows:

Occipitonasal length, 39.0, 41.5, 41.7; basilar

length, 31.6, 32.3, 33.7; zygomatic breadth,

19.7, 20.6, ——; mastoid breadth, 15.0, 15.2,

15.8; interorbital breadth, 4.8, 5.3, 5.4; length

of nasals, 15.6, 15.5, 15.4; length of incisive

foramina, 8.5, 8.6, 8.9; length of palatal bridge,

7.0, 7.3, 7.6; alveolar length of upper molar

series, 7.2, 7.9, 8.9; total length, 301, 295, 340;

length of tail, 142, 141, 160; length of hind foot,

30, 31, 31.

Specimens examined.—Two from the type lo-

cality.

With assistance from the National Science

Foundation, the Kansas University Endow-

ment Association, and Alford J. Robinson,

the Museum of Natural History of the

University of Kansas has accumulated

specimens of related kinds of wood rats, for

example of the nominal species Neotoma

distincta Bangs, Neotoma navus Merriam,

and Neotoma torquata Ward as well as speci-

mens of most subspecies of Neotoma fer-

ruginea Tomes and Neotoma mexicana

Baird. Examination of these specimens and

also of those in the United States National

Museum including those of Neotoma tropi-

calis Goldman gives basis for arranging all

those mentioned above in this paragraph as

subspecies of one species for which the oldest

available name is Neotoma mexicana Baird

1855.

For example, specimen no. 63079 KU,

here referred to parvidens, from 1 mile

NNW of Soledad (approximately 30 km

north of Punto Angel), 4,700 feet, Oaxaca, is

structurally as well as geographically inter-

mediate between N. parvidens and N. f.

isthmica Goldman and is regarded as an

intergrade. Of 11 specimens examined of

N. navus from southeastern Coahuila some

have tails as short as N. m. inornata Gold-

man, the kind next adjacent to the north,

and the expansion posteriorly of the frontals

(not conspicuous in all specimens) occurs 1n

some other subspecies of N. mexicana and

leads to the conclusion that N. navus is only

subspecifically different from Neotoma mexi-

cana <wnornata. The differences between

N. tropicalis and N. f. isthmica are of no

OcToBER 1955

greater degree than are the differences be-

tween some other pairs of subspecies that

are known to intergrade—N. m. tenwicauda

Merriam and NV. m. madrensis Goldman for

instance. It is supposed, therefore, that

specimens from geographically appropriate

localities will reveal that N. tropicalis does

intergrade with M. f. isthmica. In fact,

Dalquest (Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 41:

363. Nov. 14, 1951) indicated subspecific

status under Veotoma ferruginea for Neotoma

distincta and Neotoma torquata. Hooper

(Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan no.

565: 22. Mar. 31, 1955) concluded that

Neotoma mexicana and Neotoma ferruginea

were conspecific because he found intergrada-

tion between the two in specimens that he

assigned to the subspecies tenwicauda and for

which he used the name-combination Neo-

toma mexicana tenuicauda. He did not, how-

ever, implement his conclusion with name-

combinations for the kinds (other than

tenuicauda) affected. Doing this and doing

the same thing for the other nominal species

that study reveals are only subspecies re-

duces the number of species in what has been

referred to as the mexicana-group from eight

to two, namely to Neotoma mexicana and

Neotoma chrysomelas J. A. Allen. I know

of no intergrades between these last two.

Two other species thought by some

students to belong in the Neotoma mexicana

group are Neotoma goldmani Merriam, 1903,

and Neotoma angustapalata Baker, 1951. Be-

cause of the resemblance of their bacula to

those of Neotoma albigula it seems best in

the present state of knowledge to assign

N. goldmani and N. angustapalata to the

albigula-group. Information on the baculum

of N. goldmani has been published by Rainey

and Baker (Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat.

Hist., 7: 623. June 10, 1955). The cleaned

bacula of N. angustapalata that Keith R.

Kelson has shown me are indistinguishable

from those of Neotoma albigula, figured by

Burt and Barkalow (Journ. Mamm. 23:

291. Aug. 13, 1942).

The named kinds of the mexicana group

of wood rats should stand as given below.

Neotoma mexicana atrata Burt.

1939. Neotoma mexicana atrata Burt, Oce.

Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan no. 400: 1,

HALL: NEW SUBSPECIES

OF WOOD RAT 329

March 1, type trom 4 miles west of Carrizozo,

Lincoln County, N. Mex. Known only from the

type locality.

Neotoma mexicana bullata Merriam.

1894. Neotoma mexicana bullata Merriam,

Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 9: 122, July 2, type

from Santa Catalina Mountains, Pima County,

Ariz. Known only from the type locality.

Neotoma mexicana chamula Goldman.

1909. Neotoma ferruginea chamula Goldman,

Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 22: 141, June 25,

type from mountains near San Cristébal, 8,400

feet, Chiapas, México.

Marginal records.—Chiapas: type locality.

Guatemala: Hda. Chancol, about 13 miles

north of Huehuetenango (Goldman, 1910: 69);

Voleén Santa Marfa (Goodwin, 1934: 54).

Neotoma mexicana distincta Bangs.

1903. Neotoma distincta Bangs, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 16: 89, June 25, type from

Texolo [Teocelo, near Jalapa], Veracruz, Mexico.

Known only from the type locality.

1951. N{eotoma]. flerruginea]. distincta, Dal-

quest, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 41: 363,

November 14.

Neotoma mexicana eremita Hall.

1955. Neotoma mexicana eremita Hall, present

paper, type from 1 mile south of San Francisco,

50 feet, Nayarit, México. Known only from the

type locality.

Neotoma mexicana fallax Merriam.

1894. Neotoma fallax Merriam, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 9: 123, July 2, type from Gold

Hill, Boulder County, Colo.

1910. Neotoma mexicana fallax, Goldman,

North Amer. Fauna no. 31: 56, October 19.

Marginal records (Goldman, 1910: 57-58,

unless otherwise noted).—Colorado: 5 miles

southwest of Fort Collins; 314 miles west of

Loveland, 5030 feet (26762 KU); Colorado

Springs. New Mexico: Coyote Creek, 8 miles

north of Guadalupita; Santa Rosa; Capitan

Mountains; 1 mile south of Ruidoso, 6,500 feet.

(85183 KU); east side of Sierra Blanca Moun-

tains (Dice, 1942: 206); Manzano Mountains

(V. Bailey, 1932: 183); San Mateo Peak; Datil

Mountains (V. Bailey, 1932: 184); Grant; 18

miles north, 1 mile east of Farmington, 6,000

330

feet (34817 KU). Colorado: Cortez (Cary,

1911: 117); 4 miles west, 2 miles south of Cahone,

7,000 feet (84792 KU); Bedrock (Warren,

1942: 214); 1 mile southwest of Gateway, 4,600

feet (34773 KU); 2! miles south of Fruita,

4,600 feet (34772 KU); Salida (Cary, 1911: 117);

type locality.

Neotoma mexicana ferruginea Tomes.

1862. Neotoma ferruginea Tomes, Proc. Zool.

Soc. London, 1861, pt. 3, p. 282, April, type from

Duefias, Sacatepequez, Guatemala.

Marginal records —Guatemala: San

(Goodwin, 1934: 54); type locality.

Lucas

Neotoma mexicana griseoventer Dalquest.

1951. Neotoma ferruginea griseoventer. Dal-

quest, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 41: 363,

November 14, type from Xilitla, San Luis

Potosi, México.

Marginal records.—San Luis Potosi: El Salto

(Dalquest, 1951: 363); type locality.

Neotoma mexicana inopinata Goldman.

1933. Neotoma mexicana inopinata Goldman,

Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 28: 471, October

15, type from Chuska Mountains, 8,800 feet,

San Juan County, N. Mex.

Marginal records —Utah: mouth Nigger Bill

Canyon, east side of Colorado River, 4 miles

above Moab Bridge, 3,995 feet (Durrant, 1952:

337). Colorado: Ashbaugh Ranch (Goldman,

1933: 472). New Mexico: Gallup (Goldman,

1933: 472); Zuni Mountains (ibid.). Arizona:

Canyon del Muerto and head Spruce Creek,

9,000 feet, Tunitcha Mountains (ibid.). Utah:

War God Spring, Navajo Mountain (Durrant,

1952: 337).

Neotoma mexicana inornata Goldman.

1938. Neotoma mexicana inornata Goldman,

Proc. Biol. Soe. Washington 51: 60, March 18,

type from Carmen Mountains, 6,100 feet, Coa-

huila, México. Known only from the type

locality.

Neotoma mexicana isthmica Goldman.

1904. Neotoma isthmica Goldman, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 17: 80, March 21, type

from Huilotepec, 100 feet, 8 miles south of

Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, México.

1910. Neotoma ferruginea isthmica Goldman,

North Amer. Fauna no. 31: 71, October 19.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 45, No. 10

Marginal records (Goldman, 1910: 72).—

Oaxaca: Coixtlahuaca. Chiapas: Teopisca; Can-

job. Oaxaca: Juchitan; Puerto Angel; Oaxaca.

Neotoma mexicana madrensis Goldman.

1905. Neotoma mexicana madrensis Goldman,

Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 18: 31, February 2,

type from Sierra Madre, 7,000 feet, near Guada-

lupe y Calvo, Chihuahua, México.

Marginal records (Goldman, 1910: 60, unless

otherwise noted).—Chihuahua: Colonia Garcia;

Pacheco; near Parral. Zacatecas: 4 miles east of

Calabazal (Hooper, 1955: 22); Sierra de Val-

paraiso. Durango: El Salto; 144 mile south of

Revolcaderos (Hooper, 1955: 22); 115 miles

west of San Luis (ibid.). Chihuahua: type locality;

Carimechi (Burt and Hooper, 1941: 7).

Neotoma mexicana mexicana Baird.

1855. Neotoma mexicana Baird, Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 7: 333, April, type from

{mts.] near Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México.

Marginal records (Goldman, 1910: 56, unless

otherwise noted).—Arizona: Rincon Mountains;

Cave Creek, Chiricahua Mountains (Cahalane,

1939: 435). New Mexico: Animas Mountains

(ibid.); Guadalupe Mountains (V. Bailey,

1932: 182). Texas: Fort Davis; Paisano. Chi-

huahua: Santa Eulalia. Durango: La Cienega de

las Vacas. Sonora (Burt, 1938: 65): Cuchita;

Oposura.

Neotoma mexicana navus Merriam.

1903. Neotoma navus Merriam, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 16: 47, March 19, type from

Sierra Guadalupe, Coahuila, México.

Marginal records.—Coahuila: type locality;

Diamante Pass, 8,500 feet, Sierra Guadalupe,

18 miles east, 3 miles north of Saltillo (86346

KU).

Neotoma mexicana ochracea Goldman.

1905. Neotoma ferruginea ochracea Goldman,

Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 18: 30, February 2,

type from Atemajac, 4,000 feet, near Guadala-

jara, Jalisco, México. Known only from the

type locality.

Neotoma mexicana parvidens Goldman.

1904. Neotoma parvidens Goldman, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 17: 81, March 21, type

from Juquila, 5,000 feet, Oaxaca, México.

Marginal records.—Oaxaca: type locality;

OcTroBER 1955

1 mile NNW of Soledad [approx. 80 kilometers

north of Punta Angel], 4,700 feet (63079 KU).

Neotoma mexicana picta Goldman.

1904. Neotoma picta Goldman, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 17: 79, March 21, type from

mountains near Chilpancingo, 10,000 feet,

Guerrero, \éxico.

1910. Neotoma ferruginea picta Goldman,

North Amer. Fauna no. 31: 72, October 19.

Marginal records (Goldman, 1910: 73).—

Guerrero: Omilteme; type locality. Oaxaca:

mountains near Ozolotepec.

Neotoma mexicana pinetorum Mlerriam.

1893. Neotoma pinetorum Merriam, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 8: 111, July 31, type from

San Francisco Mountain, Coconino County,

Ariz.

1910. Neotoma mexicana pinetorum, Goldman,

North Amer. Fauna no. 31: 58, October 19.

Marginal records (Goldman, 1910: 59, unless

otherwise noted).—Arizona: south rim, Grand

Canyon (VY. Bailey, 1935: 16); type locality;

Winona (226370 BS). New Mexico: 10 miles

southwest of Quemado; 10 miles west of Chlo-

ride; Kingston. Arizona: Prieto Plateau (205483

BS); Bradshaw Mountains (215809 BS); Sim-

mons (215529 BS); Pine Spring (202570 BS).

Neotoma mexicana scopulorum Finley.

1953. Neotoma mexicana scopulorum Finley,

Uniy. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist. 5: 529,

August 15, type from 3 miles northwest of Hig-

bee, 4,300 feet, Otero County, Colo.

Marginal records (Finley, 1953: 534).—Colo-

rado: type locality; Two Buttes [the peak].

Oklahoma: Tesequite Canyon. New Mexico:

Clayton; Sierra Grande; Oak Cafion, Raton

Range. Colorado: Trinidad; 20 miles east of

Walsenburg.

Neotoma mexicana sinaloae J. A. Allen.

1898. Neotoma sinaloae J. A. Allen, Bull.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 10: 149, April 12, type

from Tatameles, Sinaloa, México.

1910. Neotoma mexicana sinaloae, Goldman,

North Amer. Fauna no. 31: 60, October 19.

Marginal records—Sonora (Burt, 1938: 65):

San Javier; Mira Sol. Durango: Chacala (Gold-

man, 1910: 61). Sinaloa: Chele (Hooper, 1955:

22); Mazatlan (Goldman, 1910: 61). Sonora:

Camoa (Burt, 1938: 65).

HALL: NEW SUBSPECIES OF WOOD RAT

331

Neotoma mexicana solitaria Goldman.

1905. Neotoma ferruginea solitaria Goldman,

Proce. Biol. Soc. Washington 18: 31, February 2,

type from Nentén, 3,500 feet, Guatemala. |

Marginal records —Guatemala: type locality;

Sacapulas (Goodwin, 1942: 170-171). Honduras:

Cerro Puca (2bid.).

Neotoma mexicana tenuicauda Merriam.

1892. Neotoma tenwicauda Merriam, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 7: 169, September 29,

type from north slope El Nevada de Colima,

12,000 feet, Jalisco, México.

1955. Neotoma mexicana tenwicauda, Hooper,

Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan no. 565:

22, March 31.

Marginal records (Goldman, 1910: 74, unless

otherwise noted).—Jalisco; mountains about 10

miles north of Bolanos. Zacatecas: Plateado.

Aguascalientes: Sierra Fria (Hooper, 1955: 22).

Jalisco: 2 miles NNW of Magdalena (cbid.).

Michoacdn: Zamora; 9 miles southeast of PAtz-

cuaro, 8,000 feet (Hall and Villa, 1949: 467):

Tancitaro, 7,850 feet (ibid.). Jalisco: type local-

ity; Talpa; San Sebastian.

Neotoma mexicana torquata Ward.

1891. Neotoma torquata Ward, Amer. Nat.

25: 160, February, type from abandoned mine

between Tetela del Voledn and Zacualpan,

Morelos, México.

1894. Neotoma fulviventer Merriam, Proc.

Soc. Washington 9: 121, July 2, type from Toluca

Valley, México, México.

1894. Neotoma orizabae Merriam, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 9: 122, July 2, type from Vol-

cin de Orizaba, Puebla, México.

1951. Nleotoma]. flerruginea]. torquata, Dal-

quest, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 41: 363,

November 14.

Marginal records. — Hidalgo: Enearnacién

(Goldman, 1910: 64). Veracruz: 3 km east of

Las Vigas, 8,000 feet (19840 KU). Puebla:

Tehuacin, 1,700 m (Hooper, 1947: 55).

Morelos: 2 km south of Jonacatepec (Davis

and Russell, 1954: 77). México: north slope of

Volcan Toluca (Goldman, 1910: 64).

Neotoma mexicana tropicalis Goldman.

1904. Neotoma tropicalis Goldman, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 17: 81, March 21, type

from Totontepec, 6,500 feet, Oaxaca. Known

only from the type locality.

332

Neotoma mexicana vulcani Sanborn.

1935. Neotoma ferruginea vulcant Sanborn,

Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ. 340, zool. ser.,

20 (11): 84, May 15, type from south slope of

Volecdn Tajumuleo, San Marcos, 13,200 feet,

Guatemala. Known only from the type locality.

scale of miles

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 10

Neotoma chrysomelas J. A. Allen.

1908. Neotoma chrysomelas J. A. Allen, Bull.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 24: 653, October 13, type

from Matagalpa, Matagalpa, Nicaragua.

Marginal records—Honduras (Goodwin, 1942:

171): Montana Vasquez; Hatillo. Nicaragua:

type locality.

Fig. 1.—Geographie distribution of Neotoma mexicana and Neotoma chrysomelas

GUIDE TO KINDS: 9. Neotoma m.

1. Neotoma m. atrata Burt. 10. Neotoma m.

2. Neotoma m. bullata Merriam. 11. Neotoma m.

3. Neotoma m. chamula Goldman. 12. Neotoma m.

4 Neotoma m. distincta Bangs. 13. Neotoma m.

5. Neotoma m. eremita Hall. 14. Neotoma m.

6. Neotoma m. fallax Merriam. 15. Neotoma m.

7. Neotoma m. ferruginea Tomes. 16. Neotoma m.

8. Neotoma m. griseoventer Dalquest. 17. Neotoma m.

inopinata Goldnin. 18. Neotoma m. pinetorum Merriam.

inornata Goldman. 19. Neotoma m. scopulorum Finley.

isthmica Goldman. 20. Neotoma m. sinaloae J. A. Allen.

madrensis Goldman. 21. Neotoma m. solitaria Goldman.

mexicana Baird. 22. Neotoma m. tenuicauda Merriam.

navus Merriam. 23. Neotoma m. torquata Ward.

ochracea Goldman. 24. Neotoma m. tropicalis Goldman.

parvidens Goldman. 25. Neotoma m. vulcani Sanborn.

picta Goldman. 26. Neotoma chrysomelas J. A. Allen.

Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences

PremMlente ose 6 so siaw s Gass ae = Maraaret Pitrman, National Institutes of Health

MPPASTCENL-CLECE. co ja. oc aoe ie sini Raupy EK. Gipson, Applied Physics Laboratory

ECTELUN Yen es ene nc nea re dee HEINZ Specut, National Institutes of Health

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Haraup A. Reuper, U. 8. National Museum

Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies:

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‘te (piney a lO bye eer a eanin Sonam eh ee A. T. McPuerson, A. B. GuRNEY

POM REUUIEUE VA! GOO ays cer ess Saree 51 cpe gehen ed Serer arog W. W. Rusesy, J. R. SwaLten

PROUTONOMMIGNAQETS:/-,251y5)o.= Sciso8 5 Seaslen se < All the above officers plus the Senior Editor

PIOUNEOIMHOLLOTS rey ces en Me ROHS IS HN Giclees Io usenlelsiels alae [See front cover]

Ezecutive Committee. ... 0.56.00. cece cee cee ee M. Pittman (chairman), R. E. Grsson,

H. Specut, H. 8. Rappieye, J. R. SwALLEN

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PROWANWATY) VIG Aes als ces dates were aue as G. ArtHuR Coopsr, James I. HorrMan

PR ORMAN ATV OD Ua ccc vecroseiepe cps cides sc 6 Oe Haraup A. Rexper, Witi1am A. Dayvron

MORVANUATy el OOS aaah. i vias cent Dean B. Cowiz, JosepH P. E. Morrison

Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement. .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman)

For Biological Sciences..... Sara E. Branuam (chairman), JoHN S. ANDREWS,

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R.S8. Diu, T. J. Hicxiry, T. J. Kint1an, Gorpon W. McBripz, HE. R. Piore

For Physical Sciences...... BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonn,

Scorr E. Forsusu, Marcaret D. Foster, M. H. Freeman, J. K. Tayior

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Herman Branson, CHARLES K. TRUEBLOOD

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owanuanysl GoOrae dae ee ie E. C. CritrenpEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE

Lo anuary W951 eros Fetes ee Joun E. Grar, RayMonp J. SEEGER

IN@ darby WES. oo saceconnsescaones Francis M. Deranporr, FRANK M. SETzLeER

Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent.. ARCHIBALD T. McPuerson (chairman)

Mowanuary MO5G Wee ce cee ca cn cea ter Harrop EK. Finuey, J. H. McM1Luen

Moyanvany OST nemesis ete ery cee cae L. Epwin Yocum, Witu1am J. YOUDEN

opanwary: W958) cis oor aero te os hee nena A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap

Committee on Science Education.... RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), RoNaLD BAMFORD,

R. Percy Barnes, WauuacE R. Bropz, LEoNaRD CARMICHAEL, Huau L. DrypEn,

Reaina Fuannery, Ratepw EH. Gisson, Fuoyp W. Hoven, Martin A. Mason,

Groree D. Rock, Witur1am W. Rusey, Witu1am H. SEBreLL, WaLpo L. Scumirt,

B. D. Van Evera, Wittram E. Wratuer, Francis E. JOHNSTON

epresentativeron Council of AWA A Senn es eons ae Watson Davis

Committee of Auditors...FrRaNncts E. Jonnston, (chairman), S. D. Couns, W. C. Hess

Committee of Tellers...RaupH P. Tirtsuer (chairman), E. G. Hamper, J. G. THOMPSON

CONTENTS

Page

PuysicaL CHEMISTRY.—Tritium in nature. W, F. Lippy............ 301

MaATHEMATICS.—Spectroscopic eigenvalue analysis. C. LANzcos...... 315

Borany.—A 2-4-2 chimera of McIntosh apple. Hara DrRMEN....... 324

MammMatocy.—A new subspecies of wood rat from Nayarit, Mexico, with

new name-combinations for the Neotoma mexicana group. E.

RAYMOND (EEAUI ai, ops: s0ie/siefsree Saisie ie ais oli « sues atelee oe ee 328

Vou. 45 November 1955 No. 11

JAN 17 1958

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ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 45

November 1955

No: 1

PHYSICS—A tree from the viewpoint of lightning.! Francts M. DEFANDORF,

National Bureau of Standards.

(Received October 3, 1955)

Trees are occasionally struck by lightning

when they add salient features to the land-

scape. The results of lightning strokes vary

from subsequent death of all or a portion of

a tree to a tearing of the bark which fre-

quently heals and in some cases heals so

well that after a few years there is little

visible evidence of the injury. Occasionally

the heart wood of a tree trunk is blown

apart as the tree is shattered or demolished,

whereas more often narrow sections of the

bark are stripped off with but slight damage

to the heart-wood section. The blasting of

bark from a tree by lightning has been

ascribed to a stream of rainwater that runs

down one side of the trunk, provides a con-

ducting path, and is converted by the

lightning current to steam that blasts the

bark off the tree. However, as Plummer (/)

reports, the scored path frequently follows

the grain of the wood. This often results in a

spiral groove where the bark is blown off the

spiraling grain of the outer sapwood. This

and the fact that sap-wood is frequently

shredded into rather small fibers, suggested

that the wood moistened by its own sap

might initially provide a much better con-

ductor than a stream of rain water—nature’s

distilled water—outside the bark. Thus the

author was led to doubt that the stream of

water outside the bark plays any important

role in damage to trees from lightning.

An unequivocal statement appears in

National Bureau of Standards Handbook 46

1 An abridgement of a talk given on February

17, 1955, by the author as retiring president of the

Washington Academy of Sciences. The technical

details presented on the measurements of the

electrical resistance to earth of a live tree are being

submitted for publication elsewhere.

under the section on Personal Conduct, in

the Code for Protection Against Lightning:

“Tf remaining out of doors is unavoidable,

keep away from isolated trees.’ Before sharing

with others any differing viewpoint, because

of the hazards involved, the author felt

obliged to find in the literature or to deter-

mine experimentally the electrical resistance

characteristics of a tree and its root connec-

tion to earth. A library search did not yield

any values so that representative electrical

resistance measurements reported elsewhere

were made on a few trees. For the purpose of

this discussion only the results presented in

Fig. 1 are of particular interest. This figure

was synthesized from the measurements

made on parts of a green tulip tree—leaves,

twigs, branches, trunks, and from the trunk

to a pipe of a water system some 80 meters

away that served as the electrical ‘‘ground”’

for these measurements.

Several interesting resistance features of

this synthetic tulip ‘‘tree’’ should be men-

tioned. The resistance measurements were

made in such a manner that the values cor-

respond to charge flowing to ground as in a

lightning stroke to a tree. As one moves

radially toward the tree from a good

“oround” connection the resistance increases

rapidly as shown by the ohms to “‘ground”’

values indicated on the right side and up the

side of the “tree” in Fig. 1. Values increase

still more rapidly going up the trunk of the

tree and on out to the tip end of a leaf on a

twig. Actually the resistance from the tip

end of a leaf to its supporting twig is about 6

times as large as the resistance from the tip

end of a twig to the base of the tree, whereas

the resistance from the tip end of a twig to

333

DEC 1 91955

334

the base of the tree trunk is about 1,000

times as large as the resistance from the base

of the trunk to “ground.’’ Another measure-

ment should be mentioned. Sample sections

of a tulip branch were found to have a rather

high negative temperature coefficient of

resistance. The resistance decreased by a

factor of about 10 when the temperature was

raised from 20° to 75°C.

DISCHARGES FROM A TREE

First let us consider the bearing of this

electrical resistance picture of a tree on pre-

lightning currents, i1.e., before a truly disrup-

tive discharge occurs. (Lightning is defined

as a disruptive electrical discharge between

clouds or between clouds and earth.)

In view of Schonland’s measurements (2)

on the approach of a thundercloud, that

gave a discharge current of 4 microamperes

for an insulated thorn tree 4 m tall, our

synthesized tree 25 m tall would probably

discharge a current 10 times as large, if we

bias our multiplying factor in the direction

of extrapolated values of current for point-

100

—- 80 \

OHMS PER METER

ALONG RADIAL CURRENT PATH

20 15 10 5

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 45, No. 11

to-plane laboratory measurements. For «al

estimate of 40 microamperes the total volt- |

age drop from ground up the trunk and out}

to the tip end of the leaves on the uppermost

branch of our synthesized tree would only

be about 10 volts.

If we consider the modification in the

natural electric field over flat ground that

would be produced by a tree, having more

or less of a spherical outline, we can rely on

the simple electrostatic case analyzed by

Lord Kelvin as a guide to the modifications |

of the plane equipotential surfaces we might

normally expect. Kelvin showed that for

such a uniform field a simple smooth hemi-

spherical metal boss mounted on a con-

ducting plane would alter the equipotential

surfaces so that the voltage-gradient directly

above the boss would be three times as large

as the original field strength. Actually but

few trees present a top outline as stumpy

as a hemispherical boss but rather they can

be better represented in outline by a cone or

by a smaller sphere mounted on a stem of a

height that may be as large as several times

7 20

—20k { 27

wee 2500kK =

400k at tip ends of twigs |

trunk p= 5K to |OK ohm-cm 7-4 10

| OK

° a

30 45 cone _| uj 5

5K =

(K=1000) =

ao EARTH Ng

LEVEL

-OHMS TO "GROUND"

soil p = 6OK ohm-cm

10 15

O 5

RADIUS IN METERS

Fig. 1.—Resistance of synthesized tulip tree. On the right side at earth level and up alongside the

trunk, values are marked to show the ohms to “‘ground.”’ Values are also given out to the tip end of a

twig and beyond to the tip end of a leaf on a twig. On the left side of the trunk a dashed line has been

plotted to show ohms per meter alonga radial current path based on the measurements of ohms to

ground”’ made at various radial distances from a tree with the trunk as one electrode connection.

NOVEMBER 1955

EAR Gl

CURRENT

ATEGRIOUWN Di aaa

= Mie

DEFANDORF: A TREE AND LIGHTNING

>40 = 40k

lade | |

Fic. 2.—Diagram (2, 6) of a three-component lightning stroke. Once the pilot leader or tip (men-

tioned in the text) at the end of the streamer leader reaches ground the brilliant return stroke (light-

ning stroke) returns to the cloud along the same path. In a multiple-component stroke the same tor-

tuous path is renewed by one or more dart leaders with subsequent brilliant and noisy return strokes.

the diameter of the sphere. Such an outline

would lead to a further increase in gradient,

say by a factor of two or three. In addition

to this still another multiplying factor should

be introduced because of the sharp outlines

and edges of the leaves in lieu of the smooth

spherical conducting surface that Kelvin

postulated for his simple case of the smooth

hemispherical boss. These three simple con-

siderations lead us to an overall factor

much larger than three. Whether the overall

factor could be stretched say from 3 to the

order of 20 or 30 and thus be large enough

for multiplying Schonland’s measured gradi-

ent value of 160 v/em at ground for an

advancing thundercloud to obtain 3,400

v/em, the value measured in a cloud just

prior to a stroke to a plane (3), or to obtain

5,000 v/em, the corresponding average

breakdown gradient measured for a long

laboratory spark gap (4), remains prob-

lematical.

Any such increase in voltage gradient near

the leaves, however, should lead to en-

hanced ionization and to electrification of

dust that might be blown past leaves in the

tree top by winds.

The leaves with their high resistance, 1 to

5 megohms, would tend to share and to

divide the current of the discharge into much

smaller values. Thus the treetop presents

the multiple electrode effect of many needles

each with a resistor of several megohms in

series. It would seem that discharges from a

lone tree would be augmented and that a

tree with its top glowing in the dark from

discharge as a thundercloud advanced to-

ward and over it should be reported more

often. I have never seen such a sight at

night, my only experience being limited to

seeing in daylight a tall poplar tree with its

top leaves agitated violently, as if by a

vertical wind with no circular motion. This

occurred early one afternoon when such a

glow would not have been observable. Pre-

sumably this was a case of a strong vertical

electric wind because leaves on nearby lower

trees were not in motion. It was otherwise

very calm with thunderclouds about a half-

mile distant. This effect persisted for several

minutes then stopped.

336

STROKES TO A TREE

According to Schonland the average ‘‘fine

weather” vertical electrical gradient is 100

v/m and the average fine weather current is

2 X 107° amp/em?. These figures yield a

virtual ‘‘volume resistivity”? for the atmos-

phere of 5 X 10" ohm-em. For the trunks of

several ‘‘green”’ trees, values of longitudinal

resistivity ranged from 5,000 to 10,000

ohm-cm, approximately the same as the

value for Washington, D. C., tap-water

(5,000 ohm-cm). Roughly then green wood is

normally 10% times as good a conductor as

air. Little wonder that a live tree is the pre-

ferred path for the current if the tree

is within reach of the lightning stroke.

Lightning strokes for the most part

appear to have their beginnings as rather

feeble discharges in or near ‘“‘thunderstorm

cells” in cumulus clouds. At cloud heights

of a kilometer or so thunderstorm-cell ac-

tivity begins when a thickish white cloud

(cumulo-nimbus) begins to well up in the

middle and tower to greater heights. Mois-

ture-laden air is forced in at the visible

cloud base and loses part of its moisture

through the condensing of additional small

droplets that help form the cloud base.

Their heat of condensation warms the

moisture-depleted air causing it to rise even

higher into cooler surroundings where addi-

tional moisture is lost. Eventually, robbed

of its moisture except for fine ice crystals or

tiny droplets buoyed up by it, this air

spreads the particles (charged and neutral)

out to form the well-known anvil-shaped

top of the cumulo-nimbus cloud at some 10

to 15 kilometers altitude. This process con-

stitutes the basis for separating large quan-

tities of electric charges—of separating

electrons from ice particles or droplets that

are left positively charged. Many of the

electrons are undoubtedly captured by larger

falling droplets and form negative ions.

Without going into the rather well sub-

stantiated explanations (2) of the intimate

processes of charge separation we may look

at the end results. It is well confirmed, by

observations that generally, but not always,

the lightning discharge transports negative

charge from the cloud to ground. The usual

arrangement then is a predominately nega-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 11

tively charged cloud base or region say of

the order of one kilometer or so above the

earth’s surface. Directly below on the con-

ducting surface of the earth and its pro-

tuberances a charge of opposite sign

(positive) is induced that is equal to the net

unbalanced negative space charge immedi-

ately above. Compared to the gust-ruffled

charge distribution above, the earth’s

conducting surface, in spite of hills and

trees, 1s relatively smooth and flat like a

plane so that the charge distribution on the

earth below is reasonably uniform. Indeed

one might consider the undersurface of a

thunder cloud as comprised of connected in-

verted dome- and pinnacle-like surfaces that

envelop volumes of differing negative (an

occasionally positive) charge density. Such a

picture would seem to help us to bridge the

gap between the lightning of nature and

laboratory surge discharges possible only on

a dimensionally much smaller scale. Except

for very suddenly applied high overvoltages

(voltages considerably higher than normally

required to complete electric breakdown

for a voltage applied gradually) the initial

discharges from negative points toward

planes are of a long filamentary character.

The filamentary beginnings of a lightning

discharge should be thought of as originating

(near the cloud) where the electric gradient

is largest between rather highly charged

pockets or regions of separated charges. At

the expense of this electric field (born of the

bulk mechanical separation of charges),

some of the charges are accelerated to veloci-

ties capable of producing copious ionization.

Then a lower voltage gradient suffices to

maintain ionization as well as to transport

charge for a brief interval along the ‘‘con-

ducting”’ channel or filament, until the re-

combination of ions reduces conductivity.

Thus for a brief interval the voltage gradient

is augmented at either end of the filament

and leads to an energetic momentary ex-

tension of the conducting filament toward

the centers of the charged regions or toward

the induced charges at the surface of the

earth. As recombination depletes the carriers

the current or transport of charge decreases

and the expanded channel requires a larger

gradient throughout its length to restore

the ionization.

NOVEMBER 1955

Thus the chain of events leading to

lightning striking a tree is a hit or miss

affair in which the tree contributes very

little if anything in the initial stages. High-

speed photography of strokes (2) reveals the

stepwise manner in which a faintly luminous

discharge beginning at the cloud end of a

stroke halts in its progress toward the

induced charge on the earth’s surface. Fig. 2,

derived from Schonland’s photographs, is a

graphic illustration of a three-component

stroke along the same path. Each luminous

step of some 30 to 50 meters length formed

at the tip end of the fainly luminous leader

is formed rapidly in about one microsecond

then fades until the accumulated path of the

leader from the source brightens again as

the tip again rushes forward for another

microsecond or so revealing by its brilliance

that considerable energy had been used in

its formation. One interesting feature about

these steps is their frequent change of direc-

tion after a rest or pause of about 50

microseconds. This change is presumably

indicative of the changing direction of the

highest gradient or the most readily ionizable

path. From what has been said earlier one

should not expect, even under the most

favorable situation, a streamer to project

upward to any considerable height from a

tree to meet an advancing stepped leader.

Only if the last two or three steps lie in its

direction may a tree be expected to con-

tribute a slight directional effect because of

the higher-than-average voltage gradient

existing above the tree.

THE “TREE” AS A LIGHTNING SHELTER

Figure 1 that shows the synthesized elec-

trical-resistance picture of a tree, has several

features added to help visualize how dan-

gerous It is to use a tree as a shelter from rain

and lightning at the same time. We humans

are better conductors of electricity than

trees. Our skins offer poorer insulation than

the bark of trees either wet or dry because of

numerous pores and the saltiness of perspira-

tion. Our resistance from one foot to the

other?—omitting skin—is roughly 150 ohms,

from both hands to both feet 370 ohms,

2 Private communication from F. Wenner and

Irvin L. Cooter, of the National Bureau of Stand-

ards.

DEFANDORF: A TREE AND LIGHTNING

337

whereas our trunk section considered as a

four-terminal resistor measured by using

the hands and feet is only 25 ohms. This

suggests two rather obvious reasons for not

standing close to the trunk of a tree in an

exposed location in a thunderstorm, i.e.,

close to a tree standing alone in a field, a tall

tree that towers above its neighbors, or a

tree on top of a hill or ridge: 1) In the case

of a stroke to the tree one would be likely to

receive a sideflash to his body and thus pro-

vide a path for part of the stroke to earth.

This is understandable because the median

value of lightning currents is 20,000 amperes

crest and even for an znitzal resistance of a

tree trunk of 100 to 1,000 ohms per meter

the voltage drop might attain 4 million volts

or more in 6 feet, the height of a man, and 2)

because the radial drop in resistance to

ground is highest near the trunk.

We must examine more closely the values

of resistance to ‘‘ground”’ mentioned earlier

in connection with Figure 1. These values

on the right side of the ‘‘tree’’? have been

replotted as a dashed curve on the left side.

This curve is advantageous in showing how

rapidly, r;, the radial resistance per meter

drops with distance away from the tree

trunk. The abscissae of this plot is the radius

in meters and the ordinates the ohms per

meter along radial current path. This

curve of r; provides an index of the danger

from this source of voltage that could send

lethal current up one leg and down the

other.

The simple expression H# = I r; f cos 6

is indicative of this danger, where F/ is the

voltage drop between the two feet at a dis-

tance of f apart in meters; r; is the radial

resistance per meter where the feet are

located; J is the stroke current and @ is the

angle between a line through the two con-

tacts of the feet with ground and the radius

line to the stroke terminus. Thus the voltage,

HE, is available to puncture the shoes and the

skin on the feet and to force current through

the resistance offered by the rest of the by-

stander’s body.

There appears to be some substantiation

of the theoretical cos @ relationship. Among

others, an instance was reported about 15

years ago of a stroke to a lone tree in a pas-

338

ture at the Beltsville farm in which 6 cows

that had taken shelter under the tree were

killed. These cows were found dead with

their fore and hind hooves pretty well

aligned radially with the struck tree whereas

several other cows under the tree were not

killed by the stroke and presumably had

been standing in a tangential position at the

moment of the discharge. We humans are

lucky because we have only two feet to

worry about. It appears from the equation

that if we were able to stand with our feet

in line cireumferentially with the base of the

stroke as a center, then 6 would be 90° and

cos @ would be zero. Thus we should be

relatively safe. One way to make the voltage

FE between our feet a minimum would be to

reduce f, the distance on the ground between

our two feet. The simplest way to do this

would appear to be to stand on one foot till it

gets tired and then on the other! It is also more

or less obvious that a bystander should not

remain under low-lying branches that would

provide a rather short air gap between the

branches and his head because of the good

conducting path his body provides to earth.

We can do nothing about the current J.

We have to accept it at its average value of

20,000 amperes crest if we have just average

luck. We should probably ‘‘play safe” at

this point and assume a stroke of 100,000

amperes. For this value of current a radial

resistance per meter of 13 ohm would give a

voltage drop of 30,000 V per meter. If our

feet were 14 m apart the voltage drop be-

tween them would correspond to 10,000 V.

This value of voltage might produce un-

comfortable results, but I rather doubt that

it would prove lethal. From our measure-

ments (Fig. 1) 14 ohm per meter corresponds

to a distance out from the tree trunk of 12

meters. Undoubtedly the resistance per

meter continues to fall beyond 12 meters, the

most remote of the radial measurements

made. Would we not be safer at a distance

considerably farther away from the trunk?

The instructions quoted earlier said ‘“‘keep

away from isolated trees.”’ Fig. 1 and what

has just been said clearly support the ad-

visability of keeping at a safe distance. How

far? Herein lies the paradox for there is

another consideration—the shielding effect

which tells us not to move too far away from

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. I1

a tall exposed tree. A well-grounded con-

ducting mast (a tree is similar) of height h

partially shields that space adjacent to the

mast so that it is relatively immune from

direct strokes of lightning. For a cone cen-

tered on the mast of height h and having a

base of diameter h, laboratory measure-

ments indicate that out of 1,000 strokes, the

mast would on the average receive 999

strokes for every single stroke received by a

second conducting rod one-third as tall as

the mast if located just within the base of

the cone. The angle for this case where r =

0.5h would represent a ‘30° cone of protec-

tion.’ This chance of 1 in 1000 of being

struck is referred to as an exposure of 0.1

percent for the rod (or object) relative to its

protecting mast. Actually the protected

rod 8 m tall would be 4 times the height of a

tall man. For a person 2 m (619 feet) tall

the exposure to direct stroke under our

synthesized tree 25 m tall appears from

laboratory tests® to be almost nil within a

30° cone of protection. It is much less severe

than 1 in 1200 out to the edge of a 45° cone

of protection.

The frequeney with which isolated masts

less than 500 feet high are struck varies di-

rectly with their height (6). From this it

would appear that our synthesized tree 25 m

tall, from height considerations alone, would

be about 12 times more likely to be struck

than a person 2 m tall under conditions of

similar exposure. That is by moving just

within the 45° cone of protection of the tree

the bystander moves into the tree cone-

subtended area which is 12 times more

likely to be struck than is his own cone-

subtended area if he remains in the open,

but he gains by a factor (reciprocal of ex-

posure) of well over 1,200 in being less likely

to receive a direct stroke. His net gain from

the shielding effect of the tree could thus be

represented by an “improvement factor’ of

at least 100 (1,200 divided by 12) although

he takes chances on sharing more of the

stroke current that may pass in one foot and

out the other than if he were farther away.

By moving out as far as the radius, r = 2h,

for a 60° cone of protection, the exposure

would still not become as high as 1 percent

so that the improvement factor would

surely not be reduced as low as 10. This

NOVEMBER 1955

reduction in improvement factor from 100

to 10 dependent on whether the bystander

remains just within the 45°—or moves out

so as to be just within the 60° cone of pro-

tection should make us aware that the

reduction in susceptibility to ground current

sought by increasing radial distance from a

tree may be largely offset by increased ex-

posure. By moving too far away from the

tree the bystander may move closer to the

base of those nearby strokes that miss both

him and the tree and thus he would gain in

the likelihood of sharing the ground current

from other strokes.

In conclusion then, from the viewpoint of

lightning a tree initially offers a better path

to earth. Lightning, however, is quite near-

sighted and a good tree may be hard for

lightning to find unless it stands in the open.

In such a case a good way to hide from

lightning is to ‘‘stand well out from under’’

the branches of a tree. It would appear that

the Handbook 46 admonition: “Keep away

FAN, TAUSSKY, AND TODD: ISOPERIMETRIC INEQUALITY FOR POLYGONS

339

from isolated trees in a thunderstorm,” has

a rather good justification. Because of the

paradox cited, if one has no other choice

than remaining in the open and there is an

isolated tree 50 feet or more tall one should

not mind getting wet but should ‘‘stand well

out from under’’, but not too far, say never

closer than 50 feet to the trunk, so that he

may be afforded some degree of protection

from lightning by the tree.

REFERENCES

(1) PuumMer, Freep G. Lightning in relation to

forest fires. U. S. Forest Service Bull. 111.

1912-13.

(2) ScHONLAND, B. F. J. Atmospheric electricity.

New York, 1953. (See also Flight of thunder-

bolts. Oxford, 1950.)

(3) Gunn, R. Journ. Appl. Phys. 19: 481. 1948.

(4) HacencutH, Rouurs, and Drenan. AINE

Proc. 71: 6. 1952, T2-104.

(5) Waanemr, C. F., McCann, G. D., anp Lear,

C.M. AIEE Trans. 61: 96. 1942.

(6) Beck, Epwarp. Lightning protection for elec-

tric systems. New York, 1954.

MATHEMATICS—An algebraic proof of the isoperimetric inequality for polygons.!

Ky Fan? Onea Taussky,? and JoHNn Topp.’

(Received October 4, 1955)

1. The problem of determining among all

plane polygons P with n sides and total

perimeter L, that one which encloses the

greatest area F, is a classical one. It is well

known that the extremal polygon is the

regular one. This result can be stated as the

inequality:

L? — 4n tan (x/n)-F > 0

with equality if and only if P is regular.

The corresponding result for curves is

ib = Lal SO;

with equality if and only if the curve is a

circle.

We shall be concerned with the discrete

problem only; modern accounts of the sub-

ject have been given by L. Fejes Toéth [/]

1 This work was supported in part by the Office

of Naval Research.

2 University of Notre Dame, American Uni-

versity and National Bureau of Standards.

3 National Bureau of Standards.

and T. Bonnesen and W. Fenchel [6]. Among

the proofs of the isoperimetric inequality for

polygons are some which are analytic

(e.g. [2]) and some which are geometric

(e.g. [3]). We present here an essentially

algebraic proof, based on the extremal prop-

erties of the characteristic values of Her-

mitian matrices.’ This proof can be regarded

as a variation on Blaschke’s proof ({2], p. 13),

in so far as the Fourier apparatus he uses

explicitly is used here implicitly.

2. For completeness’ sake we sketch the

reduction of the general problem to the

convex equilateral case. (Cf. Courant and

Hilbert, [9, p. 160]; see also Polya and Szegé

[8]).

(a) First, a non-convex polygon cannot be

extremal. For if there was a non-convex

part such as --- ZABCD --- then we could

obtain an isoperimetric polygon with a

4 We have recently [7] used this method to handle

inequalities which are closely related to the iso-

perimetric ones.

340

larger area by constructing --- ZAB’CD ---

where B’ is the reflection of B in AC. (See

Labi, Ie)

Fia. 1

Secondly, we show that a nonequilateral

polygon cannot be extremal. Suppose P non-

equilateral; then among the sides unequal

to s = L/n, some will exceed s and some be

exceeded by s. We shall show how to obtain

an isoperimetric polygon with a larger area,

and one more side equal to s. There are two

cases:

(b) Suppose two adjacent sides AB = c,

BC = asatisfy c > s > a. In this case we

can immediately replace the polygon P:

--. ZABCD --- by the isoperimetric poly-

gon P’:--- ZAB’CD -.-- where AB’ = sg,

B’C =a+e-— s. The area of P’ exceeds

that of P because the area of A B’C exceeds

that of ABC. Indeed, if o is the common

semiperimeter of ABC, AB’C we have

V/\o(c — a)(o — b)(o — c)}

KK WViie = (GeO = ING = DIG = 8)}

for

lo = @ ae 6 = Sie — 8)

= (¢ — a)(o — c) + (ec — s)(s — a)

and the last term is positive because

c>s>a.

This argument may fail if P’ is not con-

vex: in this case reflections of type (a) will

produce a new P” with a larger area, to

which this argument can be applied.

bracket the mean can be reduced to (a) by

the following device. We can transpose two

sides AB, BC of a polygon P: --- ZABCD

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 45, No. 11

- into the sides AB’ = BC, B’C = AB

of the isoperimetric polygon P’: --- ZAB’

CD .--- by reflection in the perpendicular

bisector 1, of AC. (See Fig. 2.) The areas of

P’ and P coincide; if P’ is not convex we can

obtain a new P” with an area greater than

that of P’, and with the sides in the new

order, by a reflection of type (a). A finite

number of repetitions of this transposition

will bring the sides which bracket the mean

together, and then the transformation (b) .

will apply.

Bae B

z D

Fig. 2

After at most (m — 1) repetitions of (b),

we obtain a convex equilateral polygon. It

remains to show that among all such poly-

gons there is one which has the greatest

area and this is the regular polygon.

3. Theorem. If a, 2, -::, @n are any

n(>3) complex numbers, and tf zn41 = 2,

then

> 2p apa [F

3 j=l

(1) _

Sinn = >) Bean,

i Fz

with equality if and only af

2; = a exp (2nij/n) + 8,

(l<j<n)

where a, B are two arbitrary complex numbers.

Proof: Corresponding to the Hermitian

form

j=l

(2)

= Za P= 227 | es

nr nr

—- dz 241 »» 2 241,

j=1 j=l

NOVEMBER 1955

consider the Hermitian matrix of order n:

ait FO Oe tO) Ort

eee Oe OL 0)

c \|

Set 2 ho 0 0. OF.

ee 0! 05.0 —1 2 -1|

=e ie0s 0 >.-. O.—=1. 2)

Corresponding to the Hermitian form

nm nm

25 2 ti = 1 DY (BB — Ben);

7! j—"

consider the Hermitian matrix of order n:

Peon 0 0 5 OO ‘||

| wa —2. Os 0 “OY 20

ieee 0. .0.--- 2.0 =

POO 0° +--+.) Or 4 40

If we introduce the Hermitian matrix

ew Ae tans - B

andv = {za

(3) (Hd, v)

, 2n}, then (1) becomes

> 0.

ZA eee

9 25

The matrices A,6,H are circulant matri-

ces, i.e. they are of the form D = (dj)

where dj = 6j;-%4: and where subscripts

on 6 are to be understood mod n. The

matrix D has characteristic values

A; = > b. exp (—2mijk/n),

k=1

J rs Is 2, 22 5M

with corresponding characteristic vectors

faa He exp (—2n1yj/n), exp (—4n1j/n),

, exp (—2m1(n — 1)j/n)}.

These facts can be established (ef. [4], [4])

by observing that D is a polynomial in the

matrix

One 0 OF0 R80

OPO sale) OR ORO

(OF ;

i @ © © 0) OW

FAN, TAUSSKY, AND TODD: ISOPERIMETRIC INEQUALITY FOR POLYGONS

341

which represents the cyclic permutation of

order n. In fact

Di Noe.

k=.

In the case of H the elements 6, are

2,—-1l+itanz/n,0,--- ,0, —1—7tanz/n

and the characteristic value \; of H corre-

sponding to the characteristic vector wu; is

Ae = 2(1 — cos 25m + tan = sin —)

n n n

(WS ASO)

A brief verification shows that

ws O Tice Sp <= and

Noon =A = 0

It follows that (8) holds for any vector

v = {a , 72, --: ,2n} in the unitary n-space.

The equality sign in (3) holds if and only if

v is a linear combination of the two char-

acteristic vectors u,-1 and wu,, 1e., the z;’s

are of the form (2).

4. The isoperimetric property for equl-

lateral polygons is an immediate conse-

quence of the theorem. For if the (complex)

numbers 2, , 22, °°: , 2n are the vertices of a

polygon then

is its area; if

then

the polygon is equilateral

n Qo \2 me Ze

is the square of its perimeter. Our theorem

shows that

L’ > 4n tan : F

unless (2) holds and this is equivalent to

saying that the polygon is a regular one

inscribed in the circle with centre 6 and

radius | a |.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Torn, L. Frsus. Lagerwngen in der Ebene, auf

der Kugel und im Raum. Berlin-Géottingen-

Heidelberg, 1953.

[2] BuascHKr, W. Kreis und Kugel. New York,

1949.

342 JOURNAL OF THE

3] Bot, G. Hinfache Isoperimetrie beweise fiir

Kreis und Kugel. Abh. Math. Seminar Hans.

Univ. 15: 27-36. 1943.

4] Hampurecer, H. L., and Grimsuaw, M. E.

Linear transformations in n-dimensional

vector space. Cambridge, 1951.

[5] RurnHerrorp, D. E. Determinants arising in

physics and chemistry, II. Proc. Royal Soc.

Edinburgh 638A: 232-241. 1952.

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 11

6] Bonnesen, T., and FencHet, W. Theorie der |

konvexen Kérper. Berlin, 1934.

7| Fan, Ky, Taussxy, O., and Topp, J. Discrete

analogs of inequalities of Wirtinger. Monats-

hefte fiir Math. 59: 73-90. 1955.

8] Pétya, G. and Szead, G. Isoperimetric in-

equalities in mathematical physics. Ann.

Math. Studies, no. 27. Princeton, 1951.

9} Courant, R., and Hitpert, D. Methods of

mathematical physics 1. New York, 1953.

PALEONTOLOGY .—AStacheoides, a new foraminiferal genus from the British Upper

Paleozoic. Ropmrt H. Cummines, University of Glasgow, Scotland. (Com-

municated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.)

(Received August 26, 1955)

Within the foraminiferal assemblages of

the Carboniferous there occur a large num-

ber of forms adapted to a fixed mode of life.

Indeed, it would seem that the proportion of

such forms is greater in Upper Paleozoic

microfaunas than it is in those of other

geological periods, and in modern as-

semblages.

This is particularly true in the calcareous

facies of the British Lower Carboniferous,

where ecological conditions in the Upper

Avonian appear to have been conducive

both to the attainment and development of

the sessile mode of life. Representatives of

such genera as Nubecularia Detrance, 1825,

Stacheia Brady, 1876, Apterrinella Cushman

and Waters, 1928, Calcitornella Cushman

and Waters, 1928, and Fourstonella Cum-

mings, 1955, are widespread and abundant

in such British Carboniferous deposits.

There are some indications that the at-

tached mode of life should be regarded as

original in the more primitive foraminiferal

groups, such as the Astrorhizidae. In the

more highly developed groups, however, the

sessile habit is usually a secondary develop-

ment from a free-living, benthonic mode of

existence. This is illustrated by several of

the British Carboniferous genera, where the

relationships of these attached forms have

been determined by morphological and

phylogenetic study.

The change from free, benthonic activity .

to a static mode of existence leads to rapid,

and often extensive, alteration of form,

during the evolution of the stock. The re-

sulting morphological dissimilarity, between

the final expression of attached growth and

the ancestral condition, frequently creates

difficulties in classification. This is illustrated

in the development of Fourstonella Cum-

mings, 1955, from Valvulinella Schubert,

1907, where the apparent morphological

dissimilarity is so great that it all but masks

the phylogenetic link.

Morphological classification of attached

forms is also rendered difficult, in many

instances, by the fact that the stringencies

and demands of the fixed mode frequently

lead to a high degree of isomorphism. In

this way derivatives of vastly different

ancestral stocks achieve a remarkable simi-

larity of form within the same biome. An

illustration of such analogous homeomorphy

is seen in Calcitornella Cushman and Waters,

1928, and Nubeculinella Cushman, 1929.

A further difficulty in the classification of

attached, Upper Paleozoic Foraminifera

lies in the similarity of form, and symbiotic

relationships, that existed between these

Foraminifera and certain calcareous algae.

Johnson (1950) makes mention of this in

his description of a Permian algal-foramini-

feral consortium.

In the original description of the Foramini-

fera of the British Carboniferous and

Permian, Brady (1876) grouped most of the

forms having an attached mode of life within

one genus, Stacheza. Current revision of these

faunas shows that such forms are referable

to several genera, including one hitherto

undescribed.

NOVEMBER 1955 CUMMINGS:

The writer would like to acknowledge the

continued support of Prof. Neville George

in this research and the valued co-operation

and assistance from Dr. Alfred R. Loeblich,

Jr., Dr. Helen Tappan, and other American

experts and friends.

Family Opthalmidiidae

Subfamily Nubeculariinae

Stacheoides, n. gen.

Stachera (pars) Brady, 1876, et alios.

Type species (here designated): Stachera poly-

trematoides Brady, 1876.

Description: Test usually attached but free in

rare cases, relatively large, of irregular form de-

pendent upon the nature of host; irregular, and

often reticulate, growth developing on a tubular

pattern with numerous chamberlets; partitions

separating chamberlets of differing thickness to

those of roofs and floors; wall composed of gran-

ules of calcite bound by calcareous cement, but

with varying, though small, proportion of adven-

titious material, usually quartz grains; small, cir-

cular apertures present on the apices of the irregu-

larly scattered protuberances.

In thin section, representatives of Stacheoides

may be identified by their characteristic form

and habit, the differing thicknesses of chamberlet

partition and floor, etc. (see Fig. 1).

Comparison and affinities: There seems little

doubt that this new genus should be referred to

the Ophthalmidiidae on the grounds of its close

morphological similarity to many genera of that

family. The presence of adventitious material,

within the wall structure, might indicate an af-

finity to the Trochamminidae, or to the Milioli-

dae. Stacheoides, however, possesses neither the

trochoid form or apertural characters of the

former nor the basic wall structure that typifies

the latter. The correctness of its inclusion within

the Ophthalmididae is emphasized by its mor-

phological similarity to Nubecularia of the Nube-

cularlnae, with which it is included.

Nubecularia and Stacheoides, as well as being

structurally alike, are contemporaneous and have

been found occurring together in British Lower

Carboniferous deposits. The new genus is distin-

guished by its chamberal form, ramifying and

acervuline mode of growth, and its distinct, aper-

tural features. It may represent an aberrant spe-

cialization from Nubecularia in the Lower Car-

NEW FORAMINIFERAL GENUS 343

boniferous, along morphogenetic lines similar to

those on which Sinzowella Cushman, 1933, de-

veloped from Nubecularia in the Tertiary.

In his original description of Stacheta poly-

trematoides Brady (1876) noted that the form dif-

fered in many respects from the other species

which he included in the genus Stacheia. The type

species of the latter was designated by Cushman

(1927) as Stacheia marginulinoides Brady. Hence

the fundamental differences of Stacheta and

Stacheoides are reflected in those of the two spe-

cies, Stacheia marginulinoides Brady and Stache-

oides polytrematoides (Brady). Stacheta s.s. is

characterized by a wall composed only of granules

of calcite bound by calcareous cement, whereas

“N

LAY

‘,

’

Fia. 1.—Stacheoides sp. Diagram based on actual

specimen to show typical appearance in thin

section. X 20.

Stacheoides has a varying but small amount of

incorporated, adventitious material, in addition

to the same basic structure. In Stacheia s.s. the

walls, roofs, and floors of the chamberlets have a

constant thickness, which contrasts with the vari-

ation in the thickness of the structural elements

of Stacheoides. The latter possesses a tubular

mode of growth which is distinct from the sheet-

like formation of chamberlets in Stacheia. While

the aperture of Stacheva s.s. is hidden, single, ter-

minal, and basal, Stacheoides has numerous, small

apertures, each at the apex of a protuberance.

The distinction of Stacheoides and Fourstonella

Cummings, 1955, is based on the sheetlike habit of

growth of the latter.

344

Preservation and matrix: The normal mode of

preservation in argillaceous sediments shows a

slight degree of recrystallization of the wall

structure. More rarely specimens have been noted

which have undergone partial, or complete, silici-

fication. In the limestone facies the degree of

alteration is small.

While the protuberances are partly damaged in

many specimens, there is little doubt of the dis-

tinct character of the apertures when these are

examined in well-preserved material.

Horizon and facies: This genus has been re-

corded throughout the greater part of the British

Lower Carboniferous and is also present in Na-

murian sediments. It is particularly common in

the encrinital facies of the Upper Visean of the

Midland Valley of Scotland, where it appears to

exhibit a commensal habit with the extensive

crinoid populations. While this commensalism is

well-marked in Stacheoides, the genus does not

exhibit in any way the symbiotic relationship to

calcareous algae that is so common in the case of

Nubecularia. Indeed, it would seem that Stache-

oides did not coexist with such algae.

Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady), 1876

Figs. 2, 3, 7, 8.

Stacheia polytrematoides (pars) Brady, 1876, et

alios.

Description: Test adherent, fusiform outline

when attached to spines or polyzoans, irregularly

spreading and encrustating on crinoid ossicles;

growth characterized by irregular, tubular habit,

with numerous, small, uniserial chamberlets

forming in rows which ramify over one another

and build up mto hummocky protuberances at

irregularly spaced intervals; chamberlets roughly

subcylindrical in form, and subrectangular to

square in section; sutures absent but infrequent

growth ridges visible; surface often rough and

mammillated; wall composed of granular calcite

with calcareous cement and a small amount of

adventitious material, often forming a thin and

incomplete external layer; distinct, small, circu-

lar apertures, often in depressions, at the apices

of the irregularly scattered protuberances.

Depository, etc.: Lectotype (slide P.35405) in

the Brady Collection of Carboniferous and Per-

mian Foraminifera, British Museum (Natural

History), from the Hosie Limestone, Hairmyres,

Lanarkshire, in the Lower Limestone Group of

the Scottish Lower Carboniferous. Figured para-

types (slides P.1015/6/7) in the Protozoa Collec-

tion of the Geology Department, University of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 11

Glasgow; and slide P.11307 in the Reserve and

Study Collection, H.M. Geological Survey, Scot-

tish Office, Edinburgh.

Dimensions: Dependent on the host and hence

not confined to type material: maximum length

on crinoid ossicle 6.5 mm; maximum length on

spine 2.8 mm; maximum breadth on spine 0.67

mm; average width of protuberance 0.17 mm.

Comparison and affinities: This species is read-

ily distinguished from Stacheia congesta Brady by

the form of growth and apertural characters. It

differs from Stacheoides papillata, n. sp., in gen-

eral form and the number, and shape, of the

protuberances.

Horizon and facies: Occurring throughout the

greater part of the British Lower Carboniferous,

this species is also particularly common in the

Namurian of the Scottish Midland Valley, in both

argillaceous and encrinital facies.

Stacheoides papillata, n. sp.

Figs. 4-6

Description: Test usually attached, rarely free;

form dependent upon shape of host, usually fusi-

form, but may be cylindrical or spherical; surface

characterized by numerous, lobiferate, conical to

subconical, relatively small protuberances; in-

ternally composed of tubular lines of chamberlets,

irregularly laid on top of one another and sur-

rounding host, with partitions thinner than roofs

or floors; sutures absent but growth ridges and

overfolding present; surface smooth; wall com-

posed largely of calcareous grains bound by eal-

careous cement, but with a small amount of ad-

ventitious material included; small, circular,

apertural openings within depressions at apices

of protuberances.

Depository, etc.: Holotype (slide 9965) and

paratype thin section (slide 11306) in the Reserve

and Study Collection, H.M. Geological Survey,

Scottish Office, Edinburgh, from limestone near

the top of the Calciferous Sandstone Series, Lower

Carboniferous, of Penton Linn, Dumfrieshire,

Scotland.

Figured specimen (slide 11305) in the Reserve

and Study Collection, etc., from a limestone near

the top of the Calciferous Sandstone Series, Lower

Carboniferous, on the left bank of the Liddel

Water, Dumfrieshire, Scotland.

Dimensions: Largely dependent on _ host:

Holotype: length 1.34 mm, breadth 0.7 mm. Para-

type: average internal length of chamberlet 0.05

mm.

Comparison and affinities: Though similar to

Fie. 2.—Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady): Paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. P. 1015). Lateral

view of specimen on crinoid ossicle. X 20.

Fie. 3.—Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady): Paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. P. 1016). Lateral

view of specimen on crinoid ossicle. X 11.

Fig. 4.—Stacheoides papillata, n. sp.: Figured specimen (Geol. Surv. Sctld. R. & S. C. 11805). Lateral

view of specimen on spine. X 30.

Fic. 5.—Stacheoides papillata, n. sp.: Holotype (Geol. Surv. Sctld. R. & S. C. 9965). Lateral view

meee apertures. X 33.

Fic. 6.—Stacheoides papillata, n. sp.: Paratype (Geol. Surv. Sctld. R. & 8. C. 11306). Thin section

about equatorial plane. X 32.

Fig. 7.—Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady) : Paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. P. 1017). Thin sec-

tion of specimen on crinoid fragment. X 23.

Fig. 8.—Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady): Paratype (Geol. Surv. Sctld. R. & S. C. 11807). Thin

section of specimen on spine. X 27.

345

346

Stacheia congesta Brady, with which it has been

confused in the past, this form is distinguished by

differences in the composition of the wall, in the

position of the apertures, the relatively larger

size of the chamberlets, and the variation in thick-

ness of the structural elements. It is distinguished

from Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady) by a

general difference in form, and in having a rela-

tively larger number of protuberances.

Preservation and matrix: The usual mode of

preservation shows the test wall to be preserved

in a yellowish, slightly recrystallized calcite, with

clear calcite infilling the voids of the chamberlets.

Rare specimens have been noted where the

original wall-structure has been replaced com-

pletely by silica, now preserved as crystalline

quartz.

Horizon and facies: This species appears to be

confined to the upper part of the British Visean

and occurs in a wide variety of facies. It is espe-

cially common in the uppermost part of the Cal-

ciferous Sandstone Series, and the lower part of

the Lower Limestone Group, of the Scottish

Lower Carboniferous.

REFERENCES

Brapvy, H. B. Monograph of Carboniferous and

Permian Foraminifera (the genus Fusulina

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 11

excepted): 1-166. Palaeontographical Society,

London, 1876.

Cummines, R. H. New genera of foraminifera from

the British Lower Carboniferous. Journ. Wash-

ington Acad. Sci. 45 (1) 1-8. 1955.

CusHMAN, J. A. The designation of some genotypes

in the Foraminifera. Contr. Cushman Lab.

Foram. Res. 3 (4) 188-190. 1927.

———. Note sur quelques foraminiferes Jurassique

d Auberville (Calvados). Bull. Soe. Linn.

Normandie (8) 2 132-135. 1929.

. Some new foraminiferal genera. Contr.

Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 9: 132-138. 1933.

Foraminifera—their classification

economic use. Cambridge, Mass., 1948.

—— and Waters, J. A. Upper Paleozoic For-

aminifera from Sutton County, Texas. Journ.

Pal. 2 (4) 358-371. 1928.

Derrance, J. L. M. Article on Foraminifera in

“Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles’’.

Strasburg, 1825.

Dervitue, H. Maniere d’étre des Algues dans les

calcaires a Nubéculaires. Bull. Soc. Geol.

France (5) 6: 487-493. 1936.

Jounson, J. H. Nubecularia from the Pennsyl-

vanian and Permian of Kansas. Journ. Pal.

21: (1) 41-45. 1947.

——. A Permian algal-foraminiferal consortium

from West Texas. Journ. Pal. 24 (1) 61-62.

1950.

and

WASHINGTON SCIENTIFIC NEWS

ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS PROMOTE

SCIENCE EDUCATION

The Washington Academy of Sciences and the

District of Columbia Council of Engineering and

Architectural Societies announce the formation of

a Joint Board on Science Education for the

Greater Washington Area. The Board will cooper-

ate with the local schools and laboratories in their

common objective of training future scientists.

There is at present a serious shortage of qualified

engineers and scientists which may well impede

the social, health, and technological progress in

the United States. Chairman Joseph H. Broome

of the Council and President Margaret Pittman

of the Academy have appointed as Board members

the following persons: Raymond J. Seeger, chair-

man, National Science Foundation; Henry H.

Armsby, Higher Education Division, Department

of Health, Education, and Welfare; James F. Fox,

Bureau of Ordnance, Department of Navy; W.S.

Higginson, Geological Survey; Keith C. Johnson,

D. C. Public Schools; Walter H. McCartha,

General Services Administration; Martin A.

Mason, School of Engineering, George Washing-

ton University; W. T. Reed, Department of De-

fense; and Arnold H. Scott and John K. Taylor,

National Bureau of Standards.

SCIENCE TEACHERS SCHEDULE FOURTH

NATIONAL CONVENTION

The Fourth National Convention for teachers

of science being planned by the National Science

Teachers Association (NEA) will be held March

14-17, 1956, at the Shoreham Hotel in Washington.

With sessions designed for elementary schools,

junior and senior high schools, and colleges, it is

expected that 1,500 teachers will attend the con-

vention. Features will include the annual exposi-

tion of science-teaching aids and “interview

visits’? to several of the research centers in and

around Washington, including the National Bu-

reau of Standards and the National Institutes of

Health.

Nationally known scientists and educators, as

well as experienced and successful classroom

teachers, will give talks, serve as panel members,

and take part as leaders in work discussion groups.

he program is being planned especially to give

practical helps for classroom teaching situations

and problems. The first day’s activities will center

about the problem of ‘‘Learning How to Find

Out.”’ This will be followed by the laboratory

visits and talks by scientists dealing with ‘‘Find-

ing Out What Nobody Knows.’’ The third day of

the convention will deal specifically with ‘“‘Finding

Out What We Have Learned.’”? Teacher demon-

strations will feature the final day’s activities.

NOVEMBER 1955 STRIMPLE ET AL.: NEW

ORDOVICIAN ECHINODERMS

347

PALEONTOLOGY— New Ordovician echinoderms. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE, Bartles-

ville, Okla., et al.

I. THREE NEW GENERA

By Harrewtt L. STRIMPLE and

Witiram T. WATKINS

The latest comprehensive classification of

erinoids is that of Moore and Laudon (1943).

Considering their definitions of the various

subclasses, one has some difficulty in de-

termining the proper placement for one form

considered below as Anthracocrinus, n. gen.

Under Camerata, p. 76, it is stated,

“Crinoids in which all plates of the calyx

are united by rigid suture are included in

the Camerata.’’ We do not believe the junc-

tion of plates in Anthracocrinus could be

termed “‘by rigid suture.”

Under Flexibilia, pp. 64-65, it is stated,

“The Flexibilia comprise dicyclic crinoids

having the lower brachials incorporated in

the dorsal cup but not rigidly.” Such struc-

ture is certainly typical of Anthracocrinus,

which form, however, is not acceptable to

the subclass through possession of pinnule

bearing arms and five IBB. The arm of the

Flexibilia are nonpinnular and there are

only three IBB.

Under Inadunata, p. 21, it is stated,

“The Inadunata comprises crinoids that

have the plates of the calyx joined firmly

together, typically by syzygial suture.”

If our understanding of the terms ‘joined

firmly together” and ‘“‘syzygial suture’’ is

correct, the definition of the Inadunata

requires modification. There are several

known forms assigned to the subclass

wherein the cup plates were held in place, at

least in part, by ligaments. Dr. Moore

(1939, pp. 207-208), recognized this condi-

tion when he recorded the existence of pits

or depressions in the suture edges of the IBB

and BB plates of Plummericrinus mcguirei

(Moore). His explanation of these pits was:

“".. evidently for reception of ligament

fibres.”’ Another example may be obtained

by reference to the unretouched illustration

of Allosocrinus bronaughi Strimple (1949,

pl. 4, fig. 4). The right suture edge of a radial

plate is exposed therein, and shows a sharp

depression in midportion that must have

held ligament fibres.

The term syzygial or syzygium in crinoid

terminology is usually used in reference to

close union of adjacent arm segments or

adjacent arms, to the point of almost ob-

literating the suture. As applied to cup

plates, we presume the definition to mean

union of cup ossicles by calcified fibers. In

Pennsylvanian stratum, thousands upon

thousands of isolated crinoid ossicles, as

compared to the relatively few dorsal cups,

amply demonstrate the absence of syzygial

suture much less the firm union of plates.

The plates of Anthracocrinus have depres-

sions along the suture edges as found in some

inadunates and flexibles and as we presume

might be found in some camerates. We are

assigning the genus to the Camerata and

propose Anthracocrinidae, new family, for

its reception.

NOTES ON THE ARCHAEOCRINIDS

The genus Archaeocrinus was proposed by

Wachsmuth and Springer (1881), with

Glyptocrinus lacunosus Billings (1857) as the

genotype species. The forms involved are

rather well known, but some confusion still

exists In interpretations of the genus over

rather fundamental characteristics. In their

description Wachsmuth and Springer state

that two plates of the second series are pres-

ent in all interradial areas with those of the

posterior probably a little wider. In the

genotype species, three plates follow anal X,

and the same is known to occur in several

other species. Wachsmuth and Springer

(1885) corrected their earlier remarks, con-

cerning the number of plates in the posterior

interradius, to three plates in the second

series. They gave reference to a communica-

tion from W. R. Billings wherein he advised

that all the species referred to Archaeocrinus

by Wachsmuth and Springer (1881), possess

a special anal piece placed between the

interradials (interbrachials) of the second

(first) series. This would include A. lacwnosus

(Billings), A. marginatus (Billings), A.

microbasilis (Billings), and A. pyriformis

(Billings). One assumes that Billings had

material to support such an observation for

all the species involved.

348

It has been noted that a median-ray ridge

marks the brachials in the cup and may pass

on to the radial plates. The base of the

dorsal cup is concave and the infrabasals

are confined to the basal concavity with

the notable exception of the form originally

described as Thysanocrinus pyriformis

Billings (1857).

In an effort to resolve the status of T.

pyriformis, the senior author requested Dr.

Alice E. Wilson, Geological Survey of

Canada (retired), to examine the holotype of

the species. She was kind enough to do so,

and also to provide a photograph of the

specimen, which is numbered 1446b. The

proximal portion of the BB are curved

slightly inwardly, which has not been shown

by Billings or by Wachsmuth and Springer

in their illustrations. The specimen figured

by Wachsmuth and Springer (1897, pl. 10,

fig. 3b), is 1446b; however, it is considerably

brightened up and they do not note that it is

the holotype. The specimen figured by those

authors (pl. 10, fig. 3a), as ‘“‘the type speci-

men” is numbered 1446ce, and is a paratype.

Both specimens demonstrate upflared infra-

basal plates that are readily visible in side

view of the dorsal cup; therefore, the species

is not a bona fide representative of the genus

Archaeocrinus. This is of particular interest

because Moore and Laudon (1943, text-fig.

13), have obviously used the paratype of

Thysanocrinus pyriformis as the basis for

their diagram of the genus Archaeocrinus,

the type of the family Archaeocrinidae Moore

and Laudon.

It has been amply demonstrated else-

where that forms with decidedly upflared

IBB are either primitive, or have advanced

through stages wherein the base has become

concave, with IBB restricted to the con-

cavity, and thence to a stage where the IBB

are again upflared. A long evolutionary

process could hardly have transpired in these

primitive forms and therefore 7. pyriformis

must be considered to be more primitive

than Archaeocrinus. We consider it desirable

to remove the species from Archaeocrinus,

and since no other genus is suitable for its

reception we propose it as the genotype of

Neoarchaeocrinus, n. gen. On the basis of the

existence of upflared IBB, we refer Archaeo-

crinus obconicus Slocum (1924) to Neo-

archaeocrinus.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 11

We have yet another form to be considered.

wherein the dorsal cup has the general ap-

pearance of Archaeocrinus, as restricted, but:

does not have the characteristic arrangement

of plates in the interradius areas. As’ dis-

cussed above, there are two plates in the

second series of the interradius areas in all

except the posterior interradius, which

typically has three. There is at hand a dis-

tinctive species from the Bromide of Okla-

homa, which has three plates in the second

series of all interradius areas with the excep-

tion of the posterior which may have either

two or three plates in the second series (first

interbrachial series). For this form we pro-

pose the name Pararchaeocrinus decoratus,

n. sp., genotype of Pararchaeocrinus, n. gen.

Subclass Camerata Wachsmuth and Springer

Anthracocrinidae Strimple and Watkins,

n. fam.

Dicyclic; cup high; IBB small, elongate, pro-

jecting far into the body cavity; RR separated

all around; median rays prominent; IBrBr regu-

lar, mildly depressed; anal area small, though

broader than other interradial areas, median ray

absent; proximal brachials and pinnules (ram-

ules?) incorporated into the cup though not al-

ways in complete contact; suture edges have de-

pressions, apparently for reception of ligament

fibres; lumen large, pentalobate; arms uniserial;

tegmen unknown. Range—Ordovician, North

America.

Anthracocrinus Strimple and Watkins, n. gen.

The definition of family given above is of

course also applicable to the genus. It is noted

here that the first interradial plates, including

anal X, are in full contact with the basal plates.

The bifurcation of arms is significant, PBrBr» are

axillary in all rays and a second branching is

present in some half rays, but never in both pri-

mary divisions of any one ray. The arms and pin-

nules do not become free before the second bi-

fureation.

The most nearly comparable form known to

us is Deocrinus Hudson (1907). It is readily sepa-

rable from Anthracocrinus in that it does not

have a median ridge over the brachials; the large

interradial plates are separated from the basals,

adjacent radials, and brachials by a series of

small plates; and the lumen is round. The meet-

ing of first pinnules of each arm over the inter-

brachials and the structure of the pinnules and

NOVEMBER 1955

brachials are remarkably similar for the two

genera.

Genotype species——Anthracocrinus primitivus

Strimple and Watkins, n. sp.

Anthracocrinus primitivus Strimple and Watkins,

n. sp.

la—c, 2a, 4-6

Dorsal cup high with very deep basal con-

cavity. Five elongate IBB and more than half

the length of the five BB form a tubular chamber

extending far into the body cavity. The proximal

columnals are usually in place so that it is neces-

sary to examine this structure from within the

cup. A sharp ridge on the BB forms a pentagonal

rim about the invaginated base. Five RR are

moderately large, pentagonal plates. Five large

interradials are in full contact with BB below,

RR and BrBr to the lateral sides and with two

small interbrachials above. The posterior IR

(anal X) is smaller than other interradials and

the succeeding plates are larger than found in the

other four interrays.

There are typically 3 arms to a ray. First bi-

furcation takes place with PBrBr» in all rays.

Second bifurcation is usually found on SBrBr.

but in one observed instance occurred on SBri.

Only one-half ray in any one arm will branch

more than once. Usually the second brachial

above the second bifurcation in a ray will bear a

pinnule. In some instances, dependent upon the

presence or absence of IBrBr plates, the third

or fourth succeeding brachial bears a pinnule, and

the next brachial. The succeeding brachial will

normally be nonpinnular, and the next brachial

will have a pinnule on the side opposite the first

Figs.

STRIMPLE ET AL.: NEW ORDOVICIAN ECHINODERMS

349

pinnule. Succeeding brachials have one pinnule

on opposite sides. The first few plates of the lower

pinnules are very large and meet over the two

plates of the interrays. There is a loose union be-

tween lower segments of the pmnules and bra-

chials that in effect make them part of the dorsal

cup and would certainly have prevented any pro-

nounced movement of these elements.

The proximal portion of the stem is large and

composed of alternatingly expanded, round seg-

ments which do not appear to bear cirri. Very

wide, relatively thick columnals are followed by

very thin, narrow columnals. Small nodes girdle

the mid-section of the thicker columnals. The

lumen is large, pentalobate in outline.

The tegmen has not been observed.

Measurements.—As follows:

Holotype

WidthroficuplatpeDrBrameeceerinecmeeccienies 10.5 mm,

HeightioficuplavBrBromenceensae eee 3.5 mm

Wadthvof basalicavitysess-sosemcne scene 3.2 mm.

Discussion.—This form was discovered by the

junior author several years ago at the Spring

Creek exposure in the Criner Hills that has also

produced Myeinocystites natus Strimple (1953a)

Archaeocrinus subovalis Strimple (1953b) and nu-

merous other unusual forms. Subsequent field

work by Allen Graffham and the authors has

provided enough material to compile the descrip-

tion given above. One of the main difficulties en-

countered at the onset was the determination of

the nature of and the plates contained in the

basal invagination. This difficulty was sur-

mounted when Mr. Graffham stripped off the

side of a crown. This is shown in Fig. lc.

Figs. la-e.—Anthracocrinus primitivus, n. sp.: Diagrammatic drawings showing (a) the posterior in-

terradius, (b) normal interradius, and (c) placement of infrabasal plates high in the dorsal cup.

350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 11

WSs

CNRS

Swe

NGA

SS ey, SG)

= NZ

ARM NW ae RAMULE ?

DORA RIDGE

= i

COLUMN

Fig. 2a.—Anthracocrinus primitivus, n. sp.: Camera-lucida drawing of arms near their termina-

tion. Fres. 2b-f—Pararchaeocrinus decoratus, n. sp.: Camera-lucida drawings showing (b) a cross section

offa brachial plate; (c) tegment of arm; (d) segment of arm in side view to show pinnular attachment;

(e) base of cup showing strong crenulation on basal plates and the proximal columnal in place

at the bottom of the basal concavity; and (f) side view of dorsal cup showing normal interradius

and ray ridges (marked by broken lines).

NOVEMBER 1955 STRIMPLE ET AL.:

Anthracocrinus primitivus is considerably

smaller than associated Archaeocrinus and Parar-

chagocrinus. Specimens are consistently black in

color when first found. Washing and _ brushing

will in some instances remove the black coloring.

Under mild magnification the plates of the crown

are very porous, and it is our thought that a thin

skinlike membraneous or leathery covering might

have existed in life that is preserved as a black

pigment.

The only described species that appears to be

closely similar to Anthracocrinus primitivus 1s

Deocrinus asperatus (Billings) and readily appar-

ent differences have already been given under the

comparison of the two genera.

Occurrence.—Lower Bromide formation, Ordo-

vician; east bank of Spring Creek, a tributary of

Hickory Creek, Criner Hills, southeast of Ard-

more, Okla.

Types—Holotype and four paratypes to be

deposited in the U. S. National Museum.

Family ARCHAEOCRINIDAE Moore and

Laudon, 1943

Neoarchaeocrinus Strimple and Watkins, n. gen.

Dorsal cup rather elongated, obconical in

shape. Five IBB upflared and readily visible in

side view of cup. Five large RR separated all

around. Five large BB. Five IR, regular one in

each interray with that of the posterior desig-

nated as anal X. Two IBrBr; im all interrays ex-

cept the posterior which has three, designated as

anal plates. Faint median ridges mark the bra-

chials that are incorporated into the dorsal cup

for a considerable distance. Arms are cuneiform

and relatively small, especially when compared

to the size of the dorsal cup.

An excellent diagram of Neoarchaeocrinus 1s

given by Moore and Laudon (1943, text-fig. 13)

as representative of Archaeocrinus. It seems likely

that Neoarchaeocrinus evolved directly out of the

Reteocrinidae. It is closely related to and may

be directly ancestrial to Archaeocrinus from

which it differs in having a more primitive (erect)

base.

Genotype species—Thysanocrinus pyriformis

Billings.

Range.—Ordovician to lower Silurian.

Pararchaeocrinus Strimple and Watkins, -

n. gen.

Dorsal cup rather short, subglobular shaped.

Five IBB confined to basal concavity. Five large

NEW ORDOVICIAN

ECHINODERMS 351

RR separated all around. Five large BB. Each B

is followed by a single IR which is in turn fol-

lowed by three IBrBr with the exception of pos-

terior B. In the posterior interradius there may

be two or three anal plates in direct contact with

post. B. The posterior interradius is protruded.

Each R is followed by a single PBr which is in

turn followed by an axillary PBro. A small series

of IBrBr occur after the bifurcation of the fixed

brachials, usually in the arrangement 1-2-3.

Strong median ridges mark the brachials. The

BB are joined by a confluent ridge that forms a

pentagon about the basal concavity. A division

of this ridge passes from each B to the adjoining

RR so that a stellate shape is formed at their

junction at midsection of the RR from whence

they join with the ridge marking the brachial

plates.

This genus is closely related to Archaeocrinus

from which it differs mainly in the structure of

the plates of the interrays as has been discussed

above.

Genotype species.—Pararchaeocrinus decoratus

Strimple and Watkins, n. sp.

Range.—Ordovician, North America.

Pararchaeocrinus decoratus Strimple and

Watkins, n. sp.

Dorsal cup globular, with small basal con-

cavity formed by the proximal edges of the five

BB. Five IBB are confined to the base of the

concavity. Proximal columnals entirely fill the

basal concavity and thereby cover the IBB. Each

B is in contact with seven plates with the excep-

tion of posterior B, and have raised ridges that

pass to adjacent BB forming a pentagonal shaped

rim about the basal concavity. Divergent ridges

also pass from each B to adjoming RR and con-

verge in midsection of each R thus forming a

stellate shaped rim in the lower part of the cup.

Post. B is larger and more elongate than other

BB and has 8 or 9 facets. A large IR follows each

B and is in turn followed by three plates in the

second series (IBrBr), except in the posterior in-

terradius. The proximal portion of the posterior

interradius is narrower than other interrays,

which is partially compensated for through strong

protrusion of the cup in this area. The exact num-

ber of plates varies, as well as the arrangement

of the plates. In the holotype, post. B is followed

directly above by a single anal plate (anal X?),

352

to the right by another anal, and to the right side

by yet another anal plate. In the figured para-

type, post. B is followed directly above by a sin-

gle anal plate (anal X?) and to the right side by

another anal plate. The only difference in these

two specimens is the existence of an extra anal

piece above the right anal plate in the holotype

that is absent in the figured paratype. The anal

plate to the right is followed to the right above

by a plate bearing a strong ridge that originates

on the right posterior R. The plate is situated too

low to be considered in the third series yet is not,

sensu stricto, part of the second series. It is fol-

lowed by a series of hexagonal plates that divide

the posterior interray into two parts and carries

the raised ridge to the distal termination of the

cup. From study of existing material it is difficult

to visualize the purpose of this ridge, and series

of plates, because the pressure of the gut is ap-

parent in the left portion of the interradius; how-

ever, as the raised ridge curves slightly to the

left, and the pressure of the gut veers slightly to

the right, they become confluent at about mid-

length of the ridge.

The arms become free on or about the fourth

secundibrach and thereafter are narrow, elon-

gated, cuneiform, and bifurcate isotomously at

least. twice. Each brachial is thin and carries a

very thin, extremely elongated pinnule on its

thickest lateral side. A special pocketlike ar-

rangement for the reception of the pinnule is

shown by text-fig. 2d. Owing to the thinness of

the brachial plates, the pinnules are closely

spaced. Axillary brachials in the free arms are

small and triangular shaped.

The RR are normally seven sided and are fol-

lowed directly above by six sided, non-axillary

first brachials. First bifurcation of rays is with

the second pribibrachials, which plates are five

sided. The arrangement of intersecundibrachials

is 1-2-3.

A significant division of the raised ray ridges

takes place with the SBrBr2 wherein a thin ridge

passes onto adjoining interbrachials of the large

interradius area, and continues to the upper ex-

tremity of the cup. There are thus two of these

ridges to each interray that continue to the upper

edge of the cup where they are only one plate

apart. Such a ridge could serve a pinnule and in

fact these plates are of course fixed pinnules, but

one would expect a ridge on each succeeding fixed

pinnule which is not the case. It is more likely

that the ridge marks a ramule.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 11

All plates are marked with fine ridges that

radiate from the center of each plate and are

usually conjunct with those of adjoming ridges.

Unusually heavy and erratically shaped, short

ridges are found in conjunction with the raised

arm rays in the upper portion of the cup.

Proximal columnals are thin, broad ossicles.

They are mildly pentagonal in outline and are

alternatingly expanded. Text-fig. 2e, shows the

proximal columnal in place and the nature of the

large lumen. Heavy crenulations are present in

the walls of the basal concavity and pass onto the

flattened base as illustrated by Fig. 2e, and

demonstrates the reason all proximal columnals

are usually in place. This arrangement is no doubt

matched by similar ridges and depressions on the

outer edges of the proximal columnals. The

column is rather small considering the size of the

crown and the form probably devised this inter-

locking arrangement to prevent the shock of sud-

den movement from breaking the crown loose at

its proximal extremity where the newer colum-

nals are present. As the columnals became more

mature their interlocking crenulations between

segments probably sufficed to hold them together.

Measurements.—As follows:

Figured

Holotype, paratype, Paratype,

mm. mm. mm.

Width of dorsal cup (approx.) 28.2 22.4 20.0

Height of dorsal cup (approx.) 19.6 15.7 16.0

Width of basal concavity 4.0 4.0

Width of proximal columnals 4.0 4.0

Length of free arms as preserved 39.5

Remarks—This form was discovered by the

junior author several years ago at the Spring

Creek exposure of the Bromide formation in the

Criner Hills of southern Oklahoma. A colony was

excavated by the authors on an expedition to the

outcrop in 1948. All specimens were firmly em-

bedded on the underside of slabs and presented

a serious problem of preparation for adequate ob-

servation. Fortunately another small colony was

discovered by Allen Graffham and the senior au-

thor several feet from the original colony where

the zone approached the surface and the matrix

was somewhat disintegrated. Two specimens from

the later colony are figured as the holotype and a

paratype, and several complete crowns from the

first colony are designated as paratypes. One

specimen from the Hickory Creek exposure (Rock

Crossing) of the Bromide formation, showing the

crenulations of the basal concavity and the proxi-

mal columnal in place (Fig. 2e), is designated as

a paratype.

NOVEMBER 1955 STRIMPLE ET AL.:

The relatively common species described as

Archaeocrinus subovalis Strimple seldom occurs

in the same zone with Pararchaeocrinus decoratus.

One specimen of the former was found on the

edge of a slab from the original colony of the

latter where the colony was pinching out. Con-

versely, one specimen of Pararchaeocrinus deco-

ratus was found in the large colony of Archaeocri-

nus subovalis that was excavated by us. The next

lower zone, and higher zones, carry Archaeocrinus

subovalis is profusion. The two forms are readily

separable on the basis of the arrangement of

plates in the interradius areas and due to the un-

ornamented surface of A. subovalis.

Types —Figured holotype, paratype and nu-

merous paratypes are to be deposited in the U.S.

National Museum. One slab with several para-

types exposed is to be deposited in the collections

of the University of Oklahoma.

REFERENCES

All cited references may be found in Bassler

and Moodey, Bibliographic and Faunal Index of

Paleozoic Pelmatozoan Echinoderms. Geol. Soc.

Amer. Spec. Pap. 45, 1943, with the following ex-

ceptions:

Moors, R. C. Journ. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ. 34:

1939.

and Laupon, L. R. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.

46: 1943.

Srrmpie, Harrevy L. Bull. Amer. Pal. Soc. 32:

265-270, pl. 36, fig. 4. 1949.

. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 43: 105-106.

1953a.

. Journ. Pal. 27: 6-4-606. 1953b.

Il. A NEW SPECIES OF CYATHOCYSTIS

By Harreti L. Srrimpte and

A. ALLEN GRAFFHAM

The discovery of a representative of the

rare genus Cyathocystis Schmidt (1879) in

the lower Bromide formation (Ordovician)

of Oklahoma by the junior author warrants

considerable attention. Only three species of

this edrioasteroid are known. They are C.

plautinae Schmidt (1880), the genotype,

C. rhizophora Schmidt (1880), and C. ameri-

canus Bassler (1936). The first two species

are from the Ordovician of Estonia, the

later from the Ordovician of Tennessee. The

Oklahoma species is described below as

C’. oklahomae, n. sp.

NEW ORDOVICIAN

ECHINODERMS 353

1900

1880

Family CyatHocystipar Bather,

Genus Cyathocystis Schmidt,

Cyathocystis oklahomae Strimple and Graffham,

n. sp.

Figs. 3, 7, 8

Four specimens of the species are available for

study, the larger and most perfectly preserved

specimen is taken as the holotype. One paratype

is perfectly preserved except for the covering

plates of the anal opening which are missing in

this specimen. The holotype has fine ridges mark-

ing the ambulacrals and interambulacrals, and

the center sutures between the interlocking am-

bulacral plates are marked by a well-defined

ridge. The smaller specimen does not show this

ornamentation so well. There is also evidence of

division of the large plates covering the mouth in

the holotype that has not been observed in the

smaller paratype.

Upper ambulacral surface is bordered by a sub-

pentagonal frame of 31 marginals, excluding the

5 small plates that border the anus. Interambu-

lacrals are five solid plates that are much wider

than long. Ambulacra are broad, straight rays

with a single series of interlocking covering plates.

Five large plates cover the mouth. The anus is

situated between a deltoid and the marginal

frame, and is covered by a mosaic of small, ir-

regular plates. There is a small shelf on the del-

toid bordering the inner edge of the anus.

Fie. 3.—Cyathocystis oklahomae, n. sp.: Camera-

lucida drawing of the oral surface of the holotype.

304

Aboral portion of the theea is a fused mass of

stereom with no visible longitudinal sutures. An

encrusting root type of base indicates permanent

attachment to a foreign object.

Measurements.—As follows:

Holotype

Width of theea 7.0 mm.

Height of theca 5.5 mm.

Length of ambulacra 2.8 mm.

Width of deltoid 3.1mm.

Length of deltoid 0.9 mm.

Greatest width of anus! 1.5 mm.

1 Excluding five plates in line with the marginal

plates.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 11

Remarks.—In the genus Cyathocystis, the in-

terambulacrals are fused to form five large plates

designated as deltoids. The aboral portion of the

theca is also fused; however, European species

are reported to sometimes disclose obscure longi-

tudinal sutures, irregular in number and position,

but never more than five. The anus has five cover-

ing plates. There are 40 marginals forming the

pentagonal frame bordering the upper ambula-

cral surface.

C. americanus differs from the European spe-

cies in having more narrow and elongated ambu-

lacra. The covering plates of the anus are not pre-

4-6.—Anthracocrinus primitivus, n.

A paratype, X.2; 5, the holotype, X 3; a paratype, X 2. I ( g :

Unretouched photographs of the holotype, X 5.3; oral view of theca with anus to the right; side view

Fies.

of theca with anus to the left.

sp.: Unretouched photographs of crowns in side view: 4,

Fries. 7, 8.—Cyathocystis oklahomae, n. sp.:

Fras. 9, 10.—Pararchaeocrinus decoratus, n. sp.: Side view of a para-

type, X 3; the holotype viewed from below, X 2.

NOVEMBER 1955

served in the holotype, and only known specimen,

though the opening is present according to a

communication received by the senior author

from Dr. Bassler. The deltoids are rather elon-

gated and there appears to be about 40 marginal

plates. The theca is elongated and is subpentago-

nal in outline according to the description of the

form. C. oklahomae differs from C. americanus in

having a short, rounded theca, short deltoids,

short broad ambulacra, and a reduced number of

marginal plates.

C. oklahomae differs from European species in

having elongated ambulacral covering plates, re-

WIRTH: THREE NEW SPECIES OF CULICOIDES 355

duced number of marginals, shorter deltoids and

more than five covering plates for the anus.

Occurrence —Lower Bromide formation, Ordo-

vician; exposure in the east bank of Spring Creek

a tributary of Hickory Creek, Criner Hills, some

7 miles southwest of Ardmore, Okla.

Types.—Holotype and one paratype to be de-

posited in the U.S. National Museum.

REFERENCES

All references are listed in Bassler and Moodey,

Bibliographic and faunal index of Paleozoic Pel-

matozoan echinoderms, Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec.

Pap. 45, p. 199. 1943.

ENTOMOLOGY .— Three new species of Culicoides from Texas (Diptera: Heleidae).

Wiis W. Wirtx, Entomology Research Branch, U.S. Department of Agri-

eulture.

(Received July 12, 1955)

In early 1953 it was definitely established

that the virus disease of sheep known as

bluetongue is present and is occasionally epi-

zootic in the southwestern United States. In

South Africa, where bluetongue has caused

severe losses to sheep raisers and has been

studied intensively for several decades, the

only proved vectors are biting midges of the

genus Culicoides. Drs. D. A. Price and W. T.

Hardy, veterinarians of the Texas Agri-

cultural Experiment Station at Sonora, have

produced bluetongue infections in sheep ex-

perimentally by injections of macerated

Culicoides variipennis (Coquillett) caught in

a light trap on the station where an outbreak

of the disease was in course (Journ. Amer.

Vet. Med. Assoc. 124: 255-258. 1954).

In preparation for anticipated further

studies on the epidemiology of bluetongue —

in America, including the determination of

the vector species and studies on their bi-

ology and control, a survey was begun in

May 1953 to determine the distribution of

the species of Culicoides in the bluetongue

area of Texas. Descriptions of three new

species taken on the surveys are presented

here, in order to make their names avail-

able to other workers. The types are de-

posited in the U. 8. National Museum in

Washington.

I am greatly indebted to the personnel of

the Kerrville laboratory of the Agricultural

Research Service for their assistance in the

survey.

Culicoides neopulicaris, n.sp.

iol

2. Length 1.25 mm, wing 1.13 by 0.5 mm.

Head dark brown, eyes contiguous, bare. An-

tennae with flagellar segments in proportion of

20:18:18:18:18:18:18:18:20:22:25:28:45, dis-

tal sensory tufts on segments 3, 11-15. Palpal

segments (Fig. 1, b) in proportion of 10:22:34:

13:10 third segment moderately swollen in middle

with numerous spoon-shaped sensillae borne on

_ extensive concavity distal to middle of segment.

Mesonotum dark brown, the dorsal surface

with yellowish gray pruinosity, with more or less

of an indication of a broad median paler gray

band from humeral pits to prescutellar sensory

depression, the long hairs mixed yellowish and

dark brown. Scutellum dark brown, with four

strong blackish bristles; pleura very dark brown.

Legs uniformly dark brown, becoming somewhat

paler on tarsi; hind tibial comb of six long sub-

equal bristles.

Wing (Fig. 1, a) with anterior radial cells com-

plete; costa 0.6 as long as wing. Macrotrichia

fairly numerous on distal half of wing and in cell

M4 and anal cell. Wing predominantly whitish,

the dark markings quite limited, forming essen-

tially three broken transverse bands of spots as

figured. The first dark costal spot halfway be-

tween wing base and crossvein r-m and extending

from costa only across base of media; second

costal spot covering distal half of first radial

cell, not extending into cell R5; third costal spot

just past apex of costa, hourglass-shaped, the

356

anterior part wider, the posterior part extending

only to the fold above vein M1. Small, but quite

distinct dark spots also at bases of medial and

mediocubital forks, at apices of veins M1, M2,

M3-4 and Cul, the latter two extending on veins

M3-4 and Cul to their bases, the spot at end of

M3-4 extending forward nearly across cell M2

just before tip, and a separate dark spot near

apex of cell M1 at level of spot in cell M2. An

isolated dark spot in middle of pale area in cell

M4 and a dark spot at half the length of anal

vein extending back and widening distad into a

Jarge dark area along caudal margin extending

nearly to vein Cul. Halteres whitish.

Abdomen dull blackish; spermathecae two,

subequal, ovoid, slightly tapered to the ducts.

Male genitalia (Fig. 1, c-d). Ninth sternum

with shallow mesal excavation, the posterior

membrane bare; ninth tergum distally rounded,

with well-developed median lobe, the apico-

lateral processes practically absent. Basistyles

with mesal margins straight, each bearing a

dense patch of strong spines towards base, dorsal

roots well developed, ventral roots very small;

dististyles slender, apices not expanded, slightly

incurved. Aedeagus with basal arch rounded, ex-

tending to a littie more than half of total length,

the distal half broad and tapering to a broadly

rounded tip. Parameres bent at basal third, the

mesal margins approximated on middle third,

the apices narrowed to slender, pubescent tips.

Holotype female (type no. 62363, U.S.N.M.),

allotype, Kerrville, Tex., June 15, 1953, L. J.

Bottimer (light trap). Paratypes: 9 males, 69

females, same data except dates June 13 to

October 20, 1953. Other material: 4 females,

Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosi, Mexico, De-

cember 1, 1944, B. Brookman (light trap).

This species is closely related to yukonensis

Hoffman from Alaska and the Yukon, as well

as to the Palearctic species pulicaris (Linnaeus)

and punctatus (Meigen), all having, in addition

to the pale apex of the second radial cell, a small

isolated dark spot in the mediocubital fork. C.

neopulicaris can be readily separated from the

related species, however, by its smaller size, less

hairy wings invariably with small but very def-

inite dark spots, and lack of the dark area in cell

R5 behind the dark spot over the first radial

cell. C. punctatus and yukonensis differ in having

the apices of veins M1 and M2 pale and punctatus

has a well-developed mesonotal pattern. The

obsolete apicolateral processes of the ninth tergite,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 11

and the broad apex of the aedeagus will separate

the males of neopulicarus from those of the other

species.

Several males of this species have been re-|

ceived from Dr. Luis Vargas, of the Instituto

de Salubridad y Enfermedades Tropicales in

Mexico City. They were taken at Chilpancingo

in Guerrero, and Dr. Vargas informs me that the |

species is very abundant in the basin of the River |

Balsas.

Culicoides bottimeri, n.sp.

Fig. 2

Female—Length 0.9 mm, wing 0.85 by 0.43

mm.

Head dark brown; eyes bare, slightly separated.

Antennae with flagellar segments in proportion of

16:11:11:12:12:12:13:13:20:20:20:22:30, dis-

tal sensory tufts on segments three to ten in-

clusive. Palpi (Fig. 2, a) short, segments in pro-

portion of 8:15:35:12:12, third segment mark-

edly swollen, with a broad, shallow, sensory pit.

Mesonotum uniformly subshining dark brown,

without trace of pruinose spots or vittae, the

long and rather numerous brown hairs not re-

stricted to rows. Scutellum dark brown, with two

long, submedian, and a few very small, brown

hairs. Pleura concolorous with mesonotum. Legs

uniformly brownish, slightly paler than thorax,

hind tibiae each with five long yellow bristles in

apical comb.

Wing uniformly gray, without trace of light

or dark spots. Costa ending at 0.53 of wing length;

anterior radial cells short and broad, the adja-

cent radial veins considerably swollen. Wing ap-

pearing very hairy, the long macrotrichia dense

and extending to wing base behind the anterior

media.

Abdomen brownish; spermathecae two, slightly

unequal, oval, bases of the ducts not sclerotized.

Male genitalia (Fig. 2, b-c)—Ninth sternum

with very shallow, broad, mesal excavation, the

posterior membrane spiculate; ninth tergum

markedly tapered, with long triangular apico-

lateral processes, the posterior margin between

them semicircular. Basistyles moderately slender

and tapering, the dorsal roots short and broad,

the ventral roots long and sinuate with broad

bases, their apices joined mesad; dististyles

slightly incurved and tapering to very slender,

pointed tips. Aedeagus with very narrow an- |

terior arms forming a broad and deep, trapezoidal,

CULICOIDES e

WIRTH: THREE NEW SPECIES OF

NOVEMBER 1955

eS Ste : Sa.

Tapas

3 pecosensis

Fig. 1—Culicoides neopulicaris: a, Female wing; b. female palpus; c, male parameres; d, male genitalia,

parameres removed.

Fig. 2.—Culicoides bottimeri: a, Female palpus; b, male parameres; c, male genitalia, parameres removed.

Fig. 3.—Culicoides pecosensis: a, Female wing; b, mesonotal pattern; c, female palpus; d, male

parameres; e, male genitalia.

Drawings by Arthur D. Cushman.

358 JOURNAL OF THE

basal arch, the distal point short and truncate in

ventral view but with a small triangular apex

turned ventrocephalad. Parameres with bases

not knoblike, the stout stems obtusely bent

midway, the distal half of each paramere abruptly

recurved ventrocephalad in the form of a curved,

heavily sclerotized saberform blade with the

pointed apex faintly serrate on the outer margin.

Holotype female (type no. 62364, U.S.N.M.),

Kerrville, Tex., June 15, 1953, L. J. Bottimer

(light trap). Allotype, same data except July

11, 1953. Paratypes: 12 males, 73 females, same

data except dates June 13 to September 27, 1953.

I take pleasure in naming this species for Law-

rence J. Bottimer, of Kerrville, whose enthusias-

tic and careful assistance made this study pos-

sible.

This species is very closely related to the

European species, cunctans (Winnertz) and

pumilus (Winnertz), both of which also have the

plain, hairy wings and undecorated, subshining,

brown mesonotum. The male genitalia of bot-

timeri are most nearly like those of cwnctans, but

according to Edwards (British Bloodsucking

Flies, p. 141, 1939) that species has the apico-

lateral processes slenderer, the ventral roots

slenderer and not joined mesad, the aedeagus

with the anterior arch not so broad caudad and

the parameres with the recurved blades much

shorter and not serrate. This species superficially

resembles the North American species stonei

James and brookmani Wirth in its plain brown

mesonotum and unmarked hairy wings, but the

other two species have a duller mesonotum with

very faintly indicated vittae and their female

spermathecae and male genitalia indicate that

they belong to entirely unrelated groups.

Culicoides pecosensis, n.sp.

Fig. 3

Female.—Length 1.2 mm, wing 1.25 by 0.52

mm.

Head and its appendages dark brown; eyes

slightly separated, bare. Antennae with flagellar

segments in proportion of 20:18:18:18:18:18:

18:18:30:32:32:32:44, distal sensory tufts on

segments 3-5, 7-9, 11-14. Palpal segments (Fig.

3, ¢) in proportion of 12:36:36:15:15, third seg-

ment moderately swollen with a moderately

deep, broadly open, sensory pit.

Mesonotum (Fig. 3, b) dark brown with a

prominent pattern of pruinose gray spots placed

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 11

much as in arboricola Root and Hoffman, but

never so prominent. These spots consist essen-

tially of six pairs of rounded spots in two series of

three pairs each, the submedian pair of each

series larger and more elongate, the anterior

pair extending forward between the humeral

pits, the posterior pair covering the broad flat-

tened prescutellar area, the two lateral pairs of

each series small and rounded. Scutellum dark

brown with gray pruinosity, with four long brown

bristles. Pleura dark brown. Legs dark brown,

with broad subapical bands on all femora and

broad subbasal bands on all tibiae and broad

apical band on hind tibia, pale yellowish; 5 or

6 long bristles in hind tibial comb.

Wing (Fig. 3, a) with anterior radial cells com-

plete, costa to 0.55 of wing length; macrotrichia

long and dense, covering nearly entire wing.

Anterior wing margin with “three intensely dark

areas the second including apex of first and all

of second radial cell. Wing with prominent pale

spots as follows: Four spots on costal margin,

the first just beyond humeral crossvein and ex-

tending beyond base of anterior media, the third

beyond tip of second radial cell covering half the

breadth of cell R5 and the fourth more or less

chevron-shaped with point basad about halfway

between the preceding spot and wing tip and

extending to the fold before vein M1. A pale

spot straddling vein M1 at level of end of costa

and a similar one straddling vein M2 a little

nearer its apex; a small pale round spot at about

its own length from wing margin in cell M1 and

another larger one very near wing margin in cell

M2; a small oval spot in cell M2 just anterior to

base of mediocubital fork. Cell M4 with a broad

pale band across its middle half; apices of veins

M1, M2 and M3-4 broadly pale margined but

no trace of pale area on vein Cul. Two distinct

pale spots in apex of anal cell and a larger pale

area on basal half of its posterior margin. Haltere

pale.

Abdomen blackish; cerci pale; spermathecae

two, slightly unequal, ovoid, very slightly tapered

to the ducts.

Male genitalia (Fig. 3, d-e).—Ninth sternite

with broad shallow excavation, the posterior

membrane bare; ninth tergite with large, tri-

angular apicolateral processes. Basistyles with

dorsal and ventral roots subequal, simple and

pointed; dististyles with apices slender and in-

curved. Aedeagus with basal arms nearly straight,

NOVEMBER 1955

heavily sclerotized, about half of total length,

_the distal portion broad, slightly expanded in

' middle, with broadly truncated apex. Parameres

with prominent basal knobs, the stems slightly

swollen and slightly sinuate, gradually tapered

to simple distal pomts which are abruptly bent

laterad, then ventrad and then mesad at their

apices.

Holotype @ (type no. 62365, U.S.N.M.),

allotype, + male and 20 female paratypes, San-

derson, Terrell County, Tex., August 29, 1953,

H. Brundrett (light trap).

Culicoides arboricola Root and Hoffman is

closely related but can be readily separated

from pecosensis by the presence of the pale spot

CORLISS: LIMITATIONS ON RAPID SIGNAL ANALYSIS

309

on the apex of wing vein Cul, the pale band in

cell M4 is narrower, the gray pruinose mesonotal

pattern is more prominent and the male genitalia

have the aedeagus with a rounded basal arch

and longer, very slender distal point and the

parameres are more swollen in the middle por-

tion. C. owrsairani Khalaf lacks the mesonotal

pattern, the pale wing spots are more reduced

in size and the male aedeagus has a low rounded

basal arch and slender distal point, the apico-

lateral processes of the ninth tergite of the male

are slenderer and the parameres are much stouter

and more sinuate. C. guttipennis (Coquillett)

and villosipennis Root and Hoffman are also

related but have much different male genitalia.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

LIMITATIONS ON Rapip SigNau ANALYSIS

There are determinable limits to the reso-

lution that can be achieved when a frequency

analysis of a signal is made over a brief time

interval. The limiting resolution is a func-

tion of the least power increment or decre-

ment that can be indicated by the analyzer.

The analyzer should be able to change

its indication by at least the smallest detect-

able power increment during a_ specified

time after sudden onset or removal of the

input signal. Thus the rate at which the

indication builds up or decays in the ana-

lyzer must exceed a limiting value. It is

useful to describe this rate by reference to

the response time of the analyzer, 1.e., the

time required to reach substantially steady-

state indication after an abrupt change in

signal. Because the frequency resolution of

an analyzer is directly proportional to the

response time, discrimination is sacrificed

in the interest of fast response.

The limitations discussed here can be

illustrated by reference to a three-dimen-

sional space (see Fig. 1) in which the Car-

tesian coordinates are frequency, time, and

either power or a function of power. The

particular problem dealt with here then

becomes calculation of a least volume in

this space, within which no information

about the signal can be found.

The limitations can be illustrated by the

familiar properties of a linear series-resonant

system, used as a tuned filter to indicate

how a particular component of a complex

signal fluctuates with time.

Let the observation interval, Ar, be suffi-

ciently large compared with 7), the un-

damped natural period of the filter so that

phase characteristics can be ignored. Let fo

be the undamped resonance frequency of

the filter. Denote a times the reciprocal

of the decrement-per-cycle of the system as

( the “figure of merit.”

The smallest discernible change of indi-

cated power is taken as AW. Defining a

time-attenuation constant a@ such that,

after interruption of the signal, the initial

power indication Wy must decay by AW >

f(w)

POWER

FREQUENCY

TIME

Fia. 1.—Three-dimensional space

360

W, — W; = (1 — e€ *)W, before the change

9 0 =O) =

is discerned, then e “7/47/70 < e * and

2rAr QafoAr

OS a = (1)

al 0 Qa

if the filter is to indicate the occurrence of a

change in signal during the interval Ar.

Next, consider the relative transmission

characteristic of a filter having its Q given

by Equation (1) (see Fig. 2). Over a range of

frequencies, Af = f, — fi, the change in

filter response does not exceed the smallest

detectable power change. The precise result

of solving for the discrimination limits in

terms of f, and f; is

a a?

aaa oa 1 IR ES

~ af Ar 4/ Vian 167°f% Ar?

but if @ is relatively small, 1.e. fine power

discrimination can be made, then:

3/2

NIN: SS (3)

An especially interesting expression results

from considering the least power change

observable to be limited by the noise present

with the signal. If S is the signal power and

N is the noise power, we take as a limit for

detection:

ASSN (4)

Considered as a fractional power change:

AS eal osech Was ak gee ages 2 N

SIREN: Wo S + N

When S/N > 1, a — N/S and:

—3/2

= =) (5)

and, correspondingly:

2rAr (S S

A higher Q can thus be used when there is

a good signal-to-noise ratio. Equation (5)

has a provocative resemblance to the Heis-

enberg uncertainty principle. The resem-

Afdr >

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 11 |

WwW

—a

e Wo

Fia. 2—Limits of frequency discrimination in filter

blance is real: both are derived by related

mathematics, and both are based on the

idea of a least discernible power change.

A special case of practical importance is

the detection of a sinusoidal signal in the

presence of ‘“‘white noise.”’ (Noise energy per

unit band-width in cycles/sec. is constant.)

For the filter calibrated at its peak response

by means of a sinusoidal signal of power W,,

the same indication will be obtained with a

‘white noise’ of H; units per cycle/sec.,

given by

This expression is obtained by integrating

over the filter response.

Detection of a sinusoidal signal of power

So (at the center frequency to which the

filter is tuned) in the presence of a noise

distribution of ny units per cycle/sec. proves

to require a least time interval Az» which is

independent of Q.

T Ng

Ato = 5) S (8)

Narrowing the filter does decrease the

amount of noise passed, but it lengthens the

response time by a proportionate amount.

Epitu L. R. Coruiss

National Bureau of Standards

(Received October 3, 1955)

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1S) Jigen IG ae eon Reeve eee tC eee W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwaALLEN

PIOULOOPPUANAGENS:.2 5c te -- ccs es eee tans All the above officers plus the Senior Editor

LETTE GG? DE OIRD soos, ecb DES OURS E DG Le he AEP Orne ee OE ence [See front cover]

PICECULIVE IOOMINULEE. «.. 5 ook ee ce ee eee os M. Prrrman (chairman), R. HE. Gisson,

H. Specut, H. S. Rappieye, J. R. SwALLEN

Committee on Membership....Roger W. Curtis (chairman), Joun W. ALDRICH, GEORGE

Anastos, Harotp T. Coox, JosppH J. Fanny, Francors N. FRENKIEL, PETER Kina,

Gorpon M. Kunz, Lours R. Maxwet1, Ftorence M. Mrars, Curtis W. SABROSKY,

BENJAMIN ScHwaRTz, BancRorT W. SITTERLY, WILLIE W. SmitH, Harry WEXLER

Committee on Meetings...... ARNoLpD H. Scott (chairman), Harry 8. Bernton, Harry

BortHwick, Herpert G. Dreianan, Wayne C. Haut, Ausert M. STone

MOMNETICELON MMLONOGTADNS: 6 slene ees sss ee eee G. ArtHur Cooper (chairman)

PROM aT VM O5G 2 ask cis vockete Asc) Graces G. ArtHuR Coorpsr, James I. Horrman

PRGRIMMUAT YOST. oc -c Sar woh sls cede ns Haratp A. Reaper, Witit1aAM A. DayToNn

AROVPANUBTY MODS 62. sais cc tstecwans Dean B. Cowin, JosepH P. E. Morrison

Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement. .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman)

For Biological Sciences..... Sara E. BRANHAM (chairman), JoHN S. ANDREWS,

James M. Hunptey, R. A. St. Grorce, Bernice G. ScouBpert, W. R. WEDEL

For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. Trent (chairman), JosepH M. CALDWELL,

R.S. Drut, T. J. Hickiey, T. J. Kittran, Gorpon W. McBripz, E. R. Prore

For Physical Sciences...... BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonp,

Scott E. ForsusH, Margaret D. Fostmer, M. HE. Freeman, J. K. TAYLOR

For Teaching of Science....Monroz H. Martin (chairman), Kerra C. JoHNSON,

Lovrse H. MarsHatu, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. OwENs

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francs 0. Rice (chairman),

HERMAN Branson, CuHartzs K. TRUEBLOOD

Committee on Policy and Planning...................... E. C. CrR1tteNDEN (chairman)

sLonanuanyelObG secre eee E. C. CrittenpEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE

Moranuary LOS (ha cc ne occu hea. Joun E. Grar, RayMonp J. SEEGER

To January 1958...... re dest Seeeesy Francis M. Deranporr, FRANK M. S2TzLer

Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent..Ancu1BaALD T. McPuHErson (chairman)

ROVMANU AT VMI GHG Nas nae elect ena ay toll Harrop BH. Finuey, J. H. McMrituen

om anUaryelOD Tyne eee ee L. Epwin Yocum, Wiuuram J. YOUDEN

MoV Faniary 19D Sites yes lc een. etek ae alata areata A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap

Committee on Science Hducation.... RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), RoNALD Bamrorp,

R. Percy Barnes, Watuace R. Brope, Lronarp CarmicHarL, Hueu L. Drypsn,

REGINA FLANNERY, Rawupu E. Greson, Fioyp W. Hove, Martin A. Mason,

Georcae D. Rock, Wrnram W. RuBEY, Writram H. SEBRELL, WaLpo L. Scumrrr,

D. Van Evera, Wiiuram E. WRATHER, Francis E. JOHNSTON

Representative on Council of ADAYA LE Sere NE al Rian hk SO am: Se AI Watson Davis

Committee of Auditors...FRANcts E. JoHNSTON, (chairman), S. D. Coxutns, W. C. Hxss

Committee of Tellers... Raupn P. Tivrs.ER (chairman), E. G. Hamep, J. G. THompson

CONTENTS

Page

Puysics.—A tree from the viewpoint of lightning. Francis M. Deran-

Maruematics.—An algebraic proof of the isoperimetric inequality for

polygons. Ky Fan, Otea Taussxy, and JoHN Topp............ 339

PALEONTOLOGY.—Stacheoides, a new foraminiferal genus from the Brit-

ish Upper Paleozoic. Ropert H. CUMMINGS................... 342

PAaLEONTOLOGY.—New Ordovician echinoderms. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE

ENTOMOLOGY.—Three new species of Culicoides from Texas (Dip-

tera: Heleidae). Wuituis W. WIRTH........................00-. 355

LETTERS TO THE Eprror.—Limitations on rapid signal analysis (EpDITH

Te BRI CORLISS) S. ducts « . Beetles aloe ore Seine Pee 359

Washington Scientifics Newss... s4-seieee ok ee eee eee ee 346

Vou. 45 December 1955 No. 12

JOURNAL

OF THE

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CHEMISTRY BOTANY

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PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY

ALAN STONE Davip H. DuUNKLE

ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY

PUBLISHED MONTHLY

BY THE

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vout. 45

December 1955

No. 12

GENERAL SCIENCE .—On the liberal sciences.. RAYMOND J. SEEGER, National

Science Foundation.

Wiroc0¢ia Biov xvBepvnrns, the Phi Beta

Kappa motto, is sometimes interpreted,

“Philosophy, the guide (or helmsman) of

life.” Do you believe this? Have you ever

practiced it? Do you hope to do so? We must

admit certain latent questions as to the

modern meaning of the motto.

In the first place, is philosophy to be re-

garded in this instance as the guide or as a

guide? In view of the existence of a definite

article in the Greek language and its omis-

sion in the Phi Beta Kappa motto, one

might argue in favor of the indefinite article.

As in English titles, however, articles may

be omitted for brevity. Moreover, the Eng-

lish statement probably existed prior to the

Greek translation. Regardless of these fine

grammatical points, I prefer the indefinite

article in view of my own interpretation of

the whole phrase. Let us consider what is

meant by a guide in this connection. Is a

guide a person who takes you by the hand

and leads you step by step all the way? Or

is 1t a guide rail, which controls the actual

path? Is one to understand merely a guide

post, that indicates the general direction?

I would use the word guide here in the sense

that if you choose a certain goal philosophy

will direct you along the way toward that

goal, but that philosophy itself is unable to

assist you in selecting the particular goal

that you may need for life.

What is meant by the term philosophy?

Whatever the word might have meant in

1776, when the secret, social, and literary

club called Phi Beta Kappa was _ first

founded, it undoubtedly connotes something

different today. The question is how this

1 Based upon Phi Beta Kappa Addresses given

at the University of Kentucky and at Kenyon

College.

361

motto was related to college education then

and how it may be related now.

Ordinarily we would start by reviewing

the records of the specific courses given in

1776 at the College of Wiliam and Mary

(founded in 1693 under the aegis of the

Church of England). Unfortunately one of

the fires there has left no trace. We do know,

however, that prior to the American Revo-

lution, there were three schools in the college:

a grammar school, a philosophy school

(moral, mental, and natural philosophy),

and a divinity school—in addition to an In-

dian school endowed by the amateur scien-

tist Robert Boyle. The Reverend James

Madison, later to be the first bishop of the

Protestant Episcopal Church in Virginia,

became professor of natural philosophy in

1773 and president in 1777. Cousin of James

Madison, President of the United States,

he was apparently the only professor of

philosophy at the school during the Revolu-

tion. It will be recalled that he succeeded

Dr. William Small of Scotland, of whom

Thomas Jefferson spoke so gratefully in his

autobiography as the one who had intro-

duced him in his senior year to his ‘“‘first

views of the expansion of science and the

system of things in which we are placed.”

His appointment, said Jefferson, ‘was my

great good fortune and what probably fixed

the destinies of my life.’”” Hence we see that

natural philosophy was highly significant

for the group founding Phi Beta Kappa.

Whatever change in philosophy, moreover,

has taken place since those Colonial days

has been primarily in natural philosophy—

owing largely, of course, to the rise and

growth of science. Philosophy itself has been

colored by the scientific environment. like

Aesop’s. chameleon. In this connection,

JAN 1 2 1956

362

therefore, let us view in outline form the

three great historic relationships of western

philosophy and science, all of which are ex-

tant im modern culture like the stars of the

time-integrated sky.

First, there was the age of speculative sci-

ence beginning in the sixth century, B. C.

We recall Thales of Miletos, who has been

called by some the father of philosophy and

by others the father of physics (the Greek

vow, “‘physis,” meaning nature). Philoso-

phy itself has been called ‘‘the mother of

the sciences.”” Thales sought the nature of

things (rerum natura) in material causes;

he speculated about nature—what we might

properly designate in later terminology

natural philosophy. He was, indeed, the

only one of the seven Greek sages (such as

Solon) interested in natural philosophy. In

the Raphael rooms of the Vatican Palace of

Nicholas V, the celebrated mural “School of

Athens,’’ shows at its center old Plato look-

ing heavenward and young Aristotle point-

ing earthward, but symbolic philosophy,

with First Motion (astronomy) on the ceil-

ing, 1s dressed in the colors of the four ele-

ments—suggestive of natural philosophy.

The fifth century Athens of Plato and of

his teacher Socrates, however, placed its em-

phasis upon moral and spiritual values,

rather than upon natural philosophy. It is

ironic that Socrates in particular was later

indicted for not paying attention to the

gods and for corrupting the Athenian youth.

Socrates’ crime consisted in his attempt to

make people think logically. In the ‘“‘Clouds”’

of Aristophanes, Socrates 1s supposed to

make the worse cause appear the better for

a small fee in his phronistertum (thinking

laboratory). Whereas this was made a popu-

lar joke by the comic poets in 422 B. C., it

cost Socrates his lifein 399 B. C. During this

period philosophy became associated with

knowledge of the good (summum bonum)

and the life of a philosopher with that of the

good life so that Plato identified the best of

philosophers with the king.

In the Republic (VII) Plato asks what

subjects should be taught young men pre-

paring for government service. Astronomy

is one answer! Why? Because of its use in

agriculture? Because of its use in naviga-

tion? By no means, rather because astronomy

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 12

deals with celestial matters, which are quite

different from terrestrial ones: for example,

planets were regarded as being moved by

divine beings. Such spiritual contemplation,

therefore, will assist in making a good citi-

zen. In Xenophon’s Memorabilia of Socrates

the latter is reported as saying that he saw no

practical profit in the study of astronomy.

The emphasis of Plato was on ideas beyond

material representation, or forms in material

things. A gap existed between the theoretical

(viewing) and the practical (doing). Poetry,

indeed, was regarded as being closer to the

truth than history insofar as it deals more

with the universal rather than with the par-

ticular. In the Republic, however, poetry

was admitted only through a paralyzing

censorship. Art, too, being primarily a copy

in those days was regarded as imperfect, that

is, less real. It is not surprising that the gap

was first recognized later in popular as-

tronomy where observations first became

significant.

Aristotle, however, was concerned both

with direct knowledge and with intelligible

concepts (.e., both phenomena and noum-

ena). In his ‘‘Physica”’ he sought to interpret

movements (including some factual mis-

takes) in terms of four so-called causes: ma-

terial, formal, initiating (efficient), final.

The physics of Aristotle might be regarded

today as similar to modern philosophy of

physics, namely, an attempt to integrate our

knowledge of physical phenomena. In this

sense J. Maritain is correct in claiming that

“Aristotle was the true founder of physics.”

His ‘‘Metaphysica” or ‘‘first philosophy”

was concerned primarily with form as the

intelligible aspect of a thing. All in all, both

science and philosophy in the Greek period

were essentially speculative and indistin-

guishable.

The second period of the relationship of

philosophy and science may be labeled the

age of rational science. We recall that in St.

Thomas Aquinas’ scholasticism science 1s

actually regarded as being more inclusive

than philosophy inasmuch as it involves not

only reason (natural theology) but also reve-

lation (sacred theology). Hence the picture

opposite the School of Athens (philosophy)

is appropriately the Apothesis of the Sacra-

ment (theology )—the two murals combining

DECEMBER 1955

to symbolize all the true. Even seventeenth

century scientists such as Galileo and New-

ton, regarded their scientific investigations

as part of their philosophical studies. As P.

Frank notes, however, it was I. Kant who

actually caused the unnatural divorce be-

tween philosophy and science in postulating

transcendental knowledge acquired a priorz

so that many nowadays use the term meta-

physics only for those statements that can-

not be checked by the methods of modern

science proper (cf. Critique of practical rea-

son, 1788). In this connection, one is re-

minded of Milton’s conversation between

Adam and the Archangel Raphael as to

whether the Ptolemaic or Copernican hy-

pothesis is correct. Said Raphael, ‘‘Only God

can know this and human beings should not

even ask.”’ In general the Greek gap between

the practical and the theoretical was further

extended to separate science and philosophy.

In modern times, the attitude of scholastics

is preserved in the viewpoints of neo-Thom-

ists followmg Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical

Aeterni Patris and of individuals such as A.

N. Whitehead. This scholastic distinction

between the metaphysical and the scientific,

however, is not in the spirit of the Dewey

criticism of ‘‘two spheres, not hemispheres,”

but rather in the sense of a single metaphysi-

cal sphere enclosing a scientific core. The

important problem has always been the

nature and location of the boundary of the

inner sphere.

A third age in the development of philoso-

phy and science may be called the age of

experiential science. If we consider science

to be the whole of that systematized knowl-

edge tested by logic with observations in

order to check consistently with natural

phenomena, then we may think of philoso-

phy as the integrator of that knowledge. On

this basis, then, one can speak properly of a

philosophy of physics. In modern times it

has been proposed that science itself may be

the integrator. Thus positivism claims

“physical science has no other foundation

than the measurements on which the struc-

ture is erected,’ so that modern science is

here regarded per se as a philosophy of na-

ture (cf. instrumentalism, where ideas are

regarded, not as an end in themselves, but

rather as a means for obtaining a specific

SEEGER: ON THE LIBERAL SCIENCES

363

answer to a given problem). From this view-

point an attempt at integration by any other

method may be spoken of derogatorily as

metaphysics. For example, J. Dewey insists

that ‘“‘metaphysies is a rationalization of the

aspirations of human groups.” In his Recon-

struction of philosophy (1920, 1948), he

claims ‘‘the reconstruction ...1s to carry

over into any inquiry into human and moral

subjects the kind of method by which under-

standing of physical nature has been brought.

to its present pitch.” In this sense, therefore,

we have science without metaphysics, or if

you prefer, the two spheres have merged into

a single sphere of science in contrast with the

single sphere of philosophy and science in the:

speculative age.

Having reviewed these historical relation-

ships between philosophy and science, let us

now consider the possible role of modern

science in education. Very properly we

should begin with the liberal arts, those arts

which in the Roman sense were worthy of a

free man, or which in an idealized sense

today enable a man to be intellectually free,

but strictly distinguished even now from the:

fine arts and from the practical arts. In.

medieval times liberal arts took the form

of the knowledge common to the cross.

roads, i.e., the trivium (grammar, rhetoric,

logic—or, in modern terms, reading,

writing, thinking) in the grammar schools

of the Cathedrals, and then the quadrivium

(arithmetic, geometry, music, and as-

tronomy). Beyond these studies higher

education consisted of ethics, metaphysics,

and theology. It is interesting that one sci-

ence was sufficiently highly developed to be

included in these original liberal arts,

namely, astronomy, dedicated to the muse

Urania, daughter of Mnemosyne (memory),

although this platonic astronomy is hardly

to be considered science in the present-day

usage of that term. It is noteworthy that

music also connoted essentially the arithme-

tic of Pythagorean acoustics so that the

quadrivium was fundamentally mathemat-

ics. J. J. Walsh stressed in his ‘“‘Education of

the Founding Fathers of the Republic”

(1935): “‘scholasticism constituted the prin-

cipal part of the curriculum in the culminat-

ing years of the college course... their

education was not taken up with the idea

364 JOURNAL OF THE

that it would help them through the world,

but that it would broaden and deepen their

intellectual lives and give them an interest

for ever afterward in the things of the mind”’.

“Their thorough-going conviction was that

the all-important function of the college was

to make men better and above all better

citizens.”’

Science (pure) is strictly a liberal art and is

so regarded in modern dictionaries along

with language, philosophy, and _ history.

Nevertheless, the average college person, I

believe, regards literature as being more

liberal than mathematics or science. Fre-

quently, indeed, the liberal arts today are

sharply differentiated from the sciences.

Thus in the Saturday Review for May 9,

1953, in an article on ‘Liberal Arts at Mid-

Century,’ President A. W. Griswold of Yale

University complains ‘‘the liberal arts are

in trouble... the lberal arts are in retreat

before the sciences.’? In the Handbook of

Phi Beta Kappa, moreover, one finds the

phrase, ‘‘the liberal arts and sciences.” I

wrote to the Phi Beta Kappa headquarters

in Wilhamsburg some time ago to ascertain

if a distinction is being made here between

the liberal arts and the sciences. On the con-

trary, | was assured, the addition of the word

sciences was ‘‘to make sure the inclusion of

the sciences is understood.” It is not obvious

to me that a phrase like ‘‘boys and girls”’

indicates that girls are strictly to be consid-

ered boys. We find the journal The American

Scholar (Phi Beta Kappa) having to be sup-

plemented by a journal called The American

Scientist (Sigma Xi). Moreover, in the book

edited by M. Curtis on American scholarship

in the 20th century, we note the omission of

all science. My own (limited) experience in

attempting to convince faculty teachers of

the humanities that physics can be genu-

inely regarded as a liberal art has discour-

aged me from carrying on this missionary

propaganda against wide ignorance and deep

prejudice. Apparently tradition has covered

the phrase “‘liberal arts’? with an ivory-tower

moss, and modern technology has covered

the word ‘‘science”’ with a factual haze.

Accordingly, I believe it may be preferable

to employ a phrase which is new and distine-

tive. In this connection, I should like to

suggest the term ‘‘liberal sciences’’ (used

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 12

first by Francis Bacon), which I will define

in my own way. As Humpty Dumpty said to

Alice, ‘‘When I use a word, it means just

what I choose it to mean, neither more or

less.”’ The liberal sciences in my terminology

are to be understood as being worthy of a

man intellectually free in our modern scien-

tific world. They are to be so regarded in the

spirit of Bacon, who warned against the

spider spinning webs of pure reason and of

the ant collecting facts from pure empiricism,

and who recommended the bee uncovering

treasures from modified experiences. Let us

now consider the possible role of the liberal

sciences in modern education.

Science has often been regarded as merely

common sense. Insofar as this is true, 1t must

be remembered that the common sense about

nature today is largely the residue of the

uncommon science of yesterday. The star-

tling character of science is the challenge of

what has been regarded as commonplace.

We shall note here a few instances, several

of which are cited by P. Frank in his essay

“What Teachers of General-Education

Courses in the Sciences Should Know about

Philosophy.”

In the first place, it is evident to everyone

that the sun rises in the east and sets in the

west. Hence the Ptolemaic theory of the sun

moving about the earth was long regarded

as being naturally true whereas the Coper-

nican concept of the earth moving around

the sun was difficult to imagine and was

actually rejected by Bacon as being con-

trary to common sense. Still harder to con-

ceive is the later understanding that both

bodies move around each other.

Secondly, the idea of inertia, which seems

natural to our children today, was not re-

garded as common sense by even adult

Greeks. To them everything had its place; a

force was required to change things moving

naturally to their places. Hence motion along

a trajectory was regarded as being initiated

and continued by the action of a force. Gali-

leo’s idea that a ball rolling in a horizontal

plane will continue so to move unless a force

stops it was a startling innovation. Everyday

observation indicates that such a ball will

naturally stop.

Again, most of us believe that we know

when two things happen at the same time,

DECEMBER 1955 SEEGER:

that is, when events are simultaneous. Let

us consider a thoughtful Einstein experi-

ment. Imagine a trailer with a candle exactly

at its center. A girl lights the candle. Will

the candle light reach the front end of the

trailer before it reaches the back, or vice

versa? Well, if the distances are exactly the

same and if light always travels in vacuo

with the same speed (an experimental fact),

it is obvious to the girl inside the trailer that

the candle hight will strike the two walls

simultaneously. I forgot to mention, how-

ever, that the trailer is moving. A person

standing on the road notices the girl lighting

the candle. It is equally obvious to him that

the ight will take longer to reach the front

end of the trailer than the back end because

the former is moving away from the spot

where the candle was lighted whereas the

latter is moving toward it. Here we have a

phenomenon which observers under different

conditions will regard in different ways, in

one case as simultaneous and in the other

case as not simultaneous. Relativity, which

is based partly upon the experimental fact

that light always travels at the same speed

regardless of the motion of the observer, has

many such paradoxes in the interrelatedness

of observed space and time.

Let us consider now the so-called uncer-

tainty principle. Ordinarily, we think of

something as being somewhere and as hay-

ing a definite velocity. Can we determine

precisely the position and velocity simulta-

neously? Of course, we know the limitation

of material instruments, but we are consider-

ing the question purely as one of principle.

Now if I wish to locate anything, I use some

kind of light. The more precise the location,

the shorter the wavelength of the light

needed! It turns out, however, that decreas-

ing the wavelength of light increases the

momentum of the impinging light corpuscle

and renders the precise determination of the

object’s velocity more difficult. Accordingly,

one can either determine the position pre-

cisely and the velocity approximately, or vice

versa. One cannot determine simultaneously

both the position and the velocity with ever

increasing precision. The seriousness of this

fact is that it hmits our knowledge of mate-

rial particles so that a physically causal

ON THE LIBERAL SCIENCES 365

description of mechanical phenomena is no

longer possible.

Thus we see in these few examples the

inadequacy of common sense for our under-

standing of phenomena. As R. W. Emerson

advised in 1837: ‘The scholar, followmeg the

ancient precept ‘Know Thyself’? and the

modern precept ‘Study Nature,’ must inter-

pret the distinctive new culture, for each

age must write its own books yet he must

act as well as think and write’’—what O. W.

Holmes called our intellectual Declaration

of Independence. It is quite impotrant that

students in a world of science should be made

aware of traditionally superstitious and

superficial attitudes toward their own en-

vironment. Free men nowadays must be free

from scientific prejudices and intellectual

narrowness; they must be free to appreciate

uncommon observations of the old world of

phenomena and strange concepts of the new

world of science.

In addition, it is necessary to introduce

an integrator of knowledge in any educa-

tional pattern whether this integrator be

rational metaphysics or empirical science

itself. It has been suggested by P. Frank, to

whom I am indebted for so many searching

insights, that the philosophy of science may

well be a bridge linking scientific concepts to

the general system of human concepts. He

stresses that ‘‘social environment has its

bearing upon the formulation of principles

of science.’ Thus in considering the valida-

tion of scientific theories, one must include

also the philosophical, political, and socio-

logical factors as well as the technical ones—

what has been called the sociology of science.

Finally, J. B. Conant, formerly President

of Harvard University in his Education and

liberty states: ‘‘What was called liberal edu-

cation and is now knownas general education

—education for citizenship.” In the entire

general-education movement of today, as

well as in the hberal-arts movement of yes-

terday,—not to mention the uncertainties

of the social age with its atomic power—we

have become increasingly aware of the need

for a faith to live. The Greeks unfortunately

were more interested in understanding the

world than in changing it, as some modern

educationalists are more concerned about

366 JOURNAL OF THE

static adjustment to life rather than dy-

namie adjustment of life. Plato, indeed,

recognized ‘‘the sad but inescapable fact that

while you can teach an ignorant slave the

beautiful but apparently useless science of

geometry, Pericles himself could not teach

his own sons how to live the good life.’’? As

I. Kant has reminded us, ‘‘Man is not only

an animal that knows, but one that acts and

knows.” It has been well stated, however,

by J. H. Randall and G. Buchler in their

Philosophy: An introduction that ‘‘philoso-

phy cannot cultivate a faith, only experience

can do that... It can clarify the faith that

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 12

is already in him.” By the term faith, of

course, I do not mean belief in spite of evi-

dence, nor the will to believe in absence of

evidence, but rather expectation resulting

from evidence. It is my personal conviction

that the lberal sciences can deepen one’s

spiritual faith and thus contribute to educa-

tion for world citizenship.

The liberal sciences are important in edu-

cation not only because of their contribution

to the inadequacy of common sense, not only

because they make possible a bridge to the

humanities, but most of all because they

exhibit a faithfulness of nature.

PALEONTOLOGY .—The pelecypod family Corbiculidae in the Mesozoic of Europe

and the Near Hast. Raymonp Casey,! Geological Survey of Great Britain.

(Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.)

(Received October 14, 1955)

The family Corbiculidae, formerly called

Cyrenidae, is an important element of the

recent pelecypod fauna, its members being

widely distributed in the rivers and estuar-

ies of the world. Its fossil representatives

are well known in the Tertiary and Upper

Cretaceous, but when we recede to earlier

Mesozoic time the record of the family be-

comes obscure. Although the literature on

the fresh-water and brackish-water deposits

of the Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic con-

tains many references to Cyrena (= Corbi-

cula), most of these on subsequent investiga-

tion have proved to relate to genera outside

the scope of the Corbiculidae. Nevertheless,

in the Far East true Corbiculidae, differing

but little from Tertiary and Recent members

of the family, were in existence already in the

Lower Jurassic (Suzuki and Oyama, 19438).

If these Lower Jurassic Corbiculidae are

regarded as the ancestors of subsequent

members of the family there arises the prob-

lem that has always faced the evolutionist

when dealing with fresh- or brackish-water

organisms, namely, that of explaining the

‘Published by permission of the Director,

Geological Survey of Great Britain.

perpetuation and migration of genera denied

the relative freedom of movement of marine

stocks. As a solution to this problem, the

possibility of the Corbiculidae being a poly-

phyletic group which was from time to time

replenished from independent marine sources

should not be lightly dismissed. The purpose

of the present paper is to draw attention to

some Corbiculidae in the Lower Cretaceous

of Europe and the Near East that show un-

mistakable evidence of derivation from a ma-

rine genus, Hocallista, of the Upper Jurassic.

Since these forms can have no connection

with earlier Corbiculid developments, they

afford strong support for the hypothesis of

polyphyletice origin of the Corbiculidae.

This paper was prepared in connection

with a study of Mesozoic Corbiculidae for

the Treatise on invertebrate paleontology, and

IT am indebted to Dr. L. R. Cox of the British

Museum (Natural History) and to Dr. F. W.

Anderson of the Geological Survey of Great.

Britain for access to specimens in their

charge.’

2 Repositories of cited specimens are indicated

by the symbols G.S.G.B. (Geological Survey of

Great Britain) and B.M. (British Museum (Nat-

ural History)).

DECEMBER 1955

SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS

Family CorBICULIDAE (correction of

Corbiculadae) Gray, 1847 (=

Cyrenidae Gray, 1840)

Genus Eocallista H. Douvillé, 1921

Type species —V enus brongniartti Roemer, Upper

Jurassic (Portland beds), Europe; by original des-

ignation (H. Douvillé, 1921: 124).

Generic characters—Of small to medium size

(rarely exceeding 30 mm in length), trigonal-ovate

or cuneiform, posterior slope evenly rounded or

flattened, a feeble umbonal ridge in the young;

umbones moderately prominent, situated sub-

central to well forward; beaks small, prosogyrous;

no definite lunule or escutcheon; surface smooth

or with subdued concentric ornament; pallial line

truncated below the posterior adductor scar but

not sinuate. Hinge of early cyrenoid type, formula:

AI (I) 3a 13b PI.

All 2a2b4bPI ’°

3a strongly prosocline; | triangular, slightly proso-

cline, the apex rounded, directed toward the beak

but removed from the cardinal margin; 3b acutely

triangular, strongly opisthocline, obscurely bifid;

2a formed by a thin, tapering, bent-up and slightly

projecting portion of the lateral A IJ, strongly

prosocline; 2b triangular, orthocline, situated di-

rectly below the beak, the apex curved forwards to

to contact 2a; 4b slender, gently curved or straight,

strongly opisthocline; anterior laterals more or less

straight; P I well removed from the cardinals,

elongate; P II formed by a thickening of the hinge

plate below the projected shell margin.

Remarks.—There has been some uncertainty as

to the systematic position of Hocallista. Most

authors have followed H. Douvillé in regarding it

as a primitive member of the Veneridae, though

Cox (1947: 142) has included it in the Arcticidae

(= Cyprinidae), from which family, via Jsocy-

prina, it may well have been derived. The lack of a

pallial sinus is against its association with the Ve-

neridae, despite a strong resemblance to the Lower

Cretaceous venerid Resatrix. It is now allocated

to the Corbiculidae because of its obvious connec-

tions with the brackish-water genus described

below as Filosina.

Subgenus Eocallista s.s.

Subgeneric characters—Hinge with the cardinal

teeth entire, except for an obscurely bifid 3b; an-

terior laterals short, no A III.

Remarks.—Eocallista s.s. first appears in the

Middle Jurassic (Bathonian) but is best known

CASEY: THE PELECYPOD FAMILY CORBICULIDAE 367

lod

from its occurrence in the Portland beds of the

Upper Jurassic. A number of Corallian and Kim-

meridgian species, such as “Cyprina” tancredifor-

mis Blake and Hudleston and “Cyprina” implicata

de Loriol, formerly referred to Kocallista, have

since been assigned to Procyprina and Isocyprina

(Casey, 1952: 136, 144). The aksence of Hocallista

from these strictly marie, ammonite-bearing

strata in Britain and its occurrence in beds (e.g.,

Sharp’s Hill beds, Upper Estuarine series, Forest

Marble, Chert bed at top of Portland Roach and

Portland Basal Shell Bed) where ammonites are

either absent or very rare suggest that the genus

may, while still marine, have preferred waters of

less than normal salinity.

Hemicorbicula, n. subg.

Type species.—Cyclas parva J. de C. Sowerby,

Upper Jurassic (Purbeck beds), Europe (= Astarte

socialis VOrbigny).

Subgeneric characters.—Small Eocallista (usually

less than 10 mm in length); hinge with tooth 1 bifid

or concave, 2a entire or feebly grooved at the base,

2b bifid, 4b grooved along the crest; anterior lat-

erals long, with development of a rudimentary A

II.

Designation of a neotype for Cyclas parva J. de C.

Sowerby.—Sowerby’s species was founded on ma-

terial from the Purbeck beds of the Vale of War-

dour, Wiltshire, submitted to him by W. H. Fitton,

whose collection, formerly in the Geological Society

of London, is now in the Geological Survey of

Great Britam. The specimen figured by Sowerby

(in Fitton, 1836: pl. xxi, fig. 7) does not appear to

have survived, but there is abundant topotype

material available from which the characters of

the species may be determined. It is proposed to

make application to the International Commission

on Zoological Nomenclature for recognition of the

specimen indicated in Figs. 4 and 5 as neotype of

Cyclas parva. This specimen is part of a small

limestone block which is composed largely of molds

of this little pelecypod. It was obtained by Fitton

from the Purbeck Beds of Ladydown, Vale of

Wardour, and is registered in the Geological Survey

of Great Britain as Geol. Soc. Coll. 2698.

Remarks.—Hemicorbicula is well represented in

the brackish-water beds of the Middle Purbeck of

southern England, especially in the Upper Building

Stones and Corbula beds, where it is often suffi-

ciently abundant to be a rock builder. Its usual

faunal associates are Neomitodon, Corbula, and

Modiolus. It has not been found either in the

368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12

marine intercalations of the Purbeck or in the — part of the ‘‘Porltandien” of the Bas Boulonnais,

purely fresh-water facies of that formation. Under northern France, where it occurs in myriads, asso-

the synonymous name Astarte socialis d’Orbigny, ciated with ostracods, just as in the Vale of War-

FE. (H.) parva has been described from the topmost dour. The internal characters of Cyclas parva have

Fries. 1-5.—Mrsozotc CorBICULIDAE

1-3, Filosina gregaria, n. gen., n. sp., Lower Cretaceous (Upper Wealden beds), southern England:

1, Side view of holotype, Wealden shales (12 feet below Perna bed), Atherfield Point, Isle of Wight

(G.8.G.B. no. 86446) & 1; 2, dorsal view of immature paratype showing ligament, Wealden Shales,

Sandown, Isle of Wight (G.S.G.B. no. Zm 1825) X 2; 3, paratype slab showing typical field occurrence,

Weald Clay, Sevenoaks, Kent (B.M. no. L 47044) x 1.

4-5, Hocallista (Hemicorbicula) parva (J. de C. Sowerby), Upper Jurassic (Middle Purbeck beds),

Ladydown, Vale of Wardour, Wiltshire: 4, Slab showing typical field occurrence. The specimen in the

bottom righthand corner, indicated by the arrow, is here designated neotype (G.S.G.B. no. Geol. Soe.

Coll. 2698) X 1; 5, outline drawing of neotype, X 2.

DECEMBER 1955

not been investigated previously and its relation-

ship to the marine genus Zocallista has therefore

passed unnoticed, as also its identity with d’Or-

bigny’s Astarte socialis. To Hemicorbicula I would

also refer Anisocardia intermedia de Loriol, another

French “Portlandien”’ species which is also found

in the English Middle Purbeck (e.g., G.S.G.B.

$6640).

Morphologically, Hemicorbicula is intermediate

between ocallista s.s. and Filosina and could

with equal propriety have been classified as a sub-

genus of the latter.

Filosina, n. gen.

Type species —F’. gregaria, n. sp., Lower Creta-

ceous (Wealden Shales and Weald Clay), southern

England.

Generic characters—Trigonal-ovate or subrec-

tangular, rounded in front, more or less truncated

behind; umbones subcentral or anterior, moder-

ately prominent; beaks small, prosogyrous; evenly

inflated or with weak posterior angulation; no

lunule or escutcheon; surface smooth or with con-

centric riblets; nymphs finely rugose; pallial line

truncated below the posterior adductor scar but

not sinuate. Hinge cyrenoid with long, subequal

laterals, faintly cross-striated; formula:

AGIgeILE saruil 3bysPeL «

All 2a 2 4b PII ’

cardinal teeth similar to those of Hemicorbicula in

the young, but in the adult less widely splayed,

with 2a and 1 separated from the laterals and with

a tendency to become entire.

Remarks—Species from the Upper Wealden

(Wealden Shales and Weald Clay) of southern

England hitherto referred to Cyrena, Cyclas or Neo-

miodon belong properly to Filosina. In these beds

F. gregaria and F.. membranacea (J. de C. Sowerby)

are the principal members of a recurrent brackish-

water assemblage in which Paraglauconia, Ostrea,

Corbula, and Nemocardium are also represented.

This assemblage dominates the topmost beds of

the Wealden and presumably foreshadows the

marine transgression of the Aptian which put an

end to Wealden conditions. In the Aptian of the

Lebanon Filosina is represented by Corbicula (Ba-

tissa?) hamlini Whitfield. Here it is associated with

a rich, predominately marine, fauna, though the

presence of both Filosina and EHomiodon in this

fauna indicates waters of decreased salinity. It is

interesting to note that Whitfield’s species was

assigned doubtfully to Hocallista by Vokes (1946:

193).

CASEY: THE PELECYPOD FAMILY CORBICULIDAE

369

Filosina differs from Corbicula and Batissa and

most other members of the Corbiculidae in its

relatively weak posterior lateral dentition; the

tooth P II is merged into the margin and P III is

absent altogether. This alone provides contrast

with such Cretaceous corbiculids as Fulpia Ste-

phenson and Dentonia Stephenson of the Ceno-

manian of North America. The genus or subgenus

Veloritina Meek, based on Cyrena durkeer Meek of

the Bear River Cretaceous of Wyoming, has a sim-

ilar hinge but is a gibbous-trigonal form with

deeply depressed lunular and ligamentary areas;

it appears to be congeneric with the species from

the Middle Jurassic of Japan (Tetori series) for

which Suzuki and Oyama have proposed the name

Mesocorbicula. A subelliptical or subcircular out-

line and deep ascending pallial sinus distinguish

Tetoria Kobayashi and Suzuki of the same horizon.

The Japanese “Wealden” forms which these last

authors have assigned to Paracorbicula and Isodo-

mella are also distinct from Filosina; the former is

obliquely ovate to subcircular and has crenulated

posterior lateral teeth and a sinuated palhal line;

the latter is distinguished chiefly by its subtrape-

zoidal shape and long, wedge-shaped cardinal

teeth. The Japanese Lower Cretaceous Cyrena

radiostriatus Yabe and Nagao, for which Matsu-

moto has introduced the subgeneric name Costocy-

rena, is incompletely known but its combination of

concentric and radial ornament claims taxonomic

separation from typical Polymesoda and the other

corbiculid genera here discussed. The genus Neo-

miodon, with which Filosina has been generally

confused, belongs to a different family and is dis-

tinguished mainly by possessing only two cardinal

teeth in each valve and duplicate posterior laterals

in the right valve.

Filosina gregaria, n. sp.

Figs. 1-3; 6 c—p

Type material—Holotype G.S.G.B. 86446,

Wealden shales (12 feet below Perna bed), Ather-

field Point, Isle of Wight; paratypes G.S.G.B.

86445, 86447, Wealden Shales, Atherfield Point,

Isle of Wight; G.S.G.B. Lm 1825, Wealden Shales,

Sandown, Isle of Wight; G.S.G.B. 86441-86448,

Weald Clay, Staplehurst, Kent; G.S.G.B. 86444,

Weald Clay, Tonbridge, Kent; G.S.G.B. FD

1760-1762, Weald Clay, Marden, Kent; G.S.G.B.

L 1892, Weald Clay, Railway Cut, South of Red-

hill Station, Surrey; B.M. 47044, Weald Clay,

Sevenoaks, Kent.

370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12)

Specific characters —Trigonal-ovate Filosina of | media, and under that name or as Cyrena media or

moderate and even inflation, up to 30 mm in Neomiodon medius it has been frequently cited in

length; umbo placed at anterior three-quarters of — the literature. Sowerby’s species, the type of Neo-

length; anterodorsal area only feebly excavated; miodon, is a Purbeck shell, smaller, relatively

anterior margin strongly convex, forming a con- elongate, and with a steep, flattened posterior

tinuous curve with the moderately convex ventral slope. Limestones composed of the compacted

margin; posterodorsal margin gently arched, valves of Filosina gregaria form pavements along.

steeply sloped to meet the low, truncated, or the foreshore at Atherfield Point and at Sandown,

feebly rounded posterior extremity. Isle of Wight, where the Wealden shales are

Dimensions of holotype—Leneth 28 mm, height washed by the sea. The species occurs similarly in

25 mm, thickness (single valve) 6 mm. myriads on various horizons in the Weald Clay of

Remarks.—For a century and a quarter this Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. Cyclas membranacea J.

species has been confused with Sowerby’s Cyclas de C. Sowerby, also referable to Filosina, is a.

Fic. 6.—Hinesrs or Hocallista s.s., Hemicorbicula, N. SUBGEN., AND Filosina, N. GEN.

A. Eocallista (Eocallista) pulchella (de Loriol), Upper Jurassic (Portland beds; chert bed at top of

Portland Roach), Portland, Dorset, southern England. L.V., G.S.G.B. no. Y 1261; R.V., G.S.G.B. no.

Y 1271; both enlarged X 4.5.

B. Eocallista (Hemicorbicula) parva (J. de C. Sowerby), Upper Jurassic (Middle Purbeck beds), be-

tween depths of 678 feet and 678 feet 4 inches in D’Arecy Exploration Company’s no. 1 Ashdown Well,

Crowborough, Sussex, southern England. L.V., G.S.G.B. no. 86428; R.V., G.S.G.B. no. 86428; both

enlarged X 5. i

C. Filosina gregaria, n. gen., n. sp. Immature paratypes. Lower Cretaceous (Upper Wealden beds;

Weald Clay), Marden, Kent, southern England. L.V., G.S.G.B. ne. FD 1760; R.V., G.S.G.B. no. FD

1761; both enlarged X 5.

D. Filosina gregaria, n. gen., n. sp. Adult paratypes. Lower Cretaceous (Upper Wealden beds),

southern England. L.V. Weald Clay, Staplehurst, Kent, G.S.G.B. no. 86441; R.V. Wealden Shales, Isle

of Wight, B.M. no. L 63055; both slightly restored from other specimens and enlarged X 1.5.

DECEMBER 1955

smaller species with strongly convex ventral mar-

gin and more distinctly truncated posterior end.

FP. hamlini (Whitfield) is easily distinguished by its

subrectangular outline and stronger inflation.

Hinge preparations have been made in a series of

specimens of this species showing growth stages of

6 mm upward. These have revealed important

ontogenetic changes in dentition. Between 6 and 12

mm length the dentition of F. gregaria differs from

that of Hemicorbicula only in the following fea-

tures: the anterior laterals are longer, there is a

well developed A III, and the tooth 2a is invariably

grooved, albeit feebly. With increase in growth, the

cardinal teeth become less widely splayed, and in

the adult the teeth 2a and 1 become distinctly

separated from the parent laterals. Different speci-

mens show varying degrees of loss of the grooves on

the cardinals; in general those of 4b and 2a are the

first to disappear; 1 and 3b usually retain some

vestige of a sulcus or concavity; 2b remains bifid

throughout ontogeny.

Nemetia, n. gen.

Type species—Platopis triangularis Whitfield,

Lower Cretaceous (Aptian), Syria.

Generic characters—Subtrigonal, moderately

inflated- shells, without lunule or escutcheon;

umbones fairly prominent, beaks small and pro-

sogyrous; a sharp angulation of the shell demar-

cates a flattened posterior area; surface smooth or

concentrically ornamented; hinge similar to that of

immature Filosina but with entire cardinals.

Remarks——The discovery by Vokes that his

designation of P. plicata Whitfield as the type

species of Platopis was invalid (Vokes 1952) leaves

the taxon centered around P. plicata and P.

triangularis in need of a name. The name Nemetia

is here proposed for this taxon, to which is referred

Platopis triangularis Whitfield, P. plicata Whit-

field, P. whitfieldi Vokes, and EKocallista betha

Vokes, all from the Aptian of the Lebanon. The

close relationship of Nemetia and Kocallista has

been recognised by Vokes (1946, 1952). The prin-

cipal features distinguishing Nemetia from Hocal-

lista are the more trigonal outline and strong

posterior angulation of the valves in the former

genus; it also possesses longer anterior laterals and

a distinet A IIT, and the tooth | is implanted in the

centre of the hinge with its apex close to the cardi-

nal margin. Externally, there is great resemblance

to the carinated forms of the genus Pronoella

(Arcticidae).

CASEY: THE PELECYPOD FAMILY CORBICULIDAE

371

THE EVOLUTION OF FILOSINA AND NEMETIA

Since the three taxa Hocallista s.s., Hemi-

corbicula, and Filosina appear on successive

geologic horizons and show progressive modi-

fications in dentition, they are considered to

form an evolutionary series. This series is

regarded as part of a lineage converging

toward the brackish-water Corbicula from

an origin in the Arcticidae, a purely marine

family. It shows a gradual elongation and

strengthening of the anterior lateral denti-

tion, while the cardinal teeth progress from

the early cyrenoid to the fully cyrenoid po-

sition and acquire the grooving characteris-

tic of the Corbiculidae. Only minor features

of dentition distinguish the end term of this

series—Filosina—from Corbicula _ itself,

whose recorded range extends from the Mid-

dle Jurassic to Recent (Suzuki and Oyama,

1943: 140). The arcticid affinities of Hocal-

lista have been acknowledged (Cox, 1947:

142; Casey, 1952: 1384) and it is significant

that a member of the Arcticidae, [socyprina,

gave rise in Lower Cretaceous times to the

venerid Resatrix—a homoeomorph of Hocal-

lista. When describing this genus Resatrix,

I pointed out how its evolution from Jsocy-

prina, via the Upper Jurassic subgenus

Venericyprina, was achieved by deepening

of the pallial sinus and by movement of the

cardinal teeth from the cyprinoid to the

cyrenoid position. In the process of transi-

tion the anterior part of the tooth 2b (2b)

was atrophied and eventually eliminated,

though its remnants are still discernible in

the early forms of Resatrix. Turning to

Eocallista, we find that already in the Middle

Jurassic it possessed an early cyrenoid hinge

with no trace of a separate structure 2by.

The pallial line remained unchanged, ex-

hibiting a posterior truncation but no defi-

nite sinus. These facts demonstrate the

independent origin of Hocallista and Resatrix,

but there are so many similarities in the

evolution of Resatrix and that of the Hocal-

lista-Filosina series that a common ancestry

of both stocks in /socyprina seems probable.

The same range of variation of external form

is found in both stocks; in each case the pos-

terior end of the shell becomes broadly

truncated in the latest known members of

the lineage (compare F’. hamlini Whitfield

sp., as figured by Vokes, 1946, pl. 8, fig. 20,

and Resatrix (Dosiniopsella) cantiana Casey,

1952, pl. 8, fig. 3). The movements of the

cardinal teeth into the fully eyrenoid position

are precisely analogous in both cases. The

hinge of the young Fvlosina (Fig. 6 C) shows

many points of similarity with that of

Barremian-Aptian species of Resatrix s.s.—

the widely splayed cardinals, grooved 4b,

partially bifid 2a, and the attachment of 2a

and 1 to the laterals (see Casey, 1952, fig.

76). The adult Filosina (Fig. 6 pd) on the

other hand, shows a stage of hinge develop-

ment attained by a Lower Albian subgenus

of Resatrix, Dosiniopsella (see Casey, 1952,

fig. 75); the angle of radiation of the cardinal

teeth is perceptibly narrowed; 2a and 1 are

severed from the laterals, and the tooth 4b

is entire. In both Filosina and Resatrix the

laterals are cross-striated, but in the former

genus these striations, like the nymphal

rugosities, have been observed only in a few

specimens of unusually good preservation,

and it is not known at what stage they were

introduced into the lineage.

In the case of the Aptian genus Nemetia

evidence of derivation is less satisfactory

owing to lack of record during Purbeck and

Wealden times. Its similarity in hinge char-

acters to both Hocallista and Filosina sug-

gests that it formed part of the same evolu-

tionary plexus.

The importance of the areticid genus [so-

cyprina, which is represented in the marine

faunas from the Upper Triassic to Lower

Cretaceous, has been the subject of previous

comment (Casey, 1952: 134). It appears to

have played the role of a slowly evolving

parent stock from which diverged successive

offshoots with more advanced hinge struc-

tures. Hocallista and Resatrix are believed to

be two such offshoots which pursued a more

or less parallel course. The former, first

recognized in the Middle Jurassic, was

adaptable to waters of decreased salinity and

in the Lower Cretaceous, now modified to

Filosina, successtully colonized the brackish-

water swamps of the Upper Wealden and

left its record in the quasi-marine Aptian

deposits of Syria. Nemetia is conceived of as

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 45, No. 12

a divergence from fF losina; it probably

lived under rather more saline conditions

than did the Wealden species of Filosina,

approximating to those favored by Kocal-

lista s.S., as 1s suggested by the preponder-

ance of marine genera among its faunal

associates. Resatrix appears at the base of

the Cretaceous; it is the earliest known rep-

resentative of the Veneridae and is strictly

marine.

The subsequent history of Fzloszma and

Nemetia and their relationship to later

members of the Corbiculidae is not known.

But if the views here expressed on their

phylogeny are correct, two facts of great

importance in the study of pelecypod evo-

lution are indicated—(1) a correlation be-

tween hinge structures and ecologic station

and (2) the polyphyletic origin of the family

Corbiculidae. Thus, despite the fact that the

order of appearance of the two families is

the reverse of that formerly supposed, the

generalization that the Corbiculidae was

“derived, in different degrees of removal,

from the exclusively marine Veneridae”’

(Cooke, 1895: 15) may not be wholly incor-

rect. It is probable that venerid genera like

Resatrix, Calva and Dosiniopsis represent a

morphologic type which throughout Creta-

ceous and Tertiary times was a potential

source of Corbiculidae.

REFERENCES

Casgy, R. Some genera and subgenera, mainly

new, of Mesozoic heterodont lamellibranchs.

Proc. Malac. Soc. London 29: 121-176. 1952.

Cooke, A. H., in Cooke, Shipley, A. E., and Reid,

F.R.C. The Cambridge natural history. Mol-

luscs and brachiopods. London. 1895.

Cox, L. R. The lamellibranch family Cyprinidae

in the Lower Oolites of England. Proc. Malac.

Soc. London 27: 141-184. 1947.

Douvittb, H. La charniere dans les lamelli-

branches hétérodontes et son é€volution. Bull.

Soe. Géol. France (4) 21: 116-124. 1921.

Suzuki, K., and Oyama, K. Uberblick tiber die

Corbiculiden Ostasiens. Venus 12: 138-149.

1943.

Vokes, H. E. Contributions to the paleontology of

the Lebanon Mountains, Republic of Lebanon.

Pt. 3. The pelecypod fauna of the ‘“‘Olive Local-

ity” (Aptian) at Abeth. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.

Hist. 87 (3). 1946.

DECEMBER 1955

VON BRAND: ANAEROBIOSIS IN AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS

373

PHYSIOLOGY —A naerobiosis in Australorbis glabratus: Temperature effects and

tissue hydration. THEODOR VON BraANpD,!: ? National Microbiological Institute ,*

National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md.

(Received November 3, 1955)

The relations between temperature and

anaerobic survival of invertebrates have

never been studied in detail. The few iso-

lated data indicate, as expected, a lengthen-

ing of survival by lowering the temperature

(for summary of these data see von Brand,

1946). Insofar as snails are concerned, only

qualitative observations are available. Al-

sterberg (1930) found that Lymnaea stagnalis

survived less than 2.5 days at 20°C, but

longer than 7 days at 8-10 and at 0°C.

In the present paper quantitative studies

of the influence of temperature on the anae-

robie tolerance are presented, using the

pulmonate snail Awstralorbis glabratus, the

most important vector of schistosomiasis in

the Western Hemisphere. Included are ob-

servations on changes in water content

during anaerobiosis and during recovery

therefrom. These latter studies were done

because recent observations on chironomid

larvae (Harnisch, 1954, a, b) had indicated

that relatively large shifts in water content

occur during anaerobiosis. It seemed there-

fore of interest to investigate the possible

occurrence of a similar phenomenon in a

representative of another phylum.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A Venezuelan strain of Australorbis gla-

bratus was used. The snails were laboratory

reared and weighed between 200 and 400

mg each.

The snails were freed of excess water as

described previously (Newton and von

Brand, 1955) and weighed to the nearest mg.

They were then placed in Warburg vessels

of about 16 ml capacity containing 2 ml

dechlorinated tap water. Anaerobiosis was

1 With the technical assistance of David P.

McCarthy.

27 am indebted to Mrs. M. O. Nolan for the

contribution of all the snails used, to Dr. J. Buck

for stimulating discussions of the topic, and to

S. W. Greenhouse for the method of calculating

and utilizing the slopes of the death curves to

reflect the death rates.

’ Laboratory of Tropical Diseases.

established by flushing the manometers for

15 to 20 minutes with 99.99 percent Linde

nitrogen further purified by passing over

heated copper. At the end of the anaerobic

period, the snails still alive were weighed

and transferred to fresh dechlorinated tap

water, the gaseous atmosphere now being air.

When the preceding anaerobic temperature

had been 35, 30, or 20°C, the snails were

allowed to recover, usually for 7 hours, at

the same temperature. Snails exposed to

anaerobiosis at 10°C were kept postanaero-

bically at 20°C, because it is sometimes diffi-

cult at 10°C to recognize whether a snail is

actually dead or only quiescent. At the

higher temperatures dead snails could be

recognized without difficulty: They were

always more or less retracted into the shell

and had freely hemorrhaged. At the end of

the recovery period, the surviving snails

were again weighed and then dried at

110°C until constant weight was reached.

The water content was calculated by sub-

tracting the dry weight from the initial,

anaerobic, and postanaerobic fresh weights.

It is evident that only the figures for the

final water content are entirely correct. The

initial water content and the water content

after anaerobiosis are both slightly too high

(the former more so than the latter), because

the metabolized organic matter has been

neglected. The error introduced is small,

however, as indicated by previous metabolic

experiments (von Brand, Baernstein, and

Mehlman, 1950); it probably does not sur-

pass 0.5 percent of the fresh weight.

RESULTS

Australorbis glabratus is a tropical snail

and as such is not exposed to very low tem-

peratures in nature. Previous respiration

experiments (von Brand, Nolan, and Mann,

1948) have shown that it will tolerate short

periods of exposure (2 hours) to 5.0° and

37.0C, while 0.3° and 41.0C were definitely

harmful. In the present series of experiments

374

TABLE 1.—INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON ANAEROBIC TOLERANCE AND ON ANAEROBIC AND

PosTANAEROBIC WATER CONTENT OF Australorbis glabratus

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12

Bercent des | Water content after

Anaer- | Postan- P t | Tnidialiwe tet

Temp. sobie, aerobic Snails A Bll pacer See ine | percent of Anaerobic | Postanaerobic s*

Dene PIAS) ais sta | fresh weight period in per- | cx period in per-

o ied BehOole cent of initial = cent of initial

aa poaod water content water content

C Hours Hours |Number |

35 > 16 a4) 7 26 67 65.2 + 2.2 117 + 1.6 6.9 102 + 1.6 0.9

35 16 uf 49 | 61 29 10 64.0 + 2.2 | 123 + 3.7 Veli 113 + 3.2 12

30. | «16 7 52) | 4 8 88 62.840.5 | 115+ 1.5 10.0 100 + 1.7 0.0

30 len: u lien OD ame bee 29) 13 | 5S 60.8 + 0.6 | 121 + 2.2 | 9.6 103 + 1.8 0.9

30 | 40 rh 42 88 10 2 — = = = =

20 48 | df 42 5 5 90 64.6 + 0.2 116 + 1.2 LARD 98 + 1.1 1.8

20 | 64 | 7 42 19 12 69 63.6 + 0.6 18+1.8 | 5.5 102 + 1.4 1.4

20 | 88 7 42 64 2 34 63.3 + 1.2 118+ 3.4 | 1.6 104 + 2.6 0.6

10 72 (hte 42 5 5 90 66.8 + 0.2 103 + 1.3 tho 93 + 1.1 5.4

10 (| 120 ee 42 48 26 26 64.0 + 1.0 106 + 3.1 0.6 101 + 2.8 0.1

10 144 | Ue 42 59 29 12 63.2 + 1.6 108 + 6.4 0.2 97 + 4.8 0.1

ater Mi — M2 E

* Significance: VEE . If the resulting figure is greater than 2, the water increase is significant.

1 2

** Temperature of postanaerobic period: 20°C.

it was necessary to keep snails for much

longer periods at various temperatures. To

establish a base line for the anaerobic experi-

ments, series of snails were exposed aerobi-

cally for 16 hours to 35°C and 144 hours to

10°C. None of the former died (35 speci-

mens), while 3 out of 42 kept at 10°C suc-

cumbed. It is probable that within these

temperature limits the anaerobic resistance

could be tested without danger that “‘heat

death” or ‘‘cold death” proper might ob-

secure the results, although 10°C is probably

close to the lower temperature limit toler-

ated. This point will be discussed below.

Table 1 shows that under all conditions

investigated snails died during the actual

anaerobic period and that a variable addi-

tional percentage was so damaged by lack of

oxygen that death ensued during the subse-

quent aerobic “‘recovery”’ period. To assess

the harmful effects of anoxia both death

percentages were added and all further dis-

cussion is based on this total death figure.

Fig. 1 indicates that after an initial lag

period the anaerobic deaths at each tempera-

ture followed a straight line. The length of

the lag period increased with decreasing

temperature. It is entirely possible that the

straight line relationship does not hold for

the last surviving snails; that is, it is possible

that the curves may flatten out, thus leading

to the frequently encountered sigmoid

curves. This possibility, however, could not

be tested experimentally without an imprac-

ticable wastage of experimental animals. As

indicated by the ‘“‘recovery deaths,” the

exact death point of all the snails under

actual anaerobiosis cannot be determined

with sufficient precision. However, an indi-

cation that a flattening out of the curves

may occur can be seen in the location of the

last two points of the 10° curve.

The data presented in Fig. 1 allow one to

calculate the hours of anaerobiosis required

to kill 50 percent of the snails. If the 50 per-

cent death points are plotted, they scatter

closely around a straight line (Fig. 2), a

rather unexpected result. This relation

fo}

to}

fe}

PERCENT DEATHS

140

° 20 40 60

HOURS OF ANAEROBIOSIS

Fre. 1.—Death curves of Australorbis glabratus

due to lack of oxygen at various temperatures.

DECEMBER 1955 VON BRAND:

;

40 | |

30 4

}

oO |

220 e +

fiok =

= |

a |

Et | aE Als =. ! I

te) 20 40 60 80 100 120

HOURS OF ANAEROBIOSIS

Fie. 2.—Influence of temperature on the time

required to kill 50 percent of Awstralorbis glabratus

specimens exposed to lack of oxygen.

means that a given decrease in temperature

increases the time required to achieve a 50

percent kill by an equal length of time

throughout the temperature range tested.

Fig. 2 shows, for example, that each 5° de-

crease In temperature increases the time

necessary to reach the 50 percent death point

by about 20 hours. Linear relations between

temperature and velocity occur in biological

processes. Rather numerous literature quo-

tations to this effect can be found in Beleh-

radek’s monograph (1935). The present case

is no direct parallel, however. The time re-

quired to achieve 50 percent kill cannot be

considered to give a rate in the strict sense

(such as heart beat frequency would be) since

it includes both the initial lag period during

which no animal dies and also part of the

linear death curves.

The slope of the linear portions of each

death curve (Fig. 1) reflects the rate of death

at the specified temperature. Death rates,

expressed as percent death per hour, were

computed from these lines by a graphical

procedure and yielded-the figures summar-

ized in Table 2. Upon plotting these figures

according to Arrhenius’ equation two lines

TaBLE 2.—ANAEROBIC DEATH RatE oF AUSTRAL-

ORBIS GLABRATUS IN PERCENT DEATHS

PER Hour

Temperature | Death rate

10 IL PA

20 1235

30 3.58

35 6.71

ANAEROBIOSIS IN

AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS BYES)

result (Fig. 3), but the slopes of these lines

can be considered as only approximate be-

cause of the few points available. It is,

nevertheless, obvious that the temperature

characteristics of asphyxiation death are

quite different at low and higher tempera-

tures. The temperature relationships of the

aerobic respiration of Awstralorbis, on the

contrary, gives only one straight line over an

even greater range of temperatures (von

Brand, Nolan, and Mann, 1948), with a u

value of approximately 17,400. Intersecting

lines upon application of Arrhenius’ equation

are of course quite common (Crozier, 1924),

but in most cases, the u values are higher in

the lower temperature range.

(}CX@), —

0.80 F at

060 - ss)

ans Ne

a nN

= OG® |= tal]

560.20 al

[= 1,800

Jt 000 | ! |

32.0 330 340 350

! 4

=xIl0

Fig. 3.—Anaerobiec death rates of Australorbis

glabratus expressed according to Arrhenius’ equa-

tion.

The water content of anaerobically main-

tained snails (Table 1) increased rather

markedly when the snails were subjected to

anoxia at 35, 30, or 20°C. In all series where

more than about 10 snails survived, the

difference between initial water content and

that found at the end of the anaerobic period

was statistically significant. In most cases

the surviving snails returned during the re-

covery period quite closely to their initial

water content; that is, the surplus water was

largely eliminated. The figures given are of

course only of significance insofar as the

state of hydration of the tissues 1s concerned ;

they are not indicative of the total amount

of water exchange. The latter presumably

would be greater as indicated by the fact

that a portion of the anaerobic end products

is actually excreted during the anaerobic

period and also during a subsequent recoy-

376

ery period (von Brand, McMahon, and

Nolan, 1955).

While the data of Table 1 definitely prove

a significant anaerobic hydration of the

tissues at the higher temperatures, the

anaerobic water increase at 10°C was very

small and not statistically significant in any

case. Enough snails survived at 10°C in at

least two series out of the three done that a

significant water increase would undoubtedly

have been detected. It appears then that

temperature has a definite influence on the

anaerobic water regulation of the snail.

DISCUSSION

The ultimate mechanism of death by as-

phyxiation is not known. Lack of oxygen

induces in any aerobic organism a chain of

events, various links of which could be in

themselves harmful. In anaerobically kept

specimens of Australorbis specifically the

following facts have been established (aside,

of course, from a cessation of the oxidative

processes connected with the aerobic oxygen

consumption): A somewhat higher rate of

carbohydrate consumption than observed

in. aerobic controls (von Brand, Baernstein,

and Mehlman, 1950), excretion of carbon

dioxide, the rate depending to some extent

on the available polysaccharide stores (New-

ton and von Brand, 1955), excretion and

accumulation in the tissues of small amounts

of lactic acid and larger amounts of acetic

and propionic acids (Mehlman and von

Brand, 1951; von Brand, McMahon, and

Nolan, 1955) and hydration of the tissues at

temperatures above 10°C (present study).

The present investigation suggests that

asphyxiation death may not always be due

to one mechanism alone. If the concept of

the ‘‘master reaction’ is correct, the rela-

tions between anaerobic death and tempera-

ture discussed in the preceding section indi-

cate that one ‘‘master reaction” 1s operative

at 10°C and another above 20°C. It should

be kept in mind that Australorbis is a tropi-

cal snail and that apparently 10°C is close

to the lower temperature limit tolerated. It

seems possible that cold itself puts a con-

siderable stress on the organism which aggra-

vates the stress due to lack of oxygen. A

change in physiological response to anaero-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12

biosis 1s indicated by the observations re-

ported above in hydration differences at

various temperatures. It would then seem

possible that two competing mechanisms are

involved in bringing about the relatively

rapid death at 10°C: On the one hand, the

lowering of the temperature to this level will

undoubtedly lower the anaerobic metabolic

rate and thus tend to prolong life endan-

gered by whatever phase of anaerobic

metabolism is involved in ° asphyxiation

death. On the other hand, the presumed

“cold stress” would tend to shorten life.

What mechanism may be involved here is

not known. Actually, we are confronted by

the riddle why some cold-blooded animals

are confined to tropical and others to arctic

environments. While some metabolic adap-

tations have been described (Scholander,

Flagg, Walters, and Irving, 1953), it does

not seem likely that they explain tempera-

ture segregation fully. It seems more prob-

able that other factors, perhaps of a physico-

chemical nature, are of greater importance.

Coming back to the immediate problem,

we see that the concept of a relative agera-

vation instead of an alleviation of anaerobic

stress by low temperature ina tropical animal

finds some support in the admittedly sketchy

information available concerning the anae-

robic temperature relationships of a cold-

water snail, Lymnaea stagnalis. At 30°C

100 percent survived 6 hours, but only 9

percent 16 hours (von Brand, Baernstein,

and Mehlman, 1950). At 20°C, the snails

were dead before 60 hours had passed, while

at 8-10, and at 0°C, they were still alive after

168 hours (Alsterberg, 1930). In other words,

at 30 and 20°C the cold water snail was less

resistant to lack of oxygen than the warm

water snail, while the reverse held true at

lower temperatures.

‘The point was not checked experimentally be-

cause of technical difficulties. The most easily

determined anaerobic process, carbon dioxide pro-

duction, cannot be determined accurately in

snails, especially not at various temperatures, be-

cause of the presence of the caleareous shell. The

lactic acid production, another excellent yard-

stick in many cases, is not a practical approach in

Australorbis because lactic acid is only a minor

anaerobic end product. The polysaccharide con-

sumption also does not lend itself to accurate

determinations (unless very long series are done)

because of marked fluctuations in the initial level.

DECEMBER 1955 VON BRAND: ANAEROBIOSIS

SUMMARY

1. Anaerobic death curves were established

at 35, 30, 20, and 10°C. At all temperatures

there is an initial lag period, after which

the death rate follows a straight line.

2. Upon application of Arrhenius’ equa-

tion two lines result. The temperature in-

fluence is characterized by a very low u

value at 10°C, the lowest temperature

tested, and a much higher one in the higher

temperature range (20 to 35°C).

3. Between 35 and 20°C anaerobiosis in-

duces a rather marked hydration of the tis-

sues, while at 10°C only an insignificant

increase occurs. The surplus water is rapidly

excreted during a postanaerobic_ recovery

period.

4. The idea is expressed that the relatively

rapid anaerobic death at 10°C is due to an

additive effect of anaerobic and cold stress.

REFERENCES

ALSTERBERG, G. Waichtige Zuece in der Biologie

der Swesswassergastropoden. Lund, 1930.

BELEHRADEK, J. J'emperature and living matter.

Protoplasma Monographien no. 8. Berlin,

1935.

von Branp, T. Anaerobiosis in invertebrates.

Biodynamica Monographs No. 4. Normandy,

Mo., 1946.

IN AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS BY Ml

von Branp, T., BAmRNsTEIN, H. D., and Mrut-

MAN, B. Studies on the anaerobic metabolism

and the aerobic carbohydrate consumption of

some fresh water snails. Biol. Bull. 98: 266.

1950.

VON BraAnp, T., Notan, M. O., and Mann, E. R.

Observations on the respiration of Australorbis

glabratus and some other aquatic snails. Biol.

Bull. 95: 199. 1948.

vON Branp, T., McMaunon, P., and Nouan, M. O.

Observations on the postanaerobic metabolism of

some fresh-water snails. Physiol. Zool. 28: 35.

1955.

Crozier, W. J. On biological oxidations as func-

tion of temperature. Journ. Gen. Physiol. 7:

189. 1924.

Harniscu, O. Die physiologische Bedeutung der

praeanalen Tubuli der Larve von Chironomus

thummi. Zool. Anz. 153: 204. 1954a.

Der Trockensubstanz-(Wasser)-Gehalt von

Chironomidenlarven und seine oekologische

Bedeutung. Zool. Jahrb. (Abt. Allg. Zool. und

Physiol.) 65: 171. 1954b.

MeuiumMan, B.,and von Brann, T. Further studies

on the anaerobic metabolism of some fresh water

snails. Biol. Bull. 100: 199. 1951.

Newton, W.L., and von Brann, T. Comparative

physiological studies on two geographical

strains of Australorbis globratus. Exp. Para-

sitol. 4: 244, 1955.

ScHOLANDER, P. F., Fuace, W., Watters, V., and

Irvine, I. Climatic adaptation in arctic and

tropical poikilotherms. Physiol. Zool. 26: 67.

1953.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1365TH MEETING, OCTOBER 10, 1952

C. R. SmncLetTerry, of the Naval Research

Laboratory, spoke on Particle size from fluorescence

depolarization. The general understanding of col-

loid science has been hampered by too-ready

extrapolation phenomena. Well-recognized ad-

vances have been made recently in the study of

organic high polymers and proteins, but under-

standing of the soap colloids has proved more diffi-

cult because of the weakness of the forces of asso-

ciation. Spurred by the necessity for investigation

of the emulsifying action of soaps in connection

with the synthetic rubber program of World War

II, McBain, Debye, and Harkins each contributed

important techniques to the study of soaps and the

structure of the “micelles” they form. These are

groups of molecules with hydrocarbon ends as far

reznoved from the water molecules as possible

while their polar ends are in intimate contact with

the water.

Oil-soluble soaps like petroleum naphthenates

and sulfonates, when added to engine oil in small

amounts prevent rusting of parts and reduce wear.

Fundamental research at the Naval Research

Laboratory has mcluded work on oleic acid deriva-

tives of known structure. Water, even in extremely

small quantities, has a very large effect on the

viscosity and other properties of these materials.

Harkins and Corrin noted a change in color of a

dye when micelles are formed. Further investiga-

tion at the Naval Research Laboratory showed

that Rhodamine B becomes fluorescent when ad-

sorbed on soap micelles. When polarized light is

used, the fluorescent light is found to be only 20 to

30 per cent polarized and the size of the micelles

may be determined from the depolarization of the

fluorescence. This depolarization results from

Brownian rotation of the dye-containing micelle

during the interval (2-4 x 107° see) between light

absorption and fluorescence emission. Micelles

having a molecular weight of about 20,000 have

been studied. (Secretary’s abstract.)

1366TH MEETING, OCTOBER 24, 1955

EK. Brigur Wixtson, professor of chemistry at

Harvard University, spoke on Some famous scien-

tific blunders. His aim was not to pillory indi-

viduals, who were famous scientists in many cases,

but rather to pomt out how we might profit by

their mistakes. No names were mentioned by the

speaker. There are no scientific laws telling how to

make discoveries, but there are criteria for knowing

when there has been self-deception.

Six illustrative cases of blunders were described

in some detail, all of them in the period from about

1900 to 1935. The treatment of the common cold

by the inhalation of small amounts of chlorine was

never tested by any control experiments. N-rays,

supposedly discovered in France about 1900, were

the subject of a great many scientific papers. They

were detected visually by the dimming of the

fluorescence of a screen. Absorption, refraction,

diffraction, and similar effects were reported in

spite of the fact that the N-rays finally turned out

to be non-existent. The phenomena were asso-

ciated with defects of vision under low illumina-

tions. Another erroneous theory ascribed certain

chemical reactions to the absorption of the infrared

blackbody radiation and led to dozens of papers

before it succumbed to a few critical experiments

and calculations. The bacterial origin of yellow

fever and “mitogenetic rays,’’ supposedly emitted

by all growing cells, were other celebrated blun-

ders—the latter leading to over 700 published

papers.

The sixth case considered was the magneto-

optical method of chemical analysis supposedly

based on the time lag of the Faraday effect. Ap-

parently this was based on somewhat the same

optical illusion as the N-ray studies.

All these episodes seem to have a common pat-

tern. A supposed discovery is quickly announced,

“confirmed” by others, and followed by a great

rush to get into the field to exploit it. Next the

theoretical scientists demonstrate that it could

have been predicted. Later some observers hesi-

tantly report negative results and doubt develops

usually with disputation. The effect itself is not

usually killed with a single blow but gradually

fades away.

Several serious lessons should be learned from

these occurrences. Scientists should recognize the

fact that they find it very difficult to be really

objective about something of their own creation.

Control experiments should always be set up, con-

trols and subjects should be carefully matched,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 12

and the experiments should be randomized under

conditions of real ‘“blindfoldedness.” Statistical

design should be planned and no observations or

facts discarded. Finally, theories should be re-

quired to be quantitative. (Secretary’s abstract.)

1367TH MEETING, NOVEMBER 7, 1952

Wayne W. Scanton, ot the Naval Ordnance

Laboratory spoke, on Semiconductors. These sub-

stances, intermediate in electrical conductivity

between the metals and imsulators, are nowadays

defined in terms of an energy band structure

differmg from those of metals and insulators. Typi-

cal semiconductors are the elements selenium,

germanium, silicon, and tellurium, as well as lead

sulfides, copper oxide, and many other sulfides,

oxides, and selenides.

The earliest extensive use of semiconductors was

in point-contact “‘cat’s whisker” detectors for radio

receivers. These were displaced by the vacuum

tube but came back into some use in World War

II, for radar, because their upper limit of frequency

(30,000 megacycles) was much higher than that of

the vacuum tube. They have been used as recti-

fiers, photocells, transistors, and for many other

purposes in recent years.

Semiconductors are of three types known as

intrinsic, n-type, and p-type. In an intrinsic semi-

conductor there are vacant energy bands close

enough to the filled bands to permit conduction by

electrons with normal thermal energy. In the other

types there are impurity atoms with bands close to

the filled bands. In n-type semiconductors conduc-

tion is by the motion of electrons from the filled

bands with energies corresponding to the impurity

band, while in the p-type it is simpler mathemat-

ically and physically to consider the motion of the

“hole” from which the electron originated.

Mr. Scanlon presented a series of demonstrations

of phenomena associated with semiconductors.

These included the Hall effect, rectification, pho-

toconductivity, photovoltaic effect, high thermo-

electric power of a germanium-copper junction,

transistor amplifier, transistor oscillator, and elec-

troluminescence. In the last phenomenon fluores-

cent radiation is produced directly by an alter-

nating current field. (Secretary’s abstract.)

1368TH MEETING, NOVEMBER 21, 1952

J.C. Suater, of the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, spoke on The nature of the chemical

bond. The dividing line between history and devel-

opment on the nature of the chemical bond dates

DECEMBER 1955

back to the papers on wave mechanics by Schré-

dinger m 1926. These ideas, however, were not

completely new, for Hamilton a hundred years

earlier had thought along similar lines in his devel-

opment of the optics of inhomogeneous media, and

the spectra of atoms had long suggested the exis-

tence of definite energy levels. Astronomers had

trouble also with the three-body problem, and

classical mechanics even from the beginning had

regarded the exact solution of the many body

problem as impossible. Indeed this problem is the

most difficult problem which the mathematicians

have ever been called upon to solve.

With the appearance of Schrédinger’s equations

it became possible for the first time to solve some

of the simpler problems. Heitler and London deter-

mined the approximate form for the curve de-

scribing the internuclear distance for the hydrogen

molecule and predicted the existence of ortho and

para hydrogen. This paper had a far reaching

effect on molecular physics, and many authors

tried to extend these ideas to other molecules but

found the calculations too complex because of the

lack of orthogonality between the various wave

functions. Because of these complexities a new

method suggested by Hund and Mulhkan and

known as the “Method of Molecular Orbitals” has

gradually superseded that of Heitler and London.

This method also uses Schrédinger’s general ideas

but in addition permits each particle to precess

about the direction of the magnetic field. The

“\Method of Molecular Orbitals” is more exact and

the calculations much simpler. The hydrogen

molecule has now been solved in detail by this

method. Many workers in England are extending

these calculations to other diatomic molecules and

to ammonia and benzene. In this country Hertz-

feld, Mayer, Crawford, and Mullikan are domg

similar calculations. Slater and his students are

carrying out the calculations for water.

One of the chief difficulties with this problem is

that of convincing the chemists that the problem

is really as complex as it is. If Schroédinger’s

methods are applied with sufficient rigor and

approximations and other empirical relations are

avoided, there is every indication that Schro-

dinger’s methods will yield correct results.

MicHarL GoupperG, of the Navy Department,

presented an informal communication on a class of

geometrical figures that he designated as rotors.

These are three-dimensional bodies which have

the property that they are everywhere of constant

width and can be rotated inside a cube, tetra-

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

379

hedron, and octahedron. This communication was

an extension of Mr. Goldberg’s earlier ideas pre-

sented before this Society in which he showed some

of the simpler rotors. The rotor described in this

communication was designated as “the most uni-

versal lop-sided rotor we know of” and differed

only slightly from a sphere. (Secretary’s abstract.)

1369TH MEETING, DECEMBER 5, 1952

At the close of the business session of the Annual

Meeting, Ronaup $8. Rivurn, of the Naval Re-

search Laboratory, gave a talk on Some recent

developments in continuum mechanics. Classical

elasticity theory is built on the assumption that

the deformations to which elastic bodies are sub-

jected are sufficiently small. The classical hydro-

dynamics of viscous fluids likewise is built on the

assumption that the velocity gradients are small.

In both cases linear theories result from these

assumptions. The nonlinear theories resulting

when these assumptions are not made predict

results different from those of the classical theories.

Mr. Rivlin discussed the experimental verification

of a number of these results. These experiments in

a number of instances, dealt with the deformation

of rubber, in which appreciable strains are readily

obtained. (Secretary’s abstract.)

1370TH MEETING, DECEMBER 19, 1952

Watuace R. Brops, of the National Bureau of

Standards, spoke on Color and chemical constitution,

demonstrating with the use of an American Optical

Co. scanning spectrophotometer. Calibration and

operation of the equipment were explained.

The principal chromophores, or color-producing

groupings, in organic substances are the conjugated

CC, CO, NN, and NO pairs. Of these, the NN azo

group is the most important in dyes. The order of

color deepening, ordered in the sense of increasing

chemical complexity and decreasing stability, is:

white, yellow, orange, red, purple, blue, green. The

difficulty of dyeing the new synthetic fibers often

leads to the use of unstable dyes; this was demon-

strated by a piece of red orlon which turned blue

under a hot flatiron, but fortunately recovered.

This color change was explained as a reversible

transformation between the “trans” and “cis”

tautomeric forms of the dye. The corresponding

transformation in thioindigo is induced by light;

the dye turns red on exposure to red light, and

blue on exposure to blue. The normal color is due

to an equilibrium mixture of the two forms.

380

The different physical dimensions of the tauto-

meric forms of a dye make it a useful research tool.

For example, some dyes will attach themselves to

cotton when in the cis form, but not when in the

trans form. This leads to conclusions about the

molecular structure and dimensions of cotton cel-

lulose.

The lecture ended on a light note with a colori-

metric analysis of the components of a ham sand-

wich placed in the scanning spectrophotometer.

(Secretary’s abstract.)

1371ST MEETING, JANUARY 16, 1953

Otiver G. Haywoop, Jr., of the Ar Research

and Development Command, spoke on Military

decision and the mathematical theory of games. The

fist theory of games applied only to games of pure

chance; the von Neumann theory applies to games

requiring rational action on the part of players.

The concepts were introduced by a discussion of

the old French card game called “Her.” The stra-

tegic problem involved is in deciding to keep the

card dealt or to trade it in for another. A particular

strategy is to hold the card if it is better than a

seven, otherwise to trade. For any given strategies

of the player and the dealer, the player’s expect-

aney can be computed by the probability calculus.

The expectancies for all combinations of player-

dealer strategies can be displayed in a matrix, with

each row corresponding to a single player strategy

and each column to a single dealer strategy. If the

player is conservative, he chooses the strategy row

in which he suffers the least if the dealer happens

to have the best opposing strategy, that is, he

chooses the row that has the largest minimum

expectancy. This is called the minorant game. If,

on the other hand, he knows the dealer’s strategy,

he can choose the row that maximizes his expect-

ancy against that known strategy. This is the

“majorant” game.

In a game of perfect information, like tic-tac-toe

or chess, where all previous moves are known and

chance does not enter, the outcome is determined

if both players are infinitely intelligent.

The military doctrine known as the “estimate of

the situation” calls for the following:

1. Define the mission

2. Consider the situation and courses of action

(a) Considerations of weather, terrain, etc.

(b) Consideration of strategies available to

the enemy.

us.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 12

3. Analysis of possible enemy strategies.

4. Results of our own strategies in each case.

5. Decision as to the best strategy for us.

The standard military doctrine is to choose the

strategy that guarantees the least damage to us,

Le., the conservative maximin or minorant solu-

tion.

If a commander has good intelligence informa-

tion, i.e., knowledge of enemy strategy, his evalua-

tion matrix shows him which row is best, since the

column is known or assumed. Of course, in either

war or poker, the enemy may be bluffing, or he

may be trying to make us think he is bluffing.

In a single major encounter, the safe minorant

strategy is best; in a long series of minor encoun-

ters, a set of mixed strategies can be used to maxi-

mize the long run expectancy.

In the discussion that followed, it was brought

out that concealment and security can be inter-

preted as attempts to make the enemy draw up a

false evaluation matrix by omitting facts; feints

and camouflage tend to give him a false matrix

because he includes falsities. The majorant and

minorant approaches can be summarized as: Ma-

jorant—We guess what the enemy’s evaluation

matrix is, and assume his strategy. Minorant—We

use our own evaluation matrix and play safe.

(Secretary’s abstract.)

1372D MEETING, JANUARY 30, 1953

The Society was addressed by the retiring presi-

dent, A. G. McNisu, on the subject The effects of

the moon on the earth’s outer atmosphere.

The subject of tides was introduced by a review

of the familiar ocean tides. The solar and lunar

components were discussed, and the usual situa-

tion at Tahiti mentioned. At Tahiti there is a solar

tide only, occurrmg at the same time each day.

This is convenient for people that like to swim at

high tide.

The tidal force exerted by the moon is 2.4 times

as great as that of the sun. In ocean tides this ratio

is apparent, but m atmospheric tides, it is found

that the lunar component is the weaker, in the

ratio of 15 to 1. This is explained by the fact that

the tidal mode of oscillation of the atmosphere has

a natural period of approximately 12 hours, hence

is roughly in resonance with the sun’s periodic

motion. This effect increases the difficulty of an

experimental study of the lunar component of the

atmospheric tides.

It has been found that the lunar air tide has the

DECEMBER 1955

same phase, relative to local time, all over the

earth, and that this phase has a significant seasonal

variation. The lunar tide has its greatest lag at the

December solstice.

On the assumption that the lunar tide involves

adiabatic compression, a corresponding component

of average temperature is expected. A statistical

extraction of this effect from 62 years of data at

Batavia yields a periodic temperature variation of

0.007 degree Celsius. The apparent probable error

of this result is small enough to make the result sig-

nificant, and large enough to include the expected

temperature variation computed from the lunar

semidiurnal barometric pressure variation at the

same station.

The lunar tides cause systematic wind currents

with speeds of the order of 1 cm/sec; the corre-

sponding solar winds have speeds of 30 cm/sec.

Such systematic air currents at 100 kilometer alti-

tude, where there is appreciable conductivity due

to ionization, could explain diurnal variations in

the earth’s magnetic field, except that the effect is

several orders of magnitude larger than the ex-

planation. The seasonal phase shift of the lunar

tide, however, fits the corresponding behavior of

the geomagnetic field.

Radio reflection studies of the outer layer of

the ionosphere, the F2 layer, show lunar effects.

The critical frequency at noon shows minima 3 or

4 days after full moon and new moon at the De-

cember solstice; this effect is less pronounced and

has a different phase at the equinoxes, and still less

at the June solstice. These effects are like those of

the lunar tide.

The National Bureau of Standards system of

examining the virtual heights of the ionosphere

layers was described, and motion pictures of iono-

spheric behavior at Huancayo, Peru, were shown.

It was seen that during the day there comes a time

when the F2 layer gets wanderlust, and suddenly

takes off toward outer space with a speed of about

1000 em/sec. The positive and negative charges

must both be domg this, or the otherwise resulting

charge separation would halt the migration. Such a

joint motion implies crossed electric and magnetic

fields of the order of E equals 300 microvolts/me-

ter, H equals 0.3 oersted. The lunar tide air speed

of 1 cm/sec would give rise to a motional electro-

motive force of only 0.3 microvolt/meter. Thus

this so-called lunar layer behavior implies an upper

atmosphere tidal oscillation roughly 1000 times

greater than the lower altitude oscillation. This

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

381

has been explained by the presence of temperature

inversion layers acting as reflectors to keep the

major oscillation m the upper atmosphere.

A rough computation of the oscillatory energy

stored in the lunar tide yields 102° joules, or a

million times as much energy as is released by an

A-bomb. Hence it is not practical to attempt to

modify the tides experimentally. (Secretary's ab-

stract.)

1373D MEETING, FEBRUARY 13, 1953

J. SAMUEL Smart, of the Naval Ordnance Lab-

oratory, addressed the Society on the topic Ant?-

ferromagnetism. This phenomenon was predicted

in 1932 and discovered in 1938.

Langevin’s classical theory of paramagnetism

was reviewed. He assumed that each atom has a

permanent magnetic moment, uw; that an applied

field H tends to align the moments while thermal

agitation tends to destroy the alignment. Neglect-

ing interaction, this problem is readily solved by

statistical mechanics, yieldmg the magnetization

as a function of wH/kKT. The susceptibility, or ratio

of induced magnetization to applied field, is much

less than unity.

Now there are a few chemical elements for which

the susceptibility is much greater than unity,

and for which the magnetization does not vanish

with the applied field. These also saturate easily,

that is, the magnetization reaches a limiting value.

Such elements are called ferromagnetic. For these

elements the susceptibility depends on the tem-

perature, and on previous mechanical and thermal

treatment, but the saturation magnetization is

independent of these environmental conditions.

Hence the saturation magnetization has more

physical significance and is the property normally

studied.

An interesting property of ferromagnetic materi-

als is that each has a critical temperature, its Curie

temperature, above which the material is paramag-

netic. Below the Curie point there are strong

inherent alignment forces that are stimulated by

the applied field. Are these forces the interactions

that were neglected by Langevin?

In 1907, Weiss attempted to account for the

interaction by adding to the applied field a term

proportional to the magnetization; the resulting

total. field was then substituted in Langevin’s

equation for the magnetization. The resulting rela-

tion predicts spontaneous magnetization that be-

haves with temperature like the observed satura-

382

tion. Unfortunately, observed Curie temperatures

require a proportionality constant m H total of

around 10,000; Weiss could not rationalize a con-

stant greater than 4 7.

In 1929, Heisenberg suggested that quantum

mechanical exchange forces might supply the

answer. He proposed that in crystals, the effect of

exchange forces might be to align nearest neighbor

spins, to make their magnetic moments parallel.

This leads to an appropriate value of the constant

in the Weiss theory.

In 1932, Neel suggested that in some crystals,

the exchange forces might align nearest neighbors

in the antiparallel sense. In the case of a body-

centered cubic lattice, this can be visualized as two

interpenetrating simple cubic lattices, each of

which has all its spins parallel, but each sublattice

being oriented anti-parallel to the other. This

assumption treated by the Weiss procedure pre-

dicts a total magnetization of zero, composed of

equal and opposite sublattice components each of

which varies with temperature like the saturation

of a ferromagnetic. The theory also predicts a

susceptibility vs. temperature curve exhibiting a

cusp at the Curie pomt. This phenomenon was

found in manganous oxide in 1988.

Recently, neutron scattering experiments have

been made on antiferromagnetic crystals. In this

analog of the famous Bragg experiment, the mag-

netic interaction of the neutron with the lattice is

of the same order of magnitude as the nuclear force

interaction. Neutron scattering from manganous

oxide below the Curie temperature gives reflections

that do not correspond to any crystal plane, but

can be explained by planes of a structure having

twice the cell size of the crystallographer’s unit

cell. This is interpreted as a magnetic cell structure

of the manganese atoms, the oxygen atoms being

magnetically ignorable. At the Curie point, these

reflections show that there is a violent change of

cell dimensions, and a change in the thermal

expansion coefficient along one axis.

Another interesting effect is found in the be-

havior of resonance absorption. In antiferromag-

netic materials, the strength of the absorption in-

creases slowly as the temperature is reduced to the

Curie point, while the substance is paramagnetic,

but below this point, the absorption practically

vanishes. Actually, the resonance absorption is

still present, but the frequency of resonance has

suddenly increased to beyond the range of the

usual equipment. (Secretary’s abstract.)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 12

1374TH MENTING, FEBRUARY 27, 1953

The Society was addressed by Joun A. OSBoRN,

of the Office of Naval Research. Mr. Osborn

started with a brief history of government-spon-

sored research in this country and then entered

upon his main topic, the ONR program of spon-

sored research in magnetism.

A brief discussion of domain structure in ferro-

magnetic materials was given. The growth effects

in domains were exhibited by slides showing photo-

graphs taken by polarized light. The Kerr phe-

nomenon of rotation of polarization delineates the

domain structure very strikingly.

The ferromagnetic properties of small particles

were explained in terms of domain theory. Data

were presented showing the high coercive forces

that can be obtained with powdered materials,

particularly when the particle shape can be con-

trolled. Techniques for forming needle-shaped

particles are being developed under contract at

Franklin Institute and Lehigh University.

Photographs of L. R. Maxwell’s magnetic re-

search equipment at the Naval Ordnance Labora-

tory were shown, and explained with an assist from

Mr. Maxwell, who was in the audience.

Photographs and drawings of some University of

Chicago equipment, used under ONR contracts,

were shown. Some of their results on the resonance

absorption of potassium in liquid ammonia were

presented. (Secretary’s abstract.)

1375TH MEBTING, MARCH 15, 1953

The Society was addressed by Maurice M.

SHapiro, of the Naval Research Laboratory, on

the subject New unstable particles in the cosmic

radiation. By ‘new’ particles is meant those dis-

covered in the last four or five years.

The old mesons were reviewed. These are the

positive and negative mu mesons, or muons, and

the positive, negative, and neutral pi mesons, or

pions. The muons decay with a two-microsecond

half-life into positive or negative electrons, de-

pending on the muon charge, and two neutral par-

ticles, assumed to be neutrinos. When first dis-

covered, the muon was thought to be the “nuclear

glue” predicted by Yukawa in 1935, but it was

later found that the muon-nucleon interaction was

a million times too small for this.

The charged pion, with a mass just under 300

electron masses, decays in 10-8 second toa muon of

like sign, and a neutrino. This charged pion is

probably the particle predicted hy Yukawa. The

DECEMBER 1955

neutral pion, slightly lighter, decays into two

gamma rays of about 70 mev energy each, or

alternatively into one gamma ray and an electron-

positron pair. The half-life of the neutral pion is

only 107 or 10~ second; it lives hardly long

enough to exist as an entity. In fact, it requires

careful interpretation of experiments to conclude

that it exists at all.

With the large particle accelerators now in use,

the behavior of muons and pions is fairly well

known. For the sake of completeness, the neutron

should be added to the list of familiar unstable

particles. It decays into a proton, an electron, and

a neutrino, with a half-life of 12 minutes.

The new heavy mesons, V, K, tau, and zeta, are

born in violent nuclear collisions—usually when a

proton of more than ten billion electron volts

energy strikes another nucleon. These mesons are

observed only in cosmic radiation, and then not

often.

The V mesons are neutral, and consist of two

groups V°; and V°s. Since neutral particles leave no

tracks, and since the parents of the neutral V

particles are also neutral, it is difficult to obtain

quantitative information. Studies of the disinte-

gration of V mesons, including energy and mo-

menta of its two charged offspring and the energy

release of the decay, indicates that V°; decays into

a negative pion plus a positive particle which may

be a proton, but seems to be less massive. The V%

group releases more energy and decays into a

positive-negative pion pair, with a half-life of

about 3 X 101° second. Several hundred V disin-

tegrations have been observed. Best estimates of

mass are that V% is about 2200 electron masses;

V® about 800.

In contrast, the tau meson, which has been ob-

served only about ten times, is fairly well known

quantitatively, smce both it and its decay particles

are charged. Furthermore, it has three offspring,

and the triple coplanar tracks yield considerable

information. The positive and negative tau mesons

have about 975 electron masses, and decay into

three charged pions; two of the same sign as the

parent tau, one of opposite sign. These offspring

are readily identifiable from the subsequent decay

into muons.

The last group, the A particles, comprises four

charged subgroups, Chi (plus and mimus), Kappa

(plus and minus), S (plus and minus), and V (plus

and minus), although it is thought that Chi and $

are the same; the Chi’s have been observed in

emulsion tracks and the 8 mesons in cloud cham-

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

383

bers. All the KK particles have masses in the range

1000-1500.

The Chi and Kappa particles have been ob-

served in emulsions; the Chi, Kappa, and § par-

ticles decay from rest.

The Kappa meson apparently yields a muon

and two neutrinos; the two unobservable particles

are assumed to make it a three body decay, as

indicated by the lack of unique momentum of the

muon.

The Chi decays into a like-charged pion and a

neutral particle of SO0-900 electron masses. This

may be a neutral tau. The Zeta particle is a

hypothetical child of a Kappa, of about 530 elec-

tron masses, and itself decaying with only one

charged product. (Secretary’s abstract.)

1376TH MEETING, MARCH 27, 1953

The Society was addressed by Wituram R.

Duryes, of the National Cancer Institute, on the

subject Some new aspects of the cancer cell.

Mr. Duryee’s work has been with amphibian

cancer, rather than human cancer. Cancer is a

form of abnormal cell growth, a bizarre form of a

natural process, rather than a disease ike mumps

or measles. Every plant and animal has its spec-

trum of abnormalities, and almost all body tissues

are subject to cancer. The nerves and the middle

intestine are exceptions.

Growth is defined as an merease in mass, in-

volving the synthesis of new material. In cell

growth, the surface/volume ratio decreases, and

the cell must divide or die. Thus cell division must

be incorporated in the concept of growth. The size

of an organism is more dependent on the number

of cells than on the size of those cells. For example,

the red blood cells of the human and of the ele-

phant are approximately the same size.

Growth processes exhibit a spectrum with

gradual change from normaley to malignancy.

Normal growth starts with organism growth, and

shades through replacement growth (as in the

starfish, salamander, and the flatworm) to

unusual cell divisions as in callus and athlete’s

tendon. But these are all controlled growths,

within the limits of profit to the organism.

Next we find the benign neoplasms, small tu-

mors such as warts and moles, that stay “in

hand”; these blend over into malignant neo-

plasms. The malignant growths are characterized

by (1) being uncontrolled—the cells have deserted

the general economy of the body and are com-

peting with normal cells, (2) increasing virulence,

384 JOURNAL OF THE

the invasion of neighboring cells, and (3) metasta-

sis, or spreading to new locations.

After this orientation, an interesting series of

slides was shown showing the results of experi-

ments on adenocarcinoma in frogs, and a benign

papilloma on a Japanese salamander. This

interesting animal with his rare affliction was

present at the meeting, and examined by many

of the audience. (Secretary’s abstract.)

1377TH MEETING, APRIL 10, 1953

Ray Pepinsky, of the Pennsylvania State

College, addressed the Society on the topic

X-ray analysis as a tool in biochemistry.

Many of the problems of biochemistry are

associated with organic crystal structure, which

is still in a primitive state. Inorganic crystal

chemistry had its groundwork well laid by 1927,

and since then many compounds have been

studied. Organic crystal chemistry comprises

many more compounds that are more complt-

cated than inorganic substances, and fewer

crystal structures have been determined.

Inorganic crystals are usually atomic crystals

with both heavy and light atoms arranged with a

high degree of symmetry. X-ray methods readily

pick out the heavy atoms and show the structure.

Organic crystals are strongly dependent upon

molecular configurations, and the atoms of

principal interest (N, C, O), have similar X-ray

scattering power. Hence only carefully chosen

problems of organic chemistry yield to X-ray

methods. In fact, X-ray methods turn out either

to be very powerful, yielding the whole story, or

else to be practically useless. Compounds that

have been successfully studied are alkaloids,

antibiotics, and antihistamines of less than 500

molecular weight, i.e., molecules of not more

than forty atoms.

X-ray analysis has given information on

molecular weight, accurate to a few tenths of a

percent, and has been an important means of

identification; the sterols were first classified by

means of single-crystal X-ray studies.

If the arrangement of atoms in a crystal is

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 12

known, its x-ray scattering pattern is readily com-

puted by Fourier methods. The converse problem,

however, is not easy, for experimentally the

magnitude of the scattering is observable, but the

phase angle is not. Thus only simple structures

can be analyzed, i.e., those having simple special

phase relations. For example, if the crystal has a

center of symmetry, the phases are unknown

only as to algebraic sign. Again, if projection of

the crystal’s electron density onto a plane has

two-dimensional symmetry about a center, a

similar simplification occurs. If a relatively heavy

atom is in the molecule, or can be placed in it

without changing the crystal structure, it domi-

nates the phase of the scattermg and gives a base

to work on. ;

There have been some interesting successes of

x-ray technique. Sodium benzyl pencillin was

analyzed by using three planar density projec-

tions, and combining these into a three-dimen-

sional space pattern. Every bond angle and

distance determined. The structure of

strychnine was determined, by using its sulfate,

selenate, and hydrobromide as crystals with

heavy atoms for phase control.

The structure of sucrose (cane sugar) was

determined without using any a priori chemical

knowledge. Additional complexes with alkali

halides were used, without knowing where the

halides were added.

The long standing problem of the structure of

colchicine was resolved completely, and the re-

lated mitotic poisons, podophyllotoxin and

picropodophyllin, are being worked on.

An especially interesting example is furnished

by isomycomycin, whose structure was com-

pletely determined before standard chemical

methods had yielded any information. (Secretary’s

abstract.)

was

1378TH MEETING, APRIL 24, 1953

This meeting of the Society was the occasion

of the twenty-second Joseph Henry Lecture on

Mesons and nuclear forces, by Hans A. Brerun, of

Cornell University. The lecture has been pub-

lished in this JourNAL 44: 97-105. 1954.

INDEX TO VOLUME 45

An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Anthropological Society of Washington. 231.

Philosophical Society of Washington. 131, 377.

Washington Academy of Sciences. 86.

AUTHOR INDEX

Anprews, E. A. Some work of the periodical

cicada. 20.

Bayer, FrepericK M. Remarkably preserved

fossil sea-pens and their Recent counterparts

294.

BiaNncH, GERTRUDE, and Ruopes, Ipa.~ Table of

characteristic values of Mathieu’s equation

for large values of the parameter. 166.

Bowman, THomas E. The isopod genus Chiridotea

Harger, with a description of a new species

from brackish waters. 224.

Brope, WaLiace R.* Color and chemical con-

stitution. 379.

Casry, Raymonp. The pelecypod family Cor-

biculidae in the Mesozoic of Europe and the

Near East. 366.

CuHaBaNaub, Paun. Flatfishes of the genus

Symphurus from the U.S.S. Albatross Ex-

pedition to the Philippines, 1907-1910. 30.

Cuune, In-Cuo. New Korean grasses and new

names of grasses to be validated before pub-

lication of a manual of the grasses of Korea.

210.

Criark, R.B.,and Jones, Merepiray L. Twonew

Nephtys (Annelida, Polychaeta) from San

Francisco Bay. 148.

Corutss, Epirn L. R. Limitations on rapid sig-

nal analysis. 359.

Cummines, Ropert H. Stacheoides, a new fora-

miniferal genus from the British Upper Paleo-

zoic. 342.

New genera of Foraminifera from the

British Lower Carboniferous. 1.

Curtis, H. L. Development in Washington of a

subspecies of the genus Homo, sapiens scien-

tifica, the members of which no longer adorn

themselves by wearing ‘“‘tatls.’”’ 131.

DeranporF, Francis M. A tree from the view-

point of lightning. 333.

DerMEN, Hare. A 2-4-2 chimera of McIntosh

apple. 324.

Drake, Cart J., and Manponapo-CapRILEs, J.

New apterous Aradidae from Puerto Rico

(Hemiptera). 289.

DrReEcHSLER, CHARLES. A small Conidiobolus

with globose and with elongated secondary

cinidia. 114.

A southern Basidiobolus forming many

sporangia from globose and from elongated

adhesive conidia. 49.

DuryYee, Wrii1am R.* Some new aspects of the

eancer cell. 383.

Exvuiotr, Francis E., Myrmrs, Wriuram H., and

TressLeR, Wiis L. A comparison of the

environmental characteristics of some shelf

areas of eastern United States. 248.

Bricksen, J. L. A consequence of inequalities

proposed by Baker and Ericksen. 268.

Note concerning the number of direc-

tions which, in a given motion, suffer no in-

stantaneous rotation. 65.

Fan, Ky, Taussky, Ouea, and Topp, JoHn. An

algebraic proof of the isoperimetric inequality

for polygons. 339.

Faust, Gkorce T. Thermal analysis and X-ray

studies of griffithite. 66.

Ferun, H.J. See Karasrnos, J. V. 103.

Fitcu, Joun BE. Pontinus clemensi, a new scor-

paenoid fish from the tropical eastern Pacific.

61.

Fraser, 1anM. See Hapexost, RopertC. 101.

GREENSPAN, Martin. The electrometer at high

frequencies. 229.

Hasexkost, Ropert C., Fraser, [an M., and

HaustEap, Bruck W. Observations on toxic

marine algae. 101.

Hau, E. Raymonp. A new subspecies of wood

rat from Nayarit, Mexico, with new name-

combinations for the Neotoma mexicana

group. 328.

HaxtstTeap, Bruce W. See Hasexkost, Roper C.

101.

Hanpiey, Cuaries O., Jr. A new Pleistocene

bat (Corynorhinus) from Mexico. 48.

New bats of the genus Corynorhinus. 147.

Haywoop, Ottver G., Jr.* Military decision

and the mathematical theory of games. 380.

Henrict, Perer. Application of two methods

of numerical analysis to the computation of

the reflected radiation of a point source. 38.

Hess, W. C., and SuHarrran, I. P. The influence

of intramuscular and oral cortisone and

hydrocortisone on liver glycogen formation

by DL alanine. 134.

HorrMetIstER, Donaup F. Descriptions of pocket

gophers (Thomomys bottae) from northeastern

Arizona. 126.

Iuue, Paut L. A new species of Pararchinoto-

delphys (Copepoda: Cyclopoida) with re-

marks on its systematic position. 216.

James, Maurice T. See Newuoussn, VERNE F. 15.

385

386

Jones, Merepita L. See Cruark, R. B. 1438.

KaraBinos,J.V.,andFrrun,H.J. Bactericidal

activity of ozonized olefins. 103.

Knigut, Kennetu L. See Stoner, ALAN. 282.

Lanzcos, C. Spectroscopic eigenvalue analysis.

315.

Larsen, Esraer Loursp. Pehr Kalm’s mete-

orological observations in North America.

269.

Lisspy, W. F. Tritium in nature. 301.

LorpeEe.io, Luiz Gonzaca E. A new nematode,

Rotylenchus melancholicus, n. sp., found asso-

ciated with grass roots, and its sexual di-

morphism. 81.

ManpoNapo-CaPRILEs, J.

289.

McKenna, Matcoum C. A new species of myla-

gaulid from the Chalk Cliffs local fauna,

Montana. 107.

MecNtsu, A. G.* The effects of the moon on the

earth’s outer atmosphere. 380.

Mercautr, Z. P. New names in the Homoptera.

262.

Morrison, J. P. E. Conus eldredi, new name for

one of the poison cones. 32.

Notes on American cyclophoroid land

snails, with two new names, eight new species,

three new genera, and the family Amphicy-

clotidae, separated on animal characters. 149.

Myers, Witutiam H. See Exniorr, Francis E.

248.

Newuousr. VERNE F., WaLker, Davin W., and

James, Maurice T. The immature stages of

Sarcophaga cooleyt, S. bullata, and S. sher-

mani (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). 15.

NewMan, WautTer B. Desmognathus planiceps, a

new salamander from Virginia. 83.

OBERHOLSER, Harry C. Description of a new

chipping sparrow from Canada. 59.

OBERLING, JoHN J. Shell structure of West

American Pelecypoda. 128.

Ossporn, Joun A.* ONR program of sponsored

research in magnetism. 382.

Pacr, Curster H. Message from the Editor-

See Drake, Cart J.

elect. 165.

Prpinsky, Ray.* X-ray analysis as a tool in

biochemistry. 384.

Prerrrpons, Marian H. New species of poly-

chaete worms of the family Polynoidae from

the east coast of North America. 118.

Prrrman, MarcGarer. Announcement of elec-

tion of Editor. 165.

RernuarpD, Epwarp G. Some Rhizocephala

found on brachyuran crabs in the West

Indian region. 75.

Ruopes, Ina. See Buancu, GERTRUDE. 166.

Rivirn, Ronaup 8.* Some recent developnients

in continuum mechanics. 379.

Sarp, Rusnpr. Foraminifera from some

cene”’ rocks of Egypt. 8.

““Phio-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 12

ScaNnLton, WaynE W.* Semiconductors. 378.

ScHuBERT, Bernice G. See SmirH, Lyman B

110.

SEEGER, RaymMonp J. On the liberal sciences. 361

SHAFFRAN, I. P. See Huss, W.C. 1384.

Suartrro, Maurice M.* New unstable particles

in the cosmic radiation. 382.

SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. Notes on the amphi-

pod crustacean Maeroides thompsoni Walker.

59.

SINGLETERRY, C. R.* Particle size from fluores-

cence depolarization. 377.

Starer, J. C.* The nature of the chemical bond.

378.

Smart, J. Samuny.* Antiferromagnetism. 381.

Smith, Lyman B. Notes on Brazilian phanero-

gams. 197.

— and ScuuBEeRT, Bernice G. Studies in

the Begoniaceae, IV. 110.

Smout, AuAN H. Reclassification of the Rotali-

dea (Foraminifera) and two new Cretaceous

forms resembling Elphidiwm. 201.

Souns, Ernest R. Cenchrus and Pennisetum:

Fascicle morphology. 135.

Srenui, Francrs G. Notes on Permian rhyncho-

nellids. 70.

Srong, ALAN, and Knicut, KennetH L. Type

specimens of mosquitoes in the United States

National Museum: I, The genera Armzgeres,

Psorophora, and Haemagogus (Diptera, Culi-

cidae). 282.

Srrauss, Jerome. High-strength cast iron: Ap-

praisal and forecast. 233.

SrrimpLe, Harrevyt L. A new species of Cym-

biocrinus from the Pitkin. 14.

pt aL. New Ordovician echinoderms. 347.

Taussky, Onca. See Fan, Ky. 339.

Topp, JoHN. See Fan, Ky. 339.

Tresster, Wits L. See Exurorr, Francis E.

248.

Voxes, H. E. Cenozoic pearls from the Atlantic

Coastal Plain. 260.

Von Branp, THeopor. Anaerobiosis in Austral-

orbis glabratus: Temperature effects and tis-

sue hydration. 373.

Waker, Davin H. See Newnousr, VeRNE H.

15.

Weper, Neat A. Fungus-growing ants and their

fungi: Cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus Mayr.

275.

Wexier, H. Dynamic linkages between westerly

waves and weather. 46.

Wiuriams, Austin B. The genus Ogyrides (Crus-

tacea: Caridea) in North Carolina. 56.

Wiuuramson, A. A. The unitary principle. 33.

Wiuson, E. Bricur.* Some famous scientific

blunders. 378.

Wirt, Wruurs W. Three new species of Culi-

coides from Texas (Diptera: Heleidae). 355.

DECEMBER 1955

INDEX

387

SUBJECT INDEX

Biochemistry. Bactericidal activity of ozonized

ole fins. J. V. Karaprnos and H. J. Frr-

Lin. 103.

The influence of intramuscular and oral

eortisone and hydrocortisone on _ liver

glycogen formation by DL alanine. W. C.

Hess and J. P. SHAFFRAN. 134.

*X-ray analysis as a tool in biochemistry.

Ray Peprinsxy. 384.

Biology. The unitary principle. A. A. Wrriram-

son. 33.

Fungus-growing ants and their fungi: Cyph-

omyrmex rimosus minutus Mayr. NEAL A.

WEBER. 275.

Botany. A 2-4-2 chimera of McIntosh apple. Hare

DERMEN. 324.

Cenchrus and Pennisetum: Fascicle morphol-

ogy. Ernest R. Souns. 135.

New Korean grasses and new names of grasses

to be validated before publication of a

manual of the grasses of Korea. IN-CHo

CuwtnG. 210.

Notes on Brazilian phanerogams. Lyman B.

Sait. 197.

Studies in the Begoniaceae, IV. Lyman B.

SmitH and Bernice G. ScHouBert. 110.

Chemistry. *Color and chemical constitution.

Wattack R. Brope. 379.

Editorials. 133, 165.

Entomology. New apterous Aradidae from Puerto

Rico (Hemiptera). Cart J. Drake and J.

Matponapo-CaPRILEs. 289.

New names in the Homoptera. Z. P. Mrer-

CALF. 262.

Some work of the periodical cicada. E. A.

ANDREWS. 20.

The immature stages of Sarcophaga cooley,

S. bullata, and S. shermani (Diptera: Sar-

cophagidae). VERNE F. NewHouseE, Davip

W. Waker, and Maurice T. Jams. 15.

Three new species of Culicoides from Texas

(Diptera: Heleidae). Winurs W. Wrrtu. 355.

Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United

States National Museum: I, The genera

Armigeres, Psorophora, and Haemagogus

(Diptera, Culicidae). ALAN StoNnE and KEN-

NETH L. KNIGHT. 282.

General science. On the liberal sciences. RayMonp

J. Spencer. 361.

* Some famous scientific blunders. E. BrrGut

Witson. 378. ;

Herpelotogy. Desmognathus planiceps, a new

salamander from Virginia. Wa.ttrEer B.

NEWMAN. 83.

History of science. The development in Washing-

ton of a subspecies of the genus Homo,

sapiens scientifica, the members of which no

longer adorn themselves by wearing ‘‘tails.”’

H. L. Curtis. 131.

Hydrography. A comparison of the environmental

characteristics of some shelf areas of eastern

United States. Francis E. Evuiorr, Wit-

LIAM H. Myers, and Wiuurs L. TrREesSLER.

248.

Ichthyology. Fiatfishes of the genus Symphurus

from the U.S.S. Albatross Expedition to the

Philippines. 1907-1910. Paun CHABANAUD.

30.

Pontinus clemensi, a new scorpaenoid fish from

the tropical eastern Pacific. Jonn E. Frren.

61.

Letters to the Editor. 229, 268, 359.

Malacology. Conus eldredi, new name for one of

the poison cones. J. P. E. Morrison. 32.

Notes on American eyclophoroid land snails,

with two new names, eight new species,

three new genera, and the family Amphicy-

clotidae, separated on animai characters.

J.P. E. Morrison, 149.

Shell structure of West American Pelecypoda.

JoHN J. OBERLING. 128.

Mammalegy. A new subspecies of wood rat from

Nayarit, Mexico, with new name-combina-

tions for the Neotoma mexicana group. E.

Raymonp Hat. 328.

Descriptions of pocket gophers (Thomomy:

bottae) from northeastern Arizona. DoNALD

F. HorrMerster. 126.

New bats of the genus Corynorhinus. CHARLES

O. HanpDLey, JR. 147.

Mathematics. A consequence of inequalities pro

posed by Baker and Ericksen. J. L. Ericx-

SEN. 268.

An algebraic proof of the isoperimetric ine-

quality for polygons. Ky Fan, OuGa Taus-

sky, and JoHN Topp. 339.

Application of two methods of numerical

analysis to the computation of the re-

flected radiation of a point source. PETER

HeEnrIctr. 38.

*Military decision and the mathematical

theory of games. OLttver G. Haywoopn, JR.

380.

Note concerning the number of directions

which, in a given motion, suffer no instan-

taneous rotation. J. L. ErrcKsen. 65.

Spectroscopic eigenvalue analysis. C. Lanz-

cos. 315.

Table of characteristic values of Mathieu’s

equation for large values of the parameter.

GERTRUDE Buancu and Ipa Ruopes. 166.

Medicine. *Some new aspects of the cancer cell.

WiuiramM R. DuyRer. 383.

Metallurgy. High-strength cast iron: Appraisal

and forecast. JEROME STRAUSS. 233.

Meteorology. Dynamic linkages between westerly

waves and weather. H. WExuErR. 46.

Pehr Kalm’s meteorological observations in

North America. EstHpr Lourse Larsen.

269.

Mineralogy. Thermal analysis and X-ray studies

of grifithite. GzrorGn T. Faust. 66.

Mycology. A small Conidicbolus with globose and

with elongated secondary conidia. CHARLES

DReEscHLER. 114.

A southern Basidiobolus forming many spo-

rangia from globose and from elongated

adhesive conidia. CHARLES DRESCHLER. 49.

388

Nematology. A new nematode, Rotylenchus melan-

cholicus, n. sp., found associated with grass

roots, and its sexual dimorphism. Lurz

GonzaGa E. LorpELLo. 81.

New members of the Academy. 97.

Ornithology. Description of a new chipping spar

row from Canada. Harry C. OBBRHOLSER.

59.

Paleontology. A new Pleistocene bat (Coryno-

rhinus) from Mexico. CHARLES O. HANDLEY,

Jr. 48.

A new species of Cymbiocrinus from the Pit-

kin. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE. 14.

A new species of mylagaulid from the Chalk

Cliffs local fauna, Montana. Matcom C.

McKenna. 107.

Cenozoic pearls from the Atlantic Coastal

Plain. H. E. Voxes. 260.

Foraminifera from some ‘‘Pliocene” rocks of

Egypt. Rusupi Sarp. 8. |

New genera of Foraminifera from the British

Lower Carboniferous. Roperr H. Cum-

MINGS. l.

New Ordovician echinoderms. HARRELL L.

STRIMPLE ET AL. 347.

Notes on Permian rhynchonellids. Francis

G. STEHLTI. 70.

Reclassification of the Rotaliidea (Foraminif-

era) and two new Cretaceous forms re-

sembling EHlphidium. ALAN H. Smout. 201.

Stacheoides, a new foraminiferal genus from

the British Upper Paleozoic. Roprertr H.

CumMMINGS. 342.

The pelecypod family Corbiculidae in the

Mesozoic of Europe and the Near Hast.

Raymonp Casey. 366.

Physical chemistry. Tritium in nature. W. F.

Lipsy. 301.

Physics. *Antiferromagnetism. J. SAMUEL SMART.

381.

A tree from the standpoint of lightning.

Francis M. DEranporF. 333.

Limitations on rapid signal analysis. Epirn

L. R. Corutss. 359.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 45, No. 12

*New unstable particles in the cosmic radia

tion. Maurice M. SHaprro. 382.

*Particle size from fluorescence depolariza-

tion. C. R. SINGLETERRY. 377.

*Semiconductors. WAYNE W. SCANLON. 378.

*Some recent developments in continuum

mechanics. Ronaup 8. Rivuin. 379.

*The effects of the moon on the earth’s outer

atmosphere. A. G. McNisu. 380.

The electrometer at high frequencies. Mar-

TIN GREENSPAN. 229.

*The nature of the chemical bond. J. C.

SLATER. 378.

*The ONR program of sponsored research in

magnetism. JoHN A. OSBORN. 382.

Physiology. Anaerobiosis in Australorbis glabratus :

Temperature effects and tissue hydration.

THEODOR VON BRAND. 373.

Toxicology. Observations on toxic marine algae.

Ropert C. Hapexost, [an M. FRAsmr,

and Brucr W. Haustwap. 101.

Washington scientific news. 162, 200, 232, 346.

Zoology. A new species of Pararchinotodelphys

(Copepoda: Cyeclopoida) with remarks on

its systematic position. Pauu L. Inua. 216.

New species of polychaete worms of the family

Polynoidae from the east coast of North

America. Marian H. Perripone. 118.

Notes on the amphipod crustacean Maeroides

thompsoni Walker. CLARENCE R. SHOE-

MAKER. 99.

Remarkably preserved fossil sea-pens and their

Recent counterparts. FrepERICK M. Bayer.

294.

Some Rhizocephala found on brachyuran

crabs in the West Indian region. Epwarp G.

REINHARD. 75.

The genus Ogyrides (Crustacea: Caridea) in

North Carolina. Austin B. WiLLiAMs. 56.

The isopod genus Chiridotea Harger, with a

description of a new species from brackish

waters. THomas E. Bowman. 224.

Two new Nephtys (Annelida, Polychaeta)

from San Francisco Bay. R. B. Ciark and

Merepiti L. Jonss. 143.

Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences

JERE TET Ser MarGarket Pittman, National Institutes of Health

[PRASAD 2a On ee Oe Eee Raupy E. Grsson, Applied Physics Laboratory

Necvetarueenicn. pe iscce te itear oe seis HeE1nz Specut, National Institutes of Health

BTERSUTET «<6 ..5 6. oss Howarp 8S. Rappheys, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired)

BEECHEUESE MR COe Oot elas Aa ys inser ee Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station

Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications

Haratp A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum

Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies:

Philosophical Society of Washington......................... LawrRENcE A. Woop

Anthropological Society of Washington................../.... Frank M. Serzier

Biolopical Society of Washington .......................--. HersBert G. DIEGNAN

WhemicaliSociety of Washington: -. 0.3. 0-2. 222.66. - oee ese Wiuuiam W. Watton

Entomological Society of Washington. ..............-..2 2-2 e cee eee F. W. Poos

Neational\Geovraphic Society... 26-5020... 2 eee es ots: ALEXANDER WETMORE

Geological Society of Washington...................0500008- Epwin T. McKnicuar

Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. CoE

Molumbia: Historical: Socieby .cc00 5.646 ne coe oa a ahs See aren § GILBERT GROSVENOR

Barsinical society of Washington. ss... fscscde< oe os Sens cee sce S. L. EMsw5LureRr

Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GrorGeE F. Gravatr

Washington Society of Engineers. ...................... HERBERT GROVE DorsEY

Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr

Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers........ R. 8. Dini

Helminthological Society of Washington....................... JOHN S. ANDREWS

Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists....... LLoyp A. BuRKEY

Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers . eer Fioyrp W. Houcu

Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................ H. G. Dorsny

District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons

District of Columbia Section, Society Experimental Biology and Medicine

W. C. Hess

Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............ Tuomas G. Diecss

Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research

Rosert M. SterHan

Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences.......F. N. FRENKIEL

District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society

Francis W. REICHELDERFER

Elected Members of the Board of Managers:

awicirtranyal O50 acer rins essen van sole cules sats neta M. A. Mason, R. J. SzeGrerR

Powbaruanya | 95i 5 ee os ein. rh niece nie cee eels A. T. McPHmrson, A. B. Gurney

im James Ok ogee GS Sop on nao Onan rmann cae W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwaLLen

OMMMAOIMUIONGGETS. .. ace cee ce ie eee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor

SUTERE GF LACUS SSG ood oe site DOE A RCN ce a ea or are {See front cover]

PCP CULTURE CONLTUULLEE 128s tents 5 is otsisinve ss nes M. Pirrman (chairman), R. E. Gipson,

H. Spscut, H. S. Rappieye, J. R. SwaLLen

Committee on Membership....Roamr W. Curtis (chairman), Joan W. Aupricu, GEORGE

Anastos, Haroxp T. Cook, JosepH J. Fanny, Francois N. FRENKIEL, PererR Kina,

Gorpon M. KLINE, Louts R. MaxwELL, FLorence M. MbraRrs, Curtis W. SABROSEY,

BENJAMIN ScHWARTz, Bancrort W. SITTERLY, WILLIE W. Smrvx, Harry WEXLER

Committee on Meetings...... ARNOLD H. Scorr (chairman), Harry 8. BERNTON, Harry

Bortuwick, Herpert G. DEIGNAN, WAYNE C. Hau, ALBERT M. Stone

QUT CR MORO GRD an osospboooosnednoesoseeasnee G. ArtHuR Cooper (chairman)

PRomvamnuaryeal Q5G ra sac. feck s Peteic a oes crete G. ArtHur Coopsr, James I. HorrmMan

LO UGTA Ae SY (ie eee ee Harawp A. RewpeR, Wrtiuiam A. DayTon

MOR aARU arya! OSE on Mele y eee el Ate ts or Dzan B. Cowiz, JosprH P. E. Morrisor

Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement . .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman)

For Biological Sciences..... Sarna E. BRANHAM (chairman), Joun S. ANDREWS,

James M. Hunotey, R. A. St. Gzorce, Bernice G. ScHUBERT, W. R. Weve

For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. TRENT (chairman), Josepu M. CALDWELL,

R.S. Diuu, T. J. Hicxtny, T. J. Kinu1an, Gorpon W. McBripe, E. R. Prore

For Physical Sciences ates BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonn,

Scorr EH. Forsusu, Marcaret D. Foster, M. E. FREEMAN, J. K. TAYLOR

For Teaching of Science.... Monroe H. Martin (chairman), Kerra C. JOHNSON,

Lourse H. Marswaty, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. OwENns

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francis 0. Rice (chairman),

HRMAN Branson, CHARLES K. TRUEBLOOD

Committee on Policy and Planning.....................-. E. C. CritrenDEN (chairman)

ROR AnUaATV19 50h eee er reeeee E. C. CritrenpEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE

Mo wanuaryelOsieee eer ee ee JOHN E. Grar, Raymond J. SEEGER

Iho dernnmypay WOH. soscoosacauoncsuone Francis M. DEFANDORF, Frank M. SETzLER

Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent.. ARCHIBALD T. McPHERSON (chairman)

Moweanuanyal (56a abe see ke Haro.tp FE. Finury, J. H. McMrItuen

owanutiary 105 (8 -eaaeee ee a L. Epwin Yocum, WiuL1am J. YOUDEN

MORIADUALY: VOSS cing demon teeta sya, Meera A. T. McPuurson, W. T. Reap

Committee on Science Education....RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), Ronatp BAMFORD,

R. Percy Barnes, Wauuace R. Brope, LEonarp CarMIcHAEL, Hueu L. DRYDEN,

REGINA FLANNERY, Rawpew FB. Greson, Fioyp W. Hoveu, Martin A. Mason,

GrorceE D. Rock, Witiiam W. RusBEy, Wriiram H. SEBRELL, eee Mag Scumrrr,

B. D. Van Evera, WILuraM E. WRaATHER, Francis E JOHNSTON

hepresentatweonsCounciopvAAvAuSe. sn) neni... sees a Watson Davis

Committee of Auditors...FRancts E. JouNston, (chairman), S. D. Contrns, W. C. Hess

Committee of Tellers.. RALPH P. TirTsLeR (chairman), EK. ich Hampep, J. G. THOMPSON

CONTENTS

Page

GENERAL SciENCcE.—On the liberal sciences. RAymMonp J. SEEGER... 361

PaLEONTOLOGY—The pelecypod family Corbiculidae in the Mesozoic

of Europe and the Near East. RaymMonp CASEY............... 366

Puystotocy.—Anaerobiosis in Australorbis glabratus: Temperature ef-

fects and tissue hydration. THEODOR VON BRAND.............. 373

PRocEEDINGS:; “ehilosophical Society >... . >... ..-...-: ee eee 377

INDEX TO? VOUUMBOAD..... cre. cscs tino oo a oo eS he tO 385

abel Hl oe mH Me TAL AN Dawe fer hek beh, bie’ boy oh aps we a ‘ne chr eibaed !

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