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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 48, 1958

PUBLISHED MONTHLY

BY THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Mount Royrat & GUILFORD AVES.

BALTIMORE, MARYLAND

ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 48

No. 1, pp. 1-82, March 18, 1958.

No. 2, pp. 33-68, April 12, 1958.

No. 3, pp. 69-108, April 30, 1958.

No. 4, pp. 109-144, May 22, 1958.

No. 5, pp. 145-180, June 9, 1958.

No. 6, pp. 181-212, July 11, 1958.

No. 7, pp. 213-248, August 5, 1958.

No. 8, pp. 249-272, September 19, 1958.

No. 9, pp. 273-304, November 4, 1958.

No. 10, pp. 305-340, December 4, 1958.

No. 11, pp. 341-372, January 19, 1959.

No. 12, pp. 373-412, February 11, 1959.

VOLUME 48 January 1958 NUMBER1

ed Le Co

—~ ; ,

,r )

J hes Fs

—

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

Published Monthly by the

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vot. 48

January 1958

No. 1

MINERALOGY —Progress in titanium research Matrunw A. Hunter, Rens-

selaer Polytechnic Institute. (Communicated by H. C. Vacher.)

My first duty is to express my pleasure on

being called to give the Burgess Memorial

Lecture before the Washington Chapter of

the American Society of Metals. Dr. Burgess

and I had one point of contact in the first

decade of this century that was of ines-

timable importance to me. It dealt with the

subject of titanium research.

The motivation behind the development

of titanium research in 1906 was based on

the information that this metal had a melt-

ing point around 6,000°. It is quite imma-

terial whether the scale of temperature was

Centigrade or Fahrenheit, as later operations

showed. If this high melting point could be

confirmed, it was obvious that titanium

could jom molybdenum and tungsten, which

at that time were under development for

filaments in electric lamps.

As we now know, the information was

false. My own experiments led me to con-

clude that the melting point of the titanium

produced was between 1,800° and 1,850°C.,

measured on equipment that would scandal-

ize you today.

The reactions of the administration to the

disappointing news was not calculated to

raise the ego of the experimental observer—

in this case myself. It was obvious that I

must have some confirmation on my melt-

ing-point data. It so happened that Dr.

Burgess was working on the melting points

of refractory elements at the Bureau of

Standards. A platinum or an iridium strip

was heated under controlled conditions in an

atmosphere of hydrogen with visual observa-

tion of the melting points of materials placed

1 Highth Annual Burgess Memorial Lecture,

Washington Chapter, American Society for

Metals.

thereon. Samples of titanium (sodium re-

duced) were supplied by Dr. Von Warten-

berg and by myself.

Von Wartenberg Hunter

1,778° 1,790°

1,807 L185

1,815 1,785

Mean 1,800 1 Sia

The probable melting point was given by

Dr. Burgess as 1,795 + 15.

Recent information from the Armour Re-

search Foundation gives the melting point

of titanium in constitutional diagram as

1,732°C. There would still seem to be some

room for argument here.

But let us turn now to the subject of this

lecture—Research and Development in the

Titanium Industry. There are three aspects

I shall briefly review—Where have we come

from? Where are we now? Where do we ex-

pect to go in the future?

TITANIUM—GENERAL

On an earlier occasion I have given you

our attempts to develop a titanium industry

(in 1906—1916)—but born 50 years too soon.

The industry had to await the later develop-

ment of melting under argon or helium,

which at the earlier date were laboratory

curiosities. But a still greater incentive to

development was the desire of industry for

airborne metals, with the Federal Govern-

ment and the aircraft industry leading the

way in the development. From the earliest

disclosures of the Du Pont Co. in 1948 to the

present time the unlimited resources of the

Man .

ww A ee oe

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 48, No. 1

Federal Government have been made avail-

able to the industry.

The metal has no single property that is

outstanding, but it has an optimum series of

combinations. It is strong, light, ductile,

corrosion resistant, and expensive. It is con-

sidered to be indispensable for national de-

fense. Its military value is estimated at $20

to $50 per pound for military aircraft and

when the weight margin is tight, higher

premiums can be justified. Its civilian value

is given as two to three times that of the

materials it can replace. The life expectancy

is often much longer, but at present non-

military operations consume less than 10 per

cent of industrial production.

Major problems of the past that are still

with us today include melting operations and

scrap recovery. Melting at 3,100°F., ti-

tanium reacts with every known refractory

to become embrittled thereby. Present re-

search in skull melting may or may not give

the answer to these difficulties.

PROGRESS IN THE INDUSTRY

The shipment of titanium mill products to

industry in recent years is given below:

1950 2,000 pounds

1952 40,000 pounds

1953 200,000 pounds

1954 2,500,000 pounds

1955 3,900,000 pounds

1956 10,000,000 pounds (estimated)

No metallurgical operation of which I am

aware has ever had so phenomenal a yearly

growth from 2,000 pounds in 1950 to 10

million in 1956. Future projections to 35,000

tons in 1958 have been made.

The important factor of prices for sponge,

billet, and sheet from 1951 to the present

appear in Fig. 1. It is clear that the industry

is moving ahead with increased volume of

production coupled directly with a lowering

in cost of materials produced.

Now let me give you “What Industry

Thinks of Itself.”

WHAT THE TITANIUM INDUSTRY

THINKS OF ITSELF

C. I. Bradford, president of Rem-Cru

Titanium Inc., speaking before a recent

Mining Congress made some pertinent re-

marks on titanium progress.

The year 1956 can be summarized as the

year in which the aircraft industry gave

titanium a solid vote of confidence as a

standard engineering material for production

components. This vote of confidence resulted

in a three fold increase in demand for ti-

tanium mill products in 1956 over 1955.

Final industry figures should clear the 5,000-

ton mark. The same trend appears certain

to continue in 1957. A minimum demand of

10,000 tons of mill products is our present

estimate.

Chase Brass & Copper will melt and

fabricate the titanium metal. Production of

billets is slated for late 1958.

Since costs per annual ton of capacity in

Electromet’s sodium reduction plant are

reputed to be at the rate of $4,125 per annual

ton this commitment of 41 million should

produce 10,000 tons per year.

Japanese sources are expected to continue

or increase their output of 2,500 tons/year.

I have no figures at hand on the melting

capacity of Titanium Metals Corporation of

America, Republic Steel Corporation, and

other melting plants. Rem-Cru reports its

melting capacity to be 6,000—7,000 ingot tons |

per year.

In the fabrication field Certificates of

Necessity have been issued to T.M.C.A. and

Eastern Stainless Co. for 50 inch Sendzimir

Cold Strip Mills for rolling and processing

titanium.

T.M.C.A. considers this development to

be particularly urgent in view of the transi-

tion of aircraft and missiles into high speed

flight where high skin temperatures cause

present materials to lose their strength. In

addition, titanium and its alloys have been

developed and evaluated for incorporation

into jet engines. There would seem to be

little question that the present industrial

plants will be able to meet all potential de-

mands of the titanium industry.

TITANIUM ALLOYS

The compelling motive, in engineering

construction, for the use of titanium as a re-

placement for the more common materials of

construction comes from the high strength-

weight ratio of this material at temperatures

up to 1,000°F., while in the chemical in-

dustry the relative resistance to corrosion

JANUARY 1958

plays the predominant role. The develop-

ments in recent years in the titanium alloy

field have gone a long way in establishing

titanium priority.

THE 6 ALUMINUM, 4 VANADIUM ALLOY

One of the more important alloys is Ti-

6Al-4V developed by Armour Research

Foundation under government sponsorship.

Early studies showed it to have an excellent

combination of tensile strength and ductility,

with good resistance to impact and high

strength at elevated temperatures. Produc-

tion was initiated in 1954 and at the present

time the alloy is one of the most popular of

the commercial compositions. It is being

used in large quantities in ordnance, airframe

and aircraft engine applications and is cur-

rently available as wire, sheet, bar, and

forging billet as well as other mill products.

The mechanical properties of alloy Ti 75 A

of the year 1950 and of Ti-6Al-4V (annealed

of 1955) are compared in the following table:

eee 600°F

1950 Ti 75 A

Tensile strength... .. 98,000 psi; 45,000 psi

Wield 2). 81,000 psi | 28,000 psi

Blongation m 2”... 23 psi 38 psi

i950 Lin6 Al 4V (an-

nealed)

Tensile strength.....| 143,000 105,000

Wigil 2. 2 ee 131,000 93 , 000

Blongation in 2”..... 16 19

By proper heat treatment a tensile strength

of 200,000 psi can be obtained. The more re-

cent data on the alloy 155 A show improve-

ments in properties of a similar character.

EFrrect oF Hear TREATMENT ON THE TENSILE

Properties oF Tr 155A 5 An, 1.5 tis, 105) IMO,

Ld) (Cie

Annealed Heat treated*

Tensile Strength.......| 159,000 208 , 000

Mield strength......... 155 , 000 197 , 000

Mongatiion im I”....... 23 10

Reduction in area..... 45 2.6

“Heat treatment—Solution temp. 17,00°F—

water quenched aged 4 hours at 1,000°F.

With such high strength alloys as these, ti-

tanium can compete on a strength. weight

HUNTER: PROGRESS IN TITANIUM RESEARCH

KEY FORM BASIS

ZO Sponge 5000 |b.

NSN Billet 2500 |b.- 8in. round - titanium alloy

Ba Sheet 2500 |b.-0.025 X 36x 96in. *2Finish-

commercially pure

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Ne ae NS Ne Ne No

Ne Ne NX N=. Ne NS

as bad Ne se Ne BS

Ni NG NS NG ONS BS

“ d °, 9 s

Na Ne NS NS NM f&

S Ne Ne Ns NS 4) Ns NE 4

Ms Yy od Y oy NY ey Ne NS <

NN aN a: a: aN

SNS NS INS NS es

NSN ZN: EN EN NS

NN IN: JN: GN ee

Nal ZNSE AAS OARS ASS

oL ASS VANS UNS UNE ZS Ne

I951-52 195 1954 1955 195 Present

Hineael

ratio basis with most of the present materials

of construction. Fig. 2 shows the marked

superiority of Ti-6Al-4V over aluminum al-

loys and stainless steels in temperature

ranges from room to 1,000°F. With such fig-

ures as these, titanium alloys become im-

portant factors in engineering construction

and will assume a wider significance.

Production of Titanium Metal

Sodium or magnesium as a_ reducing

agent.—The earlier methods for the produc-

tion of sponge titanium from the tetra-

chloride involved the use of magnesium as

the reducing agent. Later operations have

used sodium as the reducing agent.

The costs of the operation by the two

methods are said to be practically identical

by Kroll? The cost of the titanium chloride

represents 50 per cent of the sponge price and

the sodium or magnesium contributes 20 per

cent to the cost of the titanium product.

In view of this, consumers and potential

users are asking: Can we design more ti-

tanlum into our aircraft, our engines, our

chemical plants, with the assurance that

there will be an ample supply of titanium to

meet our requirements. The answer when we

look at the outlook for

““VeSs?

Behind this optimism is the assurance of

adequate supplies of raw materials for 1957.

The situation by mid or late 1957 will be:

1957 is definitely

* Metallurgical Rev., 1956, vol. 1:1-3, 291.

“ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 48, swore

| Plant cost

| Annual

mae | $ pepemnual

Grametulmeerwer soos ee 6,000 | 4,150

Wows Ghemircalens 9-545 es SOOT —

DusPonty eer cera i Nate ZOOW TG oR 50

National Distillers.......-| 5,000 a

Titanium Metals Corp..... | 9,000 7

AIS

Unione@anoideme eee eer. 7,500 | 4,125

Total capacity. . 36,500

* The figures for plant cost per annual ton were

taken from TML Report No. 52, Sept. 7, 1956.

Recent estimates by the personnel of the

Bureau of Mines in Boulder City, Nev., indi-

cate that the cost per annual ton of new

plant capacity may be as low as $2,500.

Another development in the sponge pic-

ture comes from the public press. Chemical

and Engineering News, December 31, 1956,

and Wall Street Journal state that Allied

Chemical & Dye and Kennecott Copper

plan a jointly owned company to produce

and sell titanium for uses ranging from Jet

aircraft to vacuum tubes.

Initial investment is expected to be

$40,000,000. The installation is to make

titanium tetrachloride, titanium sponge, and

billets of titanium metal. Allied Chemical

1200

800

400

200

te) 200 400

. 6AI-4V(HT. TRTD)

IMO™M90ODP

says the company will use a new continuous

process which employs sodium to reduce

titanium tetrachloride to sponge by processes

represented to be continuous.

The sodium reduction develops one third

more heat than the reduction by magnesium.

The sodium requires one third more electrical

energy for its production than magnesium

does. So far as this observer knows mag-

nesium chloride is recycled to recover mag-

nesium but no recycling is undertaken for the

sodium chloride.

Sodium chloride melts at 800°, and mag-

nesium chloride at 720°C., but sodium re-

ductions can be carried on at much lower

temperatures than 800°C. since the sub-

chlorides of titanium form complexes

(TiC],3NaCl) which melt at 554° and dis-

sociate at 600°C. Much of the sodium reduc-

tion can in fact be carried on in the solid

state as will appear in a later section of this

paper.

Sodium metal is much easier to purify

than magnesium. Ceramic filters can be used

to remove oxides. This is not possible with

magnesium. Further, sodium can be pumped

to the spot where it is to be used. In leaching

operations sodium chloride solutions do not

attack titanium sponge. Excess reducing

. 2024S-T

7075S-T

301- +H

17-7-PH{TH-1075)

4130, 4140, 4340

Ti-8Mn (ANLD.)

Fey £64 ksi

Fry 274 ksi

Fry =155 ksi

Fry £174 ksi

Fry =168 ksi

Fry =120 ksi

Fry =180 ksi

Ti-100 Fy, =100 ksi

600 800 1000 1200

Temperature, F

Fic. 2.Strength-weight comparison on the basis of ultimate tensile strength density

JANUARY 1958

agent can be kept to 5 per cent with sodium

whereas with magnesium it may amount to

15 per cent. Leaching with water is cheaper

than distilling off magnesium chloride but

the hydrogen content of the leached sponge

may be high and must be eliminated by

other means. The recycled magnesium is

said to make an important cost saving.

Other interesting observations are that

molten sodium chloride dissolves 20 per cent

of sodium at 850°C. which would separate

as a fog on cooling.

Titanium tetrachloride has practically no

solubility in molten NaCl. Its vapor pressure

is so high that it rapidly boils off. The lower

chlorides with higher boiling points appear

to dissolve in all proportions.

The present Kroll process is the only well

established procedure for reducing titanium

tetrachloride with metallic magnesium. But

the sodium reduction can follow several

procedures of which the following are more

important.

SODIUM REDUCTION OF TITANIUM

TETRACHLORIDE

(1) Low temperature operations at 200°C.

This is the “high surface”’ sodium operations

described in advertising literature by Na-

tional Distillers to produce subchlorides of

titanium or even titanium metal. In this

procedure when liquid sodium is stirred into

solid salt, it coats each crystal. The tetra-

chloride when introduced reacts with this

sodium layer to produce the dichloride. If

this material is then subjected to further

additions of sodium metal and then set aside

for hours to complete the reduction, the

finely divided titanium powder will grow

larger crystal grains which can be leached

with water without difficulty. Little or no

external energy other than the heat of the

reaction is required to complete the process.

Similar processes are described by J. P.

Quinn’ of Imperial Chemical industries.

(2) The reaction can be carried out at

800°-850°C. At 650°-750°C. the salt complex

of NaCl and TiCl, is molten. At 805°C. the

molten bath will produce needles of titanium

with a Brinell hardness of less than 70.

(3) At still higher temperatures the ti-

$ British Patents 7179380, Nov. 1954; 720517,

Dec. 1954.

HUNTER: PROGRESS IN TITANIUM RESEARCH Z

tanium chloride and sodium can react and

produce droplets of solidified titanium such

as appeared in the early bomb experiments.

DISPROPORTIONATION

In many of these reactions with the sub-

chlorides of titanium disproportionation

probably plays an important role.

From Report No. 20-88, Jet Propulsion

Lab., California Inst. Tech., I quote the fol-

lowing: ‘‘Hydrogen may be used to reduce

TiCl(g) to TiCl3(s) at low temperatures.

While the reaction is thermo-dynamically

complete at room temperatures, the rate is

negligible.”

TiCl;(s) and TiCl.(s) are not reduced ap-

preciably by hydrogen at elevated tempera-

ture since these compounds are stronger

reducing agents than hydrogen. When these

compounds are heated disproportionation oc-

curs as the dominant reaction.

Metallic titanium may be formed com-

pletely from such reactions at temperatures

as low as 600°C.

TiCl, disproportionates and vaporizes as

follows:

2 TiCh(s) > TiCl.(g) + Ti

2 MCL) — 2 TAC@) 2 Th.

Laboratory analysis of the product after

the reaction showed it to contain more than

95 per cent of titanium metal.

But 2 TiCl; — TiCh,(g) + TiClo(s), which

reacts further to give metallic titanium. It

is highly probable that the titanium precipi-

tating from a sodium chloride molten salt

will prefer to precipitate on titanium lattices

that already exist in the solution. By such

means then crystals of titanium will continue

to grow, as we have already observed.

OTHER REDUCTION PROCEDURES

The simplest procedure for producing

titanium would seem to be the reduction of

the abundant titanium dioxide (rutile).

Laboratory investigations of Chretien and

Wyss! indicate that magnesium will reduce

the dioxide to monoxide (T10) while calcium

will complete the reduction to titanium

metal.

Similar procedures are the subject of

‘Chretien and Wyss, Compt. Rend. 224: 1642.

1947.

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 48, NO. 1

patents? to Dominion Magnesium tide 2

have no information on large scale indus-

trial operations.

There have been many attempts to pro-

duce titanium by electrolytic methods. The

following cell feeds have been used—ti-

tanium tetrachloride, titanium oxide, or

potassium titanium fluoride.

The ideal electrolytic cell will require a

diaphragm or its physical equivalent to pre-

vent the anodic product, oxygen or chlorine,

from reoxidizing the titanium subsaits pro-

duced at the cathode. This introduces many

complications that to date have not been

adequately met.

Real progress in electrolytic recovery and

refining has been made by the Bureau of

Mines group in Boulder City, Nev., which 1s

described in the next section.

ELECTROLYTIC REFINING OF TITANIUM

BUREAU OF MINES—-BOULDER CITY

An active research group under the direc-

tion of Messrs. Blue and Baker has presented

some outstanding results in the field of the

electrolytic refining of titanium. The pro-

gram began as an electrolytic operation for

the refining of titanium scrap. The success

has been so remarkable that the method

gives promise of being hereafter an important

phase in the extractive production of ti-

tanium metal from its basic ores.

The electrolytic cell designed and used by

the Bureau is made from 14-inch mild steel

plate—heated by Globar units and protected

externally from oxidation by a spray coat of

chromium aluminum alloy.

The electrolyte is a 5-per cent solution of

titanium dichloride (TiCls) in sodium chlo-

ride maintained molten around 830°C. The

minimum allowable current density is given

as 550 amperes per square foot. Higher cur-

rents can be used in more concentrated solu-

tions but the quality of the metal produced

drops off at the higher current densities.

In a 4,700-ampere cell four cathodes of

sheet steel were distributed along the longer

axis of the cell. (The number could be in-

definitely increased by lengthening the cell

without interfering with regular operation.)

This cell was actually running at 3200 am-

5 British Patent 664061, Jan. 1952.

peres and was producing 2,800 grams of

cathode titanium per hour at an energy con-

sumption of 26-27 KWH per pound of metal.

Much of this electrical energy was consumed

in keeping the bath molten. It was estimated

that a 10,000 ampere cell would maintain its

temperature without external heat.

The material to be refined is thrown into

the bottom of the tank. An anode connection

to the outside of the tank completes the

electric circuit. The deposit continues with-

out interruption for four hours with practi-

cally no attention. Helium supplies the mert

atmosphere. In argon the sublimation of salt

is greater for reasons unknown.

The deposit is drained for 15 minutes in the

inert atmosphere above the cell and cooled

for one hour when it can be safely removed.

The drag out is unusually small—approxi-

mately two-tenths pound of salt per pound

of metal withdrawn. The deposit which is

highly crystalline in character is readily

washed with water acidulated with hydro-

ehloriec acid.

A 1,000-ampere cell ran with a current

efficiency of 78 percent and a 4,000-ampere

cell ran 70 days at 85 percent.

From a large number of runs (100 or more)

65 per cent of the product was less than 70

BHN, 22 per cent was plus 70 to 80 BHN,

5 per cent was over 100 BHN, 3 per cent be-

tween 100-140 BHN, and 5 per cent was

over 140 BHN.

In the hands of the skilled operators at

Boulder City there appears to be no difficulty

in the continuous running of the cells. The

engineering features in their simplicity are in

strange contrast to some of the electrolytic

monstrosities which I have seen in other

laboratories.

I failed to mention that the starting ma-

terial used in the runs just outlined was

titanium scrap with a Brinell hardness of

350. As a means of upgrading scrap the op-

eration was quite a successful one.

Chemical and Engineering News for De-

cember 31, 1956, carries a reference to the

use of an electrorefining operation for scrap

recovery by Mallory Sharon Titanium Com-

pany under the direction of Dr. R. S$. Dean.

The method followed would appear to be

that indicated by the Boulder City Bureau

of Mines.

JANUARY 1958

A special importance attaches to this re-

fining process in view of the prospect of

refining cheap titanium or titanium alloys

made by carbon, silicon, or metallothermic re-

duction of oxides. This electrolysis of soluble

anodes for titanium refining offers new possi-

bilities, the potentialities of which have still

to be explored.

The approach to this problem is further

developed in a recent brochure which I re-

ceived from Chicago Development Corpora-

tion on Electrolytic Titanium from which I

quote.

A more practical method for the large scale

reduction of titaniferous ores and slags is alumino-

thermic reduction.

Economically, Sorel Slag is an excellent starting

material for use in aluminothermic reduction as it

is cheap, has a high percentage of titanium dioxide

and forms a low melting titanium-aluminum iron

alloy which can be separated easily from the oxide

products after reduction. The Sorel slag, which

is a black, lumpy material, is dried, ground to

—100 mesh, mixed with aluminum scrap, and

heated in an induction furnace to 1200° and 1300° C.

Although the reaction is exothermic, added heat

is necessary to allow the metal to coagulate and

the resultant oxide products to form a slag at the

top. Both a flux of 90% calcium fluoride and 10%

sodium aluminum fluoride, and a flux of 50% ecal-

cium oxide, 45% calcium floride and 5% sodium

aluminum fluoride have been used successfully.

From a sorel slag with an initial composition of

80% TiO,

Oo. TAY FeO

Bo SiO.

4.7% MgO

a reduced product was obtained which contained

Ti 75.0%

Al 10.0%

Fe CD

Oz 3 BY,

The material was bottom poured into an argon

filled mold which casts the alloy into plates that

can be hammer milled to the desired particle size

as a feed for the electrolytic cell.

In following up such investigations as this, the

HUNTER: PROGRESS IN TITANIUM RESEARCH 7

silicothermic reduction of titanium ores must also

receive some consideration. In fact it lies well

within the bounds of possibility that combinations

of carbon, silicon and aluminum used as reducing

agents can produce a satisfactory ferrotitanium

product for ultimate electrolytic refining. A high

concentration of titanium carbide in the resultant

product would present some difficulties in carbon

removal in the final electrolysis.

As a final word to the story I can say that

the members of the Titanium Review Com-

mittee of the Materials Advisory Board,

chairmaned by Dr. Frances C. Frary, in

reviewing the annual progress in titanium

extraction research are in accord in thinking

that the recent development in electrolytic

research at Boulder City represents the first

major break-through in new titanium de-

velopments in the metal production field. It

eliminates the chlorination feature of the ex-

pensive titanium tetrachloride. If the cheap-

est of our titanium ores can be converted by

arc melting to ferrotitanium alloys, the elec-

trolytic process can convert this product to

a high-grade titanium which might be

superior in quality to any metal produced

to date by sodium or by magnesium reduc-

tion of the tetrachloride.

There will be a considerable time lag in

getting such a process into competitive com-

mercial production but the increasing market

for titanium sponge will give present plants

adequate opportunity to recoup their cost

with the 5-year amortization.

I consider it of the greatest importance

that the electrothermal reduction of titanium

oxide and the electrolytic refining of the re-

sulting alloy at the Boulder City, Nev., sta-

tion of The Bureau of Mines should be ade-

quately supported and that the experi-

mental work be pushed as rapidly as possible.

In the hght of these later developments, |

believe that the future holds high promise

for better and even cheaper titanium as an

engineering material in production.

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 48Nosnl

PALEONTOLOGY .—Some Lower Ordovician monoplacophoran mollusks from

Missouri... Ettis L. YocuEetson, U.S. Geological Survey. (Communicated by

H. A. Rehder.)

(Received August 6, 1957)

The discovery of a living representative ot

monoplacophoran mollusks (Neopzlina gala-

theae) dredged from deep water off the west

coast of Central America (Lemche, 1957,

pp. 413-416) has aroused much interest

among students of mollusks. Monoplaco-

phorans previously had been known only as

fossils in rocks of Cambrian through Devo-

nian age. On the basis of the paired muscle

sears found in the fossil shells the Mono-

placophora have been interpreted as primi-

tive mollusks that have not undergone

torsion (Wenz, 1940; Knight, 1952). The

soft anatomy of the Recent species Neopilina

galatheae Lemche, confirms the supposition

as to the primitiveness of the group.

At the same time, this discovery has em-

phasized the need for more study of the

fossils. An unexpected feature of the Recent

species, not reported from fossil taxa, is an

asymmetrical coiled larval shell. Lemche

(1957, p. 414) suggests that the Silurian

genus Pilina Koken was characterized by an

asymmetrical nucleus. Unfortunately, he

based this opinion on drawing of a specimen

which has long been lost, and this important

detail cannot be checked.

I have examined the U. 8. National Mu-

seum and the U. S. Geological Survey

collections in the hope of finding some mono-

placophorans that would provide informa-

tion on early growth stages. Three specimens

of one species were obtained which give some

information on this subject. Specimens of

two other species, showing well-preserved

muscle scars, were also found. These three

species, two of which belong to new genera,

are described and figured below.

The collections of the U.S. National Mu-

seum contain numerous specimens of the

Cambrian monoplacophoran Scenella Bull-

ings. The muscle scars of one species of the

genus have previously been described (Ras-

etti, 1954). Some Middle Ordovician speci-

mens, particularly types and figured speci-

1 Publication authorized by the Director of the

U.S. Geological Survey.

mens, are also in the collections, as are a few

Silurian specimens. Upon preliminary exam-

ination, none of these specimens showed

either muscle scars or details of the apical

area.

During their tenure with the U. 5. Geo-

logical Survey, the late Drs. E. O. Ulrich and

Josiah Bridge obtained numerous Lower

Ordovician gastropods for a proposed mono-

graphic study. In the course of this work

nearly 200 specimens of monoplacophorans

were collected from outcrops or were con-

tributed by other institutions. The three

species described below are from the Ulrich

and Bridge collection.

No previously described species are re-

ferred to the new genera described below.

Most North American monoplacophoran

species were described between 60 and 70

years ago, and at the time little emphasis

was placed on muscle scars by American

writers. Thorough monographic treatment

of the group, particularly restudy and reil-

lustration of type specimens, is needed.

John W. Koenig, Missouri Geological Sur-

vey, provided information regarding the

fossil localities. I am indebted to Dr. J.

Brookes Knight for his ideas regarding the

significance of these specimens. Photographs

were taken by Nelson W. Shupe of the U.5.

Geological Survey.

Class AMPHINEURA

Order MONOPLACOPHORA

Family TRYBLIDIIDAE

Subfamily TRYBLIDIINAE

Cyrtonellopsis Yochelson, n. gen.

Type species —Cyrtonellopsis huzzahensis

Yochelson, n. sp.

Diagnosis.—Deep, cap-shaped monoplaco-

phorans with a strongly curved asymmetrical

apex not projecting far over anterior; dorsum.

smoothly curved; muscle scars unknown; shell

and ornament unknown.

Discussion.—When these specimens were dis-

covered in the collections, I was unable to place

JANUARY 1958 YOCHELSON: LOWER ORDOVICIAN MONOPLACOPHORAN MOLLUSKS so)

iil

Fies. 1-4.—Cyrtonellopsis huzzahensis, n. gen., n. sp.: 1, Right side view of holotype, U.S.N.M. no.

135181; 2, apical view of paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 135182;3, apical view of paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 135183:

4, apical view of holotype.

Figs. 5-9.—Bipulvina crofisae, n. gen., n. sp.: 5, Oblique top view of holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 135184:

6, side view of paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 135185a;7, top view of holotype; 8, oblique side view of holot ype

showing bifurcation of apex; 9, top view of paratype.

Fies. 10-13.—Proplina cornutaformis (Walcott): 10, Right side view of plesiotype, U.S.N.M. no.

135186a; 11, left side view of plesiotype; 12, apical view of plesiotype; 13, top view of plesiotype

All figures twice natural size, except 2 (natural size) and 8 (three times natural size

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

them generically. After examining photographs

of them, Knight (written communication) sug-

gested that they represented a new genus closely

allied to the Devonian genus Cyrtonella Hall,

1879. Examination of specimens of Cyrtonella

confirms this opinion. The similarity even extends

to the asymmetry of the juvenile shell (Knight,

1941, pp. 95-96). The principal difference between

the two genera is that Cyrtonella has a ridge on

the dorsum, and Cyrtonellopsis has a smoothly

rounded dorsum. Because of their strongly

curved apex, these two genera are atypical of

the Tryblidiinae (Knight, 1952, pp. 46-47).

Further study may show that they should be

placed in another subfamily or another family.

Cyrtonellopsis huzzahensis Yochelson, n. sp.

Figs. 1-4

Description Strongly curved monoplaco-

phorans with a subcircular aperture; available

specimens from about 2.0 cm to 3.5 cm in length,

apex just overhanging anterior margin and

strongly asymmetrical either sinistrally or dex-

trally; shell expanding rapidly so that it is rela-

tively deep and completing about three-fourths

of one whorl; aperture subcircular, the anterior

part slightly compressed laterally; dorsum fol-

lowing a curve nearly the are of a circle; shell

unknown but presumably thin.

Discussion—When the holotype is oriented

with the aperture down and the apex toward the

observer, the hooked apex bends strongly toward

the right. On one paratype the apex is inclined

to the right but is nearly symmetrical. On the

other paratype, the apex is strongly inclined to

the left. Several colleagues have examined these

steinkerns, or internal shell fillings, and all agree

that the specimens have not been deformed by

compaction of sediment, deformation of strata,

or other geologic features. The asymmetry shown

ean be considered as basic to the living animal.

If this assumption is granted, the specimens

are significant for three reasons: (1) the hook-

shaped apical filing preserved on these steinkerns

is evidence that the early growth stages of the

shell were curved for at least part of one whorl.

As a steinkern is not always a true reflection of

the exterior, it is reasonable to assume that the

shell was more strongly coiled than is shown

directly by the specimen. (2) The specimens

show that in the Lower Ordovician at least one

genus of monoplacophorans had an asymmetrical

protoconch. Though the muscle scars of Cyrtonel-

VoL. 48, No; 1

lopsis are unknown, the general form is so similar

to Cyrtonella, the two taxa probably had similar

musculature. (3) If the three specimens are a

sample of a living population, they show that

the asymmetry of the early whorls was variable

among individuals.

Cyrtonellopsis huzzahensis strengthens the in-

terpretation that the living Neopilina galatheae

Lemche (1957, p. 4161, figs. 1-4) is a mono-

placophoran. The coiled larval shell of that

species is not atypical but is something that can

be at least partly demonstrated from the fossil

record. Comparison of Cyrtonellopsis with

specimens of Cyrtonella has confirmed the indi-

vidual variation of the asymmetrical protoconch

in Cyrtonella. The taxonomic importance of the

assymmetrical protoconch cannot be evaluated

until more information is available regarding this

feature in other genera. It is reasonable to con-

sider the early growth stages of the monoplaco-

phorans as a larval adaptation and as such, they

have limited taxonomic usefulness.

Locality —U.8S.G.S. locality 238 (green),

Cambrian-Ordovician register. Huzzah Creek

section, on Huzzah Creek 1 mile west of mouth

of Dry Creek, on Missouri Highway 8, about 8

miles east of Steeleville. Mr. Koenig suggests

that the section is probably in the SW!148SW!4

sec. 26, T. 38 N., R. 3 W, Crawford County, Mo.

Collected by E. O. Ulrich and H. E. Dickout,

August 23, 1906. The register lists the formation

as Gasconade dolomite.

Catalogued specimens.—Holotype US.N.M.

no. 135181. Paratypes U.S.N.M. nos. 135182,

135183.

Genus Proplina Kobayashi, 1933

Type species —Metaptoma cornutaforme Wal-

cott.

Diagnosis.—Laterally compressed monoplaco-

phorans have the apex projecting far over the

anterior margin of aperture; interior of shell with

six sets of paired muscle scars, one pair anterior

and high in the shell, four spaced uniformly along

the sides of the shell, and one pair on the posterior

slope.

2 The Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch of

the U. S. Geological Survey maintains several

locality registers for the various internal sub-

divisions. These are differentiated by colors on

the locality numbers attached to specimens. The

‘“‘oreen’’ series, Cambrian-Ordovician, are no

longer in current use being superseded by an

‘“‘orange’’ register. ‘

JANUARY 1958

Discusston.—Kobayashi (1933, p. 263) re-

marked that the muscle scars of this genus are

“represented by an impressed band near the

aperture.”’ Actually muscle scars cannot be seen

on the specimens he described, and cannot be

seen on the primary types of Proplina cornuta-

formis (Walcott) (Knight, 1941, p. 274). Knight

(1952, p. 47) placed the genus within the Tryblidi-

inae and in a footnote stated that he examined

specimens of Proplina from the Ulrich and Bridge

collection which showed monoplacophoran muscle

scars. Though the importance of these specimens

is obvious, they have never been previously

described or figured.

Proplina cornutaformis (Walcott)

Figs. 10-13

Metoptoma cornutaforme Walcott, 1879, p. 129

Metoptoma cornutaforme Walcott. Lesley, 1889,

p. 204, figs.

Triblidium cornutaforme (Walcott). Walcott, 1912,

p. 263, pl. 41, figs. 12-14.

Proplina cornutaformis (Walcott). Knight, 1941,

p. 274, pl. 4, figs. 2a-2c.

Proplina cornutaformis (Walcott). Knight, 1944,

p. 487, pl. 174, fig. 11.

Description.—Laterally compressed ovoid, rela-

tively deep monoplacophorans, with apex pro-

jecting over anterior apertural margin; available

specimens from about 1.0 cm to 3.5 cm in length;

aperture strongly compressed at anterior, moder-

ately rounded at posterior, so that shell is wedge

shaped when viewed from above; shell relatively

deep, in the mature stage flattened on the dorsum

in side view; outer surface with numerous, equally

spaced concentric rugae, not reflected on the

interior of the shell; apex only slightly curved;

approximately one-fourth of shell projecting

over anterior margin in early growth stages and

nearly one-fifth of shell projecting at maturity;

interior of shell with six sets of paired muscle;

anterior muscle scars located about one-third

of the distance from apex to posterior of margin,

and relatively high in the cup; the first scar

consisting of a sharp short depression in shell

trending near 45° to the margin of the aperture

and a posteriorly elongated slight swelling located

behind the depression; the second to fifth sets of

sears on the steep lateral sides, closer to the

apertural margin than the first set, these four

pairs of sears nearly equally spaced, with the

second scar below the swelling noted above, and

the fifth posteriorly, some three-fourths of the

YOCHELSON: LOWER ORDOVICIAN MONOPLACOPHORAN MOLLUSKS Al.

total length of the shell; the second pair of scars

faint and obscure in detail; the third through

fifth formed of elongate narrow depressions in-

clined near 60° to the margin of the aperture

each with a posterior swelling, but neither the

depression nor swelling having sharp margins:

the sixth pair of scars on the posterior slope,

somewhat wider than the others, widening and

dying out toward the posterior margin, but con-

tinuing as faint furrows up along the dorsum

above the general level of the other scars for

some two-fifths of the length of the shell; interior

of shell with a flattened area on dorsum just

anterior to furrows of posterior set of muscles.

Discussion.—The above description is based

on reexamination of the types and topotypes, all

from limestone and showing the external orna-

ment and general form, supplemented by chert

steinkerns preserving the impression of the shell

interior. One measurement suggests that the

shell covering these steinkerns was about 0.4 mm

thick. This thickness of shell would account for

most of the differences of shape between the

calcareous shells and the steinkerns. The possi-

bility remains that the steinkerns may represent

a distinct species. Perhaps the single most

important difference is that the steinkerns do

not reflect the rugosities shown in the shell ex-

terior of the limestone specimens. In the present

state of our knowledge of the monoplacophorans,

however, it seems wiser to construe the species

broadly than name a new species.

In addition to the type, three other American

species have been referred to this genus. Proplina

cornutaformis has a less elongate apex than P.

acuta (Whitfield) (1889, p. 45, pl. 7, figs. 9-11)

and a more elongate apex than P. unguiformis

(Ulrich, in Ulrich and Scofield) (p. 848, pl. 61,

fig. 42-44). The type species is lower and has a

steeper slope of the shell below the apex than

does P. barabuensis (Whitfield) (1878, p. 60)

Proplina cornutaformis (Walcott) differs from P.

bridge. Kobayashi (1933, p. 263, pl. 5, fig. 2)

described from southern

relatively and significantly higher. It

Manchuria, in being

ditters

from P. ampla Kobayashi as figured (Kobayashi,

1933) on plate 4, figure 2, in having the posterior

slope not abruptly set off at an angle. The speci

men of P. ampla figured on plate 5, figure 4,

probably should be referred to Cyrtonellapsis

Locality —The chert steinkerns showing muse

sears, one of which is figured, are from U.S.G.S

242¢ Cambrian-Ordovician

loeality (green),

i, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The specimens probably were obtained at or

near the Teagues Creek lead workings located in

Avs SINSATION A Wee. @, It, AB) IN, Th. la WW Speci-

mens were collected in 1891 by W. P. Jenny.

The register lists the formation as “Hirst Mag-

nesian limestone.’”’ A label with the collection in

Josiah Bridge’s handwriting — states “Lower

Cotter

Catalogued specimens.—Plesiotypes, US.N.M.

nos. 135186a-135186v.

Bipulvina Yochelson, n. gen.

Type species.—Bipulvina croftsae Yochelson,

n. Sp.

Diagnosis.—Low, spoon-shaped monoplaco-

phorans having the interior of the dorsum flat-

tened for more than half of its length and set off

from the anterior and posterior slopes; apex

strongly anterior, just projecting over apertural

margin; five pairs of subtriangular lateral muscle

scars located relatively high on lateral slopes,

with some additional markings on anterior slope;

ornament unknown; interior of shell with two

furrows parallel to lines of muscle scars.

Discussion —Bipulvina fits clearly within the

Tryblidiinae as listed by Knight (1952, p. 46,

47). Even though the external ornament of

Bipulvina is unknown, it can be distinguished

readily from other members of the subfamily. The

shell is lower and much less curved than that of

Cyrtonella Hall, 1879, or Vallatotheca Foerste,

1914. Both Vallatotheca and Pilina Koken, 1925,

have strong rugosities which would be reflected

on the shell interior; such rugosities are missing

from Bipulvina. The apex of Bipulvina is less

pointed than that of Drahomira Perner and

Proplina Kobayashi, 1933, Helctonopsis Ulrich

and Scofield, 1897, is not well known, but seem-

ingly has a lower shell more strongly curved

along the dorsum.

Bipulvina is closest to Tryblidium Lindstrém,

1884, in shape, but has a different musculature

than that genus, possessing only five pairs of

muscles, rather than six. In some ways Brpulvina

is a more complex shell than Tryblidium as it has

a different sort of musculature at the anterior

than on the main part of the body. Pilina unguis

(Lindstrém) shows differentiation of the anterior

scar or scars (Lindstrém, 1880, pl. 9, fig. 2) but

the anterior slope is unlike that of B. croftsae.

It is tempting to homologize the six or eight

VOL) 435sNiGrae

muscles of the tryblidiids with the imdividual

plates of the Amphineura (Knight, 1952, p. 22)

but Bipulvina shows that, in detail, such homol-

ogy is not exact or necessarily correct.

Bipulvina croftsae Yochelson, n. sp.

Figs. 5-9

Description —Low, spoon-shaped monoplaco-

phorans with two depressions on dorsum of

shell interior paralleling the two lmes of muscle

scars; available specimens about 2.5 em in length;

aperture oval, rounded anteriorly and posteriorly,

wider at the latter end; cast of apex relatively

blunt, just overhanging the anterior margin;

ornament and thickness of shell unknown; dor-

sum of steinkern, when viewed in profile, flat-

tened and gently inclined, bending abruptly at

the anterior slope and less abruptly at the longer

posterior slope; five distinct sets of paired muscle

sears located relatively high in the shell between

the anterior and posterior slopes, the most for-

ward set being just posterior to the anterior slope;

muscle scars in shell subtriangular with a point to-

ward the apex, deepest at the point and shallowing

posteriorly, the first muscle scar longer than those

posteriorly, each scar crossed by several growth

lines concave forward, the lowermost edges of

all the muscle scars joined and still farther sunk

into the shell; central to the lines of muscle scars

there are two shallow linear furrows coalescing

on the anterior slope and dying out posteriorly,

the area of the shell between these rounded de-

pressions being raised and flattened; anterior

slope of shell interior with several markings, pos-

sibly muscle scars, but fainter and smaller than

those posteriorly; markings in the form of two

paired ridges and depressions, occurring anterior

to first clear large muscle scar, with a third smaller

depression just posterior to the apex and above

the apical construction noted below, with two

flattened subtriangular shell thickenings pro-

jecting inward near the apex; evidence of a

short median septum anterior to these projec-

tions; a set of paired crescent shaped markings

occurring at the extreme anterior under the apex

where the shell begins to flare out near the

margin; a pair of elongate weltlike ridges in-

clined 30° to the margin occurring anteriorly

about midway between the apex and the first

clear muscle scar, but relatively close to the

margin; and a pair of shorter ridges occurring

below the first large muscle with other similar,

JANUARY 1958

though fainter, ridges posteriorly, their exact

spacing and number not determined.

Discussion.—The description of Brpulvina

croftsae is based on three steinkerns preserved in

chert. The first is incomplete and rather poor,

and shows only the lines of muscle scars and

paralleling depressions. These depressions are

represented as ridges above, or dorsal, to the

muscles. The second steinkern shows the shape

well, but does not preserve many details. The

third is incomplete but exceedingly well pre-

served; it is on this specimen that most details

of the anterior were seen.

Five sets of paired muscle scars are on the

main body of the steinkern. They are limited to

the flattened area set off from the anterior and

posterior slopes. The scars are all high on the

sides, stand in relief, and appear to be relatively

large and deep compared to the scars of other

monoplacophorans. They indicate a fairly thick

shell, as thin shells of patelliform mollusks com-

monly either lack muscle scars or have them

poorly developed. The flaring at the margin of

the steinkerns is another indication of a relatively

thick shell. Secondary deposits may have further

augmented the shell thickness and may be the

cause of the flattening of the dorsum as they are

in Tryblidium reticulatum Lindstrom (Knight,

1941, p. 364).

The markings on the anterior slope are all

fainter than those posteriorly and are of a differ-

ent shape. They are more the ridge and depres-

sion type seen in Proplina cornutaformis (Wal-

cott), though of course much smaller. Two sets

ean be seen clearly; the one just posterior to the

apex is so faint it might be interpreted differently

by another observer. Whatever their exact num-

ber and position, these markings on the anterior

of the steinkern indicate a differentiated head

region, and suggest a fairly complex musculature.

In contrast to these faint markings on the

anterior slope, the constriction at the apex is

quite clear. It is seen on two steinkerns as a

depressed and flattened subtriangular area on

each side of apex. This depression may connect

with the lowest shallow depression just posterior

to it. Anterior to the constriction, the apex of one

steinkern is bifurcated. This bifurcation suggests

the presence of a short median septum in the

shell. An alternative explanation, which cannot

be checked until further specimens are obtained,

is that the apex of the shell was not completely

filled with chert before the shell was dissolved.

YOCHELSON: LOWER ORDOVICIAN MONOPLACOPHORAN MOLLUSKS 13

On the anterior lateral slopes just above the

line where the steinkern flares out to the margin

and just anterior to the first large muscle scar,

paired elongate ridges are quite clear. The are

present as sharp depressions in the steinkern.

Other depressions, much shallower, but of similar

size and shape occur posteriorly on the lateral

and posterior slopes. Their spacing is not clearly

evident, but does not appear to be uniform. The

anterior markings and those on the lateral slopes

may not necessarily have had the same function.

No satisfactory interpretation of these markings

can be given. Whatever they may be, they are

not the same as the ‘“‘shadow scars” in Arch-

aeophiala Perner (Knight, 1952, p. 27), as these

“sears”? would be represented on the steinkern

by ridges rather than depressions and would

be in a different position with reference to the

muscles.

Locality —U.8.G.8. locality 237y (green),

Cambrian-Ordovician register. On Poverty Flat,

NW!14NE24 sec. 31, T. 37 N., R. 1 W., Washing-

ton County, Mo. The Poverty Flat lead workings

were mined in 1890-1891. Mr. Koenig indicates

that they are on the northwest of a dirt road,

just south of a sharp bend, clearly shown on the

Berryman, Missouri, quadrangle sheet. The

specimens were collected by J. D. Robertson, of

the Missouri Geological Survey, in 1890 or

earlier. The register, written June 3, 1933, or

later lists the specimens as being from the Gas-

conade dolomite.

Catalogued specumens.—U.S.N.M. no. 135184;

paratypes U.S.N.M. nos. 135185 a, 135185 b.

REFERENCES

ForerstEe, A. F. Notes on the Agelacrinidae and

Lepadocystinae, with descriptions of Thresher-

adicus and Brockocystites. Bull. Sei. Lab.

Denison Univ. 17: 399-487, 1914.

Haut, James. Natural history of New York,

Paleontology, 5 (2): Containing descriptions of

the Gasteropoda, Pteropoda, and Cephalopoda

of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage,

and Chemung growps. 1879.

Knieut, J. Brookes. Paleozoic gastropod geno

types. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 32: 510

pp. 1941.

Paleozoic Gastropoda. In Shimer, H. W.,

and R. R. Shrock, Jndex fossils of North

America: 437-479, pls. 174-196. New York,

1944.

gastropods and their

Smith-

Primitive fossil

bearing on gastropod classification.

sonian Miss Coll. 117 (13): 56 pp. 1952

Kosayasui, Treticsut. Faunal study of the Wa

th snecia

wanian (basal Ordovician) series wii

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

notes on the Ribeiridae and the ellesmereocer-

oids. Journ. Fac. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, sec.

2, 3: 249-328, pls. 1-10. 1933.

KoxrEn, Ernst (edited by Perner, Jaroslav).

Die Gastropoden des baltischen Untersilurs.

Mém. Acad. Sei. Russie, sér. 8: Classe Phys.-

Math., 37 (1). 1925.

LemcHe, HENNING. A new living deep-sea mollusc

of the Cambro-Devonian class Monoplacophora.

Nature 179: 413-416, 1957.

Lestey, J. P. A dictionary of the fossils of Penn-

sylvania and neighboring States named in the

reports and catalogues of the Survey. Geol.

Surv. Pennsylvania, Report P, 4: i-xlv, 437,

i-xxx1 pp. 1889.

LinpstroM, Gustar. On the Silurian Gastro-

poda and Pteropoda of Gotland. Wongl.

Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl. 19 (6). 1884.

Rasetti, Franco. Internal shell structures in

the Middle Cambrian gastropod Scenella and

the problematic genus Stenothecoides. Journ.

Pal. 28: 59-66, pls. 11, 12. 1954.

Unricy, E. O., and ScorieLp, W. H. The Lower

vou. 48, No. 1

Silurian Gastropoda of Minnesota, in Geology of

Minnesota, Final Report, 3 (pt. 2): 813-1081,

pl. 61-82. 1897.

Watcotr, C. D. Description of new species of

fossils from the Calciferous formation. 32d Ann.

Rep. New York State Mus. Nat. Hist.: 129-

IBIS WS7O-

Cambrian geology and paleontology. IT,

No. 9, New York Potsdam-Hoyt fauna. Smith-

sonian Misc. Coll. 57: 252-294, pls. 41-44. 1912.

Wenz, W. Ursprung und frihe Stammes-geschichte

der Gastropoden. Arch. Molluskunde 72: 1-10.

1940.

WHITFIELD, R. P. Preliminary descriptions of

new species of fossils from the lower geological

formations of Wisconsin. Ann. Rep. Wisconsin

Geol. Surv. 1877: 50-89, 1879.

Observations on some imperfectly known

fossils from the Calciferous sandstone of Lake

Champlain, and descriptions of several new

forms. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 2: 41-63,

1889.

POST-SHOT YIELD MEASUREMENT OF AEC

UNDERGROUND NUCLEAR TEST

The Atomic Energy Commission has reported

the resultant yield of the deep underground

nuclear test conducted at the AEC Nevada Test

Site in September 1957 as 1.7 kilotons.

The shot was detonated at 09 hours 59 minutes

59.45 seconds Pacific Daylight Time (16:59 :59.45

GCT) on September 19, 1957, at the end of a

tunnel about 2,000 feet long dug horizontally into

the side of a mesa at the northern edge of the

Yucca Basin. The explosion took place in a layer

of voleanic tuff. The coordinates of the detona-

tion point are: latitude 37°11’44.8”, longitude

116°12/11.3”, elevation 6,615 feet above mean

sea level. The vertica! distance from the detona-

tion point to the mesa surface is 899 feet, and

the slant distance to the side of the mesa is

approximately 800 feet. |

Post-shot investigation of the tunnel and sur-

rounding area confirms that the explosion was

contained and that no radioactive materials

escaped into the surrounding air. A detailed study

of the area and the local effects of the detonation

is In progress.

JANUARY 1958

BRONNIMANN AND BROWN: A CRETACEOUS FORAMINIFERAL GENUS Ly

PALEONTOLOGY — Hedbergella, a new name for a Cretaceous planktonic forami-

niferal genus. PAUL BRONNIMANN, Esso Standard Oil, 8. A., Habana, anp

Nort K. Brown, Jr., Gulf Oil Corporation, New York. (Communicated

by H. A. Rehder.)

(Received August 21, 1957)

The generic name Hedbergina was intro-

duced by Brénnimann and Brown (1956, p.

529) for a group of planktonic Foraminifera

ranging in age from Aptian or Albian to

Cenomanian. Globigerina seminolensis Harl-

ton was thought to be representative of this

group and was originally designated the type

species of Hedbergina. Although Harlton’s

figures of the holotype of G. seminolensis

(1927, pl. 5, fig. 7a, b) seem to give a true

likeness of the group, later examination of

this specimen at the U.S. National Museum

has shown that it is not typical of the group

for which Bronnimann and Brown (idem,

pp. 529, 530) intended their name Hed-

bergina to represent. The holotype is so un-

like Harlton’s deceptive figures that it may

not even be the specimen which he originally

figured. The holotype does in fact, as noted

previously by Plummer (1945, p. 264), re-

semble quite closely Globigerina cretacea

d’Orbigny. It has a relatively large umbilicus

and may have possessed an umbilical cover-

plate which was later broken away.

Harlton Gdem, p. 25) originally stated

that the type locality of G. semznolensis was

the Pennsylvanian Glenn formation, about

4 miles north of Ardmore, Carter County,

Okla. However, Tomlinson (1929, p. 78)

questioned the correctness of this and other

localities supplied by Harlton. Later Harlton

(1929, p. 308) admitted these errors but did

not completely rectify them. Plummer (idem,

p. 264), who examined the holotype of G.

seminolensis was of the opinion that it was

not ‘fa convincing Pennsylvanian faunal

member.”’ Inasmuch as Comanchean (Aptian

to Cenomanian) strata crop out in and

around the town of Ardmore, Brénnimann

and Brown (idem, p. 530) believed Harlton’s

species to be a Comanchean form. We now

believe, judging from the morphology of the

holotype, that G. semanolensis is a younger

Cretaceous fossil.

In spite of our intention, G. semznolensis,

represented by its holotype as this specimen

is now known to be, was originally, though

inadvertently, designated the type species

of Hedbergina; and for this reason the designa-

tion is binding and must be followed. Al-

though our definition of Hedbergina is now

known not to refer to Hedbergina, it still

applies to the group of fossils for which that

name was unfortunately introduced, and for

which we now propose the new name Hed-

bergella. The definition of Hedbergella, nu.

name, which is the same as that previously

given by Brénnimann and Brown (idem, p.

029) for Hedbergina, is as follows:

The smooth- to rough-walled, calcareous

hyaline test is trochospirally coiled. Its small

early chambers are globular, inflated, and glo-

bigerine-like. The last few chambers are elongated

and extend into a relatively small umbilicus. The

aperture is rounded, interiomarginal, and opens

into the umbilicus. Short apertural flaps extend

‘into the umbilicus but do not form an umbilicai

cover-plate.

Remarks.—The most characteristic feature

of Hedbergella, n. name, is the extension of

the last few chambers into the umbilicus.

This represents a stage in the phylogeny

from a Globigerina-like form with a tight

umbilicus to T7cinella Reichel with a large

umbilicus and umbilical cover-plate. In this

lineage the enlarging umbilicus was at first

minimized by extension of the last few cham-

bers as a whole into it as represented by

Hedbergella. Later in the lineage the umbili-

cus became too large to be filled in by the

chambers themselves. However, by extend-

ing only the apertural flaps, and not the

chambers as a whole, the large umbilicus was

covered by an umbilical cover-plate com-

posed of extended apertural flaps as repre-

sented by Tvcinella.

Reichel (1950, pp. 601-603), Hagn (1952,

pp. 769, 770; 1955, pl. 22, fig. 2, pl. 23, fig. 1),

and: Wmuiker (1952, pl. 5, ne. 2, Pv; pl. 6,

fig. 3, Pv) have referred forms belonging to

Hedbergella, n. name, to the genus Pseudo-

valvulinerra Brotzen (type species: Rosalzna

lorneiana d’Orbigny), but Hedbergella, n.

name, differs from this genus 1n possessing

early globigerine-like chambers and a

rounded aperture.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 48, NO. 1

Globigerina infracretacea Glaessner seems

to belong to the genus Hedbergella, but this 1s

not easily ascertained since Glaessner (1937,

p. 28, text-fig. 1) only figured dorsal and

peripheral views of his species. However,

Subbotina (1953, pl. 1, figs. 5-10) has

presented excellent figures of specimens of

G. infracretacea. In the ventral views of her

figures the chambers themselves are seen to

extend into the umbilicus, thus indicating

that G. infracretacea should be allocated to

Hedbergella.

“Anomalina sp. aff. lorneyana (d’Orb.)

typ.”’ of Montanaro Gallitelli (1947, p. 194,

text-fig. 1, no. 18a, b) is either a Hedbergella

or Ticinella, but one cannot tell which since

she did not figure a ventral view.

The type species of Hedbergella, n. name,

is here designated Anomalina lorneiana var.

trocoidea Gandolfi. This form is raised to the

rank of species and described below as Hed-

bergella trocoidea (Gandolfi).

Hedbergella trocoidea (Gandolfi)

Iie, 1 Be

Anomalina lorneiana (not d’Orbigny) GaANn-

DOLFI, Riv. Ital. Paleont., anno 48, mem.

AB To), OS, ol, 4ey mast, I IDS Toll (ey, 1s, 4S (Ole lls},

figs. la, b, 4a, b.

Anomalina lorneiana var. trocoidea GaAn-

Xoo, Woke, 1d. OY), ol, Ho uote. le-@s jo 4s

fies, 4, Be yolwls. wes, 22h, 10; Be, |0,

Anomalina lorneiana d’Orb. var. trocoidea

Gandolfi, Noru, Geol. Bundesanstalt,

Jahrb., Sonderbd. 3: 80, pl. 4, figs. 27a, b,

28a, b.

Pseudovalvulineria sp., UMIKER, Univ. Bern,

Geolw Insts Dissh plone 2 (ev) Eales,

ne. DPW)

Pseudovalvulineria trocoidea (Gandolfi),

Haen, Erdol und Kohle 5: text-figs. 1

(part), 2 (part).

_ Pseudovalvulineria trocoidea (Gandolfi),

HacGn, Internat. Sedimentary Petrogr.

Sensis ple 225) tig. 2a (pany) sa plepZonmicerg!

(part).

Hedbergina seminolensis (not Harlton),

BRONNIMANN and Brown, Eclogae geol.

Helv. 48: 592, pl. 20, figs. 4-6.

Not Globigerina seminolensis HARLTON,

Jiourns (alah 24 len, omar

1942.

1951.

1952.

1956.

1927,

Description.—The rather rough-walled,

coarsely granular test is low to relatively high

trochospirally coiled. Its early chambers are small

and globigerine-like. The last whorl is composed

of six to eight chambers, the last one or two of

which are markedly elongated and extended into

a tight umbilicus. The interiomarginal aperture

is rounded and opens into the umbilicus. It is

bordered by a short apertural flap —Broénnimann

and Brown’s (idem, p. 529) description of Hed-

bergina seminolensis (not Harlton).

Tse:

Fig. 1.—Hedbergella trocoidea (Gandolfi). Lec-

totype of Anomalina lorneiana var. trocoidea

Gandolfi. a, dorsal view; 6, peripheral view; c,

ventral view. X50. After Gandolfi (1942, pl. 2, —

fig. la-c).

Remarks. — Anomalina lornerana (not

d’Orbigny) of Gandolfi (1942, p. 98, pl. 4,

figs. 1, 19; pl. 8, fig. 2; pl. 13, figs. la, b, 4a, b)

is a low-spired form, and A. lornezana var.

trocoidea Gandolfi is a high-spired form. Such

forms seem to represent extremes in the

variability of the species. Both forms are

included in the same species herein called

Hedbergella trocoidea (Gandolfi). Globsgerina

infracretacea Glaessner can probably be re-

ferred to Hedbergella, but it is smaller, though

relatively stouter, its walls are smoother,

and it possesses fewer chambers in the last

whorl than H. trocoidea.

Placentula nitida (not Reuss) of Berthelin

(1880, p. 69, pl. 27, 4, fig. 1la—c) from the

Albian of Montcley, Department of Doubs,

France, appears to be a similar form, as noted

by Gandolfi (idem, p. 99). However, Barten-

stein (1954, p. 49), who restudied the

Montcley material, places Berthelin’s form

in synonymy with Valvulineria parva Khan,

which is unlike any Hedbergella. Discorbina

galiciana Friedberg, originally described from

beds of supposedly Senonian age near Lwéw

JANUARY 1958

(Lemberg) in the Ukraine (formerly south-

eastern Poland), may also represent a Hed-

bergella.

In raising the rank of this form from

variety to species, we have retained Gan-

dolfi’s varietal name as the specific name. In

Gandolfi’s paper the spelling of this name

where printer’s type was used is “‘trocoidea”’

(idem, p. 99, explanations to pls. 2, 13). His

spelling of the name where drafted letters

were used is ‘‘trochoidea’’ (idem, text-fig. 49,

pl. 4). Although “‘trocoidea’”’ is probably the

intended spelling, this is not certain. Ac-

cording to the Copenhagen Decisions on

Zoological Nomenclature (Hemming, ed.,

1953, pp. 43-44), ‘“‘Where there was more

than one Original Spelling and in the case of

none of these spellings was there clear evi-

dence that it was the result of an inadvertent

error, the Valid Original Spelling is that one

of the Original Spellings used by the First

Subsequent User of the name.” Reichel (idem,

pp. 601, 603) appears to have been the first

user (other than nomenclators, e.g., the

Zoological Record, Thalmann’s Indexes to new

genera, species and varieties of Foraminifera,

and Ellis and Messina’s Catalogue of Foram-

inifera) of Gandolfi’s name, but he also

used the two spellings. Noth (1951, p. 80)

was the next user of Gandolfi’s name which

he spelled ‘“‘trocoidea.’”? We regard Noth’s

usage as the valid spelling.

No holotype of Anomalina lorneiana var.

trocoidea was originally designated or indi-

cated by Gandolfi. The specimen Gandolfi

(idem, pl. 2, fig. la—c) illustrated as ‘‘A noma-

lina lorneiana d’Orbigny trocoidea n. var.

Breggia, strato 14, 50.” is herein desig-

nated lectotype. Gandolfi’s original figure of

this specimen is reproduced here as Fig.

OmC.

The lectotype of ‘‘Anomalina lorneiana

var. trocoidea Gandolfi” is deposited in the

collections of the Institute of Geology and

Paleontology, University of Basel, Switzer-

land.

The type locality of Hedbergella trocoidea

(Gandolfi) is the lower part of the Scaglia

variegata (Aptian or Albian), bed 14, about

35 m above the top of the Barremian Bian-

cone limestone, in the gorge of Breggia River,

northeast of Balerna, near Chiasso, Canton

Ticino, southeastern Switzerland.

BRONNIMANN AND BROWN: A CRETACEOUS FORAMINIFERAL GENUS 177

REFERENCES

BARTENSTEIN, H. Revision von Berthelin’s Mém-

ore 1880 wiber die Alb-Foraminiferen von

Montcley. Senck. Leth. 35 (1/2): 37-50, pl. 1.

1954.

BerRTHELIN, G. Mémoire sur les foraminiferes

fossiles de étage Albien de Montcley (Doubs).

Mém. Soc. Géol. France (3) 1 (5): 1-87, pls.

24-27. 1880.

BRONNIMANN, P., and Brown, N. K., Jr. Taz-

onomy of the Globotruncanidae. Eclogae Geol.

Helv. 48 (2): 503-562, pls. 20-24, 24 figs. 1956.

GuAESSNER, M. F. Planktonforaminiferen aus

der Kreide und dem Eozdn und thre stratigraph-

ische Bedeutung. Univ. Moscow Paleont. Lab.

Stud. Micropaleontology, 1 (1): 27-52, 1 pl.,

4 text-figs. 1937.

Haan, H. Zur Altersfrage der bunten ‘““Neocommer-

gel” im Hurschbachtobel bei Hindelang (AII-

gau). Erd6l und Kohle 5: 768-770, 2 figs. 1952.

———. Fazies und Mikrofauna der Gesteine der

Bayerischen Alpen. Internat. Sedimentary

Petrogr. Ser. 1: xi + 174 pp., 71 pls., 8 tables.

E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1955.

Harton, B. H. Some Pennsylvanian Foraminifera

from the Glenn formation of southern Oklahoma.

Journ. Pal. 1: 15-27, pls. 1-5. 1927.

———. Some Pennsylvanian Ostracoda and For-

aminifera from southern Oklahoma— a correc-

tion. Journ. Pal. 3: 308. 1929.

Hemminea, F. (editor) (1953) Copenhagen Deci-

sions on Zoological Nomenclature, 14th In-

ternat. Congress of Zoology, Colloquium Zool.

Nomenclature, xxix + 135 pp.

Montanaro GALLITELLI, EH. Per la geologia delle

argille ofiolitifere appenniniche. Nota III.—

Foraminifert dell’argilla scagliosa di Castel-

vecchio (Modena). Mem. Atti Soc. Toscana

Sci. Nat. 54: 175-196, 2 text-figs. 1947.

Notu, R. Foraminiferen aus Unter-.und Ober-

kreide des ésterreichischen Anteils an Flysch,

Helvetikum und Vorlandvorkommen. Geol.

Bundesanst. Jahrb. 3: 91 pp., 9 pls., 2 tables.

1951.

PuumMER, H. J. Smaller Foraminifera in the Mar-

ble Falls, Smithwick, and lower Strawn strata

around the Llano uplift in Texas. Univ. Texas

Publ. 4401 : 209-271, 3 pls., 16 text-figs. 1945.

REIcHEL, M. Observations sur les Globotruncana du

gisement de la Breggia (Tessin). Eclogae Geol.

Helv. 42 (2): 596-617, pls. 16, 17, 6 text-figs.

1950.

SuBBoTINA, N. N. Fossil Foraminifera from the

U.S.S.R., Globigerinidae, Hantkeninidae a

Globorotaliidae. Trudy Vses. Neft. geol.-rav

Inst. [n. ser.], fase. 76: 295 pp., 44 pls., 8 text-

figs. [In Russian]. 1953.

Tomurnson, C. W. The Pennsylvanian system %

the Ardmore Basin. Oklahoma Geol. Surv

Bull. 46: 79 pp., 20 pls., 3 text-figs. 1929.

UmIKER, R. Geologie der westlichen Stockhornkette

(Berner Oberland) mit besonderer Bericksic/

tigung der Kreidestratigraphie. Univ. Bern

Geol. Inst. Publ., Dissertation: x + 77 pp., 8

pls., 12 text-figs. 1952.

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 48, No. 1

ENTOMOLOGY.—Venomous moths and butterflies. Howarp F. ALLARD and

Harry A. Auzarp, Tingo Maria, Peru.

(Received September 24, 1957)

LARVAE WITH VENOMOUS HAIRS OR SETAE

The larvae of a number of species ot

moths and butterflies are known to bear

venomous hairs or setae. The following may

be mentioned:

Lagoa rispata (fam. Megalopygidae). This

is a common eastern species, the caterpil-

lars feeding upon the leaves of oak, elm,

apple, raspberry, and various shrubs. These

are fleshy and furnished with a dense coat

of long, silky, brown hairs which project

upward and meet to form a ridge or crest

along the median dorsal line. Among these

fine hairs venomous setae occur.

Sabine stimulea (fam. Limacodidae, by

some authors termed the Cochlidiidae and

by others the Eucleidae). These are known

as the slug-caterpillar moths. Sabine stemu-

lea is the saddle-back caterpillar, feeding on

oaks and other forest trees. The larva is

characterized by a green patch on the back

resembling a saddlecloth, the saddle being

represented by an oval purplish brown sopt.

The moth is dark reddish brown in color

with two white dots near the apex of the

fore wings.

The spiny oak slug (Luclea delphiniat) is

another common species feeding on oak,

pear, willow, and other trees.

Automeris io (fam. Saturniidae) (Giant

silkworms). This is called the io-moth and

is a common species in the eastern part of

the United States. It is characterized by

large conspicuous eye spots on the hind

wings. The larvae, armed with particularly

yenomous spines arranged in tufts, are

ereen, with a broad brown or reddish-white

edged stripe on either side of the abdomen,

and the spines are tipped with black. This

is a common species, and the junior author,

in his boyhood, was well acquainted with

this caterpillar and often deliberately

touched the spines of the caterpillars

against the tender skin of the arms or

fingers to note the venomous reactions. Fre-

quently, too, he sometimes inadvertently

came in contact with them, usually while

cutting or shocking corn, and was at once

made aware of their presence by a burning

sensation followed by more or less tempo-

rary redness or swelling.

The maia-moth, Hemileuca maa, is also

a member of the same family Saturnudae.

It is the only species of the genus in the

eastern United States and is not particu-

larly common. The larvae feed upon the

leaves of the oak, are brownish black with

a lateral yellow stripe, and each segment is

armed with large, branching, venomous

spines. eae ae

Browntail moth, Huproctis chrysorrhoea

(fam. Lymantriidae, or Lipariidae). The

tussock moths. This is a European pest in-

troduced first into Massachusetts at some

unknown date, but in 1897 its ravages came

to notice, and the species since has spread

over much of New England, and into Nova

Scotia, New Brunswick, and other areas.

The larvae are more or less social in behavy-

ior, fastening leaves together with silk as

shelters in which they pass the winter. They

are nearly black in general coloration, and

are clothed with brownish, barbed hairs,

borne on the subdorsal and lateral tubercles.

These hairs are venomous and in contact

with the human skin, produce an inflamma-

tion similar to that of poison ivy. Even the

cast spines of the larvae are readily blown

about by the wind, the venomous hairs

causing much discomfort.

ADULT INSECTS WITH VENOMOUS

HAIRS OR SETAE

It is perhaps less generally known that

the hairs or setae of the adult moths and

butterflies, in some parts of the world, may

also produce great discomfort, as trouble-

some irritations or inflammation in contact

with the skin of tender areas of the human

body. In this country the hairs of the adult

insects of the browntail moth are known

to be of this character.

In some parts of the world, especially in

January 1958

the warmer regions of South America, the

presence of moths with venomous hairs may

at times constitute a serious health problem.

The following observations and account

of the senior author, living at Tingo Maria,

Peru, in the province of Huanaco, on the

east slope of the Andes, in the tropical rain-

forest, may be of some interest to entomolo-

gists and to the medical fraternity as well.

In the Tingo Maria area, in 1952, during

the latter part of April and the month of

May, near the close of the season of heavy

rains, great numbers of small, dusty black

moths made their appearance, congregating

about electric lights along the streets of

Tingo Maria, and around those over the

entrance of houses. In unscreened houses

where lights were present these moths were

attracted in numbers. These moths at

Tingo Maria appear at about the same

season every year, and in 1952, they became

exceptionally numerous, together with a

number of other species, but the dusty black

species were dominant, appearing in enor-

mous numbers. It was soon obvious that

the irritations which soon developed were

associated with this moth. Simultaneously

with these hordes many people experienced

a troublesome rash. Spotted red areas or

small pimples or streaks developed on the

inner angle of the forearm. Irritations also

appeared on the neck or on other tender

parts of the body. So general was the afflic-

tion that affected individuals visited the

hospital at Tingo Maria, thinking they were

affected with some new, strange tropical

disease. It is estimated that 70-80 per cent

of the population was affected, perhaps as

many as several thousand people.

The senior writer suspected that the hairs

of this ubiquitous moth were responsible for

this rash and carried out a few texts which

definitely proved that his surmise was cor-

rect. He caught several of the moths and

gently rubbed them up and down the inner

part of his own forearm and also made simi-

lar tests upon several Peruvian technicians

at the Experimental Station who had not

previously experienced the prevailing rash.

In about 15-20 minutes all who had _ sub-

mitted to the test had broken out with a

red, itching rash in the treated areas. Both

the senior writer’s garage and house at

ALLARD AND ALLARD: VENOMOUS MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES 19

Tingo Maria were equipped with an electric

light over the entrance doors. Every night

hundreds of these moths were attracted to

these lights.

This moth has an interesting behavior by

playing possum when touched, at once lift-

ing and closing its wings in an upright

position over the body, then usually relax-

ing its hold upon the object to which it is

clinging and simply falling to the ground as

if helpless or dead. In a few seconds or a

minute it appears to revive and crawl or

fly away.

Although the great swarm of these moths

appear in April and May, a few belated

individuals may be seen in June, but very

few in numbers in comparison with the

great initial invasion.

The day following their nightly appear-

ance, they remain around the light which

attracted them, but many fall to the ground

and appear to die and are carried away or

eaten by ants. Their constant fluttering

about the lights scatters great quantities of

the hairlike fuzz dislodged from their bodies,

and this forms a dense covering on all ob-

jects below or near the lights, and is blown

about. This at once explained the occurrence

of the rash each time the senior author

worked in his workship in the garage, when-

ever he paused and rested his forearm on

the work bench. On these occasions, always

in a short time, the rash made its appear-

ance, and the itching continued for several

hours or more. At the height of the invasion

of these moths, people were being constantly

re-exposed each night so that the rash was

aggravated into an almost chronic and dis-

tressing condition to be endured for several

weeks.

Specimens of this moth, collected by the

authors, have been kindly identified by

Wilham D. Field, associate curator of in-

sects, U. 8. National Museum, as a species

of Hylesia close to Hylesia volvex Dyar, of

the lepidopterous subfamily Hemileucinae,

family Saturnudae. According to Mr. Field

this troublesome genus presents great taxo-

nomic difficulties so that the Tingo Maria

species cannot at present be more definitely

named, than a species near Hylesia vole

Dyar. Mr. Field has been of much assist-

ance in the preparation of relevant litera-

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ture discussing the moths of the genus

Hylesia, and the skin irritations which they

induce.

TESTS OF THE JUNIOR AUTHOR

Early in July the senior writer (my son)

sent me six or seven dried specimens of this

moth, and I made the following tests. I

carefully rubbed the abdominal portion of a

dry moth, bearinga coat of velvety dark hairs,

on the skin of the bend of my forearm at or

little below the elbow. This was done at 2

p.m. July 17. There was no noticeable im-

mediate effect, but in about two hours, the

area, showed a noticeable redness and by

nightfall the skin was hot and fiery red with

a pronounced puffiness resembling weals,

and itching had become intense. This dis-

comfort persisted throughout the might.

Even at nightfall of the next night, July 18,

the redness, puffiness, and itching were very

pronounced. By nightfall ot dalky WO. 2:

marked fiery redness was still evident, and

tiny pimplelike blisters had appeared, with

blood-red dots as if a slight haemorrhage

had taken place at many pin-point spots.

There was marked hyperaemia in the area,

and the affected skin seemed hot and fever-

ish, and appeared to perspire more freely

than unaffected areas.

I purposely avoided any palliative treat-

ment or medication with alcohol or other

reagents, as I wished to learn how persist-

ent this trouble would be. There was still

some redness of my forearm on July 22,

but there was now little swelling, and with

only occasional periods of itching, and this

became most noticeable only following

work or exercise during periods of hot

weather. By July 24, all irritating symp-

toms resulting from the test had completely

subsided. The irritations induced had there-

fore lasted almost one week, or at least for

six days, although some redness remained

for a few days longer.

In the literature there are a number of

reports of skin irritations produced by

species of moths of the genus Hylesza.

In the Lima newspaper La Cronica, May

12, 1952, the following translated account

appeared.

Montevideo, 12 (U/P/)—The crew of the

Italian oil-tanker Unitas who were detained in

VOL. 48, No. 1

quarantine some days after arriving from Carit-

pito, Venezuela, due to a fear of an epidemic of a

dangerous tropical disease, stated that while tak-

ing on oil in Venezuela, actual clouds of yellow-

tailed butterflies alighted on the hands, faces and

other exposed parts of the officers and sailors,

which they crushed with their hands or other

objects. A few hours before the ship weighed

anchor, the crew showed symptoms of a curious

disease. The skin was irritated first, followed

later by a painful inflammation. The captain,

Romulo Ballestrino, radioed the Institute of

Tropical Diseases in Rome, where a correct diag-

nosis was made and an efficient remedy pre-

scribed.

If this account is correct in all its fea-

tures, it isevident that even certain swallow-

tail butterflies of the genus Papilio may

cause troublesome skin inflammations simi-

lar to that caused by the moths of the genus

Hylesia, but this needs further confirma-

tion. Little work appears to have been done

to determine the exact nature of the skin

irritations produced by the hairy covering

of the moths of the genus Hylesza.

Mr. Leger and P. Mouzels (see reference

4) appear to have made a more than cursory

study of the character of the irritations pro-

duced.

They examined microscopically the indi-

vidual hairs or setae of the body covering

of the moths of Hylesia, a species appear-

ing at Cayenne in French Guiana in July

and August at the close of the rainy season,

causing skin eruptions, watery blisters and

inflammation, especially in young children.

The natives are familiar with its cause,

ascribing it to Mauvais papillons. The trouble

occurs only during a short period when

certain moths of the genus Hylesia appear,

and usually persists for only about eight

days. They examined microscopically the

hairs and setae of the body covering of these

moths and found three sorts. Most of these

were 140-150 microns long with the largest

diameter of 3 microns. These apically were

sharp-pointed, and some were furnished

with downwardly directed barbs. Others

were larger, up to 300 microns long, and less

sharply pointed. Some are lance-shaped,

shaped something like a knife. Some are

plates 2 microns thick with a length 120-150

microns.

Leger and Mouzels very convincingly

proved that the irritations produced by the

JANUARY 1958

hairs of these moths were not of merely

mechanical origin. After macerating the

moths, some in alcohol, and some in water,

these two solutions were centrifuged to

eliminate all scales and hairs. The solutions

were now separately tested on the tender

skin. The alcohol solution was absolutely

without effect. The water solution, after 4

hours, produced the typical characteristic

iritations of Hylesta, which persisted for

four to five days. This simple test indicated

an irritating principle of chemical origin,

comparable, it would appear, to the contact

poisons of the sap of certain plants (Rhus).

In the June 1952 issue of the publication

The Lamp (7), there appeared a most in-

teresting account of insufferable irritations

that workers on oil tankers visiting northern

South America have experienced following

visitations of the moths Hylesia. An artist’s

concept of swarms of these moths visiting

one of these tankers attracted by the lights

on board, is presented in an illustration.

This is a most readable and popular account

of the annoyances swarms of these venom-

ous moths sometimes inflict upon the crews

with their venomous hairs.

ALLARD AND ALLARD: VENOMOUS MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES 7)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Dauuas, E. D. Otro caso de dermatitis pro-

ducida por un lepidoptera y nota sobre Hy-

lesia nigricans Berg (Lep. Bombycidae). 8a

Reun. Soc. Arg. Pat. Reg.: 469-474. 1933.

(2) Fiocu, H, H.S. E. ABonnenc. Sur la papil-

lonite guyanaise. Discription du papillon

pathogene Hylesia urticans. Inst. Pasteur

Guyane Franc. Territ. de |’Inini, Publ. 89:

10; 5 figs. 1944.

(3) JoprG, M. E. Nota previa sobre el principio

activo urticante de Hylesia nigricans (Lepz-

dopt. Hemileucidae) y las dermitis provo-

cadas por el mismo. 8a Reun. Sog. Arg.

Pathol. Reg.: 842-895, 1933.

(4) Lecer, M., ann P. Movuzeus. Dermatose

prurigineuse determinee par des papillons

saturnides du genre Hylesia. Bull. Soe.

Path. Exot. 11: 104-107. 1918.

(5) Lima, A. pa Costa. Insectos de Brasil 5:

118-120 (Lagartas urticantes). 1945; 6: 264—

265 (discussion on Hylesia), 1950.

(6) TissEuiIL, J. Contribution a Vlétude

papillonite guyanaise. Bull. Soe.

Exot. 28: 719-721, 1935.

(7) ANON. Beware butterflies. The Lamp (2) 20-

21. June 1952. [An excellent and vivid ac-

count of violent skin irritations induced

upon the exposed skin of workers on oil

tankers of the Standard Oil Co. (New

Jersey) in the Gulf of Paria, northern

South America. |

de la

Path.

THE STATUE OF NEWTON AT CAMBRIDGE

Newton with his prism and silent face,

The marble index of a mind for ever

Voyaging through strange seas of Thought, alone.

—W ORDSWORTH.

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 48, No. 1

ENTOMOLOGY.—A recharacterization of the genus Coelopencyrtus, with descrip-

tions of two new species (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). B. D. Burks, Entomology

Research Division, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. (Communicated by C.

F. W. Muesebeck.)

(Received September 9, 1957)

In 1919 Timberlake (Proc. Hawaiian Ent.

Soc. 4: 218-225) described two genera of En-

cyrtidae for species which are parasitic on

the mature larvae of aculeate Hymenoptera

in Hawaii. Coelopencyrtus was described for

odyneri Timberlake and swezeyz Timberlake,

both reared from the mature larvae of the

vespid wasp Odynerus nigripennis (Holm-

gren), and Nesencyrtus was described for

Adelencyrtus kaalae Ashmead, reared from

the mature larvae of the colletid bee Neso-

prosopis pubescens Perkins.

Coelopencyrtus was characterized as having

the female antenna with the basal funicle

segments at least as long as broad, the

funicle considerably longer than the club,

the club itself not greatly wider than the

funicle, the mouth opening not greatly

widened, the thorax elevated, and the ovi-

positor not exserted; the male had simple

antennae and the head had the frons pro-

tuberantly produced beyond the eyes. Vesen-

cyrtus, contrariwise, had the female antennal

funicle with all segments broader than long,

the club almost as long as the entire funicle

and much broader than it, the mouth open-

ing very broad to accommodate the unusu-

ally large mandibles, the thorax somewhat

depressed, and the ovipositor slightly ex-

serted; the male had ramose antennae and

the frons was not protuberantly produced

beyond the eyes.

Shortly after his 1919 paper, Timberlake

described two more species of Coelopencyr-

tus. C. orbi (1920, Proc. Hawaiian Ent. Soc.

4: 422) was a parasite of the mature larvae

of Odynerus orbus Perkins, and mauzensis

(1922, ibid. 5: 137) like odynerz and swezeyt,

was a parasite of the mature larvae of Ody-

nerus nigripennis (Holmgren). He also de-

scribed a second species of Nesencyrtus,

sexramosus, from a single unreared male

specimen (1922, ibid. 5: 141). All these

species are Hawaiian. No additional species

in either genus have been described up to

now.

Recently two species of encyrtid parasites

of mature larvae of the solitary colletid bee

Hylaeus were reared and submitted to me

for identification. One species had been

reared in Utah and the other on Plummers

Island, Md. It was apparent that these

species were undescribed, but their generic

assignment presented considerable difficulty.

They could not be placed to genus with pub-

lished keys, such as those of Ashmead (1904,

Mem. Carnegie Mus. 1: 286-311), Mercet

(1921, Fauna Ibérica, Himendpteros, fam.

Encirtidos, pp. 60-82), Ferriére (1953, Mitt.

Schweiz. Ent. Ges. 26: 1-45), or Erdés and

Novicky (1955, Beitr. zur Ent. 5: 165-202).

In Ashmead or Mercet they ran out near

Epiencyrtus, but even a casual examination

of these Hylaeus parasites showed them

not to be that genus. Consequently a search

was made through the numerous described

encyrtid genera which are not included in the

published keys. Fortunately specimens of

many of these genera are in the U. 8. Na-

tional Museum collection. A study of these

specimens and the literature finally made it

clear that the Hylaeus parasites had a blend

of the characters of Timberlake’s genera

Coelopencyrtus and Nesencyrtus. The males

have simple, nonramose antennae, as in

Coelopencyrtus, but the heads are nonpro-

tuberant, as in Nesencyrtus. The females

have the funicle segments all broader than

long, the club large and wider than any

funicle segments, the thorax depressed, and

the ovipositor exserted, as in Nesencyrtus,

but the mouth opening is relatively narrow,

as in Coelopencyrtus.

Under these circumstances it seemed ad-

visable to re-study all the species which have

been placed in Coelopencyrtus and Nesen-

cyrtus, to see how distinct they are generi-

cally. A re-examination of Timberlake’s excel-

lent descriptions and figures, along with a

study of type material of V. kaalae and C.

odynert, swezeyi, and orbs in the U. 8.

National Museum collection, have led to

JANUARY 1958

the conclusion that they all represent a

single genus. The rami of the funicle seg-

ments of the male antennae are not generi-

eally significant, as these vary from six

funicular rami in sexramosus, to four in

kaalae, to three small rami in mawiensis, to

one large ramus in swezey2, to one very small

ramus in odynerz, to none in orbz. In orb,

however, there is a small, ramuslike projec-

tion on the pedicel of the male antenna.

Somewhat similar projections are present on

the pedicels in swezeyz and mauiensis, while

the pedicels are simple or only very slightly

modified in sexramosus, kaalae, and odynert.

As for the female characters, orbt comes very

close to bridging the separation between

Coelopencyrtus and Nesencyrtus. C. orbit has

all the funicle segments broader than long,

the club is three-fourths as long as the entire

funicle, the mouth opening is broader than

in odyneri, but not so broad as in kaalae, the

thorax 1s somewhat depressed, and the ovi-

positor is exserted, less so than in kaalae, but

much more so than in odynerz. The protuber-

ant head, so striking in the male of odynerz,

is present in a reduced degree in the males of

orbt and mauiensis.

Consideration of these facts justifies the

conclusion that all the species mentioned

above, as well as the two to be described

below, belong in one genus, despite the

striking differences that exist between some

of the species. The name Coelopencyrtus has

page priority. It may be mentioned paren-

thetically that the genus Giraultella Gahan

and Fagan (=Hpaenasomyia Girault 1919,

not 1917), parasitic on the larvae of the

xylocopid bee, X ylocopa, in Java is probably

not the same as Coelopencyrtus although

seemingly closely related. Giraultella is very

inadequately described, and I have seen no

authentic specimens. Its description was

published one month after Coelopencyrtus.

Genus Coelopencyrtus Timberlake

‘““Ageniaspis sp.,’’ Swezey, 1907, Ent. Bul. Hawai-

ian Sugar Planters Assoc. Expt. Sta. 5: 52.

Coelopencyrtus Timberlake, 1919, Proc. Hawiian

Ent. Soc. 4: 218; Timberlake, 1922, ibid 5: 135.

(Type: Coelopencyrtus odyneri Timberlake, by

original designation.)

Nesencyrtus Timberlake, 1919, Proc. Hawaiian

Ent. Soc. 4: 223. (New synonymy.) (Type:

Adelencyrtus kaalae Ashmead, by monotypy and

original designation.)

BURKS: GENUS COELOPENCYRTUS dips,

Descriptton—Mandible with three teeth;

maxillary palp with four segments, apical one

the longest; labial palp with two segments, apical

one the shorter; antennae inserted low on frons,

near the mouth border, a relatively broad,

rounded projection present between antennal

bases; antennal scape enlarged, but not lamelli-

form; funicle with six segments, most or all of

which are wider than long; club clearly 3-seg-

mented and large, varying in length from three-

quarters as long as to as long as entire funicle,

and in width varying from only slightly wider

than to greatly wider than broadest funicle seg-

ment; width of malar space varying from three-

fifths to nine-tenths as great as maximum

diameter of a compound eye; fronto-vertex broad,

separated from face by a broadly rounded or

subacute angle, surface faintly reticulated and

lacking alveolar punctures; lateral ocelli almost

touching eye margins. Thoracic notum slightly

to moderately depressed, mesoscutum and scutel-

lum shining, smooth or very minutely and

faintly reticulated; axillae almost but not quite

meeting on meson; scutellum without a pencil

of hairs or lamelliform bristles; brachypterous or

apterous forms unknown; wings long, their

apices greatly exceeding gaster; submarginal

vein of forewing without an apical, triangular

enlargement; marginal vein as long as wide,

stigmal vein arising from marginal and as long

as marginal and postmarginal veins combined;

marginal cilia of forewing very short and dense;

legs with femora and tibiae flattened, but lateral

margins not carinate; mid tibial spur as long as

first mid tarsal segment. Propodeum extremely

short on meson, spiracles separated from anterior

propodeal margin by a space nearly equal to

diameter of a spiracle; gaster slightly wider than

thorax and varying from three-quarters to nine-

tenths as long as thorax; tips of ovipositor sheaths

hidden or slightly exserted. Male with antennal

pedicel and funicle varying from simple to more

or less ramose, club solid; head more or less protu-

berantly produced forward beyond eyes dorsally.

Members of this genus are parasites of the

mature

Hymenoptera. The hosts nest in wood (in twigs,

abandoned beetle burrows, or in rotten logs), or

in clay cells; none has been reared from ground-

larvae of nest-building aculeate

nesting Aculeata. The host larva becomes greatly

distended and filled with cells, much like lepidop-

terous larvae parasitized by Copidosoma (se

Timberlake, 1919, loc. eit., p. 220).

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Coelopencyrtus kaalae (Ashmead), n. comb.

Adelencyrtus kaalae Ashmead, 1901, Fauna Hawai-

iensis 1, pt. 3: 323.

Nesencyrtus kaalae (Ashmead) Timberlake, 1919,

Proc. Hawaiian Ent. Soc. 4: 183, 214.—Timber-

lake, 1922, ibid. 5: 139.

Coelopencyrtus sexramosus (Timberlake),

n. comb.

Nesencyrtus sexramosus Timberlake, 1922, Proc.

Hawaiian Ent. Soc. 5: 141.

Coelopencyrtus hylaeoleter, n. sp.

Female——Length 1.0-1.25 mm. Head and

thorax dark brown to almost black, with a very

faint metallic blue luster visible under strong

light; antennae dark brown, with apex of pedicel

tan; wings hyaline, veins dark brown, forewing

with a short, faint, brown streak at base and a

small brown stain below marginal vein; legs

dark brown, with trochanters, tibial spurs, and

basal tarsal segments tan or yellow; gaster

brown, with a broad, dark brown stripe across

the middle.

Mandible, Fig. 3, with dorsal tooth blunt,

ventral two teeth acute. Head in anterior aspect

broader than long. Antennae inserted low on

frons near mouth border; scape, Fig. 2, enlarged

in the middle, its maximum width one-third as

great as its length; pedicel semiglobose, two-fifths

as long as scape; funicle segments all wider than

long, first and second segments each slightly

longer than third or fourth, fifth and sixth seg-

ments longest; club broader than any funicle

segment and almost as long as entire funicle.

Malar space long, its width three-fifths as great

as maximum diameter of compound eye. Surface

of fronto-vertex minutely reticulated, mat,

clothed with numerous microbristles; eyes bare.

Ocelli forming a right angle; lateral ocellus

very close to margin of compound eye, length of

ocellocular line one-half as great as diameter of

lateral ocellus and one-sixth as great as length of

postocellar line.

Thorax minutely reticulated dorsally, sub-

shining, and clothed with microbristles; dorsal

surface of thorax flattened, almost plane medially;

pronotum narrower than mesonotum; scutellum

and mesoscutum equal in length on meson.

Forewing greatly exceeding apex of gaster;

marginal vein thickened, Fig. 1, equal in length

to postmarginal vein and three-fourths as long

as stigmal vein; hairless streak narrow; marginal

cilia extremely short. Basal tarsal segment of

VOL. 48, No. I

mid and hind leg as long as tarsal segments 2 and

3 combined, basal fore tarsal segment slightly

shorter than segments 2 and 3.

Propodeum extremely short on meson, poste-

rior and anterior margins almost in contact;

propodeal spiracles round, separated from an-

terior propodeal margin by a space slightly longer

than diameter of a spiracle. Gaster slightly

broader and shorter than thorax; cerci located

halfway between base and apex of gaster, each

cercus bearing two long and one shorter bristles;

ovipositor exserted for a distance one-fifth to

one-fourth the length of the gaster.

Male.—Length 1.0-1.1 mm. Color, sculpture,

and pubescence as in female. Antenna with

scape one-half as wide as long, pedicel one-half

as long as scape and as long as combined first

and second funicle segments; third and fourth

funicle segments slightly shorter than first or

second, fifth and sixth slightly longer; club as

long as two apical funicle segments. Thorax as in

female. Gaster five-sevenths as long as thorax.

Aedeagus normally protruding as far as female

Ovipositor is exserted, apex slender and down

curved.

Type locality —Logan Canyon, Utah.

Types —U.S.N.M. no. 63570.

Described from 9 female and 4 male specimens,

as follows: Type @, allotype ~@, and 7 @ and

2 @& paratypes, Logan Canyon, Utah, April,

1948, reared from mature larvae of Hylaeus sp.,

G. E. Bohart; 1 @ and 1 @ paratypes, North

Logan, Utah, June 4, 1952, reared from mature

larvae of Hylaeus sp. occupying old nest of

Sceliphron sp., G. E. Bohart and M. D. Levin.

All specimens deposited in the U. 8. National

Museum collection. Additional, more or less

fragmentary, specimens which bear the same

data as above are preserved in alcohol and on

slides; these specimens are not included in the

type series.

Coelopencyrtus hylaeoleter agrees with C. orbi

Timberlake in having the funicle segments of

the female all wider than long, with the club

large; the eyes are bare in both species, and in

both hylaeoleter and orbi the ocelli form a right

angle, the head is wider than long, there is a

short, brown streak in the forewing along the

posterior margin near the base, and the tip of

the ovipositor is exserted.

C. hylaeoleter differs from orbit in that the

antennal club of the female is almost as long as

the funicle in hylaeoleter, while this is only three-

JANUARY 1958 BURKS: GENUS

fourths as long in orbi; in hylaeoleter the forewing

is hyaline basally, with a small, brown-shaded

area beneath the marginal vein, but in orbi the

forewing is stained brown over the entire basal

half, but lacks brown shading below the mar-

ginal vein; the apex of the ovipositor in hylaeoleter

is exserted for a distance as great as one-fifth to

one-fourth the length of the gaster, while in

orbt the ovipositor is exserted for a distance only

as great as one-tenth the length of the gaster.

The male of hylaeoleter is at once distinguished

from the male of orbi by its simple, unmodified

antennal pedicel; the pedicel in orbit bears a

prominent, conical projection laterally.

Coelopencyrtus hylaei, n. sp.

Female —Length 1.0-1.1 mm. Head, body, and

legs entirely black, with only the mid tibial

spurs tan or yellow. Head with faint, metallic

blue-green or dark purple luster under strong

light; mesoscutum faintly metallic blue-green,

scutellum nonmetallic. Wings hyaline, venation

black; a very faint brown streak present along

posterior margin at base of forewing; no dark

shading or staining present in basal half or below

marginal vein.

Head in anterior aspect slightly broader than

long. Mandible as in hylaeoleter. Antenna, Fig. 5,

very strongly clavate, third and fourth funicle

segments extremely short; club as long as funicle

and almost twice as wide as sixth funicle segment.

Width of malar space two-thirds as great as

maximum diameter of eye. Surface of fronto-

vertex minutely reticulated, mat; eyes bare.

Ocelli forming an angle of approximately 75°;

lateral ocellus extremely close to lateral margin

of eye, length of ocellocular line one-third as

great as diameter of lateral ocellus and one-fifth

as great as length of postocellar line.

Thorax dorsally minutely reticulated, only

very faintly shining, almost mat; microbristles

slightly more conspicuous than in hylaeoleter;

thorax nor so flat dorsally as in hylaeoleter, the

mesoscutum being more nearly arched and the

scutellum only very slightly depressed on the

meson; mesoscutum slightly longer than scutel-

lum at median line. Forewing, Fig. 4, with

marginal and stigmal veins relatively shorter

than in hylaeoleter and a row of five or six micro-

bristles in outer margin of hairless streak; legs as

in hylaeoleter.

Gaster only very slightly wider than thorax

and nine-tenths as long as it; cercias in hylaeoleter.

COELOPENCYRTUS 25

\ N\

Yq \

\ 4

7”

eee lies a ‘<

A oe re Se S PCa ~~ -

— = 7! 7 Ly Lares

Le _ GE _— / ide ce on

a a a Pe FF

= eis ARE a a

i pe , a a a-

a EKG SE ETE - aN SE

a —— Vee Zits _ See

oa eee rare oe ea

_ ig Ge ise gu! Fix

Le CG GG - a enone wee

Fies. 1-5.—Coelopencyrtus hylaeoleter, n. sp.,

female, Fig. 1, stigmal area of forewing; Fig. 2, an-

tenna; Fig. 3, mandible. C. hylaez, n. sp.. female,

Fig. 4, stigmal area of forewing; Fig. 5, antenna.

Tips of ovipositor sheaths exserted for a distance

one-fourth as great as length of gaster.

Male—Length 1.0 mm. Antenna with all

funicle segments subequal in length; club as long

as apical two funicle segments; gaster three-

fourths as long as thorax; apex of aedeagus

exserted and very slightly down curved.

Type locality.—Plummers Island, Md.

Types —U.S.N.M. no. 63571.

Described from 22 9 and 1 o&@ specimens, as

follows: Type ¢, Plummers Island, Md.,

taken

dead from trap nest cell of Hylaeus sp., H-73,

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

August 14, 1956, K. V. Krombein; allotype @

and 21 © paratypes, progeny of the type, taken

alive from the same Hylaeus cell, August 17,

1956, K. V. Krombein. All specimens deposited

in the U. S. National Museum collection. Mr.

Krombein informed me that he first observed

the original female specimen resting on the

inner side of the septum of a Hylaeus cell in a

trap nest on July 18, at which time the host egg

apparently had not yet hatched. On July 20 the

Hylaeus larva was observed to be partly grown

and feeding; the chalcid still was resting on the

septum. On July 27 the host larva was mature,

its food had been consumed, and the chalcid

VOL. 48, No. I

had moved to the bottom of the cell. On August

14 the chalcid was dead in the cell, and the host

larva was greatly distended, its body being

completely filled with cells made by the develop-

ing chaleids, which were, by this date, darkened

pupae. On August 17, the chalcids had emerged

and were removed from the Hylaeus cell. There

were 25 @ and 1 specimens, 3 2 of which

were mutilated in opening the cell.

C. hylaei is closely related to hylaeoleter,

described above, but can most easily be distin-

euished from it by its completely black colora-

tion. The antennae, also, are different in the two

species, as is shown in Figs. 2 and 5.

See

STUDY OF FROGFISHES

There are fishes that fish with “fishing poles,”

use “worms” for bait, can swallow other fishes as

large as themselves, change color like chameleons,

and inflate themselves a few times their normal

size. These strange representatives of the class

Pisces include some of the most fantastically

hideous creatures in the world. One hardly would

people an imaginary malevolent planet with

creatures so weird in appearance.

These fishes are sparsely scattered through

most of the tropical seas. For the most part they

are bottom dwellers in relatively shallow inshore

waters. Some hide in seaweed. The color of some

species changes in accordance with the environ-

ment, but this is not universal in the family

Antennariidae, or frogfishes, described by Dr.

Leonard P. Schultz, Smithsonian Institution

curator of fishes, in a U. 8. National Museum

publication recently issued. Several hitherto un-

known species, including some of the most fan-

tastic, from the Museum’s collections were

described.

There are several genera of ‘‘fish fishermen,”

but the family Antennariidae is easily the most

fantastic and colorful. Appearance and ways of

life differ greatly from one species to another

but they all have, in general, certain characters

in common. Each has a “fish pole,” of varying

length, at the end of its snout. This is a bony

elongation of a dorsal spine. At the end of the

‘ole’ are one to three fleshy projections, which

look like marine worms and can be made to move

like worms.

The fish lies motionless on the bottom or in a

mass of seaweed. Another fish comes by and

starts nibbling at the bait. The frogfish—so-called

because of the general resemblance to frogs—

just opens its mouth. The inflow of water sweeps

the victim into the mouth. It usually happens too

quickly for the eye to follow. The mouth can be

ereatly expanded, like that of a snake, to swallow

a large victim.

The frogfish usually walks, rather than swims,

Dr. Schultz says. The pectoral fins are modified

to constitute legs of a sort. Movement is slow

and clumsy. The frogfish way of life does not call

for much agility, except with its big mouth. The

ability to change color is probably more or less

developed in all species of frogfishes, but in some

much more than in others. This camouflage

renders the creature almost completely invisible

in a changing environment. Nearly every species

can blow itself up either with air or water—

usually with water—to a few times its normal

size. This, Dr. Schultz believes, is probably a

defense mechanism to terrify possible enemies.

One of the new genera described, with the name

of Kanazawaichthys (in honor of Mr. Kanazawa

of the National Museum staff) has thick bony

plates on its head. Dr. Schultz believes that this

is a creature of the deep open sea and that the

plates serve in some way as a floating mechanism.

This family of fishes has been recognized for

two centuries or more, but considerable confusion

has existed among ichthyologists because of the

secrecy of its ways of life. There are probably

many species still unknown, says Dr. Schultz

since the creatures are likely to be turned up

mostly by accident.

ENTOMOLOGY —A new species of Meropleon Dyar from South Carolina (Lepi-

doptera: Noctuidae). EK. L. Topp, Entomology Research Division, U. 8. De-

partment of Agriculture. (Communicated by A. B. Gurney.)

Two male specimens of a new species of

Meropleon Dyar were recently discovered among

specimens submitted for identification by Frances

McAlister of Clemson Agricultural College,

Clemson, 8. C. The species is named and described

as follows:

Meropleon titan, n. sp.

Proboscis somewhat abortive, coiled, well

hidden by the labial palpi; palpi slightly up-

turned, reaching to about the middle of front,

ventral margin of first and second segments

fringed with loose hairlike scales, third segment

small, clothed with appressed scales; front

smooth, only slightly produced; eyes large,

rounded; ocelli present, small; antennae bipec-

tinate, gradually becoming simple at about apical

one-fifth, the pectinations short, the pectinations

of the inner margin longer than those of the ex-

ternal margin. Tegulae with outer margin clothed

with black hairlike scales, a median spot of black-

tipped scales at apical one-fourth. Vestiture of

thorax mostly of long scales, many black-tipped,

some tufts of long hairlike scales from above

bases of hind wings. Abdomen rubbed (other

species of the genus have a series of dorsal crests

near the base). Forewing broad, triangular, apex

slightly rounded, outer margin weakly angulate

at Cu, ; R; from near middle of cell, R3 from Ry»

anastomosing with R.,; to form areole; Rs and

R, shortly stalked; M, from lower margin of

areole; Ms, M3 and Cu, from near lower angle of

cell, M. converging toward M; basally; Cu, from

apical one-fourth of cell; upper discocellular

absent. Hind wings with Sec°+ R, adnate with

cell near base; Rs and M;, shortly stalked from

upper angle of cell; M, obsolescent, from well

above lower angle of cell; M; and Cu; connate at

lower angle of cell.

Forewing cinereous with rufous and fuscous

sealing in the basal, medial and subterminal

area; subbasal line represented by a short black

mark at costa; antemedial band indistinct except

between anal vein and inner margin; postmedial

band vague, limited basally and distally by a

series of patches of dark scales between the veins,

the median portion cinereous except between Cuy

and the anal vein where it is white; subterminal

line irregular, pale, bordered inwardly by some

rufous spots, those nearer the inner margin the

most heavily marked; terminal line of weak black

erescents; fringe of dark-tipped scales, but

narrowly white at veins; a dark, triangular spot

extending inwardly from termen in area of the

branches of the medial vein and another dark

patch on the costa shortly basad of apex; reni-

form moderate, vague, mostly of pale, cinereous

scales; orbicular large, oblique, outlined with

black except open toward costa, central portion

white; the area between the reniform and _ or-

bicular black; a black basal dash present, extend-

ing to antemedial band, followed distally by a

heavy, black median bar. Hind wing lightly

Fre. 1.—Type, male, Meropleon titan, n. sp.

(1.5 X natural size.)

suffused with fuscous; terminal line black; fringe

of dark-tipped scales, but paler than fringe of

forewing. Undersurface of forewing dark grey,

cell appearing darker due to a patch of dark

hairs. Hind wing below, whitish, weakly flecked

with fuscous scales; a moderate, black discal spot

present. Length of forewing, 19 mm.

Male genitalia similar to those of Meropleon

diversicolor (Morrison) but larger and aedeagus

distinct. Aedeagus with two spatulate lobes from

the aedeagal shaft and a third lobe on the vesica

(see Fig. 2). In diversicolor the aedeagus has but

one external spatulate lobe.

Fig. 2.—Lateral view of aedeagus of Merepleor

titan, n. sp. (13.5 X natural size.

Type, male, Clemson, 8. C., October 7, 1956,

Frances McAlister, in the U. 8. National Mu-

seum, Washington, D. C. Type number 63458.

One male paratype, Clemson, 8. C.,

19, 1957, Frances McAlister in the collection of

the Department of Entomology, Clemson Agri-

eultural College, Clemson, 8. C.

This species is obviously related to J.

color (Morr.) but is readily separated by

larger size, the presence of a black basal dash nn

the anal fold of the forewing, the asymmetrical!

bipectinate antennae of the male and the dis-

tinctive aedeagus of the male.

September

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 48, No. I

HERPETOLOGY —Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland and Delmarva, No.

17: Southeastern herptiles with northern limits on coastal Maryland, Delmarva,

and New Jersey. CuypE F. Rrrp, Reed Herpetorium, Baltimore, Md.

(Received July 22, 1957)

While studying the flora of southeastern

United States, the author has observed that

various southern herptiles also find their

northern limits in our region. About 75

species of plants with a general distribution

southward to Florida have their northern

limit in Maryland, on Delmarva or in

southern New Jersey. Most of these species

of plants having the said distribution are

found on the Outer Coastal Plain. Their

northern limit, known at the present time,

has been annotated in a botanical paper by

the author dealing with the northern ex-

tensions of the southern coastal flora.

Most notable of the species of plants

finding their northern limit in Maryland or

on the Delmarva Peninsula are: Taxodiwm

distichum (cypress), Tillandsia wusneordes

(Spanish moss), Quercus virginiana (live

oak), Xanthoxylum clava-herculis, Bignonia

capreolata, Trilium pusillum var. virginia-

num, Berchemia scandens, Symplocos tinc-

toria, Borrichia frutescens, and Passiflora

incarinata.

There are 21 herptiles that have a similar

southern Coastal Plain distribution and have

their northern limitations in Maryland, on

Delmarva or in southern New Jersey. A

couple of the species range more northward

into southern New England and Massa-

chusetts. However, some of the southern

Coastal Plain plants also range northward

into New Jersey, Long Island, and Massa-

chusetts.

1. Rana virgatipes Cope. Atlantic Coastal

Plain from southern New Jersey to southeastern

Georgia. New Jersey (Atlantic, Type Locatiry;

Burlington, Monmouth, Essex, Cape May, Mer-

cer, Ocean); Delaware (Sussex); Maryland (Dor-

chester, Worcester, and Charles). See Reed,

Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland and

Delmarva, No. 16, in Herpetologica, 1957. Map

1 (@).

2. Hyla femoralis Sonnini and Latreille. Lower

Coastal Plain from southern Maryland and south-

eastern Virginia to eastern Louisiana. Maryland

(Calvert: Battle Creek, see Fowler, Maryland

Journ. Nat. Hist. 17(1): 6-7, 1947). Map 1(X).

3. Hyla cinerea (Schneider). Coastal Plain

from Delaware and Maryland south through the

lowlands of the Atlantic and Gulf States from

Virginia to Texas; north in the Mississippi Basin

to southern Illinois. Delaware (Sussex), Maryland

(Cecil, Kent, Queen Annes, Talbot, Dorchester,

Harford, Baltimore (coastal), Somerset, W1i-

comico, Worcester, St. Marys, Charles, Calvert,

Anne Arundel, Prince Georges). See Reed, Journ.

Washington Acad. Sci. 46(10): 328-332. 1956.

Delmarva Virginia (Accomac and Northampton).

See Reed, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 47(3):

89-91, 1957. Map 2.

4. Hyla andersoni Baird. Southern New Jersey ;

Southern Pines, N. C.; Anderson, 8. C.; coastal

Georgia. It is interesting to note that Rana

virgatipes has also been recorded from southern

New Jersey, from Southern Pines, N. C., and

from coastal Georgia. See Davis, Amer. Nat. 41

(481): 49-51, 1907.

5. Scaphiopus holbrooki holbrooki (Harlan).

Eastern United States from Massachusetts to

Florida, west to Louisiana, eastern Texas, and

Arkansas, north in the midwest to West Vir-

ginia, southern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.

Although this toad ranges northward from our

region in Maryland into central Pennsylvania by

way of the Frederick Valley and the coastal re-

cesses in that region, it is limited to the coastal

regions. See Reed, Herpetologica 12(4): 294-295.

1956. Maryland (Frederick, St. Marys, Charles,

Calvert, Prince Georges, Anne Arundel, Worces-

ter, Wicomico, Somerset, Dorchester, Talbot,

Caroline, Kent); Delaware (Sussex, Kent, New

Castle) and Delmarva Virginia (Accomac).

Map 3.

6. Microhyla carolinensis carolinensis (Hol-

brook). Maryland to Key West, Fla., west and

north to Illinois and Missouri, Kansas, eastern

Oklahoma, and eastern Texas. Maryland (Cal-

vert and St. Marys). See Noble and Hassler,

Copeia 1936(1): 63-64; Mansueti, Bull. Nat.

Hist. Soc. Maryland 12(3): 33-34. 1942. Map

4(@).

7. Siren lacertina Linnaeus. Maryland and

JANUARY 1958

Rana virgatipes Y eee i

(e) y Ge 6 < ’ : a

Hyla femoralis ho \ eS A

(x) Gg \ S e 6/ ian

he YG Oh

Hey } Lf

Scaphiopus

h. holbrooki

Map 5

Cemophora

coccinea (e)

Pituophis

melanoleucus

(x)

Map 7 f pee.

Lampropeltis

c. rhombo-

maculata

Virginia on the west side of Chesapeake Bay,

coastal North and South Carolina, southern

Georgia and Alabama, throughout Florida. Mary-

land and District of Columbia (Potomac Flats).

See Hay, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 15: 121-

146. 1902. Map 4(++).

REED: HERPETOLOGY OF MARYLAND AND DELMARVA, 17 29

Map 2

Hyla cinerea

Map 4

Microhyla c.

carolinensis(e)

Siren

lacertina (+)

Abastor erythro-

grammus (x)

Map 8

Lampropeltis

doliata

temporalis

8. Abastor erythrogrammus (Latreille). Mary-

land (Charles) through the Atlantic

Coastal Plain to central Florida and Alabama.

Maryland (Charles: 4 miles South of Indian

Head, Stump Neck, between Mattawoman and

Chicomuxen Creek. H. Hassler.) See McCauley,

Lower

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 48, No. I

@Pa

Map 9 Map 10

ampropeltis Natrix

: ei eeuias erythrogaster

Map 11

Diadophis

Cnemidophorus

p. punctatus

sexilineatus

Ly gosoma

laterale

Map 15 : aN nt ee :

p Ne =] (Ge r - Map 16

Malaclemys a. Lee .:

centrata Vv (? heer Pseudemys

concentrica A; on floridana

(M. terrapin) \s e/ | concinna

\’ Neh ae ® a y

a < we |

The reptiles of Maryland and the District of Colum- Gulf States, west to Louisiana and Oklahoma.

bia, 1945; Copeia 1939(1): 54. Map 4(xX). Maryland (Calvert, Baltimore, Prince Georges,

9. Cemophora coccinea Blumenbach. Southern Anne Arundel), District of Columbia. See Reed,

New Jersey, southward through the Atlantic and Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland and

JANUARY 1958

Delmarva, No. 8. Snakes of Maryland, etc. 1956.

Map 5(@).

10. Elaphe guttata guttata Linnaeus. Southern

New Jersey to the tip of Florida, west to north-

eastern Mexico, north in the interior to Kentucky

and Missouri and in the west to western Colorado

and Great Salt Lake. Maryland (Prince Georges,

Anne Arundel, adjacent Montgomery, St. Marys,

Talbot, Wicomico), District of Columbia and

Delaware (Sussex). See Reed, Contributions to the

herpetology of Maryland and Delmarva, Nos. §

and 11. 1956. Map 6.

11. Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata

Holbrook. Southern Maryland and _ Virginia,

south to eastern Tennessee and central Florida,

and westward through Alabama and Mississippi.

Maryland (Prince Georges, Anne Arundel, ad-

jacent Montgomery) and District of Columbia.

See Reed, Contributions to the herpetology of

Maryland and Delmarva, No. 8, 1956. Map 7.

12. Lampropeltis doliata temporalis Cope.

Southern New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland

through Virginia and North Carolina. Maryland

(Prince Georges, Calvert, St. Marys, Worcester),

District of Columbia and Delaware (Tyrer Lo-

CALITY). Map 8.

13. Lampropeltis getulus getulus (Linnaeus).

Southern New Jersey to northern Florida, west-

ward to southeastern Alabama. Maryland (Gar-

rett, Montgomery, Prince Georges, Charles, St.

Marys, Calvert, Anne Arundel, Howard, Balti-

more City, Baltimore, Harford, Cecil, Queen

Annes, Kent, Talbot, Dorchester, Wicomico,

Worcester, Somerset), District of Columbia,

Delaware (Sussex), and Delmarva Virginia (Ac-

comac and Northampton). See Reed, Contribu-

tions to the herpetology of Maryland and Delmarva,

Nos. § and 11. 1956, and Contributions to the

herpetology of Virginia, No. 3, in Journ. Washing-

ton Acad. Sci. 47(8): 89-91. 1957. Map 9.

14. Natrix erythrogaster erythrogaster Forster.

Maryland southward in the Coastal Plain and

adjacent Piedmont to northern Florida. Mary-

land (St. Marys, Wicomico, and Worcester).

See Reed, Contributions to the herpetology of Mary-

land and Delmarva, No. § and 11. 1956. Map 10.

15. Diadophis punctatus punctatus Linnaeus.

Coastal Maryland to Florida. Maryland (Charles,

Calvert, Anne Arundel, Queen Annes, Talbot,

Dorchester, and Worcester), Delaware (Sussex),

and Delmarva Virginia (Accomac). See Reed,

Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland and

Delmarva, Nos. § and 11. 1956. Map 11.

REED: HERPETOLOGY OF MARYLAND AND DELMARVA, 17 31

16. Pituophis melanoleucus melanoleucus (Dau-

din). New York (Rockland) south to South Caro-

lina and westward to eastern Tennessee. Mary-

land (Queen Annes and Worcester). The New

York locality is just north of the New Jersey

border. Map 5(X).

17. Cnemidophorus sexlineatus (Linnaeus).

Maryland to Key West, Florida, west to eastern

Texas, north in the interior to Indiana and

Illnois, and along the rivers in southern Wis-

consin and Minnesota, and through Oklahoma to

South Dakota and southeastern Wyoming. Mary-

land (Anne Arundel, Calvert, Charles, St. Marys,

Baltimore and Baltimore City) and District of

Columbia. Absent from the Delmarva Penin-

sula. See Reed, Contributions to the herpetology

of Maryland and Delmarva, No. 6. The Lizards of

Maryland, etc. 1956. Map 12.

18. Humeces laticeps (Schneider). Southern

Pennsylvania and Delaware, southward to

Florida, westward through Ohio, Indiana, Illinois

and southeastern Missouri, west to eastern

Kansas, eastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas.

Maryland (Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Calvert,

St. Marys, Charles, Montgomery, Queen Annes,

Dorchester, Frederick) and Delaware. See Reed,

Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland and

Delmarva, No. 6, 1956. Map 13.

19. Lygosoma laterale (Say). Southern New

Jersey and southeastern Pennsylvania south-

ward; southern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and

northern Missouri; westward to eastern Kansas,

eastern and central Oklahoma, and Texas. Mary-

land (Prince Georges, Calvert, Charles, St.

Marys, Dorchester and Worcester,) District of

Columbia and Delmarva Virginia (Accomae and

Northampton). See Reed, Contributions to the

herpetology of Maryland and Delmarva, Nos. 6 and

11; Contributions to the Herpetology of Virginia,

No. 8, i Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 47(3):

906, 1957. Map 14.

Note: EHumeces inexpectatus Taylor ranges as

far north as the northern shores of Northern

Neck, Virginia, which is the southern shore of

the Potomac River. The Maryland line extends

to the southern bank of the Potomac River.

Northumberland County, Va., 1 mile north of

Heathsville, near Clarks Mill, May 15, 1954,

Reed 854. See Reed, Herpetologica 12: 1386. 1956,

and Contributions to the herpetology of Virgim

No. 2, The herpetofauna of Northern Neck, Vur-

ginta, in Journ. Washington Acad. Sei. 47(1):

21-23. 1957.

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

20. Pseudemys floridana concinna (LeConte).

Atlantic Coastal Plain from Maryland to Ala-

bama, mostly above the Fall Line and into eastern

Tennessee. Maryland (Montgomery, Prince

Georges, Charles) and District of Columbia. See

Reed, Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland

and Delmarva, No. 7. 1956. Map 16.

21. Malaclemys centrata concentrica (Shaw).

Coastal Plain from Massachusetts to North Caro-

lina, including Delaware and Chesapeake Bays

and to Florida. Maryland (Calvert, Somerset,

Caroline, Queen Annes, Talbot, Wicomico, Dor-

chester, Kent, and Worcester), District of Colum-

bia, Delaware (Sussex and Kent) and Delmarva

Virginia (Accomac and Northampton). See Reed,

Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland and

Delmarva, Nos. 7 and 11. 1956; Contributions to

the herpetology of Virginia, No. 3, mn Journ.

Washington Acad. Sci. 47(8): 89-91. 1957. Map

115),

Incidentally, there are four deep-sea turtles

from tropical and semitropical south Atlantic

waters that find their way up the Atlantic Coastal

area as far north as Maryland, Delaware, Massa-

chusetts, and Nova Scotia. Specimens of these

have been recorded from the lower Potomac

River and the Chesapeake Bay or from Delaware

Bay in our region. These turtles are usually

stragglers that come up the Gulf Stream from

time to time. However, large numbers have been

seen and at times have been caught in the Chesa-

peake Bay off Virginia and southern Maryland.

As many as five Caretta caretta have been caught

in the fish nets in a single day by a single fisher-

man. Capt. W. J. Biddlecomb of Fairport, Va..,

reports many of these and other deep-sea turtles

in the waters off Great Wicomico Light House.

The records for these turtles are recorded in

Reed, Contributions to the herpetology of Virginia,

No. 2, The herpetofauna of Northern Neck, Vir-

gina (Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 47(1): 21-28.

1957). Also, Maryland and Delmarva specimens

are annotated in The contributions to the her-

petology of Maryland and Delmarva, Nos. 7 and 11.

1956.

22. Caretta caretta caretta (Linnaeus). Atlantic

vou. 48, NO. 1

and Gulf coasts of United States from Maryland

and the Chesapeake Bay southward. Maryland

(Calvert, lower Potomac River and Chesapeake

Bay, Dorchester and Worcester), Delaware

(Sussex), and Delmarva Virginia (Accomac and

Northampton). See Reed, Contributions to the

herpetology of Virginia, No. 2, l.c., 1997.

23. Chelonia mydas mydas (Linnaeus). Tropical

and subtropical Atlantic waters, northward to

temperate zones. Maryland (Calvert). See Reed,

Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland and

Delmarva, No. 7. 1956.

24. Dermochelys coriacea (L.). Atlantic and

Gulf coasts, occasional as far north as Nova

Scotia. Maryland (Calvert and Chesapeake Bay)

and Delmarva Virginia (Accomac). See Reed,

Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 47(1): 21-23. 1957,

for picture of 700-pound specimen caught off

Northern Neck, Va.

25. Lepidochelys (olivacea) kempi (Garman).

Atlantic coast north from tropical waters to

Massachusetts. Maryland (St. Marys, lower

Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay). See Reed,

Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland and

Delmarva, No. 7. 1956; Contributions to the

herpetology of Virginia, Nos. 2 and 3. 1957, both

in Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 47(1) and 47(3),

respectively.

The 21 herptiles listed above represent about

25 percent of the species in the herpetofauna of

Maryland and Delmarva. Seven of these find their

northern limit in southern Maryland (the Coastal

Plain area west of Chesapeake Bay); eight of the

species, found on the Coastal Plain, find their

northern limit in coastal New Jersey; two range

into southeastern Pennsylvania along the Dela-

ware River. The accompanying maps indicate

the counties in Maryland, Delaware, the District

of Columbia, and Delmarva Virginia where the

various species have been collected. References

are given with each species where an annotated

list of specimens may be found. Contributions 5

through 11 to the Herpetology of Maryland and

Delmarva have been published by the author and

are available from the Reed Herpetorium, 10105

Harford Road, Baltimore 34, Md.

Vice-Presidents of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Representing the Affiliated Societies

Pnriosophical Society of Washington . ..........c0ceececcsencrsceeees CHESTER H. PaGE

Anthropological Society of Washington................0...seeeceees Frank M. Serz.er

Biological Society of Washington................. Se Gea Wes Ae ei HERBERT FRIEDMANN

Shemueal society of Washington. .....5.....00...00 cence ce eedececss CHARLES R. NAESER

Entomological Society of Washington........................... Car. F. W. MurEsEBECK

epronalGeographic Society............0....00 0 ce eeceeacteyderecce ALEXANDER WETMORE

Geolopresl Society of Washington..................ecccecceeceeeues Epwin T. McKnieut

Medical Society of the District of Columbia.......................... FREDERICK O. CoE

Paramaaiam@elistOrical SOCIebY «6... eo i cee ca eee hn dbo ved eeeeanncae U.S. Grant, III

Bocaures society of Washington... .......00..cc0evcccccctewcccuesocees Carrot E. Cox

Washington Section, Society of American Foresters................. G. Fuippo GRAVATT

Washington Society of Engineers................00.cccceccccccceecs HERBERT G. DorsEy

Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers........ ARNOLD H. Scorr

Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers.... ... Howarp S. Brean

Helminthological Society of Washington.....................0... Donaup B. McMuLuen

Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists....... MicHakEL J. PELCZAR, JR.

Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers............. FLoyp W. Hovuaes

Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers......................... Harry WELLS

D. C. Section, American Society of Civil Engineers............... Dovatas E. Parsons

D. C. Section, Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine........ GrorceE A. HorrLe

Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals.................. HERBERT C. VACHER

Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research..WiLLiam T. SWEENEY

Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences.............. F. N. FRENKIEL

D. C. Branch, American Meteorological Society..................... CHARLES S. GILMAN

CONTENTS

Mrneratocy.—Progress in titanium research. MatrHew A. HUNTER. .

PALEONTOLOGY.—Some Lower Ordovician monoplacophoran mollusks

from Missouri. -Eniis L. YOCHELSON «.........<... =) ==

PaLEonToLoGy.—Hedbergella, a new name for a Cretaceous planktonic

foraminiferal genus. Paut BrONNIMANN and Nozt K. Brown, JE:

oo]

EntromMoLocy.—Venomous moths and butterflies. Howarp F. ALLARD

and Harry Ac ALLARD... 2. ers. aes... ae ee

Enromotocy.—A recharacterization of the genus Coelopencyrtus, with

descriptions of two new species (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae).

BUDE BuRKS es ae ts i een

EnromoLogy.—A new species of Meropleon Dyar from South Carolina

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). E. L. Topp..............+..+++++2::

Herrprrotocy.—Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland and

Delmarva, No. 17: Southeastern herptiles with northern limits on

coastal Maryland, Delmarva, and New Jersey. Crypp I’. ReED....

Notestand: NEWS. <a. coticeee wiles Se 14:26

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{

;

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 48

February 1958

INGE 2

GENERAL SCIENCE.—A critique of operations research. GrorGcr E. KIMBALL,

Arthur D. Little, Inc. (Communicated by E. W. Montroll.)

In spite of the fact that the Operations

Research Society of America has now more

than 2,000 members, and similar societies

exist in Great Britian, Italy, Japan, India,

and other countries; in spite of the fact that

operations research is now considered essen-

tial by the Army, Navy, and Air Force,

and also by a large fraction of the large

corporations in this country, so that millions

of dollars a year are being spent for it; in

spite of the fact that a dozen universities

have given it a place in their curriculum,

it must be confessed that there is still some

disagreement on the subject of what opera-

tions research is, and doubts are being ex-

pressed concerning its ultimate future.

I should like here to examine critically

just what operations research really is,

what it has accomplished, and where it seems

to be going, and to do this as objectively as

one can who has devoted 15 years to study

and research in this field.

Operations research has been defined

facetiously as that which operations research

workers do. In a sense, I should like to take

this definition seriously, for any definition

which is not consistent with this would

clearly be false. But such a definition is of

little value to anyone who is not acquainted

with the field and therefore requires recast-

ing into terms intelligible to the general

public. I have therefore tried to examine

carefully the activities in which those who

call themselves operations research workers

engage, and thus to find the actual pattern

of their work. This has not been a simple

undertaking, for these activities range from

1 The 26th Joseph Henry Lecture of the Philo-

sophical Society of Washington, delivered before

the Society on May 3, 1957.

ww)

higher mathematics to philosophical dis-

cussions, from antisubmarine tactics to the

scheduling of oil refineries. The National

Research Council has assigned the Opera-

tions Research Society a seat in its Division

of Mathematics, but in the universities the

courses are most frequently given by engi-

neering departments.

Nevertheless, there is an element common

to all these activities. The clue is found in

the word operations. To understand opera-

tions research, it is first necessary to under-

stand this key word. It stems from the

military origin of operations research.

During World War II groups of scientists,

few of whom had any military background

or experience, were called up to help the

armed services put various new devices and

equipment into use. These groups found that

doing this required them to study the whole

tactical situation in which the devices were

to be employed. They found themselves

doing research on the operations of fighter

aircraft, on the operations of antisubmarine

task forces, on landing operations, and thus

the term operations research was born.

At the end of the war the term was broad-

ened to include a number of industrial

operations. For example, we find research

on the operation of warehouses, on the

operation of toll bridges and tunnels, on

railroad and airline operations, on the opera-

tion of direct mail advertising, and all called

operations research.

The difheulty at this point is the great

broadness of the term operation. Is research

on the operation of radio tubes operations

research? Is research on surgical operations?

The answer to these questions is definitely

no. But we must examine why these opera-

SONTA!

INSTITUTIAN

APR 1 6 Sap

354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tions are excluded. They are excluded not

because of lack of importance or lack of

interest but simply because they do not fall

into the established pattern of operations

research, because they lack certain elements

in common with the operations which do fall

into this established pattern.

The military and industrial operations we

have mentioned have this in common: they

all involve a complex system of men and

machines. Going a little further, we find that

in each case we have a set of machines con-

trolled by a group of men. Operations re-

search has studied the various ways in

which this control can be exerted and how

the outcome of the operation depends on

the control method. It has found certain

principles which govern such situations,

and is searching for more. To study such

things as the operation of a television set

would get away from this group control

and into a different area.

This brings us near to a definition of

operations research, but there remains one

more limitation. We have said that opera-

tions research is seeking general principles.

To the extent that any operation is unique,

and completely different from any other

operation, to this extent it cannot be gov-

erned by general principles. It follows that

the search for such principles must be con-

fined to those elements which are common to

a number of operations. The success of oper-

ations research depends on its ability to

discover such similar elements in apparently

dissimilar situations. How far this has been

possible is a subject to which I shall return.

For the present, may I point out that some

operations are excluded from operations

research because they are unique. For

example, the total strategy of the armed

forces of the United States at the present

moment is such a unique operation. Many

parts of the strategy are operations to which

operations research can be applied, for they

are similar to other operations, but the total

is not. Likewise, the operation of the board

of directors of, say, the United States Steel

Company has unique elements, which pre-

vent its being a suitable subject for opera-

tions research, even though there may be

many operations within the company which

are suitable for such research.

VOL. 48, NO. 2

I should thus define operations research

as the study of operations in which groups

of men control systems of machines, with

the object of discovering the principles

which govern such operations.

At this point I am faced with a paradox:

the definition of operations research to which

I have been led seems to exclude a very

large part of the work being done at the ©

present time under the title of operations

research. The work in question deals for the

most part with the sort of operations I

have described, but instead cf seeking

general principles, is concerned with solving

specific problems. Much of it consists of the

design and construction of control systems.

To exclude such work from our domain

would be very foolish. Those who consume

operations research are interested in, and

paying for, practical results in the form of | |

answers to problems and systems designs.

If these were not forthcoming, support for

operations research would be far more

difficult to obtain.

We are concerned here with the age-old

distinction between pure and applied science.

One way out would be to call the applied

side of our subject operations engineering,

and in some quarters this has actually been

done. In the future I shall use this term when

I wish to make the distinction. But we must

not lose sight of the historical fact that in

the past theory and practice have always

gone hand in hand, and a pure science with

no applications has never come to much.

On the other hand, it has been proved

time and time again that there is nothing

as practical as good theory. Would we have

the present developments in electronics

without Maxwell’s equations? Would we

have our present-day synthetic drugs and

fibers without the theory of chemical va-

lence? If this is the case, isn’t the best road

to good business management through the

study of the principles of business operations,

i.e., through operations research? In my

opinion, whether the motive is the satis-

faction of scientific curiosity or the solution

of practical problems the road is the same—

the road of research into fundamental

principles.

In carrying out such a program, we must

make a clear distinction between principles

FEBRUARY 1958

and techniques. In discussions of operations

research we hear very frequent reference

to such things as linear programming,

dynamic programming, allocation theory,

and the like. There are those who regard

these subjects as the real essence of opera-

tions research. But to me, calling these

subjects operations research is the same as

identifying physics with the differential

equations of physics. Now mathematics is

indispensable to physics, and no physicist

can get along without a good training in

mathematics, but in no sense is physics a

branch of mathematics. In a similar way,

mathematics is indispensable to operations

research, and good operations research

(and particularly operations engineering)

requires good mathematical training. Just

as the mathematical needs of the physicist

100 years ago stimulated mathematical

research into differential equations, and just

as Riemann’s researches into differential

geometry provided Einstein with the tools

he needed for general relativity, so today we

are finding the needs of operations research

stimulating research in new branches of

mathematics, and operations research

workers making use of previously unapplied

mathematical developments. This symbiosis

is of great importance to both parties, but

the distinction between mathematics, with

its right to carry any set of assumptions to

their logical conclusions, and science, with

its obligation to check its assumptions

against nature, must still be maintained.

Because many of the mathematical tech-

niques used in operations research are

methods of finding maxima and minima,

there has arisen a temptation to claim that

operations research is the study of the

best way to control an operation. If real

operations were as simple as some of the

mathematical models used to describe them,

this might be possible. But in reality there

are a number of obstacles which have pre-

vented the attainment of this goal. One is

a lack of clear understanding of what it is

that should be maximized. Superficial

eriteria like “least cost,” “greatest profit,’’

and “greatest return on investment’ are

all too easy to talk about, but in practice

almost impossible to reduce to numerical

values.

KIMBALL: CRITIQUE OF OPERATIONS RESEARCH 35

Take for example the case of inventory

control in a store. A relatively simple

analysis of a control system will determine

the direct dollar costs of carrying stock, the

amount of capital which will be required,

and the amount of delay the customers will

suffer through temporary shortages of stock

on hand. As the control system is varied,

all three of these factors will vary. What

system is ‘‘best’’ depends on some combina-

tion of these factors, but there is no agree-

ment on what combination this is. At least

at the present time, efforts to find the “‘best”’

policy lead only to frustration.

If operations research cannot find the

best solution to problems like this, what can

it do? First of all, it can describe what will

happen under any given control system,

without committing anyone as to what is

good and what is bad. This is by no means

trivial, and in some cases the mere finding

of a “feasible solution,” a control system

which will work at all, is a major victory.

In some cases, it can go a step beyond this

point: it can eliminate control systems on

the grounds that others are better, regard-

less of the uncertainties of the criterion of

success. For example, in the store inventory

case, if two systems use the same capital

and give the same customer service, the one

which has the lower direct cost is surely

better than the other. More sophisticated

reasoning of this same type frequently re-

duces the possibilities to a relatively small

set of ‘‘acceptable solutions.”

There is a further difficulty with the find-

ing of ‘“‘best”’ solutions. All too frequently

when a ‘‘best”’ solution to a problem has been

found, someone comes along and finds a

still better solution simply by pointing out

the existence of a hitherto unsuspected

variable. In my experience when a moder-

ately good solution to a problem has been

found, it is seldom worthwhile to spend much

time trying to convert this into the ‘best’

solution. The time is much better spent in

real research in trying to find those variables

which have been overlooked, for when these

are found much greater improvements

become possible than by tinkering with the

well-known parameters.

After all this discussion of what operations

research is and is not, let us now turn to

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

its real accomplishments, the areas in which

principles have been found and proved by

the test of experiment and observation.

Time will not permit me to go into any

detail, but I would at least like to outline

the present state of a number of topics.

Let me begin with what I like to call

“eongestion theory.” This is sometimes

known as ‘“‘waiting-line theory” or “queue-

ing theory,’ but I object to these terms

because in important cases there is no wait-

ing line. The operation under study here is

any operation in which service 1s being given

in the face of a fluctuating demand. This

includes such varied operations as those otf

telephone exchanges, barber shops, toll

gates, and hospitals. The essence of the

problem is to characterize the demand and

the service performance, and in terms of

these to determine the number of customers

lost or delayed because of the congestion

which arises. It is familiar to anyone who

has been in such a situation that delays

oecur even when the load on the system is

well below its apparent capacity. The theory

enables these delays to be calculated in a

large variety of important cases.

Closely related to congestion theory 1s

warehousing theory. This differs from con-

gestion theory in that it is possible wo) 2}

‘warehouse’ operation to carry goods in

inventory, whereas in a barber shop, for

example, it is not possible to carry a stock

of hair cuts. In the warehouse case, the ex-

istence of an inventory makes possible a

control of the situation by ordering goods

in advance. This is complicated by the fact

that a finite lead time is always required,

and frequently there are requirements that

goods be ordered in full car loads or truck

loads. As we have mentioned earlier, the

“goodness” of a control system depends on

the service provided, the capital required,

and on a number of direct costs. All these

can now be evaluated and many systems

have been successfully designed and placed

into operation.

We come next to the theory of transporta-

tion systems. Here we are concerned usually

with a fleet of ships, railroad cars, trucks,

or airplanes, and a complex demand for

transportation among a number of terminals.

What is usually called “the transportation

VOL. 48, NO. 2

problem” in linear programming is a very

crude first approximation, which neglects

the discrete nature of the transportation

units and the fluctuations in demand. While

a number of features of this theory have

been discovered, much research remains to

be done before the theory can be called

complete.

Communication theory is very closely

related to transportation theory. Thanks

to Shannon’s information theory, it is now

possible to measure ratio of flow of mforma-

tion, and the carrying capacity of informa-

tion flow channels in much the same way as

for physical goods. The theory otf communi-

cation networks is therefore reduced in

many respects to the theory of transporta-

tion in general, and as the theory of trans-

portation advances, communication theory

should advance with it.

Next we come to the theory of production

control systems. In a complex manufacturing

operation, production control involves a

number (frequently a very large number)

of operations of the warehousing type, a

set of transportation problems, and a com-

munications system, all of which must

function together without mutual inter-

ference. Typically, some 20,000 different

items, ranging from raw materials and

purchased parts to finished goods of many

sizes and colors, must all be coordinated.

In spite of all these difficulties, some of the

ereatest successes of operations research

lie in this area.

Quite a different area of research is that

of search theory. This is concerned with the

problem of finding things, varying all the

way from lost golf balls to enemy submarines

and new antibiotics. The theory was quite

highly developed during World War I for

military purposes, and is just now being

declassified for public use.

Finally, as one last example, there is the

theory of population dynamics. Taken origi-

nally from biology and psychological learn-

ing theory, this is now being used to explain

the effect of advertising on customer pop-

ulations, and the determination of the

proper distribution of advertising effort.

This field is one of the newest, and has still

a long way to go.

The areas I have just mentioned are not

FEBRUARY 1958

the exclusive property of operations research.

Just as there is no longer a sharp boundary

between physics, chemistry, and biology,

so these areas overlap the fields of economics,

industrial engineering, cybernetics, and

systems analysis. Perhaps the most difficult

distinction to make is that between opera-

tions research and business research of the

type which has been going on for many

years. Here I am not even sure that any

distinction at all should be made. Business

operations are clearly a legitimate subject

for business research. Those who have done

business research could have done operations

research at any time, and in a sense have

done just that. Yet it is a fact that operations

KIMBALL: CRITIQUE OF OPERATIONS RESEARCH 37

research has opened new approaches to

business problems. It has done this in part

because it has introduced new and more

powerful mathematical techniques, but. if

this were all, operations research would

deserve little credit. More important has

been the fact that operations research has

brought to business research the standards

and practices of the physical sciences, par-

ticularly their insistence on the careful

checking of theory against experience and

experiment. When this attitude becomes

characteristic of all business research, then

perhaps the term operations research can

be dropped. But until then the distinction

must be made.

SHANIDAR SKULL

The skull of a ‘‘man before man,” who lived in

the Near East at least 45,000 years ago, was

shown Regents of the Smithsonian Institution

at their annual meeting on January 17. It was a

cast of the reconstructed skull of a so-called

Neanderthaler found last spring in Shanidar

Cave in northern Iraq by Dr. Ralph S. Solecki,

Smithsonian associate curator of Old World

archeology. Dr. T. Dale Stewart, Smithsonian

curator of physical anthropology, recently re-

turned from Baghdad where he spent three

months reassembling the skull from fragments.

The skull is that of a man about 40 years old.

The net result of Dr. Stewart’s work was repro-

duction of the restored skull of a quite unique

humanlike creature who lived during the Mous-

terian cultural period—roughly 45,000 years ago.

This was late for Neanderthalers, but about the

time the present human race became established.

Dr. Stewart went to Baghdad and reconstructed

the skull, a job requiring extraordinary know]-

edge, skill, and precision, at the request of Dr.

Nagi al Asil, former foreign minister and now

Director General of Antiquities of the Iraq

Government. The original skull is being retained

in Baghdad. The cast—the only one outside of

Iraq—is a gift to the Smithsonian Institution

from the Iraq Museum.

The individual, Dr. Stewart says, undoubtedly

was a Neanderthaler. This was a race of human-

hike creatures whose scant remains have been

found scattered through Europe, western Asia,

and the Near East. They apparently preceded the

true human race, Homo sapiens, as it is known

today, throughout this region by a few thousand

years. They were about the size of present-day

man and had essentially all our human features.

In general these features were cruder. They were

creatures mainly of the last great ice age, pre-

sumably cave dwellers, with a flaked-stone cul-

ture. They had massive jaws, large faces, pro-

truding brows, and large teeth. Their relation to

present-day man is debatable, but it is quite

generally doubted whether they were directly

ancestral although they lived in the same area

where the oldest truly human remains have been

found. The first Neanderthal remains were found

in Germany almost a century ago. Since then

widely scattered specimens have been found.

They now are divided into three groups—early

Neanderthaler, a form from the last interglacial

period in eastern Europe; classic Neanderthaler,

the central European cave dweller of the last ice

age; and the near eastern Neanderthaler, a late

form represented by the present skeleton.

The skull reconstructed by Dr. Stewart, how-

ever, shows some quite primitive features con-

sidering the date assigned to it. In some respects

the face recalls the so-called Rhodesian man of

South Africa, sometimes included among the

Neanderthalers. The lower jaw also recalls that

of the famous Heidelberg man of central Europe,

a much more primitive creature of about 100,000

vears ago. Whether there ever was any actual

connection between Heidelberger and Neander-

thaler has been much debated. Dr. Stewart found

the parts of the Iraq skull in quite small frag-

ments, which had to be fitted together—a super

jigsaw puzzle job made more difficult by the

fact that the fellow’s skull had been bashed in in

several places, presumably in fights with clubs.

He apparently had survived all these injuries.

Dr. Stewart’s work in Baghdad was a coopera-

tive project of the Iraq Government. the Ameri-

can Philosophical Society and the Smithsonian

Institution.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 48, NO. 2

PHYSIOLOGY —Observations on the oxygen consumption of young Australorbis

glabratus. ALINA PERLOWAGORA-SZUMLEWIcz! and THropor von Branp, Na-

tional Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.’

(Received October 9, 1957)

The oxygen consumption of developing

eges of Australorbis glabratus has been

studied from the time of oviposition till the

hatching period (Perlowagora-Szumlewicz

and von Brand, 1957), and several investi-

gations on the respiration of sexually mature

specimens of this species have been pub-

lished (von Brand et al., 1948, 1953;

Edwards et al., 1951). However, no detailed

investigation has been made of young

specimens; that is, for the interval between

hatching and reaching sexual maturity. The

present study was designed to close this gap

in our knowledge.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Australorbis glabratus (Venezuelan stock, lab-

oratory maintained since 1947) hatched from the

eggs used in our previous study (Perlowagora-

S7umlewiez and von Brand, 1957) were isolated

during the first 24 hours after hatching into jars

containing dechlorinated water and lettuce

leaves. Thus a supply of snails of rigorously con-

trolled age was available. The very young snails

(freshly hatched to 1 week old) were fairly sensi-

tive to handling, especially during the drying

procedure preliminary to weighing. These snails

were used therefore only for a single oxygen and

weight determination and were then discarded.

All other snails, beginning 18 to 21 days after

hatching, withstood the necessary manipulations

remarkably well and therefore were retested at

weekly intervals. The groups established for ini-

tial testing were kept separately in beakers be-

tween tests and were fed abundantly with lettuce.

Powdered calcium carbonate was added at weekly

intervals. With increasing size of the specimens,

subdivision into smaller groups became necessary.

The oxygen consumption was studied by

means of the standard Warburg technique at a

1 Permanent address: Instituto de Endemias

Rurais do DNER, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The

present work was done at the National Institutes

of Health during a tenure of a WHO fellowship.

Requests for reprints should be addressed to the

Laboratory of Tropical Diseases, National Insti-

tutes of Health, Bethesda, Md.

2 Laboratory of Tropical Diseases.

temperature of 28°C. Flasks of 5-ml capacity

with 1 ml dechlorinated water as medium and

flasks of 16 ml capacity with 3 ml water were

used, depending on the size of the snails. The

experimental period lasted 2 to 3 hours; readings

were taken every half hour. The number of

specimens per flask varied, depending upon their

size. Up to 150 of the smallest and only 1 or 2 of

the largest were used. The former were counted

under a dissecting microscope prior to the intro-

duction into the Warburg flask which was done

with the help of a very fine spatula and a brush.

At the end of the experiment the snails were

washed out of the flask onto filter paper. They

were shifted once or twice to fresh filter paper

and allowed to dry for 20 to 30 minutes in air

before being weighed on a microbalance to the

nearest 0.001 mg. The older snails were dried

according to Newton and von Brand (1955) and

weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Biological observations.—Because little is

known about postembryonic growth of Austra-

lorbis glabratus, we are describing some of our

relevant observations.

Upon plotting the weight of snails as function

of age on a double logarithmic scale, two bisect-

ing lines resulted, indicating that the growth

characteristics of snails younger than one week

are different from those of the older ones (Fig. 1).

The data for the latter showed a relatively good

fit to a straight line. Thus the total weight, in

this range, shows the same growth relationship

as the one previously established for the shell in

a different, although overlapping size range

(Nolan and von Brand, 1954). Whether a straight

line, with a different slope, can justifiably be

drawn for the youngest snails is dubious because

of lack of sufficient points. At any rate, the

clearly different growth relationship of the

youngest snail groups has a biological foundation.

The youngest snails did not feed on lettuce, ig-

noring the lettuce leaves present in each Jar.

They can not have subsisted solely on reserves

carried over from embryonic life, because they

FEBRUARY 1958 PERLOWAGORA-SZUMLEWICZ AND von BRAND: AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS 39

did increase in weight. It can be presumed that

they fed on microorganisms developing in the

jars. These groups of snails will hereinafter be

designated as prejuveniles.

The prejuvenile groups are followed by the

juvenile groups which are defined as beginning

with snails older than 8 days, and ending with

specimens reaching sexual maturity. The last

groups are comprised of mature snails, that is,

snails laying eggs. These two groups fed avidly

on lettuce.

It must be emphasized that regularities in

growth pattern as shown in Fig. 1 can only be

demonstrated when the averages of fairly large

numbers are used. While the size of the pre-

juvenile groups was fairly uniform, pronounced

variations occurred among the older groups

(Table 1). These variations in growth as related

to age were definitely not due to an insufficient

food supply; food was present always in surplus.

The reasons underlying the variations are obscure

and will require special analysis, since several

possibilities exist; e.g., unequal food utilization

(Kleiber, 1947), deficiencies in endocrine func-

tions, and probably others. Such an investigation

would be desirable because size is probably one

of the factors determining the onset of sexual

maturity in the sense that in our experiments

snails weighing less than 50 mg never laid eggs.

We determined accurately the age and weight

reached by 104 specimens at first oviposition.

Their average weight was 109 mg with 58.0 and

208.8 as extremes; their average age varied be-

tween 47 and 61 days, 1e., the age varied in

much narrower limits than the weight. Because

of this observation we consider the age factor as

more important than did Pereira and Deslandes

(1954) who stated that the period of first ovi-

position was not related to age but to the growth

of snail. It should be emphasized, however, that

the age figures given above apply only to our set

of conditions; under other conditions the minimal

age for first oviposition may be lower. Pereira

and Deslandes (1954) noted oviposition by 35-

day-old Brazilian Australorbis glabratus, Maia

Penido et al. (1951) and Perlowagora-Szumlewicz

(unpublished) by 32-diy-old laboratory-reared

Brazilian australorbids. In such cases the mini-

mal weight for oviposition, 50 mg, is reached

earler than in our experiment. On the other hand

we had in our material 27 specimens that were

unusually slow growers, weighing only between

TABLE 1.—OxYGEN CONSUMPTION OF AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS OF VARIOUS AGES.*

i 5 ; : Mm3 Oxygen consumed in 1 hr.

Group Nemo! Numbehetiual® | Ase of snails | Weight of single z

ments SSVLME Per single snail Per mg

Pre-juve- |

niles

1 4 113-150 0-1 0.07 + 0.005 0.11 + 0.010 | 1.65 + 0.11

(O2065=7 008) | O08 = (0212) | 42s 91-86)

2 3) lS 4-5 0.11 + 0.007 Ool2 S70 000 |) Tiare. 0-02

(COMO = OPN A (Oecd OBO a eae Ua

3 vi 46-100 7-8 0.24 + 0.022 0.15 + 0.013 0.56 + 0.05

ORLGs= 10532) | (One = 0820) |7O.327— 0.68)

Juveniles

il 10 10-18 18-21 3.17 + 0.70 1.45 + 0.38 0.45 + 0.029

(1.21 — 8.10) | (0.64 — 4.31) | (0.30 -— 0.58)

y 13 9-18 26-28 10°62 We} 4 43 3 0.38 0.45 + 0.023

(5.6 = ~22.7) 2.60 -— 6.75) | (0.80 -— 0.58)

3 7 9-10 33-39 20.5 + 2.4 9.66 + 0.89 0.48 + 0.040

(1330 = 33023). 1) (Gc89) = sis.¢3))/ 4(0.42 0.61

4 13 4-11 39-40 43.4 + 4.4 12.51 + 1.39 0.29 + 0.012

(19.0 — 72.3) | (5.24 -— 21.91)| (0.20 0.34

Mature snails

1 60 1-7 47-61 108.7 + 4.6 29.3 + 1.40 0.27 + 0.005

(58.0 — 208.8)) (15.7 -— 62.0) | (0.20 0.35

* In this and the following tables the mean values and, in parentheses, the extremes are presented.

The figure following the + sign is the standard error of the mean.

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 48, No. 2

100.0

500

10.0

3.00

1.00

WEIGHT IN mg.

0.30

0.06 @=

3.0 10.0 20.0 40.0 600

AGE IN DAYS

Fic. 1.— Relation between age and weight in growing Australorbis glabratus.

50.0

Y=0.80

re)

rS)

(e)

100

mm? OXYGEN/1ISNAIL /!1 HOUR

Kio =

007 O10 030 Ke) 3.0 100 500 1000 1500

WEIGHT IN mg.

Fic. 2.—Relation between weight and rate of oxygen consumption in growing A ustralorbis glabratus.

FEBRUARY 1958 PERLOWAGORA-SZUMLEWICZ AND von BRAN

24.4 and 44.1 mg when 60 days old. They never

laid eggs during the period of observation. It is a

matter of conjecture whether they eventually

would have reached sexual maturity, or whether

they were permanently dwarfed, infantile speci-

mens, as a result, perhaps, of faulty endocrine

functions.

Observations of respiratory activity —As ex-

plained above, both the weight and the age of

the snails used in the respiration experiments

were known; it was therefore possible to correlate

the rate of oxygen consumption to both these

factors.

As Tables | and 2 show, a progressive lowering

of the respiratory rates is evident with increasing

weight and increasing age, if the rates are calcu-

lated on the basis of unit weight. The decrease is

greatest in the pre-juvenile groups. Fundamen-

tally, the same trend exists in the other groups,

although the decline may be very small if limited

size or age differences are considered. The ques-

tion then arises whether weight or age is pri-

marily responsible for this decline. It is difficult

to get incontrovertible evidence on this point,

because both factors change in general in the

same direction. Our somewhat indirect evidence

is as follows: The juvenile groups and the mature

group shown in Table 1 had been established

purely on the age criterion and therefore each

contained both small and large specimens. Hach

of these groups was now divided into two sub-

groups (Table 3) one containing the smaller and

another one containing the larger snails. In all

five groups thus subdivided the respiratory rate

of the smaller specimens was higher than that of

the larger ones, indicative of a definite trend.

Similarly, five groups of the juvenile and mature

snails established on the weight criterion (Table

2) contained older and younger specimens. When

their average rates were calculated separately, it

was found that in two cases the rate of the older

specimens was highest, in two other cases that of

the younger ones, and in 1 case the rates were

equal; that is, a purely random distribution was

evident. We are therefore inclined to ascribe to

size a more important role in determining meta-

bolic rate than to age, at least in the age range

of Australorbis studied by us. It is, of course,

entirely possible that really senile specimens may

behave differently. It should be recalled in this

connection that the level of oxidative phosphor-

ylation was reduced in the albumen gland of

senile Lymnaea (Weinbach, 1956). Planorbid

D: AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS 41

TaBLE 2.—OxYGEN CONSUMPTION OF

AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS OF

VARIOUS SIZES

2 Number!

Sel oii Mm oxygen consumed

Group | "= in indi-| single snail

=e oa i Per single |

Z| ment “snail, | Per mg

| :

g 1 | 4 113-150 | 0.07 + 0.005 0.11 + 0.010) 1.65 + 0.11

= | | (0.05-0.08) | (0.08-0.12) | (1.42-1.86)

2 2 | 3| 115 | 0.11 + 0.007| 0.12 + 0.007, 1.12 + 0.02

= | (0.10-0.12) | (0.11-0.13) | (1.09-1.16)

& 3 | 7 | 46-100 | 0.24 + 0.022 0.15 + 0.013, 0.56 + 0.05

(0. 16-0.32) | (0.11-0.20) | (0.32-0.68)

1 | 7 | 12-15 | 1.97 + 0.25 | 0.95 + 0.089: 0.49 + 0.022

(1.21-8.03) | (0.64-1.27) | (0.41-0.57)

& 2 | 8/| 10-18 | 6.28 + 0.50 | 3.04 + 0.35 | 0.47 + 0.027

ie (4.05-8.10) | (1.50-4.31) | (0.36-0.58)

z= 3 | 9} 9-15 | 13.0 + 0.88! 5.76 + 0.46 | 0.45 + 0.028

= (8.9-16.8) | (3.91-8.00) | (0.36-0.61)

4/10) 5-11 | 25.7 +1.5 | 9.09 + 0.87 | 0.36 + 0.036

| (19.0-33.5) | (5.24-13.73) | (0.21-0.56)

We) | 4} POG 2s Ze | TEL Se (ey = Oe

a (38. 2-60.3) (8.9-16.7) | (0.20-0.34)

‘@ 2 | 32 la 85.1 + 1.9 | 22.9 + 0.61 | 0.27 + 0.007

2 | ae 3-105.3) | (15.7-29.7) | (.20-0.35)

B 3/19) 23 /121.741.9 | 32.4 + 1.07 | 0.26 + 0.009

g ‘(107.0-137.7) (21.5-38.8) | (0.20-0.34)

4 | 11) 1-3 1158.2 +: 6.5 | 41.3 + 3.14 | 0.24 + 0.014

| (140.3-208.8) | (29.0-62.0) | (.20-0.35)

! i |

*This group contains juveniles approaching maturity and

mature specimens.

TABLE 3.—ANALYSIS OF RELATIVE IMPORTANCE

oF AGE AND SIZE IN DETERMINING THE RE-

SPIRATORY RATE OF AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS.*

A. Influence of size (subdivision of age groups

shown in Table 1)

}

Weight of single snail Oxygen consumption

of heavier snails in

per cent of that of

lighter ones

Subdivided group

Subdi- Subdi-

| vision a | vision b

Juvenile | 1.8 De 80

Juvenile2 | 7.5 15e3 78

Juvenile 3 14.9 24.8 Q4

Juvenile 4 | 28.7 55.9 Q7

Mature 1 iP SIG 132.4 9§

B. Influence of age (subdivision of weight groups

shown in Table 2)

Age of snails Oxygen consumption

of older snails in

S ivided group ae :

ubdivided grouy percent of that of

Subdi-

Subdi- : ae ar

vision a vision b younger ones

Juvenile 2 20 27 121

Juvenile 3 27 34 119

Juvenile 4 34 10 64

Mature | 40 54 100

Mature 2 40 dS Q3

* For details see text.

4? JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

snails are reported to reach 2 to 3, occasionally

up to 5, years of age® (Korschelt, 1922). The 60

days studied by us represent such a small frac-

tion of their life span that a direct age influence

can hardly be expected to be demonstrable by

the Warburg technique. It is true, however, that

we have one observation seemingly in contradic-

tion with the above statement. As mentioned

previously, a minority of our snails grew very

slowly and did not reach sexual maturity during

the time of observation. When the respiratory

rate of these older, small specimens was compared

with that of younger specimens of approximately

equal size, the latter had a distinctly higher rate

(Table 4). However, the small, but older, snails

must probably be regarded as pathologically re-

tarded specimens. It seems more likely that

whatever factor (e.g., endocrine or other) was

responsible for their retardation rather than age

proper, was responsible for the lowered rate. It

certainly would seem desirable to exclude such _

snails from studies concerned with the normal

metabolism. Since they look externally normal,

they can be weeded out only when the age is

accurately known. In experiments where the

ereatest obtainable uniformity of material is

desirable, both the age and size factors should be

considered.

TABLE 4.—OxYGEN CONSUMPTION OF AUSTRA-

LORBIS GLABRATUS OF APPROXIMATELY HQUuAL

Sizz, BUT DIFFERENT AGE

i Mm? Oxygen consumed in

Num otal) Age eigneat |e bm

experi-|ber of suels nee a

ments |snails | days er snail

single Per mg

8 77 | 97-34 21.3 £1.9| 9.0 + 0.95 | 0.48 + 0.033

(15.3-30.3) (6.0-13.7) (0.30-0.56)

5 35 | 40-41) 26.8 -- 2.8 | 7.7 + 1.02 | 0.28 2 0-025

(19.0-33.5) (5.2-10.5) (0.21-0.33)

4 91 | 61-63} 26.0 +3.8| 6.7 + 0.78 | 0.26 + 0.012

(17. 4-32.8) (4.67.8) (0.24-0.29)

It has been shown previously (von Brand et al.,

1948) that a fairly good agreement existed in

Australorbis between respiratory rate and relative

surface, an agreement much better than between

weight and rate. The materials used then and

now are not completely comparable, because then

the age factor was not considered and it is con-

ceivable that some retarded snails had been

3'The exact life span of A. glabratus is un-

known. According to unpublished observations

by Perlowagora-Szumlewicz only a small percent-

age survives in captivity longer than 24 months.

VOL. 48, NO. 2

TABLE 5.—CoMPARISON OF 1948 Data (VON

BRAND ET AL.) AND PRESENT Data ON RE-

SPIRATORY RATE OF AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS.

(The 1948 data are in italics.)

Ratios of—

Weight of Mm? Oxygen | Rela-

individual 1 snail tive Belen

snail, mg 1 hour surface Weight |Oxygen| tive

surface

130 5.8 8.98 1.0 10 1.0

14 9) IES 11a 1530 10):

JAS AT 9.09 8.7 Za) 16 1.6

51.6 14.48 1163.9) 4.0 2.4 74.8

66 16.8 Gao aI BS) FO)

Son ll 22.85 19.4 6.5 a9 oD

WAS 32.90 24.6 9.3 5AG 4.5

153 30.3 esas || Jhb. 7/ 5.2 B22

158.2 41.3 2OE3) 2a (Cel 83)

included; furthermore the experiments of . 1948

were done at 30°C, the present ones at 28°C. It

is nevertheless of some interest to compare briefly

both series in regard to the overlapping size

eroups. Table 5 shows an excellent agreement

between both series which is rather surprising in

view of the above differences and the fact that

the strain was then newly established in the

laboratory but by now is an old laboratory

strain. It seems evident that in the size range

discussed the oxygen consumption follows more

closely, though not completely, the relative sur-

face (W?/8) rather than weight.

When the smaller size groups were included

into the above calculation, the deviations from

the expected values became more marked. This

suggested that the relationship W*/? was not

entirely satisfactory to describe the weight /

oxygen relations. We therefore analyzed the

entire size range used in the present study by the

allometrie procedure recommended by von

Bertalanffy (1951). The respiratory figures are

plotted against weight on a double logarithmic

scale, resulting usually in a straight line. Calcu-

lation of the tangent of the angle formed with

the abscissa yields the power to which the body

weight must be raised to describe the relationship

between body weight and respiration. Upon ap-

plying this procedure to our data, it became evl-

dent that the pre-juvenile groups behaved

differently than the remaining groups (Fig. 2).

This is not surprising since in practically all

animals studied so far, the relationship between

size and oxygen consumption differs in the small-

est specimens from that prevailing after the

organisms have undergone a certain growth and

FEBRUARY 1958 PERLOWAGORA-SZUMLEWICZ AND von BRAND : AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS 43

possibly again after they reach near maximum

size (Zeuthen, 1953). It is evident from Fig. 2

that an identical relationship exists for the juve-

nile and adult groups; it does not follow weight

(y = 1.0) nor surface as calculated by the for-

mula W2/3 (y = 0.666), but is actually intermedi-

ate. The exponent found by us (y = 0.80) is

quite similar to that found by von Bertalanffy

@9a))ston Planorbis (y = 0.75). It must be

recognized that one factor exists which introduces

a certain amount of uncertainty into the above

calculations; the possibility that the metabolically

more or less inert shell varies significantly in

weight in snails of different size. Indications to

this effect have been reported for the larger size

range of Australorbis (Nolan and von Brand,

1954), but the relation between shell weight and

total weight for the smaller size groups has not

been established for our strain.‘ It is clear that

any error introduced by this factor is reflected in

all calculations but it becomes smaller as the

exponent to which the weight is raised becomes

smaller.

SUMMARY

1. The growth characteristics of Awustralorbis

differ during the first week after hatching from.

those of older specimens.

2. Both size and age seem responsible for

onset of sexual maturity.

3. If the whole size range from freshly ree

to sexually mature snails is considered, the

respiratory rate decreases materially with in-

creasing size or age if the rate is referred to unit

weight, although the decline may be quite small

within limited size or age ranges.

4. Size has probably a greater importance than

age in determining metabolic rate, at least in the

age range studied.

5. While in larger snails a fairly good correla-

4 Perlowagora-Szumlewicz (unpublished) con-

siders the age factor as more important in deter-

mining the relative shell weight than the size

mitactor.

== NOAA, WL ©.2

tion exists between relative surface and respira-

tory rate, inclusion of the smaller juveniles leads

to discrepancies, indicating that the formula

W?/5 is not entirely adequate. The exponent 0.80

fits the size range studied much better.

REFERENCES

VON Berrauanrry, L. Theoretische Biologie 2,

ed. 2. Bern, 1951.

VON Branp, T., and Meuuman, B. Relations between

pre-and post-anaerobic oxygen consumption in

some fresh water snails. Biol. Bull. 104:301. 1953.

and Mann, E. R. Observa-

tions on the respiration of Australorbis glabra-

_ tus and some other aquatic snails. Biol. Bull.

~ 95: 155. 1948.

Epwarps, G. A.; Vie inane Neto.) Be and

DosBIN, J. E. Influence of Teton and

other Factors upon the respiration of the snail,

Australorbis glabratus. Publ. Avulsas Inst.

Aggeu Magalhaes 1: 9. 1951.

KuErBER, M. Body size and metabolic rate. Physiol.

Rev. 27: 511. 1947.

KorscHEut, E. Lebensdauer,

ed 2. Jena, 1922.

Mara Prnipo, M.; Bustorr Pinto, D.; and

DESLANDES, N. Observacoes sébre as posturas e

tempo de evolucdo de duas especies de caramujos

encontrados no Vale do Rio Doce. Rey. do

SESP 4: 407. 1951.

Newton, W. L.; and von Branp, T. Comparative

phystological studies on two geographical strains

of Australorbis glabratus. Exp. Parasitol. 4:

244. 1955.

Nouan, M. O., and von Branp, T. The weight re-

lations between shell and soft tissues during

the growth of some fresh-water snails. Journ.

Washington Acad. Sei. 44: 251. 1954.

PEREIRA, O., and DrsLANpEs, N. Resultados de

uma tentativa para determinar a idade do

Australorbis glabratus (Say, 1818). Rev. do

SESP 6: 43838. 1954.

PERLOWAGORA-SZUMLEWICZ, A.,

T. Studies on the oxygen

Australorbis glabratus eggs.

ington Acad. Sci. 47: 11. 1957.

WeinsBacH, EH. C. The influence of pentachloro-

phenol on oxidative and glycolytic phosphoryla-

tion in snail tissue. Arch. Biochem. Biophys.

64: 129. 1956.

ZEUTHEN, E. Oxygen uptake as related to body size

in organisms. Quart. Rev. Biol. 28: 1. 1953.

Altern und Tod,

and von BRAND,

consumption of

Journ. -Wash-

To treat your facts with imagination ts one thing; to imagine your facts is

quite another.—JOHN BuRROUGHS.

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 48, NO. 2

PALEONTOLOGY —A pelycosaur with subsphenoidal teeth from the lower Permian

of Oklahoma. Peter Paut Vaucun, U.S. National Museum.

(Received October 2, 1957)

In his Osteology of the reptiles (1956, p.

458), Romer comments on the rarity of

teeth on the parasphenoid in the class

Reptilia: “While teeth may flourish in

reptiles on palatal elements proper, para-

sphenoid teeth are almost never found in

this class—a situation correlated, presuma-

bly, with the tendency toward reduction of

that bone and particularly of its rostral

region. As far as I am aware, teeth on this

element have been noted in only a very few

instances: on the cultriform process of the

millerettid genera, on a platelike develop-

ment of the bone in the problematical

Lanthanosuchus and the primitive turtle

Triassochelys, and on the subsphenoidal

area in a pelycosaur as yet undescribed.”

W. Langston (personal communication,

1957) is currently studying the “‘pelycosaur

as yet undescribed”’; he informs me that it

is a much larger form, from a different lo-

cality and an earlier horizon than the one

described in this paper. Peabody (1952, p. 8)

has described teeth on the parasphenoid of

Petrolacosaurus.

In view of this rarity of parasphenoidal

teeth in reptiles, a portion, consisting of the

combined basisphenoid and parasphenoid,

of the braincase of a small pelycosaur from

the lower Permian fissure deposits hear

Fort Sill, Oklahoma is of interest in that it

has subsphenoidal teeth. This specimen is

of further interest in that it gives us a some-

what clearer picture of the pelycosaurian

portion of the fauna of these deposits than

we have had; various remains of pelycosaurs

are present in the materials collected for the

National Museum from the ‘Fort Sull

locality,” and Gregory, Peabody, and Price

(1956, p. 3) mention small ophiacodont

pelycosaurs and medium sized pelycosaurs

of uncertain family as part of the fauna.

The portion preserved of this pelycosaur

indicates that it is a reptile new to science.

Mycterosaurus, from the Clyde formation

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary

of the Smithsonian Institution.

in Texas, is the only other known pelycosaur

of comparable size, and its only known

horizon is close to that of the form described

here. But Romer (1956, p. 681) feels that

Mycterosaurus is an edaphosaur, and the

parasphenoids of edaphosaurs, as far as I

can make out from figures given by Romer

and Price (1940, pls. 18, 19) are quite unlike

that described here. Mycterosaurus is, how-

ever, a primitive form and may prove to be

similar when its braincase is adequately

known.

Class REpriLia

Subclass SYNAPSIDA

Order PELYCOSAURIA

Basicranodon, n. gen.

Diagnosis.—About the size of Mycterosaurus.

Conical, recurved teeth on the parasphenoid in

a concavity between the basipterygoid processes,

and on the ventral edge of the parasphenoidal

rostrum.

Genotype.—Basicranodon fortsillensis, 0. sp.

Basicranodon fortsillensis, n. sp.

Diagnosis.—The same as for the genus (the

only species).

Type.-—U.S.N.M. no. 21859, the greater part

of the combined basisphenoid and parasphenoid,

lacking the anterior part of the rostrum. Col-

lected in November 1955 by D. H. Dunkle and

hRearce:

Horizon and locality—From a fissure deposit

in Arbuckle limestone at the Dolese Brothers

limestone quarry, north of Fort Suill, in see. 31,

T. 4 N., R. 11 W., Comanche County, Okla.

This is the locality called the “Fort Sill Locality”

by Gregory, Peabody, and Price (1956, p. 3).

These fissure deposits are of early Permian age,

possibly (loc. cit.) of the same horizon as the

Arroyo formation, lower Clear Fork of Texas.

Description and discussion.—The _ basipara-

sphenoid, U.S.N.M. no. 21859, fits the description

of that compound element in other pelycosaurs

(Romer and Price, 1940, pp. 74-76) in almost

every way—except for the presence of teeth on

no. 21859. The basisphenoid and its ventral

FEBRUARY 1958 VAUGHN: A PELYCOSAUR WITH SUBSPHENOIDAL TEETH Ad

cover, the parasphenoid, are so joined to each

other that they are indistinguishable everywhere

except in cross-section through the rostrum of

the compound element and where the para-

sphenoid passes posteriorly beyond the posterior

border of the basisphenoid to form, presumably,

a ventral sheath for the anterior portion of the

basioccipital.

In dorsal or ventral view, the specimen, as

preserved, lacking the anterior part of the ros-

trum, has roughly the shape of an_isoceles

triangle, with the equilateral sides formed largely

by the basal tubera. The distance along the

base of the triangle, between the lateralmost

edges of the two tubera, is 15.5 mm. The distance

from the posterior end of either tuber to the

posterior end of the rostrum is 17 mm. The

distance between the lateralmost tips of the

basipterygoid processes is 11.5 mm. In side view,

it can be seen that the rostrum meets the body

of the basiparasphenoid at a dorsal angle of

about 165°.

Comparison of a figure (Romer and Price,

1940, pl. 8) showing the basiparasphenoid in

place in Dimetrodon limbatus with a figure (ibid.,

pl. 21) showing a side view of the skull of Myctero-

saurus longiceps convinces me that the basi-

parasphenoid of Mycterosaurus must have been

of very nearly the same size as that of Bast-

cranodon. Romer and Price (p. 62) point out that:

“Except for the anterior portion of the para-

sphenoid and the presphenoid, the ossified

portions of the [braincase]... show little varia-

tion in size, despite the great variations found in

pelycosaurs in dimensions of the skull as a whole.”’

Nevertheless, the basiparasphenoid of Bast-

Fia.

1.—Basicranodon fortsillensis, n.

ven.

W e . . 5 . .

basisphenoid and parasphenoid, lacking the anterior part of the rostrum.

cranodon is much smaller than that in, say,

Ophvacodon or Dimetrodon (basiparasphenoid of

each about twice as large as that in Basicranodon,

based on plates 3 and 13 of Romer and Price),

and we may assume that the whole animal

Basicranodon was of about the same size as the

whole animal M ycterosaurus.

In dorsal view, the sella turcica can be seen

as a depression in the basisphenoid beginning on

a plane through the middle of the basipterygoid

processes and extending posteriorly to a plane

about midway in the length of the specimen. A

low ridge lies along the midline in the posterior

part of the sella. Near the anterior end of the

sella turcica are a pair of carotid foramina appres-

sed to one another. A groove leads forward from

each foramen to the base of the rostrum. This

disposition of the dorsal openings of the carotid

foramina differs from the situation seen in at

least some genera of pelycosaurs (Romer and

Price, p. 76) in that the latter show “two unpaired

openings .. . one in the floor of the sella, another

more anteriorly placed.” The lateral walls of

the sella are rounded, finished ridges, low ante-

riorly but rising posteriorly on either side to end

at the unfinished posterior rim of the sella. The

posterior rim of the sella, with a deep, rounded

median notch, shows, as do the corresponding

rims in other pelycosaurs (Romer and Price,

p. 79), “a broad unfinished surface facing postero-

dorsally and obviously articulating, through an

intervening area of cartilage, with the corre-

sponding antero-ventral face of the prodtic

ossification in the dorsum sellae.”” This unfinished

surface is thicker on either side of the notch than

it is in the midline. The bilateral symmetry of

Combined

lateral: C,

(U.S.N.M. no.

A, dorsal; B,

ventral views. D, cross section through rostrum, dorsoventral orientation as in B. Approximately X 2.

and = sp. 21859

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the posterior rim of the sella in the specimen and

the appearance of its surface preclude the possi-

bility of any dorsalward extension of the basi-

sphenoid having been broken away.

The low posterior wall of the sella can hardly

be called a dorsum sellae—there are no entire

foramina for the abducens nerves—and the

broad, unfinished posterodorsal surface indicates

that, as is characteristic of pelycosaurs, the

dorsum sellae was formed by the prodtic. It is

this feature that most clearly shows the pely-

cosaurian nature of Basicranodon. According to

Romer and Price (p. 68), ‘““The anterior extension

[of the proédtic] into the dorsum sellae [in pely-

cosaurs] is unusual. This region is formed in all

living reptiles by the basisphenoid; it is formed

in the same way in such an advanced cotylosaur

as Captorhinus....” In 1956 (p. 179), Romer

states that ‘‘a notable peculiarity [of pelycosaurs]

is that, in forms where sutures can be determined,

the prominent dorsum sellae is formed by the

prodtics rather than the basisphenoid.”” Romer

(1956, p. 671) also gives: “Prodétic extends for-

ward and medially to form extensive dorsum

sellae...” as a character for the whole subclass

Synapsida, ‘but the horizon ot U.S.N.M. no.

21859, from deposits probably equivalent in age

to the lower Clear Fork in Texas, rules out

assignation to any group of synapsids other than

the Pelycosauria.

The basisphenoid seems to terminate poste-

riorly with the unfinished posterodorsal surface.

The parasphenoid, however, extends posteriorly

beyond this as a thin plate with many longi-

tudinal grooves on its dorsal surface, which

probably, as in other pelycosaurs, served for

articulation with the ventral surface of the

basioccipital. This thin plate passes on either side

into the basal tubera. The bony parts of the

tubera, as in other pelycosaurs, are formed

entirely by the parasphenoid, although, as Romer

and Price suggest (p. 75), the dorsal cavity in

each tuber may have been filled with cartilage

from the prootic.

In ventral view, the parasphenoid is seen to

be broadly concave between the tubera, which

diverge from one another at an angle of about

40°. As in other pelycosaurs, each tuber termi-

nates rugosely posteriorly. Anteriorly, just

behind the plane of the basipterygoid processes,

the two tubera are confluent via a low connecting

shelf, which forms an anterior boundary for the

VOL. 48, NO. 2

(posterior) concavity of the parasphenoid.

Passing posteriorly from this shelf, a low, broadly

convex ridge, placed slightly to the left, partially

subdivides the concavity.

Anterior to the posterior concavity of the

parasphenoid, posterior to the rostrum, and

between the basipterygoid processes lies a con-

cave area whose ceiling is about two millimeters

ventral to the ceiling of the posterior concavity.

On the steep side walls of this concave area are

teeth, directed ventrally and medially. These

teeth are simple, conical, and slightly recurved.

They are about 1-1.5 mm in length. The teeth

have been lost from the left wall of the specimen,

but there are scars on the wall to attest to their

former presence there. Four teeth can be seen on

the right wall. This being a unique specimen,

some of the matrix has been left on the wall to

serve as a buttress for these fragile teeth, and it

is not possible to say exactly how many teeth were

present in life. But, from a comparison of the

teeth of the right wall and the scars on the left

wall, it seems safe to say that each wall must

have held at least five teeth of the greater than |

mm size, with perhaps smaller teeth around

their bases. Scars indicate that small teeth were

present on the ceiling of what may be called

the ‘“dentigerous concavity,’ and that an irregu-

lar row of small teeth led anteriorly from these

to the teeth of the rostrum.

Each basipterygoid process presents two

articular faces, an anterior one and a dorsolateral

one. These two faces are confluent in a long,

broad ridge, which faces anteriorly, laterally and

dorsally; the axis of this ridge is mainly a dorso-

ventral one, but with a forward inclination.

There is a deep ventral trough between each

basipterygoid process and the ipsolateral wall of

the dentigerous concavity. The posterior half of

this trough must have carried the internal carotid

artery and the palatine branch of the facial

nerve. Midway in the length of the trough, at

its vertex, may be seen the ventral opening of

the canal for the carotid. Anterior to this, the

trough was probably occupied by the palatine

artery and the continuation of the nerve; the

further course of these structures may be indi-

cated by a longitudinal groove along the lateral

surface of the dorsal part of the rostrum on either

side. The presence of the dentigerous concavity

between the basipterygoid processes, and the

consequent effect on other parts of the osteology

FEBRUARY 1958 VAUGHN: A PELYCOSAUR WITH SUBSPHENOIDAL TEETH 47

in this area, including the mode of entrance of

the internal carotid artery, are points of differ-

ence from other described pelycosaurs. In other

yelycosaurs there is (Romer and Price, p. 75)

between the basipterygoid processes “a narrow

valley. Grooves converge forward and downward

into this valley from the sides of the bone,

presumably indicating the course of the palatine

nerve and internal carotid .. . All well-preserved

specimens ...show a pair of foramina [for the

internal carotid arteries] entering the bone from

below between the basipterygoid processes.’

Only the posterior three millimeters of the

rostrum are preserved. The ventral surface of

the rostrum in this region is about 1.5 mm wide.

This surface bears four large teeth, blunter than

those farther back, and about one-half as long;

and one smaller tooth. The two anteriormost

teeth seem to be almost paired. The large tooth

behind these is on the left side with a tooth scar

alongside it. The succeeding tooth is on the right

with a tooth scar to its left. The small tooth is

on the left just behind the anteriormost pair.

An irregular, but apparently single-file, row of

tooth scars connects the rostral row of teeth

with the teeth on the ceiling of the dentigerous

concavity.

The cross-sectional view of the rostrum

afforded by the breaking away of the anterior

part clearly shows the basisphenoid in this

region in the shape of a V clasped in and ventrally

covered by the arms of the Y-shaped rostral

portion of the parasphenoid. The stem of the Y

is widened ventrally to form the dentigerous

portion of the rostrum. The groove of the V,

which must have held the sphenethmoid, termi-

nates posteriorly about 1.5 mm anterior to the

dorsal openings of the carotid foramina.

There are other pelycosaurian elements in the

National Museum collection from the Fort Sill

locality, notably an ilium with a build like that

of a sphenacodontid, from a pelycosaur about

the size of Mycterosauwrus—and, therefore, about

the size of Basicranodon—but assignation to

Baswcranodon seems unwarranted.

The determination of the subordinal position

of Basicranodon is difficult. Romer (1956, p.

675) gives: “‘Fenestrae ovales more widely sepa-

rated than in other suborders, as are the basi-

cranial tubera,”’ as part of his diagnosis of the

Ophiacodontia. The tubera are widely separated

in Basicranodon. Inspection of the figure of

Ophiacodon uniformis (pl. 3) given by Romer and

Price indicates some similarity in that Ophiacodon

has another concavity, roughly comparable to the

dentigerous concavity in Basicranodon, anterior

to a deeper parasphenoidal concavity; these two

concavities are separated, as in Basicranodon, by

ay distimet = step:

ophiacodont.

Acknowledgment.—The drawings illustrating

this paper were made by Lawrence B. Isham.

Basicranodon may be an

REFERENCES

Grecory, J. T., PraBopy, F. E., anp Prick,

L. I. Revision of the Gymnarthridae, Ameri-

can Permian microsaurs. Bull. Peabody Mus.

Nat. Hist., Yale Univ., 10: 1-77. 1956.

Preasopy, F. E. Petrolacosaurus kansensis Lane,

a Pennsylvanian reptile from Kansas. Univ.

Kansas Paleontol. Contr., Vertebrata, 1: 1-41.

1952.

Romer, A. 8. Osteology of the reptiles: 772 pp.

Chicago, 1956.

Romer, A. S., and Price, L. I. Review of the

Pelycosauria. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. No.

28: 5388 pp. 1940.

It is no shame for aman to learn that which he knoweth not, whatever be his

age.—ISOCRATES.

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES VOL. 48, NO. 2

ZOOLOGY —Sarsiella, tricostata a new ostracod from San Francisco Bay (Myodo-

copa: Cypridinidae). MrrepitH L. Jonss, University of California, Berkeley.’

(Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.)

(Received August 23, 1957)

In the course of sampling the benthic

fauna off Point Richmond, San Francisco

Bay, Calif. (Jones, 1954), a series of three

types of ostracods were encountered. These

animals, which provide the basis for the

following description, were collected at

depths of 2 to 30 feet below mean lower low

water and were most common at depths of

less than 12 feet. At first, because of the

press of the program at hand, and owing to

the scanty knowledge of Pacific coast

members of this group, they were referred

towas) Ostracods, “A, “a7 andas © 22. Sul.

sequent investigation indicated that all

three were of the genus Sarszella Norman,

1869.

At the time of Muller’s work (1912)

some 19 species of Sarszella were recognized,

and since then only one additional species

has been described GS. misakiensis Kajayama

1912). Of the known species, only two (S.

americana Cushman, 1906, and S. zostericola

Cushman, 1906) possess shells bearing

three ridges that converge near the shell

center, a characteristic that 1s constant in

the specimens from Point Richmond.

However, although the gross outline of

Ostracod ‘‘A’”’ was almost identical to that

of S. americana, the shell ribs of Ostracod

‘“A”’ were oriented differently, and the dorsal

margin of the shell (irregularly notched in

S. americana) was smooth. On the other

hand, Ostracods = 87 and) :@7 “bore: 2

superficial resemblance to the female and

male of S. zostericola, respectively.

As will be seen later, there are other

differences that help differentiate between

Cushman’s two species of Sarszella and the

present form and that justify the erection

of a new species, Sarszella tricostata; to

include Ostracod ‘‘A,” the mature female,

Ostracod “C,” the mature male, and

Ostracod “B,”’ juvenile forms of undeter-

minable sex. The specific name is based

on the obvious ribbing of the shell surface.

1 Present address, U. S. Naval Mine Defense

Laboratory, Panama City, Fla.

Suborder Myropocopa

Family CyPRIDINIDAE

Genus Sarsiella Norman, 1869

Sarsiella tricostata, n. sp.

Figs. 1, A-P; 2

Ostracod ‘‘A’’ (female) Jones, 1954.

Ostracod ‘‘C’’ (male) Jones, 1954.

Ostracod ‘‘B”’ (juvenile) Jones, 1954.

Since three morphologically distinct forms

were encountered, they will be described sepa-

rately.

MATURE FEMALE (Fig. 1, A-E)

The shell of the mature female (Fig. 1 A) is

subovate, with the posteroventral margin drawn

into a broad, bluntly pointed process. The ventral

margin is entire, and fine setae are inserted along

the margin from the anterodorsal area continu-

ously to and around the posterior process. The

main surface of the shell is slightly raised from

the marginal area, except near the posteroventral

process. A secondary margin is thus formed from

which some setae originate in the ventral region.

Fine hairs are scattered over the main surface of

the shell, which is divided into three fields by

three ridges extending from or near the secondary

margin to a point of junction, slightly anterior

and ventral to the midpoint of the shell. The

areas delimited by the ridges vary in size, the

largest being dorsal, the smallest anteroventral,

and the medium posteroventral. A fourth field

in the posterior area lies in the transverse

plane and extends from the margin to an in-

dentation of the raised surface of the shell. There

is a light calcification rendering the shell trans-

luscent, although occasionally it may be quite

transparent. The length of the shell is 1.2 mm,

its height 1.0 mm.

The last (fifth) joint of the antennules (Fig. 1

B) bears five to seven heavy, annulated setae,

and the fourth joint bears one or two annulated

setae. The third joint bears three setae, two of

which are annulated, at the posterior distal angle,

and two more nonannulated setae on the anterior

margin, one proximal, and one distal. In addition,

FEBRUARY 1958

a fine seta may be present on the posterior margin

of the third joint.

The natatory (primary) branch of the antenna

is composed of 10 joints, the base of which is

shown in Fig. 1 C(cf. Fig. 1 N). The first may bear

a single fine seta on the anterior margin, the next

eight joints bear a single heavy, annulated seta

on each, and the terminal joint bears a pair of

heavy annulated setae. The secondary branch of

the antenna is a rudimentary protuberance which

bears a single distal spine and a pair of heavier

proximal spines.

The mandible (Fig. 1 D) usually bears short

spines at the anterior distal angle of the second,

third, and fourth joints, and four or five spines

on the posterior margin of the second joint. In

addition, the last three joints bear the large spines

characteristic of the genus.

The caudal lamina (Fig. 1 E) has five heavy

spines in each plate, decreasing in size dorsally.

The shortest spine bears only fine hairs, but the

other four all bear short spines proximally, which

grade into fine hairs, distally. In addition, there

are fringes of fine hairs on the posterior margins

of the laminae.

MALE (Fig. 1, F-K)

The shell of the male of Sarsiella tricostata

(Fig. 1 F) is strikingly similar to that of the male

of S. zostericola. The dorsal margin is broadly

rounded. The ventral margin is nearly straight

and gives way to the antennal sinus anteriorly,

while the posterior margin is truncated, rounds

gently into the dorsal margin, and, ventrally,

forms nearly a right angle. As in the case of the

female, the main surface of the shell is raised

from the level of the margin and is divided into

three fields by ridges. The fourth field is essen-

tially lacking. The surface of the shell is strewn

with fine hairs, and fine marginal setae extend

from the anterior area, along the ventral margin,

to the posterior area. The length of the shell is

1.0 mm, its height 0.7 mm.

The third joint of the antennules (Fig. 1 G)

possesses a cluster of long filamentous setae with

an accompanying heavy annulated seta. On the

anterior margin there are two setae, as in the

female. The fourth joint bears two setae, and the

fifth bears six heavily annulated setae.

The primary branch of the antenna (Fig. 1 H)

is similar to that of the female, but the secondary

branch is quite different. It is composed of three

joints; the first bears two spines, the second, three

JONES: SARSIELLA TRICOSTATA 49

heavy spines, and the third is recurved onto the

three spines of the second. In addition, the tip

of the terminal joint appears to be equipped with

a ridged area which may function, along with

the spines of the second joint, as a part of a

clasping apparatus.

The second joint of the mandible (Fig. 1 I)

bears three main annulated spines. In addition

there may be two to four smaller annulated spines

at the base of the most proximal of the main

spines. On the lateral distal margin there are

three fine annulated setae, one short and two

long. The third, fourth, and fifth joints bear large

clawlike setae and may also have a small spine

at the distal lateral angle. At the base of the large

claw of the fifth joint there may be a second small

spine.

The caudal lamina (Fig. 1 J) is similar to that

of the female except that the fringe of setae on

the posterior margin is replaced by a few short

bristles.

The copulatory organ (Fig. 1 K) is similar to

that of the male of S. zostericola in that each half

is composed of a large blunt hook and a smaller

one with a pair of spines distal and another pair

proximal to the smaller hook. In S. tricostata,

however, there are no spines near the base of the

organ.

JUVENILES (Fig. 1, L-P)

As stated above, the shell of juvenile S.

tricostata (Fig. 1 L) is quite similar to the outline

of the female of S. zostericola. It is similar to the

shells of adult S. tricostata; the fourth area of the

shell surface is obvious, as in the adult female,

and the centrally oriented ribs delimit the other

three fields. Marginal hairs extend from the

anterodorsal margin, ventrally, to the posterior

dorsal area. A posteroventral process similar

to that of the adult female is also present.

The antennules (Fig. 1 M) are also similar to

those of the adult female, and differ only in

having five to seven terminal annulated setae

and one large annulated seta and several small

ones on the posterior margin.

The structure of the

branch (Fig. 1 N) is quite variable in the juvenile

forms of S. tricostata. Indeed it is possible to

trace a line of development of this appendage

(Fig. 2). The series illustrated was arranged

according to two criteria. First, it was felt that

the length of the first joint of the primary anten-

nal branch was indicative of relative age. Second,

}

secondary antennal

() JOUR A a < +

fe Sy w

Pal

—(Fo

plan

ation, s

, see

re)

pposi

site

ge)

Frespruary 1958

JONES: SARSIELLA TRICOSTATA 5

-Enlarged basal segment

of antenna

Fig. 2.—Sarsiella tricostata n. sp.: A schematic representation of the possible development of the sec-

ond antennal branch, prepared from camera lucida drawings. 2 D shows the condition in the adult fe-

male, and 2 K and 2 L that in adult males. The remaining figures are those of juveniles.

it was assumed that once a spine pattern had

been established, it would probably not be dis-

rupted. The only nonjuvenile forms shown in

Fig. 2 are “D” (adult female) and ‘““K” and “L”’

(adult males). It would seem that, during the

development of the secondary antennal branch

in female S. tricostata, there is an early fusion of

two joints to form the rudimentary branch with

a single distal spine and two proximal spines.

In the male there is an early fusion and, in later

molts, the redevelopment of the second and the

appearance of a third joint. No claim is made

that this series is complete, and it is admitted

that the appearance and disappearance of certain

Fie. 1.—Sarsiella tricostata, n. sp.: A-E, adult female; F-K, adult male; L-P, juvenile. A, lateral

view of left shell of female; B, medial view of right antennule; C, medial view of left antenna; D, me-

dial view of right mandible; E, lateral view of right caudal lamina; F, lateral view of left shell of male;

G, medial view of right antennule; H, medial view of left antenna; I, medial view of right mandible;

J, lateral view of right caudal lamina; K, lateral view of left half of copulatory organ; L, lateral view

of left shell of juvenile; M, medial view of right antennule; N, medial view of left antenna; O, medial

view of right mandible; P, lateral view of right caudal lamina. (Scale 1 at the top of the plate applies

to figures of the shells, 1 A, 1 F, and 1 L; scale 3 applies to the figure of the male copulatory organ, 1 K;

and scale 2 applies to al) of the remaining figures.)

iy,

spines may be due to difficulties in observation.

However, it is felt that the general trend of de-

velopment can be made out in this figure.

The mandibles of the juvenile form (Fig. | O)

are similar to those of the adult female, but with

fewer spines on the posterior margin (3-5) and

no small spines at the distal anterior angles.

The spines of the caudal lamina (Fig. 1 P) are

also similar to those of the female adult, but the

two smallest spines are devoid of either short

spines or fine hairs.

Since S. tricostata most closely resembles

S. zostericola a table comparing the two species

is presented opposite.

Distribution of type material—The adult

female of Sarstella tricostata is designated as the

holotype, and the male adult is designated as an

allotype. The holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 100903)

the allotype (U.S.N.M. no. 100904), and para-

types (15 females, 4 males, and 15 juveniles,

US.N.M. no. 100905) have been deposited with

the U. S. National Museum. In addition, para-

types have also been deposited with the Museum

of Paleontology, University of California, Berke-

ley, and the British Museum, London.

The author is indebted to Dr. Cadet Hand,

Department of Zoology, University of California,

for his kind advice and criticism, and to Mrs.

Emily Reid, illustrator for the Department of

Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, for

the figures illustrating this description.

LITERATURE CITED

Cusuman, JosepH A. Marine Ostracoda of Vine-

yard Sound and adjacent waters. Proc. Boston

Soc. Nat. Hist. 32: 359-386, 132 figs. 1906.

Jones, Merepitu L. The Richmond shoreline

survey. Report of the California Department

of Fish and Game, Project No. 54-2-3: 1-84,

5 figs. 1954.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 48, NO. 2

S. zostericola

S. tricostata

Antennules:

Number of setae on fifth

joint

Number of setae on fourth

joint

Number of setae on poste-

rior distal angle of third

joint

Antennae:

Setae on rudimentary sec-

ondary branch

Mandible:

Number of spines on poste-

rior margin, second joint

2”

1 distal

1 proximal

6 (5-7)**

1-2

1 distal

2 proxime!

4-5

* Number is based on text figure, not on the text itself.

** Figures within parentheses represent ranges, figures out-

side represent mean or the most common number.

S. zostericola

S. tricostata

Antennules:

Number of setae on fourth

joint

Antennae:

Number of joints in second-

ary branch

Mandibles:

Number of spines on poste-

rior margin, second joint

Number of setae on anterior

margin, second joint

Copulatory organs:

Number of setae on upper

end

2 long

2 short

5 (5-7)

2 long

1 short

KasayaMa, BE. Misaki san kaimushirut ni tsutte.

(On the Ostracoda of Misaki.) Dobuts. Z.

Tokyo 24: 488-492, 11 pls. 1912.

Misr, G. W. Ostracoda. In “‘Das Tierreich”’ 31:

1-434, 92 figs. Berlin, 1912.

Nature never says one thing and science another.—JUVENAL.

FEBRUARY 1958 REISH: NEW SPECIES OF COSSURA 53

ZOOLOGY .—Description of a new species of Cossura (Annelida: Polychaeta) from

the Mississippi Delta.1 Donaup J. Retsu, University of Southern California.

(Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.)

(Received December 4, 1957)

While identifying polychaetous annelids

from the Mississippi Delta, I discovered a

new species of the cirratulid genus Cossura

Webster and Benedict. The material was

The genus Cossura, known for only three

previous species, has attracted considerable

interest in recent years. This is largely the

result of increased emphasis upon quantita-

A B | 2 3 4 5 Sf 8

COSSURA LONGOCIRRATA WEBSTER & BENEDICT

Ce, ZEEE

a a-

pig eee

Bees aoe 6 cin nee To

COSSURA LONGOCIRRATA W. & B. WESENBERG-LUND, 1950

A B | 2 Ss 4 Sf Snr 8

COSSURA CANDIDA HARTMAN

CEEEEGEL

A | 2 3 64 5 G6 .a20i0

COSSURA PYGODACTYLATA JONES

A | 2 >, 4 5 CiinGe \nGuteo

COSSURA DELTA N.SP.

Fig. 1.—Diagrammatic representation of the anterior regions of the known species of Cossura. The

number of asetigerous segments posterior to the prostomium is indicated by the letters A and B. The

setigerous segment number is indicated by the numerals. The single letter S within a segment indicates

that the setae of the notopodium and neuropodium are continuous. Two letter S’s indicate separation

of the setae of these two lobes.

collected by Robert H. Parker, with a size 1 tive studies coupled with refinement of

Hayward orange-peel bucket, of the Scripps

Institution of Oceanography. The results

of the quantitative survey, including a list

of the polychaetes collected, have been

published (Parker, 1956).

1 Contribution no. 210 from the Allan Hancock

Foundation, University of Southern California.

handling techniques once the samples have

been taken. Cossura longocirrata was de-

scribed by Webster and Benedict (1887

for specimens collected at Eastport, Maine.

‘This species was subsequently reported from

Denmark (Ehason, 1920; Thulin, 1921

North Atlantic (Wesenberg-Lund, 1950),

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and British Columbia (Berkeley and Berke-

ley, 1956). Cossura candida was recently

described by Hartman (1955b) from south-

ern California. Included under this species

are the reports from San Pedro Basin

(Hartman, 1955a, as Cossura sp.), Los

Angeles—Long Beach Harbors (Anon., 1952,

as Cossura longicirrata [sic]; Reish, 1955,

as Cossura sp.) and Alamitos Bay (Reish

and Winter, 1954, as Cossura longicirrata

[sic]). More recently Jones (1956) described

Cossura pygodactylata from San Francisco

Bay.

Family CrRRATULIDAE

Cossura Webster and Benedict,

Cossura delta, n. sp.

Genus 1887

Many individuals, all incomplete posteriorly,

come from the Pass a Loutre region of the

Mississippi River Delta, Gulf of Mexico (Parker,

1956). The holotype measures 66 mm in length

and 0.5 mm in width. A total of 25 setigerous

segments are present. The ten paratypes have

from 22 to 34 setigerous segments and measure

from 5 to 10 mm in length.

Anterior end—The prostomium is conical in

shape, has two nuchal organs, but lacks eyes.

The proboscis is everted in some of the specimens;

the base bears from 15 to 20 digitate lobes. The

peristomium lacks setae. The first setigerous

segment follows the peristomium. Cossura delta,

as the other species in the genus, lacks parapodia;

the setae originate directly from the lateral body

wall. The first setigerous segment is biramous

with the setae forming a continuous lateral

series (Fig. 1). Beginning with the second setig-

erous segment, the setae of the notopodial

region and the neuropodial region are distinctly

separated (Fig. 1). The single long, cylindrical

tentacle originates from the middorsum of the

third setigerous segment. It measures 8 mm in

the holotype, but it was undoubtably broken

during the process of collecting.

Setae-—There are two kinds of setae in

Cossura delta. One type is a simple capillary which

is armed with spines along its outer edge (Fig. 2,

A). They are found in both the notopodium and

the neuropodium. They number 7 to 9 per lobe

in the notopodium (Fig. 2, A) and are directed

posteriorly. The capillaries are more slender in

the neuropodium (Fig. 2, B). These setae, which

number 4 to 8 per lobe, are directed posteriorly.

VOL. 48, NO. 2

B C

Fic. 2.—A, Capillary seta from the notopodium

of segment 10; B, capillary seta from the neuro-

podium of segment 10; C, limbate seta from the

neuropodium of segment 10; D, limbate seta from

the neuropodium of segment 15.

The second kind of setae is simple curved

limbate ones (Fig. 2, C) which are limited to the

anterior neuropodial segments. They begin at

the first setigerous segment, reach their maximum

development at segments 7 to 12, and gradually

diminish in size from segments 18 to 25 (Fig. 2, C

and D). Fine spines are present along the outer

margin of these setae. Generally four limbate

setae are present in each lobe. These setae are

directed slightly forward.

Postertor end.—It is unknown in Cossura delta

since all specimens were incomplete posteriorly.

The posterior end of the other three species are

similar. The setae are as in the anterior segments,

and the pygidium bears three long anal cirri. In

addition, C. pygodactylata is characterized by

possessing 6 to 10 digitate lobes on either side

of the anus.

Discussion.—Cossura delta differs from the

other known species of the genus in possessing

curved limbate setae in the anterior neuropodia

(Fig. 2, C and D), and the separation of the

notopodial and neurcpodial setae at the second

FEBRUARY 1958

setigerous segment (Fig. 1). This species comes

nearest to C. longocirrata as reported by Wesen-

berg-Lund (1950) and Berkeley and Berkeley

(1956). These two species are characterized by

having one setigerous segment posterior to the

prostomium and the tentacle originating from the

dorsum of the third setigerous segment (some-

times second in C. longocirrata as stated by

Wesenberg-Lund, 1950) (Fig. 1). The anterior

ends of the four species of the genus are diagram-

matically represented in Fig. 1. Since some differ-

- ences exist between the reports of C. longocirrata

by Webster and Benedict (1887) and that by

Wesenberg-Lund (1950) and Berkeley and Berke-

ley (1956), diagrams are included for each.

Type matertial—The holotype (U.S.N.M.

no. 28706) and 5 paratypes (U.S.N.M. no 28707)

have been deposited in the U. S. National

Museum. Five paratypes have been placed in the

polychaete collections of the Allan Hancock

Foundation. University of Southern California.

Type locality—Station number 328 (Parker,

1956), off Pass A’Loutre region of the Mississippi

River Delta. It was collected in shallow depths

in clayey sediments.

LITERATURE CITED

ANON. Los Angeles—Long Beach Harbor pollution

survey. Los Angeles Regional Water Pollu-

tion Control Board No. 4, Los Angeles, Calif..,

43 pp. 1952.

BERKELEY, E., and BerKeLny, C. Notes on poly-

chaeta from the east coast of Vancouver Island

and from adjacent waters, with a description

REISH: NEW SPECIES OF COSSURA

of a new species of Aricidea. Journ. Fish. Res.

Bd. Canada 13: 541-546. 1956.

EviaAson, ANDERS. Biologisch-faunistische Unter-

suchungen aus dem Oresund. Polychaeta. Lunds

Univ. Arsskr., N. F. Avd. 2,16 (6) : 1-103. 1920.

HARTMAN, OLGA. Quantitative survey of the benthos

of San Pedro Basin, southern California. Pre-

liminary Results. Allan Hancock Pacific

Exped. 19(1): 1-185. 1955a.

. Endemism in the North Pacific Ocean, with

emphasis on the distribution of marine annelids,

and description of new or little known species.

In “Essays in the Natural Sciences in Honor

of Captain Allan Hancock,” pp. 39-60. Uni-

versity of Southern California Press, 1955b.

Jones, Merepitu L. Cossura pygodactylata, a

new annelid from San Francisco Bay (Poly-

chaeta: Cuirratulidae). Journ. Washington

Acad. Sei. 46: 127-130. 1956.

PARKER, Ropert H. Macro-invertebrate assem-

blages as indicators of sedimentary environ-

ments in east Mississippi Delta region. Bull.

Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 40: 295-376. 1956.

Reis, Donaup J. The relation of polychaetous

annelids to harbor pollution. Public Health

Rep. 70: 1168-1174. 1955.

——— and WintTER, Howarp A. The ecology of

Alamitos Bay, California, with special reference

to pollution. California Fish and Game 40:

105-121. 1954.

Tuuuin, Gustav. Biologische-faunistische Unter-

suchungen aus dem Oresund. Uber Cossura

longocirrata Webster and Benedict und tiber

die Rohren von Disoma multisetosum Oersted.

Lunds Univ. Arsskr., n. Fr. Avd. 2, 17(10):

EE Pal

Wesster, Harrison E., and Benepict, JAMES E.

The Annelida Chaetopoda from Eastport, Maine.

Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. for 1885: 707-755.

1887.

WESENBERG-LUND, Eusre. Polychaeta.

Ingolf-Expedition 4(14): 1-92. 1950.

Danish

I envy no man that knows more than myself but pity them that know

less.—S1r THOMAS BROWNE.

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 48, No. 2

ZOOLOGY .—A survey of inequivalve pelecypods. Davin Nicou, U. 8. National

Museum.

(Received November 22, 1957)

In their brief paper on discordant pelecy-

pods Newell and Merchant (1939, p. 176)

make the following statement: ‘‘Evidently

discordaney is not prevalent in modern

forms, for there is scarcely any mention of

the phenomenon in the literature that we

have examined.’ These authors limit the

meaning of discordancy to a difference in

height and length measurements of the two

valves, or, in their term, the ‘‘diameter”’ of

the valves. Although they are correct in

implying that little has been written on the

subject of discordant valves in modern

pelecypods, except in conjunction with

general morphologic descriptions of pelecy-

pod taxa, they err in inferring that dis-

cordancy is an uncommon phenomenon

among living representatives of this class of

mollusks.

On page 177, Newell and Merchant make

the following statement: ‘‘However, there

are many modern forms with markedly

inequivalve convexity in which the valve

margins are perfectly accordant.”’ This

certainly is not the case. Most examples of

marked inequality of the valve convexities

also show some discordancy. Moreover, in

some cucullaeids and corbulids, for ex-

ample, some discordancy is present ac-

companied by little difference in the con-

vexity of the two valves. Actually, inequal

valves of pelecypods may vary as to con-

vesity as well as diameter, and these two

variations are sometimes accompanied by a

discrepancy in the ornamentation on the

two valves of a specimen.

This paper will deal with inequivalve

pelecypods in the broader sense because these

variations are commonly interrelated mor-

phologically. I have listed in tabular form

suborders, superfamilies, families, and gen-

era of inequivalve pelecypods, most of which

are also discordant. The list is not to be

considered exhaustive, and only a few

fossil groups are mentioned. However, from

the list alone, it should be quite clear that

discordant pelecypods are far from rare.

Many families and genera of normally

equivalve pelecypods are, on rare occasions,

represented by individuals which, through

some freak of growth, whether inspired by

environment or by some genetic peculiarity

or both, have developed inequal valves.

These odd specimens will be ignored for the

present discussion. Some of the more unusual

occurrences of Inequivalve elec Cte are

covered by Lamy (1930).

Even in families and genera whose

representatives are considered normally

equivalve, the two valves usually do not

coincide perfectly with each other. A case in

point is seen in the Astartidae (Nicol, 1955,

p. 155) where in the lunular area the margin

of the right valve slightly overlaps the left,

whereas in the escutcheonal area the left

valve slightly overlaps the right. Cotton and

Godfrey (1938, p. 169) point out the same

phenomenon in the genus Cuna (Crassatel-

lidae). The right valves of some donacids

slightly overlap the left valves along the

dorsal margin. More examples of this mor-

phologie characteristic could be included.

This is apparently a supplementary locking

device to keep the valves from twisting,

and for our present discussion this phe-

nomenon, with but one possible exception,

will not be included in the inequivalve

pelecypods.

In this discussion of inequivalve pelecy-

pods I shall begin with the most primitive

taxa and conclude with the most specialized

ones.

Pelecypods having protobranch ctenidia

are structurally the most primitive living

members of the class. It is interesting to note

that none of them is included in the list of

inequivalve forms. Could this mean that the

first pelecypods (late Cambrian or early

Ordovician) all were equivalve? It may be

that the inequivalve characteristic did not

appear with the most ancient pelecypods

but was a secondary morphologic feature

which manifested itself a short time later.

Although the majority of Ordovician

pelecypods are equivalve, there are a few

genera, most of them having small numbers

FEBRUARY 1958

of species, which are inequivalve. One such

genus is Aristerella. It is found in Middle

Ordovician strata and is the oldest in-

equivalve pelecypod I have seen. The exact

systematic position of the genus is in doubt;

it has been placed among the mytilaceans by

most paleontologists and in the pteriaceans

by others. Ulrich (1897, p. 524), the original

deseriber, and subsequent workers have

reported Arzsterella as having the right valve

larger than the left. This genus has a some-

what pteroid shape, and, if the obliquity of

the shell is prosocline, the right valve is the

more convex on most, but not all, the speci-

mens examined. (The one or two exceptions

are small internal casts and may be ex-

amples of distortion.) Two large specimens

from Estonia, labeled Arzsterella in the col-

lection of the U. 5. National Museum, are

strikingly imequivalve, the right valves

being larger than the left. In this respect

Aristerella is similar to Hezkea from the late

Ordovician of Sweden. Isberg (1934, pp.

273-315, 388-389) describes Hetkea and

allocates the genus to the family Cyrtodon-

tidae, which some systematists have placed

among the prionodonts probably for want

of a more accurate assignment. Although

the specimens which Isberg figures are not

markedly inequivalve, he asserts that in

most species of Hezkea the right valves are

larger than the left.

Another early Paleozoic group which is

inequivalve is the family Antipleuridae. This

family of paleoconchs is restricted to the

late Silurian and early Devonian and is

represented by such genera as Antipleura,

Dalila, and Dualina. According to Lamy

(1930, p. 130, footnote) either left or right

valves may be larger. Figured specimens of

these genera show a great difference in the

sizes of the valves.

From late Ordovician onward throughout

the remainder of the Paleozoic, because of

the abundance of pteriaceans and pectina-

ceans, most of the mequivalve pelecypods

have their left valves larger than their right

valves. Besides the exceptions to this rule

already mentioned, Vertumnia, a pterino-

pectinoid genus restricted to the Devonian;

many species of Cypricardinia; and the

obscure genus Dexiobia all have right valves

NICOL: SURVEY OF INEQUIVALVE PELECYPODS od

larger than left valves. Cypricardinia ranges

from Silurian through Mississippian, and

Dexiobia is confined to the latter Period.

I have not attempted to list all the

Paleozoic pelecypods having larger left

valves than right. Furthermore, I have

listed none in which the inequivalve char-

acteristic is doubtful, whether left or right.

Some paleontologists assert that certain

Paleozoic genera are inequivalve whereas

others do not mention this characteristic in

their generic or familial descriptions. The

imphed discrepancy may be due to over-

sight on the part of some workers or to

distorted specimens in the Paleozoic collec-

tions of others.

Bivalves with filibranch ctenidia—i.e.,

those whose morphological development is

second most primitive—constitute the larg-

est group of imequivalve pelecypods from

the standpoint of percentage. Most members

of this order have well-developed byssal

attachments or are attached by their shells

directly to the substrate or, if free-living,

have descended from ancestors which had

some form of attachment. Apparently their

pleurothetic mode of life is related to the

inequal development of their valves. Fur-

thermore, among the filibranchs, the in-

equivalve condition is most consistent as well

as prevalent. In most families, the inequi-

valve species always have their left valves

larger, but in a few families the inequivalve

representatives always have their right

valves larger. There are few exceptions, and

this consistency can be considered, along

with other morphological characters, as an

indication of phyletic relationship.

There are several groups of filibranchs

which consistently are either equivalve or

if inequivalve, have the left valves larger

than the right. The Pteriacea are probably

the most ancient and among the most

prominent of this group. The Leiopteridae

and Pterineidae commonly have inequal

valves, and the left valves are always the

larger. (See La Roeque, 1950). A striking

example of this inequivalve condition is seen

in the genus Cornellites. These pteriaceans,

which are among the most ancient in-

equivalve pelecypods, are like the modern

species, and it is quite significant that this

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

large superfamily, which first appeared in

the Ordovician Period, has consistently

throughout its long history possessed the

same inequivalve characteristic—the left

valves invariably being the larger. Other

fossil pteriaceans which are inequivalve

include the genus Buchia and the family

Myalinidae; both have representatives with

their left valves larger than the right. (I

must add that I would include the Mya-

linidae with the Pteriacea rather than the

Mytilacea on the bases of the inequivalve

condition, the shape of the shell, and the

appearance of the ligamental area, despite

Newell’s assertion in 1942.) Many living

species of the Pteriidae are inequivalve, the

left valves always Hae larger than the

right.

The mytilaceans seem to be a consistently

equivalve group with but few exceptions.

Myoforceps aristata has prolonged posterior

ends of the valves which tend to cross over

each other. In some specimens the right

and in others the left valves are the larger

and more prolonged. Other exceptions are

Stavelia torta and Stavelia horrida, large

shells found in the Philippines and Queens-

land. In these species either right or left

valves may be larger. Fluviolanatus subtorta

is another inequivalve mytilid found in

Australian waters.

Another group of filibranchs is the priono-

donts, which first appear in the Devonian.

The Cucullaeidae and their allies constitute

a large suborder, and among its representa-

tives are some species which are inequivalve,

the left valves always being the larger and

overlapping the right valves along the

ventral border. Sometimes this discordancy

is accompanied by a striking discrepancy

in the ornamentation on the two valves.

Some Paleozoic representatives of the Pri-

onodonta and some Paleozoic Pteriacea are

remarkably similar in outline and hinge

characters, and the fact that both groups

have similar inequivalve conditions leads to

the possible inference that these two great

groups are closely related.

In addition to the pteriaceans and _ pri-

onodonts, a third and related group having

inequivalve species is the Isognomonacea,

which includes fossil groups like Cox’s

Bakevelliidae and the well-known genus

VOL. 48, NO. 2

Inoceramus. Besides the tendency to have

inequal valves, the left valves bemg con-

sistently the larger, these three large groups

have other morphologic similarities to link

them. The modern isognomonids are not so

conspicuously inequivalve as their fossil

ancestors, but in an occasional species the

larger size of the left valves is noticeable.

The strange family Vulsellidae, which

may be related to the isognomonids, has

inequivalve representatives. Either valve

may be the larger, but the left valve is the

larger more commonly than the right. The

valves of the vulsellids are often very

irregular, but the inequivalve condition is

not marked.

In the Placunidae, also, the — valves are

commonly larger.

There is some variation as to anen valve

is the larger in the modern Pectinacea, but

in all specimens that are strikingly mequi-

valve their right valves are the more convex

and in most cases overlap the left. The right

valves are larger in Spondylus, Plicatula,

Pedum, the Cretaceous genus Nezthea, and

some Pecten, sensu. lato. In a few modern

pectens, however, the left valves are slightly

larger than the right, and this condition is

true also in the Propeamussiidae. Newell

and Merchant (p. 175) note that the left

valves are larger than the right in the late

Paleozoic pectinacean genera Avizculopecten

and Pernopecten, but the right valves are

larger in specimens of the pterinopectinoid

genus Vertumnia, which is confined to the

Devonian Period. An analysis of the inequi-

valve condition among the pectinaceans

might give some valuable data on the rela-

tionships of the many genera and subgenera

within the superfamily.

Even a few of the fossi! limids are inequi-

valve. Some Jurassic limids represented in

the collection of the U.S. Geological Survey,

mainly by those belonging to the genus

Ctenostreon, have more convex right valves

than left. Cox (1948, p. 153) in his deserip-

tion of the family characters of the Limidae

made this statement: ‘‘There is no anterior

subauricular notch like that found in many

Pectinidae and Pteriidae, an anterior mar-

ginal gape for the protrusion of the foot and

byssus affecting (if present) both valves

equally.’’ In living species the byssal gape

FEBRUARY 1958

usually does affect both valves equally, but

in some, almost always the strongly-ribbed

ones, more of the byssal gape is in the right

valve and in a few cases the gape is wholly

in the right valve.

In the Ostreidae the left, or attached,

valves are either equal in size to, or larger

than, the right valves. This is equally true

of such Mesozoic genera as Gryphaea and

Exogyra as well as of living species of oysters.

The genus Chondrodonta, which is con-

fined to Cretaceous rocks, is attached by its

shell to the substrate. Like most ostreids, the

attached (left) valves are always the larger.

Because of the peculiar hinge and muscula-

ture, the systematic position of Chondrodonta

is still in doubt, and it has been placed in the

Ostreidae, Pectinacea, Pinnidae, and Myti-

lidae by various paleontologists.

On the other hand, the Anomuidae are

attached to the substrate by their right

valves, but the upper (left) valves are

always larger. Likewise, in the aberrant

Dimyidae, the left or unattached valves are

the larger ones. Two interesting Upper Cre-

taceous genera, Diploschiza and Pulvinites,

apparently are like Anomza and Dimya in

that they are attached to the substrate by

their right valves, and the unattached or

upper (left) valves are the larger.

Some aberrant thick-shelled Jurassic and

Lower Cretaceous pinnids are inequivalve.

These forms are placed in the genera 7’ri-

chites and Stegoconcha. In most cases the

left valves are the larger.

It is worthwhile to pause here and sum-

marize the data on the filibranchs thus far

reviewed. The most noteworthy thing about

this large order, with its numerous fossil as

well as living representatives, is that the

left valves are larger in the preponderance

of inequivalve species. The exceptions to

this are found in the Paleozoic pectinacean

genus Vertumnia, most of the Mesozoic and

Cenozoic Pectinidae, the Plicatulidae, the

Spondylidae, a few of the Vulsellidae, and a

few species of the Mytilidae. This, to my

mind, has phylogenetic significance and a

definite bearing on the classification of the

order.

Another characteristic of the filibranchs

with a well developed byssus is that where

the byssal notch is confined to one valve, or

NICOL: SURVEY OF INEQUIVALVE PELECYPODS 59

is predominately in one valve, it is the right

valve that has the notch or the larger portion

of it. This is true of the Pectinacea, Pteri-

acea, Prionodonta, Anomiidae, Isognomon-

idae, Limidae (as pointed out previously),

and undoubtedly others. I have made only a

cursory survey of this characteristic and

there may be some exceptions to this condi-

tion. However, the character is so consistent

among the filibranchs that a definite phy-

letic unity is indicated. One other observa-

tion should be noted here. The pleurothetic

filibranchs are more likely to have the byssal

notch confined to the right valve. This is not

always true, but it is certainly the common

condition. On the other hand, some of the

prionodonts are attached in a position so

that the valve margins are perpendicular to

the substrate. In many of these the byssal

notch has migrated somewhat so that it is

partly in each valve.

Beginning with the Unionacea there are

several large families and superfamilies of

pelecypods having less primitive ctenidial

structure whose representatives, with few

exceptions, are equivalve. Some of these

exceptions may be unintentionally over-

looked, as I have not attempted to trace all

aberrant and obscure species of large taxa.

Most of the aberrant species occupy a

different ecologic niche from the main body

of species of a family. Furthermore, in most

of these cases either the right or the left

valves may be the larger, as typified by

Beguina, Miltha, and a few of the vener-

aceans.

Among the unionaceans (the Aetheridae)

a few African and South American species

are found attached to the substrate by shell

cementation. They may be attached by

either valve, and either valve may be the

larger; furthermore, there is no apparent

correlation between which valve is attached

and which is the larger. Lamy (pp. 144-151)

describes and figures a few contorted and

inequivalve specimens of the unionacean

genera Quadrula, Unio, Pseudospatha, Cune-

opsis, Nodularia, and Arconara.

The Carditidae are a large and ancient

family with nearly all its species equivalve;

however, the aberrant genus Beguina, which

lives in the Indo-Pacific region, is mequi-

valve, and either valve may be the larger.

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Beguina lives surrounded by living coral.

Many pelecypods with this type of habitat

have either inequal or irregularly-shaped

valves.

A few of the dreissenids are discordant,

the right valves overlapping the left along a

part of the posterior margin.

The inequivalve Rudistacea are among the

most bizarre of all pelecypods. This large

group of Jurassic and Cretaceous bivalves

comprises species attached by either valve

and in which either the left valve or the

right is the larger. The inequivalve condition

in the rudistaceans may be important to

point to phyletic relationships within the

superfamily.

One of the less primitive families which

has very few inequivalve representatives is

the Lucinidae. However, among the lucinids

the genus Miltha has inequivalve species,

and either valve may be the larger. Most

species of the family Chamidae are also

inequivalve, and here again either valve may

be the larger. This inequivalve character is

one of several indications of the close rela-

tionship between the lucinids and _ the

chamids. Among inequivalve specimens of

the latter group it is always the attached

valves which are the larger.

Even the huge veneracean complex has a

few inequivalve species. Venerupis, as well

as the Petricolidae, have species in which

either valve may be slightly larger than the

other. In some species of Claudiconcha the

inequivalve trait is very pronounced, the

right valves consistently being the larger. In

this connection, incidentally, it is noted that

Cotton and Godfrey, in describing the genus,

state (p. 248) that the right valve is larger

than the left; furthermore, their figure of

Claudiconcha cumingi (279, p. 247) shows

the right overlapping the left, although in

their description of this species (p. 249) they

assert that the left valve overlaps the right.

Most of the Tellinidae are inequivalve in

that the valve margins are sinuous and the

posterior side of the shell is commonly bent

to the right. In this very large family one

finds that either the right valves or the left

may be the larger in diameter or the more

convex. Within a genus, however, the left or

the right valves, as the case may be, are

consistently the larger, and, as is the situa-

vou. 48, No. 2

tion in the Pectinidae, a study of the rela-

tionships among the inequivalve genera

may give some worthwhile suggestions

as to the grouping within the family

Tellinidae. For a more detailed account

of the inequivalve condition in the Tellinidae,

see Lamy (pp. 132-134).

A few of the semelids are also inequivalve.

The larger number and generally more

prominently inequivalve species have the

left valves the larger, but in a few cases the

right valves may be slightly the more con-

vex. Like the tellinids, the posterior end of

the shell is commonly bent, and the direction

of bending is usually to the right, rarely to

the left. Also like the tellinids, but more

prominently and commonly so, the anterior

end of the shell is bent in the direction

opposite to that of the posterior end.

Most of the Sanguinolaridae are equivalve

but a few species are not, the right valves

being distinctly larger than the left. Like the

Tellinidae, the posterior ends of some species

are bent; but unlike the tellinids, they are

bent to either the left or the right in about

equal numbers.

The description of the inequivalve condi-

tion in the tellinids, semelids, and sanguino-

lariids shows some remarkable similarities

and indicates a close relationship of these

three families.

Many of the species belonging to the

family Pleuromyidae (Triassic to Lower

Cretaceous), including those of the genera

Pleuromya, Cercomya, and Gresslya, have

right valves which overlap the left valves

along the dorsal border much like the condi-

tion found in some specimens of the Ceno-

zoic family Myidae.

The corbulids are nearly all inequivalve,

many markedly so, and the larger valves are

invariably the right ones. A few of the re-

lated Myidae are also inequivalve, having in

all such cases larger right than left valves,

furthermore, when the valves of an inequi-

valve myid are closed the umbo of the right

is higher than that of the left.

Among the inequivalve representatives of

the lucinids, chamids, veneraceans, tellinids,

sanguinolariids, pleuromyids, corbulids, and

myids, the larger valves are commonly the

right ones; and among those of the four last-

named families it is invariably so. This situ-

eee

FEBRUARY 1958

ation is the opposite of that of the more

primitive filibranchs.

The remainder of the pelecypod families

discussed are generally inconspicuous groups

either because of the small size of the shells

or because the groups have small numbers of

species and are geographically restricted. In

this latter connection, some of the following

taxa are not seen frequently because their

representatives are restricted to deep water.

The relationships of many of these families

to each other or to their place in the classifi-

cation of the Pelecypoda is not well under-

stood. Moreover, their inequivalve condition

is not consistent; among the inequivalve

species of some families the larger valves are

the right, of others they are the left, and of

others they may be either one.

The Cleidothaeridae are like chamids in

external appearance but are characterized by

a pearly inner shell and a very different

hinge. This family is confined to Australian

and New Zealand waters. Specimens of the

one living species are consistently attached

by their right valves, which are much larger

than their left valves.

In the Myochamidae, representatives of

Myochama are attached to solid objects by

the shells of the right valves, and the left

valves are much larger and overlap the right.

This condition is much like that found in the

Anomiidae. Specimens of MWyodora, on the

other hand, are not attached, and the right

valves are always larger, sometimes con-

spicuously so.

With the possible exception of a species of

Frenamya which Cotton and Godfrey (p.

145) describe as having the right valves more

convex than the left, all of the Pandoridae

have the left valves larger than the right, and

in some cases the discordancy between the

valves is great, the left valves overlapping

the right along the ventral border.

The Lyonsiidae are nearly all equivalve,

but the few inequivalve species in this

family have the left valves larger than the

right.

In the Thraciidae the right valves are

always larger.

Almost all of the periplomatids are inequi-

valve, and the larger valves are always the

right ones.

Although there is little mention of it im

NICOL: SURVEY OF INEQUIVALVE PELECYPODS 61

the lterature, the Poromyidae are also

inequivalve. The right valve of a specimen

overlaps the left valve slightly on both the

dorsal and the ventral margins.

The Verticordiidae have an unusual type

of inequivalve or discordant condition. The

right valves overlap the left along the dorsal

margin. This morphologic character is simi-

lar to that found in the Astartidae and

Crassatellidae, but it is much more marked.

Many cuspidariids are inequivalve; the

consistently larger left valves overlap the

right valves along the posteroventral border.

In some species of Juliidae there are

prominent spiral hornlike structures on the

umbonal region of the right valves. This

morphologic character is unique among the

Pelecypoda. A drawing of the structure is

given by Cotton and Godfrey (p. 129).

Of the 28 families with living species which

are basically inequivalve (this eliminates

such groups as the mytilids, carditids,

lucinids, and venerids.) half, or 14 of them,

have nacreous shells. This 1s an unusually

high percentage as compared with the pro-

portion of nacreous groups in the entire

Pelecypoda. Nacreous shells in the Pelecy-

poda are, in general, considered a primitive

characteristic. Whether the relatively high

correlation between nacreous shells and

inequal valves is significant or not awaits a

survey of the nacreous groups in the entire

Pelecypoda—a _ project that is greatly

needed.

From the table which summarizes the

data and from the more detailed discussion

on the various groups, the consistency of the

Inequivalve trait obviously is Important in

the classification of the Peleeypoda. Some of

the evidence from valve inequality merely

substantiates the indications from other

morphological characters, but, heretofore,

the inequivalve trait has been ignored by

taxonomists arranging a classification of the

Pelecypoda. To be more specific, the con-

sistently larger left valves found in the

Prionodonta, Pteriacea, and Isognomonidae

give an indication of relationship which is

also borne out by other morphological

characters. However, some caution must be

exercised as to the interpretation of valve

inequality in groups which have tew inequi-

valve species, such as the mytilids and

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

PELECYPOD TAXA HAVING INEQUIVALVE

REPRESENTATIVES

Taxa The larger valve

Aristerella right

Cyrtodontidae! (Heikea) right

Antipleuridae left right

Cypricardinia right

Dexiobia right

Pterineidae left

Leiopteriidae left

Myalinidae left

Pteriidae left

Mytilidae! left right

Prionodonta left

Bakevelliidae left

Inoceramidae- left

Isognomonidae left

Vulsellidae! left? right

Placunidae left

Pectinacea (Paleozoic) left? right

Pectinacea (Mesozoic, Cenozoic) left right?

Propeamussiidae left

Spondylidae right

Plicatulidae right

Limidae} right

Ostreidae left

Chondrodonta left

Anomiidae left

Dimyidae left

Pulvinitidae (including Diploschiza) left

Pinnidae! (Trichites) left? right

Unionacea! (Aetheriidae) left right

Carditidae! left right

Dreissenidae! right

Rudistacea left right

Lucinidae! left right

Chamidae left right

Veneraceal left right2

Tellinidae left right

Semelidae left? right

Sanguinolariidae right

Pleuromyidae right

Corbulidae right

Myidae! right

Cleidothaeridae right

Myochamidae left right

Pandoridae left

Lyonsiidae left

Thraciidae right

Periplomatidae right

Poromyidae right

Verticordiidae right

Cuspidariidae left

Juliidae right

1 Basically equivalve.

2 Valve which is either more commonly the larger or more

conspicuously so or both.

VOL. 48, NO. 2

carditids. The few cases of inequal valves in

these two groups undoubtedly mean little

or nothing as an indication of phyletic rela-

tionships.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am particularly indebted to three per-

sons for data and suggestions for this study.

Dr. Roland W. Brown, of the U. 8. Geolog-

ical Survey, provided information on the

spelling of some of the family names. Dr.

Harald A. Rehder, of the U. 8S. National

Museum, examined the manuscript for the

usage and spelling of the pelecypod taxa.

Dr. Horace B. Baker, of the University of

Pennsylvania, pointed out Lamy’s interest-

ing paper.

REFERENCES

Corton, B. C., and Goprrry, F. K., The molluscs

of South Australia, Part I. The Pelcypoda: 314,

340 text figs. Adelaide, 1938.

Cox, L. R. The English wpper lias and inferior

oolite species of Lima. Proc. Malacol. Soc.

London 25: 151-187, 79 figs. 1943.

——— Taxonomic notes on Isognomonidae and

Bakevelliidae. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London 31:

46-49, 1 fig. 1954.

IsBERG, ORVAR. Studien uber Lamellibranchiaten

des Leptaenakalkes in Dalarna: 492, 32 pls.

Lund, 1934.

Lamy, E. Quelques mots sur la torsion de la coquille

chez les lamellibranches. Journ. de Conch. 74

(2): 128-151, 21 figs. 1930.

La Rocqun, A. Pre-Traverse Devonian pelecypods

of Michigan. Contrib. Mus. Pal. Univ. Michi-

gan 7 (10): 271-366, 19 pls. 1950.

NEWELL, N. D. Late Paleozoic pelecypods: My-

tilacea. Geol. Surv. Kansas 10 (2): 115,15

pls., 22 figs. 1942.

NEweELL, N. D., and Mercuant, F. E. Discordant

valves in pleurothetic pelecypods. Amer.

Journ. Sci. 287 (8): 175-177, 1 pl., figs. la-d.

1939.

Nicout, D. Morphology of Astartella, a primitive

heterodont pelecypod. Journ. Pal. 29: 155-158,

4 figs. 1955.

Utricu, E. O. The Lower Silurian Lamellibranchi-

ata of Minnesota: 475-628, pls. 35-42. (In ‘‘The

Geology of Minnesota’’ 3 (2): of Final Report,

Paleontology.) 1897.

FEBRUARY 1958

ACTIVITIES OF THE JOINT BOARD ON SCIENCE EDUCATION 63

ACTIVITIES OF THE JOINT BOARD ON SCIENCE EDUCATION

Eprror’s Nore: Most members of the Academy are familiar

with the name Joint Board on Science Education, but untortu-

nately few are familiar with its activities. Dr. Arnold H. Scott has

kindly prepared this report on the Joint Board. Following this is a

report by the Joint Board on a problem of interest to all scientists.

As early as 1949 the Washington Academy of

Sciences became concerned about the need for

encouraging the study of science and mathe-

matics in the junior and senior high schools of

the Greater Washington Area. Keith Johnson and

Percy Rayford, of the District of Columbia

Schools, had organized the first annual science

fair for the Washington Area in 1947 and had

begun asking the Academy for help in judging

the entries. In 1951 a special committee was

formed by the Academy with Dr. Martin A.

Mason as chairman to organize a Junior Acad-

emy of Sciences. Upon its organization in 1952

the Junior Academy assumed the responsibility

for promotion of the annual science fairs.

By 1951 some of the scientific and engineering

societies had become concerned with the promo-

tion of science education, and the schools were

being contacted by the various societies who were

wanting the privilege of presenting their pro-

grams to the students and working with them in

the schools. As the work load of the teachers was

heavy and the schedules rather tight, these re-

quests from the societies for time became irksome

to the school officials. It became clear to the

D. C. Council of Engineering and Architectural

Societies that something must be done to coordi-

nate the activities of the societies and to estab- ©

lish better relations with the schools.

Harly in 1952 Dr. W. T. Read, chairman of

the Education Committee of the Council, took

the first steps toward coordinating the efforts of

the societies. He set up a Subcommittee for

Secondary School Contacts with Walter H.

McCartha as chairman, which secured approval

of the school systems for the contact members to

work with the science and mathematics teachers

on behalf of the various societies wishing to help

in encouraging the study of science and mathe-

matics. The Washington Academy of Sciences

was asked to join in this effort by appointing a

parallel Subcommittee for Secondary Schools

Contacts. This subcommittee was appointed with

Dr. Arnold H. Scott as chairman. The first an-

nual “List of Officials and Committees concerned

with the Promotion of Science Talent’? was pub-

lished in the fall of 1952.

At first the teachers and school officials were

suspicious of the efforts of the scientists and

engineers, as they were afraid that an effort

would be made to try to change their methods of

teaching. However, the early efforts of the con-

tact members were very tactful, and the teachers

soon came to realize that the contact members

could be really helpful to them. The influence and

size of the contact committee grew rapidly. The

parallel efforts of the Washington Junior Acad-

emy of Sciences in promoting science fairs in the

schools resulted in a rapid growth of interest by

the students in the fairs. It then became apparent

that a more formal coordinating organization

was needed.

Under the active direction of Dr. Margaret

Pittman, then president of the Academy, the

Joint Board on Science Education was formed in

1955 by an agreement between the Washington

Academy of Sciences and the D. C. Council of

Engineering and Architectural Societies. Its first

chairman was Dr. Raymond Seeger. It was em-

powered to direct its activities “‘toward assisting

and counseling the faculties of schools and related

organizations, with power to initiate action

where desirable, and to raise funds to carry out

the various activities of the Board.’ These ac-

tivities include:

‘1. Providing such speakers as may be desired.

2. Arranging for classroom demonstrations.

3. Assisting in developing graduate school op-

portunities for science teachers and aiding them

in finding summer employment.

4. Recommending changes in science courses

when deemed advisable.

5. Sponsoring local area fairs and assisting in

planning, and promotion of same.”

The Board consists of 12 members, 6 appointed

by the chairman of the Council and 6 appointed

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

by the president of the Academy. The terms of

office are three years, two members being ap-

pointed each year from each of the parent organi-

zations. The official year starts on June 1, and

the new officers are elected at the first meeting

of the new year. The chairman is chosen alter-

nately from the members of the Academy and

the Council. The Board has been incorporated so

as to establish responsibility and provide for tax

exemption on donations made to the budget of

the Board.

Each committee of the Board is headed by two

members from the Board, one from the Academy

and one from the Council. Other members of the

committees are recruited from interested persons

in the various scientific and engineering societies.

The Secondary Schools Contacts Committee is

the largest committee of the Board and is com-

posed of some 135 persons who act as contact

members to the junior and senior high schools of

the Metropolitan Washington Area (within a

radius of 25 miles of central Washington). There

is one contact member for each junior and senior

high school of the area with a few exceptions.

Because of the size of the committee and magni-

tude of the work to be done, the committee has

been divided into eight divisions, roughly paral-

leling the school systems involved. The contacts

committee serves as a channel through which the

various scientific and engineering societies can

aid the teachers and also as a channel through

which the science and mathematics teachers can

call on the talents of the members of the scientific

and engineering societies.

The work of the Contacts Committee is

planned and reviewed by a Planning Committee,

which is composed of the chairman and vice-

chairman, the Division chairmen, and the school

haison officers. The latter are persons appointed

by the school systems to work with the Joint

Board.

It is the duty of the contact member to make

the acquaintance of the science and mathematics

teachers in his school so that they may feel free

to call upon him for whatever help he can give.

He is prepared to help in getting speakers for

career days, science clubs, school assemblies, etc.

He can help in getting scientific films for use in

schools and in getting volunteers for project

judging, project counseling and other work con-

nected with science fair operations. The contact

member is expected to make sure that there has

been no failure of the school and students to

receive information about the special scientific

VOL. 48, No. 2

lectures which are presented each year especially

for the high-school students and to help when

necessary in obtaining the necessary tickets for

these lectures. It is the stated policy of the

Joint Board that once each year, if the schools

desire it, scientists shall be brought into the

classrooms to discuss their work in science and

engineering with the purpose of creating interest

in these subjects. When such a program has been

planned and arranged between the Joint Board

and the school system, it is the duty of the con-

tact member to see that all the requests have been

filled, that both the teacher and the scientist or

engineer are well informed of what is expected of

each, and that the program works smoothly in

his school. Three such programs have been car-

ried out and have received a very enthusiastic

response.

A meeting in honor of the Secondary Schools

Contacts Committee members for their faithful

work with the schools was held on October 14,

1957. Remarks of appreciation were made by Dr.

John K. Taylor, chairman of the Joint Board,

Dr. Arnold H. Scott, chairman of the Secondary

Schools Contacts Committee, and Dr. T. Ed-

ward Rutter, division superintendent of the

Arlington Public Schools. A feature of the meet-

ing was a preview of the film entitled “The

Strange Case of the Cosmic Rays,” which is the

third of the Bell System Science Series. The film

was introduced by Dr. Ralph Bown, chairman of

the Scientific Advisory Board of the Bell System

Science Series and former vice chairman-Research

of the Bell Telephone Laboratory.

The Committee on Science Fairs was organized

to act as a general coordinating body for science

fair problems. It works with the school staffs and

the Washington Junior Academy of Sciences by:

1. Advising on ground rules,

2. Advising on policy matters,

3. Aiding in securing proper consultants for

projects (this is usually a matter of assisting the

School Contact Members when necessary),

4. Advising on safety problems as needed,

5. Aiding in securing judges,

6. Aiding in securing accessory support, par-

ticularly special exhibitions in the Smithsonian

Institution, National Institutes of Health, and

tours of these and other government institutions

such as the National Bureau of Standards,

7. Aiding in the guidance of publicity,

8. Working with other groups such as the

Prince Georges Science Fair Association, the

Arlington County Science Fair Association,

Science Associates of Montgomery County, and

other similar groups and,

FEBRUARY 1958 ACTIVITIES OF THE JOINT

9. Cooperating with other groups to raise the

necessary money where such is not available from

the School Boards.

Four area science fairs are held each year. Two

winners from each area fair are sent to the Na-

tional Science Fair, along with one teacher from

each area acting as chaperone.

The Finance Committee is charged with

preparing a budget for the Joint Board and

seeking a means for raising the funds required

for this budget. The budget for the present year

is as follows:

Expenses of chairman

SINATRA. ee eee $125.00

Secondary School Contacts Committee. 400 .00

Science Fairs Committee:

(a) Local Area Fairs... . $1,200

doymeNetitonaly Mair: ... 1... 2,500 3,700.00

Science Teacher demonstration

BAAS | 2 Ss 55 RC Oe ete eee eae 525.00

imancemOomimibtee. . 64 2) Jka. ee. 200.00

IMPS CAMA TAS CIS ce eee 590 .00

$5, 500.00

Money to support this budget is expected from

the scientific, engineering, and architectural so-

cieties, commercial organizations in the area,

certain service organizations, and individual do-

nations. In the past the Washington Junior

Academy of Sciences has liberally supported the

budget by its donations from the funds received

from the scientific trips which it sponsors. Many

more individual donations are needed if the bud-

get is to be adequately supported.

A curriculum committee has made a study of

the scientific curriculum of a local school system

at the request of an official of that system. A

report of this committee has been made available

to all the school systems of the Washington Area

who desire it.

Members of the Joint Board on Science

Education and its Committees

Joun K. Taytor, Chairman

R. W. Mess, Vice Chairman

W. H. McCarrua, Secretary-Treasurer

CHARLES MorSEL

ARNOLD H. Scorr

RAYMOND J. SEEGER

KATHERINE STINSON

Lewis K. DowNING

Wo. J. KLLENBERGER

REGINA FLANNERY

PHOEBE KNIPLING

Wave H. MarsHALu

Secondary Schools Contacts Committee

ArNoxtp H. Scorr, Chairman

W. J. ELLENBERGER, Vice Chairman

BOARD ON SCIENCE EDUCATION

Division I District of Columbia

D. B. Scorr, Chairman

R. J. Roru, Vice Chairman

BERNARD W. AGRANOFF Keita C. JOHNSON

Morris E. BArRFIELD

Raupew E. CraBiuu

STANLEY Dosik

JosEPH J. FAHEY

MicHEAL GOLDBERG

Won. P. Harris

JoHN K. Harrsock

NorMan C. HoweE.Lus

Wn. D. JENKINS

GERSHON KULIN

Rospert H. NELSON

Won. H. PINDELL, JR.

GEORGE B. Scorr

C. M. SmitH

Wawupvo E. SMITH

Ecpert H. WALKER

LAWRENCE A. Woop

Division II District of Columbia

L. K. Downine, Chairman

A. KE. Ricumonp, Vice Chairman

EVELYN Boyp

RayYMoND M. JONES

LAWRENCE T. BuRWELL J. I. Minor, JR.

Francis EH. BUTLER

STEPHEN S. Davis

Hauson V. HAGLESON

Liuoyp FERGUSON

Haroup E. FINLEY

DaRNLEY E. Howarp

ARTHUR D. JEWELL

A. F. Moore, JR.

Kewtso Morris

Francis W. STEELE

I, dis WANE

J. C. WEBSTER

CHARLES E. WEIR

Division III Prince Georges and

Charles Counties

GROVER C. SHERLIN, Chairman

Hasima Ora, Vice Chairman

JosEpH G. Tuono, Vice Chairman

WriuuiaM J. BAILEY

ALBERT F. BriRD

Cart BoyarRs

W. O. BRIMIJOHN

Ricuarp L. DoLEcEK

Rosert J. Downs

JAMES F. Fox

Epwarp HacskKAYLo

Rospertr A. HEIN

WaRREN I}. HENRY

Lester F. HuBERT

W. H. Hunt

Wn. H. LuckE

Bruce NEALE, JR.

M. F. Maury OSBORNE

JOHN G. PALMER

STANLEY PRUSCH

A. I. SCHINDLER

Mary S. SHORB

K. M. Smite

JOHN K. TaYLorR

C. G. THomMpeson

R. B. TURNER

GEORGE W. WALDO

GEORGE F. WALL

CORR I Wise. ir.

EvizaBetH G. ZooK

Division IV Montgomery County

FALCONER SmitH, Chairman

Rospert B. Moore, Vice Chairman

JAMES CASSELL

ERNEST CoTLOVE

WaLTER T. DANIELS

Jeeves DATS

lefeddy Te isiauie

B. K. ForscHE

Howarp GRAHAM

O. R. HAMILTON

Ricuarpv [IRWIN

LEON JACOBS

ArcHIE I. MAHAN

Louise MARSHALL

R. D. MuURRILL

Wriitram R. Nes

Ricuarp L. PETRITZ

LEE. J. PURNELL

J. L. ROBERTSON

ABRAHAM SHANES

Haroup R,. STANLEY

GILBERT WRIGHT

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Division V Arlington County and

Alexandria

T. F. Forp, Chairman

J. M. CaLpwELL, Vice Chairman

ALLEN L. ALEXANDER KENNETH HAINES

Rocco DE MasI R. S. Hunter

Auton H. DESMON LUTRELLE F. PARKER

Wo. H. DIEHL J. A. SANDERSON

JOHN HAGEN W. ZimmerRMAN, III

Division VI

Falls Church, Fairfax and Prince

Williams Counties

C. R. Nasser, Chairman

J. W. Harkness, Vice Chairman

WitL H. SHEARON, JR.

C. R. TREADWELL

Horace M. TRENT

B. D. Van EVERA

Harry J. BOERTZEL

VeRA CONRAD

B. Tuomas HopxKINs

P. W. Kopp

Lucien L. Ricu

Division VII Catholic Schools

JosepH C. Micuatowicz, Chairman

CHARLES C. D1ILuLER, Vice Chairman

VOL. 48, No. 2

GEORGE E. McDuFrrigE JoHN C. OEHMANN

ALBERT J. WALCEK

Division VIII Private Schools

MarGaret R. Fox, Chairman

E. C. Curcuins, Vice Chairman

Mary E. STEVENS

T. DaLe STEWART

EarRLeE R. ToENSE

Epwarp W. TorPFrER

Howarp R. Bau

ELIZABETH DOYLE

Won. J. KaNnor

Marrua L. RIc&

STANLEY B. RUSSELL

Science Fairs Committee

W. H. MarsHatu, Chairman

R. W. Mess, Vice Chairman

CuHarRuEs A. McCatua

PauL R. MILLER

Howarp B. OwENS

KarRuL FRANK

STEPHEN HopxKINS

PHOEBE KNIPLING

JESSE L. Maury

Finance Committee ©

C. MorsEL, Chairman

PHOEBE KNIpPLING, Vice Chairman

A REPORT BY THE JoINT BoAaRD ON SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE

GREATER WASHINGTON AREA

SCIENCE CURRICULA IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

About a year ago the Joint Board was invited

by a local school system to make recommenda-

tions on science curricula in secondary schools.

After a brief, intensive study, based upon an ex-

tensive background of experience of the science

community, the following report was submitted

by a special Science Education Committee. The

requesting group is of the belief that the general

recommendations may be of value to other

schools with similar problems; accordingly, the

Board has been authorized to make its views

known to all the schools under the Greater

Washington Area.

Recognizing that the problem of science

teaching is of great concern, both nationally and

internationally, and not merely of a local char-

acter, the Science Education Committee recom-

mends schools continue to study vigorously the

revision of its curricula in mathematics and

science at the secondary-school level with the

following principles in mind:

FUNDAMENTALS

Outside a genuine need to interest all capable

secondary-school students in the scientific aspects

of the universe in which we all live, most college

scientists of all disciplines are agreed that the

primary requirement for college is general prepa-

ration in reading, writing, and arithmetic (the 3

R’s), stressed at all grades from kindergarten

through the secondary school, with particular

emphasis upon mathematics and its relationship

to the sciences, and not merely the specific

courses in the sciences. Of paramount importance

is the motivation of students through enthusi-

astic, content-informed teachers. The need to

challenge intellectually the competent, as well as

to safeguard the right of the slow-to-learn, must

be a primary concern of all engaged in a demo-

cratic educational system.

GUIDANCE

Guidance about the professions is needed for

‘“ouidance personnel.” So-called guidance, at

FEBRUARY 1958

present, seems to be concerned mostly with in-

forming students as to what they should do if

their careers or colleges have already been se-

lected. Much more important is insuring that the

student has an opportunity to select among

eareers those in which he has a particular interest

and potentiality, even if both are latent.

Local scientists are available through the

Joint Board on Science Education for general

presentations to guidance personnel and_ for

specific assistance to individual students, as well

as for group talks.

DEPTH AND BREADTH

A greater emphasis is needed upon depth of

understanding a few principles of science rather

than upon an encyclopedic coverage of many

topics about science. The student needs to know

much more than just facts of science; he needs

to understand primarily ‘“‘the why,’ secondarily

“the how,” and only thirdly “the what.” At all

grades, from the kindergarten through the sec-

ondary school, science should be taught, not

chiefly to acquire “information, please,’ but

primarily to stimulate curiosity and to implement

interests through well-selected facts, as a means

—not an end in itself. The criterion of success

should be whether or not a student is able to

think and behave differently about the scientific

material of his environment at the conclusion of

his course. Above all, he should be made familiar

with both the power and the limitations of

science.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

Each course should have clearly stated, prac-

ticable objectives, including the means of measur-

ing such objectives. Evidence should be annually

shown as to the measured success of achievement

of such objectives. Critical objective analysis

should be continually made of all administrative

procedures, which may prevent the optimum

realization of teaching objectives.

EXPERIMENTATION IN COURSES

The secondary schools should develop objec-

tives of their own without undue regard for

opinions of high school teachers as to what they

believe is, or should be, truly college preparatory.

In this connection, the requirements and use of

high-school subjects by colleges and universities

nationally should be continually examined, par-

ACTIVITIES OF THE JOINT BOARD ON SCIENCE EDUCATION 67

ticularly in consultation with local

scientists.

Serious consideration should be given to the

ordering of courses, including possible modifica-

tion of traditional arrangements; for example, the

order of physics and chemistry which in high

school is sometimes opposite to that usually

found in colleges; the giving of algebra as a 2-year

sequence rather than having it interrupted by

geometry, which may be (or should be) little

used in later secondary physics and chemistry

classes. In this connection, it is noted that some

peculiar choices may be accidentally given stu-

dents; for example, the need to choose at a par-

ticular time between a future required course

(history) and one elective course (in biology). In

this instance it would be preferable to give a

choice among comparable subjects, say, a group

of sciences or a group of social studies.

Experimentation with new types of courses in

mathematics, biology, chemistry and _ physics

should be encouraged on an interschool basis by

a few capable teachers of honor courses. Under

no circumstances, however, should a radical

change be made in the general program without

considerable experimentation and the preparation

of adequate texts. Promiscuous tampering with

the bad material may affect good material also.

Possible new courses are: (a) introductory courses

in mathematical sciences, which involve the use

of numerical analysis and the applications of

mathematics to science; (b) introductory courses

in physical science, which may combine present

courses in physics and chemistry (one semester

of each)—not a “survey” course; (¢) introductory

courses in modern mathematics, including cer-

tain fundamental concepts in algebraic geometry,

elementary calculus, and statistics.

Local scientists might be invited through the

Joint Science Board on Education to participate

in continuing studies of such science curricula.

college

There might be a series of round table discussions

in which an equal number of scientists from a

particular discipline in local universities would be

invited to meet with an equal number of high-

school teachers in that discipline, a_ selected

number of these conferees might be invited to

another round table in which some educational

authorities, both within the local public school

system and from neighboring groups, would also

be invited to participate.

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MODERN VIEWPOINTS

All material should be presented to the student

at his own psychological and intellectual levels.

It should be presented, moreover, as living

mathematics and science—that is, from a modern

viewpoint of science as science with only minor

consideration of technological importance, which

would appear to be more appropriate in social

study courses. (General science courses, indeed,

should be more scientific and less social in

emphasis.)

LABORATORY

Good laboratory work is regarded as being

highly important. There is a serious question,

however, as to how much of real value is being

accomplished in single periods of instruction (in

lieu of a double period), particularly when such

periods may be arbitrarily shortened for various

administrative reasons throughout the year.

Here, above all, objectives should be continually

examined and evaluations made annually.

In this connection, more allowance should be

made for a teacher to make ready for laboratory

just prior to the class meeting. Sufficient time

must be allowed in the class for the student to

assemble simple (inexpensive) apparatus. There

is a tendency in a large class to mechanize all

operations in order to achieve efficiency, whereas

the sine qua non of all laboratory work should be

encouragement of the individuality of each

VOL. 48, NO. 2

student. Consideration should be given to differ-

ent patterns for different types of students; for

example, voluntary science-fair projects for the

more imaginative (not all), laboratory repetition

of demonstrations for the less imaginative (not

all), ete.

IN-SCIENCE TRAINING

In view of the increasing complexity of modern

science, it is recommended that in-service train-

ing groups be established at all levels of mathe-

matics and science teaching, but particularly at

the elementary levels. Equally important as new

factual information are new ways of presenting

old basic materials. Local scientists might be

invited through the Joint Board on Science Edu-

cation to assist in such courses.

Science Education Committee:

R. Percy BARNES

Professor of Organic Chemistry

Howard University

Matcoum W. OLIPHANT

Professor of Mathematics

Georgetown University

GrorceE W. WHARTON

Professor of Zoology

University of Maryland

Raymonp J. SEEGER (Chairman)

Deputy Assistant Director

National Science Foundation

Men should be taught as if you taught them not,

And things unknown proposed as things forgot.

— Popr.

CONTENTS

GENERAL ScreNcE.—A critique of operations research. GrorcGE E.

GTI Raden es a ees he Se ae ee te ae vicice:

Page

PuysioLoGy.—Observations on the oxygen consumption of young

Australorbis glabratus. ALINA PERLOWAGORA-SZUMLEWICZ and

THEODOR VON BRAND?. 228-20. .ds5c6 a ees. eer

PALEONTOLOGY.—A pelycosaur with subsphenoidal teeth from the lower

Permian of Oklahoma. Prrer PAuL VAUGHN...............22%

ZooLocy.—Sarsiella tricostata, a new ostracod from San Francisco Bay

(Myodocopa: Cypridinidae). Merrerpiru L. JONES...............

ZooLocy.—Description of a new species of Cossura (Annelida: Poly-

chaeta) from the Mississippi Delta. Donaup J. REISH...........

Zootogy.—A survey of inequivalve pelecypods. Davin Nicou........

Activities of the Joint Board on Science Education...................

Notes and) Newsy 22 eee ee sa OE he bee rrr

22.W23

VOLUME 48 March 1958 NUMBER 3

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

ceeneeecercercertr

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MA ieee SoH je

Taal PRA BEI

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{

Published Monthly by the

meer SHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Editor: Cuzester H. Pages, National Bureau of Standards

Associate Editors: RonALD BaMrorp, University of Maryland

Howarp W. Bonn, National Institutes of Health

IMMANUEL ESTERMANN, Office of Naval Research

This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes:

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ings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) correspond-

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tific life of Washington. The JouRNAL is issued monthly. Volumes correspond to calendar

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Manuscripts should be sent to the Editor. It is urgently requested that contributors

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