Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 49

JANUARY 1959

No. 1

SCIENCE ADMINISTRATION .—Pay plans and people. CRawFrorp R. BUELL,

U.S. Post Office Department, Washington, D.C. (Communicated by Waldo

L. Schmitt.)

(Received January 6, 1959)

Financial and psychic compensation of

scientists and engineers has long posed a

dilemma of no small proportions for all

government agencies which prosecute en-

gineering and scientific research and devel-

opment. World events within the past year

or two have emphasized the urgency of

reaching satisfactory conclusions. Toward

this end, the writer, during the past three

years, has studied the rank-status concept,

giving particular attention to scientists and

engineers engaged in research and develop-

ment. This study developed in some detail

the philosophical and historical background

of rank-status that had emerged as a con-

cept for civilian employment in the Federal

Government in the United States less than

20 years ago. The problems and situations

which give rise to consideration of the use-

fulness of a rank-status philosophy in the

administration of research are many. The

effect of the administrative climate upon the

scientist and, in turn, the attitudes of the

scientist and his effect upon that administra-

tive climate are matters that relate to the

quality of scientific and engineering achieve-

ments that are so necessary in this pre-

space age. Some of these elements and situa-

tions brought Reimer to the conclusion that,

“The futility of the fight against status is

gradually being recognized in the Western

world and, in certain forms at least, its con-

scious use is again respectable.”!

Appraisal of existing techniques used to

* Reimer, Everett, Modern personnel manage-

ment and the Federal service. The Federal Gov-

ernment Service: Its Character, Prestige, and

Problems, Sixth American Assembly, Arden House,

p. 161. Graduate School of Business, Columbia

University, New York, 1954

evaluate positions and to evaluate the peo-

ple in these positions or applying for them

is of especial importance to considerations

of rank-status. Considerable attention was

given, therefore, to the expressed opinions

of groups and of individuals concerning ap-

praisal of these techniques or tools. Evalua-

tion of positions includes job evaluation and

position classification. Evaluation of the

people includes such aspects of personnel ad-

ministration as merit rating and qualifica-

tions appraisal. From this aspect of the

study it was concluded that sophistication

of technique does not, by itself, lend validity

to any of these techniques. Sophisticated Job

evaluation and merit-rating techniques may

be no more valid and reliable than are some

of the less sophisticated tools that frequently

are used in rank-status plans.

This paper deals with a specific aspect of

rank-status—a comparison of six different

pay plans with the Classification Act of

1949, as amended. It is a summarization of

what the writer has found to be the methods,

techniques, and philosophies used in de-

termining the salary of scientists and re-

search and development engineers in various

private and government organizations. It

compares the techniques and policies used

in six important pay systems or research

organizations with those found existing un-

der the Classification Act of 1949, as

amended."

* Additional material prepared from the notes

of the writer concerning these six pay plans, and

other aspects of rank-status mentioned earlier, is

available from the writer for publication if deemed

desirable or to interested students of position

classification, pay administration, or research ad-

ministration.

Re aN MAR 2 4 1959

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The term rank-status is used in this paper

to indicate systems where rank and pay are

based on the person rather than on the posi-

tion occupied by the person. It is used inter-

changeably with the terms rank-in-the-per-

son and personal-rank. Rank-status and job

evaluation systems each occur in many var-

lations—neither category should be thought

of as an absolute. Rank-status is used here

to refer to a system where the emphasis is

on the man, job evaluation to refer to a

system where the emphasis is on the posi-

tion.

Rank-status 1s a concept which is often

misunderstood and which, partly for that

reason, has evoked widespread claims, both

pro and con, that are as unrealistic as are

similar exaggerations concerning job evalua-

tion systems. “The only inherent feature of

the rank concept,” Stahl has said, “is that

status (pay, prestige, rights, ete.) inheres in

the individual regardless of the nature of his

assignments.’

In a rank-status system the various func-

tional areas of personnel administration are

oriented toward the man rather than toward

the position. Recruitment and selection, and

even salary, are based upon the long-range

needs of the agency. Recruitment and selec-

tion of the individual are based upon the

potential of the scientist or engineer rather

than upon his immediate usefulness. Hirings

and promotions under this concept look

toward accomplishing the agency’s over-all

objectives and goals even though Jobs and

programs may change from year to year. So

too, training emphasizes the next assign-

ment, at least, rather than increased ef-

fectiveness in the present assignment. A

forester could well characterize rank-status

as ‘“‘viewing the forest instead of the trees,”

while a social scientist might look upon it as

being based on the “inner man” rather than

upon the more mundane demands for food,

clothing, and a swept-wing motor car. The

rank-status concept gives more attention

to human relations and less to job relations.

It seeks to ‘oil the inner springs” of man, as

*Srauy, O. Gienn, Public personnel administra-

tion (4th ed.), p. 178. Harper & Brothers, New

York, 1950. See also pp. 181, 182, for the first sug-

gestion that the writer has found as to the useful-

ness of rank-status for scientific research work.

voL. 49, No. 1

someone has said, to motivate the man

rather than to emphasize reliance upon or-

ganization charts and other mechanistic de-

vices for facilitating the accomplishment of

the agency objectives. Rank-status may al-

most be thought of as a philosophy or a

“climate” within which men effectively work

toward a common goal, rather than to con-

sider it as a “system.”

The study covered selected plans for de-

termining the compensation of scientists

and of research and development engineers

in the field of mathematics, the physical and

biological sciences, and the medical and re-

lated sciences. In another sense, it was also

a study about people—the people who work

under the terms and conditions of those pay

systems—and the people of quality whom

the Government is seeking to attract to its

employment and to retain.

The pay plans which were compared with

the Classification Act of 1949 were:

The Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

The Mellon Institute for Industrial Research

The British Scientific Service

The Public Health Service Commissioned Officer

Corps

Public Law 313, 80th Congress, Professional and

Scientific Service, Department of Defense

Public Law 692, 81st Congress, Public Health Sery-

ice

PAY SYSTEMS COMPARED WITH THE

CLASSIFICATION ACT OF 1949

I. LOS ALAMOS SCIENTIFIC LABORATORY

The Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,

New Mexico, is an organization of the Uni-

versity of California which performs work

under contract for the Atomic Energy Com-

mission. Its personnel policies that have

been approved by the Atomic Energy Com-

mission are set forth in each contract. At the

time of this writer’s visit in 1953, raises of

$1,000 or up for persons receiving $12,000

or more per year could be approved by the ©

Los Alamos Field Office, A.E.C., without re- ~

ferral to the Atomic Energy Commission

headquarters office in Washington. The plan

here discussed covered some 50 senior staff

members and 845 staff members.

Under the contracts, salaries paid to per-

sons in the scientific categories must aver- |

age at the salaries or “‘salary line” computed |

JANUARY 1959

by least squares in terms of “dollars per

month” for up to 40 years beyond the last

degree granted. This permits hiring appli-

cants either above or below the salary line

or exactly on the line if management so

chooses. The supervisor is considered to be

the person best able to judge the merit of a

scientist or engineer and his contribution

to the program. “Supervisor” is here used

to indicate “levels of supervision” within

line management as differentiated from de-

terminations made by staff personnel as to

compliance with laws.

The conference of division leaders is the

key element in determining what monthly

salary will most nearly represent the value

of the individual scientist or engineer to the

laboratory for that year—all within the

frame of reference developed from the an-

nual survey of salaries and in terms of

equity with the salaries paid to other staff

members. In addition to various “salary.

line” measures, the personnel office prepares

‘“nictures” of the staff members in useful

eroupings through the use of mechanical

tabulating and other equipment. These

background data are then used by line

officials in conference in a very informal

manner. Part of this process has been de-

scribed to this writer as:

The technical organization is sensibly used to

provide an upward flow of ideas, feelings, and

arguments about the worth of individuals. We are

informal, very much so, but we do not operate in

a vacuum, nor do we play games with dollars and

people.

Very quickly, in such a process of looking at

people in terms of similar people, dollar-levels and

people levels become apparent; or reverse it 1f you

prefer: certain qualities of persons identify rather

precise dollar-levels. The exceptions leap to the

eye and demand correction. By slowing down of

money to people who are obviously overpaid and

the speeding up of money to those underpaid, a

“System” starts to be born. The factors are hu-

mans. The rating scales are humans. In all of this,

administration with a capital “A” supplies infor-

mation and assistance, maybe an idea now and

then, nothing more.

II. MELLON INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

The Mellon Institute of Industrial Re-

search, Pittsburgh, is an organization of the

*Personal correspondence from John A. Wood-

ward, wage and salary administrator, Los Alamos

oe Laboratory, Los Alamos, N. Mex., July

meLOOT

BUELL: PAY PLANS AND PEOPLE 3

University of Pittsburgh. At the time that

most of the information was obtained it was

organized for the purpose of “‘practical co-

operation between Science and Industry.”

Emphasis has subsequently shifted to fun-

damental research.

Salary levels for the Institute as a whole

were set in a manner somewhat similar to

that used at the Los Alamos Scientific Lab-

oratory. The salary lines were based upon

annual rather than monthly rates and com-

parison was based upon the age of the indi-

vidual rather than on the number of years

following the last degree.

Statistics were prepared each year. This

included sorting the employees according

to degrees held (bachelor, master, and doc-

tor) and then grouping according to the age

of the individual. The average salary of

each age group was plotted with respect to

age, and a straight line drawn to represent

approximately the average trend. This line

was used simply as a guide and not as a hard

and fast rule. The director of research ex-

plained that if an individual salary is above

or below the line by too great a distance

(particularly below), an adjustment 1s made

to minimize the discrepancy. The director,

subsequent to his retirement has recently

written:

There are always gross exceptions. But broadly

we have judged a man on the character of work

that he is doing, his accomplishments, on his per-

sonality, his relationship with his donor organiza-

tion, and of course in later years on the “cost of

living.” In research, as you know, it is the indi-

vidual and not the “position” that determines his

worth.’

III. THE SCIENTIFIC OFFICER CLASS

BRITISH CIVIL SERVICE

The scientific officer class is the highest

of the three classes of the scientific civil

service of Great Britain. It includes sci-

entists engaged in research, and scientists

and engineers engaged in research and de-

velopment. The fields of work covered are

substantially the same as those covered by

a large number of occupational specialties

which were under the professional service

of the Classifictaion Act of 1923 and now

are under the Classification Act of 1949.

Within the British service, however, the

OF THE

° Personal correspondence from E. Ward Tillot-

son, July 22, 1957.

4 JOURNAL OF THE

scientists and engineers are not ‘‘catalogued”’

either by themselves or by the personnel

system into as narrow specialties as is cus-

tomary in the United States. The Royal

Commission on the Civil Service, 1953-55,

reported some 3,400 employees in the seven

“srades” or ‘classes,’ each of which is

titled ‘‘scientifie officer’ with an adjective

being used to indicate the level.

There are two principles that constitute

the major base upon which the salary scales

for all British civil servants are built. How-

ever, the Royal Commission report stated:

It seems to us desirable that there should be one

set of principles of pay for the whole Service...

But this is not to say that there can be one short

formula that can by itself solve all wage and salary

problems.°

The principle of “fair comparison” (with

current remuneration of outside staffs em-

ployed on broadly comparable work, taking

account of differences in other conditions of

service) is the primary principle of pay. The

secondary principle is the maintenance of

‘Internal relativities.” Internal relativities

may be “vertical relativities’ between

grades within a class or service or may refer

to the relationship between classes engaged

on the same broad type of work. Internal

relativities may also be “horizontal relativi-

ties’ or comparisons between grades or

classes held to be of comparable status or of

roughly the same level of responsibility in

different hierarchies.

Most of the scientific officer grades have

a broad salary range wherein annual pro-

motion is customary and with fixed annual

increments. Some of the grades have a “bar”

in the middle of the range, beyond which

bar the scientific officer cannot pass without

affirmative action of a reviewing panel of

scientists. Once this action has been taken

he can proceed to the top of his grade range

by larger annual increments. For the chief

scientific officer grade there were two rates

of pay adopted, partly because there were

sufficient variations between the posts to

warrant it (job evaluation) and partly for

the advantage if it were necessary to recruit

* Royal Commission on the Civil Service, 1953-

55, Report, p. 23. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office,

London, 1955, Cmd. 9613.

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 49, No. l

from outside the service. “Posts above chief

scientific officer” were ‘“‘broadbanded” on the

span of £3,500-£6,000 per year with no

stated intermediate steps.

Specialized posts in the higher grades are

occasionally filled from the outside. If the

applicant is from industry, the civil service

selection board (of scientists) will look at

his present salary and may appoint him at

one of the higher steps within the class to

which he would normally be appointed. It

could, if it wished, place him in a higher

grade if such action were needed in order

to recruit (or retain) a specific individual.‘

The principle of fair comparison makes

comparison with industry salaries feasible,

even though the government scientific offi-

cer salaries were considered by some to be

unfavorable compared with industry. In re-

cruiting for the very highest posts, public

advertisement is not favored. Instead,

...all government and other scientists of the

required standing are considered by high level sci-

entists and administrators, working in conjunction

with the Civil Service Commission, and the most

suitable individual available would be invited

[italics not in original] to accept the appointment ®

It may be noted in passing that the flexi-

bility in determining starting salaries for the

two lowest grades is limited to one salary

step. This flexibility in determining the

starting pay of scientists and engineers ac-

complishes in a direct manner that which so

often is achieved under the Classification

Act of 1949 only after a struggle—accom-

plished sometimes on merit as gauged by

job evaluation, but probably more often ac-

complished either with the connivance of po-

sition classification authorities, or by what

has been euphemistically called “outwitting”

the classification authorities.

Flexibility is also found in another pro-

cedure whereby under the “special merit

promotion scheme” posts may be created

outside the normal organizational hierarchy

for outstanding individual research workers.

This recognizes the value,

...of scientists of marked creative ability whose

advancement should not involve any break in their

7 Personal interview with H. J. Hadow, head of

United Kingdom Scientific Mission, July 31, 1957.

* Royal Commission, p. 130.

JANUARY 1959

scientific work; in such cases, subject to the recom-

mendation of a high-level selection board, the

Treasury may approve promotion on “individual

merit.”

An unusual characteristic of the British

scientific service is that the recruitment,

promotion, pay and other personnel proc-

esses are each scientist-oriented rather than

personnel technician-oriented.

IV. PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE COMMISSIONED

OFFICER CORPS

The Public Health Service Commissioned

Officer Corps is composed of some 10 occu-

pational categories. The scientist officer

category includes those officers whose pri-

mary function is research, although others

may also do research to a lesser degree. The

research is both basic and applied, and may

be performed in the laboratory, in the field,

or in clinical situations. Some of the titles

carried by the officers include bacteriologist,

biochemist, psychologist, physiologist, and

protozoologist. There were somewhat more

than 200 scientist officers, as of August 1957,

of a total corps of close to 6,500.

The corps is a nonmilitary organization

of highly trained professional men and

women of many occupations. Personnel and

pay procedures are the same whether for the

scientist officer, the medical officer, or any

other category. The corps is made up of

officers who typically intend to spend most

or all of their working careers in the corps.

The pay system and the pay scales are

those of the military forces. Flexibility for

pay determination within a stated pay grade

does not exist. Judgments about an officer

applicant or about the promotability of a

Scientist officer are typically the result of

group judgment of his peers. Usually at

least one of those peers is in the same spe-

cialty field or the same professional field

as the person being judged. Provision exists

for “selection out” of the officers who are not

considered qualified for promotion by a

promotion board.

The organization rates and ranks the man

upon his over-all usefulness to the service.

This relieves the scientist officer of concern

as to whether an individual assignment

*McCrensky, Epwarp, Scientists in the British

! Civil Service. Science 124: 569. Sept. 28, 1956.

BUELL: PAY PLANS AND PEOPLE 5

might result in professional down-grading

such as might occur under the Classification

Act of 1949 for positions which are subject

to that Act. It is the responsibility of the

organization to place the scientist officer in

such assignments as are appropriate, when

possible. Thus rank—and assignments—fol-

low the man.

The rank-in-the-person follows length

of service in grade for permanent promo-

tions but it follows more closely the personal

ability of the man when it comes to tem-

porary promotions. Pay follows the rank to

which the officer is promoted, with the pay

grades being the same as for the military.

Although not tied directly to determining

annual salary, it is interesting to note that

sophisticated systems are used in applicant

rating by interview and file evaluation

boards and used in performance appraisal

and selection for promotion. While it 1s sig-

nificant that sophisticated systems are char-

acteristic of this corps, the fact that they are

used by typical scientist officers rather than

by personnel technicians or administrators

may be of equal significance to the corps

from the standpoint of morale.’®

V. PUBLIC LAW 313, 80TH CONGRESS,

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

The act of August 1, 1947, usually known

as Public Law 3138, 80th Congress, estab-

lished a special pay system for professional

and scientific positions which were estab-

lished to effectuate research and develop-

ment activities of what were then known as

the War Department and the Naval Estab-

lishment.

Although World War II fighting had long

since ceased, the research and development

emphasis of national defense was not fully

achieved. Many competent scientists and

engineers were resigning from the activities

of the Department of Defense (then War

and Navy) for more lucrative positions out-

- side of the Federal Government. A one-day

hearing on H.R. 4084 brought testimony

from less than half a dozen officials, chiefly

military, that the work to be assigned em-

™® Basic material on the corps was obtained from

the writings of Sidney H. Newman, Ph.D., chief,

Officer Selection and Evaluation Program, and in-

terviews with him and with Paul M. Camp, chief,

Division of Personnel.

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ployees under this proposal was of such

scope and responsibility as would normally

be assigned to an officer of the rank of

general. As to “why not make them gen-

erals?” Admiral Hussey replied that the

civilian scientists wouldn’t stand for it, that

they feared military regimentation. The

proposed positions were to be established

under a procedure “fully in accord’? with

section 13 of the Classification Act of 1923."!

Public Law 313 was a 3-paragraph act

which provided simply the following:

1. Each department was authorized to establish

fifteen positions in the professional and scientific

service, each being established to effectuate re-

search and development functions, and any and

all other activities which require specially qual-

fied scientific or professional personnel, provided

that the rates of compensation [then $10,000 to

$15,000] shall be subject to the approval of the

Civil Service Commission.

2. Appointments shall be made without competi-

tive examination upon approval of the proposed

appointee’s qualifications by the Civil Service

Commission or such officers or agents as it may

designate for this purpose. [It is noted that all

decisions have been made within the Commis-

sion, no delegation having been made to other

agencies. |

3. An annual report to Congress was required,

showing names of employees, functions per-

formed, and salaries.

At the time the rest of this statement was

prepared, Public Law 313 had been amended

to include not more than 120 positions in the

Department of Defense, 25 in the National

Security Agency, and 30 in the National Ad-

visory Committee for Aeronautics. Due to

Public Laws 85-462 (June 20, 1958) and 85-

568 (July 29, 1958), the present (January

1959) authorizations under Public Law 318,

as amended, are: Department of Defense,

292, National Security Agency, 50; Interior,

5; Agriculture, 5; Health, Education, and

Welfare, 5; and Commerce, 25. [In January

1959, in addition to the authorizations of

Public Law 318 listed above, there are some

380 other positions authorized under the.

same general philosophy. These include 85

in the Public Health Service, which are dis-

cussed under Public Law 692, and 260 in the

National Aeronautics and Space Agency.]

™“U. 8S. Congress, House of Representatives,

Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, Re-

port to Accompany H.R. 4084, July 16, 1947, House

Report 953, 80th Congress, Ist Session, 3 pp. (Not

printed.)

VoL. 49, No. l

The first review of a submission received

by the Civil Service Commission (typically

received as a “name case’) is in terms of

the Classification Act of 1949. Is it a scien-

tific or professional position established

within the requirements of P.L. 313 and

what would be the grade level of the position

if it were under the Classification Act of

1949? This preliminary evaluation includes

consideration of the following factors:

1. The nature, magnitude, and scope of the

agency’s research and development program and

its relation to the international situation.

2. The career of service and the scientific ac-

complishments of the incumbent.

3. The approximate comparison as to scope of

program and weight of responsibility with other

jobs which may be comparable.

4. The nature of the agency’s organizational

structure.

5. Whether during a transitional period there is

an attempt to maintain consistency between the

former pay rate and the proposed pay rate in the

total range of pay.

The second and fifth items are factors not

used in the evaluation of Classification Act

positions.

Following this, a comparison is made be-

tween the salary recommended by the

agency and the GS grade appropriate if it

were under the Classification Act. This is

done by dividing the P.L. salary range into

three subranges approximately equal, each

subrange to be roughly the equivalent of one

of the three ‘‘supergrade” levels, GS-16, 17,

and 18. Conformance to this rough guide

would result in recommendation by the

Personnel Management Review Division

that the salary be approved, subject to re-

view of the qualifications of the man by the

Examining Division. It is believed that no

case has been rejected on the qualifications

aspect that had been approved by the posi-

tion evaluation. Where disparity exists be-

tween salary range that would appear ap-

propriate from the position review and the

salary recommended by the agency, a con-

ference is held with agency officials, seeking ~

additional information concerning the man,

the program, or the scarcity of men of the —

required qualifications. A denial of an

agency recommendation would come only —

after such inquiries had been made. The -

Commission no longer determines on its own —

initiative what the appropriate salary is. It

JANUARY 1959

either accepts or rejects the recommendation

of the agency. An agency may resubmit a

case with a different recommendation if it

chooses.

While the Commission studiously avoids

taking original action that is the responsi-

bility of the agency, it appears to be equally

desirous of avoiding a rubber-stamp role,

requiring substantially equal justifications

for recommendations of changes of salary

downward that it requires on changes up-

ward.!?

As with super-grades, each military

agency has two administrative problems—

approval of a Public Law 313 “space” and

getting the man for the space. Approval of

the space is internal within the Depart-

ment of Defense, yet the layers of review

of proposals may be far more time-consum-

ing and hazardous than obtaining salary

and qualification approval from the Com-

mission.

VI. PUBLIC LAW 692, 81ST CONGRESS,

PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE

The Act of August 15, 1950, was identical

to Public Law 313 except that it applied to

the Public Health Service.

Senate Report No. 1102 described the

reasoning back of this pay system that was

established outside of the Classification Act

of 1949, saying,

Authority to pay reasonable salaries to out-

standing scientific and professional persons en-

gaged in research is essential if the quality as well

as the quantity of medical research is to increase.

The full potentialities of the whole research

staff of the Public Health Service can be brought

out only if those who guide its research activities

combine research talents of the highest order with

ability to stimulate others and administer large

programs. This combination of talents is rare. Per-

sons who possess them command high salaries.

The personnel manual of the Public

Health Service contains statements con-

cerning the approving authority, general

policy, promotion policy, eligibility criteria

for individuals, determination of salary

levels, and processing procedures that are

“Most of the material concerning administra-

tion of P.L. 313 within the Commission was ob-

tained in interview with Ralph Remley, chief,

Classification Appeals and Special Services Office,

U.S. Civil Service Commission, April 2, 1957.

BUELL: PAY PLANS AND PEOPLE vi

unusual in setting forth useful criteria suc-

cinctly for all interested parties. The desig-

nation of these positions and the determina-

tion of salary levels are considered part of

the career development program that cannot

be met within the commissioned corps or the

Classification Act pay systems. The posi-

tion and the salary will be identified with

the incumbent or prospective incumbent and

will exist only during the period that the

position is occupied by the incumbent. This

recognizes administratively the rank-status

basis of Public Law 692, rather than con-

sidering it merely as an extension of the

Classification Act with the “position” con-

cept.

The manual contains criteria for de-

termination of salary levels. There are two

general guides that apply to all categories

of P.L. 692 personnel, these elements being:

1. An assessment of the demonstrated compe-

tence of the candidate, whether applicant or in-

cumbent.

2. The extent to which competition for scarce

manpower or other factors tends to raise non-

government salaries.

The three categories of personnel each have

a separate and additional criterion, as fol-

lows:

1. Independent Investigators

Up to $15,500—may be paid to those who are

fully competent, mature and highly produc-

tive.

Up to $17,500—may be paid to those of excep-

tional competence with international reputa-

tions.

Up to $19,000—may be paid to those who are, by

general consensus, recognized as fully compe-

tent to occupy the most distinguished aca-

demic chairs or to assume key research posi-

sions in industrial research.

2. Clinical Specialties—may be paid salaries gen-

erally comparable, within the $19,000 ceiling,

with the total earned income of their counter-

parts in academic teaching and research posts,

but not with the income of those engaged full

time in the practice of medicine.

3. Program Leaders—the importance and com-

plexity of the position, and the size and com-

plexity of the program for which the incumbent

is responsible.

The manual also provides that, in formu-

lating their reeommendations, chiefs of bu-

reau as well as chiefs of division may

utilize the technical advice of such groups

of professional peers or supervisors, of the

8 JOURNAL OF THE

sandidate or incumbent as they may de-

termine to be needed.'*

VII. OTHER SYSTEMS

The Battelle Memorial Institute, Colum-

bus, Ohio, has had a form of rank-status

since it was founded in 1929. Its former

metallurgist director has said,

The ideal criterion for personal recompense in

any business is productivity [italics im original].

The persons who produce the most deserve the

MOSt pay...

...In modern research this difficulty of meas-

uring productivity is imereased many fold....

To take the results of team research and to say that

this percentage is creditable to that person’s efforts,

is to destroy the structure that makes research

effective. Consequently, we must use empirical

rather than mathematically precise means to eval-

uate each man’s worth. We do this by appraising

other qualities of the imdividual that experience

tells us are usually related to his productivity.

These qualities determine the “merit” of the

technical man to the research organization, and

salary increases based on such evaluation are

called merit raises.”

Every staff member’s situation is reviewed

quarterly; there are no standard or auto-

matic increases of any type, and no arbi-

trary rules for determining the amount of

increases, if any, to be given at any one time.

These appraisals rely heavily upon evalua-

tion of personal traits. Among these are

initiative, willingness to put out some extra

effort, tenacity to follow through, and eco-

nomic ‘sense’ superimposed on the basic

technical knowledge required. Other traits

evaluated are salesmanship (including re-

port writing—because their only product is

the research report—and vocal presentation

and interpretations of the user’s needs), ad-

ministrative talent, and, importantly, sci-

entific integrity and selflessness.

The policy at Standard Oil Co. (of New

Jersey) apparently recognizes the inade-

quacy of job evaluation as a basis for pay

for research workers. In an answer to an

inquiry from the writer concerning rank-

status the manager of the Employee Rela-

tions Department wrote as follows:

** Basic material on administration within the

bureau was obtained during interview with Paul

es nD chief, Division of Personnel, August 15,

s WILLIAMS, CriybE, Bases research worker salary

structure on merit system. Industrial Science and

Engineering, January 1955: 33.

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 49, No. l

Job evaluation does not seem to be appropriate

to professional engineers and scientists because

none of them perform according to a job descrip-

tion. Job classifications are based primarily on tra-

ditional relationships between jobs, skills required

and responsibility exercised. The professional em-

ployee’s effectiveness depends on his individual

contribution within a team effort. Perhaps a more

important factor determining pay is the condition

of supply and demand. It sets salaries far more

than a job classification. The very large turnover

among professional employees in research organiza-

tions 1s an indication of the dominance of economic

factors over rigid classification systems.”

During the summer of 1957 General Elec-

tric was in the process of changing some of

its personnel and pay policies, and so was

not in a position to discuss plans which it

expected would be installed. Bearing upon

the goal sought by some persons of having

a single pay system for all civilians in the

Federal service, the multiplicity of plans

within GE is of interest. A consultant with

GE has written,

As a part of our broad decentralization program,

substantial latitude is provided for managers of our

decentralized departments in establishing the par-

ticular practices they believe most appropriate for

their particular operations. As a consequence, it is

difficult to generalize and develop statements that

are truly accurate for the General Electric Co. as a

whole. We have, for example, more than 35 position

evaluation methods now in use in our Company.”

The consultant called attention to the

1957 report of the Defense Advisory Com-

mittee on Professional and Technical Com-

pensation, of which Ralph J. Cordiner

(president of General Electric) was chair-

man. The point was made that the report

contained statements of some of the basic

concepts which are considered, at General

Electric, to be important in the development

of compensation structures and suitable

compensation relationships. ;

The chart herewith, ‘Generalized Com-

parisons Between Various Aspects of Se-

lected Pay Systems,” is a summary of some

of the comparisons between the seven pay —

plans given major attention.

* Personal correspondence, a statement pre- |

pared by research people as an attachment to a ©

letter signed in the name of R. L. Mason, manager,

Employee Relations Department, Standard Oil

Con New Yorks NaN July 1955s ‘

*’ Personal correspondence from L. L. Ferguson, |

consultant, Employee Compensation Research, ©

General Electric Co., New York, July 17, 1957.

EN VaRrous ASPE

me instances base

Public Healt]©22 ( ae Health Service)

His. Pay is Pena aye 3 S. is usually based on the MAN.

Ss. enoirased: al? is same as for P.L. 313.

be specified ranks

in- tions.

pi-

} Pay PA mistrate eo P.H.S. is geared to long-range

a career development program that

under P.H.S. Commissioned Officer

issification Act. Within C.S.C. it is

iate job, as is case with P.L. 313.

afic | Assignments are

ied tist officers.” I

to a few “‘resti

self.

pet | Assignments to 1)

reduction in ri

ticed—it reliev

individual assi

sef- | No immediate e}

by considered by

for

6 : :

Pema pnlicants tor gupplicant is same as for P.L. 313.

is fecsional exani2s are made initially by chiefs of

lial Peeeennand. e| (professional men) who are encour-

be en teachalcal advice of groups of ‘‘peers”’ or

bt- eae writteed: All line officials over a P.L. 692

| le . Action in Dept. of Health, Educa-

| not learned.

jen Employees are ev

A choice rating |

attitudes & ja

used for prom

mine |Group Sealuatic® & determinations are made same

ich Fpeae Somme off that in C.S.C. a group—commis-

Lst Renoticers aremendations of an individual position

Ee Paar ale evaly *8ency recommendation. In P.H.S.

= Beem associq one) frequently acts wpon a recom-

ial Pee dalinuat of professional peers.)

selection boar}

Bre || Oriented towarke® toward position classifiers and

EL pee iasioned? C.S.C. level; and to professional

aS Be cengir scientists and engineers) at the

' —)

Pay Plan Aspects

1. Pay based primarily or entirely on the MAN or on

the JOB?

Los Alamos Se ee Laboratory

( |

Pay is based on the MAN,

2. Pay geared to accomplishment of long-range or

short-range objectives of agencies?

3. Assignments based on pay or rank—or pay or rank

based on assignments?

4, Effect of assignment to lower level work.

See

5, Bifect of assignment to higher level work,

f. Methods of evaluating the MAN. a>)

A. Applicant evaluation based on: scholastic his:

tory, potential, or work-or-siliry history.

B, Bimployee evaluation based on: job performance

or empirical solutions designed to represent job

performance which is considered to be immensur

able directly.

7. Making of salary determinations or effective recom

mendations for sume:

A. As to person or group making thom,

B. As to extent to which they are made by “peers,”

ie., by scientists and engineers (S & 1's).

§. Orientation of salary plan and its administration,

Pay administration is geared to long-range program

with considerations of the man’s potential & expected

achievement at end of, say, next 5 years,

Assignments are based typically on pay of the scientist

or engineer, (High quality job performance miny |

enuse & salary increase? Lack of quality may couse

salary stagnation.)

No effect unless it is permanent or prolonged and due

to lack of competence,

No immediate effect, Quality of work done may result

in higher salary from next salary review.

Applicants ive evaluated on basis of education (kind

of degree) und comparison with curve of salaries of

other 8 & M's in U.S. for the same number of years

beyond Inst degree earned, Potential is included,

Employees’ evaluation includes the above, plus evalua

tion of last year's work and comparisons with other

employees.

Supervisory scientists initiate the salary recommenda

tions and the division lenders’ conferences make ef

fective review of these recommendations, though not

nocessurily having the last word,

Oriented toward line management, (Line Manage:

ment! here is a group composed of the senior scientists

or engineers.)

Mellon Institute

(

Pay based on the MAN

(Conelusions based upon study of the sy:

GENERALIZED COMPARISONS BETWEEN Vartous Aspects OF SELECTED Pay SYSTEMS

stems — in some instances based upon inference rather than specifie facts found)

British Scientific Service

(C)

Pay is based primarily on the MAN, for higher levels.

Broad job evaluation is used for most posts in B.S.S.

but at the higher levels

placed in « higher grade if nec

dustry or to retain. (Job evaluation for B.S

cally a means of determining posts to which men of spec-

ified rank are normally assigned.)

from in-

is typi-

ssary to recr

ntifie officers’ may be

Public Health Service Commissioned Officer Corps

(D)

Classification Act of 1949 as Amended

Pay is based primarily on the MAN. A job evaluation plan

is not used, although some specific higher posts carry |

Specified ranks «& may be filled through “‘spot’’ promo-

tions

Pay is based on the JOB. Job evaluation plan is based

on duties, responsibilities and qualifications required.

It is used to place the position in a “eclass’’ to which

is attached a specific pay range.

Apparently it is the same as for Los Alamos although

no direct information was obtained.

Same as Los Alamos

Same ns Los Alamos.

Same as Los Alamos

Easentinlly the same as for Los Alamos, except (1) sal-

ary history is based on age rather than on years since

last degree, and (2) the acceptability to (or relation-

ship to) the doner organization in regard to salary.

Salary recommendations

made by persons who were scientists or engineers. It

is not known whether group action was used in mak-

ing the determinations,

Same as Los Alamos,

Tr a = a syoereas nd Pe " oe . x = 2 5 rane

(Note: ‘Job Byaluation” is used in the general sense of analysis and evaluation of the dutios, responsibilities, and qualifications required for minimum satisfactory performance requ

Pay administration is geared to long-range objectives.

| eae

Pay administration

s geared to long-range objectives

Pay administration within D.O.D. agencies is geared to

short-range objectives—to the immediate job to be

done.

Assignments are based typically on rank of the scientific

officer. Occasionally for higher posts it will be reversed

and “spot”? promotions used.

Assignments are based typically on rank held by “‘scien-

tist officers.” However, rank and pay of those assigned

to a few “restricted’’ positions are based on the job it-

self.

Assignments to lower level work typically have no effect

on pay or on future assignments.

Assignments to lower-level work would not be the cause of

reduction in rank or pay. Career management is prac-

ticed—it relieves the man of concern as to whether an

individual assignment might harm his pay or career.

Pay is based on assignments which have been evaluated

by job evaluation & assigned to a class (including |

grade level). “Details” (supposedly of short dura

tion) involve no change in pay.

Grade and pay are lowered if found on survey or job

audit—unless management is given opportunity to |

reassign duties or employees. Pay is not lowe

few “savings” cases provided for in the Act.

Assignments to higher level work haye no immediate ef-

fect. Level and quality of work would be considered by

next promotion or selection board (for promotions to 2d

and 8d levels “without waiting for a vacancy,” or for

individual merit” positions).

promotion to

No immediate effect. Level and quality of work would be

considered by next selection board.

irade and pay would be raised if the S & If is legally

qualified for such grade

determinations

Applicants are evaluated, for entrance to lowest grades,

on basis of review of scholustic honors (unity. degree

with Ist or 2d class honors required) & on potential

for growth, by means of oral & written exams «& refer-

ence chec Tor higher levels, graduate work, accept-

able work history, & salary history are used, including

industry pay.

Employees are evaluated on basis of record obtained when

upplicants, plus annual job performance evaluation A

and B, seek to determine the man’s stage in growth.

Salary recommendations (usually tantamount to determi-

nations) are made by panels of senior scientists which

have some leeway in determining starting pay at lowest

two levels & may authorize placing an applicant from

industry, or an employee, in higher grade if necessary

to attract or retain in B,

merit posts (subject to Tr

S. May promote to spe¢ial

ury approval).

Applicants for first 2 levels always are given written pro-

fessional exam, un oral interview, a file exam (entire

background, education, training, & experience, & super-

visor & teacher reference checks). For full grade & above,

oral & written exams may be waived.

Pmployees are evaluated annually on job proficiency, forced

choice rating by worker-associates, & measures of work

attitudes & job performance items. Selection boards are

used for promotions «& selection-out.

NOT APPLICABLE:

eable, because the po:

from the MAN.

(A) nor (B) is appli

jon is evaluated separately

Group evaluations are used for pay & tenure determina-

tions. Some or all of applicant-interview panel of scien-

tist officers are in same professional category as the appli-

cant; file evaluation board members are scientist officers;

worker-associates ratings are by ‘“‘peers’’; investigation

boards must contain one member of same profession;

selection board is also a “‘peers”’ group.

Positions of S & B's typically are classified in agencios | Wffectiv

by position classifiers (who are not also S & 1's unless |

by chance) or by administrative or personnel officials

on classifier recommendations. Group evaluation is |

seldom used (P.H.S. uses). For supergride 8 & [po

sitions, C.S.C. commissioners have lately delegated

their authority to C.S.C. classifiers.

To a considerable degree it is oriented toward line manage-

ment scientists and engineers. In addition, the job eval-

uation used in part does not have the degree of orienta-

tion toward the personnel technician that is found in the

Classification Act of 1949,

red by a position)

Oriented toward line management which here is that of

commissioned officers of whom some are scientists and

some are engineers.

Oriented toward one specialty of personnel technician

the position classifier.

Public Law 313 (D.0.D. Agencies)

(PF)

Pay consideration in agencies of 1.0.1. varies. Tt may be |

either based on the MAN or the JOB. C.S.C. determins

tion is based primarily on JOB—with the MAN’s quali

ons sometimes influencing doubtful cases,

flew

Pay administration within D.O.D. agencies is geared usu

ally to long-range objectives; within C.S.C. it is geared

to the immediate job to be done

C.S.C. typically bases pay upon assignments, Once this

has been done, agencies typically assign S & Bs upon

the basis of salary and ability, (See 8. EB. concerning

“details.”)

| There is no known effect if assigned to lower-level work

except that if it appeared in position descriptions or cer

tifications required periodically by C.S.C, it would pre

sumably affect pay adversely, Management may initiate

aetion,

If duties are to remain of a higher level, presumably the

agency would request review by C.8.G. and a higher

alary. C.S.C. would not initiate it,

| ©.S.C. evaluation of applicant is based on S.10. 67, Appli

cation for Bederal Employment, plus agenoy letter

of transmittal-sometimes supplemented by addi-

tional information from applicant, ov from “Amerioan

Men of Science,”’ ete. Agency & D.O.1D, evaluations

vary greatly as to kind,

Sume as above, if not already in the file,

minations are made by the Con

trained, unless by chance.

Che total system partakes both of orientation toward po-

sition classifiers and, in some agencies, of orientation

toward administrative or military personnel (rather sol-

dom oriented toward scientists and engineers).

©.8.C. evaluation of applicant is same as for PT

recommendations are made by position clussifier

(if more than one, the others are reviewers), Final deter-

oners a8 & group.

No one in C.S.C. is a practicing scientist or engineer.

None who pass on these matters would haye been so

Public Law 602(Publie Health Service)

(G)

‘ty consideration in PHS, is usually based on the MAN,

©.S.C, determination issame as for PL, 318.

Pay administration within P.HLS. is geared to long-range

objectives as part ofa career development program that

oan not be achieved under PWS, Commissioned Officer

Corps or under Classification Act. Within G.S.C, it is

geared to the immediate job, as is onse with PL, 818.

me as for PL, 8th.

Sume as for PL, S18.

Samo as for PL. Shh,

PALS. recommendations ave made initially by chiefs of

Durenus ov divisions (professional men) who are encour=

aged to use the technionl advice of groups of “peors’’ or

of supervisors as needed, All line officials over a PL, 002

mun ave professional Action in Dopt, of Wealth, Mduen-

tion, & Welfare was not lenrned,

Sime ns above,

C.8.C. recommendations & determinations are made siine

us for PL, 818, (Note that in O.8.C, 2 group commis

sioners—acels on recommendationa of an individual position

classifier review of the agency recommendation, In PIS.

i line official (professional) frequently acta upon a recom

mendation of a group of proferxatonal peers.)

The system is oriented toward position classifiers and

ndministrators at the C.8.C, level; und to professional

personnel (including scientista and engineers) at the

P.ILS, level,

ane”. a. -

7 ree. sae

Way ot eat vi

is 4

' 4

oat

a t r

bead

= ae =

Leh

° i 3

2 4

f 7

\ “

JANUARY 1959

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The facts and opinions assembled during

this study furnished convincing evidence

that categorical and sweeping generaliza-

tions on the subject of rank-status for scien-

tists and engineers would be hazardous.

They might be as unsound as the chant,

“Four legs good, two legs bad,’ used by

some of George Orwell’s animal characters

as a means of differentiating the “good”

animals from the “bad” humans in his Life

on the animal farm. In one sense, rank-

status may be considered to be almost a

philosophy or a symbol of principle rather

than necessarily a pay plan.

Aside from the Classification Act of 1949,

as amended, all the pay plans studied in de-

- tail represent, to this writer, variations of

rank-status pay plans. The matters of prin-

cipal interest in this study are the variations

in the degree to which pay is based upon

the qualifications of the man or upon the

production of the man rather than the duties

and responsibilities of the position.

Although there is a common philosophic

approach to the problem of pay, in practice

there are restrictions of one kind or another

which result in a variety of methods used.

On the other hand, the Classification Act of

1949, as amended, which furnished the point

of departure for the study was the single

strictly job evaluation plan that was stud-

ied. More scientists and engineers in re-

search and development are paid under the

Classification Act of 1949 than under any

other pay system. It is useful, therefore, as

a specific against which to compare other

systems. But to consider the Classification

Act as being “THE” job evaluation plan and

representative of industrial job evaluation

plans would be grossly misleading. Indus-

trial plans for job evaluation not infre-

quently include evaluations of the contribu-

tions made by the individual as well as

evaluations of the duties and responsibili-

ties that are assigned by management and

of the working conditions as they are found

to exist. An example of such a composite

plan for evaluating creative engineers has

been described by Chaffee.1* In addition to

“ CHAFFEE, RANDOLPH W., Evaluating engineers

to recogmze talent and reward achievement. Ma-

chine Design, June 1951: 143-172.

BUELL: PAY PLANS AND PEOPLE 9

the duties and responsibilities of a position

that would be measured under the proce-

dures used in organizations whose positions

are under the Classification Act of 1949,

numerous personal qualities would be meas-

ured, as would job performance. The total

evaluation, if scored high enough, would

place the incumbent in a merit subgrade.

This technique is in accord with the more

generalized proposal of the Purvis commit-

tee for premium salary “which will give

recognition to the skills and _ abilities

brought to the job by the individual... over

and above job evaluation techniques now

used to determine an incumbent’s grade and

Payene?

This study may be considered to be a

comparison between one specific type of job

evaluation plan (the Classification Act of

1949, as amended) and several other pay

plans, each of which has some of the “flavor”

of rank-status.

SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS

1. Conclusion: Research and develop-

ment personnel is an unusually rapid grow-

ing occupational group in the work popula-

tion of the United States today, yet it 1s wn

short-supply when considered against cur-

rent needs—especially as the needs relate to

the defense of the nation. This group, with

its high professional standards and work-

ing habits and with a different kind of logic

from that characteristic of nonprofessional

personnel, has attitudes that are hostile to

many aspects of administration. Personnel

administration as it has been practiced on

them is typically anathema. Salary and

prestige associated with their professional

attainments mean much to scientists and

engineers—although not to the exclusion of

adequate salary. The “social handles of the

pay cup” concept which emphasizes the so-

cial aspects or prestige that follows the pay

itself is important to scientists and engi-

neers, although apparently not to the extent

found by Whiting a quarter-century ago in

his study of laboring groups.

Because of a combination of salary prob-

*%U. S. Congress, Senate Committee on Post

Office and Civil Service, Administration of the

Classification Act of 1949 and the compensation

process established by the act, Senate Document

34. 83d Congress, Ist Session, p. 22. 1953.

10 JOURNAL

lems (e.g., comparisons with the trades and

crafts) and lack of attention by manage-

ment to status and recognition for their

work, scientists and engineers are either ‘‘on

the move” or at least are preconditioned to

accepting an offer of employment from an-

other organization. Absurdities and _ ex-

tremes have existed in the use of status and

prestige symbols, ranging from the kind of

carafe available to an executive, to parking

lot privileges, to priorities in obtaining Asi-

atic flu vaccine, and to other more tangible

rewards. The fact that absurdities have

existed has not blinded many organizations

to the value of a reasoned use of status and

prestige. The conscious use of status in the

Western world is again becoming respect-

able. It will probably become increasingly

recognized now that the launching of the

Russian “‘sputnik”’ as the first earth satel-

lite has caused additional attention to be

focused, perhaps belatedly, upon the prob-

lems of training, recruiting, and retaining

an adequate supply of quality scientists and

engineers.

2. Conclusion: Different principles and

practices in personnel administration are

needed for scientists and engineers in re-

search and development than for persons in

other occupations and functions. Scientists

and engineers do not usually fit into the

administrative process either by personal

traits or by process or function. “Supervi-

sion” is a term that is anathema to them,

particularly so the closer one gets to basic

or “pure” research or to the higher levels of

research and development. Especially in

these areas the organizational structure

tends to emphasize the man rather than the

position. Personnel administration as de-

veloped by personnel administrators who

are not scientists or engineers is especially

obnoxious to them—they object to having

such personnel administration “applied to

them.” Because of these things, adminis-

trators attempt to adjust both the substan-

tive work organization and the facilitative

organizations to conform to the needs of the

personnel who are to accomplish the mission

of the work organization. In the facilitating

organizations which are responsible for the

personnel administration function this is

most noticeable in the reduction in proce-

OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES VOL. 49, No. 1

dures and in the use of “committees of

peers” for decisions in the personnel areas.

As Boehm quoted a research director, “Re-

search can be managed in a businesslike

way, but not in a way like other business.””?”

3. Conclusion: The subject of rank-status

or rank-in-the-person has been discussed

for only about two decades in the United

States but neither the concept nor the ap-

plication is of recent origin. Extensive ap-

plication of the concept existed in the gov-

ernment of China during the early centuries

of the Christian Era. In the Western world

it appeared in the military, in the Catholic

Church, in the civilian governmental organi-

zations of European and other areas, and in

United Nations organizations before consid-

eration for use in civilian government situa-

tions in the United States. Beginning with

the proposal by Graham in 1939, the sub-

ject has come to be increasingly in the pub-

lic eye as a result of recommendations of

congressional and presidential committees,

and the writings and speeches of public-

spirited groups and individuals from many

walks of life who have broad knowledge of

public affairs. Among the groups which have

favored emphasis upon rank-status or at

least further study of the usefulness of rank-

status to the Federal Service are: the Ad-

visory Committee on Natural Scientists

(1942), the Senate Committee on Post Office

and Civil Service (1953, Purvis Commit-

tee), the Commission on Organization of the

Executive Branch of the Government (1955)

(the second Hoover Commission), the Sixth

American Assembly (1954), the Society for

Personnel Administration (1955), and the

Defense Advisory Committee on Profes-

sional and Technical Compensation (1957,

Cordiner Committee). Some of these groups

were studying government as a whole, while

others concerned themselves specifically

with the work of scientists and engineers or

with administrative personnel.

4. Conclusion: In research and develop-

ment the degree of development of the scien-

tists and engineers may be of more impor-

tance than their precise duties or the

particular work assignments by their super-

* BoEeHM, GerorcE A. A., Research management:

The new executive job. Fortune 54(4): 222. Octo-

ber 1957.

JANUARY 1959

visors. This is signally the case in basic re-

search done by an individual or by the team

approach to either research or development.

Assignments to a scientist, especially, may

be couched in the most general terms. They

may sometimes only name the area of study

that management is interested in. In other

instances, a general outline of study that is

defined by management may be deviated

from to a high degree because of the scien-

tist’s findings or because of lack of specific

findings at intermediate points. Deviations

may also occur because of ‘“‘fringe thoughts”

—random thoughts that have come to the

selentist, seemingly “‘out of the blue,” as a

result of his lifetime of preparation in col-

lege or university plus the complex of his

later experience. The work assignment to

two scientists or engineers may be the same,

especially under the team approach, but the

contributions of an Einstein may be far dif-

ferent from the contributions of a John Doe,

Ph.D. Classification of a research and devel-

opment position independent of an examina-

tion of an individual’s qualifications and

potential has been referred to, with some

justification, as an absurdity, and classifi-

cation without regard to performance as

nonsensical.

5. Conclusion: The job evaluation or po-

sition classification concept that “if work

(duties and responsibilities) can be assigned

at can be described and can be evaluated”

falls short of realization for research and

development positions.

This is either the conclusion or the gen-

eral implication of Graham (1939), Steel-

man (1947), the Senate Committee on Post

Office and Civil Service (the Purvis Com-

mittee—1953), the Chief, Bureau of Ord-

nance, Department of the Navy (1949),

Wengert (relating to job evaluation systems

in general—1950), Renzetti (1952), and

various technical directors of research.

Others who have also held similar opinions

include Mason (1955), Clyde Williams

(1955), and the Defense Advisory Commit-

tee (the Cordiner Committee—1957).

6. Conclusion: Job evaluation plans (in-

cluding the Classification Act of 1949) are

typically unsatisfactory tools with which to

determine the salary of scientists and engi-

neers in research and development. Measur-

BUELL: PAY PLANS AND PEOPLE let!

ing the duties and responsibilities of scien-

tists and engineers by job evaluation

techniques is difficult in itself and, when

obtained, often does not measure the value

to the organization of the scientist or engi-

neer. One of the reasons for this is that Job

evaluation plans used in the Federal Gov-

ernment, at least, are not designed to evalu-

ate the effect of the man. In research and

development the abilities of the scientist or

engineer so often have greater effect upon

his contribution to the research program

than do the assignments of work and respon-

sibility made by the supervisor.

It is difficult to evaluate scientific and

engineering research and development posi-

tions and to evaluate the qualifications and

the abilities of the scientists and engineers

themselves. It appears to be equally difficult

to appraise the value of the work product

of such scientists and engineers either when

engaged in individual research or team re-

search. It is difficult for scientists and engi-

neers themselves to make these evaluations

even if they are research and development

administrators in charge of the total work

operations. It is still more difficult in many

of those areas for a person to make valid

evaluations if he is not a scientist or engi-

neer.

There has been much criticism of the

Classification Act of 1949, as amended, as

a tool for measuring the difficulty and re-

sponsibility of positions—of work assign-

ments made to scientists and engineers.

There has also been criticism that the Clas-

sification Act is designed to measure only

the difficulty and responsibility of positions

with the objective of achieving “equal pay

for equal work,’ whereas what should be

measured is the total contribution of a man

to the research and developmént program

in which he is engaged. There also has been

much criticism of various systems used to

appraise the worth of individuals, whether

in meeting the qualification requirements of

the Civil Service Commission for appoint-

ment or promotion or in the area of per-

formance appraisal. Particular criticisms

and cautions have been voiced against plac-

ing too much reliance upon systems which

use techniques which involve numeric treat-

ment or obtain results which in some other

12 JOURNAL OF THE

way have an aura of exactness that is mis-

leading.

It would be hazardous to believe that

either simplicity or sophistication in evalu-

ation techniques is, by itself, either desir-

able or useful. Rules of thumb in these areas

would produce serious inequities as may

complicated systems, which produce ‘“reli-

able” though “invalid” results. So-called

“objective” systems (which frequently are

also sophisticated) are subject to the same

possibility of creating false illusions of ac-

curacy in measuring what they purport to

measure.

Job evaluation techniques and man eval-

uation techniques have been developed in

some few situations that afford promise of

much greater usefulness than is character-

istic of the Classification Act, for example.

Typically, however, reliance on any tech-

mique to the exclusion of the considered

judgment of operating personnel would be

unduly optimistic at this time.

7. Conclusion: The present inadequacies

of many sophisticated job evaluation plans

and man evaluation plans and the criticism

that results from such inadequacies empha-

size the need for much additional research

and development in these areas of personnel

administration. The fact that many tech-

niques fall far short of what is desirable in

measuring either research and development

positions or in measuring the scientists and

engineers themselves should not lead to the

conclusion that these decisions should in the

future be made as snap judgments or made

by intuitions without an array of informa-

tion available to the authority who is to

make the decisions. In the Los Alamos Sci-

entific Laboratory and the Mellon Institute

much material is gathered for the authori-

ties who recommend or determine what the

salaries will be for the individual scientists,

but so far as the actual evaluation of Scien-

tist John Doe is concerned the processes that

are used are unsophisticated. On the other

hand, some of the evaluation techniques

used within the Public Health Service are

sophisticated. In each of these organizations

and in the British scientific service the tech-

niques used are planned as azds to an evalu-

ation by man—not as a substitute for man’s

judgment. On this point Worthy and Ur-

wick each considered that the various meas-

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 49, no. 1

ures of the objective and sophisticated vari-

eties could be very useful to the executive,

but that they would be used to “sharpen

his judgment” rather than replace it.

8. Conclusion: The Classification Act of

1949, as amended, appears to be more criti-

cized for positions of scientists and engi-

neers in research and development than for

positions in other fields of work. The criti-

cism in this area comes from employees and

management alike. It was found, however,

that serious criticism of the Classification

Act was not universal, for in some cases

there was found the belief that the adminis-

tration of the Act was more to be criticized

than the Classification Act itself.

9. Conclusion: Rank-status pay plans for

scientists and engineers recognize (1) the

unsuitability of the usual job or position

evaluation techniques to research and devel-

opment work, and (2) the antagonism of

research and development scientists and en-

gineers to a job evaluation form of adminis-

trative stricture with its concomitant lack of

recognition for personal contributions. Part

of the unsuitability stems from the previous

conclusion which emphasizes the develop-

ment of the man rather than the job assign-

ment. This suggestion by Graham in 1939

was corroborated by the Advisory Commit-

tee on Natural Scientists which looked on

the caliber-of the job as being a reflection

of the man 2m the job and that the classifi-

cation should rest upon the research con-

tribution of each man. The unsuitability

question was again raised in 1947 by Steel-

man—unsuitability both as to present clas-

sification principles and classification tech-

niques for many research and development

positions. Renzetti differentiated between

the degree of unsuitability or suitability of

the Classification Act for research work as

compared with -nonresearch engineering

work which lends itself to a pyramidal

structure. The Purvis Committee cited Ein-

stein as an example of a man to whom ap-

plication of the Classification Act of 1949

would be unsuitable. Basing the salary on

the position tends to ignore the contribution

of a gifted engineer, in the view of Nichol- —

son.*° The survey of scientists and engineers ©

°° NICHOLSON, Scott, How much is an R/D boss |

worth? Research and Engineering, December 1956: —

JANUARY 1959

in research and development made by the

Department of the Army indicated that

scientists and engineers in research and de-

velopment do not fall into the “readily iden-

tifiable levels” that are envisioned by the

Classification Act and that the precise duties

should not be the sole measure of value of

the individual. Adding weight to the con-

clusions as to unsuitability and antagonism

is the fact that the Committee on Scientists

and Engineers for Federal Government Pro-

erams found that nine out of ten scientists

and engineers considered that pay should

reflect substantial differences in quality of

work performed, something not permitted

by the Classification Act or by many other

job evaluation systems.

In arriving at his conclusion, the writer

was not unmindful that Chaffee attributed

to mental laziness and the lack of an or-

ganized demand the fact that job evalua-

tion had not (by 1950) really developed for

creative engineering, though Chaffee’s own

work indicated the technical feasibility of

such application of job evaluation. So also

Sykes, who saw merit in each of the two

concepts and appeared to lean toward the

Classification Act for areas he had con-

sidered.

10. Conclusion: Rank-status should not

carry the connotation of “unlimited license

for administrative indiscretion.” It should

not be thought of as the discredited system

that was not uncommon at the turn of the

century which saw the owner-manager’s son

“start at the bottom and rise to the top”

in three or four years. In each of the plans

studied there was some form of control over

_ the exact salary to be paid to an individual

scientist or engineer. Pay at a stated number

of years beyond his last degree was found

to be used as a guide for individual salaries

at the Mellon Institute of Industrial Re-

search and as a control measure for total

salary expenditures at the Los Alamos Sci-

entific Laboratory.?! At the latter labora-

tory, since it was engaged on government

work, there was also a review control exer-

cised by the Atomic Energy Commission to

see that individual salaries did not become

absurd. The British scientific service, oper-

ating under the principle of “fair compari-

*1 Pay at stated ages used at Mellon Institute.

BUELL: PAY PLANS AND PEOPLE it

)

son” with industry pay for comparable

work, has controls upon salary decisions

made by agency boards and officials through

two means. The first is the existence of sal-

ary standards with Civil Service Commis-

sion review and approval of entrance sal-

aries above the normal rate. The second is

the Treasury review and approval of recom-

mendations for special merit promotions of

outstanding individual workers. The scien-

tist officer class of the Public Health Service

commissioned officer corps has over-all con-

trols established in congressional legislation

and comparable to the military pay system.

Its uniqueness stems from the effectiveness

of the sophisticated modern techniques used

in evaluating personnel for appointment,

promotion, and selection-out, and from the

fact that the techniques are used by other

scientist officers—sometimes in board ac-

tions where other members of the board may

be from commissioned officer classes other

than the scientist officer class.

In the Department of Defense and in the

Public Health Service strong accent upon

rank-status exists in determining the sal-

aries of those scientists and engineers whose

positions come within the purview of Pub-

lic Law 318, 80th Congress (1947), and Pub-

lic Law 692, 81st Congress (1950), respec-

tively. With initial control invested in the

operating agencies, the Civil Service Com-

mission has review authority over the par-

ticular salary to be paid to an individual,

including the final determination by that

body as to the qualifications of an incum-

bent or proposed incumbent of a specific

position. These public laws were approved

with the intention that they would be “in

accord with” the compensation schedules

of the Classification Act of 1923, as

amended, specifically with section 13 which

described the then existing grade levels and

which prescribed the pay rates for those

grades. Although the preliminary review

within the Civil Service Commission consid-

ers the grade in which the position would be

placed, were it under the Classification Act,

the ultimate decision of approval or denial

of the agency recommendation is based

typically on the Commission review of

matching the qualifications of the individual

with the assigned duties and responsibilities.

14 JOURNAL OF THE

It was learned that in the Canadian civil

service the technique for determining the

salary of scientists and engineers is a posi-

tion classification plan but that the control

exercised by Treasury is flexible enough to

permit it granting salaries above the stated

range of salaries for the classification of the

position when there are exceptional circum-

stanees.7” Another recent step toward the

principle of recognition of the man in the

job, rather than the job alone, was the set-

ting up of some 300 different titles into three

classes for the purpose of achieving greater

flexibility of personnel and to enable a man

to receive the salary that he is worth with-

out always relating his job to a particular

classification.7*

11. Conclusion: The concept of rank-

status or rank-in-the-person—rather than

rank-in-the-position—is used successfully

as the basis for salaries of scientists and en-

gineers in the organizations of high repute

which were studied. In nongovernmental or-

ganizations such as the Los Alamos Scien-

tific Laboratory and the Mellon Institute

of Industrial Research and the Battelle Me-

morial Institute rank-status has been the

basis for pay plans that have been used ef-

fectively for many years. The British scien-

tific service is based upon this principle as

part of its integrated career service. The

Pubhe Health Service Commissioned Officer

Corps used many of the principles of rank-

status, though the specific salaries paid are

within the framework of the military pay

schedules. Both Public Law 313 positions

and Public Law 692 positions have princi-

ples of rank-status firmly imbedded in the

basic law. The Classification Act of 1949,

as amended, is still basically the Classifi-

cation Act of 1923 with respect to the princi-

ple under study. It disregards the qualifi-

cations of the “person” except insofar as

they are requirements for minimum satis-

factory performance of the work described

for the “position.” No account is taken of

unusual qualifications of a scientist or en-

gineer for the position which he is filling.

* Personal interview with David M. Watters,

Secretary of the Treasury Board, Department of

Finance, Ottawa, Canada, May 6, 1957.

** Personal correspondence from David M. Wat-

ters, October 16, 1957.

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 49, No. l

12. Conclusion: A_ significant practice

that was found in most of the rank-status

type pay plans for scientists and engineers

that were studied was an “evaluation by

one’s peers.” This practice was found fre-

quently in some form of group appraisal of

the scientist or engineer as one of the tech-

niques used in achieving a final determina-

tion as to compensation. Although the eval-

uation methods varied greatly in the degree

of sophistication of the process, the signifi-

cance probably lay as much in the psycho-

logical value of the evaluation by one’s peers

as in the technical results.

13. Conclusion: Sophisticated systems for

evaluating men and jobs are useful to man-

agement but should supplement, rather than

be a substitute for, the considered judgment

of responsible research and development ad-

ministrators. Sophisticated systems of job

evaluation (e.g., the Classification Act of

1949) are of relatively greater use at the

lower levels of scientific and creative engi-

neering work than for the higher levels and

they are progressively of less use the more

the work proceeds from the routinized or

regularized toward the unknown. As Worthy

has succinctly expressed it, when referring

to executives, rather than to scientists or

engineers, ‘““As to methods of determining a

man’s contribution, I think there is no sub-

stitute for executive judgment.” And as to

measure of the men themselves, “...tech-

niques of this kind [test batteries] cannot

be used in isolation nor as a substitution for

executive judgment. They can, however, be

an excellent means for helping sharpen ex-

ecutive judgment.””4

14. Conclusion: Scientists and engineers

generally favor having their salaries include

considerations of their individual back-

grounds of education and training and their

contributions to the program. They are par-

ticularly antagonistic toward the practice

of having their pay based solely upon a po-

sition description—in part because the de-

scription so often bears relatively little re-

semblance to what the incumbent actually

does or what he must actually know.

15. Conclusion: Scientists and engineers

“Personal correspondence from James C.

Worthy, March 19, 1957.

JANUARY 1959

usually favor having their contributions to

the research and development programs

judged by persons with generally the same

backgrounds as they themselves have. Sci-

entists and engineers usually believe that a

person who is untrained in a particular field

of knowledge or work cannot classify posi-

tions in that area as well as if he were

trained in that work area. As in other con-

troversial matters, there are extreme opin-

ions on both sides of the question. A view

frequently held was described in the report

of the Committee on Engineers and Scien-

tists for Federal Government Programs as,

substantially, that eleven out of twelve Fed-

eral scientists and engineers believed that a

person could not classify satisfactorily Jobs

in a professional field unless he were trained

in that field. When scientists evaluate sci-

entists they frequently have their own par-

ticular disciplines represented. This is found

in the provisions of the Public Health Serv-

ice Manual for the use of the advice of

groups of peers in the making of recom-

mendations for the appointments and sal-

aries of scientists under Public Law 692. It

is also found in the interview boards used

in the Public Health Commissioned Officer

Corps and in the panels for fellowship

awards by the American Academy of Sci-

ence.

16. Conclusion: Rank-status pay plans

are more acceptable to management than is

the Classification Act of 1949, as amended,

even though controls in the use of rank-

status practices are exercised by some level

above the laboratory or office concerned.

The various writings examined and testi-

mony read indicated to the writer that it is

- now quite generally recognized that in Gov-

ernment, as well as in most industrial situ-

ations, there are few persons, indeed, who

make unreviewed and unreviewable deci-

sions in regard to salary and status matters.

17. Conclusion: The Classification Act of

1949 and its administration often exert a

degree of domination over the legitimate

needs and desires of management to the ex-

tent that operating officials resort to un-

ethical practices in an attempt to escape

such domination. Along with the growth of

“scientific management” during the 1920’s

came the dependence upon classification

BUELL: PAY PLANS AND PEOPLE 15)

specialists for carrying out most of the ad-

ministration of the Classification Acts of

1923 and 1949. Management rather willingly

abdicated to what has become an “elite

corps of classifiers,’”’*° to use the character-

ization of the Cordiner Committee. Empha-

sizing mechanics and process rather than

the people in the position, the administra-

tion of the Act gradually resulted in a sepa-

rateness from line management of the proc-

ess and the classification personnel which

in some cases was absolute. Position classi-

fiers either made final grade level decisions

themselves or served as staff to another

staff man, rather than to lhne management.

They were “on top” rather than ‘“‘on tap” as

staff assistance to line management. This

dominance appears to the writer to have

reached full-flowering in the Federal Gov-

ernment about the end of the Korean con-

flict.

It frequently happens that an adminis-

trator can not increase the salary of a scien-

tist or engineer whose position is under the

Classification Act unless he can “rewrite” a

position description that will get a higher

classification. Because of this, the adminis-

trator may covertly or overtly encourage

distortions in descriptions of duties. A con-

test between an administrator’s skill at

writing descriptions and a classifier’s skill

in ferreting out the facts through work au-

dits often results in disharmony that injures

both the work program and the classifica-

tion program. Even when harmony persists

there may be intense distrust on each ‘“‘side.”

Under such situations, position descriptions

may degenerate into “job sheets” which are

merely exercises in dissimulation. It is not

unusual, therefore, to find that the ‘job

sheets” are not believed either by the man

who wrote them or by those who read them.

In this connection it is recognized that

there is often a broad “zone” within which

it is difficult to determine whether the exag-

gerations and misleading statements of

many position descriptions are not only un-

*° Defense Advisory Committee on Professional

and Technical Compensation, Civilian Personnel.

Vol. 2 of “A Plan of Action to Attract and Retain

Professional, Technical, and Managerial Employees

for Defense.” Tab. J of Vol. 2 (of Vol. 2), “Problems

of Salary Administration Under the Classification

Act,” by Study Group II, p. 3. Washington, 1957.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ethical practices but are also illegal prac-

tices of falsification of a Government pay

record.

The writer has concluded that if adminis-

trators and employees together resort to un-

ethical practices, the position classifier can

usually only delay the action sought by the

administrator but can seldom prevent the

action from eventually taking place—even

though it takes a paper reorganization to

accomplish it.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The present importance of attracting

and retaining qualified scientists and engi-

neers in research and development calls for

the utmost in Congressional leadership in

authorizing the use of rank-status plans. It

also calls for the utmost in administrative

leadership and skill in developing and ad-

ministering one or more rank-status pay

plans for the higher level scientists and en-

gineers that will be acceptable to the scien-

tist and engineer and to management. Such

plans must meet the American philosophy

of pay based upon what the employee is

worth to the government organization which

hires him. The “worth” of a scientist or en-

gineer should be viewed as the contribution

toward the end result or program accom-

plishment rather than as “equal amount of

work” or “equal assignments.”’

2. The Civil Service Commission should

encourage agencies to make more of the

agency classification decisions (for posi-

tions under the Classification Act of 1949)

at top levels of line management rather than

in the personnel staff office. The emphasis

should be on extensive and intensive use of

personnel administrators and technicians as

consultants participating in the discussions

leading to line management decisions. The

Commission should also give added stimulus

to constructive interpretation by scientists

and engineers of the Classification Act of

1949, as amended, both in development of

sound classification standards and in the

appheation of those standards.

3. Legislation should be sought which

would:

a. Provide for a Research and Develop-

ment Corps, outside of the existing Classi-

fication Act, in which would be placed the

VoL. 49, No. 1

positions of scientists and engineers engaged

in research and development, which are now

under Public Laws 313 and 692 or which are

under the Classification Act of 1949, as

amended, at levels above grade GS-15, the

pay schedule of this corps to have a mini-

mum and a maximum rate that are at least

as high as those currently existing under

Public Law 313, but to have no specified

pay steps within the range. Provision should

be made that positions not initially to be

placed under this corps would be eligible

for such status upon review and approval

by the Civil Service Commission that each

position so recommended by an agency was

above the level that is characteristic of

grade GS-15 under the Classification Act of

1949. It is proposed that there be no statu-

tory ceiling placed upon the numbers of such

additional positions.

A case could be made for inclusion of all

levels of professional scientists and engi-

neers in the proposed corps.?® Initial limita-

tion, however, is believed to be more useful,

through inclusion of only those whose sal-

aries are above the salaries of the equiva-

lent of GS-15. The proposed corps would

thus cover the levels where rank-status is

most needed from the standpoint of salary

determination. These same levels are where

recruitment and retention of the highest

caliber personnel would be the most profit-

able in terms of the personal contributions

of the scientists and engineers to the sub-

stantive aspects of research and develop-

ment programs and of their effect as lode-

stones in drawing junior scientists and

engineers of promise into government or-

ganizations. This limitation would reduce

some of the serious criticisms that would

come from employees in other occupations

whose pay would continue to be fixed under

the Classification Act of 1949, and from

other interested parties such as Members

of Congress, the Civil Service Commission,

and others who would resist any attempt

to remove such a large group of positions

from the operation of the Classification Act.

°° See particularly Beitstey, G. Lyte, Notes for

the Hoover Commission Personnel Task Force on

subject of rank-in-the-person (written presenta-

tion to the task force dated March 5, 1954), pp. 2,

3. (Typewritten.)

JANUARY 1959

b. Place the determination of salary

levels for individual positions of the Re-

search and Development Corps upon the

executive department or agency authorized

to have such positions. The agency should

be required to file with the Civil Service

Commission a plan of administration of this

program which would utilize the concept of

a board of professional scientists and engi-

neers to make individual salary determina-

tions or recommendations to the head of the

agency. Provision should also be made for

agencies to change their plans when they

see fit, and to file the revised plan or a new

plan with the Commission within 30 days

after adoption.

The determinations as to salary for an

individual should not be subject to disap-

proval or change by any authority outside

the agency. As part of the salary determina-

tion process under the professional peer con-

cept proposed, provision could be made for

nonvoting participation by a representative

of the Civil Service Commission. This repre-

sentative could be required to file with the

agency head any disagreement with a sal-

ary decision of the board. The agency also

might well be required to transmit such

statements to an appropriate committee of

the Congress annually, with agency com-

ments, if the agency chooses to make any.

So also, the Civil Service Commission could

be required to make annual reports to the

same committee concerning its findings as

to over-all administration of the plan by

agencies that are operating under it.

c. Reduce the number of grades of the

Classification Act of 1949 to provide for

greater rate ranges within the grades to

which positions of the scientists and engi-

neers in research and development would

be assigned if not coming within the pur-

view of the Research and Development

Corps pay schedule. Theoretically this

would cover the levels from the present

erade GS-5 through grade GS-15. The

broader zones would reduce the number of

border-line controversial cases which often

create friction between line personnel and

position classifiers.

d. Revise the Classification Act of 1949

by abolishing specific step rates and pro-

vision for periodic step increases for grades

BUELL: PAY PLANS AND PEOPLE 17

GS-13, GS-14, and GS-15. Substitute for

those provisions salary increases on the

basis of not more than one per year and

make the amount of increase to be not less

than, say, $250 a year or more than one-

half the difference between the minimum

rate of the grade and the maximum rate.

e. Provide for an independent and non-

partisan advisory body of scientists and en-

gineers and public-spirited citizens to study

the operation of the pay systems for scien-

tists and engineers that are covered by these

recommendations, to study the need for an

integrated career corps of such scientists

and engineers (a collaborative study with

operating agencies), and to report to the

President its findings in these and related

matters. It is proposed that the study be

limited to the scientist and engineer areas

because of the present critical situations in

these areas and because different problems

exist in other areas.

4. Additional study by individuals or

committees could produce useful informa-

tion and recommendations on areas that

are closely related to, or intertwined with

rank-status pay plans for scientists and en-

eimeers, such as:

a. The possibility that entrance to a pro-

posed Research and Development Corps

should be planned as eventually beginning

at a level lower than that recommended for

immediate action.

b. The national effects, favorable and un-

favorable, of changing the salary basis for

scientists and engineers in research and de-

velopment to fair competition with nongov-

ernmental activities, either on a local or a

national prevailing rate basis.

c. The extent, if any, to which the na-

tional interests make it desirable to provide

a special pay raise under existing pay plans

for scientists and engineers that would be

different from the amount of any raise for

other groups.

d. The practicability of decentralizing to

agencies the authority currently residing in

the Civil Service Commission to pay new

recruits and present employees above the

minimum step of the grades—making it on

the basis of agency need and occupational

specialty rather than on the broad occupa-

tional coverage that is now used.

18 JOURNAL OF THE

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 49, NO. 1

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AmeprtcAN AssemBLy. JUhe Federal Government

service: Its character, prestige, and problems,

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Betstey, G. Lyte. Notes for the Hoover Commis-

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Burcess, Carter L. Similarities and contrasts in

military and civilian career services. Personnel

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BusH, Georcre P. The principles of administration

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Drucker, Peter F. Management and the profes-

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GRAHAM, GrEorGE A. Significant personnel practices

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60-63. 3 vols.) Government Printing Office,

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Hensev, H. Struve. Ways and means of recruiting

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31-40. 1956.

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Somers, Herman M. Some reservations about the

senior civil service.’ Personnel Admin. 19

(January-February) : 10-18. 1956.

STEELMAN, JoHN R. Administration for research.

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1950.

JANUARY 1959

DRAKH AND DAVIS: NEW LYGAEIDAE 19

ENTOMOLOGY .—A new subfamily, genus, and species of Lygaeidae (Hemiptera-

Heteroptera) from Australia.

CarRL J. DRAKE, Smithsonian Institution, and

Norman T. Davis, University of Connecticut.

(Received December 15, 1958)

The present paper designates a new sub-

family of bugs in the very large and hetero-

geneous family Lygaeidae to hold a remark-

able species and genus described as new

herein from Australia. The type series of

24 specimens of the new species were all

eollected by the Australian hemipterist

Henry Hacker in Queensland.

Since the hierarchal characters of the

undescribed species were found inapplicable

for its inclusion in any of the present sub-

familial taxa of Lygaeidae, it has been

necessary to erect a new genus and new

subfamily for its reception. These new

categories are being named in honor of the

lygaeid specialist Dr. James A. Slater, who

is now engaged in classifying and cata-

loguing this family of insects for the world.

In their comprehensive check-list of the

families and subfamilies of Heteroptera,

China and Miller (1955) recognize 15 sub-

families in the family Lygaeidae. The fun-

damental subfamily classification of Ly-

gvaeidae was established by Stal (1862, 1865,

1872) and has remained essentially the same

except for the addition of five subfamilies

by Berg (1879), Reuter (1878) Douglas and

Seott (1865), Breddin (1907), and Barber

and Bruner (1933). Additional subfamily

characters have been developed by Hutchi-

son (1934), Slater and Hurlbutt (1957),

Ashlock (1957), and Scudder (1957). Ana-

lytical keys to the subfamilies of Lygaeidae

for various regions of the world may be

found in the publications of Stal (1862,

1865, 1872, 1874), Walker (1872), Saunders

(1892), Barber (1917), and Stichel (1925,

1957).

For many helpful suggestions and advice

on phylogeny and classification, we wish to

express our sincere thanks to the following

hemipterists: Dr. W. E. China, British

Museum (Natural History), London; Dr.

J. Carayon, Muséum National d’Histoire

Naturelle, Paris; Dr. J. A. Slater, University

of Connecticut, Storrs, Conn.; and Dr. R.

I. Sailer, H. G. Barber, and P. D. Ashlock,

all of the U. $8. Department of Agriculture,

Washington, D.C. The illustrations were

prepared as follows: Figure 1 was drawn

by Arthur Smith, artist, British Museum

(Natural History), London; the photograph

of figure 2 is by Dr. J. Carayon, Muséum

National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris; the

remainder were prepared by the junior

author.

MORPHOLOGY

In order to determine accurately the charac-

teristics and systematic position of this insect,

the following detailed analysis of its morphology

has been made:

Head: The general shape of the head may be

characterized as being distinctly broad and short

and moderately declivent (Figs. 1, 3). The com-

pound eyes are strongly protruding and widely

separated and have rather coarse facets. The

eyes are almost contiguous with the thorax. The

ocellii are present. The tylus is narrow and

strongly produced anteriorly, while the juga are

short, flat, and inconspicuous. The bueculae are

well developed and open in front, extending back

over about a third of the ventral surface of the

head. The beak is 4-segmented and straight and

reaches to just beyond the procoxae. The an-

tenniferous tubericles are moderately small, and

the antennae are short and 4-segmented. The

small segments are rather thick and subeylindri-

eal except for the last segment, which is fusiform

(Fig. 4).

Thorax: The prothoracic coxal cavities are

closed posteriorly (Fig. 6), and the pleural su-

ture is distinguishable only on the prothorax.

The meso- and metathoracic sterna are fused,

but the intersegmental suture is distinct. There

are well-developed scent gland ostioles (SgO)

on the metathorax. Internally the metathoracic

scent gland consists of a median, unpaired, res-

ervoir (Fig. 10, S¢R) into which lateral, branch-

ing scent glands open (Sg). The afferent ducts of

the scent-gland reservoir pass through the base

of the metasternal apophyses to their external

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

opening in the scent-gland ostioles. The struc-

ture of the scent gland is essentially the same as

is found in other lygaeids as well as in most other

families of Pentatomorpha except the aradids.

The metacoxal articulation is the trochalopo-

dous type. The tarsi are 3-segmented (Figs. 7,

8, 9), the second segment being small and in-

completely fused to the third; arolia are present.

Wings: The clavus and corium are distinct,

and the membrane appears to have a reticular

pattern of venation (Figs. 1, 2). However, there

are five distinct longitudinal veins extending

through the membrane, and the reticulation has

probably developed secondarily. The second and

third longitudinal veins are in some cases partly

coalesced at the base (Fig. 1), and in others they

are entirely separate.

The metathoraciec wing venation is greatly re-

duced (Fig. 11). The terminology used here for

the veins follows that of Leston (1953) and of

Slater and Hurlbutt (1957). The subcosta is ab-

sent; the radius (R) is well developed; the

hamus is not distinguishable except possibly as

a broad, indistinct veinlike thickening between

R and Cu near the base of the wing. The distal

branch of the media from R, characteristic of

the pentatomorphs, is in this insect only a small

stub. The cubitus (Cu) is distinct and is fol-

lowed by the bifureate vanal furrow (VF). The

intervanal veins are absent, and the vanal veins

(V) are present and fused basally. The so-called

jugum is absent.

Abdomen: The first abdominal segment is re-

duced in a manner characteristic of Heteroptera,

and thus only the median tergite of that segment

ean be distinguished (Fig. 12, I). Segments II

through VII are distinct, and all the pregenital

terga are fused to one another except for tergites

II and III, between which there remains an in-

tersegmental membrane. On the venter of the

abdomen the second, third, and fourth segments

are fused, but the intersegmental sutures are

distinet (Fig. 13). The remaining segments are

free ventrally. The connexiva are distinctly

formed, and the dorsal connexival sutures are

modified into convoluted membranes (Fig. 12,

CxM) which enable dorso-ventral expansion and

contraction of the abdomen. The ventral con-

nexival sutures are very indistinct (Fig. 13). The

first abdominal spiracles are apparently absent:

spiracles IT through VI are dorsal on the connexi-

vum (Fig. 12), and spiracle VII is ventral on the

connexivum (Figs. 13, 19). Spiracle VIII of the

VoL. 49, No. 1

female is also ventral and is normally concealed

under the seventh segment (Fig. 14); the eighth

spiracle of the male is absent. Two closely set

pairs of trichobothria are found on the venter of

segments III and IV; a widely separated pair

is found on each side of the fifth and sixth seg-

ments near the connexival suture, and a single

trichobothrial hair is found on each side of the

seventh segment (Fig. 13). Scars of the nymphal

scent glands are present between tergites IV

and V, and V and VI (Fig. 12, Sg).

Female genitalia and genital segments: The

eighth and ninth tergites are compressed ventrad

and lie in an almost vertical plane, and the tenth

segment is reduced to a small tubular sclerite

projecting from beneath the ninth tergum (Fig.

14, X). The seventh segment is very deeply cleft

santas ae: “!

wansesessea, ss) Zoe

1 HO et pe Zit ym

satiety

- (oP

ie:

ita x *

6" 8 oes

BAAS

ALR EK 7

{ASS Se es ‘

‘

lia. 1—Slaterellus hackert, n. gen. and sp.

JANUARY 1959

mid-ventrally and normally overlaps the base

of the ovipositor (Fig. 13, VII). When the ovi-

positor is in use, its anterior end is extended

downward and posteriorly into the position

shown in Fig. 14. This manner of extension of the

ovipositor is especially characteristic of the

lygaeids. In this extended position the gonocoxo-

podites (valvifers) of the eighth segment are

seen to be large triangular sclerites (Fig. 14,

Gep 1). The gonocoxopodites of the ninth seg-

ment are not shown but are considerably reduced

and lie beneath the ventral margins of that seg-

ment. The gonapophyses (valvulae) of the eighth

segment extend from the anterior apex of the

gonocoxopodites and are joined ventrally by a

membrane (Fig. 14, Gap 1). The first gonapo-

physes are also attached to the ventral margins

of the ninth paratergites by means of sclerotized

rods, the inner rami, extending from their base

(not shown). The second gonapophyses are

joined for most of their length and are united to

the first gonapophyses by the usual tongue-in-

groove mechanism found in the heteropteron

ovipositors. The third gonapophyses (= styloids

of Dupuis, 1955) although usually present in

other Hemiptera, can not be distinguished.

Internally the female genital chamber consists

of a simple cuticular sac. Posteriorly its lumen

extends into the ovipositor, and the common

oviduct extends from it anteriorly. Arising from

the roof of the genital chamber there is a com-

plex tubular gland, the spermatheca (Fig. 15).

At the base of the spermatheca the roof of the

genital chamber is differentiated into a pouch-

like structure with a groove extending posteriorly

from it. This structure possibly functions to di-

rect the vesica of the phallus (see below) into

the spermatheca during copulation. The sper-

matheca consists of a double tube, the ductus

receptaculi (DR), at the end of which is a dis-

tinctive chamber, the capsula seminis (Ca 8).

Various studies of other Heteroptera show that

the spermatozoa are retained in the seminal cap-

sule. The distal portion of the duct is sclerotized

(PI) and is possibly equivalent to what has been

termed the pars intermedialis in the pentatomid

spermatheca (Dupuis, 1955). The proximal end

of this structure is encircled by a ridge which

presumably serves for the attachment of mus-

cles extending from it to the lower rim of the

seminal capsule. In the lumen of this duct there

is a second and much narrower duct which also

DRAKE AND DAVIS: NEW LYGAEIDAE

Fig. 2—Slaterellus hackeri, n. gen. and sp.

extends from the genital chamber to the seminal

capsule.

Male genitalia and genital segments: The

eighth segment of the male is reduced consider-

ably, and only the ventral portion of it is sclero-

tized (Fig. 19, VIII). This segment and the ninth,

or pygophore (Pg), are normally retracted com-

pactly into the seventh segment. The tenth and

eleventh segments are very reduced and are in-

corporated into the proctager, which lies over

the top of the pygophore (Fig. 16). The para-

meres (Fig. 17) are symmetrical and are similar

in form to those found in many lygaeids. The

phallus is extremely small, and it has been im-

possible to obtain it in the erect condition and

to study many of the details of its structure. At

its base is the usual stirrup-shaped plaque

basalis, or stapes (Fig. 18, BP). The phallus is

clearly differentiated into phallosoma (Ps) and

endosoma (Es), and the latter is in all probabil-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 49, NO. 1

Pir

Upiffe

Mf f/ fii

Ss BF

~ >

VES,

i f

ANS

il Ui

Fig. 3-11.—Slaterellus hackeri, n. gen. and sp.: 3, Lateral view of head; 4, antenna; 5, lateral view

of labium and labrum; 6, ventral view of thorax with legs removed (CC, coxal cavity; SgO, scent-gland

ostiole); 7, left prothoracic leg; 8, right mesothoracic leg; 9, right metathoracic leg; 10, internal view

of meso- and metathorax showing scent-gland apparatus (Sg, scent gland; SgR, scent-gland reservoir) ;

11, metathoracic wing (Cu, cubitus; R, radius; V, vanal veins; VF, vanal fold).

JANUARY 1959 DRAKE AND DAVIS: NEW LYGAEIDAE 23

SS eee re

= &

SPQ yya eye 0d eV; a

9 |

0.125mm

Fies. 12-19.—Slaterellus hackeri, n. gen. and sp.: 12, Dorsal aspect of female abdomen (CxM, con-

nexival membrane; Sgs, scent- gland scars); 13, ventral aspect of female abdomen (Gep 1, first gono-

peeodite) 14, lateral aspect of female abdomen with ovipositor extended (Gap 1, first gonapophysis;

Gap 2, second gonapophysis: Gep 1, first gonocoxopodite); 15, spermatheca (CaS, capsula seminalis;

Gch, genital chamber; DR, ductus receptaculi; PI, pars intermedialis) ; 16, pygophore from above; 17,

right paramere from later al aspect; 18, phallus from dorsal aspect (Bp, ‘basal plate; Ps, phallosoma; Es,

endosome); 19, ventral view of terminal s segments of male (Pg, pygophore).

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ity differentiated into vesica and conjuctiva. The

phallosoma lacks processes.

SYSTEMATIC POSITION

The ventral trichobothria, the type of sperma-

theca, and the type of phallus are the principle

features relating this insect to the group of

families of Geocorisae designated as the Pentato-

morpha (Leston, Pendergrast, and Southwood,

1954). Of the several families of Pentatomorpha

this insect clearly belongs to the Lygaeidae, as

is indicated by its possession of the following

combination of characteristics: Ocelli present;

labium and antennae 4-segmented; tarsi 3-seg-

mented; antennae inserted below a line from the

middle of the eyes to the apex of the tylus; five

longitudinal veins in the membrane of the hem-

elytra.

This insect differs from all other lygaeids in

having the longitudinal veins of the membrane

irregularly connected to one another by cross-

veins which form a variable reticular pattern.

It also differs from all other lygaeids except the

Maleinae and Chauliopinae in having a vestiture

of short, scalelike hairs. However, in addition

to the characteristic venation of the membrane

it is unlike these subfamilies in having closed

coxal cavities and in having a different arrange-

ment of abdominal spiracles. It appears to be

most closely related to the Blissinae, since it has

the same pattern of distribution of abdominal

spiracles as the blissines as well as having a

head with similar proportions of width to length,

similarly shaped pronotum, and similar charac-

teristics of the clavus and claval commissure.

The unusually short corium of this insect is also

characteristic of some but not all blissines. In

addition to the very distinctive vestiture and

membrane venation, this insect differs from the

Blissinae in lacking swollen fore-femora and in

having a punctate corium and clavus.

The lack in this insect of certain additional

definitive characters of other subfamilies may

be noted. Unlike most Megalonotinae, the su-

ture between segments IV and V is straight and

complete, and the paired setae near the eyes are

lacking. Unlike the Lygaeinae and Cyminae the

hind margin of the pronotum is not convex. The

suleate tylus characteristic of most Geocorisae

is lacking and unlike the Megalonotinae, Oxy-

careninae, Heterogastrinae, and Pachygronthinae

the fore-femora are not armed.

vou. 49, no. l

Slaterellinae, n. subfam.

30dy clothed above and beneath and on ap-

pendages with a vestiture of short, scalelike

hairs; head with transocular width greater than

median length, inserted into pronotum almost to

eyes; eyes strongly convex, ocelli present, buc-

culae moderately short, high, open in front.

Forefemora unarmed, not incrassate; tarsi 3-seg-

mented and with arolia; metacoxae trochalopo-

dous; fore-coxal cavities closed. Metathoracic

scent gland ostioles distinct; pronotum not con-

stricted into anterior and posterior lobes. Meso-

thoracic wings with corium short and truncate,

forming approximately the basal fourth of the

wing, the membrane correspondingly longer;

sides of the clavus almost parallel, claval com-

missure short but more than half as long as

the scutellum; membrane with five longitudinal

veins that are irregularly connected to one an-

other by cross-veins so as to form a variable and

indefinite network. Metathoracic wings with

distal branch of media vestigal, hamus reduced

or absent, and with intervanal veins and jugal

lobe absent. Spiracles dorsal on connexival seg-

ments II through VI and ventral to the connexi-

vum on segments VII and VIII, and with VIII

absent in the male. Segments II through IV

fused but with sutures distinct and straight.

Segment V and VI narrowed and segment VII

completely divided midventrally in the female.

In the male segment VI and VII narrowed mid-

ventrally and segment VIII and IX of the fe-

male reduced and mostly concealed beneath

tergite VII. Pygophore of male concealed be-

neath tergite VII and with symmetrical para-

meres. Spermatheca of female terminating in a

bulb.

Type genus, Slaterellus, n. gen.

Slaterellus, n. gen.

Head depressed, sloping gently forward, trans-

ocular width slightly greater than anterior width

but less than posterior width of pronotum, and

with tylus conical and projecting, jugum short

and flat, antenniferous tubercles small, ocelli

widely separated, bucculae extending backward

forming very low obliquely converging carinae,

eyes exserted, large, and widely separated. An-

tennae thick, very short, scarcely longer than

the head. Pronotum depressed, punctate, with

lateral margins gradually converging anteriorly,

hind margin roundly excavated. Legs with sec-

JANUARY 1959

ond tarsal segment reduced and fused to third.

Hemelytra not extending to the apex of the ab-

domen nor covering the connexival segments;

clavus and corium sparcely punctate. Ventral

trichobothria on segments III and IV consisting

of two patches with a pair of closely set hairs, on

segments V and VI a pair of patches on each

side with a single hair, and a single patch with

one hair on each side of segment VII.

Type species, Slaterellus hackeri, n. sp. This

monobasic genus is known only from the Aus-

tralian mainland.

Slaterellus hackeri, n. sp. (Figs. 1, 2)

Small, oblong, fuscous-brown tinged with gray-

ish or testaceous, with blackish patches on head

and pronotum, usually also with broad, blackish

fuscous; hemelytral membrane grayish with

veins fuscous. Antennae (Fig. 4) dark fuscous.

Legs (Figs. 7, 8, 9) brownish fuscous with fe-

mora largely blackish fuscous. Modified hairy

vestiture of body and appendages whitish.

Length 2.90 mm (male), 3.34 mm (female) ;

width 1.30 mm (male) and 1.50 mm (female).

Head wider across eyes (0.80 mm) than me-

dian longitudinal length (0.55 mm), interocular

space slightly longer (0.60 mm) than median

length of head (0.55 mm), apex extending

slightly beyond tips of first antennal segments;

eyes moderately large, strongly excerted, slightly

less than half of their width extending laterally

beyond front margin of the pronotum; ocelli

widely separated, with space between them twice

that between an eye and an ocellus. Antennae

short, stout, moniliform, 0.54 mm long, sub-

equal in length to width of vertex, segmental

measurements: I, 13; II, 10; III, 9; IV, 13; (80

units equal 1 mm.). Labium moderately stout,

4-segmented, extending to base of prosternum.

Bucculae very broad, very short, with cariniform

bases converging sharply inward. Orifice of meta-

thoracic stink gland plainly visible on meta-

pleura and provided with an upright channel

(Fig. 10). Legs short, stout, the anterior pair

apparently subfossorial.

Pronotum trapezoidal (Fig. 1), slightly de-

pressed, coarsely but not very closely punctate,

broadly roundly excavated behind, wider across

base (1.25 mm) than front margin (0.85 mm).

Abdomen 1.25 mm long, widest a little behind

middle; connexiva wide, very thick, moderately

reflexed so as to form a fairly deep trough with

DRAKE AND DAVIS:

NEW LYGAEIDAE 25

abdominal tergites; hemelytra (Fig. 1) not ex-

tending to tip of abdomen or covering most of

connexival segments; basal coriaceous part very

short, extending less than half its length beyond

apex of scutellum. Membrane overlapping api-

cally so as to be jointly rounded behind, cover-

ing very little of connexival segments and of

seventh abdominal tergite (Fig. 1). Scutellum

moderately large, triangular, wider across base

than median length (38:22), with median carinae

and rimmed edges prominently raised. Venation

of metathoracic wings as in Fig. 11. Male geni-

talia as in Figs. 17 and 18. Female genitalia as

in Figs. 14 and 15.

Holotype (male) and allotype (female),

Goodna, Queensland, Australia, December 12,

1926, Drake Collection (U.S. Nat. Mus.). Para-

types: 20 specimens same data as holotype; 2

specimens, Manjo District, Queensland, Novem-

ber 1927, and 2 specimens, Forest Hills, Queens-

land, January 19338; all collected by Hacker.

Paratypes have been deposited in the British

Museum (Natural History) London; California

Academy of Science, San Francisco; Muséum

National d’Historie Natural, Paris; U.S. Na-

tional Museum, Washington, D.C., and the col-

lections of Drs. J. A. Slater and N. T. Davis,

Storrs, Conn., and T. W. Woodward, Brisbane,

Australia.

This singular species is named in honor of the

eminent entomologist Henry Hacker, whose large

collection of insects contains many rare and un-

described species of Australian Hemiptera.

LITERATURE CITED

AsHLock, P.D. An investigation of the taronomic

value of the phallus in the Lygaeidae (Hemip-

tera-Heteroptera). Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 50:

407-426. 1957.

BarBer, H. G. Synoptic keys to the Lygaeidae

(Hemiptera) of the United States. Psyche 24:

129-135. 1917.

. (Continuation of the above.) Psyche 25:

71-88. 1918.

Hemiptera-Heteroptera (excepting the

Miridae and Corixidae). In “Insects of Puerto

Rico and the Virgin Islands.” New York Acad.

Sci. 14(3): 263-441. 1939.

Barser, H. G., and Bruner, 8. C. A new sub-

family of Lygaeidae including a new genus

and two new species of Pamphantus Stal (He-

muptera-Heteroptera: Lygaeidae). Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 41: 531-542. 1933.

Bere, C. Hemiptera Argentina. Enumeravit Spe-

cieque Novas: 1-816. Bonariae, 1879.

Cuina, W. E., and Miuuer, N. C. E. Check-list

of family and subfamily names in Hemiptera-

26 JOURNAL OF THE

Heteroptera. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 12, 8:

257-267. 1955.

Dova.as, J. W., and Scort, J. The British Hemip-

tera 1. Ray Society, London, 1865.

Dupuis, C. Les genitalia des Hemipteres Heterop-

teres. Mém. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat., ser. A, 6:

183-278. 1955.

Hurcuinson, G. E. Report on terrestrial families

of Hemiptera-Heteroptera: Yale North India

Expedition. Mem. Connecticut Acad. Arts Sci.

10: 119-146. 1934.

Leston, D. Notes on the Ethiopian Pentato-

moidea (Hemiptera): XVI, an acanthosomid

from Angola, with remarks wpon the status

and morphology of Acanthosomidae Stal. Publ.

Cult. Comp. Diam. Angolia 16: 121-132. 1953.

Leston, D., PeNpreRGRaAST, J. G., and SouTHwoop,

T. R. E. Classification of the _ terrestrial

Heteroptera (Geocorisae). Nature 174: 91.

1954.

Reuter, O. M. Note sur une nouvelle espéce

d’ Hemiptera. Ann. Ent. Soc. France, ser. 5, 8:

144. 1878.

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 49, No. 1

Saunpbers, E. The Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the

British Islands. London, 1892.

ScuppEr, G. G. E. New genera and species of

Heterogastrinae (Hemiptera, Lygaeidae) with

a revision of the genus Dinomachus. Opus. Ent.

22: 161-183. 1957.

Siater, J. A., and Hurtsutt, H.W. A compara-

tive study of the metathoracic wing in the

family Lygaeidae. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington

59: 67-79. 1952.

STAL, C. Synopsis Coreidum et Lygaeidum Sue-

ciae. Ofv. Vet.-Akad. Férh. 22: 203-225. 1862.

Hemiptera Africana 2: 1-200, Stockholm,

1865.

—. Genera Lygaeidarum Europae disposutt.

Ofv. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 29 (pt. 7): 37-62. 1872.

. Enumeratio Hemipterorum, Pt. IV.

Svenska Vet.-Akad. Hand]. 12(1): 1-186. 1874.

SticHEL, W. Jllustrierte Bestimmungs Tabellen

der Deutschen Wanzen, Pt. III. Berlin, 1925.

Waker, F. Catalogue of the specimens of He-

miptera-Heteroptera in the collection of the

British Museum, Pt. V. British Museum, Lon-

don, 1872.

It is the great destiny of human science, not to ease man’s labors or pro-

long his life, noble as those ends may be, nor to serve the ends of power, but

to enable man to walk upright, without fear, in a world which he at length

will understand and which is his home. Charles Darwin did not kill the

faith of mankind. He wrought mightily, and others with him, for a newer

and greater faith—faith in universal order, whose secrets open themselves

to men truly free to question, to communicate, and to arrive at agreement

as to what they have seen.—PAut B. SHARS.

JANUARY 1959

MATSUBARA AND IWAI: A NEW SANDFISH 27

ICHTHYOLOGY —Description of a new sandfish, Kraemeria sexradiata, from

Japan, with special reference to its osteology.: Kryomatsu MatsuBaRra and

Tamotsu Iwai, Kyoto University, Maizuru, Japan. (Communicated by

Leonard P. Schultz.)

(Received November 6, 1958)

The sandfishes referred to the genus

Kraemeria are inhabitants in the sandy

shallow waters of the tropical Pacific and

are by no means familiar even to ichthy-

ologists. Remarkably enough, the members

of this inconspicuous little group, attaining

about 40 mm in total length, appear to

exhibit a high endemism, and no one has

found them before in the Japanese area.

Although the genus Kraemeria has been

included in the family Trichonotidae or

Gobiidae or sometimes placed in the inde-

pendent family Kraemeriidae, their system-

atic position was in a state of confusion

until Gosline’s (1955) paper placed the

family Kraemeriidae in the suborder Gobioi-

dei based upon the results of his osteological

studies.

The recent expedition to the Amami

Islands, Kagoshima Prefecture, greatly aug-

mented our limited knowledge of the ichthy-

ological fauna of the southernmost district

of Japan. Among a number of fishes col-

lected, there were three specimens of the

genus Kraemeria possessing sufficient dis-

tinctive characters to warrant the erection

of a new species. The descriptions presented

below are based on the material obtained

from the sandy tide pools at Ankyaba and

Usyuku, Amami Oshima, the largest island

of Amami Islands.

In order to make a comparison of osteo-

logical features of the species with those of a

known species, K. samoensis, a study of

the bones of the present new species was

undertaken. Counts and measurements of

the bodily parts were made according to

standard practice as outlined by Matsubara

(1955, pp. 60-69). In the osteological ex-

amination the skeletal elements were stained

* Contributions no. 1 from the Marine Biologi-

cal Institute of Kyoto University. The Institute is

located at Tannawa, Sennan-gun, Osaka Prefec-

ture. It was established for our Department by

the Nankai Electric Railway Co., Ltd., on March

20, 1958. We wish to acknowledge generous finan-

cial assistance from the Company.

with alizarin red and cleared with potassium

hydroxide and glycerol.

Kraemeria sexradiaia, n. sp. (Fig. 1)

SUNA-HAZE (new Japanese name)

Ho.totypeE—MIKU (Marine Biological Institute of

Kyoto University) no. 1744, a mature male speci-

men, 33.0 mm in standard length (38.0 mm in

total length), collected in the tide pool of

Usyuku, Amami Oshima, on July 10, 1958.

PARATYPES —2 specimens, MIKU no. 1745, 30.2 and

30.5 mm (36.5 and 36.0 mm), collected in the tide

pool of Ankyaba, on June 30, 1958.

Diagnosis —K. sexradiata is a dwarf species,

full-grown ova are found in a small female meas-

uring 36.0 mm in total length. The body 1s

slender and compressed laterally. The eye is

very small. The lower jaw strongly projects far

beyond the upper jaw. The pectoral fin consists

of 6 rays, the lower 5 are branched. Scalloped

flaps on the lower edge of the gill-cover number

3 to 5. In the fresh condition prior to preserva-

tion, the body is transparent. Counts and pro-

portional measurements of bodily parts of types

are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1.—CouNTS AND PROPORTIONAL MEASURE-

MENTS IN TYPES OF KRAEMERIA SEXRADIATA

Items ee Paratypes

Standard length in mm........... 33.0 30.5 30.2

Dorsalltitiml ket eo eer he ee Vie 14 V, 14 V, 14

Ata efi sve Mere a eer ee Tt, 313 IL, i183 V9 3g}

iRectorall fink: eer caer aces: 6 6 6

Wentralsiiny ss) cept rss. 1, & 1, & 1, &

Gnill=rakers/eacagee eye ee 9 — 9

Vertebracw mek peta. aes ee ee — — 26

SS Kes pe ek hte adie ar ak rel Piet dG male female male

In standard length:

leadulenio thee eae tle ae ces 4.1 3.8 3.8

Depthvotsbod yas sees ceee eee 8.5 6.2 8.6

iPredorsall(distancess.25-e. ose. o. Boll Bor Ball

iPreanalydistances. 4.5.25. -205 05. 1.8 1.8 1.8

Length of pectoral fin........... 22, ere oI

Depth of caudal peduncle....... 16.5 11583 11

Length of caudal peduncle...... 16.5- 16.9 16.8

In head length:

SnOilbss seer Hae ce eee Gad 6.7 6

IDTENTTGUE OF EM@acdcescescousedac 26.7 26.7 26

Imterorbita)liwaGit heer ree 20.0 20.0 20.0

Length of upper jaw............ 3.8 4.0 4.2

Length of lower jaw.....2....... Poll Beil 2.7

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Description of the holotype-—Body slender

and compressed laterally, without scales. Head

rather broad, about twice as wide as body.

Opercle relatively large and the lower edge

armed with 5 scalloped flaps. Posterior margin of

membranous gill-cover extending over base of

pectoral. A series of minute sensory papillae pres-

ent along lower edge of preopercle, upper lip

fold, and mandibular fold. Small nasal tube

midway between tip of snout and eye. Eye very

small. Mouth moderately large and obliquely

directed. Lower jaw projecting far beyond tip

of upper jaw when mouth is closed. Gill-mem-

branes extend forward and narrowly joined to

isthmus before a vertical through posterior mar-

gin of preopercle. Nine gill-rakers on cerato-

branchial bone of first gill-arch, but no rakers

on epibranchial and hypobranchial. No gill-

rakers on other gill-arches. Pseudobranchae ab-

sent. Branchiostegal rays slender and 5 in num-

ber. Small conical teeth closely set on both upper

and lower jaws, slightly curved, directed inward.

Dorsal fin consisting of 5 anterior spines and

14 soft rays, the posteriormost one _ bilobed.

First dorsal spine originating above a vertical

through posterior end of pectoral. Anal fin with

1 spine and 13 soft rays, the last one bilobed.

Anal spine arises below membrane between sec-

ond and third soft dorsal rays. Pectoral fin rays

6, all branched except the uppermost simple one.

Pelvic fin with 1 spine and 5 branched soft rays,

inserted below a vertical through posterior mar-

gin of opercle. Caudal fin 6 + 7 + 6+ 6.

Anal papilla slender, the posterior tip pointed.

In fresh condition prior to preservation body

and fins transparent.

Description of paratypes—The systematic

characters of paratypes generally agree with

those of the holotype except for scalloped flaps

on the lower edge of the opercle, the flaps being

3 Mm one specimen and 4 in the other.

Remarks —In some characters this new species

Y VA VA VA Y VA 4 po y, 4

/ ff // VA A ff ff Le 5 =

42 i he Oohe penal 3 aes RECS a eet cme ine a Ste SS BB ==

, < Tay : € i 2S = = ?

vou. 49, No. l

closely resembles K. cunicularia Rofen but dif-

fers in having 6 pectoral rays (8 or 9 in cunicu-

laria) and slender anal papilla with pointed

posterior tip (flat anal papilla with notched pos-

terior tip). Compared with the other species,

K. nudnum, K. sexradiata is seen to differ in the

fewer number of pectoral fin rays, 6 as against

8 (Regan, 1908, p. 246), and in having the

scalloped flaps on the opercle (3-5 versus none).

Although Rofen (1955, p. 182) utilized the

number of scalloped flaps on the lower edge of

the opercle as an important character in dis-

tinguishing the species of this group, our speci-

mens show a rather extensive variation in this

character as aforementioned.

Name.—kK. sexradiata is named in reference

to the six pectoral rays of this fish. The Japanese

name Suna-haze means sand-goby, in reference

to its habitat.

OSTEOLOGY

In this section the skeletal system of K.

sexradiata is described based upon the dis-

section of a specimen, 30.2 mm in standard

length.

Jaws (Fig. 2, A) —The upper jaw consists of

a premaxillary and maxillary. There is no supra-

maxillary. The premaxillary is a stout bar form-

ing the anterior half of the upper edge of the

gape, and armed with about 20 small conical

teeth directed slightly inward. The maxillary is a

well ossified curved bone overlying the dorsal

surface of the premaxillary. The posterior end

reaches to the lower prong of the dentary.

The lower jaw consists of a dentary, articular

and angular. The dentary is the largest bone,

bearing about 23 small conical teeth on the upper

surface. At the anterior end the bone strongly

projects downward. Posteriorly the dentary is

bifureated, the lower prong is longer than the

upper one. The articular is a slender forked bone

attaching to the posterior border of the dentary

re =

Fic. 1.—Lateral aspect of holotype of Kraemeria sexradiata, n. sp. Scale bar indicates 10 mm.

JANUARY 1959

and abuts on the condyle of quadrate posteriorly.

The lower wing of the bone becomes slenderer

anteriorly and reaches to below the middle of

dentary. The angular is a small heavy bone

lying on the posterior end of the articular.

Suspensorium (Fig. 2, A) —The hyomandibu-

lar is roughly triangular in shape. Its dorsal bor-

der articulates along the ventrolateral margin of

the pterotic. Posteriorly it articulates with the

opercle by a small condyle. Anterior to the hyo-

mandibular there extends a slender metaptery-

MATSUBARA AND IWAI: A NEW SANDFISH 29

goid. The quadrate is a relatively large bone,

bearing 3 projections. The first projection on the

dorsal surface abuts against the pterygoid. The

second one on the dorsoposterior edge meets the

anterior end of the metapterygoid, and the last

one on the posterior edge extends posteriorly

along the dorsal border of the preopercle. The

bone bears a heavily ossified condyle at its ven-

tral corner for the articulation of the articular

of the mandible. It is a remarkable fact that

there is a broad interosseous space between the

Si = —

=_-— — ee

—-—---—- ~- 7 SS — i

—

Se See ea ae

Fic. 2.—Lateral aspects of jaws, suspensorium (A), lower half of branchial arches (B), upper pharyn-

geal teeth (C), hyoid arch (D), shoulder girdle (EK), and caudal skeletons (F) of K. sezradiata. (Each

sale bar indicates 1 mm. ac, actinost; an, angular; ar, articular; 6b, basibranchial; br, branchiostegal

ray; cb, ceratobranchial; ch, ceratohyal; cl, clavicle; d, dentary; eh, epihyal; ep, epural; gh, glossohyal;

hb, hypobranchial; hm, hyomandibular; hoc, hypocoracoid; hp, hypural plate; hrc, hypercoracoid; zh,

interhyal; zo, interopercle; lp, lower pharyngeal; mp, metapterygoid; mz, maxillary; op, opercle; pa,

aay pm, premaxillary; po, preopercle; pr, pectoral fin ray; pt, pterygoid; g, quadrate; so, suboper-

cle.

30 JOURNAL OF THE

hyomandibular - metapterygoid - quadrate strut

and the preopercle (dotted area in Fig. 2, A).

Symplectic and mesopterygoid could not be

detected, although it is difficult to manifest the

absence of these bones.

The pterygoid is a thin, slender, rodlike bone

lying between the quadrate and the palatine.

Anteriorly it overlies the posterior portion of the

palatine. The palatine is a small and edentulous

T-shaped bone. Its dorsoanterior condyle articu-

lates with the ethmoid region of the cranium

with an intervention of the cartilagenous band.

Opercular series (Fig. 2, A) —All four opercu-

lar elements are present. The preopercle is a

slender bone tapering anteriorly. The anterior

half of it abuts against the ventral border of the

quadrate. Dorsally it meets the ventroposterior

border of the hyomandibular. The opercle is the

largest bone among the opercular series. On the

anterior edge, it bears a small condyle for the

articulation of the hyomandibular. Posteriorly

it is bifurcated into two sharp projections. The

subopercle is quadrant in shape, and lies between

the opercle. and the interopercle. The inter-

opercle, resembling the preopercle in shape, is

attached to the lower edge of the preopercle.

Hyoid arch (Fig. 2, D)—The interhyal is a

small bone, rodlike in shape, and capped with

cartilagenous band at each end. The upper end

of the bone is inserted on the proximal side of

the juncture between the hyomandibular and the

preopercle, and the lower end is attached to the

dorsoposterior end of the epihyal. The epihyal is

a flat, nearly triangular bone. The ceratohyal is

a well ossified bone. The anterior half is slender,

but the posterior half is abruptly expanded, be-

ing nearly as wide as long and about three times

wider than the anterior half. The posterior end is

sturdily jomed with the epihyal. The hypohyal

is not discernible.

There are 5 long branchiostegal rays, the last

of which articulates with the junction between

the epihyal and ceratohyal. Another 4 are set

on the ceratohyal, the anteriormost one of which

is attached to the slender portion of the bone

and widely separated from the other 3 which are

attached to the wider section.

The glossohyal is edentulous. It is a flat, fan-

shaped bone having a shallow notch at the tip

(Fig. 2, B, gh). Posteriorly it articulates with the

first basibranchial. se

Branchial arch (Fig. 2, B)—The branchial

apparatus consists of five branchial arches di-

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES VOL. 49, No. l

minishing in size posteriorly. The median floor

of the arches is composed of 3 basibranchials

which he longitudinally behind the glossohyal.

All bones are rodlike in shape. There are hypo-

branchials on the first three branchial arches.

The hypobranchial of the first arch is a slender

bone with a projection at the anterior bend, an.

meets the first basibranchial. That of the second

arch is similar to the first bone in shape, but about

half as long as the first one. The third one is

modified into a small tridentate bone. There are

five slender ceratobranchials decreasing in length

posteriorly. Only the first ceratobranchial is

armed with a single row of short gill-rakers. The

fifth one is modified into the lower pharyngeal

bone bearing three rows of small conical teeth,

apparently separated from the fellow of the op-

posite side (Fig. 2, B, lp).

Epibranchials are present on the first three

arches. Since all of these bones are not well

ossified, their detailed structures are obscure.

The upper pharyngeal teeth are confined to a

small patch on bony plate extending on the

third and fourth branchial arches. The plates on

two sides are not fused together along the me-

dian line (Fig. 2, C).

Fic. 3—Cranium of K. sexradiata: (A) Dorsal

aspect and (B) ventral aspect. (Scale bar indicates

1 mm. as, alisphenoid; bo, basioccipital; ep, epiotic;

ex, exoccipital; fr, frontal; me, mesethmoid; pf,

prefrontal; po, prootic; ps, parasphenoid; pt, ptero-

tic ; ptm, posttemporal; so, supraoccipital; sp, sphe-

notic; v, vomer.

JANUARY 1959

Cranium.—oOn the dorsal aspect (Fig. 3, A),

the anterior corner of the cranium is occupied

with an unpaired thin bone which is thought to

be mesethmoid. Anteriorly it is broadened and

extends ventroanteriorly to the dorsal surface of

the vomer.

' The prefrontals are merely small rodlike bones

on the lateral edges of the mesethmoid and not

joined directly with the mesethmoid, but at-

-tached with the latter by an intervention to the

eartilagenous patch.

The frontals are the largest flat bones cover-

ing a vast part of the top of the cranium. At

the interorbital region, they are abruptly con-

stricted in width and so securely fused together

along the midline that the suture is not apparent

on this region (Fig. 3, A, fr). The anterior end

of the fused frontal overlies the mesethmoid. Be-

hind the orbit each frontal expands and abuts

against the sphenotic and pterotic laterally, and

against the supraoccipital and epiotic posteriorly.

The dorsal surface of the sphenotic is nar-

rowly exposed along the lateral border of the

frontal.

The pterotics are slender bones lying behind

the sphenotics. Each bone meets the frontal lat-

erally and epiotic posteriorly. The latero-poste-

rior end of the bone is pointed.

The parietals appear to be absent.

The supraoccipital is a median dorsal bone

extending between the frontals and also epiotics.

Its rhombic dorsal portion is well ossified. It is

separated from the exoccipital by an intervention

ct the epiotic.

The epiotics form a portion of posterolateral

edge of the cranium. The dorsoposterior part of

each bone receives the anterior end of the post-

temporal. The bone is bounded with the pterotic

and frontal anteriorly and with the exoccipital

posteriorly. Mesially it meets the counterpart

of the opposite side at the midline, and separates

the supraoccipital from the exoccipital.

The exoccipitals contribute to form most of

the posterior surface of the cranium. They meet

along the dorsal median line. Dorsally the bone

slightly overlies the epiotic. In the ventral aspect

they curve ventroanteriorly to meet the dorso-

posterior edge of the basioccipital.

On the ventral aspect (Fig. 3, B),. the vomer

forms the anterior corner of the cranium. It is a

fanlike bone with a rather deep notch at the

tip. Posteriorly it becomes abruptly narrower,

sliding under surface of the anterior part of the

MATSUBARA AND IWAI: A NEW SANDFISH 1

parasphenoid. No teeth could be found on the

vomer.

The parasphenoid, running along the midline

of the ventral surface of the cranium, is a long

narrow bone. From near the bilobed posterior

end over the basioccipital the bone widens ante-

riorly and sends the lateral wings on both sides

extending toward the prootics. Then it becomes

narrow between the orbits and the anterior end

is inserted between the vomer and the ethmoid

cartilage.

The median basioccipital forms the posterior

end of the ventral surface of the brain case. An-

teriorly, it 1s deeply excavated and each arm

attaches to the parasphenoid and prootic. Poste-

riorly it is thickened to form a condyle for the

articulation of the atlas.

There is no opisthotic. The portion of the otic

bulla is covered by the interosseous membrane

(posterior dotted area in Fig. 3, B).

Each prootic forms a suture for the alisphe-

noid anteriorly, for the parasphenoid ventrally,

for the pterotic dorsally, and for the basioccipital

posteriorly.

The alisphenoids are slender elements and they

are united dorsoanteriorly under the frontals.

There is no basisphenoid.

Shoulder girdle (Fig. 2, E) —Although almost

all the skeletal elements are present in the shoul-

der girdle, the ossification is imperfect. The post-

temporal, hyperecoracoid, and hypocoracoid are

much reduced in size. The posttemporal is a

simple strut and is bound tightly to the upper

edge of the epiotic. Ventrally it articulates with

the dorsal edge of the supraclavicle which is

slender in shape.

The dorsal extremity of the clavicle is shal-

lowly furcated. It extends ventroanteriorly and

is forklke in general appearance.

The hypercoracoid, rectangular in shape, lies

behind the clavicle. The dorsoposterior edge

meets the lowermost actinost.

The hypocoracoid is roughly triangular in

shape and attached to the posterior edge of the

lower bend of the clavicle. It is well separated

from both the hypercoracoid and actinosts.

There are 3 large actinosts with a large fora-

men between each of them, all of them lying a

short distance behind upper portion of the clav-

i@le (ine, 2, 18, Ge).

No postelavicle could be recognized.

Caudal skeletons (Fig. 2, F)—AIl hypural

bones are fused together and modified into a

32 . JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

fan-like plate (Fig. 2, F, hp). It is deeply ex-

cavated at the middle of the posterior border.

The suture between the urostyle and hypural

plate is obscure. There is a single epural above

the upper border of the hypural fan. The neural

process of the urostyle is separated from the

hypural plate and directed upward. There is a

splint-like bone between the hypural plate and

the last haemal spine. The last two vertebrae

contribute to support the caudal fin rays.

There are 26 vertebrae including hypural

plate.

CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCLUSION

In general, the osteological features of K.

sexradiata agree with those of K. samoensis

as given by Gosline (1955, pp. 158-170),

with the exception of some minor points.

The differences between them are as fol-

lows: (1) Gosline drew a large symplectic

bone below the metapterygoid, but so far as

our observations go, the bone recognized by

him as symplectic appears to be a bony

shelf extending from the metapterygoid.

Evidence that the interhyal bone articulates

with the juncture between the preopercle

and the posterior end of the quadrate

strongly suggests that the reduced sym-

plectic bone, if present, may lie near this

area. (2) Although Gosline stated that the

alisphenoid appears to be lacking, in our

specimen this paired bone is recognizable

in front of the prootic. (3) Lower pharyn-

geals are evidently separated in our species

versus they are entirely fused without su-

ture in samoensis. That the individual bones

of the skeletal system in such small fishes

as Kraemeria are not sufficiently demar-

cated owing to unsatisfactory ossification

might explain these differences.

Koumans (1931, p. 14) included the

Psammichthyidae (=Kraemeriidae) in the

order Gobioidea. Schultz (1941, p. 269)

stated that Kraemeria has features that re-

semble the trichonotids more than the go-

bids.

Gosline (1955, p. 165) placed Kraemeria

in a distinct family Kraemeriidae and as-

signed the latter to the suborder Gobioidei

on the basis of the following features: (1)

the parietals are absent, (2) the branchio-

stegal rays are 5 in number, the first one of

which is far separated from the others, (3)

there is a broad interosseous space between

vou. 49, No. 1

the metapterygoid and preopercle, and (4)

the hypural plate bears detached splint-like

bone on both dorsal and ventral sides. He

concluded that these features of Kraemeria

agree with those of gobioid fishes but dis-

agree with those of both blennid and tri-

chonotid fishes.

Results of our osteological observation,

as well as such peculiar external features as

steeply projected lower jaw and scaleless

body would be sufficient to justify the re-

tention of Kraemeria in a separate family.

On the other hand, the fishes of the genus

Kraemeria seem to be closely related, in

general physiognomy, to those of the family

Trichonotidae. But, at the present, there is

no adequate information on the osteological

features of the trichonotid fishes, which will

enable us to compare both groups. Accord-

ingly, the decision whether the family Krae-

merlidae belongs to the suborder Gobioidei

or other separate suborder, should be with-

held until such a time as more information

becomes available concerning the anatomi-

cal features of the trichonotid fishes, al-

though the fact that the pelvic fins are

united for one-fifth the length of inner rays

by a membrane in Kraemeria tongaensis

and for their full length in Gobitrichinotus

radiocularis (Rofen, 1958, p. 182), both of

which are referred to Kraemeriidae, may

support Gosline’s conception concerning the

allocation of Kraemeriidae to the gobioid

eroup.

REFERENCES

GostinE, WitiiAM A. The osteology and rela-

tionships of certain gobioid fishes, with particu-

lar reference to the genera Kraemeria and

Microdesmus. Pacific Sci. 9(2): 158-170, 7

figs. 1955.

Koumans, F. P. A preliminary revision of the

genera of the gobioid fishes with united ventral

fins: iv + 174 pp. Lisse, 1931.

Martsupara, Kryomatsu. Fish morphology and

hierarchy 1: xi + 789 pp., 289 figs. Tokyo, 1955.

Recan, CuHarutes Tate. Report on the marine

fishes collected by Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner in

the Indian Ocean. Trans. Linn. Soc. London,

Zool. (2) 12(13): 217-255, 10 pls. 1908.

Roren, Ropert R. The marine fishes of Rennell

Island. In “The natural history of Rennell

Island, British Solomon Islands’ 1: 149-218,

1 fig., 11 pls. Copenhagen, 1958.

ScHuitz, Leonatp P. Kraemeria bryani, a new

species of trichonotid fish from the Hawaiian

Islands. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 31(6):

269-272, 1 fig. 1941.

JANUARY 1959

NOTES AND

NEWS 33

“NIGHT-GOWNED” FISHES

There are fish that wear “nightgowns.” They

are among the most resplendent of all sea crea-

tures. They have teeth in their throats. These are

the “parrotfishes,” a family distributed world-

wide through tropical waters where they fre-

quent coral reefs. The first systematic zoological

description of this group as a whole, by Dr.

Leonard P. Schultz, U. S. National Museum

curator of fishes, has recently been published by

the Smithsonian Institution.

The strange practice of donning night robes

before retiring, cited in the report, is an ob-

servation by Dr. Howard E. Winn, of the Uni-

versity of Maryalnd, and presumably is re-

stricted to one or two species found in West

Indian waters. These fishes pass the hours of

darkness resting on the shallow sea bottom. They

lean against rocks, arms of coral, or other stable

objects. Sometimes they retire inside conch shells.

But as night approaches the fish starts secreting

a transparent mucous envelope from a special

secretory system. It starts with the mouth and is

extended backward, until the transparent enve-

lope completely encloses the body. There is a

little flap with a hole in the center in front of

the open mouth. There is another small hole at

the rear. The mouth flap moves back and forth

as the animal breathes. The openings assure a

constant flow of water around the gills, without

which the animal could not live.

The entire process of nightgown-making re-

quires from a half hour to an hour-and-a-half.

It stops entirely, Dr. Winn observed, whenever

hight was turned on the aquarium but was re-

sumed immediately with darkness. As the folds

progress the breathing rate is reduced. The pur-

pose of wearing nightgowns can only be sur-

mised. The thin garments, he believes, may afford

some sort of protection against nocturnal en-

emies. Also it may protect the body from be-

coming surrounded by silt.

The gown-weaving, as well as the practice of

spending the night leaning against some solid

object, apparently is dictated by some nervous

mechanism which is set off by darkness. So far

as known, the practice is unique in nature. But,

as cited by Dr. Schultz, this is only one of the

parrotfish curiosities. Colors, of males, become

more and more brilliant as adulthood is ap-

proached, and a fully matured individual of some

species 1s one of the handsomest denizens of the

deep. Females of some species, however, may re-

main throughout life rather drab individuals.

“Many species,’ says Dr. Schultz, “pass

through from one to three color phases. In gen-

eral these are Juvenile, in which the color may

consist of two or three alternating dark and

light streaks, or spots that are dark or mottled

pale and dark; immature, in which the color pat-

tern is usually some shade of red, brown, or

purple; and adult, in which the color pattern

seems to be reached somewhat before or at sexual

maturity, with the predominating colors gen-

erally green, blue, pink, red, orange, and yellow.

A few species are brownish. Some of these are

females, but the males predominate in shades

of green or blue and with green teeth.”

Color changes, it is explained, are a factor

which makes species classification quite difficult.

Living in the shelter of coral banks and quite

secretive in their ways of life these parrotfishes,

or Secaridae, have remained among the least

known of the fish groups.

Their food, for the most part, consists of

algae which are scraped from the coral branches.

This necessitates the so-called pharyngeal mill,

or teeth in the throat, designed to crush coralline

algae, coral fragments, and other food items. The

upper pharyngeal teeth are paired and fit snugly

against the base of the skull. The number of rows

on each upper pharyngeal bone varies from one

to three, according to genera. The lower pharyn-

geals consist of a single bone with a toothed sur-

face. This arrangement constitutes a grinding

mill operated by powerful muscle attached to the

shoulder girdle and base of the skull.

Some species, Dr. Schultz points out, appar-

ently have a very wide distribution, while others

have very restricted habitats, but more collect-

ing in numerous island groups will be required

before the distribution of individual species can

be determined.

Major regions where these strange animals

are found are the central and west Pacific,

Hawaiian and Johnston Islands, some offshore

islands of the east Pacific adjacent to the Ameri-

can continents, west Atlantic and Bermuda, east

Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, Andaman Islands,

and Ceylon. There are about 80 valid species for

the whole world, the report says.

34 JOURNAL OF THE

COMPRESSIVE PROPERTIES OF

For many years the National Bureau of Stand-

ards dental research laboratory has investigated

the basic properties of dental materials in co-

operation with the American Dental Associ-

ation and the Federal dental services. As part

of this program, a study was recently under-

taken by J. W. Stanford and G. C. Paffen-

barger, research associates of the American

Dental Association, and J. W. Kumpula and

W. T. Sweeney of the Bureau staff to obtain

precise data on the compressive properties of

human enamel and dentin.* Data derived from

the work will be used in evaluating dental fill-

ing materials, in designing cavity preparations,

and in demonstrating physical changes in teeth.

In the past, abundant information has been

compiled on the properties of restorative ma-

terials used in dentistry, but relatively few data

have been published about hard tooth tissue, the

foundation for these materials. An obvious ex-

planation for this lack is the limited supply of

human enamel and dentin available, and the

difficulties inherent in testing small specimens.

However, since a successful dental restoration

depends equally on the restorative material and

the tooth, knowledge of both is necessary.

In the Bureau tests of human enamel, the

highest strength, modulus of elasticity, and pro-

portional limit were obtained for specimens of

cusp enamel, the tapering projections on the

crown of the tooth. Intermediate values for

these properties were found for specimens pre-

pared from the sides of teeth; and lowest values

for the occlusal surface or chewing part of molar

teeth. Although dentin showed a higher com-

pressive strength than did enamel, it had a lower

modulus of elasticity.

The specimens used in the tests were prepared

from freshly extracted teeth. Made in the shape

of cylinders 0.044 inch in diameter and from

0.075 to 0.082 inch in length, they were ground

from block sections of enamel, dentin and combi-

nations of the two. All cutting and grinding

operations were accomplished under a steady

dripping of water on the field of cutting.

After the specimen ends were made plane and

parallel, the specimen was placed upright in a

* For further technical details, see Determination

of some compressive properties of human enamel

and dentin, by JoHN W. StTanrorpD, G. C. PAFFEN-

BARGER, JOHN W. Kumpua, and W. T. SWEENEY,

Journ. Amer. Dental Assoc. 57: 487. 1958.

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 49, no. l

HUMAN ENAMEL AND DENTIN

testing machine between two hardened steel

platens. Because of the small size of the speci-

mens, two optical strain gages had to be fastened

across the specimen length on the sides of the

platens (rather than on the specimen). These

strain gages were used to determine the deforma-

tion occurring in the specimens under load. In

conducting the tests, the 0-1,000-pound range

of a 2,000-pound-capacity testing machine was

uesd to measure the loads as they were applied.

The strain measurements included errors re-

sulting from deformations in those portions of

the steel platens within the gage length, and

possible non-parallelism of the platens. To evalu-

ate these errors, tests were conducted on metals

for which the moduli of elasticity are well known.

Small cylinders of carbon steel, aluminum alloy,

and magnesium alloy, were prepared in a manner

similar to that used in preparing the tooth speci-

mens, and were tested in compression. The re-

sults obtained with these metals were used to

correct the experimentally determined moduli of

elasticity of the hard tooth tissues.

Stress-strain diagrams derived from the data

showed an important difference between the

enamel and the dentin. The enamel, largely in-

organic, showed little plastic flow in comparison

with the more organic dentin. This is also shown

by the data in Table 1. It was found that the

more brittle enamel broke at a load slightly

higher than its proportional limit, while the

dentin exhibited plastic flow from its propor-

tional limit of approximately 25,000 psi up to

its compressive strength of about 50,000 psi.

Average values computed for the three enamel

areas range from 1.8 X 10° to 8.2 x 10° psi for

modulus of elasticity; 15,000 to 34,000 psi for

TABLE 1.—CoOMPRESSIVE PROPERTIES OF

Human ENAMEL AND DENTIN

| Modulus | Propor- | Compres-

Material of tional sive

elasticity | limit strength

10 psi} psi psi

Enamel:

Caspers Seen ke 8.2 | 34,200 | 40,200

roid (sevens «eRe 1 ged 21,200 | 28,200

Occlusal surface...| 1.8 | 15,400 | 18,200

Denting Ass ar ee 25,100 | 50,400

Dentin and enamel... 3.6 | 23,900 | 34,200

JANUARY 1959

proportional limit; and 18,000 to 40,000 psi for

compressive strength. In tests of dentin speci-

mens, values determined for these three proper-

ties, in the same order, are 2.2 X 10° psi; 25,000

psi; and 50,400 psi. These values for dentin

are comparable to values previously found by

Peyton, Mahler, and Hershenov.* The crushing

NOTES AND NEWS 39

strength of both enamel and dentin earler re-

ported by G. V. Black® is not inconsistent with

the values for compressive strength derived from

the present study.

* Physical properties of dentin, by F. A. Peyton,

D. B. Mauer, and B. HersHenov, Journ. Dent.

Res. 31: 366. 1952.

® Physical characters of the human teeth, by G.

V. Buack, Dental Cosmos 37: 353. 1895.

EXPERIMENTAL MAP PAPERS CONTAINING SYNTHETIC FIBERS

The National Bureau of Standards, in work

sponsored by the Army Engineer Research and

Development Laboratories, has investigated the

strength characteristics of synthetic-fiber map

paper. Tests for dimensional stability, folding

endurance, and bursting and tearing strengths

were made on specimens of three experimental

handsheets and two commercially produced pa-

pers. Results show that a polyester-cellulose

sheet has high dimensional stability, a pre-

requisite for military map paper, and better

strength properties than commercial map paper.

A paper containing polyamide fibers has low

dimensional stability, but exceptional folding,

tearing, and bursting strengths.’

For many years the Bureau has conducted re-

search on the properties of paper and related

materials. In previous experiments a dimen-

sionally stable paper, that is, a paper with low

moisture expansivity, was developed by laminat-

ing two thin sheets to a backing of polyester film-”

G. L. McLeod of the Bureau staff undertook the

present study to find out whether synthetic

fibers with less affinity for water than cellulose

could impart the desired moisture stability to

map paper. Also, while cellulose is and probably

will remain the backbone of the paper industry,

erowing interest is being displayed in the use of

synthetic fibers to improve the properties of

special-purpose papers.

Initial attempts to prepare handsheets from a

suspension containing 100 percent synthetic fi-

bers were unsuccessful. The sheets tore and dis-

integrated when removed from the mold. A

suspension was then prepared containing cellu-

1¥For further technical details, see Properties of

some experimental map papers containing syn-

thetic fibers, by G. L. McLznop, TAPPI 41: 430.

1958.

“Improved dimensional stability in laminated

paper, by G. L. McLzrop and THrEtma L. Works-

MAN, TAPPI (in press); and Improved map paper,

NBS Tech. News Bull. 42: 148. 1958.

lose fibers and synthetic fibers in a 1-to-3 pro-

portion. From this suspension it was possible to

produce handsheets that could be manipulated

and treated with an acrylic binding agent. After

treatment, the sheets were dried for 1 hour in a

forced-air oven, and cured in a flat-bed press at

160°C with a pressure of 300 lb/in.’ for 45 sec-

onds. The synthetic fibers in the three different

handsheets were poylester, polyacrylate, and

polyamide (nylon). Table 1 shows the results

of tests on these handsheets compared with re-

sults obtained from all-cellulose sheets made with

the same handsheet apparatus.’

Similar tests were conducted on machine-made

paper containing 40 percent synthetic fiber, 40

percent cellulose rag fiber, and 20 percent acrylic

binder. Only two of the synthetic fibers, poly-

ester and polyamide, were used in the machine-

made paper. Table 2 gives the results of these

tests compared with identical tests on commer-

cial map paper. Included in this table are the

Federal specifications for map paper.

In general, test results of the handsheets and

the machine-made paper follow the same pat-

tern. The polyester-cellulose sheets are superior

in dimensional stability to moisture, and have

higher bursting, folding, and tearing strengths

than does regular map paper. The polyacrylic-

cellulose sheets, tested only in the form of ex-

perimental handsheets, are superior to the poly-

amide-cellulose and the all-cellulose sheets in

dimensional stability but inferior to the poly-

ester-cellulose sheets. The polyamide-cellulose

paper has the lowest dimensional stability of all

the papers tested, which makes it unsuitable for

map paper. However, because of its exceptional

folding endurance and high tearing strength, this

paper map prove to be valuable for other pur-

poses.

No difficulties were encountered in printing on

3Preparation of fiber test sheets, by M. B.

SHaw, G. W. Bickine, and L. W. Snyper, Paper

Trade Journ. 90(16): 7.S. 69. 1930.

36 JOURNAL OF THE

the synthetic-fiber papers, in either black and

white, or in the regular five-color lithographic

process used for Army maps. The smoothness

and opacity ratings of the synthetic fiber sheets

are lower than those of regular map paper, but

these are minor deficiencies which can be easily

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 49, No. 1

overcome. That the synthetic-fiber papers have

less dry tensile strength than commercial map

paper is attributed to the low fiber-to-fiber bond-

ing in the synthetics. Dry tensile strength, how-

ever, 1s a relatively unimportant factor in papers

used for military maps.

TABLE 1.—COMPARISON OF TEST RESULTS FOR HANDSHEETS FROM BLENDS OF 75 PERCENT SYNTHETIC

FIBER AND 25 PERCENT CELLULOSE FIBER WITH 100 PERCENT CELLULOSE HANDSHEETS

Tests performed

Test results

ae Seco One 75% nylon |75% polyacrylate alee

Basis weight (17 X 22-500), in pounds.......... 23.8 34.6 30.2 31.9

‘Thickness,an" intchese ys. oes ee eh ee 0.0054 0.0118 0.0059 0.0108

Expansivity for relative humidity change be-

tween oo and’ 507; sim percent. ner ae et 0.25 0.037 0.014

Folding endurance, Schopper, double folds..... Approx. 1200) 100,000 4260 31,600

Bunshine streneGhrm points aerate ae eee 46 122 86 76

Tensile strength, kg/15 mm:

| DO GaN al nt Ue les rien Lt Ne eis | nailer 25.6 6.1 5.8 4.4

VSG ERPs Seay Pin ate i acto cen Ee etl sen ee ae 2.9 2.0 13 3.5

Teanine strengthenn yeramsway. kee eee 156 864 323 590

TaBLE 2.—TEsT RESULTS OF MACHINE-MADE POLYESTER-RAG,

NYLON-RAG, AND COMMERCIAL Map PAPER

50:50

Tests performed Polyester-rag

Basis weight (17 X 22-500), in

OUTS, Hayate OO sete ee ci ee nee 26.2

Expansivity for relative humidity

change between 65 and 50%:

Machinew direction se see ee 0.059

Cross®directione ee, ae ee 0.10

Brightness, in percent’ 9.) 55.5.4. 83.1

Aciditivs pr hothextractione 4.9: 4.8

Smoothness (Bekk), in seconds..... 33

Water resistance, dry indicator, in

SECOMGS SA HUW, pet ets ee MR Gna eg ieee 94

aLhickness sinminchesp saa ere 0.0052

Folding endurance, Schopper,

double folds:

Machinemdinrection eases) see nner 14,300

Crosseaineciloneatsee se ee 11,300

Bursting strength, in points:

ID) Ci gaee Oe eRe a Meche cats Reni nae da 8 49

WG ti pha geen UN Rd oh rand ae ee 46

Tensile strength, dry, in kg./15 mm:

Machinesdirection..cea5 45a CD

Cross) direction’) nee sare 77

Tensile strength, wet, in kg./15 mm:

Machimedirectione ae a4 see 5.3

Crossidinectionn a. eee 4.2

Tearing strength, in grams:

Machimesidirectionmas a. e 151

Crosse dinectioney ser eae eee 141

Opacity. mapercentaae ee eee 75.8

50:50 Commercial map Federal specification

Nylon-rag paper requirements

22.6 23.7 2 + 5%

0.196 0.071 0.075 max

0.28 OFZ 0.25 max

82.1 CATE 70.1

a.7 5.0 4.5

8 60 50-100

77 70 55

0.0054 0.0041 0.0042 + 0.0005

40 , 000 1410 1000

13.500 1300 1000

50 50 50

30 30 20

6.5 ES 1130

4.5 6.8 6.0

3.4 4.4 3.9

2.3 2.8 2.5

168 85 95

108 94 95

67.1 93 .2 91.0

@ All figures are minimum values unless otherwise designated.

Vice-Presidents of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Representing the Affiliated Societies

Bunesepmical Society of Washington ................26.cecceeeeseees MicHAEL GOLDBERG

muaeepelerical Society of Washington.................---2.--se0e-- FrANK M. SETZLER

mraestiecmcicty Of Washington................0ccee0ccccee le seeee HERBERT FRIEDMANN

wnemmeneseeiety of Washington................-.-ceeeeeececeeeee Aunen L. ALEXANDER

Mamanelorical Society of Washington. ....................00..e80es Haroup H. SHEPARD

BemmnEeUSEAPNIC SOCIELY....5... 00052. c cece eee e ce eeusyes ALEXANDER WETMORE

Pemmeetewuoociciy of Washington.....0..........002-ccnecceeedeenceeces Care H. DANE

Medical seciety of the District of Columbia........................-. FREDERICK O. CoE

MmmmrrreLtisrOnical SOCIety..... 2.2.61... cee ee cee cc ene nee cuesaee U.S. Grant, 3p

Pereaecinemeicry Of Washington.............. 06.0.0. 0 cece c eee enews: CaRROLL E. Cox

Washington Section, Society of American Foresters. ...................-- G. F. GRAVATT

PMP society Of Mngineers..............0.0 0 cece eee eee ecees Howarp S. RAPPLEYE

Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers....RoBERT D. ELBoURN

feimimpnolerical Society of Washington.......................000% CaRLTon M. Herman

Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists.................. BERNICE Eppy

Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers......... ALBERT J. HosKINSoN

Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................. Rosert D. HuntToon

National Capital Section, American Society of Civil Engineers....Howarp 8S. RAPPLEYE

D. C. Section, Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine...... KaTHRYN KNOWLTON

Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals.................... JoHn A. BENNETT

Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research..ALPHONSE FoRzIATI

Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences.............. F. N. FRENKIEL

D. C. Branch, American Meteorological Society.................-.--- Jack C. THOMPSON

Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers...... WiuuraM G. ALLEN

Washington Chapter, Acoustical Society of America................... RicHarp K. Coox

imeeeuerme society of Washington..............02c ces cee eee ee neces FRANK L. CAMPBELL

CONTENTS

Page

ScIENCE ADMINISTRATION.—Pay plans and people. Crawrorp R.

ENToMOLOGY.—A new subfamily, genus, and species of Lygaeidae (Hemip-

tera-Heteroptera) from Australia. Cart J. Drake and NormMan

TODAVIS. 220 a a Re Sn ee 19

IcHTHYOLOGY.—Description of a new sandfish, Kraemeria sexradiata,

from Japan, with special reference to its osteology. Kryvomatsu

MaTsuBara and Tamotsu Iwat. .. .:..-+.:).9.%. 7. 4) 27

Notes anD NEws:

“Night-@owned”’ fishes... . 10.52 ms «he a igectlt oye tet 33

Compressive properties of human enamel and dentin.............. 34

Experimental map papers containing synthetic fibers............. 35

VOLUME 49 Feebruary 1959 NUMBER 2

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 49

FEBRUARY 1959

No. 2

THE ACADEMY MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

The organization of the Membership

Committee of the Washington Academy of

Sciences has been altered to increase its

effectiveness. The Committee now consists

of seven panels, each panel representing a

general field of science. Those who consti-

tute each panel are listed below.

A nomination for election to the Academy

is considered by that panel which is best

suited to evaluate the nominee’s record. The

chairmen of the various panels meet once a

month with the general chairman to con-

sider the action of the panels. Those nomi-

nations which have been recommended for

election are presented to the Board of Man-

agers with a request for favorable action.

A change in the procedure for submitting

nominations has been made. This change

was adopted in order to eliminate the diffi-

culty often encountered in obtaining com-

General Chairman

Dr. LaurRENcE M. KusHNER EMerson

Secretary

Mr. GreorGE DICKSON

2-4040, ext.

7509 (154-7509)

EMerson 2-4040, ext.

7227 (154-7227)

plete information on a nominee’s back-

ground and still maintain secrecy with

regard to the nominee’s knowledge of this

action. The matter of secrecy has been

eliminated. The potential nominee may

complete the nomination application over

the signatures of a sponsor and two en-

dorsors. It may then be submitted to any

member of an appropriate panel or to Mrs.

Fell at the office of the Academy, 1530 P

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FEBRUARY 1959

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“DE-LOUSING” SHRIMP

There is a tiny blue-and-white shrimp in the

Bahamas that lives on the “lice” that infest

fishes, sets up permanent de-lousing stations to

which louse-plagued fish make regular visits

like men to barber shops, and which advertises

its places of business by swaying from side to

side and vigorously waving its exceptionally

long white antennae in the water to attract

transient customers.

Specimens of this shrimp, discovered by

Vern and Harry Pederson and collected a few

months ago in the Bahamas by Conrad Lim-

baugh of the Scripps Institution of Oceanogra-

phy of La Jolla, Calif., have just been added

to the marine invertebrate collections of the

Smithsonian Institution.

The phenomenon of fish de-lousing by other

sea organisms often has been described and

probably is world-wide. This, however, is by far

the most complex case ever reported. The

shrimp, as described by Mr. Limbaugh, “sets

up shop” on the head of a sea-anemone, flower-

like member of the coral family, whose petals

are stinging tentacles. These tentacles protect

VoL. 49, NO. 2

FEBRUARY 1959

the tenant from all natural shrimp predators.

The anemone, in turn, cannot survive without

the presence of another species of shrimp at its

base.

The de-lousing shrimp cleans its fish customer

meticulously from head to tail of parasitic cope-

pods, the so-called “lice of the sea,’ often al-

most invisibly minute, which infest most marine

higher organisms. It also removes other minute

parasites and cuts away small patches of dead

tissue. It works inside and out. The fish helps

the shrimp to forage within its gill cavities,

mouth, and throat by opening them one at a

time as the forager approaches them. It also

allows the “barber” to make minor incisions

in its skin to get at parasites which have bored

into the flesh.

Apparently such a shrimp always does a

rushing business. The fish cleaned react to the

waving tentacles by approaching the cleaner,

stopping or slowing down. They even assume

awkward positions, seemingly as if hypnotized.

Sometimes certain varieties may change colors.

Often they will fight for the right to be cleaned,

or “having firsts” on the barber chair, and there

are vicious battles. More docile forms crowd one

another, sometimes completely obliterating the

cleaner from view.

Mr. Limbaugh is engaged in an essentially

world-wide study of fish-cleaner organisms.

There is, he reports, considerable variation in

the complexity of the phenomenon which seems

to have arisen, in its various forms, over long

periods of evolution. Nothing hitherto reported,

however, has approached the complexity of the

Bahama case. There may be, however, other

organisms that maintain permanent cleaning

stations. These, indeed, may constitute a very

important phase of sea biology. The stations

may be set up on individual coral heads, on

reef formations, in sea floor depressions, or

merely in certain general areas.”

Certain species of fish and other organisms,

as well as shrimp, engage in this cleaning ac-

tivity. “In general,” Mr. Limbaugh reported

DE-LOUSING SHRIMP 4]

recently to the Western Society of Naturalists,

“the concept may be expanded to include very

large areas or physical features. I am now

convinced that this is one reason fish visit the

edges of kelp beds, where species of cleaner

fish dominate the fauna. I believe also that many

famous fishings grounds (off the Pacific coast)

may be cleaning stations. Among these I would

include certain islands and shoals.’ He con-

tinues:

Visiting fishes at the small cleaning stations in

the Bahamas showed a definite time pattern in

their daily arrival, obviously related to a diurnal

patterned life. Longer term studies undoubtedly

would have shown seasonal trends. The number

of fish processed at a small station during a six-

hour daylight period may be large, up to 300 for

one cleaning fish. In areas inhabited by thousands

of cleaner organisms, the numerical significance

begins to take on meaning. Often a fish will visit

more than one station and return many times

during the day. This is particularly true of an

injured or sick fish.

In an experiment in the Bahamas, I removed

all the known cleaners from two small isolated

reefs where fishes were particularly abundant.

Within a few days the numbers of fish were

drastically reduced. Within two weeks all except

territorial fishes had disappeared. Many of these

developed white fuzzy blotches, swelling, ulcerated

sores and ravaged fins. Later small shrimp and

juvenile fish cleaners appeared. Most of the original

fish did not return but were replaced by juveniles.

Known organisms involved as cleaners in the

sea include eight families of 21 species of fishes,

several families of shrimps, involving six species,

a worm, a bird, and a crab. Relationships of

cleaners to the cleaned organisms frequently are

so casual as to seem accidental, but in other cases

it involves integrated and complex behavior. In

warm seas, cleaning organisms generally are col-

ored to contrast with their environment. In gen-

eral they are solitary, paired or slightly gregarious.

In temperate waters they are not brightly colored

or contrastingly marked. Often they are highly

gregarious. They are more numerous than in

warmer waters but there are fewer species.

$e ——_ i —

42 JOURNAL OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 49, NO. 2

GENERAL SCIENCE.—Moon bound.| RaymMonp J. SkeEGEeR, National Science

Foundation.

(Received January 2, 1959)

Man always has been and still is moon

bound. From earliest times he has been fas-

cinated by the very appearances of the

moon. The baby in his crib reaches for the

bright moon; the child in the nursery won-

ders at the “man in the moon.” A Hebrew

story tells that this man was banished to

the moon because he picked up sticks on the

Sabbath; his sticks are now the shadows

on the moon. Young men yearn for a “lady

in the moon,” and old men dream of “‘the old

moon in the new moon’s arms.” Literature?

abounds in fanciful speculations about the

moon, for example, writings of Dante,

Ariosto (“Orlando Furiosa’’), Milton, Jon-

son (‘‘News from the New World Discovered

in the Moon’’), Shakespeare, Donne, Keats

(“Endymion”), Rostand (“Cyrano de Ber-

gerac”). Men have always been susceptible

to wonderful stories about this wonderland.

One of the most celebrated was the so-

called “moon hoax,” which appeared in an

August issue of “The Sun” in 18385. R. A.

Locke, a newspaperman, reported that Sir

John Herschel had just discovered flying

men and animals on the moon by means of

a new large telescope in Africa. The only

truth about the whole account was the rapid

increase in the newspaper circulation. Nev-

ertheless, beneath man’s superficial stories

is a genuine curiosity as to just what is on

the surface of the moon.

As man became interested in nature for its

own sake, he felt a burning desire to “save

the appearances,’ to uncover the ¢vaus

(physies) beneath the dawoyuera (appear-

ances). For example, in Plato’s educational

program for the future leaders of his Re-

public, he discussed the merits of astronomy

*Luncheon address given at the “Unveiling of

the Moon Building,” Sheraton-Carleton Hotel,

Washington, D. C., October 28, 1958.

> Gopwin, F. The man in the moon. 1638; Wit-

KINS, J. The discovery of a world in the moon.

1638; Boon, A. The emperor in the moon. 1687;

Fow er, G. A flight to the moon. 1813; WELLS,

H. G. First man in the moon. 1901; Corriy, C. M.

John Donne and the new philosophy. 1937; Atuor,

K. Jules Verne. 1941; Nicotson, M. Voyages to the

moon. 1948.

as a possible subject, not for its applica-

tions in agriculture or in navigation, but

because of its relation to the intelligible

principles behind phenomena. For centuries

man had been observing the irregular plane-

tary and lunar motions. He saw chaos, he

sought to unveil cosmos; he looked for

order amid the apparent disorder. It was the

fall of a meteorite near Aegos Potamoi in

467 B.C. that stimulated Anaxagoras’s in-

terest in the heavens as a sequence of under-

standable events. He visualized moonlight

as reflected sunlight; he explained the phases

and eclipses of the moon. Above all, he re-

garded the surface of the moon as earth-

like. For this very reason this first philoso-

pher of distinction in Athens was banished

in the so-called golden age of Pericles for

impiety. It was Hipparchus of Nicea who

determined later (about 129 B.C.), par-

allactically, the distance of the moon from

the earth (within 0.1 percent of the modern

value).

The telltale telescope of Galileo revealed

the nature of the heavens in a dramatic way

comparable to that of the visible Sputnik—

far more compelling than any theoretical

speculation. The announcement of the

moon’s appearance was made in the Siderius

Nuncius. In the church of Santa Maria

Maggiore in Rome, a portrait of the Virgin

shows a small picture of the moon as first

glimpsed by Galileo. There one sees out-

lined the mountains of the moon; for ex-

ample, the Apennine range, 450 miles long

and with 3,000 peaks such as Huygens

(19,000 feet high). Galileo himself estimated

the mountains to be about 4 miles in height.

All these ranges have familiar European

names; for America had not yet been ex-

plored in detail. If the moon’s hidden face is

ever revealed to us, mountain ranges there

will undoubtedly be named after those on

our Western Hemisphere. One observes also

many large flat regions, which have been

given fanciful names: the Sea of Serenity,

the Ocean of Storms, the Bay of Rainbows,

the Lake of Death, et al. A moot scientific

FEBRUARY 1959

question today persists as to whether these

areas are actually lava flows or dust bowls.

Particularly striking are craters such as

Archimedes, which is 40 miles in diameter

and which could have been formed by a

meteorite having a weight of 25 billion tons.

For comparison, we think of Meteor Crater

in Arizona, which is less than a mile wide

and which is supposed to have been pro-

duced by a meteorite of only 200,000 tons.

Sad to relate, Galileo too suffered imprison-

ment at the end of his life of research of

the heavens. His view of the moon and other

celestial phenomena did not agree with the

socially accepted doctrine of his times.

There is an apocryphal story that Newton

conceived his theory of gravitation when he

was struck by an apple falling from a tree.

There might have occurred to him the

thought: “Suppose it had been the moon;

suppose the moon were an apple!” “In such

a case,” he might have surmised, “moons

and apples would be subject to the same law

of gravitation—a universal law.” In any

event we have all come to believe that we

do live in a universe with laws that apply

equally to moons and to apples.

In more recent times, a Washingtonian,

Simon Newcomb (1835-1909), director of

the Nautical Alamanac from 1877, became

so fascinated by lunar motions as to in-

vestigate them in considerable detail. You

recall that tidal slowing of the rotating

earth (about 0.001 second in a century) re-

sults in an increasing angular acceleration

and consequential recession of the moon

about ten centimeters each month. Even to-

day lunar motions still present a formidable

challenge to man, including the earth-moon

enigma that these two bodies might have

been closely associated about 5 billion years

ago. More amazing than our ignorance,

however, is our knowledge about the moon

and other astronomical phenomena. How

unbelievably well has man succeeded in

“saving the appearances’ —without ever go-

ing to the moon! Laplace’s remark is still

worth considering: ‘Because of the majesty

of its subject and the perfection of its the-

ories astronomy is the most beautiful monu-

ment of the human spirit, the noblest claim

of its intelligence.”

It is not surprising, therefore, that much

SEEGER: MOON BOUND 43

science fiction has been written with respect

to our nearest neighbor in space. A partic-

ularly interesting book was written in 1900

by Newcomb himself.® It tells of a Harvard

professor of molecular physics who began

about 1941 a secret project in a brickyard

on a nearby Potomac Island. Later he ex-

panded his operations to the island of Elba,

where he built Uraniberg (a heavenly city)

in the tradition of Tycho Brahe. His unique

invention was a space ship, which had been

made possible by the discovery of a new

material called etherene. Its reaction with

ether vibrations was conceived to be analo-

gous to that of the wings of a bird with the

air through which it flies. A new source of

energy, therm, akin to electricity, was also

available. The time came for the unveiling

of the motes, as these space ships were called

(hi motes traveled a hundred miles high).

Newcomb noted that Professor Gale, an

English physicist, believed such motion to

be impossible owing to air friction. He over-

came this difficulty by flying the ships above

the atmosphere, the height of which was

found on flight to be greater than that pre-

viously calculated. On the occasion of the

unveiling, formal invitations were sent to

the President of the United States, to the

heads of the several Government depart-

ments, to members of the Judiciary, to high

officials of the Army and Navy, as well as

to presidents and professors of various uni-

versities. A dinner was arranged in their

honor prior to the unveiling ceremony.

About one-third of the individuals offered

excuses for not coming, another third came

in order to see who the third third really

were that could be seriously interested in

such a subject. The book concluded by re-

vealing the true motivation of the project

and its secrecy; it was aimed at the estab-

lishment of a “defender of the peace of the

world.”’ In the same spirit, United States

satellites today are rightly called Explorers

and Pioneers, for they are much more sig-

nificant as rockets for peace than as mis-

siles for war. So much for the superscience

of Newcomb’s fiction!

In a strictly technical paper* on “The

Outlook for the Flying Machine,” Newcomb

* Newcomp, S. His wisdom—the defender. 1900.

* Newcoms, 8S. Sidelights of astronomy. 1906.

4+ JOURNAL OF THE

reviewed later (1906) Langley’s aircraft

failure. He concluded, “Let us discover a

substance a hundred times as strong as

steel, and with that some form of force un-

suspected which will enable us to utilize

this strength, or let us discover some way

of reversing the law of gravitation so that

matter may be repelled by the earth in-

stead of attracted—then we may have a

flying machine. But we have every reason

to believe that mere ingenious contrivances

with our present means and form of force

will be as vain in the future as they have

been in the past.”

Truth has once again turned out to be

stranger than fiction. The accomplishments

of our age surpass not only the sober ex-

pectancy of great scientists of yester years

but even their science fiction. I wonder what

Simon Newcomb would say if he knew that

we are now shooting for the moon.

In all our technological development,

however, we need to distinguish carefully

both between science and science fiction,

and between science and technology. We

speak of these times as a space age. Yester-

day it was an atomic age. In neither case

has it been truly a scientific age. At a meet-

ing of the Federal Schoolmen’s Club in

Washington last year, a talk was given

about satellites. At the end two educators

asked these questions: (1) ‘““What keeps the

satellite up?” (2) “What keeps it going?”

Mind you, 300 years after Newton had told

clearly how well-behaved moons travel in

public space!

What is science? It is not information,

please! It is not mysterious gadgetry! It is

not powerful magic! Science, 1.e., knowledge,

is the result of the use of the scientific

method, a method that is peculiar to the

scientist. May I stress again that the “what”

of science is less important than the “how”

of the scientific method, all of which is

meaningless except in terms of the “who,”

the scientist that observes, that relates, that

imagines. As Henri Poincaré once said,

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 49, NO. 2

“Science is no more a collection of facts than

a house is a collection of stones.” The end

of science is a comprehensive view, an 1m-

aginative vista, an interpretive theory. Its

means is a workshop, 1e., a laboratory.

Work, let us remember, can and should be

adventuresome; it can and should be won-

der-full; it can and should be joy-full. The

scientist in his laboratory is akin to the

artist in his studio; to the child in his

kindergarten. Science, above all, can and

should be fun-full; for science is explora-

tion. With our modern satellites we are now

abel to reach the upper atmosphere, the very

edge of the earth, where we meet incoming

cosmic rays and meteors from outer space.

The surface of the moon is a member of

our planetary family that affords unusual

physical conditions. The very lack of an

atmosphere, as indicated by the sharpness

of the moon’s shadows, allows incoming

radiation there to be free from atmospheric

influences. The surface, too, is free from

erosion although it undergoes large tempera-

ture changes from minus 243° F. to plus

214° F. on a single day. It is evident that

any design for building on the moon must

necessarily be quite different from that on

the earth. For example, gravitational force

there is only one-sixth as great so that the

weight of building materials will actually

be less on the moon than on the earth.

The inertial mass, however, remains the

same. Consequently, vibrational phenom-

ena, which involve both gravitational

stresses and inertial masses, will behave

quite differently from those upon the earth.

We moderns are literally moon bound.

We dream of Luniberg, a city on the moon,

with buildings that are truly out of this

world. We visualize a lunar observatory for

man’s penetration into the space about him

and his reflection upon the earth he has left

behind him.

Meanwhile, as we stand moon bound on

the earth, let us all insist upon a scientific

outlook!

Frespruary 1959

RUDD: STUDIES IN AESCHYNOMENE 45

BOTAN Y.—Supplementary studies 1n Aeschynomene, I: Series Viscidulae, includ-

ng a new species and fwe new varieties. VELVA E. Rupp, U. S. National

Museum.

(Received February 13, 1959)

A considerable number of Aeschynomene

specimens have come to my attention since

publication of “The American Species of

Aeschynomene” (Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb.

32: 1-172. 1955). Some of these specimens

are old, representing collections that have

been ascribed to “familiar,” widespread

species without critical examination or that

have spent years in the limbo of “indet”’

folders. Others are types and historical col-

lections that I did not have access to earlier.

Among such specimens I find a few that

I believe to represent new taxa and others

that amplify the concepts of the old. This

paper is essentially a recapitulation of the

Viscidulae series of the genus Aeschynom-

ene, but without repetition of detailed de-

scriptions and explanations of synonymy

given before. Included in this treatment is

the description of one new species and five

new varieties, presentation of a new specific

name for an old variety, and reinstatement

of two old specific names that have been

kept in synonymy for a century or so. Ma-

terial from the Old World is also considered.

A revised key is provided.

For the material on which this study is

based, I am deeply grateful to the curators

of the herbaria cited, for their help in pro-

viding types and other pertinent specimens.

The initials of the herbaria, as cited, are

those of Lanjouw and Stafleu (Index Her-

bariorum, ed. 3. 1956).

This series, named for the earliest de-

scribed species of the group, Aeschynomene

viscidula Michx., includes a few closely re-

lated species of the section Ochopodium

Vog. The plants are disconcertingly similar

in appearance, all prostrate to suberect her-

baceous or suffrutescent perennials arising

from woody roots. The leaves, flowers, and

fruits are relatively small, the leaflets rang-

ing from about 2 to 30 mm long, the flowers

from 5 to 13 mm long, and the articles, or

joints, of the loments from 2 to 5 mm in

diameter. The stipules are attached at the

base, and the calyx is campanulate with five

subequal lobes, or teeth.

In general, characters of the fruit are

the most useful for separating the taxa. The

number of articles can be counted, the

length of the stipe and the dimensions of

the articles can be measured. The kind and

degree of pubescence is distinctive in a few

species. Unfortunately, there is some insta-

bility, especially in certain species, that

casts suspicion on the genetic composition

and presents difficulties in key construction.

Since full descriptions are not included

in this paper, except for new taxa, the fol-

lowing rather detailed key is presented.

KEY TO SPECIES AND VARIETIES

Fruit (1-) 2- or 3- (rarely 4- or 5-) articulate and

short-stipitate, the stipe commonly 1-4 mm

long, scarcely extending beyond the calyx, or,

in a few cases, 5-7 mm long; bracteoles usually

about half as long as the calyx or longer.

Leaves 5-9-foliolate, the leaflets obovate to cu-

neate; articles of fruit (3-) 4-5.5 mm in di-

ameter.

Articles densely white-tomentulose and usually

also beset with glandular hairs, sometimes

the terminal article glabrate, 35-4 mm in

diameter; stipe of fruit 1-3 mm _ long,

mostly contained within the calyx (south-

ern United States to northern and eastern

South America)......... 1. Ae. viscidula

Articles glabrous to moderately appressed-pu-

bescent, (3-) 4-5.5 mm in diameter; stipe

of fruit 2-7 mm long, usually extending

1-4 mm beyond the calyx.

Fruit with articles 4-55 mm in diameter,

glabrous, the stipe 4-7 mm long; brac-

teoles about as long as the calyx (Mex-

1G Olay ae ores act St ie 2. Ae. acapulcensis

Fruit with articles about 3-4 mm in diame-

ter, appressed-pubescent to glabrate, the

stipe 2-7 mm long; bracteoles about

one-half as long as the calyx (South

Africa; Madagascar; Mauritius; Ré-

union; eastern Australia)

3. Ae. brevifolia

Leaves 10-32-foliolate, the leaflets obovate to lin-

ear-oblong, occasionally some leaves with

fewer leaflets; articles of fruit 2-3 (-5) mm in

diameter.

Stipe of fruit 3-7 mm long, commonly hispidu-

lous with hairs about 1 mm long.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Surface of articles crisp-pubescent to subgla-

brous and also best with glandular hairs;

stipe 3-4 (-5) mm long; leaves mostly

10-20-foliolate, the leaflets obovate to ob-

long.

Fruit 2- or 3-articulate, rarely 4-articulate,

the stipe 3-4 mm long; leaves predomi-

nantly 10-14-foliolate, the leaflets obo-

vate or obovate-elliptic.

Flowers 5-8 mm. long; articles of fruit 2.5—-

3 mm long, 2-3 mm wide (widespread

in tropical America)

4a. Ae. brasiliana var. brasiliana

Flowers about 10 mm long; articles of

fruit 4-5 mm long, 3-4 mm wide (Up-

per Orinoco, Venezuela)

4b. Ae. brasiliana var. carichanica

Fruit 4- or 5-articulate, the stipe 4-5 mm

long; leaves 14-20-foliolate, the leaflets

oblong or obovate-oblong (northern

Venezuela)

4c. Ae. brasiliana var. venezolana

Surface of articles crisp-puberulent to glabrate ;

stipe 5-7 mm long; leaves about 20-32-

foliolate, the leaflets elliptic (Minas Ge-

LATS SEAZI) epee eae a 5. Ae. vogelii

Stipe of fruit 15-3 mm long, hispid, the hairs

2-4 mm long, concentrated at base of the

first article; surface of articles glabrous to

moderately pubescent but lacking glandular

hairs.

Articles of fruit 2-2.5 mm in diameter; flowers

4-7 mm long; leaflets entire, oblong-ellip-

tic, rarely somewhat obovate.

Leaflets 4-6 (-8) mm long, 1.5-8 mm wide;

stipules linear-lanceolate, about 1 mm

wide at the base, 4-5 mm long; stems

usually prostrate.

Fruit with articles glabrous to moderately

crisp-puberulent; stems and leaves

moderately pubescent or often gla-

brate (widespread in Central and

South America)

6a. Ae. histrix var. histrix

Fruit with articles appressed-pubescent ;

stems and leaves canescent (Central

and South America; one collection

from Florida)

6b. Ae. histrix var. incana

Leaflets 7-12 mm long, 2-4 mm wide; stip-

ules broadly lanceolate, usually 2-3 mm

wide at the base, 5-15 mm long; stems

suberect (Mexico to South America)

6c. Ae. histrix var. densiflora

Articles of fruit 2.6-3 mm in diameter; flowers

7-9 mm long; leaflets setiferous, ovate or

linear-oblong, or sometimes entire and

linear-oblong.

Leaflets 2-5 mm long, 1-2 mm wide, ovate

to elliptic-oblong, each bearing one or

more yellowish, bulbous-based, glandular

setae (Paraguay; Missiones, Argentina)

6d. Ae. histrix var. multijuga

VoL. 49, No. 2

Leaflets 5-10 mm long, 15-2 mm wide, lin-

ear-oblong, entire of ciliate (Paraguay)

6e. Ae. histrix var. apana

Fruit 4-9-(infrequently fewer) articulate and long-

stipitate, the stipe (4-) 5-15 mm long; brac-

teoles about 1 mm long, or one-third as long

as the calyx.

Articles of fruit 2-25 mm in diameter; stipe

commonly 10-15 mm long; leaves mostly

10-18-foliolate, the leaflets obovate or obo-

vate elliptic (widespread in tropical Amer-

ICL) ee 7a. Ae. elegans var. elegans

Articles of fruit 3-5 mm long, 25-4 mm wide.

Leaves predominantly 9-32-foliolate.

Flowers 5-10 mm long; fruit with articles

3-4 mm long and 3 mm wide.

Leaflets obovate or obovate-elliptic;

leaves 5-14-foliolate; stipe of fruit

(4-) 5-8 mm long.

Fruit with articles 3-4 mm long and 3

mm wide; flowers 8-10 mm long;

leaflets about 10-20 mm long, 5-10

mm wide (Goyaz, Brazil)

7b. Ae. elegans var. robustior

Fruit with articles about 3 mm in diame-

ter; flowers 5-7 mm long; leaflets

3-10 mm long, 24 mm wide

(coastal Brazil; Puerto Rico)

8. Ae. gracilis

Leaflets elliptic or oblong-elliptic, 5-15

mm long, 3-4 mm wide; leaves 16—20-

foliolate; flowers 7-10 mm long; arti-

cles of fruit 3-4 mm long and 3 mm

wide; stipe 7-10 mm long (southeast-

ern Colombia; western Brazil)

9a. Ae. foliolosa

Flowers 10-15 mm long; fruit with articles

about 5 mm long and 4 mm wide; leaf-

lets elliptic or obovate-elliptic, 7-20 mm

long, 5-10 mm wide (Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil) 05. 22 10. Ae. bradei

Leaves 5-8-foliolate.

Leaflets obovate or obovate-elliptic, obtuse,

entire, 3-15 mm long, 2-6 mm wide.

Flowers 7-10 mm long; leaves not more

than 8-foliolate; fruit usually 6—-8-ar-

ticulate, the stipe 6-14 mm long.

Fruit with articles about 3-4 mm long,

2.5-3.5 mm wide; flowers 7-9 mm

long (widespread in tropical South

America)

lla. Ae. faleata var. faleata

Fruit with articles 4-5 mm long and

3-4 mm wide; flowers 8-10 mm long

(Paraguay)

llb. Ae. faleata var. hassleri

Flowers 5-7 mm long; leaves 5-12-folio-

late; fruit (3-) 4-7-articulate, the

stipe (4-) 5-8 mm long (costal Bra-

zil; Puerto Rico)... ... 8. Ae. gracilis

Leaflets elliptic-oblong, acute, 12-30 mm

long, 5-10 mm wide, the margins closely

ciliate; fruit 3- or 4-articulate, the stipe

about 5-7 mm long, the articles about 3

mm in diameter (Minas Gerais, Brazil)

12. Ae. warmingii

FEBRUARY 1959

1. Aeschynomene viscidula Michx. Fl. Bor. Am.

2: 74. 1803, non Roxb. ex Willd. 1809.

Aeschynomene prostrata Poir. in Lam. Encyc.

Suppl. 4: 76. 1816.

Secula viscidula (Michx.) Small, Fl. Miami 90,

200. 1913.

Aeschynomene eriocarpa Standl. & Steyerm.

Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 23: 9. 1948.

This species is easily recognized by its short-

stipitate, densely tomentulose fruits. Even

though geographically widespread, the morpho-

logical characters are generally uniform in all the

material observed. The chief instability appears

to be in the fruit indument; the glandular hairs

may fail to develop, or sometimes the terminal

one or two joints of the loments may be glabrous.

2. Aeschynomene acapulcensis Rose, Contr. US.

Nat. Herb. 5: 191. 1899.

Aeschynomene picachensis Brandeg. Univ. Cal-

ifornia Publ. Bot. 6: 181. 1915.

On the basis of the fruit characters indicated

in the key, this glabrous-fruited Mexican species

has been retained as separate from the pube-

scent-fruited Ae. brevifolia which occurs in the

Old World. It is my strong feeling, however, that

the two taxa might ultimately be proved conspe-

cific. The geographic separation could be explain-

able in terms of early sailing routes and the prac-

tice of transporting animals and fodder, but the

evidence is scanty. Thus far I have seen only

three collections from Mexico and but shghtly

more material from Africa, Madagascar, and the

other known localities for Ae. brevifolia.

Vegetatively, the plants of Ae. acapulcensis

and Ae. brevifolia are virtually indistinguishable.

They may range from glabrous to pubescent,

and there is considerable variation in stipe length

of the fruit, even on individual specimens.

3. Aeschynomene brevifolia L. ex Poir. in Lam.

Encye. 4: 451. 1797.

Hedysarum micranthos Poir. in Lam. Encyc. 6:

446. 1806.

Aeschynomene micrantha (Poir.) DC. Prodr. 2:

321. 1825.

Patagonium racemosum E. Mey. Comm. PI.

Afr. Austr. 1: 123. 1835.

As already indicated in the key and in the

comments under the preceding species, Ae. brev-

ifolia, based on a collection from Madagascar, is

scarcely distinguishable from Ae. acapulcensis

from Mexico. Except for differences in fruit in-

dument, some of the specimens with glabrate

leaflets and fruits, from Madagascar and Ré-

union, for example, are quite similar to material

RUDD: STUDIES IN AEKSCHYNOMENE AT

of the type collection of Ae. acapulcensis. Other

specimens with more glandular development,

such as most from South Africa, vegetatively

resemble the type collection of Ae. picachensis,

which I consider referable to Ae. acapulcensis.

I have seen a sheet from L that I presume to

be an isotype of Patagonium racemosum E. Mey.

collected by Drege in Africa. It is essentially

identical with other collections of Ae. brevifolia

from Africa.

The collections from Australia seem to belong

to this species but approach Ae. gracilis in longer

leaf axis, and Ae. falcata in fruit characters,

having longer stipes and sometimes four or five

articles instead of the customary two or three.

The bracteoles are slightly shorter than average.

Bentham (Fl. Austral. 2: 227. 1864) considered

this material as “quite identical” with Ae. falcata

var. paucijuga from Brazil, and cited Ae. mi-

crantha as a synonym.

There has been a question as to the correct

name for this taxon. Apparently Poiret validated

the Linnaean name Ae. brevifolia, based on a

collection by Commerson in Madagascar, and

then, later, published Hedysarum micranthos

based on material of presumably the same col-

lection. I have not yet learned the circumstances

of Linnaeus’s connection with the Commerson

collection, nor has a sheet been located with

“brevifolia”’ in Poiret’s handwriting.

From P I have seen isotypes of H. micranthos

and a photographic negative of the type. One

sheet with Commerson’s handwriting attests to

the authenticity of the collector’s name and lo-

eality. The type and one of the isotypes have

been annotated by Poiret as Hedysarum mi-

cranthos. On two other sheets, including one

from Desvaux’s herbarium, are the three names,

Hedysarum micranthos, Aeschynomene micran-

tha, and Aeschynomene brevifolia. It would ap-

pear that Desvaux’s interpretation of the three

names as synonymous would be correct and that

the name Ae. brevifolia should have priority.

Unfortunately, the sheet in the Lamarck her-

barium, labeled as the type of Ae. brevifolia,

appears to be incorrect. A fragment of ample

size for determination, lent me from P, is iden-

tical with type material of Hedysarum falcatum,

based on a Commerson collection in Brazil. There

must have been an error in labeling this par-

ticular sheet.

There are additional labels on this putative,

but apparently erroneous, type sheet. Annota-

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tions “du bresil,’ “de Commerson,”’ and “Aes-

chinomene brevifolia. Dict. No. 10” are in

Lamarck’s hand. Desvaux added the names

“hedysarum faleatum Poir. ene. en Desy.” That

Desvaux recognized a confused situation is in-

dicated by other labels, “hedysarum micranthos

Poir. enc. en Desv.” and “Ces deux plantes

etoient sous un seul nom dans cet herbier Aesch.

brevifolia mais j’ai la certitude que la brevifolia

est Phedys. micranthus du meme auteur et que

Vautre qui n’est pas de Madagascar mais du

brésil est ’hedys. faleatum Poiret.”

I am greatly indebted to Dr. Alicia Lourteig

for,doing considerable research for me in locating

the pertinent specimens, transcribing certain

labels, and photographing types that could not

be lent.

4a. Aeschynomene brasiliana (Poir.) DC. var.

brasiliana.

Aeschynomene brasiliana (Poir.) DC. Prodr. 2:

322. 1825.

Cassia biflora Mill. Gard. Dict. ed. 8, no. 14.

1768, non L. 1753.

Hedysarum brasilianum Poir. in Lam. Encycl.

6: 448. 1804.

Cassia houstoniana Collad. Hist. Nat. Med.

Cass. 132. 1816.

Aeschynomene paucijuga DC. Prodr. 2: 321.

1825.

Aeschynomene paucijuga var. subscabra DC.

Prodr 227321) 13825:

Hedysarum hirtum Vell. Fl. Flum. 319. 1825;

eon. 72) talos 1511835:

Aeschynomene brasiliana B Vog. Linnaea 12:

90. 1838.

Aeschynomene biflora (Mill.) Fawe. & Rendle,

Fl. Jam. 4: 27. 1920.

Aeschynomene guaricana Pittier, Bol. Teen.

Minist. Agric. & Cria, Serv. Bot. Caracas 5:

41. 1944, without Latin diagosis.

This widely distributed species is readily iden-

tifiable by the fruit, flower, and leaf characters

given in the key. The material is generally uni-

form, with minor variation in size of vegetative

parts due, probably, to habitat factors. A few

specimens show reduction in fruit indument.

What appear to be more significant variations

are indicated in the following two taxonomic

varieties.

4b. Aeschynomene brasiliana (Poir.) DC. var.

earichanica Rudd, var. noy.

A varietate typica floribus fructibusque ma-

joribus differt.

The plants are more robust and the flowers

and fruits significantly larger than those of the

typical variety, the flowers about 10 mm long,

voL. 49, NO. 2

the articles of the fruit 4-5 mm long and 3-4

mm wide.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no.

2167562, collected on the north end of Cerro

Carichana (Cerro Gavilan), elevation 100-300

m, December 21, 1955, by J. J. Wurdack and

J. V. Monachino (no. 40885). Duplicates at NY

and VEN.

4c. Aeschynomene brasiliana (Poir.) DC. var.

venezolana Rudd, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb.

32: 80. 1955.

This variety, known only from northern Ven-

ezuela, differs from the typical variety in leaf

and fruit characters, the leaves consistently nar-

rower and the fruits with longer stipes and more

numerous articles.

5. Aeschynomene vogelii Rudd, nom. et stat. noy.

Aeschynomene podocarpa var. B Vog. Linnaea

12: 89. 1838.

Aeschynomene falcata var. y multijuga Benth.

in Mart. FI. Bras. 15(1): 68. 1859.

This taxon appears to warrant specific status,

and designation of a new name is necessary. The

epithet vogeli is chosen in honor of Dr. J. R.

Theodor Vogel, the author of many of the taxa

of this series, including the variety on which this

species is based.

In my earlier paper I treated Ae. podocarpa

and its var. 8 as synonymous. Since then I have

had the privilege of examining additional speci-

mens and have concluded that the fragment at

F, labeled as Aeschynomene podocarpa, must be

a portion of the Sellow collection on which var.

8 was based, rather than typical Ae. podocarpa.

The identity of typical Ae. podocarpa is prob-

lematic, but I now believe that it is referable to

Ae. elegans.

Bentham based his Ae. falcata var.y multijuga

on Ae. podocarpa var. 8 and cited two Brazilian

collections. One, the type, is the Sellow collection

from Serra Itambé, Minas Gerais, and is the

basis of my Ae. vogelii. The other, collected by

Weddell “in arenosis maritimis Rio de Janeiro,”

is represented by a sheet at P, annotated in

what appears to be Bentham’s hand, but it

actually is Ae. elegans and is quite unlike the

Sellow collection.

There are two additional collections from

Minas Gerais that seem to belong to this taxon:

Riedel 943, from Serra de Lapa (NY), and

Markgraf, Mello Barreto, & Brade 3455, from

Serra do Grao Mogol (RB; US, fragment). The

‘

FEBRUARY 1959

material is essentially like the specimens of the

Sellow collection except that the leaflets average

a little smaller in size and exhibit more glandular

development, with the margins mostly glandular-

denticulate.

6a. Aeschynomene histrix Poir. var. histrix.

Aeschynomene histrix Poir. in Lam. Encyc.

Suppl. 4: 77. 1816.

2? Aeschynomene cassioides Desv. in Ham.

Prod. Pl. Ind. Occ. 51. 1825.

? Aeschynomene echinus Vog. Linnaea 12: 92.

1838.

Aeschynomene conferta Benth. Ann. Nat. Hist.

3: 433. 1839.

Aeschynomene mucronulata

Journ. Bot. 2: 56. 1840.

Aeschynomene histrix var. mucronulata Benth.

in Mart. Fl. Bras. 15(1): 69. 1859.

Secula hystrix (Poir.) Small, Man. Southeast

Fl. 728. 1933.

Aeschynomene pineticola Standl.

Ceiba. 1: 79. 1950.

This species sensu latior is polymorphic and

fairly widespread in Tropical America. The

principal variations are indicated in the key.

In this paper I am following Bentham who

assigned Ae. echinus to Ae. histrix “ex descr.”

Although I am tentatively placing Ae. echinus

under the typical variety of Ae. histriz, it is

possible that it is the same as Ae. histrix var.

densiflora. The specimens that I previously de-

termined as Ae. echinus are referred in this

paper to two other varieties of Ae. histrix, var.

apana, and var. multijuga.

Presumably Vogel in his examination of the

Sellow specimens from Brazil made few com-

parisons with specimens from beyond that coun-

try’s borders. He must have disregarded Ae.

histrix from French Guiana (Ae. densiflora from

British Guiana was not yet published) and in-

itiated the new species Ae. echinus. In his de-

scription of Ae. echinus he states that the

stipules, racemes, and flowers are as in the pre-

ceding species, which is his Ae. incana, another

variety of Ae. histrix, according to the present

treatment.

Benth. Hook.

& . Wms.

6b. Aeschynomene histrix Poir. var. incana

(Vog.) Benth. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 15(1): 69.

1859 (As Ae. hystrix var. incana).

Aeschynomene puberula DC. Prodr. 2: 321.

1825.

Aeschynomene incana Vog. Linnaea 12: 90.

1838, non G. F. W. Mey. ex DC. 1825, as

synonym.

As indicated in the key, var. incana is very

RUDD: STUDIES IN AESCHYNOMENE 49

similar to the typical variety, differing chiefly

in indument.

6c. Aeschynomene histrix Poir. var. densiflora

(Benth.) Rudd, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 32:

84. 1955.

Aeschynomene densiflora Benth.

Journ. Bot. 2: 56. 1840.

in Hook.

Although there is intergradation between viri-

eties of Ae. histriz, the specimens of var. densi-

flora usually are readily distinguished, especially

from those of the typical variety, by their robust

habit, and larger leaflets and stipules.

6d. Aeschynomene histrix Poir. var. multijuga

(Chod. & Hass.) Rudd, comb. et stat. nov.

Aeschynomene brasiliana (Poir.) DC. forma

multyjuga Chod. & Hass. Bull. Herb. Boiss.

II. 4: 882. 1904.

This taxon, originally published as a form of

Ae. brasiliana, has the principal characteristics,

especially the dolabriform fruit structure, of

Ae. histrix. It differs from typical Ae. histrix in

having slightly larger flowers and fruits, and

leaflets that are mostly denticulate with bulbous-

based glandular setae.

Specimens of the type collection of this vari-

ety indicate a rather luxuriant, suffrutescent

herb, 0.5-1.5 m tall. It was collected by Hassler

(No. 5814) “in campo pr. flumen Carimbatay,”

Paraguay. I have seen isotypes from GH, MO,

and NY.

The three other collections that I am assigning

to this variety are from Missiones, Argentina, as

follows: “On the Parana 26°—27° S. Lat.,” Parodi

100 (K); Loreto, Ekman 1720 (NY); San Ig-

nacio, Burkart 15344 (US). They apparently

are from lower, more compact plants, with

shorter internodes and slightly smaller leaflets.

In the character of the fruits, flowers, and glan-

dular setae, however, they appear to be essen-

tially the same as specimens of the type collec-

tion.

In my earlier paper I interpreted this material

as representing Ae. echinus. While the exact

identity of Ae. echinus is still in doubt, I now

think that it is more likely to be the same as

typical Ae. histrix, or possibly Ae. histriz var.

densiflora. The type locality of Ae. echinus also

is not exactly known but on the basis of what is

known of Sellow’s itinerary, presumably it is

from farther south or east than the above cited

specimens. So far I have seen nothing like var.

multijuga from the range of Sellow’s travels.

5O JOURNAL OF THE

6e. Aeschynomene histrix Poir. var. apana Rudd,

var. NOV.

A varietate typica foliolis elongatis, floribus

fructibusque majoribus differt.

The specimens of this variety, because of the

linear-oblong leaflets, 5-10 mm 1.5-2 mm wide,

have an aspect quite different from others of Ae.

histrix, yet the flowers and fruits are all essen-

tially the same. Occasional leaflets of var. apana

have a few marginal glandular setae such as are

found in var. multijuga.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

1177243, collected near the Rio Apa, at Cen-

turion, Paraguay, December 9, 1908, by K.

Fiebrig (no. 4387). Duplicate at GH. Additional

material is the Hassler collection no. 11021 (F,

GH,NY,US), also from near the Rio Apa, Para-

guay.

7a. Aeschynomene elegans Schl. & Cham. var.

elegans.

Aeschynomene elegans Schl. & Cham. Linnaea

5: 583. 1830.

Aeschynomene tecta Vog. Linnaea 12: 87. 1838.

Aeschynomene falcata Vog. var. plurijuga

Benth. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 15(1): 68. 1859.

Aeschynomene falcata Vog. var. elegans (Schl.

& Cham.) O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. 1: 158. 1891.

Aeschynomene falcata Vog. var. elegans (Schl.

& Cham.) O. Ktze. forma glabrior O. Ktze.

Rey. Gen. 1: 158. 1891.

Aeschynomene arenicola Brandeg. Univ. Cali-

fornia Publ. Bot. 10: 408. 1924.

This species is easily recognized by its slender,

long-stipitate, small-jointed, moniliform fruits.

It is one of the most widespread of the series,

ranging from Mexico to southern Brazil.

Many of the collections annotated and cited

by Bentham as Ae. falcata actually are speci-

mens of Ae. elegans. His Ae. falcata var. plu-

rijuga, based on Ae. tecta and Ae. podocarpa,

certainly must be the same as Ae. elegans. Sellow

specimens from Brazil annotated as Ae. tecta,

presumably isotypes, are Ae. elegans.

The identity of typical Ae. podocarpa still is

in question. I have seen no Sellow specimens

annotated as such or any that I can relate to the

original description.

Previously, on the basis of characters in the

original description and examination of a small

photographic negative of type material, I de-

cided that Ae. gracilis should be placed in syn-

onymy under Ae. elegans. I have now seen iso-

types of Ae. gracilis and conclude that it should

be reinstated as a distinct species.

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 49, NO. 2

7b. Aeschynomene elegans Schl. & Cham. var.

robustior Rudd, var. nov.

A varietate typica foliolis fructibusque ma-

joribus differt.

As characterized in the key, this more robust

variety of Ae. elegans is recognized by its rela-

tively larger leaves with 10-14 leaflets, 10-20

mm long and 5-10 mm wide, and fruit with

larger articles, 3-4 mm long and 3 mm wide. The

fruit stipe is about 5-8 mm long, in contrast to

the 10-15 mm long stipe that is customary in

typical Ae. elegans.

Type in the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew, collected at Brejon, near Santa

Cruz, Goyaz, Brazil, by J. E. Pohl, in 1820.

There are two other sheets at K that appear

to belong to the same collection, labeled no. 1101,

but without collector’s name.

8. Aeschynomene gracilis Vog. Linnaea 12: 89.

1838, non Miq. 1844.

Aeschynomene portoricensis Urb. Symb. Antill.

1: 325. 1899.

After examining isotypes of Ae. gracilis from

Brazil and Ae. portoricensis from Puerto Rico,

it seems appropriate to combine the two species.

Their close similarity was mentioned by Urban

in connection with his publication of Ae. porto-

ricensis. The former species is known only from

the type collection by Sellow in Brazil between

Campos, Rio de Janeiro, and Victoria, in Es-

pirito Santo. The latter species, which has been

frequently collected in Puerto Rico, is somewhat

variable as to leaf size, number of articles per

fruit, and stipe length, but several specimens

are essentially identical with the Sellow collec-

tion from Brazil.

There is some similarity to Ae. falcata in fruit

characters but the stipe of Ae. gracilis is usually

shorter and the loments have fewer, obliquely

semioval joints. The flowers are smaller. The

leaves seem to be intermediate between Ae. ele-

gans and Ae. micrantha.

9. Aeschynomene foliolosa Rudd, Contr. US.

Nat. Herb. 32: 91. 1955.

This is a distinctive species with panicles of

small flowers and slender long-stipitate fruits.

The leaves are relatively long with 16-20 oblong-.

elliptic leaflets.

In the original description only two localities

are cited, both from the outer periphery of the

Amazon Basin. Recently another collection from

a somewhat intermediate area has been recog-

FEBRUARY 1959

nized, Ducke [Herb. No.] 12382 (MG), collected

December 14, 1912, at Campo da Frequezia

Velha, Coary, Brazil.

10. Aeschynomene bradei Rudd, sp. nov. Fig. 1

Suffrutex diffusus, ad sectionem Ochopodium

pertinet, foliis 3-5 em longis, 9-16-foliolatis, fo-

liolis ellipticis, adpresse pubescentibus; Ae. ele-

gans var. robustior affinis sed imprimis floribus

fructibusque majoribus differt.

Stems suffrutescent, rusty-tomentose when

young, somewhat glandular-hispidulous, glabres-

cent; stipules lanceolate or lanceolate-ovate,

about 5-8 mm long, attenuate, 1-2 mm broad

at the base, pubescent like the stem; leaves

about 3-5 em long, 9-16-foliolate; leaflets el-

liptic or obovate-elliptic, 7-20 mm long, 5-10

mm broad, obtuse, mucronulate, entire, moder-

ately appressed-pubscent on both surfaces, the

hairs colorless or sometimes rusty; inflorescences

axillary, racemose, slightly longer than the sub-

tending leaves; bracts deltoid-ovate, about 1

mm in diameter, pubescent, the bracteoles ovate,

about 2 mm long and 1 mm wide; flowers

yellow, 10-15 mm long; calyx 3-5 mm long

campanulate with 5 subequal lobes about 2 mm

long, ciliate, subglabrous to glandular-hispidu-

lous; standard 10-15 mm long, the claw 2-5 mm

long, the blade suborbicular, 8-10 mm in di-

ameter, pubescent on the outer face; wings and

keel slightly shorter than the standard, the wing

blades oblique, 4-5 mm broad, the keel blades

about 2 mm broad, bent at about a 90° angle;

stamens 8-12 mm long, monadelphous, the fila-

ments united from base to midlength, the sheath

open on the carinal side; ovary 5-ovulate, pu-

bescent; fruit 2—-5-articulate, the stipe subgla-

brous, 7-10 mm long, the articles crisp-pubes-

cent, about 5 mm long and 4 mm wide; seed

brownish black, sublustrous, 3 mm long, 2 mm

broad, and compressed to 1 mm or less in thick-

ness.

Type in the herbarium of the Jardim Botanico

do Rio de Janeiro, no. 28707, collected at Pedra

Dubois, Santa Maria Madalena, Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil, altitude 1,100 m. February 27, 1935, by

Santos Lima and A. C. Brade (no. 14220). Frag-

ment and photograph at US.

Only one other specimen is known, a unicate

at RB, collected at Pedra das Flores, Santa

Maria Madalena, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, altitude

1,200 m, March 4, 1934, by Santos Lima and A.

C. Brade (no. 13273). Fragment at US

RUDD: STUDIES IN AESCHYNOMENE Syl

Fic. 1—Aeschynomene bradei: a, Portion of

stem with leaf, immature flower, and fruit (nat.

size); b, standard; c, wing; d, keel; e, calyx and

stamen filaments; f, one article of fruit, open,

showing seed. (b-f, <2.)

This species, represented by the two collec-

tions cited above, is readily referable to series

Viscidulae of section Ochopodium. In general

structure it resembles such related species as

Aeschynomene falcata, Ae. elegans, Ae. vogelii,

and Ae. foliolosa. In aspect it is rather distinc-

tive due to more robust, woody growth, larger

flowers and fruits. The critical characters are in-

dicated in the key.

lla. Aeschynomene falcata (Poir.) DC. var. fal-

cata.

Aeschynomene falcata (Poir.) DC. Prodr. 2:

322. 1825.

Hedysarum falcatum Poir. in Lam. Encye.

Meth. Bot. 6: 448. 1804.

Hedysarum diffusum Vell. Fl. Flum. Text 320.

S25 eltconbie plese sao:

Aeschynomene falcata (Poir.) DC. var. pauci-

juga Benth. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 15(1): 67.

1859.

Aeschynomene apoloana Rusby, Bull. New

York Bot. Gard. 6: 511. 1910.

An isotype and a photographic negative of

the type of Hedysarum falcatum Poir., on which

Ae. falcata is based, have recently been sent to

me from Paris. This authentic material, in the

Jussieu Herbarium, was collected by Commerson

in Brazil. It has characteristic faleate fruit and

5-8-foliolate leaves, and confirms our concept of

the species.

As explained under Ae. brevifolia, material

from a sheet in the Lamarck Herbarium and

labeled as the type of Aeschynomene brevifolia

L. ex Poiret, appears to be identical with the

type material of H. falcatwm. According to the

description, Ae. brevifolia was collected by Com-

merson in Madagascar. There must have been

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

an error in labeling the collection, however, as

this specimen does not fit the description of

Ae. brevifolia, and must really be a duplicate of

Commerson’s Brazilian collection of Hedysarum

falcatum.

1lb. Aeschynomene falcata (Poir.) DC. var. hass-

leri Rudd, var. noy.

A varietate typica foliolis fructibus floribusque

majoribus differt.

In comparison with material of typical Ae.

falcata, the specimens of this variety are out-

standing in appearance due to more vigorous

growth, especially their larger flowers, fruits,

and leaves. The differences apparently are in

degree rather than structural pattern.

This is another example of specimens from

VoL. 49, No. 2

Paraguay being significantly more robust and

with larger organs than their closest relatives.

Type in the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew, collected in a thicket near Con-

cepcion, Paraguay, September 1901, by E. Hass-

ler (no. 7461). Isotype at NY.

There is an additional sheet at K, also col-

lected by Hassler (no. 10977), “In altaplanitie,

Sierra de Amambay,” Paraguay, 1913.

12. Aeschynomene warmingii Micheli, Vid. Medd.

Nat. Foren. Kj¢gbenhayn 68. 1875.

As indicated in the key, this species from

Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, is distinctive

with its fairly large, 5-7-foliolate leaves. Un-

fortunately, it is known only from the type

collection.

INSECTS AS FLYERS

Insects are the most efficient flying animals.

They surpass both birds and bats. They are

superior in some ways to any “flying machine”

yet invented by man. The air was their exclusive

domain for at least 100 million years before any

rival winged creatures appeared. During this

time they developed two flight systems, direct

and indirect, which are in use today, although

the former is confined to a few groups such as

the dragonflies.

This is the claim of Dr. R. E. Snodgrass, re-

search associate of the Smithsonian Institution,

in a report on arthropod evolution recently pub-

lished by the Institution. The earliest known in-

sects, with highly developed jumping mecha-

nisms, were wingless. There are some wingless

forms today. But, Dr. Snodgrass points out, the

earliest known winged insects in the fossil record

had the flying mechanism fully developed so that

its evolutionary development largely is a matter

of conjecture.

The first step, as deduced by Dr. Snodgrass,

was the emergence from the sea of some long

extinct many-footed wormlike creature. The feet

were fleshy lobes by means of which it had

moved clumsily along the sea bottom. A first

evolutionary step was the elimination of these

lobes on all but the first three segments of the

body behind the head. These gradually evolved

into legs.

The earliest insects, Dr. Snodgrass says, to

come on land presumably were provided with

so-called “paranotal lobes,’ small appendages

attached to the back in the region of the thorax.

These are not hypothetical structures which

since have disappeared, he says, since there are

traces of them in various modern insects and in

others; during the nymph stage, wings first ap-

pear as lobelike extensions from the back.

“Presumably,’ says Dr. Snodgrass, “when

these paranotal lobes became sufficiently large

in the primitive insects they first served as

gliders. If the at first rigid lobes became flexible

at their bases they could then, by action of the

thoracic muscles, be flapped up and down, thus

enabling the gliding insect to sustain itself longer

in the air. Even this simple wing movement,

however, involved modifications of the thoracic

skeleton and some degree of adaptation in the

musculature.”

Eventually, he points out, the back muscles

became differentiated to the poimt where they

could move the wings without the help of any

wing muscles per se. This is the “indirect” sys-

tem of most insects.

Development of wings was evidently a re-

sponse to demand. The first winged insects ap-

pear very shortly after the appearance of the

first tall plants in the primeval swamps.

FEBRUARY 1959

The direct up-and-down movement, with vari-

ous modifications, continues in the “direct flight”’

system, best exemplified by the dragonflies.

During the long period of their undisputed

domain of the air both systems developed. Then

came the birds and bats to dispute their aerial

INSECTS AS

FLYERS 5S

supremacy. They fed chiefly on insects whose

only defense was the development of greater

speed and flying accuracy.

As a result the less efficient systems tended to

become eliminated and the present methods of

insect flight better developed.

NEWS OF MEMBERS

Dr. Bernard Frank is the new forestry officer, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun,

Uttar Pradesh, India.

Mr. Thomas G. Digges has been honored with the first annual George Kimball Burgess

Memorial Award of the Washington Chapter of the American Society for Metals.

Mr. Conrad V. Morton, curator of the division of ferns, U. S. National Museum, Smith-

sonian Institution, is one of two American botanists who have been awarded honorary life

memberships in the American Gesneria Society for their important contributions to the

world’s knowledge of the plant family Gesneriaceae, which includes the African violet and

gloxinia.

To understand Nature we must first study man thoroughly, because there 1s nothing

in the universe which is not to some degree hidden in man’s nature. Man is verily a

universe in miniature —PLINY THE ELDER.

D4 JOURNAL OF THE

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 49, NO. 2

ZOOLOGY .— A review of the gorgonacean genus Placogorgia Studer, with a descrip-

tion of Placogorgia tribuloides, a@ new species from the Straits of Florida.

FREDERICK M. Baysr, U.S. National Museum.

(Received December 5, 1958)

The extensive dredging operations of the

U.S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross

brought to hght a great many zoological

novelties, not a few of which are still await-

ing description. Among these is a new gor-

gonian coral of the genus Placogorgia, which

is now described and figured.

The genus Placogorgia as presently con-

stituted contains four species in the At-

lantic Ocean. All are characterized by calic-

ular thorn-scales with a rather broad,

branched, basal root and a stout, more or

less laciniated but usually blunt spine, which

projects above the surface of the calicles,

giving them a thorny appearance. Although

the thorn-scales of the four species are

not identical, they are so similar that only

exhaustive descriptions could point out the

differences between them, and the species

are distinguished mainly upon differences in

the size and ornamentation of the cortical

spindles.

The new species of Placogorgia that is the

subject of this paper differs rather strikingly

from the four previously known Atlantic

species in the huge size of its calicular

thorn-seales, which, moreover, have a quite

acute spine and therefore bear a strong re-

semblance to the thorn-seales of Para-

muricea. In this study, it has been necessary

to reexamine all the Atlantic species of

Placogorgia and to reappraise their position

in respect to Paramuricea and related

genera with calicular thorn-scales.

Genus Placogorgia Studer

Placogorgia Studer, 1887, Arch. Naturg. 53(1): 56.

[No species described.]

Placogorgia Wright and Studer, 1889, Challenger

Zool. 31 (part 64): 113. (Type species, Placo-

gorgia atlantica Wright and Studer, fixed by

subsequent monotypy.)

Placogorgia Nutting 1910, Siboga Exped.

Monogr. 13b: 76. [= Discogorgia Kikenthal.]

Placogorgia Nutting, 1912, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.

43: 83.

Pseudothesea Kiikenthal, 1919, Ergebn. deutschen

not

Tiefsee-Exped. 13(2): 843. (Type species,

Thesea placoderma Nutting, by original desig-

nation.)

As described, Placogorgia is difficult to sepa-

rate from Paramuricea and Echinomuricea. Most

of the species of Placogorgia, including some

from the Indo-Pacific assigned to Thesea by

Nutting (= Pseudothesea Kikenthal), have

large, rude spindles that often become platelike,

with strong external spines, and small, rather

blunt calicular thorn-scales. Paramuricea has

large, sharp thorn-scales (sometimes with the

basal part much reduced), and small spindles

usually without external spines—rarely flat

scales with a central projecting process or boss.

Unfortunately, the type species of Placogorgia

has small cortical spindles with little or no indi-

cation of external spines, and rather sharp, but

small, calicular thorn-scales (both characters like

Paramuricea); and Paracuricea multispina

Deichmann has cortical plates with a projecting

process, and blunt calicular thorn-seales (char-

acters approaching Placogorgia). Except for E.

atlantica, Echinomuricea has stellate thorn-

scales with a smooth or nearly smooth spine; its

distribution is primarily Indo-Pacific. I] am in-

clined to think that the Echinomuricea atlantica

described and figured by Thomson (1927, p. 40,

pl. 4, fig. 3) is actually Johnson’s Acanthogorgia

grayt (Johnson 1862, p. 195) rather than at-

lantica—compare the spicules!—and that it be-

longs to Placogorgia and not to Echinomuricea

or Paramuricea. Its calicular thorn-scales and

cortical plates are similar to those of the new

Placogorgia described herein, but Thomson gives

no measurements and the magnification of his

figures is not indicated, so its identity remains

uncertain. Ktikenthal (1924, pp. 225-226) sug-

gested that both atlantica and grayi are refer-

able to Paramuricea. This disposition is contra-

indicated in the case of gray: (Thomson’s

atlantica) by the large plates with several pro-

jecting spines, but could be valid for the true

atlantica. There seem to be no species in the

Atlantic Ocean that can be assigned to the genus

FEBRUARY 1959

Echinomuricea as defined by most authors, which

is characterized by calicular thorn-scales of a

particularly distinct type.

Nutting (1910) described a number of East

Indian species under the generic name Placo-

gorgia, but most of them have been referred to

other genera, notably Discogorgia (Kiukenthal

1924, p. 212). He also described some muriceids

with calicular thorn-scales and large, spinose

cortical spindles and plates, which he placed in

Thesea. Since they had nothing to do with the

original Thesea of Duchassaing and Michelotti,

Kiikenthal in 1919 established for them the genus

Pseudothesea, with Thesea placoderma Nutting

as its type species. The character of its calicular

thorn-scales leaves no doubt that T. placoderma

is congeneric with Placogorgia atlantica Wright

and Studer, and its cortical plates are not unlike

those of Placogorgia rudis Deichmann. Most,

perhaps all, of the other species described by

Nutting in his monograph of the S:boga Muri-

ceidae belong to other genera. Thesea sanguinea

and T. simplex, of which I have seen type mate-

rial, are referable because of their thorn-scales

(which are of the “leaf-club” type) to Echino-

gorgia, a genus which perhaps should be ranked

among the Plexauridae (Bayer, 1958, pp. 43, 48).

The paramuriceid species characterized by

thorn-seales in the calicle are a closely inter-

related complex, within which the generic dis-

tinctions—if such exist—must be drawn upon

highly arbitrary grounds, at least until detailed

studies can be made upon all pertinent type

specimens. Until adequate studies can be under-

taken there is no alternative but to recognize at

least the most distinct of the genera that have

been established. These genera are based mostly

upon the form of the calicular thorn-scales. The

thorn-seales of some genera, such as Villogorgia,

Trachymuricea, and Echinogorgia (which pos-

sibly belongs in quite another family), are very

distinctive, whereas those of other genera are

only modifications of a simple, basic type, be-

tween which it is almost impossible to draw hard

and fast boundaries.

The accompanying chart (Fig. 1) shows the

major types and varieties of calicular thorn-

scales (A-G) and cortical sclerites (H-N) found

in the genera of Paramuriceidae sensu lato. (Ex-

cluded are Bebryce and Acanthacis, which are so

distinctive that they need not enter into the

present discussion.) The combinations of these

BAYER: REVIEW OF PLACOGORGIA STUDER 979)

types that occur in the various genera are indi-

cated by the numbered connecting lines.

CALICULAR THORN-SCALES

A. The Menella-type (genus Menella Gray:

Kukenthal, 1924, p. 184)—A single smooth,

tapered spine rises from a root-part consisting

of irregularly diverging branches. So far as I

can tell from the literature, this type is always

associated with cortical spindles that may pro-

duce strong external spines (J). I have seen only

Menella rubescens Nutting, whose thorn-scales

are illustrated (A); final definition of the genus

will depend upon a reexamination of the type

species, MW. indica Gray, the holotype of which

must be in the British Museum of Natural

History.

B. The Echinomuricea-type (genus Echino-

muricea Verrill: Kukenthal, 1924, p. 185) —A

single smooth, tapered spine originates abruptly

from a root-part consisting of four or five widely

diverging branches, the whole producing a stel-

late body. These are usually, if not always, com-

bined with simple, symmetrically sculptured

spindles in the cortex (K). Similar thorn-scales,

but with shorter projecting spine, are found in

the genus Hubrandella, established by Deich-

mann (1936, p. 128) to replace Verrill’s Lisso-

gorgia, which was based on a single specimen

said to have come from Florida; nothing like it

has ever again been found in Florida, suggesting

that it may have originated elsewhere—most

likely in the Indo-Pacific. It resembles some of

the species of Echinomuricea from that region.

C. The Paramuricea-type (genera Paramuri-

cea Kolliker and Placogorgia Studer: Deich-

mann, 1936, pp. 134, 141) —Large thornscales

with a stout, acute, more or less aculeate spike

arising from a complicated, branched or lobed

basal root. In combination with very large spin-

dles and plates with (1) or without (H) spines,

it is found in Placogorgia japonica (6) and P.

tribuloides (3) ; with smaller spindles, sometimes

knee-bent, it occurs in Paramuricea placomus

(aN

D. The Villogorgia-type (genus Villogorgia

Duchassaing and Michelotti, including Acampto-

gorgia Wright and Studer, Brandella Gray, Para-

camptogorgia Kiukenthal, and Perisceles Studer,

all synonyms: Aurivillius, 1931, p. 204) —A

projecting part that consists of a cluster of

fingerlike processes, or thin radiating folia, arises

vou. 49, No. 2

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fic. 1.—(See opposite page for legend).

FEBRUARY 1959 BAYER: REVIEW

from a widely diverging pair of flattened roots

curved to fit the calicular walls. The various

modifications that prompted the establishment

of several genera were shown by Aurivillus

(1931) to represent but a single type of spicule.

Always associated with small 4-armed bodies

having a pyramidal or winged central process

(M, middle figure), sometimes with two arms

suppressed to form a spindle with a median pro-

jection (M, top and bottom figures).

E. The Placogorgia-type (genera Placogorgia

Studer and Paramuricea Kolliker: Deichmann,

1936, pp. 134, 141) —Similar to the Paramuri-

cea-type but usually the root is more strongly

developed laterally and somewhat curved to fit

the calicular wall, and the spine is thick, com-

paratively blunt, and conspicuously serrated or

laciniated. Usually smaller than the typical

thorn-scales of Paramuricea (C, upper figure)

but occasionally surpass them in size, in which

cases the root is more complicated and its

branches coalesce more or less completely. In

Placogorgia they are found in combination with

simple spindles both small (K) and excessively

large (H), large and small unilaterally spinose

spindles (1, J, and L, lower figure), and margin-

ally lobate scales (N, lower figure). Some spe-

cies of Paramuricea have Placogorgia-type thorn-

scales combined with lobated scales (N, the two

npper figures), indicating that some generic

allocation may be necessary.

F. The Trachymuricea-type (genus Trachy-

muricea Deichmann, 1936, p. 182) —The lacini-

ated spine projects obliquely from a root that

is only a simple spindle. Always in combination

with small spindles having a conical external

process (L, upper two figures) much like some of

the cortical sclerites of Villogorgia. Only two

species known at present, both of them further

dis‘inguished from species of Paramuricea and

Villogorgia by a very high collaret.

G. The Echinogorgia-type (genera Hchino-

OF PLACOGORGIA STUDER 7

gorgia Kolhiker, Plexauroides Wright and Studer,

and Paraplexaura Kikenthal: Ktkenthal, 1924,

pp. 124, 130, 198) —A simple, stellate type of

thorn-scale in which the projecting spine is

greatly expanded into a thin leaf as in Hchino-

gorgia and Plexauroides (three stages of modifi-

cation are shown in G, bottom to top) and some-

times much thickened as in Paraplexaura. Since

it is possible to trace the development of the

folate thorn-scales found in Plexauroides and

some species of Hchinogorgia, and the massive

thorn-scales of Paraplexaura from the simple,

stellate type of some Echinogorgias, it seems ob-

vious that these genera are inseparable. The

thorn-scales may be the predominant type of

sclerite, or they may be combined with simple

or unilaterally developed spindles (I and K).

The generic distinctions are somewhat vague

and dependent largely upon the development of

the anthocodial armature, which is said to rele-

gate Hchinogorgia to the Paramuriceidae, and

Plexauroides and Paraplexaura to the Plexauri-

dae. Inasmuch as the anthocodial spiculation

may be reduced in those species of Hchinogorgia

that have a thick rind into which the polyps

retract fully, just as it is in the species of

Plexauroides and other plexaurids that have

thick rinds, it is a character of no value at the

generic and familial levels. At this time it re-

mains a moot point whether all of these species

should be transferred to one family or the other;

it is certainly improbable that they will continue

to span two families.

CORTICAL SCLERITES

The basic type of cortical spicule is the simple

spindle (K), which may grow excessively large

(H), and by flattening and expansion of the

margins develop into thick plates or thin scales

(N). Simple spindles usually occur even in those

species that have characteristically modified

cortical sclerites, although in certain species they

Fic. 1.—Types of calicular thornscales (A-G) and cortical sclerites (H-N), and their various com-

binations (1-14): A, Calicular thorn-seales of Menella rubescens; B, of Echinomuricea indomalaccensis;

C, of Placogorgia tribuloides (left) and Paramuricea placomus (right); D, of Villogorgia zimmermani

(above) and V. nigrescens (below); E, of Placogorgia tenuis (above) and P. atlantica (below); F, of

Trachymuricea hirta; G, of Echinogorgia flerilis (top and middle) and E. pseudosassapo (bottom); H,

cortical sclerite of Placogorgia mirabilis; I, of Placogorgia tribuloides; J, of Placogorgia rudis (above)

and Thesea flezilis (below); K, of Paramuricea placomus (above) and Placogorgia atlantica (below); L,

of Trachymuricea kiikenthali (top and middle) and Placogorgia tenuis (bottom); M, of Villogorgia zim-

mermani (top and middle) and V. nigrescens (bottom); N, of Paramuricea grandis (top), P. echinata

(middle), and Placogorgia dendritica (bottom). 1, spicular combination found in the genus Menella; 2,

in Echinomuricea; 3, in Placogorgia (some species); 4, in Placogorgia (some species); 5, in Placogorgia

(some species); 6, in T’rachymuricea; 7,in Placogorgia (some species); 8, in Placogorgia and Paramuricea

(some species); 9, in Placogorgia (some species); 10, in Placogorgia (some species); 11, in Echinogorgia;

12, in Echinogorgia; 13, in Villogorgia; 14, in Paramuricea and some species of Placogorgia.

58 JOURNAL OF THE

may be largely suppressed by the thorn-scales

of the ealicular region, which then dominate

throughout the rind (Lchinomuricea and Echino-

gorgia). A common sculptural modification found

in several genera and species is the unilaterally

spinose spindle (J, L) which may become very

large (1).

It may be useful to summarize the types of

thorn-seales in the form of a dichotomous key

to serve as a guide to the holaxonian genera

having these peculiarly modified sclerites. As

in the discussion above, Bebryce is not included

because its superficial layer of rosettes and deeper

layer of stellate plates render it absolutely un-

mistakable.

1. Cortex consisting of a single layer of spicules in

the form of large, flattened spindles or plates.

Thorn-seales around calicular aperture with

a stout, rough, sometimes branched spine -

arising from a rather small, tuberculate base

Genus AcanTHacis Deichmann

Cortex consisting of an outer layer of spicules,

large or small, and a more or less complete

mner layer of smaller spicules surrounding

GIVE RATS Fei RS ee ee re eh Ure SR ee 2

2. Calicular thorn-scales noticeably broader than

high, the root-part developed mostly at right

angles to axis of calicle, with two main, spread-

ing branches curved to fit the calicular wall;

projecting portion consisting of several radi-

ating folia or a laciniated, digitate process

(Fig. 1, D). Cortex containing 4-armed bodies

with a pyramidal, sometimes foliate central

process; sometimes modified into simple spin-

dles with median process (Fig. 1, M)

Genus ViLtLocorciA Duchassaing and Michelotti

Calicular thorn-scales typically higher than

wide, not with two main diverging roots

curved! tomit- the calicular walls! a. s2-—9" 3

3. Calicular thorn-scales are spindles with an ob-

liquely set, more or less laciniated, pyramidal

process near the distal end (Fig. 1, F)

Genus TracHyMurRIceEA Deichmann

Calicular thorn-scales with a flattened, branched,

lobed tor Ssplatelike. basess- "2 =. ee: 4

4. Projecting portion of the calicular thorn-scales

Isausually, aasIMeleySpINere 246 a4 ee eee 5

Projecting portion of the thorn-scales is a folate

expansion sometimes lobed or cleft into broad

fingers (Fig. 1, G), sometimes thickened into

a massive head..Genus Ecurnocorota Kolliker

5. Projecting spine of the calicular thorn-scales is

a smooth or nearly smooth, tapered spike. ..6

Projecting spine of the thorn-scales is an echinu-

late or laciniate digitate process........... 7

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES VOL. 49, NO. 2

6. Projecting spike of calicular thorn-scales gradu-

ally merging into root portion, which consists

of several irregularly divided branches (Fig. 1,

AO eee ee eae er Genus MENELLA Gray

Projecting spike of thorn-scales abruptly set off

from the root portion, which consists of four

or five widely diverging, slender branches

Chige lB) e. Genus Ecurnomuricea Verrill

7. Root portion of the calicular thorn-scales con-

sists of several tuberculate lobes more or less

completely fused together; projecting spine

echinulate or strongly laciniate (Fig. 1, E).

Cortical plates and spindles often with one or

more strong spines. .Genus PLAcocorciA Studer

Root portion of the thorn-scales consists of sev-

eral diverging branches not extensively fused

together; projecting spine echinulate (Fig. 1,

C, right hand figure). Cortical spindles usually

without spinous projections

Genus ParaMurRIceA Kolliker

PLACOGORGIA TRIBULOIDES, n. sp.

Figs. 2-9; 15

Diagnosis —Calicular thorn-scales nearly 2

mm in length, projecting spine about 1 mm. Cor-

tical spindles large (1.5 mm-+), flattened, espe-

cially near branch tips, with several stout pro-

jecting spines. A single pair of large bent spindles

and some small accessory rods in each opercular

sector; collaret with 3-6 rows of transverse

spindles. Branching dichotomous.

Description —The type is a small, nearly com-

plete colony measuring 5 cm from base to tip of

the tallest branch. Ramification is in one plane

and dichotomous; the main stem _ bifurcates

within 5 mm of the base and both branches

again bifureate at about 10 mm from the first

division. Further dichotomies are asymmetrical,

since not all the branches subdivide. The trunk

has a diameter of 2.6 mm, the major branches

1.5 mm (exclusive of calicles), and the terminal

twigs about 1.0 mm (excluding calicles). Most of

the calicles are inclined toward one face of the

colony (the “front’’), and are closely set, their

bases almost touching one another. The calicles

are low cylinders filled with very stout, acute,

imbricating thorn-scales (Fig. 2). The antho-

codiae are armed with a prominent, conical oper-

culum consisting of a ringlike collaret usually

3-5 spicules in height, surmounted by eight

points each made up of one pair of large, bent

spindles of subequal size, and some small ac-

cessory rods.

The coenenchyme has a dense outer layer of

glassy, irregularly tuberculate spindles, the larg-

Frpruary 1959 BAYER: REVIEW

est of which bear one to several strong, sharp,

projecting spikes. Toward the branch tips some

of these become broad and platelike, with sev-

eral spines, closely resembling the sclerites of

certain species of Paracis. Between and beneath

the large outer sclerites there are small, irregu-

lar spindles that form a discontinuous inner

layer.

Spicules—(a) Cortex: roughly tuberculate,

coarse spindles with one or several outward pro-

jecting, finely echinate processes (Fig. 3). Near

the calicles these sclerites increase in size, reach-

ing a length of 1.5 mm or longer, and bearing

OF PLACOGORGIA STUDER 59

several stout processes some of which may be

marginal (Fig. 4). Toward the branch tips, the

large deposits may become quite broad and

platelike, after the manner of Paracis. Lying be-

tween and beneath the large deposits are numer-

ous smaller spindles, more or less flattened and

with irregular edges (Fig. 5), forming a discon-

tinuous axial sheath.

(b) Calicles: large thorn-seales with a stout,

sharp, echinulate spine arising from the distal

margin (Fig. 6). The broad, tuberculate basal

part of the scale may have a width of 0.8 mm,

and the spine may exceed a length of 1 mm.

Figs. 2-9.—Placogorgia tribuloides, n. sp.: 2, Side view of calicle with operculum; 3-4, cortical

sclerites; 5, spindles of axial sheath; 6, calicular thorn-scale; 7, spindles of collaret and 8, of points; 9,

spicules from the tentacles. All spicules enlarged to scale shown beneath Fig. 4.

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Their appearance in situ on the calicles is shown

in Higs2:

transverse rows of curved spindles, in smaller

polyps as few as 3 rows, in larger individuals as

many as 5 or ozcasionally 6 rows. In polyps of

average size they have a length of 0.5 mm (Fig.

“UU GO

OA So,

Sere Res

VOL. 49, No. 2

7). Surmounting the collaret, the eight opercu-

lar points contain one pair of large, bent spin-

dles about 0.5 mm long (Fig. 8) and another

pair or two of smaller but similar accessory rods.

The appearance of the closed operculum, partly

retracted within the calicle, is shown also in Fig.

2. The tentacles contain the small, flat, bent rod-

ral

Par N +

MEE a

Fies. 10-15.—Spicules of Placogorgia: P. mirabilis (10a, ealicular thorn-seale; 10b, cortical spindle) ;

P. atlantica (lla, calicular thorn-scale; 11b, cortical spindle); P. tenuzs (12a, crutch-shaped rod from

opercular sector; 12b, calicular thorn-scale; 12c, cortical sclerite); P. rudis (13a, calicular thorn-seale;

13b, cortical sclerite); P. placoderma (14a, cortical sclerite; 14b, calicular thorn-scales); P. trzbuloides

(15a, cortical sclerite; 15b, calicular thorn-scale).

FEBRUARY 1959

lets with laciniated edge that are characteristic

of paramuriceid genera (Fig. 9).

Color —White, the light brown axis showing

through the translucent spicules.

Holotype—US.N.M. no. 10204. Straits of

Miowoa on Havana, Cuba: 23° 10’ 39” N.,

82° 20’ 21” W., 204 fathoms, January 19, 1885;

collected by tangles. Albatross station 2335.

Remarks—Four other species of Placogorgia

are known to occur in the Atlantic: Placogorgia

atlantica Wright and Studer, P. mirabilis Deich-

mann, P. rudis Deichmann, and P. tenuis (Ver-

rill). Placogorgia tribuloides differs from all these

species in the large size of its thorn-scales, which

approach the type found in Paramuricea. That

genus, however, lacks the large cortical spindles

or plates with serried processes. P. tribuloides

further differs from P. mirabilis in the absence of

excessively large (4 mm) spindles in the cortex;

from P. rudis, which has similar cortical spindles,

by its large and sharp thorn-scales; and from

P. tenuis by the frequent development of sev-

eral spies on the cortical spindles and the lack

of the single large, crutch-shaped rod in the

opercular segments. These differences may be

set forth in the form of a dichotomous key:

1. Cortex contains large spindles up to 4 mm in

length, clearly visible to the unaided eye

(Fig. 10b). Anastomosis of branches frequent

Placogorgia mirabilis Deichmann

Largest spindles of cortex less than 2 mm in

length. Anastomosis of branches infrequent

SY BESET. 0 4 ot re een 2

2. Operculum usually with a single large, crutch-

shaped rod (Fig. 12a) in each sector. Cortical

spindles up to approximately 0.6 mm in length,

usually with only one projecting process (Fig.

12c), sometimes none

Placogorgia tenuis (Verrill)

Operculum with at least two large, bent spin-

dles in each sector, not a single crutch-

SiZDEC) (GG). so a a 3

3. Cortical spindles small, usually not exceeding

a length of 0.5 mm, without a row of promi-

nent external spines (Fig. 11b). Thorn-scales

0.5 mm long, spine 0.38 mm, sharp and aculeate

(Fig. 11a)

Placogorgia atlantica Wright and Studer

BAYER: REVIEW OF PLACOGORGIA STUDER 61

Cortical spindles larger, up to 1.5 mm in length,

many of them with a row of spines (Figs. 138b,

15a)

4. Calicular thorn-scales large, 1.7 mm _ over-all,

with a strong, sharp spine as much as 1 mm in

length (Fig. 15b)

Placogorgia tribuloides, n. sp.

Calicular thorn-scales smaller, usually not more

than 0.5 mm over-all, spine stout, mostly blunt

or moderately sharp (Fig. 18a), commonly

0.2-0.25 mm long and rarely up to 04 mm,

often with several prominent terminal sub-

GINAISIOINS). on one Placogorgia vudis Deichmann

REFERENCES

AvrRIvILLIus, Macnus. The gorgonarians from Dr.

Sixten Bock’s expedition to Japan and Bonin

Islands 1914. Kungl. Svenska Vet.-Akad.

Handl. (3)9(4): 337 pp., 65 figs., 6 pls. 1931.

Bayer, Freperick M. Les octocoralliaires plex-

aurides des cdtes occidentales d’ Amérique.

Mém. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat., Paris, nouv. sér.

(A)16(2): 41-56, 6 pls. 1958.

DEICHMANN, EisaBeTH. The Alcyonaria of the

western part of the Atlantic Ocean. Mem. Mus.

Comp. Zool. 53: 317 pp., 37 pls. 1936.

JOHNSON, JAMES YATE. Descriptions of some new

corals from Madeira. Proc. Zool. Soc. London

1862: 194-197, 14 figs. 1862.

KUKENTHAL, WILLY. Gorgonaria. Wiss. Ergebn.

deutschen Tiefsee Exped. 13(2): 946 pp., 318

figs., pls. 30-89. 1919.

Gorgonaria. Das Tierreich 47: xxvii +

478 pp., 209 figs. Berlin, 1924.

Nvuttine, CHARLES CLEVELAND. The Gorgonacea of

the Siboga Expedition. III. The Muriceidae.

Siboga-Exped. Monogr. 13°: 108 pp., 22 pls.

1910.

Descriptions of the Alcyonaria collected

by the US. Fisheries steamer “Albatross,”

mainly in Japanese waters, during 1906. Proc.

US. Nat. Mus. 43: 1-104, pls. 1-21. 1912.

StupER, THEOPHILE. Versuch eines Systemes der

Alcyonaria. Arch. Naturg. 53 Jahrg. (1): 1-74,

folio dl, Iessyi

TuHomson, J. ArtHUR. Alcyonaires provenant des

campagnes scientifiques Prince Albert I°" de

Monaco. Rés. Camp. Scient. Albert I°* Monaco

1a he Pps Oo pls. 1927.

WricHtT, EpwarD PERCEVAL, and STUDER, THEOPHILE.

Report on the Alcyonaria collected by H.MS.

Challenger during the years 1873-1876. Repts.

Voy. Challenger, Zool., 31 (part 64): Ixxi +

314 pp., 438 pls. 1889.

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 49, No. 2

ARCHEOLOGY SALVAGE PROGRAM IN CHATTAHOOCHEE VALLEY

Five thousand years of buried history are

represented in the lower valley of the Chatta-

hoochee River of Alabama and Georgia, which

soon will be inundated by a group of dam-

created reservoirs. This is indicated in a pre-

liminary survey by archeologists of the River

Basin Surveys—joint project of the Smithsonian

Institution, National Park Service, and Corps

of Engineers—to explore sites of archeological

and historic significance which will be flooded

in extensive dam-building plans.

Largest of the areas to be inundated will be

the Walter F. George Basin, named for the late

senior senator from Georgia. The survey re-

vealed 117 sites in Georgia and 90 on the Ala-

bama side of the Chattahoochee, and they are to

be explored more thoroughly—the most worth-

while with extensive excavations—before the

Army engineers complete their work.

These sites range from simple Indian village

locations to areas containing remains of several

different cultures, and from single mounds in

which Indians buried their dead to multiple

groups of mounds surrounding ceremonial pla-

zas. There also are two historic sites of consider-

able importance. One is the Spanish fort of

Appalachicola, dating from 1689 to 1691, and the

other the historic Creek Indian town of Ro-

anoke, which was occupied by white settlers and

then attacked and burned by the Indians in

1736. The fort will lie just outside the pool area,

but, because the exact dates of its occupancy are

known, it will be tested as it should provide an

important check point in working out the chron-

ology of the area. The remains of Roanoke also

will be helpful in that respect and should be

quite productive of archeological specimens.

Plans are being made to start excavations there

this spring.

The Indian sites in the Walter F. George

Basin date from about 4,000 B. C. to relatively

late Creek villages of the period from 1675 to

1836. These latter present the possibility of a

specific identification of sites from ethno-histor-

ical and other documentary evidence.

Two other Chattahoochee Valley dams are

also under construction—the Columbia Dam,

which is another project of the Army Engineers,

and the Oliver Dam of the Georgia Power Co.

The basins to be flooded by these reservoirs are

an integral part of the picture and must be

studied in conjunction with the Walter F.

George Basin. Work is just beginning at the

Columbia Dam, while the Oliver Dam is virtu-

ally completed and will be closed in April. Two

River Basin Survey parties will start excava-

tions at the Columbia Dam site in February.

Complete coverage of that Basin was not pos-

sible in the preliminary survey, but 14 sites were

located. One, a major mound probably dating

from about 300 years before Columbus, already

is half destroyed by the river and will be the

scene of operations of one of the field parties.

The University of Georgia is cooperating in the

salvage program and since last fall has been test-

ing a series of sites in the Oliver Basin. Much

useful information has been obtained. The work

there has been supported by a grant from the

Georgia Power Co.

Only sporadic archeological work has been

done in the Chattahoochee area in the past, and

an extensive program of excavations is indicated.

In addition to the University of Georgia, Ala-

bama and Florida institutions probably will co-

operate with the Smithsonian Institution and the

National Park Service in the salvage program.

——$—<$_ $e —_—$§_ i _—

GRASS PRIMER REPRINTED

The Smithsonian Institution announces the

publication of a new edition of First Book of

Grasses, by Dr. Agnes Chase, one of the world’s

foremost agrostologists. Formerly botanist of the

United States Department of Agriculture and

now honorary Fellow of the Smithsonian Insti-

tution, Mrs. Chase will observe her ninetieth

birthday on April 20, 1959. Much of her scientific

work has appeared in this JOURNAL.

Since it first appeared in 1922, this book has

been the companion of succeeding generations of

FEBRUARY 1959

beginning students of grasses. It has been out of

print for several years. The present revised (3d)

edition, 150 pages in length, contains 94 of the

author’s drawings of grasses, plus a frontispiece

OBITUARY 63

reproduced in color of Albrecht Diirer’s painting

“Das grosse Rasenstiick.” Dr. Leonard Car-

michael, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-

tion, has contributed a new Foreword.

Clarence Rapmond Shoemaker

March 12, 1874—December 28, 1958

Love of the outdoors and natural history ran

strong in the Shoemaker family, staunch, thrifty,

purposeful Quaker farming folk who originally

settled in Cheltenham, Pa., in the days of Wil-

ham Penn. Some became businessmen, others

millers; a few became well-known naturalists.

Clarence Shoemaker’s grandfather, George,

who left Pennsylvania for Georgetown in 1818,

was a miller, who controlled the former Co-

lumbia Flour Mills. He served as local flour

inspector for 48 years and, interestingly enough,

was an amateur horticulturist and fruit grower.

Clarence’s first cousin, Ernest (1866-1957), be-

came a well-known coleopterist. His exception-

ally fine personal collection of beetles, butter-

flies, and moths was bequeathed to the U. 8.

National Museum, while his extensive collection

of American Indian arrowheads went to the

American Museum of Natural History in New

Work,

Clarence’s bent for natural history developed

early on spacious grounds graced with forest

trees, ornamental shrubbery, and gardens sur-

rounding his home in then bucolic Georgetown.

The place was always alive with birds far beyond

what one can find today in that now more settled

area. Here he lived from the age of seven until

his death, December 28, 1958, at the age of 84.

It was quite natural that in his teens he should

become one of the very early members of the

Washington Audubon Society. As one of its most

dedicated and ornithologically knowledgeable

members, he was much sought after as a bird-

walk leader. Equally interested in native wild

flowers, he was also for many years an active

and enthusiastic participant in the botanical “‘ex-

cursions” conducted by the Wildflower Preserva-

tion Society. Moreover, the Foundry Flour Mill,

managed by his father, Francis Dodge Shoe-

maker, and his uncle, David, which supplied

large quantities of flour to the Federal Govern-

ment during the Civil War, was situated on

Foundry Branch near the erossing of the first

Potomac aqueduct, between the river and the

Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, from which it drew

its waterpower. Though scarcely a quarter of a

mile beyond the town that then was Georgetown,

it was an unspoiled wooded area where wildlife

and flowers abounded and where virtually all the

local species of either could be found at one

season or another.

Shoemaker was educated in a private school

in Georgetown. From this he went for a year to

the Western High School but graduated from

Central three years later, in 1897. In this latter

school he received his first formal instruction in

biology. He also took (1910-1911) collegiate

work in that subject at George Washington Uni-

versity but did not continue, for, as he expressed

it, he already knew more zoology than was then

taught to undergraduates there. That rather

comprehensive knowledge he had gained in the

field and through his long association with the

Smithsonian Institution.

It was quite natural that, as a young man

born in Washington and with his interest in

natural history, he should turn to the Nation’s

pioneer scientific establishment nearby in search

of a future. The first opening that came his way,

however, was a clerkship in the Smithsonian’s

International Exchange Service of which an

older cousin, Coates W., was the chief. Given this

opportunity, he further developed another in-

terest—spiders—that he had earlier acquired on

the home and mill grounds. Not only did he

continue assiduously to collect them and build

up an extensive library of arachnid literature,

but he so well mastered the systematics of the

group that he was soon recognized as an au-

thority on the local fauna. As a consequence, he

was frequently called upon by the U.S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture and others to identify

spiders. Later his spider collection was left to

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the National Museum and is incorporated in its

larger study collections.

In 1910 Dr. Mary J. Rathbun, in charge of

the marine, aquatic, and terrestrial invertebrates

in the National Museum, gave him his first op-

portunity for full-time zoological work as sci-

entific aide in her division. He was promoted to

assistant curator in 1921 and associate curator

in 1942. Retiring in 1944 at the age of 70, he was

given the honorary title of research associate in

the Smithsonian Institution. It was Miss Rath-

bun who assigned to him the study of the vast

and largely, at the time, unworked collection of

amphipod crustaceans to which he thereafter

rather closely devoted the rest of his life. Though

relinquishing his interest in spiders and giving

somewhat less attention to his fieldwork with

birds and flowers, he continued to maintain his

very colorful iris garden. In its heyday it was one

of the show places in Old Georgetown.

Throughout his life Mr. Shoemaker was an

active member of the Audubon and the Wild-

flower Preservation Societies already mentioned,

the Biological Society of Washington, the Wash-

ington Biologists’ Field Club, the American As-

sociation for the Advancement of Science, and

the Washington Academy of Sciences to which

he was elected in 1939. He was also a member of

the American Ornithologists’ Union and a char-

ter member of the American Society of the

Mammalogists and of the Society of Systematic

Zoology.

His scientific reports on the Amphipoda fig-

uratively covered the world, for, because of his

very special knowledge of that group of crus-

taceans, he received collections for study from a

number of important scientific expeditions.

Among these expeditions are to be numbered the

South Georgia and Belgian Congo Expeditions

vou. 49, NO. 2

and the biological survey of Porto Rico and the

Virgin Islands of the American Museum of Nat-

ural History in New York; the Bermuda Ex-

peditions of the New York Zoological Society;

the Canadian Cheticamp and Hudson Bay Ex-

peditions; the Canadian Arctic Expedition, the

U. S. Antarctic Expedition of 1939-1941; the

Point Barrow, Alaska, Expedition; various West

Indian expeditions, including his own to the

Florida Keys and the American Virgin Islands;

the Johnson-Smithsonian Expedition to the

Porto Rican Deep; and the Presidential Cruise

to the Galapagos Islands. Up to the time of his

retirement he had published 56 papers on these

forms, and since that occasion some 14 others.

Beyond these, by the time of his first serious

illness preceding his death by a bare three weeks

he had completed and illustrated several addi-

tional manuscripts that are about ready for the

printer except for typing. The very last of these

contained the descriptions of two new and un-

usual species of amphipods taken on the Smith-

sonian-Bredin Caribbean Expedition in the

spring of 1958.

He was a meticulous worker. His desk and

laboratory table (they were one), his instru-

ments and optical equipment, notes, card files,

and publications were left in excellent order.

There have been few specialists on amphipods

who knew them as well, loved them as much, and

described and figured them as carefully as Mr.

Shoemaker. He was his own artist, and his draw-

ings were exceedingly clear and accurate; no es-

sential detail was ever glossed over or overlooked.

As a kindly, unassuming friend, and a sci-

entifically productive individual, he will long be

remembered by his colleagues in this Museum

and coworkers elsewhere around the world—

Watpo L. ScHmirt.

Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences

SDE...) FRANK L. CampBEtL, National Research Council

Pepeereart CIert. 2... ee LAWRENCE A. Woop, National Bureau of Standards

JiR i. re Heinz Specut, National Institutes of Health

RINE oe. 8. oo. ee ee W. G. BromBacHEeR, National Bureau of Standards

EPRPMAOESE >= =.->.-.- Morris C. Lmixinp, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology

Custodian of Publications............... Haratp A. Renper, U.S. National Museum

SEM ee ee CuesteR H. Pacs, National Bureau of Standards

(2) LBS LD Deh) H. A. Borruwicrx, T. D. Stewart

emmaersie 196) |... we Bourpon F. Scrisner, Keita C. JOHNSON

CRS S22 4 ee Puitip H. ABELSON, Howarp S. RAPPLEYE

Board of Managers....All the above officers plus the vice-presidents. representing the

affiliated societies

CHAIRMEN OF COMMITTEES

Standing Committees

SIE ao ks sk he tees es FRANK L. CAMPBELL, National Research Council

Meetings..... eee RatpH B. KENNARD, American University

Membership............ LawreNncE M. KusHNER, National Bureau of Standards

Monographs........... Peer os Dean B. Cowie, Carnegie Institution of Washington

Awards for Scientific Achievement....... FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, Catholic University

Grants-in-aid for Research...... B. D. Van Evera, George Washington University

Policy and Planning.............. MarcGaret Pitrman, National Institutes of Health

Encouragement of Science Talent.............. Leo ScuusertT, American University

Science Education............ RayMoNpD J. SEEGER, National Science Foundation

Miavaaua Means...........:.. RussELL B. Stevens, George Washington University

MIC UEPCINOEONS. ... 2... 5.2 eee cece Joun K. Taytor, National Bureau of Standards

Special Committees

2 OS... Harotp H. SHeparp, U. 8. Department of Agriculture

Mireecieye.............. James I. HAMBLETON, U.S. Department of Agriculture (Ret.)

emwetty On GONPTESS............-....--- Joun A. O’Keere, National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

CONTENTS

Page

The Academy Membership Committee.................-...-.-00005- St

GENERAL SCIENCE.—Moon bound. RAYMOND J. SEEGER.............. 42

Botrany.—Supplementary studies in Aeschynomene, I: Series Viscidulae,

including a new species and five new varieties. VaivaA E. Rupp.... 45

Zootocy.—A review of the gorgonacean genus Placogorgia Studer, with

a description of Placogorgia tribuloides, a new species from the

straits of Florida. FREDERICK Mi. BAYER. ..\.[722..... 2 seo 54

Notes:and INEWS. Vs eu's ho oe ee a ee ee 40, 52, Ss, 62

| ee ey ay .

OBITUARY: Clarence*B.. Shoemaker..°°.0......-. 2.0). 3 ee 63

i s by a “ate SS

‘ See week

: mx 3

Zl oo a

SOG. Be:

a 7 | » >

* ‘ B ‘ pa, *

~ i & F ¥ ae

VOLUME 49 March 1989 NUMBER 3

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 49

Marcu 1959

No. 3

mar STOOMPRISING A SYMPOSIUM:ON THE SUBJECT EXTRA-

MURAL SCIENCE PROGRAMS OF THE FEDERALGOVERNMENT,”’

ARRANGED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES (GEORGE W.IRVING, CHAIRMAN) AND PRESENTED

SUNDAY MORNING, DECEMBER 28, 1958, AT THE SHERATON-

miviewHtOrEl, WASHINGTON, D.C. AS THE ACADEMY’S CON-

iminwiON TO THE 125TH MEETING OF THE AMERICAN

ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

Introductory Remarks by Dr. A. T. McPherson, Presiding

It is a great pleasure for me, as the Presi-

dent of the Washington Academy of Sci-

ences, to welcome you to the symposium on

“Extramural Science Programs of the Fed-

eral Government.” This symposium is the

Washington Academy’s contribution to the

125th meeting of the American Association

for the Advancement of Science. As you

know, Washington is the scientific as well

as the political Capital of the United States.

Every major scientific activity in our Gov-

ernment has its headquarters in or nearby

Washington. Moreover, several of the na-

tional scientific societies have established

their national headquarters here in Wash-

ington, owing at least in part to their desire

to be near the scientific activities being con-

ducted here at the seat of Government.

Among these is, of course, our own Associa-

tion.

Since Washington is unique in being the

center of Federal scientific activity, 1t was

felt in planning this symposium that our

most useful contribution would be to have

representatives of the principal agencies of

the Federal Government describe some as-

pect of the research supported by them. In-

asmuch as many who attend the AAAS

meetings have conducted research under

Federal support or may wish to, it occurred

to us that the aspect that would be of most

interest to the greatest number would be

the extramural science programs each

agency sponsors. It is particularly appro-

priate, we feel, that the Washington Acad-

emy of Sciences has been given the oppor-

tunity to do this since it is the one scientific

society in the Nation’s Capital that counts

among its membership representatives of all

the scientific disciplines. Included in its

membership also are many of the policy-

making scientists of the Federal Govern-

ment.

Perhaps it 1s appropriate at the outset

to indicate what we mean by “extramural”

science programs. We mean, simply, any

programs that are conducted outside of the

physical facilities of an agency and staffed

predominantly by non-Federal employees.

This includes scholarships, fellowships,

grants, grants-in-aid, loans, contracts and

cooperative programs.

It would be impossible in the time allotted

this session to include a description of every

extramural program that is now in effect in

the Federal Government. We have selected,

rather, the six Federal agencies which, to-

gether, support the majority of extramural

SME TION | MAY 8 2 one

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

research and science education programs in

the country. They are, as your program in-

dicates, the National Science Foundation,

the National Institutes of Health, the U.S.

Department of Agriculture, the Department

of Defense, the Atomic Energy Commission,

and the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration. The representatives of

these agencies here with us today can speak

authoritatively on the extramural programs

for which their agencies are responsible,

since they occupy in each ease high positions

in their respective agencies.

VoL. 49, NO. 3

The order of presentation is immaterial

except for the first. We have asked the rep-

resentative of the National Science Foun-

dation to lead off since the NSF, in addition

to its responsibility for its own direct ex-

tramural programs, has certain coordinating

responsibilities for science programs in all

Federal Government agencies as well.

We hope that this symposium will give

you a clear picture of the extramural re-

search and science education program of the

Federal Government in its entirety.

Extramural Science Programs of the National Science Foundation

By Rosert B. Brove, Associate Director for Research, National Science Foundation

We are here as representatives of several

of the Federal agencies to discuss the nature

and scope of our respective agencies’ extra-

mural programs for research and education

in science. The National Science Foundation

conducts no research or education programs

itself. All the support of education and re-

search by the Foundation is through extra-

mural grants and contracts.

The nature of the activities of the Foun-

dation and its objectives are adequately de-

scribed in the Act of Congress which was

approved by the President in May 1950 and

led to the establishment of the National

Science Foundation as an independent Fed-

eral agency. Section 3 of this Act states

that the Foundation is authorized and di-

rected “to develop and encourage the pur-

suit of a national policy for the promotion

of basic research and education in the sci-

ences; to initiate and support basic scientific

research...; to appraise the impact of re-

search... .”

In carrying out these directives the Foun-

dation is itself forbidden to operate any

laboratories or pilot plants. The Act permits

the making of contracts or grants for sci-

entific research through the utilization of

appropriations available in such a manner

as will best realize the objectives of the

Foundation. There is very great freedom

given to the Foundation in the choice of

organizations or institutions to which grants

or contracts may be given. While nonprofit

organizations are particularly identified, the

Foundation is not exclusively restricted to

this type of agency. It may make grants to

such institutions, individuals, agencies of

the United States, and the several States

as are qualified to best realize the objectives

of the Foundation—in particular, the ad-

vance of basic research.

A very substantial part of the business of

the National Science Foundation is the sup-

port of basic research in science through

institutions and individuals that are best

qualified to pursue such research. Advisory

panels and program officers of the Founda-

tion consider many factors in assessing re-

search proposals: the qualifications and

promise of the investigator; the nature of

the proposed research project; and the fa-

cilities and support provided by the institu-

tion. |

The Foundation is very conscious of the

outstanding contributions made by a small

number of scientists with exceptional abil-

ity. These men, together with a much larger

number of good but not remarkable workers,

will create the new developments in basic

science. The Foundation is constantly look-

ing for the young scientist who shows signs

of real originality and boldness in his ap-

proach to scientific research.

Marcu 1959 EXTRAMURAL PROGRAMS OF THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION 67

In some areas of research the scientist’s

needs are easily met—books, pen, and paper

may satisfy the mathematician. In most

fields, however, the success of basic research

in science depends on the accessibility of the

necessary tools and assistants. Some of the

modern research facilities are very costly

and require large staffs of scientists and

technicians for their operation. Nuclear re-

actors, cyclotrons, computers, radio and

optical astronomy observatories have been

built in part or wholly by Foundation

grants.

In addition to providing the equipment

required, Foundation support of research

projects provides employment opportunities

as research assistants for more than 6,000

eraduate students studying for the Ph.D.

degree.

Most of the basic research in this country

is carried forward by our colleges and uni-

versities. It is therefore not surprising that

nearly all the Foundation support of basic

research is given to institutions of higher

learning. This support is provided in almost

every case through the use of a grant rather

than by a contract.

In addition to its support of basic re-

search, the Foundation supports a substan-

tial program for the promotion of education

in the basic sciences. The Foundation is di-

rected by Congress to develop and encour-

age a national policy for the promotion of

education in the sciences and in particular

to award scholarships and fellowships. The

award of fellowships to graduate students

appears to have been an unusually success-

ful enterprise, and thousands of scientists

have been assisted by this program. Fellow-

ship support has been extended to post-

doctoral research workers and even to jun-

ior and senior faculty to assist them in

developing new research programs or to en-

hance their competence as teachers. The

competition for National Science Founda-

tion fellowships is severe, and the award of

a fellowship is considered as recognition of

very high scholastic achievement and re-

search promise.

Foundation support of education in the

sciences extends to universities and colleges

in all States through establishment of sci-

ence teacher institutes. These are designed

to improve the training of science teachers,

especially secondary-school teachers, in the

subject matter of science. Approximately

300 summer institutes will be functioning

under this program in the summer of 1959.

In addition, about 35 academic year insti-

tutes will begin in the fall of 1959, as well

as some 200 in-service institutes designed

to benefit the teacher who lives in the vi-

cinity of the college or university by offering

courses taught at night or on Saturdays.

The Foundation has developed several

experimental programs in education; most

of these are built upon patterns established

either by the fellowship or the institute

program. The Foundation is also extending

substantial support to curriculum improve-

ment programs for secondary-school science

courses, in physics, mathematics, chemistry,

and biology, but extending as well to many

of the other sciences.

Knowledge is society’s most precious pos-

session, and a very important and rapidly

growing area of knowledge is basic science.

The value and use of knowledge can be as-

sured for future generations only if we re-

cord in publications the results of our re-

search. The critical problem of scientific

literature is illustrated by the tremendous

volume that must be assimilated. If the

auditorium were full, all of the people in

this room reading 24 hours a day could not

keep up with our present output of scientific

literature. The rate of increase of literature

is such that the world’s output in pages per

year will double in the next 8.5 years. The

National Science Foundation has contrib-

uted substantially to this flood of scientific

literature by making grants to scientific so-

cieties to aid in the establishment of new

journals or in the expansion in size of exist-

ing publications. The importance of Soviet

scientific developments has been recognized

in our program for English translations of

important journals and books that are avail-

able only in the Russian language.

Not only is it necessary to print and store

in our libraries the full account of our total

knowledge, but we must also develop the

means of identification and retrieval of this

knowledge. We are assisting abstract jour-

nals as well as general studies of new means

of searching for information. The Office of

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

Millions of Dollars

GROWTH OF MAJOR

FOUNDATION SUPPORT

00 PROGRAMS...FY 1952-59

DOLLARS

= =

HB international Geophysical Year

BS Focilities

| Eis} Education in the Sciences

ce = Research

40 |

20 |

1952'53 '54 '55 '56 '57 '58 '59

Fiscal Years Est

Cuart 1

Science Information Service is a division of

the Foundation that provides assistance and

coordination to Government and private ab-

stracting and information-handling services.

It is not a Government office set up to an-

swer requests of the general public or of

Government agencies for information about

specific technical questions.

There have been two events since the in-

itiation of the Foundation in 1950 which

have appreciably changed the anticipated

growth of Federal support for this agency.

The International Geophysical Year, which

officially ends next Wednesday, has been an

intensive burst of scientific effort with a

year of preparation and an 18-month year

of coordinated observations. For some years

to come the results and deductions from this

period of observation will be published in

scientific journals. The second event that

affected the Foundation’s budget was the

awakening of the world by the Russian

Sputnik. We have suddenly realized that

leadership can be substantially influenced

by the intellectual and technical attain-

VoL. 49, No. 3

ments of a nation. This leadership requires

not only adequate support for the research

of its talented scholars but also an educa-

tional system that identifies potential schol-

ars and gives them the best possible prep-

aration for their careers. Chart *1 shows

the growth and magnitude of the support

given the Foundation.

The National Science Foundation makes

grants to scientists on the basis of proposals

submitted to it and reviewed by panels of

specialists and by the Foundation’s program

offices. Some of these grants assure support

for three to five years, while others are for

one or two years. The funds provided by

Congress have only been sufficient to enable

the Foundation to grant less than a third

of the proposals it receives. It is quite nat-

ural that the scientist who has won the

competition for an award will return after

a year or two for further support and he

will then, because of the greater opportunity

provided by the Foundation funds, present

an even better justification for his support.

The percentage of proposals for research

support to which grants were awarded is

shown in Chart *2. This is by no means an

established pattern of support. Many mer-

itorlous proposals are now refused grants.

At times we have been able to grant less

than one-third of the requests considered

worthy of support by the review panels.

The use of substantial funds by the Foun-

dation has enabled it to support the con-

struction of such facilities as the National

Radio Astronomy Observatory, Green

Bank, W. Va., and the Kitt Peak National

Observatory, Tucson, Ariz. These national

laboratories and institutes carry with their

creation an implied commitment for con-

tinued operating budgets. The Foundation

is indeed concerned with the problem of

providing adequate support for the major

facilities, and for the continued support of

able scientists who justify essentially life

time support. To this committed support

load must be added the encouragement and

opportunity which the Foundation must be

prepared to offer to the young scientist be-

ginning his independent research activity.

Congress has directed that the Founda-

tion avoid undue concentration of research

and education activities. A measure of the

Marcu 1959 EXTRAMURAL PROGRAMS OF THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION 69

needs for basic science research support may Support for education through fellow-

be indicated by the number of graduate stu- ships and institutes for teacher training has

dents or by the dollar grants. Chart %3 been nationwide but not in all cases as well

shows that the grants given are in reason- distributed as would be desired for a na-

able balance with these two measures of tionwide program. We have attempted to

need. correct these discrepancies as they are iden-

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

PERCENTAGE OF GRANTS AWAKDED

TO PROPOSALS RECEIVED-FISCAL YEARS (963-1989

Millions of Dollars Fiscal Years 1953-1959

150

Ul Proposals Received

HE Gronts Awarded

Percentages indicate proportion

of grants awarded to proposals

received in the Fiscal Year

1953 1954 1955 1956 I1957 1958 1959

Fiscal Years

CuHart 2

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

REGIONAL COMPARISON OF PROPOSALS RECE/VED(NUMBER)

GRANTS AWARDED (NUMBER), ana! GRADUATE STUDENT POPULATION

(Expressed in % of total of each index)

07% 07% 0.5%

BB Proposals (FY /952-58/

[] Grants (FY /952-56/

Eee) Graduate Students (/955-56/

Cuart 3

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tified. A program of cooperative fellowships

is being introduced this year which will pro-

vide a much wider distribution of fellows

throughout the Nation, but still permit the

applicant to select freely the institution

through which he seeks to compete for the

fellowship.

The activities of the Foundation are not

restricted entirely to this country. Fellow-

ships are granted only to citizens, but they

may use their grants for study at foreign

universities. Funds in support of research

have frequently been used by grantees to

carry on their studies in foreign countries;

and in exceptional cases grants have been

made to a few foreign investigators whose

work was considered essential to our own

programs or involved the active participa-

tion of American scientists or students. We

have responsibilities for assistance to par-

ticipants in international conferences and

congresses. In our Office of Science Informa-

tion Service we arrange for the exchange of

VoL. 49, NO. 3

publications and for the translation of some

of these so that they will be generally avail-

able to scientists.

The principal objective of the National

Science Foundation is the development of

basic science in the United States. We are

attempting to do this by direct support of

the scientist in his research program, by

supplying him with the means of publishing

his results, with ready access to the results

of the work of other scientists, and by 1m-

proving our educational system so that

promising scholars are given a better foun-

dation for their future careers. Some very

valuable and exciting advances have al-

ready been made in science through our

support, but the major impact of such a

broad program as we have undertaken will

not be measured by the visible splashes but

rather by the rising tide of general basic

science development and the technological

benefits that later come to society through

their application and use.

Extramural Science Programs of the Department of Defense

By GrorGE D. LuxKss, Hzecutive Secretary, Defense Science Board, Office

of the Director of Defense Research and Engineering!

I appreciate the invitation of the Wash-

ington Academy of Sciences to participate

in this symposium and to make the Defense

contribution on extramural science pro-

grams of the Federal Government. We in

Defense find a symposium of this nature an

excellent opportunity to get across to the

scientific community at large the nature and

scope of our scientific research activities

and, particularly in the theme of today’s

session, how our extramural activities con-

tribute to the achievement of Defense ob-

jectives. Within this framework I shall also

weave some of the more significant aspects

of our policy on basic research in the hope

of furthering understanding.

*Formerly Office of the Assistant Secretary of

Defense (Research and Engineering).

DOLLAR MAGNITUDE, PERFORMANCE COMPO-

NENTS, AND RESEARCH SUPPORT LEVELS

It is important to provide, first, a back-

drop of the total dollar effort of Department

of Defense scientific research and develop-

ment. The first chart shows graphically the

DOD obligations for fiscal year 1959 in re-

lation to those of the other Federal Govern-

ment agencies. Something like 62 percent of

all Federal funds devoted to research and

development represents the Defense De-

partment’s share of the Federal effort. The

second chart displays the approximate dis-

tribution of these funds in terms of the three

major performance components: Govern-

ment laboratories, industrial contractors,

and university and other nonprofit institu-

Marcu 1959 EXTRAMURAL SCIENCE PROGRAMS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE 71

tions. You will note that industry performs

about 60 percent of the total effort sup-

ported from the research and development

appropriations of the Department of De-

fense, universities and other nonprofit in-

stitutions conduct about 9 percent, and

Government laboratories perform the bal-

ance of 31 percent. Of funds for in-house

performance, approximately 14 percent is

for research and development per se con-

ducted internally by Government scientists

and engineers, 13 percent is for test and

evaluation, and 4 percent is for contract

monitoring.

I should now hasten to add that an addi-

tional source of funds is available for sup-

port of scientific and engineering activities

of the Department of Defense, primarily

the latter. These, in appropriation language,

are principally the Procurement and Pro-

duction funds, of which something like $3.2

billion in fiscal year 1959 go to the support

of development, test, and evaluation of new

weapons of the distinctively hardware vari-

ety—the B-58 and the IRBM and ICBM

programs are good examples. The charts

presented do not include the funds from

this source; within the theme of this sym-

posium—extramural science—their omis-

sion is of little consequence, however.

Now let us discuss the scientific research

activity of the Defense effort. The third

chart displays the character distribution of

the Defense research and development pro-

gram. Of our fiscal year 1959 research and

development programs, 15 percent, or $391

million, is devoted to research; and of this

$109.6 million is for basic research. The

balance, 85 percent of the total program, is

for development. We estimate that almost

two-thirds of the $391 million of research

funds supports extramural activities, and at

least 70 percent of the $109.6 million basic

research funds is devoted to extramural

support of basic research.

NATURE AND SCOPE OF DEFENSE SCIENTIFIC

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES

The science programs of the Department

of Defense comprise activities in the physi-

cal and engineering sciences, in the life sci-

BASIC RESEARCH

Cuart 1. Estimated Distribution of FY 1959

Federal Government Research and Development

Obligations.

NAT'L AERONAUTICS

AND SPACE

ADMINISTRATION

HEALTH, EDUCATION,

, DEPARTMEN — AND WELFARE

j OF DEFENSE

AGRICULTURE

1.2% INTERIOR

0.7% COMMERCE

1.5% NAT'L SCIENCE

FOUNDATION

ALL OTHER

Cuart 2. Where Defense Research and

Development is Performed.

UNIVERSITIES AND

OTHER NONPROFIT

INSTITUTIONS 9%

OVERNMEN

ABORATORIE

:INDUSTRIA

ONTRACTOR

Cuart 3. Character of Defense Research and

Development Program for FY 1959.

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ences, in psychology and the social sciences,

and in operations research.

About 80 percent of the funds devoted to

scientific research support activities in the

physical and engineering sciences; this

amounts to about $313 million in fiscal year

1959 Defense program. Within this broad

category the typical fields of endeavor and

the program objectives are as follows:

In physics the objective is the advance-

ment, through systematic and exploratory

research, of those selected aspects of pure

and applied physics which contribute to an

increase in military capability. The present

program, totaling about $33 million in ex-

tramural effort, includes solid-state physics,

extreme-temperature physics, statistical

physies, physics of atoms and molecules, nu-

clear physics, physical acoustics, upper-air

physics, electron physics, optics, magnetism,

instrumentation for physical measurements,

and electromagnetic radiation.

In chemistry the objective of the program

may be divided into two parts: (1) a bal-

anced effort of selected fundamental re-

search which serves as a foundation for the

varying needs of the military and (2) spe-

cific applied projects aimed at satisfying

short-term defense needs. The present pro-

gram includes research support in relevant

areas of analytical, inorganic, organic, phys-

ical, polymer and radiation chemistry. The

extramural support runs about $31 million

yearly.

In mathematics the objective is the sys-

tematic advancement of this science, closely

geared to the objectives of the other scien-

tific programs, and in response to expanding

needs for direct qualitative information

about the design and operations of weapons

and weapons systems. The present program

includes algebra, analysis, geometry, topol-

ogy, probability, statistics, logistics, com-

munications, and computers. Extramural

support runs about $5 million yearly.

With respect to those fields of endeavor

that are more characteristically the engi-

neering sciences, the scope of the programs

and the broad objectives are as follows:

Mechanics: The objective of the research

program in mechanics is the systematic ad-

vancement of engineering knowledge and

principles bearing directly upon design eri-

VoL. 49, No. 3

teria for the development of new weapons

systems and components. Studies on the fol-

lowing are included in the present program:

the dynamics of gases, liquids and solids;

aerodynamic problems; problems involving

structural design, strength of solids, hydro-

mechanics, propulsion, heat and mass trans-

fer, soil mechanics; and problems involving

the development and synthesis of mecha-

nisms. Extramural support runs about $25

million yearly.

Materials: The objective of the research

program is the systematic advancement of

knowledge on the fundamental properties

and behavior of materials to provide the

best possible selection for designers and

fabricators of military weapons and equip-

ments. The present program includes studies

on metals, minerals, ceramics, elastomers,

adhesives, transparent materials, organic

structural materials, fibers and fibrous ma-

terials, insulating materials, and dielectric

and magnetic materials. Extramural sup-

port runs about $27 million yearly.

Combustion: The objective of the re-

search program in the field of combustion

is to gain an increased understanding of the

total process of transforming the chemical

energy of reactants into thermal and kinetic

energy of reaction products, so the design

of military propulsion devices can be put

on an increasingly rational basis. The pres-

ent program includes investigations of basic

phenomena in selected areas of physics,

chemistry, fluid mechanics, thermochemis-

try, and thermodynamics; and also funda-

mental investigations of processes that are

interrelated combinations of these phenom-

ena. Extramural support runs about $6 mil-

lion yearly.

Electronics: The objective of the research

program in electronics is to ensure maxi-

mum extension and acceleration of all our

senses for military purposes. The present

program includes acoustics and underwater

sound; antenna theory, electromagnetic

propagation and reflection; communica-

tions, data handling, and information the-

ory; electronic instrumentation and

standards; electronic countermeasures and

counter-countermeasures; IFF theory; in-

frared; navigation; radar; electronic tubes,

parts, and semiconductors; and electron and

Marcu 1959 EXTRAMURAL SCIENCE PROGRAMS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE Me

ion plasma. Extramural support runs about

$43 million yearly.

In the geophysical sciences the objective

is the advancement through systematic and

exploratory research of those selected as-

pects which will increase the capability of

the military to utilize, predict, and control

the natural environment. Included in the

present program are meteorology, climatol-

ogy, oceanography, marine geology, geo-

chemistry, cartography, geodesy, geog-

raphy, astronomy, astrophysics, magnetism,

and gravity studies. Extramural support

runs about $19 million yearly.

Turning now to the broad category of life

sciences, the DOD supports major programs

in the medical sciences and in biology. The

scope and the objectives are:

In the medical sciences, to provide sup-

port of the mission of military medicine by

studies in—

(a) Preventive medicine: research on

methods of physical examination and health

surveillance, promotion of physical fitness,

preventive dentistry; nutrition, environ-

mental physiology and pathology, disease

and injury prevention, toxicology; protec-

tion against radiation and blast, the effects

of chemical and biological agents, with

methods of casualty prevention; industrial

and public health studies.

(b) Studies relating to the medical prob-

lems of aviation, astronautics, submarine

and diving medicine, man in relation to the

machines of war in all media, terrain and

climates; and survival techniques.

eal, dental and psychiatric care and re-

habilitation of the sick and injured.

The medical sciences program runs about

$24 million yearly, of which about $15 mil-

lion is the extramural effort.

In the biological sciences the objective is

the systematic development of this field in

areas of military interest. The present pro-

gram includes hydrobiology, biogeography,

ecology, the biomechanism of complex data

reception and control in living systems, bac-

terial fungal, viral genetics and nutrition,

the ecology of disease vectors, the mecha-

nism of infection, and the survival of micro-

organisms. Extramural support runs about

$7 million yearly.

As to the psychological and social sci-

ences, the support level is about $21 million,

of which $15 million is the extramural effort.

Program content and the objectives are:

the advancement through systematic and

exploratory research of those selected as-

pects of pure and applied psychological and

social sciences which contribute to an in-

crease in the military capability. The pres-

ent program includes studies leading to new

concepts, techniques, devices, and principles

applicable to the solution of military prob-

lems, including military manpower needs

and the availability, selection, classification,

assignment and proficiency measurement of

personnel; education; training and training

devices; motivation; morale; leadership;

human organization; human engineering;

psychological and unconventional warfare;

intelligence operations; and civil affairs and

military government.

Finally, coming to operations research as

a field of scientific activity in its own right,

the objective is to provide quantitative

bases for executive decisions on military

and related scientific matters. The present

program includes contracts totaling about

$28 million in support of work with RAND,

the Operations Research Office, the Opera-

tions Evaluation Group, the Combat Opera-

tions Research Group, the Institute for De-

fense Analyses, the Human _ Resources

Research Office, the Naval Warfare Analy-

sis Group, and the Naval Warfare Research

Center.

In total, these scientific research pro-

grams comprise a fiscal year 1959 Defense

effort amounting to about $391 million, pro-

viding about $137 million to the conduct of

intramural effort and $254 million to the

support of extramural science activities.

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE POLICY ON

BASIC RESEARCH

Let us turn now to objectives stated even

more broadly. About a year ago Secretary

McElroy issued a strong policy directive

setting forth the principles governing the

support of a Department-wide basic re-

search program, conceived and anchored

in imaginative long-term planning and

long-term funding. This policy recognizes

that “the needs of national defense are

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

uniquely characterized by pressing demands

for new facts and knowledge very close to

the frontiers of science” in order to protect

the security of the United States and its

vast Defense investment against both tech-

nological surprise and obsolescence. It em-

phasizes also that the costs of basic research

are small in proportion to the potential mili-

tary strength to which basic research is ca-

pable of contributing and that “sustained

support of basic research offers one of the

most promising opportunities for effecting

long-range economies in other aspects of the

military program.”

Specifically, the directive states:

A. It is the policy of the Department of De-

fense:

1. To support a broad and continuing basic

research program to assure the flow of the

fundamental knowledge needed by the

military departments as prime users of

scientific facts and to evolve novel weap-

ons of war; and

2. To maintain, through such a broad sup-

port program, an effective contact between

the military departments and the scien-

tists of the country so that the military

departments are continuously and grow-

ingly aware of new scientific developments

and the scientists are aware of the mili-

tary needs.

B. It is further the policy of the Department of

Defense to coordinate its basic research pro-

gram with the National Science Foundation

and to encourage the support of sound basic

research programs by government and pri-

vate agencies, recognizing that these pro-

grams are essential to the full development,

utilization and growth of the nation’s scien-

tific resources and, hence, to national defense.

Within the guidance of this policy, the

Department of Defense substantially in-

creased fiscal year 1958 funding for some

research programs judged critical for the

improvement of military weaponry. The

increased funding for each field was: $31.6

million for the physical, medical, and geo-

physical sciences; $10 million for materials

research; and $12.5 million for the vital

areas of electron tubes and electronic parts.

$30 million of these funds went to the sup-

port of basic and supporting research pro-

grams at academic institutions. The main

VOL. 49, NO. 3

effect was to restore research to the level

from which it had sagged over the past sev-

eral years owing to inflation and the in-

creased costs of modern instrumentation. In

addition to the above funds, $12 million was

made available to the Army and Air Force

in June of this year for the explicit purpose

of financing certain contractual research

programs for periods longer than the an-

nual program increment or to provide for

program longevity.

NEW GRANTS AUTHORITY UNDER PUBLIC

LAW 85-934

The recent session of Congress saw the

passage of Public Law 85-934, an act to au-

thorize the expenditure of funds through

grants for the support of scientific research.

Heretofore the Department of Defense has

been limited to the use of a research con-

tract in engaging the services of an educa-

tional or other nonprofit organization. The

Grants Act provides the authority to make

grants to such institutions or organizations

for the support of basic scientific research,

where such action is deemed to be in fur-

therance of the objectives of the agency; it

also grants discretionary authority to vest

title of research equipment in the organiza-

tion carrying out such research. Increased

flexibility will accordingly result from this

authority in Defense support of basic sci-

entific research. A directive is presently be-

ing drafted in the Department of Defense

to establish a uniform policy among all

military agencies in the awarding and ad-

ministration of research grants and the

transfer of title to research equipment ac-

quired under such grants.

This, I believe, covers the highlights of

Defense science programs and our broad

objectives in their support, the program

content and technical objectives of our sci-

entific effort in some discrete fields, and

certain aspects of Defense policies designed

to be constructive, forward-looking, and to

lend stimulation and sustenance to science

from the Defense end of the Federal Goy-

ernment.

Marcu 1959 EXTRAMURAL PROGRAMS OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH

Extramural Science Programs of the National Institutes of Health

By C. J. VAN SLYKE, Deputy Director, National Institutes of Health; Assistant

Surgeon General, Public Health Service, U. S. Department of

Health, Education, and Welfare

It is a pleasure to appear in this sympo-

sium on the extramural science programs of

the Federal Government.

The program chairman has asked that I

cover briefly the objectives and nature of

the National Institutes of Health with re-

spect to our extramural activities, leaving

time for questions and discussion. What I

shall present, therefore, is a thumbnail

sketch of the NIH grants and awards pro-

grams.

I shall not attempt to include the NIH

intramural program—its conduct of re-

search—nor all the extramural programs of

the U. S. Public Health Service, of which

the NIH constitutes the principal research

branch. Nor will this outline cover extra-

mural scientific activities of other compo-

nents of the Department of Health, Educa-

tion, and Welfare, in which the Public

Health Service is a part.

Now to turn to the NIH extramural pro-

gram. The objective of the National Insti-

tutes of Health and of the Public Health

Service is contained in the public laws which

form our enabling legislation and which im-

pose upon us grave obligations and duties.

The purpose of all our activities is stated,

in simplest terms, in public law as being “to

improve the health of the people of the

United States.”

The methods for achieving this objective

are, again in the shortest words, the conduct

and support of research and training and

aid in the application of knowledge.

In the legislation upon general duties,

there is a charge to “conduct in the (Public

Health) Service, and encourage, cooperate

with, and render assistance to other appro-

priate public authorities, scientific institu-

tions, and scientists in the conduct of, and

promote the coordination of, research, in-

vestigations, experiments, demonstrations,

and studies relating to the causes, diagnosis,

treatment, control, and prevention of phys-

ical and mental diseases and impairments

Ole maeinaeers

In legislation establishing the Institutes

which compose the NIH, such as the NHI,

NCI, and so on, there are mandates direct-

ing the conduct and support of research and

training and other activities aimed at the

acquisition and application of knowledge

concerning cancer and heart disease and

other “categorical” disease fields.

Additionally, through the Health Re-

search Facilities Act of 1956, there is pro-

vided a program of support for the construc-

tion of research facilities in the sciences

related to health.

NATURE OF THE PROGRAM

These, then, are the objective and the

methods of NIH extramural activities in

general, legislative terms. What has been

built upon this framework, what is it for,

how does it operate, what are its character-

istics, what is it accomplishing, what is its

future? These and other broad questions

occur, and the answers, though they be

partial, will portray the nature of our grants

and awards programs.

To begin the answers upon a historical

note, I was privileged to author a paper,

upon the real beginning of the NIH extra-

mural program, in the issue of Science for

Friday, December 13, 1946. The day and

the date have turned out to be more aus-

picious than the general belief holds about

enterprises connected with Friday the thir-

teenth. The paper began with these words:

A large-scale, nationwide, peacetime program of

support for scientific research in medical and re-

lated fields, guided by more than 250 leading sci-

entists in 21 principal areas of medical research,

is now a functioning reality. The program, based

on U.S. Public Health Service Research Grants

financed by public funds, supports research—con-

ducted without governmental control—by inde-

pendent scientists. The purpose of these grants is

to stimulate research in medical and allied fields

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

by making available funds for such research and

by actively encouraging scientific investigation of

specific problems on which scientists agree that

urgently needed information is lacking. Accom-

panying this purpose is complete acceptance of a

basic tenet of the philosophy upon which the

scientific method rests: The integrity and inde-

pendence of the research worker and his freedom

from control, direction, regimentation, and outside

interference.

The U. S. Public Health Service Research

Grants, in operation as a medical research program

of scientists and by scientists, may have early and

profound effects upon the course of medical history

and the national health.

The program, both in principle and as admin-

istered, has been welcomed and approved whole-

heartedly by leaders in medical research.

ORGANIZATIONS OF ACTIVITIES

The organization, programming, and ap-

propriations responsibilities of the NIH ex-

tramural activities today fall into the fol-

lowing categorical Institutes and Divisions:

National Cancer Institute, National

Heart Institute, National Institute of Al-

lergy and Infectious Diseases, National In-

stitute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases,

National Institute of Dental Research, Na-

tional Institute of Mental Health, National

Institute of Neurological Diseases and

Blindness, Division of General Medical Sci-

ences, Division of Hospital and Medical

Facilities, Division of Nursing Resources,

Division of Sanitary Engineering Services,

and Division of Special Health Services.

Noneategorical or general research and

training grant funds are available from the

Division of General Medical Sciences for

scientists whose interest do not fall within

the scope of responsibility of the categorical

Institutes and Divisions. The Division of

Research Grants of the National Institutes

of Health has administrative responsibility

for the management of the research grants

programs, and for the Health Research Fa-

cilities construction grants.

NATIONAL ADVISORY COUNCILS

By Federal law, nine National Advisory

Councils have been established as advisers

to the Public Health Service. No research

or training grant may be paid by the Sur-

geon General unless recommended for ap-

proval by one of these Councils. Seven of

the Councils advise the seven so-called cat-

VoL. 49, NO. 3

egorical Institutes on their respective pro-

grams, in addition to reviewing and recom-

mending appropriate action on applications

for grant support. The National Advisory

Health Council reviews applications for

general or noncategorical research grants

and advises the Surgeon General on matters

relating to health activities and functions of

the Service. The Federal Hospital Council

advises the Surgeon General on matters re-

lating to the Administration of the Hospital

Survey and Constructions Program and re-

views applications for grants in aid of proj-

ects in research, experiments, or demonstra-

tions relating to the development utilization,

and coordination of hospital services, fa-

cilities, and resources.

The National Advisory Council on Health

Research Facilities, established in July

1956, reviews and recommends appropriate

action on applications submitted by uni-

versities or other nonprofit institutions for

assistance in the construction and/or equip-

ping of additional facilities for the conduct

of research in the sciences relating to health.

The Federal share can not exceed 50 percent

of the total cost of building of research

space.

SCIENTIFIC STUDY SECTIONS

In view of the large number of applica-

tions which must be evaluated, and the need

for skilled scientific review covering the

entire range of medical and biological re-

search, more than 30 Study Sections of spe-

cial nonfederal consultants expert in various

fields of research have been established.

These study sections act as technical ad-

visers to the National Advisory Councils

and to the Surgeon General. They accept

responsibility not only for providing tech-

nical advice on applications for research

support but also in conjunction with the

Councils, for surveying as scientific leaders

the status of research in their particular

fields in order to determine areas in which

additional activity should be initiated or

expanded.

TYPES OF EXTRAMURAL ACTIVITIES

The grants and awards of NIH are com-

prised in four main categories: (1) research

grants, (2) research fellowships, (3) train-

Marcu 1959 EXTRAMURAL PROGRAMS OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH Li

ing grants and traineeships, and (4) health

research facilities grants. I shall discuss

each in a highly summary fashion, sketching

their general functions.

1. Research Grants

These grants are made to universities,

medical schools, hospitals, laboratories, and

other public or private institutions and to

individuals for support of research in health,

medicine, and allied fields. The major ob-

jectives are: to expand medical and bi-

ological research in scientific institutions

throughout the country; to stimulate new

investigations in fields needing exploration;

and to provide, incidentally, on-the-job

training for scientific personnel in connec-

tion with the research being conducted. The

funds provide for salaries, equipment, sup-

plies, travel, overhead, and certain other ex-

penses.

Research grants are financed from ap-

propriations made to each of the seven In-

stitutes concerned with “categorical” dis-

ease fields and from an appropriation to the

NIH (for general research and services) to

support needed research lying outside the

“categorical” disease fields.

Grants are made on a yearly basis. How-

ever, continuity and stability, both for the

work and the man, are of paramount im-

portance and have been so considered since

the beginning of the program. Therefore, the

duration of the investigation is a vital con-

sideration of the Study Sections and Ad-

visory Councils in their decisions regarding

recommendations for action. These bodies

have consistently provided for continuity

and have indicated to grantees continued

favorable action as long as congress ap-

propriates necessary funds. The Congress

has recognized the importance of these

moral commitments and has sustained them

in principle and practice.

That we have steadily progressed toward

greater stability is shown in the fact that,

early in the life of the program, the average

duration of a grant was about two years.

Today, the average duration is some five

years, and many meritorious investigators

have received support since 1946.

Research under the program is conducted

by the investigator with full independence

and autonomy. Support of research through

the use of research grants does not imply

in any way any degree of Federal control,

supervision, or direction of the research

studies. Although the investigator submits

a proposal in his application, he is free to

pursue the project in any manner he deems

most promising. The autonomy of the in-

dividual researcher implied in this philoso-

phy does not, however, exclude self-imposed

guidance entailed in the over-all plan of an

organized, cooperative research project in

which several groups of investigators may

collaborate.

In order not to divert the time of the re-

searcher unnecessarily from the actual con-

duct of the research, he is requested to sub-

mit only informal annual progress reports,

and their distribution is limited to the re-

viewing consultants.

Neither these advisers nor those who ad-

minister the program in the NIH review

grantee papers proposed for publication.

Grantees, fellows, and trainees may publish

results of any work supported by grant or

award when and where they wish, and re-

sponsibility for direction of the work is

never and should never be ascribed to the

NIH, Public Health Service. This does not

indicate any lack of interest in the results

of research projects, but is aimed solely at

avoiding any degree of governmental re-

striction. Grantees are requested, however,

to provide 10 copies of reprints after papers

have been published. It is also requested

that published papers carry footnote ac-

knowledgment of the financial assistance

through the grant.

The research grants program has grown

steadily. While financial figures are far from

being the only factor which shows growth,

they are at least easily apparent. In fiscal

year 1949, some 10.8 million dollars was ap-

propriated for the purpose; in fiscal year

1959 the appropriation for research grants

is 141.5 million dollars. This year there will

be some 7,000 or more research grants

awards, so dispersed geographically that

every corner of the country where there is

real research potential will be reached and

the nation will be aided with this support.

Some 5,000 or so professional papers will be

published by these grantees in a wide range

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of journals, and it is these fruits of the work

that best testify to the quality of the en-

deavors supported.

This is research in the public interest and

in which the public is vitally interested for,

as we all know, medical research is a sub-

ject which the public eagerly devours when

presented through the media of public com-

munication. Since studies done with research

erants are supported with public funds,

there is no desire on the part of NIH to as-

sume credit for this work; credit belongs to

the investigator and his institution and to

the people who, through their Congress and

Administration, make possible today so

much more medical research than used to be

conducted. Therefore, it is of public interest

to say that, year by year, many of the

medical research findings hailed in the press

and among the professions have received

NIH grant support. The quality of the pro-

gram and the quality of the judgment ex-

ercised by the Study Sections and Councils

is reflected, for example, in the fact that a

total of 27 Nobelists in medicine and phys-

iology have been recipients of NIH-PHS

grant support, including this year’s winners.

2. Research Fellowships

Research fellowships are intended to in-

crease the number of scientists qualified to

carry on independent research. Seven types

of fellowships are presently available:

(1) Predoctoral research fellowships are

awarded to students with a bachelor’s de-

gree or equivalent, for the pursuit of grad-

uate research training in the fields related

to the health sciences. Stipend rates are

$1,600, $1,800, and $2,000 for the first, sec-

ond, and third years, respectively. Allow-

ances for dependents, travel, and tuition are

added to the stipend.

(2) Postdoctoral research fellowships are

awarded to qualified persons holding a Doc-

tor’s degree in medicine, dentistry, or re-

lated fields. Stipend rates are $3,800, $4,200,

and $4,600 for the first, second, and third

years, respectively. Allowances for depend-

ents, tuition, and travel are added to the

stipend.

(3) Special research fellowships are

awarded to qualified candidates who have

demonstrated unusual competence in re-

VOL. 49, No. 3

search or who require specialized research

training. The stipend, including necessary

allowances, is determined at the time of the

award.

(4) Student part-time research fellow-

ship grants are awarded to schools of med-

icine, dentistry, nursing, and public health.

The awards are designed to give students in

the health sciences an opportunity to ex-

plore the research field in the hope that

many of those supported will enter into full

or part-time research careers. Units of $600

are provided for part-time research work

during the school term, or for full-time re-

search work for two months during any time

when curriculum work is not scheduled for

the student.

(5) Senor research fellowship grants are

awarded to schools of medicine, dentistry,

and public health in support of competent

scientists who wish to conduct research and

teaching in the preclinical sciences. These

fellowships provide support between the

completion of postdoctoral training and the

time of eligibility for appointment to per-

manent or higher academic posts. The

awards are made for 5-year periods, are re-

newable, and provide for salary, plus partial

research expenses not exceeding $2,000. Sen-

ior Research Fellows may also apply for ad-

ditional support for their research needs.

(6) Post-sophomore research fellowship

grants are awarded to schools of medicine

and dentistry for support of students who

wish to obtain research training prior to

completion of their professional degrees.

Participants must be willing to drop out of

regular courses for one, two, or three years.

The stipend is set by the school in amounts

not to exceed $3,200 annually. Allowances

for dependents and tuition are added to the

stipend.

(7) Foreign research fellowships are

awarded to a limited number of scientists

who wish to study in United States lab-

oratories. The purpose of the program is to

provide an opportunity to strengthen med-

ical research by mutual exchange of re-

search methods, scientific philosophy, and

cultural values. Nominations will be made

by respective National Research Organiza-

tions in each Western European country.

Candidates must have (a) completed a doc-

Marcu 1959 EXTRAMURAL PROGRAMS OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH 79

toral degree in one of the medical or related

sciences, and demonstrated proficiency in

research, (b) made satisfactory arrange-

ments with the laboratory in the United

States where training will be obtained, and

ing knowledge of the English language.

Scientists will be brought to the United

States on an exchange-visitor’s visa, which

requires return to the homeland for a period

of at least two years at the end of the train-

ing period. Stipends are $3,800 for the first

year and $4,100 for the second year. De-

pendency, travel and certain other allow-

ances are added to the stipend.

In fiscal year 1957, over 2,000 research

fellowships were provided in a total amount

of $5,300,000.

3. Training Grants and Traineeships

Training grants are intended to augment

the nation’s supply of qualified scientific

investigators by assisting in the establish-

ment, expansion, and improvement of train-

ing and instructional programs in univer-

sities and other institutions. Aid to the

institution is provided by grants in two

general classes—undergraduate and grad-

uate.

Traineeships to individuals may be

awarded either through one of the graduate

training grants or directly to the individual

in training. Traineeships are intended to in-

crease the number of qualified investigators

by encouraging advanced training in spe-

cialized areas of medical and related re-

search, as well as in the fields of public

health and nursing. Stipend rates vary ac-

cording to the nature and requirements of

the different fields covered.

(1) Undergraduate training grants are

awarded to schools of medicine, dentistry,

nursing, and public health to assist in de-

veloping expanded and better integrated

undergraduate instruction relating to the

prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of can-

cer, mental illness, and cardiovascular dis-

eases. It is the responsibility of the institu-

tion to determine the most appropriate use

of the funds.

(2) Graduate training grants are awarded

to public and private nonprofit institutions

interested in providing special training for

researchers, teachers, and prospective prac-

titioners interested in public service. Funds

may be used to improve facilities and to

provide salaries for faculty and staff, sti-

pends for trainees, and necessary supplies

and materials.

In fiscal year 1957, over 1,100 training

erants were made in a total amount of

$25,000,000. Approximately 1,950 trainees

were supported under these grants. In ad-

dition, 405 direct traineeships in a total

amount of $1,857,000 were made.

4. Health Research Facilities Grants

Under the Health Research Facilities Act

of 1956, the Congress authorized the estab-

lishment of a program to assist in the con-

struction of additional facilities for the con-

duct of research in the sciences relating to

health. The program provides grants in aid

on a matching basis to public and private

nonprofit institutions. The amount of Fed-

eral funds awarded may not exceed 50 per-

cent of the total costs of the research portion

of the facility, and the remaining sum must

be provided from non-Federal sources. The

sum of $30,000,000 has been appropriated

yearly for this program since its inception

and to date, and meritorious applications

submitted to the National Advisory Council

on Health Research Facilities have re-

quested funds far in excess of the appropria-

tions, even though the applicants must, as

indicated, match the Federal dollars. Sev-

eral hundred awards have been made to in-

stitutions in all parts of the country under

this program, and already new research fa-

cilities are in operation that would not

otherwise have been made possible.

Here it is well to point out that the pro-

grams described above, for research, for

training, and for facilities, supplement and

complement each other—and help achieve

the balance that always must be sought be-

tween these necessary components of re-

search: funds for skilled investigators to

do research with, facilities in which to work,

and training to develop scientific manpower

to do research.

In the above, I have portrayed most of

the major components of the NIH extra-

mural program. I should mention that I

have not included a relatively new area for

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

us, that of contract research, because it is

in developmental stages and is concerned

largely only with the specialized area of

cancer chemotherapy. Many of you, of

course, know the program of our National

Cancer Institute’s National Cancer Chemo-

therapy Service Center. Through this Cen-

ter a large endeavor is underway, employing

contract work as one of the mechanisms, to

screen many, many thousands of compounds

for possible anticancer effects and to de-

velop, ultimately and hopefully, chemother-

apeutic agents useful against human can-

cers.

The future is bright for not only this but

also the other extramural programs which I

have discussed, in the opinion of the more

than one thousand representatives of Amer-

ica’s scientific community who advise upon

and guide these programs. This summer a

final report was issued by a group of con-

sultants to the Secretary of the Department

of Health, Education, and Welfare who had

been appointed to study and advise upon

the advancement of medical research and

education through programs of the Depart-

ment. This group, known as the Bayne-

Jones Committee since it was chaired by

Dr. Stanhope Bayne-Jones, foresaw and

recommended a future of strong growth

and development for medical and related

research and medical education.

VoL. 49, NO. 3

In the final analysis, of course, the con-

tinued success of the NIH program, as one

of the partners in the nation’s medical re-

search enterprise, rests upon the human and

economic benefits that accrue from pro-

ductive scientific investigation. That the

past decade has seen many such benefits, in

terms of new drugs and other therapies, for

example, is well known.

In the paper to which I referred earlier,

presented in 1946, these thoughts were ex-

pressed:

The great benefits from all medical research,

wherever conducted, are received by the millions

of people whose lives are made healthier, happier,

and longer through widespread application of

knowledge gained in research larboratories. Con-

versely, research not conducted for want of funds

is very costly to the same millions. The essence

of these facts, as related to the Research Grants

program, has been stated by the National Advisory

Health Council: “There are few purposes for which

public funds could be used more appropriately

than to discover ways to prevent and cure illness

and to prolong useful years of life.” The function

of the Research Grants is to make it possible for

workers in medical and allied sciences to expedite,

extend, and intensify health-saving and life-saving

research.

The function of the whole extramural

program of NIH, comprising today 80 per-

cent of this year’s total of $324.4 million

in public funds, remains essentially the same

in 1958 as in 1946.

Marcu 1959

EXTRAMURAL SCIENCE PROGRAMS OF THE U. S. D. A. 81

Extramural Science Programs of the United States

Department of Agriculture

By Byron T. SHaw, Administrator, Agricultural Research Service

Some of the other representatives on this

panel may contradict me, but I believe that

the Department of Agriculture administers

the oldest extramural science program in

the Federal Government. We have actually

had such a program since 1887. But before

discussing our extramural research, I want

to say a few words—by way of background

—about our intramural or regular research

program.

As you know, the Department has the

responsibility in the Federal Government

for agricultural research. This responsibility

goes back to 1862, when the Department

was established “to acquire and diffuse use-

ful information on subjects connected with

agriculture in the most general and compre-

hensive sense of the word.” Beginning in a

small way, and expanding as the needs of

agriculture and the Nation increased, the

Department’s research program today cov-

ers all phases of production, marketing, and

utilization of agricultural products. It uti-

lizes all the life sciences, nearly all the phys-

ical sciences, and to an increasing extent

the social sciences as well.

Our intramural science program is a dis-

persed cooperative endeavor, involving

some 10,000 employees and an appropri-

ation of approximately $90 million. We

have research locations in every State, rang-

ing in number from 1 to 28 and in size from

small 1-man field stations to the large re-

gional utilization laboratories and the Re-

search Center at Beltsville, Md. We are

also doing a limited amount of regular re-

search in other countries—in Latin America,

Europe, and Africa.

About 90 percent of our research is co-

operative with other public and private

organizations—including Federal and State

agencies, private research institutions, and

farmer and industry groups. More than half

of the work is in cooperation with State

agricultural experiment stations.

Through the years, the States have also

provided increasing support for agricultural

science. At the present time State agricul-

tural experiment stations are spending an

estimated $100 million of non-Fedreal funds

for State and regional research. In addition,

they are spending $311 million made avail-

able by Congress as Federal grants. These

Federal-grant funds are appropriated to the

Department for payment to the States and

constitute our oldest and largest extramural

science program.

The Federal-grant program had its origin

in the Hatch Act of 1887, which authorized

an annual Federal grant of $15,000 to each

State for the partial support of State agri-

cultural experiment stations. Additional acts

successively increased the amounts of these

payments, each act setting up its own for-

mula for distributing the funds. In 1955,

Congress consolidated these acts into one

statute, which now serves as the authority

for all Federal-grant payments to State

experiment stations.

Administration of these funds is delegated

by the Secretary to the Agricultural Re-

search Service, and we have a Deputy Ad-

ministrator for Experiment Stations—Dr.

EK. C. Elting—who is responsible for this

activity. Dr. Elting and a small scientific

staff prescribe standards for Federal-grant

research, approve projects to be supported

by Federal-grant funds, and determine that

the funds are spent in accordance with the

purposes intended by Congress.

Each State experiment station director

develops his own State research program in

terms of State and Federal resources avail-

able to him. He submits to the ARS well-

defined projects for which he proposes Fed-

eral-grant support. Projects that are

approved then become an integral part of

the State program and may or may not be

carried out in cooperation with the Depart-

ment. Publication of results and any patent-

able materials that may develop in Federal-

erant research are entirely the property of

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the State experiment station and are not

subject to Federal printing or patent regu-

lations. Close to 6,000 State experiment

station projects are currently being sup-

ported entirely or in part by Federal-grant

funds.

The department’s role in the Federal-

erant research program is primarily one

of service. Although we must assure that

certain legal requirements are met, a far

more important responsibility is the techni-

cal assistance we’re called on to give. This

assistance includes comprehensive reviews

of Federal-grant research, participation in

planning of regional research, and coordina-

tion of research effort among the States as

well as between the States and the Depart-

ment. This broad review and coordinating

service helps all of us to avoid duplication

of effort, to recognize gaps that need to be

filled, and to plan and carry out a more ef-

fective Federal-State program of agricul-

tural research.

Our second extramural science program

was initiated about 10 years ago under the

Research and Marketing Act of 1946. This

act for the first time gave us authority to

contract for research outside the Depart-

ment, when such work can be done more

rapidly, more effectively, or at less cost

than it can be done within the Department.

Originally, this contracting authority ap-

plied only to utilization and marketing

research, but in 1954 it was broadened to

include all phases of Department research.

At the present time, we have approximately

200 research contracts in force, totaling

close to $4 million, and divided roughly

fifty-fifty, in terms of public and private

organizations doing the work.

I mentioned that in Federal-grant re-

search, the States make most of the deci-

sions. In contrast, we make most of the

decisions in our contract research program.

We determine what research needs to be

done, what will be done, and, by mutual

agreement with the contractor, how it will

be done. In each case, we negotiate as to

terms, conditions, length of time, and cost

of the research to be undertaken. Research

results must be published in a manner ap-

proved by the Department, and any patent-

VoL. 49, No. 3

able materials developed are assigned to the

Secretary of Agriculture for public use.

Although, in a few cases, we have con-

tracts involving basic research, it is ex-

tremely difficult—because of the very na-

ture of basic research—to negotiate this

type of contract. And we were pleased when

the recent Congress, recognizing this prob-

lem, gave the Department authority, for the

first time, to make discretionary grants for

basic research. No special money has been

appropriated for such grants, however, and

our present funds are all obligated. But we

hope, through future adjustments in our

program, to make funds available for this

purpose.

We are convinced that through both con-

tracts and grants, we can help to obtain

more efficient use of our Nation’s scientific

manpower and facilities and thus make

faster progress in agricultural research.

The same kind of thinking is the basis

of our third extramural science program,

which has been initiated during the past

year. This time we are undertaking—also

through contract and grant arrangements—

a rather extensive program of research by

foreign scientists in foreign scientific insti-

tutions. Authority and funds for this work

come from the Agricultural Trade Develop-

ment and Assistance Act of 1954generally

called public Law 480. As you know, under

this Act, our Government sells surplus agri-

cultural commodities to foreign countries

and receives payment in foreign currencies.

It is these currencies that we are using for

our overseas research. The Act originally

limited use of these funds to research that

would extend our markets for agricultural

commodities. Last spring, Congress added a

new authority, and we can now use Public

Law 480 funds for all phases of agricultural

research.

We expect to obligate something like $10

million (in foreign currency equivalent)

during this fiscal year, to be spent over a

period of 5 years. These obligated funds

represent money now available, and they

will cover the entire cost of grants and con-

tracts negotiated. This is to assure that we

will have enough money to complete any

overseas research jobs that we start.

Marcu 1959

The program is being developed by three

survey teams, who are visiting the various

countries to evaluate the potential of their

scientists and facilities and to determine the

willingness of their governments to sanction

the research. One team is working in Europe

and the Middle East, the second in the Far

Hast, and the third will be in Central and

South America after the first of the year.

Several grants have already been exe-

cuted for work in the United Kingdom and

Israel, and we are well along with our ne-

gotiations in France, Italy, Spain, and Fin-

land. Other countries—including Poland,

Yugoslavia, Pakistan, Indonesia, India, and

Chile—are in the survey stage. And still

others will probably become eligible for

participation, as additional sales of surplus

products are made and additional foreign

currencies become available.

Both basic and applied research, as well

as developmental work, will be included in

this foreign program. All basic studies will

be done through grants, and all develop-

mental work will be carried out under con-

tract. Both grants and contracts will be used

for applied research; each proposed project

will be considered on its own merits.

Although no hard and fast rule has been

established, we expect to concentrate the

basic research in Europe, because European

scientists are especially noted for their con-

tributions in this area of research. The ap-

plied and developmental work will be done

in all the countries participating in the pro-

gram.

We know there is a vast reservoir of

scientific manpower in the free world. And

we believe, through the P. L. 480 program,

that we can help to make more effective use

of this manpower—to our own benefit as

well as that of the countries concerned.

I want to stress that this foreign research

is supplementary to our own domestic pro-

gram. We are looking for institutions having

scientific personnel with specialized experi-

ence and facilities that will enable them to

carry out needed research more rapidly or

more effectively than can now be done here

in the United States.

EXTRAMURAL SCIENCE PROGRAMS OF THE U. S. D. A. 83

In the utilization, marketing, and home

economics research, we hope to develop

new uses and new markets for agricultural

products, both in the United States and in

the country concerned. These studies will

include quality evaluation of farm commod-

ities, biochemical changes that occur in ma-

turing fruits and vegetables, market disease

and insect problems, and consumer habits

and preferences in foreign countries.

In the farm and forestry studies, we will

give special attention to foreign diseases,

insects, and other pests that constitute po-

tential threats to American agriculture. We

also want to study the genetic traits of for-

eign livestock breeds, potential new crop

plants under native conditions, and old-

world soils, which may help us find out how

to halt soil deterioration in this country.

Results of this overseas research will be

made available to the United States public

in the same way results of our domestic

research are made available. And we reserve

the right to publish results in other coun-

tries, including the country where the work

is done, if the contractor fails to do so. All

patentable materials will be assigned to the

Secretary of Agriculture for United States

use anywhere in the world. Rights to the use

of such patents in other countries will of

course be in accordance with the patent

policies of those countries.

Needless to say, we are quite optimistic

about this new world-wide resource for agri-

cultural research. We believe it has great

potentials for helping us solve some of our

important farm problems.

Taken all together, our extramural sci-

ence programs—aincluding Federal grants to

the States and the domestic and foreign

contract-and-grant programs—constitute a

powerful supplement to the Department’s

research effort. They not only represent ad-

ditional manpower and facilities for getting

ahead faster—they also promote better un-

derstanding and closer cooperation among

all groups working to advance agriculture.

And I am convinced that where we have un-

derstanding and cooperation, we have an

environment for outstanding progress.

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 49, No. 3

Extramural Science Programs of the Atomic Energy Commission

By Cuarues L. Dunnam, Director, Division of Biology and

Medicine, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission

The Atomic Energy Commission has well-

defined responsibilities for the conduct of

scientific research and development pro-

erams. Its science programs with the nota-

ble exception of its Health and Safety Lab-

oratory in New York City are almost

exclusively accomplished by contract and

so contain practically no intramural activi-

ties in the usual sense of the word. Its na-

tional laboratories, such as the Oak Ridge

National Laboratory, the Brookhaven Na-

tional Laboratory, and the Argonne Na-

tional Laboratory, and its other major re-

search and development facilities such as

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and the

Ernest O. Lawrence Radiation Laboratories

at Livermore and Berkeley, are largely

government-owned but contractor operated,

in fact, chiefly by universities or groups of

universities. Exceptions are the Oak Ridge

National Laboratory and the research and

development activities at the Hanford

Works which are under contract with in-

dustrial firms. I have assumed for purposes

of this symposium that my remarks should

be directed primarily toward that part of

our science program carried out in non-Goy-

ernment owned facilities, 1.e., our offsite re-

search program.

In order to get a proper picture of our

total effort, one must bear in mind that the

onsite and offsite aspects of our programs

are closely integrated. In general, work at

the major AEC laboratories 1s work especi-

ally appropriate to the unique facilities and

talents at hand. Interdisciplinary research

and research projects involving large col-

laborative efforts by many scientists have

proved especially effective in such an en-

vironment. This is not to say such projects

can not or should not be undertaken at uni-

versities. In fact the AEC does support this

type of work in its offsite programs where

the situation is favorable and we have not

hesitated to provide major items of equip-

ment, building modifications and the like to

universities and independent or private-

owned laboratories so as to further such

efforts.

Before sketching our program, and our

program interests, I should give you some

background.

The AEC emerged from the Manhattan

Engineering District with a total monopoly

in this country of nuclear-weapons research

and nuclear reactor research, practically all

of which was being conducted at Govern-

ment-owned but contractor-operated insti-

tutions. It also found itself supporting di-

rectly or in collaboration with the Office of

Naval Research a large share of the coun-

try’s nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry

research whether conducted at Government

facilities, universities, or independent labo-

ratories. In addition, it was supporting a

program of radiobiological research. Almost

all the latter was being conducted in Goy-

ernment-owned facilities. This was the situ-

ation at the time the Atomic Energy Act of

1946 was passed.

Section 1(a) of the Act concluded as fol-

lows: “Accordingly, it is hereby declared to

be the policy of the people of the United

States that, subject at all times to the para-

mount objective of assuring the common

defense and security, the development and

utilization of atomic energy shall, so far as

practicable, be directed toward improving

the public welfare, increasing the standard

of living, strengthening free competition in

private enterprise, and promoting world

peace.”

The Act went on in Section 1(b) to define

the purpose of the Act as follows:

Purpose of Act—It is the purpose of this Act to

effectuate the policies set out in Section 1(a) by

providing, among others, for the following major

programs relating to atomic energy.

(1) A program of assisting and fostering private

research and development to encourage maximum

scientific progress;

(2) A program for the control of scientific and

technical information which will permit the dis-

Marcu 1959

semination of such information to encourage scien-

tific progress, and for the sharing on a reciprocal

basis of information concerning the practical in-

dustrial application of atomic energy as soon as

effective and enforceable safeguards against its use

for destructive purposes can be devised;

(3) A program of federally conducted research

and development to assure the Government of ade-

quate scientific and technical accomplishment.

It then went on to say that the AEC was

established to accomplish these objectives.

In order to implement these parts of the Act,

recognizing that nuclear science and radio-

biology must advance as rapidly and as free

of security restrictions as possible under the

Act, the AEC developed its research pro-

gram in such a way as to encourage extra-

mural research activities at universities,

colleges and independent laboratories

throughout the country. In the first few

years of both its physical research and its

biomedical research programs the AEC

leaned heavily on the ONR through cooper-

ative arrangements with that agency for

rapid implementation of the program.

The reactor program continued for the

most part at AEC laboratories and at AEC

facilities operated by contracts with in-

dustry until the Atomic Energy Act of 1954

was passed which directed the AEC to re-

move from classification restrictions data

whose publication and dissemination would

not cause undue risk to the common defense

and security. The weapons development

program has continued almost exclusively

in AEC installations and on a classified ba-

sis to date.

Our physical-research program exclusive

of work on controlled thermonuclear reac-

tions has grown on the basis of annual oper-

ating cost from about $21,000,000 in 1948 to

about $89,000,000 in the current fiscal year.

Meanwhile over and above what was in-

herited from the MED the AEC has spent

for construction for physical research fa-

cilities more than $100,000,000, roughly

three-fourths of which was spent for major

research machines and associated housing,

a number of which were located on univer-

sity campuses. At present some $34,000,000

of the Division of Research’s $89,000,000

total annual operating funds go to support

work not conducted at AEC-owned major

research centers. Through all its activities

EXTRAMURAL SCIENCE PROGRAMS OF THE A. E. C. 85

whether concerned with onsite or offsite re-

search this Division shapes the programs in

such a way as to foster the development of

new talent for its future needs.

Work in basic physical research breaks

down into four major areas: physics and

mathematics, controlled thermonuclear re-

actions, commonly known as “Sherwood,”

chemistry, and metallurgy and materials.

In physics, the major effort centers

around attempts to learn all that can be

learned about the fundamental properties

of nuclear matter through research with

high energy particle accelerators as well as

through the use of high flux research reac-

tors and low energy accelerators. Although

the Nation’s two largest particle accelera-

tors are located at AEC laboratories, more

than one-third of the AEC funds support-

ing high-energy physics and nuclear struc-

ture research goes into offsite programs.

Mathematics research and research in the

field of computers are sponsored for what

they may contribute to advancing knowl-

edge and in the case of computers for what

these machines may contribute to a great

increase in research per scientific man-year.

Work performed under the _ so-called

Sherwood project is aimed at the develop-

ment of a controlled thermonuclear reaction

for the ultimate purpose of generating eco-

nomic power for industrial and civilian use.

This effort, currently costing between

$35,000,000 and $40,000,000 annually, is

limited by our present incomplete under-

standing of the fundamental properties of

plasmas. Hence more and more work is de-

voted to understanding cooperative phe-

nomena in a completely ionized gas. The

major costs in this program except for the

stellerator project at Princeton University

are incurred at AEC laboratories.

Chemistry research includes work de-

voted to such very practical problems as

solvent extraction and ion-exchange tech-

niques, analytical techniques for process

control and methods for producing usable

amounts of rare earth salts, pure metallic

uranium, thorium, zirconium, hafnium, ni-

obium, tantalum, and the like as well as

transuranic elements, all of interest to the

atomic-energy program. Geochemical and

geophysical research is supported princi-

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

pally at universities and the U. 8S. Geologi-

cal Survey. Fundamental research in the

program category “Chemical properties and

reactions,” with considerable emphasis on

the nuclear and chemical properties of the

heavy elements, takes place under heavy

AEC support at universities, as well as at

the AEC laboratories.

Finally, our physical research program

includes heavy emphasis on metallurgy and

materials. Research in this area falls into

the categories of production, treatment, and

properties of metals, alloy theory, and ir-

radiation effects.

The science program of the Division of

Reactor Development includes research and

development activities categorized under

AEC’s civilian power and supporting pro-

grams and costing this fiscal year about

$162,000,000. These activities are directed

towards development of nuclear reactors

for economic, electrical power, space heat,

gasification of coal, polymerization proc-

esses, and for the propulsion of merchant

vessels. This Division also administers the

military reactor program which includes

nuclear propulsion units for submarines,

surface vessels, aircraft and rockets as well

as package power units for military instal-

lations.

The civilian power program is for the

most part carried out at AEC installations

and at industrial establishments with some

university and independent laboratory par-

ticipation. The program includes not only

the design and construction of research re-

actors and reactors for testing purposes, ex-

perimental and prototype reactors, but in

addition there is a research program con-

cerned with fuel element development, sepa-

rations systems development, i.e., fuel ele-

ment processing for recovery of fissionable

material, radioactive waste treatment and

waste disposal development, and reactor

safety development.

The Atomic Energy Commission has re-

cently inaugurated a program for accelerat-

ing the development of the industrial uses

of radioisotopes. This year it will spend

about $4,000,000 for applications develop-

ment, high-intensity radiation studies, and

to increase training opportunities for prac-

ticing industrial scientists and engineers.

VoL. 49, No. 3

In the biomedical field AEC’s offsite sci-

ence program is closely related to and sup-

plements its onsite program. Of the

$43,000,000 operating funds for the current

fiscal year for biomedical research about

one-third goes for the support of over 500

separate totally unclassified contracts with

universities and independent laboratories

for work in the following areas; the biologi-

cal effects of the various ionizing radiations

including acute and delayed effects, and ei-

fects produced by various beam intensities.

Objects for study include the gamut from

effects on simple biological systems to the

most complex organisms including wherever

possible effects on man himself. A major ef-

fort is directed to the genetic and ecarcino-

genic effects of ionizing radiations whether

from external sources or from radionuclides

incorporated into the living organism. An-

other important area for research support

is in the development of methods for alter-

ing or combatting radiation effects and for

removing deposited radionuclides from the

body. A third area of scientific effort is the

monitoring of radioactive materials dis-

tributed around the world as fallout from

nuclear weapons testing, and studies of the

movement of radionuclides in the strato-

sphere, troposphere, the soil, plants and ani-

mals and animal products. All this is in an

effort to gain an understanding of the mech-

anism of transport and incorporation into

the food chain of these materials. The fourth

category concerns work carried on at field

tests, at AEC laboratories and to a lesser

extent at private institutions on problems

concerned with understanding and estimat-

ing effects of radiation, including radioac-

tive fallout, thermal radiation effects and

primary and secondary blast effects from

nuclear weapons. A fifth category is radia-

tion dosimetry and instrumentation. The

last category we call the beneficial uses of

atomic energy. Except for our cancer re-

search program, it is very largely carried

out in university laboratories and is devoted

to exploiting the tools of atomic energy—

reactors, and accelerators, and the byprod-

ucts of atomic energy—radioisotopes, in the

advancement of knowledge in medicine,

agriculture, and biology generally.

In addition to these research and develop-

MarcuH 1959 EXTRAMURAL SCIENCE AND RESEARCH ACTIVITIES OF N. A. S. A. 87

ment programs the AEC science program in-

cludes training and education activities.

This year we are spending approximately

$15,500,000 for this purpose. We have spe-

cial fellowship programs in industrial medi-

cine, industrial hygiene, and radiological

physics all carried out principally on uni-

versity campuses. In addition there are re-

actor engineering fellowships. The training

for these is partly at universities and partly

at AEC laboratories. We sponsor jointly

with the National Science Foundation a

number of programs aimed at improving

science teaching in secondary schools. This

latter category includes summer workshops

in radiobiology and radiological physics for

high school science teachers. Finally, AEC

has a program of grants for radiation equip-

ment to be used in colleges and universities

in courses in reactor engineering, courses in

radiation health, and courses in the life sci-

ences and physical sciences generally.

In summary: The AEC program in sci-

ence is accomplished almost exclusively by

contract with universities, groups of uni-

versities, industry, and independent labora-

tories. Its major operations are carried out

for the most part in Government-owned

facilities but contractor operated. Its offsite

research involves the support of many hun-

dred totally unclassified research projects

chiefly in university laboratories and

planned to supplement the work of the large

laboratories. In physical science the goal is

to keep the United States at the forefront in

the atomic energy field. In reactor engineer-

ing—to produce economic and safe nuclear

power plants for a variety of purposes.

In biology and medicine its goal is to

produce as complete as possible a body of

knowledge concerning the effects of ionizing

radiations on biological systems and how

to alter and to protect against these effects.

It also aims to exploit the tools and by-

products of atomic energy activities for the

benefit of mankind in medicine, biology and

in agricultural sciences.

Finally the AEC devotes a considerable

effort to strengthening education and train-

ing in the fields of its principal interests.

a a

Extramural Science and Research Activities of the National Aeronautics

and Space Administration

By Ira H. Apsort, Assistant Director of Research, NASA

The National Aeronautics and Space Ad-

ministration will be three months old in a

few days. With the agency at this tender

age I am certain that you will appreciate

the difficulty of my speaking in detail about

the nature and scope of our extramural sci-

ence and education activities and the con-

tribution made by these activities to the

achievement of our objectives. We do, how-

ever, have some fairly definite thoughts

and plans about these activities.

The NASA was formed with the old Na-

tional Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

as its nucleus. The NASA is not merely an

enlarged NACA but is a new agency which

includes the former NACA and other organ-

izations which have been transfered to it.

I believe it would, nevertheless, be appro-

priate to say a few words about the former

NACA for the benefit of those of you who

may not be familiar with it.

The NACA was established in 1915 to

conduct research in the fields of aeronautics.

Its main responsibilities were:

1. Foresight in the planning of research

that would produce new research informa-

tion when needed,

2. The conduct of such research, mainly

in its own laboratories, and

3. Effective communication in making its

research results rapidly and generally avail-

able.

The NACA fostered close contact and co-

operation with other Government agencies,

with industry, and with the scientific com-

munity. Its advisory committees served the

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

broader purpose of providing a mechanism

for the exchange of scientific information

and opinion, and thus encouraged the in-

formal coordination of research through

this exchange of information.

The NACA started its research activities

through contracting with others for the

eonduct of research. In the first five years

of operation, 82 technical reports were 1s-

sued of which only 7 were prepared by the

NACA staff, and 5 of these were in the fifth

year. Through a combination of circum-

stanees which I need not dwell upon, the

NACA was unable to extend this program

of contract research to meet the needs of

the country, and it established its own lab-

oratories to conduct most of its research.

The total contract research program of the

NACA never exceeded one million dollars

a year and was usually much smaller. Even

this small program was of great value in

supplementing its own research because it

permitted the utilization of special skills

and talents that existed only in the univer-

sities and research institutions.

Because of the small size of the NACA

extramural research program, the agency

only occasionally sought out people or or-

ganizations to undertake research on prob-

lems proposed by itself, and limited the

program to nonprofit organizations. Usually

selection was made from the numerous pro-

posals made by people who desired spon-

sorship for the research they wished to un-

dertake. This system worked well for such

a small program because it assured a high

degree of enthusiasm and competence by

the research workers. In this program the

NACA operated within a rather narrow au-

thorization. Consequently, the program was

conducted with one-year fixed-price con-

tracts. Within this hmitation a sincere at-

tempt was made to keep the program as

flexible as possible. The contracts called

only for work of a certain type or within

an area, and a report on the results. Con-

tinuity was obtained to such a degree that

a few institutions have worked continuously

on certain problems for a dozen years or

more.

The National Aeronautics and Space Act

of 1958 creating the NASA continued all

the functions of the NACA and added the

vou. 49, No. 3

direct responsibility for research in space

technology, for the design, development,

construction, and operation of space vehi-

cles for peaceful purposes, and for the con-

duct of scientific research in space. These

are grave responsibilities involving the pres-

ervation of the role of the United States as

a leader in aeronautical and space science

and technology.

We plan to continue our research pro-

grams at the Langley, Ames, and Lewis Re-

search Centers to support both aeronautical

and space activities. In this work we shall

continue to cooperate as in the past with

other Government agencies, the industry,

and with educational and research institu-

tions. With regard to our new functions in

space technology, we intend to develop in

our own staff a relatively small but highly

skilled organization with the technical ca-

pabilities fully to meet our responsibilities

in planning and conducting our programs.

We expect to contract with industry for the

design, development, and construction of

space vehicles and components. We intend

to conduct an intensive program of scientific

research in space, both to assist in the de-

velopment of space technology and to ex-

plore and study the natural phenomena

occurring outside the earth. This program

will offer unique opportunities for coopera-

tive activity between NASA and the educa-

tional and research institutions in conduct-

ing scientific experiments using sounding

rockets, satellites, deep space probes, and

interplanetary vehicles.

It is obvious that the proper discharge of

our responsibilities will require the full and

efficient utilization of all the scientific and

technical skills that should be brought to

bear on this task, wherever they may exist.

Consequently, the NASA plans to sponsor

a greatly increased program of research in

educational and research institutions. The

NASA is aided in these plans by having a

broad authorization for the conduct of this

program. It will be under the direction of

Dr. Lloyd Wood of our Headquarters staff.

Our preliminary planning has established

the following general principles:

1. The research may be either basic or

apphed

Marca 1959 EXTRAMURAL SCIENCE AND RESEARCH ACTIVITIES OF N. A. S. A. 89

2. The research should be relevant to the

mission of the NASA

3. The research should be coordinated

with and supplementary to NASA Research

Center programs

4. The research should be coordinated

with that sponsored by the National Science

Foundation and other Government agencies.

5. Continuity of support should be pro-

vided so the investigators can plan their

research most effectively and make the com-

mitments necessary to retain capable as-

sistants.

In order to implement point 5, it is

planned to make the initial obligation of

funds to cover costs for periods up to three

years. Insofar as practicable, notice of ter-

mination or extension of support will be

given at least one year in advance. Over-

head will be paid according to approved

Government practices with the intent of

paying the indirect cost of research activi-

ties. It is also planned to use both contracts

and grants as appropriate to support the

research.

It is apparent that research relevant to

the mission of the NASA will include many

branches of science. In addition to the usual

physical and engineering sciences, we shall

be interested in the cosmological sciences,

the life sciences, and, at least to some de-

eree, socio-economic studies.

I would lke to emphasize the new op-

portunities the NASA offers for educational

and research institutions to participate as

full partners in the conduct of scientific

research in space. The law specifically pro-

vides that one of our functions is to ‘“‘ar-

range for participation by the scientific

community in planning research measure-

ments and observations to be made through

use of aeronautical and space vehicles and

conduct or arrange for the conduct of such

measurements and observations.”

We are confident that the educational and

research institutions will be fertile sources

of ideas for worth-while experiments to be

conducted in space. Within the limit of our

resources we shall be happy to contract with

such institutions to follow up on their ideas

and to reduce them to properly instru-

mented experiments. In some cases the en-

gineering and operating problems may be

entirely within the capabilities of the con-

tracting institution. Such may be the case,

for example, with sounding rockets. In other

cases the NASA itself, either through its

own resources or through industrial con-

tracts, will necessarily play a major role

in the engineering and operating phases of

the program. Obvious examples would be

relativistic clock experiments to study the

gravitational effect and orbiting astronom-

ical laboratories. In these cases we shall

assist In such work as appropriate by ar-

ranging for instrumentation and for instru-

mentation packaging, by providing the ve-

hicles, by launching and tracking them, by

obtaining the data and reducing them to

understandable form so that the contracting

institution can analyze and interpret the

information and report the results.

The coming space age is opening up vast

new avenues of scientific exploration and

achievement. Where they will lead I cannot

say because our imaginations are too lim-

ited for us to foresee the potentials ahead.

I am certain that the exploration of these

avenues is a task that we must all under-

take together in a spirit of scientifie coop-

eration. We in the NASA intend to under-

take our work in this spirit and to pursue

it as vigorously and rapidly as will be pos-

sible with the resources made available to

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 49, No. 3

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

782D MEETING

The 782d meeting of the Society was held in

the John Wesley Powell Auditorium, January 8,

1958, President Carte H. Dane presiding.

Informal communication—Joun B. MERTIE,

Jr.: A monazite lode in South Africa.

Program—Harry Kurmic, A. V. HEYL, A.

R. Taytor, and Jerome Stone: Rare earth

deposit at the Scrub Oaks mine, Morris County,

New Jersey.

IsiporE ZieTz, G. EK. ANDREASEN, and AR-

THUR GRANTzZ: An aeromagnetic study of the

Cook Inlet area, Alaska.

Twenty-seven east-west aeromagnetic trav-

erses were flown across the Cook Inlet depression

at a flight elevation of approximately 2,500 feet

above mean sea level. The northernmost line

crosses the area between Willow and Kashwitna,

and the southernmost line crosses Cook Inlet at

about Homer. The lines traverse part or all of

four Mesozoic tectonic elements that dominate

the structure of the Cook Inlet area. These are

the Talkeetna geanticline, the Matanuska geo-

syncline, the Seldovia geanticline, and the Chu-

gach geosyncline.

The aeromagnetic data, compiled as total in-

tensity magnetic profiles, show several signifi-

cant features that are consistent with the struc-

tural grain of the area. A 2-dimensional anomaly

is observed near the eastern edge of the area on

all profiles except the southernmost lines where

the feature becomes obscure. Geologic evidence

strongly suggests that this feature, called the

Knik Arm anomaly, is produced by granitic

rocks that have been intruded along the axis of

the Seldovia geanticline.

Near the western shore of Cook Inlet the

magnetic pattern changes abruptly. This line of

abrupt change implies a lithologic contact trend-

ing approximately northeast. This inferred con-

tact joins the Castle Mountain high-angle re-

verse fault, which has been mapped along the

north side of the Matanuska Valley and which

separates the rocks of the Talkeetna geanticline

to the north and northwest from the rocks of

the Matanuska geosyncline to the south. The

southern end of the inferred contact joins a

similar fault. This contact, which has been

named the Moquakie contact, marks the western

edge of the Matanuska geosyncline; it is in-

terpreted as a possible major fault or fault zone.

A structural basin lies between the Moquakie

contact and the Chugach-Kenai Mountains. This

basin is wide at the southern end of Cook Inlet

and narrows to the northeast. The few anomalies

over the basin area suggest depths to the base-

ment rocks of 2 to 4 miles. A 2-dimensional,

broad anomaly of about 200 gammas in mag-

nitude trends northeast from the Richfield well,

northeast of Nikishka, to the Susitna Flats area.

This anomaly, called the Point Possession anom-

aly, is believed to be produced by a rock mass

buried about three to four miles. The data sug-

gest that this trend also continues southwest

from the well.

783D MEETING

The 783d meeting of the Society was held in

the John Wesley Powell Auditorium, January

22, 1958, President Carte H. Dane presiding.

Program—D. M. Kinney, W. J. Hatt, JR.,

and A. D. Zapp: Latest Cretaceous and earliest

Tertiary rocks between Castlegate and Green

River, Utah.

W. L. Newman, A. T. Migescu, and E. M.

SHOEMAKER: Chemical composition as a guide

to the size of sandstone-type uranium deposits,

Colorado Plateau. Concentrations of uranium,

yttrium, sodium, iron, zirconium, manganese,

calcium, and nickel in 75 mill pulp samples of

uranium deposits in the Salt Wash member of

the Morrison formation on the Colorado Plateau

seem to be significantly related to the sizes of

the deposits represented by the samples. Linear

correlation coefficients between element concen-

trations, as determined by semiquantitative

spectrographic analysis, and sizes of deposits in

tons, range from /0.37/ for uranium and yttrium

to /0.24/ for nickel. The lowest significant cor-

relation coefficient for the 75 samples at the 95

percent level of confidence is 0.228. Three meth-

ods of size estimation were developed: one based

on simple linear regression theory and two based

on multiple regression theory. About 80 percent

of the size estimates based on simple linear re-

gression theory are within a factor of 12 to

14 of the true size. Estimates based upon

multiple regression theory range within approxi-

Marcu 1959

mately the same orders of magnitude. Although

the error of the estimates may be quite large,

the methods permit classification of the deposits

within reasonable confidence limits into the fol-

lowing size groups: very large deposits (10,000

to more than 100,000 tons), large deposits (1,000

to 10,000 tons), medium deposits (100 to 1,000

tons), small deposits (10 to 100 tons), and very

small deposits (1 to 10 tons). These methods

will be useful in estimating the sizes of deposits

where exposures of ore are limited, or where an

estimate is desired that is independent of other

estimates.

CHarLtes Mitton, Mary E. Mross, and

E. C. T. Cuao: Recent developments on the

mineralogy of the Green River shales.

784TH MEETING

The 784th meeting of the Society was held in

the John Wesley Powell Auditorium, February

12, 1958, President Carte H. DANE presiding.

Informal communication—PRESTON CLouD:

Mode of locomotion of an Upper Cambrian

trilobite.

Program.—RaupH L. MILusr: Faulting in the

southern Appalachians. Davin M. Raup: The

effect of environment on echinoid morphology.

The scutellid echinoid genus Dendraster L.

Agassiz has a geologic range from Pliocene to

Recent. Sand-dollars of this genus live now from

central Baja California to Vancouver Island,

British Columbia. Fossils occur in central and

southern California and in Baja California. In

the past, Dendraster has been classified into 25

species, subspecies, and varieties. In all these

forms, the apical system is posteriorly eccentric.

Variations in the eccentricity of the apical sys-

tem figure prominently in approximately two

out of every three taxonomic distinctions within

the genus.

The position of the apical system in D. ez-

centricus (Eschscholtz) varies widely. Variation

in this character between adjacent populations

of this single living species often exceeds varia-

tion between species in the fossil record. Fur-

thermore, variation in the eccentricity of the

apical system in D. excentricus is correlated with

water turbulence. In areas of high water tur-

bulence, such as those just beyond the surf zone

along the exposed coast, sand-dollars of this

species exhibit high eccentricity; that is, the

apical system is located near the posterior mar-

gin of the test. In quiet water, whether it be

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 91

at depth along the exposed coast or in shallow

protected bays, sand-dollars have a nearly cen-

tered apical system (low eccentricity). In in-

termediate environments, intermediate morphol-

ogy obtains. The correlation between turbulence

and morphology is interpreted as nongenetic

variation (nonheritable) resulting from the ef-

fect of environmental forces. The high degree

of eccentricity enables sand-dollars living under

turbulent conditions to be stable in the feeding

position and still have the madreporite exposed

(in the feeding position, they are inclined to the

sea bottom with the anterior portion of the test

buried).

Variation in eccentricity in fossil Dendraster

is interpreted in light of the above findings. The

three prominent Pliocene species, D. coalingaen-

sis Twitchell, D. ashleyi (Arnold), and D.

gibbsu (Rémond), have previously been dis-

tinguished from each other partially on the basis

of this character. Statistical analysis of these

forms shows D. ashleyi and D. gibbsii to be in-

distinguishable on the basis of this character.

Further, the amount of difference in eccentricity

between D. coalingaensis and D. gibbsii—D.

ashleyi is of the same order of magnitude as

that between populations of the living species

occurring under conditions of differing water

turbulence. Thus, the eccentricity differences

between D. coalingaensis and D. gibbsi-D.

ashley: are interpreted as the result of differing

water turbulence and not genetic change. This

does not mean that the three species are syn-

onymous but only that the differences in ec-

centricity are not genetic. The mean eccentricity

of the three Phocene forms, on the other hand,

is greater than that of the living species, D.

excentricus. Thus, there appears to have been

evolution toward a less eccentric apical system

between Pliocene and Recent.

Therefore, the eccentricity of the apical sys-

tem shows genetic change over time whereas at

a given point in time, it shows non-genetic

change and hence is an indicator of past envi-

ronmental conditions.

R. A. Bacnoup: Correlation between wind

and sand-dune directions in the light of present-

day conditions.

785TH MEETING

The 785th meeting of the Society was held

in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium, Febru-

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ary 26, 1958, Vice-President Luoyp G. HENBEST

presiding.

Program.—JouHN C. Reep, Jr.: Crystalline

rocks of the Potomac River Gorge near Wash-

ington, D. C. Below Great Falls, about 10 miles

northwest of Washington, the Potomac River is

entrenched in a spectacular gorge which affords

unexcelled exposures of the crystalline rocks of

the Piedmont. The major rock types exposed

between Great Falls and Stubblefield Falls are:

(1) Mica schist and arkosie quartzite, assigned

by Keith (1901) to the Carolina gneiss, and by

Cloos (1953) to the Wissahickon formation, (2)

amphibolite bodies, probably representing sills

or lava flows, interlayered in the schist and

quartzite sequence, (3) granitized schist (in part

the Sykesville formation of Cloos, 1953), and

(4) sodie quartz diorite or granodiorite in small

discordant intrusive bodies. The age of the rocks

is problematical: the quartzite-schist sequence

has been considered by some geologists to be

Precambrian, and by others to be an eastern

metamorphosed equivalent of lower Paleozoic

rocks in the Blue Ridge.

The quartzite occurs in massive beds as much

as 40 feet thick, and as thinner beds, commonly

regularly interlayered with schist. Locally,

graded bedding and crossbedding are preserved.

Bedding in the schist has been largely obliterated,

and the only conspicuous planar structures are

sets of S-planes marked by parallel orientation of

micaceous minerals. The earliest of these is par-

allel to bedding in the associated quartzites,

whereas the younger set is subparallel to axial

planes of folds. Locally the axial plane cleavage

is a closely spaced slip or fracture cleavage, but

generally it is marked by a parallelism of new

micas. In many places formation of the new

cleavage has destroyed all trace of the older

bedding plane foliation.

Petrographic evidence indicates that the

quartzite-schist sequence has undergone at least

two periods of metamorphism. Large bent and

ragged books of biotite and muscovite, very rare

relicts of andalusite, and indeterminate sericite

pseudomorphs, probably after andalusite or

other aluminum silicate minerals, are believed

to be relicts of the early stage. During the later

metamorphism new biotite, muscovite, and gar-

net were formed, and the earlier aluminum sili-

cates were almost completely altered to sericite.

In the interlayered mafic rocks the earlier met-

VOL. 49, NO. 3

amorphism produced the assemblage andesine-

green hornblende-clinozoisite, which during the

later metamorphism was locally converted to an

assemblage of oligoclase-epidote-biotite with

green hornblende as a relict. Perhaps these two

metamorphic episodes can be correlated with

the formation of the two sets of S-planes in the

schist.

The granitized schist was apparently produced

by interaction of the normal schist with soda-

rich solutions, probably at a late stage in the

second metamorphic cycle. All gradations exist

between schist with thin oligoclase-quartz fila-

ments along the two sets of S-planes to rocks in

which thin micaceous wisps, still preserving the

orientation and relationships of the S-planes in

the adjacent schist, appear “suspended” in a

granitic matrix of quartz and oligoclase.

Field relationships indicate that small dis-

ecordant plugs and dikes of leucocratic quartz

diorite, identical in mineralogy with the quartz-

feldspathic components of the granitized schist,

may represent local intrusion of material derived

from the granitized schist. Small granitic bodies

may have originated by migration of material

into regions of low pressure near brittle am-

phibolites and quartzites, while still others may

have been formed entirely by metosomatic re-

placement.

It is hoped that this brief outline will en-

courage others to continue studies in this easily

accessible and extremely well exposed area.

REFERENCES CITED

Cioos, Ernst. Geologic map of Montgomery

County, Maryland. Maryland Department of

Geology, Mines, and Water Resources. 1953.

Coos, Ernst, and ANDERSON, J. L. Geology of Bear

Island, Potomac River, Maryland. Johns Hop-

kins Univ. Studies in Geology, no. 16, pt. 2.

Baltimore, 1950.

KeituH, ArtHur. Description of the Piedmont Pla-

teau, in Washington folio, U. S. Geol. Survey

Folio 70. 1901.

F. G. Hourermans: Effects of cosmic radi-

ation in meteorites and the earth’s atmosphere.

786TH MEETING

The 786th meeting of the Society was held

in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium, March

12, 1958, President Carte H. DANE presiding.

Communication—JoHN B. Mertie: A me-

morial to Fred H. Moffit.

Marcu 1959

Program—U. S. Geological Survey investi-

gations at the Nevada test site: KE. B. EckEL

and ©. B. Reap: Geological phase; W. H.

Diment and others: Geophysical phase.

787TH MEETING

The 787th meeting of the Society was held in

the John Wesley Powell Auditorium, March

26, 1958, President Carte H. Dane presiding.

Program——M. Gorpon WoLMAN and LUCIEN

M. Brush, Jr.: Laboratory study of equilibrium

channel shape in noncohesive material.

J. T. Hack: The relation of manganese to

surficial deposits in the Shenandoah Valley, Vir-

ginia. Manganese mines and prospects in a nar-

row zone at the northwest foot of the Blue Ridge

occur in residual clays of the Cambrian Toms-

town dolomite and Waynesboro formation. They

are covered by a mantle of quartzite cobbles

washed from the mountain slopes. The deposits

are thought by some to have formed on the

Harrisburg peneplain in Tertiary time under

conditions of lesser relief and warmer climate,

as residual concentrates from carbonate rocks.

Mapping of the surficial deposits of the Shen-

andoah Valley reveals no evidence to support

the concept of multiple erosion cycles or of a

valley floor peneplain that might have provided

a site for manganese concentration. The features

of the region are better explained as the result

of long-continued and deep erosion of a folded

area that is now close to isostatic equilibrium.

Alluvium occurs where streams enter the lime-

stone valley from areas of resistant sandstone

and quartzite and is spread by laterally migrat-

ing and degrading streams that form pediment-

like aprons near the mountain foot. The spread-

ing is aided by piracies of the main streams by

their own tributaries. Residuum, or saprolite,

occurs on limestone where the insoluble residues

are protected from erosion by a resistant cap-

ping of either transported gravel or of coarse-

grained chert residual from the limestone itself.

The manganese deposits are residual concen-

trates in the clay, preserved not because they

are uneroded remnants on a Tertiary surface but

because they have been formed under an armor

of alluvial cobbles and gravel. The process of

manganese concentration is a continuous one

and may possibly be going on at the present time.

Earu IncErRSon: The Moscow symposium on

petrochemistry, December 1957.

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 93

788TH MEETING

The 788th meeting of the Society was held

in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium, April

9, 1958, President Carte H. Dane presiding.

Program —G. W. WETHERILL, G. R. TILTON,

and G. L. Davis: Age of the Baltimore gneiss.

Davip LANDEN: New developments in photo-

grammetric measurements for geologists. One of

the recent developments in the Geological Sur-

vey has been the introduction and use of modern

photogrammetric mapping equipment in geo-

logic investigations. While aerial photographs

have long been one of the most important tools

of the geologist, the use of modern double-pro-

jection stereoscopic plotting equipment has

taken place only within the last few years. As

a result of recurring problems which concerned

the application of photogrammetric techniques

to geologic mapping, the chief topographic engi-

neer and the chief geologist in 1953 formed an

Interdivision Committee on Photogrammetric

Techniques in Geology. This group cut across the

lines of the largest Divisions in the Survey and

soon became a potent force in the advancement

of photogrammetry in geology through instru-

ment development, training, publications, and

technical assistance.

Advances in the design and use of stereo-

scopes, simple photogrammetric measuring

equipment, and the use of modern double-pro-

jection plotting equipment such as the Multi-

plex, Kelsh, and ER-55 for geologic use are de-

scribed. Several new instruments, useful for

making measurements under a stereoscopic plot-

ter, were sponsored by the Interdivision Com-

mittee; these included the photogrammetric pro-

file plotter, the photogrammetric dip-and-strike

indicator, and others. The stereoplotted grid was

designed to facilitate transfer of geologic data

from photograph to map. The orthophotoscope

machine and its product, the orthophotograph,

were developed primarily for geologic use. The

orthophotograph is a photograph in which es-

sential detail has been rectified to an ortho-

graphic, or plan, projection. It has become today

one of the great advances in surveying and

mapping technology. A new photographic tech-

nique, useful to paleontologists, was also de-

veloped—photographs of fossils in orthographic

projection.

It is concluded that one of the best means of

advancing a science such as geology is to advance

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

its measuring and mapping techniques. Aerial

photographs and photogrammetry, by their

very nature, should be among the geologist’s

most fundamental operations—that of making

accurate measurements.

Vincent C. Kexuey: Structure and fracture

systems of the Colorado Plateau. The Colorado

Plateau is a relatively undeformed structural

segment within the Cordilleran orogenic systems.

It consists of irregularly interspersed uplifts,

basins, platforms, and lesser fold belts of mild

or moderate intensity. Most of the deformation,

however, is concentrated along great monoclinal

flexes which bound certain parts of the uplifts

and basins.

Fracture sets have been mapped on a scale of

1:62,500 on photomosaics for a large part of the

Plateau. The joint sets range greatly in strati-

graphic and areal extent, in spacing, in orienta-

tion, and in numbers. Dominant joint sets are

nearly vertical in areas of low-dipping rocks, but

inclined longitudinal and oblique joint sets are

common along monoclinal flexes. From this

relationship and from the fact that the fracture

systems reveal little regular relationship to folds

in most places, it is concluded that many of the

sets are older than the Laramide folding. Some,

however, are clearly younger than the principal

folding.

The fracture systems of the several major

uplifts are largely dissimilar. The lack of simi-

larity of uplift fracture patterns may be due to

(1) differences in the uplift forms and their

regional settings, (2) differences in stratigraphy,

(3) differences in rate an® manner of uplift

growth, and (4) the fact that many of the sets

appear by areal distribution to be related to

crustal disturbances of much greater extent

than the uplifts and of quite different mechanics

of deformation.

Numerous joints probably formed early for

nonorogenic reasons such as differential com-

paction, differential loading, original-dip gliding,

and epeirogenic warping. Nevertheless, the ex-

istence of some consistency of orientation of

dominant regional sets in northeasterly, north-

westerly, and easterly directions makes it ap-

pear that there were over-all deep-seated stress

systems, responsible, in complicated ways, for

many of gross aspects of the fracture pattern.

Three east-west lineaments of fracture zones,

the Cache Valley, Rico, and Rattlesnake, are

“rooted” in part in the Precambrian structures

VoL. 49, NO. 3

to the east and are thought to be reflections of

shearing before and during Laramide in the

basement.

Two phases of Laramide deformation on the

Plateau are postulated. The first resulted from

a major stress oriented easterly or southeasterly

which formed the northerly and northeasterly

trending monoclines. The second phase resulted

from a major regional stress oriented southwest-

erly which formed the northwesterly trending

folds and uplifts.

789TH MEETING

The 789th meeting of the Society was held

in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium, April 23,

1958, President Carte H. DANE presiding.

Informal communications: EDwIN ROoEDDER

reported on the Science Fair held in Georgetown

on April 19, at which he had been a judge, and

introduced a prize winner, Philip Perkins.

L. T. AupricH reported the seismic detection

in the Washington area and in New York State

of the Ripple Rock blast in the Seymour Nar-

rows, British Columbia.

Program.—Gorpon E. ANDREASEN, ISIDORE

Zietz, and ARTHUR GRANTZ: Structural inter-

pretation of aeromagnetic data observed in the

Copper River Basin, Alaska.

Z.S. ALTSCHULER and E. J. Youna: Relations

between Tertiary sedimentation and structural

history in west-central Florida.

RicHarp H. JAHNs and C. WAYNE BURNHAM:

Preliminary experimental evidence on pegmatite

crystallization.

790TH MEETING

The 790th meeting of the Society was held in

the John Wesley Powell Auditorium, October 8,

1958, President Carte H. DANE presiding.

Program —tThe deferred presidential address

of W. D. Jonnston, Jr.: Outside Interior, or the

Geological Survey’s part in foreign technical

assistance, 1940-1958.

791ST MEETING

The 791st meeting of the Society was held

in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium, October

22, 1958, President Carte H. Dane presiding.

Program—ApDRIAN RicHaRDs: Eruption of

Capelinhos Volcano, Faial Island, Azores, a

report of the Cranbrook Expedition, 1958.

Irnvinc FrrepMAN: Deuterium and the age of

Arctic sea ice. The deuterium fractionation that

Marcu 1959

occurs upon the change of state of liquid water

to ice has been measured under natural condi-

tions. The ice is enriched in deuterium by 2 per-

cent relative to the water in equilibrium with it.

Consecutive samples from an ice-core collected

near ice island T-3 (80°N, 113°W) was analyzed

for its relative deuterium content. A plot of

relative deuterium content versus depth in the

10-foot core shows several minima. These min-

ima are interpreted to be due to the freezing

of snow melt water that runs off the surface of

the ice in summer. If this thesis is correct, the

ice flow represents the accumulation of 4 years of

winter ice.

D. F. Hewett: Deposits of the manganese

oxides. The program of field work on manganese

deposits during the war permitted the collection

of many specimens of manganese oxides over the

entire nation as well as in Cuba and Mexico. X-

ray analyses of about 250 specimens from the

United States, 150 specimens from Cuba, and

100 from Mexico have been made by Richmond

and Axelrod of the Geological Survey to de-

termine mineral character, and partial and com-

plete chemical analyses have been made of many

specimens by Fleischer of the Survey. Some of

the results of this work have been announced

by Fleischer and Richmond. Recently, Hewett

has continued the study of the manganese oxides

by interpreting the geological environment under

which the 250 specimens from the United States

were formed.

From this review of the mode of occurrence

of the oxides of manganese, 33 in number of

which 27 are known in the United States, the

conclusion has been reached that (1) some of

the oxides are uniformly supergene throughout

the United States, (2) another group is unl-

formly hypogene, and (3) another group that

includes the common oxides, psilomelane, hol-

landite, cryptomelane, coronadite, hetaerolite

and pyrolusite, is supergene in some places and

hypogene in others. To reach this conclusion,

a group of criteria to distinguish between super-

gene and hypogene origin was set up.

The study indicates that in the broad arc

from central New Mexico across Arizona into

southern California and Nevada there are many

veins of the manganese oxides, at least 100, of

which at least 30 are extensively explored,

largely made up of psilomelane, hollandite with

minor cryptomelane, coronadite, and pyrolusite,

which are hypogene in origin. Most of the veins

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 95

follow fractures and breccia zones in layered

voleanic rocks of middle Tertiary age. Associ-

ated with the manganese oxides, in some places

younger and in other places older, are opal,

chalcedony, quartz, zeolites, fluorite, barite, and

calcite, in part hydrothermal in origin. In the

same broad are there are numerous deposits of

stratified manganese oxides which contain small

but noteworthy amounts of tungsten, lead, and

copper, which are also found in the vein oxides.

It is concluded that the veins of oxides are re-

lated to the stratified oxides; that hot waters

from depth contained manganese which was

deposited as oxides in the veins where the solu-

tions met the shallow zone of ground water con-

taining oxygen. The remaining manganese was

carried to the surface where flocculent oxides

were formed and carried as sediments to nearby

basins. This interpretation is supported by the

presence in the region of hot springs that are

now depositing oxides of manganese that contain

the same minor metals as the veins and strati-

fied oxides.

792D MEETING

The 792d meeting of the Society was held

jointly with the Paleontological Society of Wash-

ington in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium,

November 12, 1958, Vice-President ALIcE ALLEN

presiding.

Program.—ALFRED 8S. RomEr: Rocks, fossils,

and Darwin.

793D MEETING

The 793d meeting of the Society was held in

the John Wesley Powell Auditorium, December

10, 1958, Vice-President Liuoyp G. HENBEST

presiding.

Program —tThe Presidential address; CARLE

H. Dane: The New Mexico geologic map—a

summary of 30 years of geologic progress. Pre-

liminary versions of the geology of the north-

western and southeastern parts of New Mexico,

by Carle H. Dane and George O. Bachman, have

been published by the U. 8. Geological Survey,

and first compilation has been completed for

the remainder of the State. These preliminary

maps were assembled and exhibited as a new

summary picture of the geology of New Mexico,

30 years subsequent to the issuance of the pre-

vious U. 8. Geological Survey geologic map of

New Mexico by N. H. Darton. The new map

will show many more geologic units than were

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

previously recognized, hundreds of faults and

intrusive dikes not previously shown, and much

greater detail of geology, summarized from more

than 150 different sources of data, published and

unpublished. During the 30-year interval be-

tween the two maps, vertical air photographic

coverage of the whole State has become avail-

able, and the reconnaissance and semidetailed

phase of geologic mapping of the State has been

nearly completed. During this interval the con-

cepts of intertonguing and of facies changes

have become firmly established in geologic think-

ing, in part as a result of detailed studies of

the Permian, Cretaceous, and Tertiary rocks

in New Mexico, and these concepts are reflected

in the new map.

The general geology of the State was briefly

described with particular reference to the dis-

tribution of units selected for discrimination on

the compilation, and the geology of six selected

areas was described more fully to illustrate the

more detailed geologic mapping that is now

available for generalization and to show the

variety of sources from which data was derived.

Some new facts about the geology of the State

discovered in recent years and during reconnais-

sance in connection with the State map project

were mentioned. The excellent record of geologic

assistance and guidance in the discovery and

development of mineral resources in New Mexico

Was summarized, and it was pointed out that

the annual value of production of mineral re-

sources in the State has increased more than

VoL. 49, No. 3

tenfold in the last 30 years, due chiefly to spec-

tacular increases in the value of oil and gas,

potash, and uranium produced. The geologist

has thus made a substantial contribution to the

improvement of the general welfare in the State.

66TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 66th annual meeting was held immedi-

ately following the 793d meeting, President

CarLE H. Dane presiding. The reports of the

secretaries, treasurer, and auditing committee

were read and approved. The Awards Committee

presented first prize to G. W. WETHERILL, G. R.

Titton, and G. L. Davis for their paper Age

of the Baltimore gneiss and second prize to

IstipoRE ZiptTz, G. E. ANDREASEN, and ARTHUR

Grantz for their paper Aeromagnetic study of

Cook Inlet, Alaska. The Sleeping Bear Cup was

presented to W. H. Brapuey for his devastating

demolition of a special Cloud effect.

Officers for the year 1959 were then elected:

President: JosepH W. GREIG

First Vice-President: CHARLES A. ANDERSON

Second Vice-President: Louis C. Conant

Secretary (2 years): J. THomas Dutro

Treasurer: HELEN F. WEISSENBORN

Members-at-large of the Council (2 years):

CHARLES S. DEenNy, JoHN E. JoHNSON, Rospert C.

STEPHENSON.

The Society nominated Carte H. Dane to be

a Vice-president of the Washington Academy of

Sciences for the year 1959.

If our scholars would lead more earnest lives, we should not witness

those lame conclusions to their ill-sown discourses, but their sentences

would pass over the ground like loaded rollers, and not mere hollow and

wooden ones, to press in the seed and make it germinate.—THOREAU.

Vice-Presidents of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Representing the Affiliated Societies

Emilesepuical Society of Washington................................ MICHAEL GOLDBERG

puparopolorieal Society of Washington...................02-ceeeeee: FraNK M. SETZLER

Femeriea society of Washington.....................00.sceeceeess HERBERT FRIEDMANN

urrateresaciery of Washineton.................5cecneceeecseece ed ALLEN L. ALEXANDER

Pepamolomtes) Society of Washington. ................-..-2.eeee0-- Haroup H. SHEPARD

Menai oearrapmic SOCIety........ 02... 62.002. Seen caw eeeeeeuees ALEXANDER WETMORE

Poameeeesnmcicty of Washington............0..0..6ceeeececcceesuees ees Car.LE H. Dane

mreuten) paciety of the District of Columbia......................-.6-- FREDERICK O. CoE

SUE TECISRINCAL SOCIETY... <5. sa oe cle ce pees ede vecceteteceseeecs U.S. Grant, 3p

Peermaeeansortery OF Washington.............5..ce cece cece we eee seccees CARROLL E. Cox

Washington Section, Society of American Foresters. ....................- G. F. Gravatt

Weemmeton mociety of Engineers. ................. 0. cece cee eecees Howarp S. RAPPLEYE

Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers....RoBert D. ELBoURN

hem ntoolesical Society of Washington.........................-- CarRLTon M. HERMAN

Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists.................. BERNICE Eppy

Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers......... ALBERT J. HOSKINSON

Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers. ................ Rosert D. HuntTooNn

National Capital Section, American Society of Civil Engineers....Howarp S. RAPPLEYE

D. C. Section, Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine...... KaTHRYN KNOWLTON

Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals.................... JoHN A. BENNETT

Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research.. ALPHONSE ForRzIaATI

Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences.............. F. N. FRENKIEL

D. C. Branch, American Meteorological Society...................... Jack C. THOMPSON

Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers...... WiuiraM G. ALLEN

Washington Chapter, Acoustical Society of America................... RicHarpD K. Coox

ieeceneme society of Washington.............0... cece ween nce eees FranK L. CAMPBELL

CONTENTS

Page

SyMPosium ON “Extramural Science Programs of the Federal Govern-

ment’’:

Introductory remarks. A. T. McParrson....-...>))seeeeeeee 65

Extramural science programs of the National Science Founda-

tion. Roprrt B. BRope. ». 2104 2...5. eee 66

Extramural science programs of the Department of Defense.

Grorce_ D. LUEKES. . oo. 24.02 a. dees ee A 70

Extramural science programs of the National Institutes of

Health. C. J. VAN SEYKE.....0....o<....2. Dee 75

Extramural science programs of the United States Department

of Agriculture. Byron T. Saaw......--.... 02) see eee 81

Extramural science programs of the Atomic Energy Commission.

CHARLES L. DUNHAM......... . hace «es. ere 2 Se 84

Extramural science and research activities of the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration. Ira H. Apspott.. 87

PROCEEDINGS: Geological Society of Washington.:................... 90

ae Fe

| DAW2S

VOLUME 49 April 1959 eee a

JOURNAL

OP AH

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

Published Monthly by the

—_—eeoot TN GTON ACADEMY OF Seb BONTGe ESS

1530 P STREET, NW., WASHINGTON 5, D.C.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Editor: Cuester H. Pagan, National Bureau of Standards

Associate Editors: RoNALD BamMrorD, University of Maryland

Howarp W. Bonn, National Institutes of Health

IMMANUEL E'STERMANN, Office of Naval Research