JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME I, 1911

BOARD OF EDITORS

George K. Burgess Barton W. Evermann Frederick Leslie Ransome

BUREAU OF STANDARDS BUREAU OF FI8HERIE8 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY

EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY,

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

office of publication

the waverly press

baltimore, md.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. I. JULY 19, 1911. Nos. 1 and 2.

METEOROLOGY. — The amount and vertical distribution of water

vapor on clear days. W. J. Humphreys. To appear in the

Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory.

It is of especial importance to any one using a bolometer, or a

pyrheliometer, to know the approximate amount of water vapor

through which the radiation reaching his instrument has passed.

With the view of determining average values of this quantity

the records of a large number of balloon flights have been exam-

ined, and among them 74 found that were obtained on clear dajrs.

These have been grouped according to season, and in each

case the average vertical distribution of the water vapor found.

In all cases the amount of water vapor rapidly decreases with

elevation; but whatever the humidity a first approximation to

the average total amount of water vapor above any given level

is expressed by the equation,

d = 2e,

in which d is the thickness in millimeters of the equivalent water

layer, and e the partial pressure of the water vapor, at the given

level, in millimeters of mercury.

.OCEANOGRAPHY.— The new Coast and Geodetic Survey tide

predicting machine. E. G. Fischer, Coast and Geodetic

' Survey. Communicated by O. H. Tittman.

A noteworthy production of the mechanical department of

the Coast and Geodetic Survey is the new Tide Predicting Ma-

chine. It was completed in February, 1910, and immediately,

before polishing, gilding and lacquering, was put in operation

for predicting all the complicated tides for the tables of 1912 and

l

2 FISCHER: TIDE PREDICTING MACHINE

1913. It is now dismounted and beingput in a finished state for

final installing in the early part of next year.

Six other machines for predicting tides now exist. The first

one, designed and constructed in 1876, by Sir Wm. Thomson,

later Lord Kelvin, containing 10 components, was but little used

and is now on exhibition in the South Kensington Museum, Lon-

don. A second one, wit^i 20 components, was constructed in

London for the British India Survey in 1879. The number of

the components was later increased to 24. It has since been in

use for predicting the tides of the British India ports. The third

machine was constructed in 1880, by Sir Wm. Thomson. It

contains 16 components, and it is supposed to be in use for the

tides of the British ports. A copy of this machine was acquired

by the French government in 1900 for predicting the French

tide tables, and another of the same style was made for the gov-

ernment of Brazil about three years ago.

All these machines produce automatically a tide curve, which

must be scaled off for the heights of the high and low waters,

their times being taken, in the simpler tides, from hour marks upon

the curve. For exact times a second curve, that representing

the first derivative of the height series, must be traced and scaled

off. While it takes only from two to three hours to produce a

year's tide curve, several days' work is required to prepare the

printer's copy from that curve.

To obtain data required for the printer from the machine direct

led Prof. Wm. Ferrel of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, when

the need of a tide predictor in that Bureau became imperative,

to design one upon principles differing considerably from those

of the English machines. In it the sine terms of the derived or

time series are summed simultaneously with those of the cosine

or height series, the face of the machine indicating the exact

times of high or low water to be copied by the operator upon the

form for the printer. For the simpler tides the heights are also

taken from the face by the use of an auxiliary scale, but for the

more complicated tides, the machine requires a second setting

for the exact heights. This machine was constructed in 1882

and was used for preparing the tide tables of the Coast and Geo-

FISCHER! TIDE PREDICTING MACHINE 6

detic Survey from that time until 1910. It has 19 components.

It produces no curve, but a record of the results is made by blue-

printing the printer's copy.

Certain weaknesses and considerable wear made it desirable

to provide a new machine, which should indicate upon its face,

for copying directly upon the printer's form, the exact heights

and times of the high and low waters, of the height of the sea at

any time, and produce automatically a tide curve with hour and

day marks showing the exact time of the high and low waters.

Its construction was begun in 1896 and continued with many

interruptions, as time could be spared from the regular wrork,

until its completion in February, 1910.

The principles underlying the machine are the same as those of

the English predictors as regards the heights. From the Ferrel

machine was adopted the use of two cranks on the same com-

ponent shaft: one for summing the cosine terms of the height

series and the other, at right angles, for summing the sine terms

of the first derivative of the former, the latter, when equal to

zero, marking the times of the maxima and minima.

In order that the machine should be most comprehensive, pro-

vision was made for 37 components. The dimensions of its parts

were chosen with particular view to rigidity and freedom from

flexure. Workmanship and material are such as to reduce

deterioration due to wear to a minimum, and the wearing parts

are planned so as to permit of replacement or repair without ever

interrupting the regular output of the machine. Its dimensions

are: length, 10 feet 9 inches; height, 6 feet 2 inches; and width,

2 feet. The unit of height amplitude is 0.5 inch. The dial

unit of height is 1 inch, 2 inches and 4 inches per foot, according

to which of three scales is used. The scale of the record curve,

traced on paper 6 inches wide, varies between 1:15 and 1:120, the

hour being equal to ^ inch, or the da}' 12 inches.

To predict a year's tides for a station takes one man from 2\ to

4 hours according to the number of components used, for the

setting of the machine, and from 8 to 15 hours, according to the

complexity of the tides at the station, for copying the indicated

results upon the form ready for the printer.

4 CLARKE AND STEIGER : COMPOSITION OF SEA WATER

Tests of the machine made under severest conditions, showed

agreement between predicted and computed results within 0.06

feet.

OCEANOGRAPHY. — Note on the 'composition of sea water-

F. W. Clarke and George Steiger. Geological Survey.

Although the water of the ocean varies widely in salinity, from

less than one per cent in the Baltic to as much as five per cent in

the Red Sea, the composition of its saline matter is curiously

constant. Innumerable analyses of it have been made, from the

great oceans and the minor seas, so that this conclusion seems to

be well established. Data are so far lacking, however, with

regard to the waters of our own coasts, except for a single group

of analyses, by A. S. Wheeler, of water from near Beaufort, N. C.

In order to remedy this deficiency, Dr. A. G. Mayer of the Tor-

tugas Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,

kindly collected a sample of water from near Loggerhead Key in

the Gulf of Mexico, which was analyzed in the laboratory of

the U. S. Geological Survey. The specific gravity of the water

was 1.02434, at 25°, and the total salinity was 3.63516 per

cent. This is slightly above the mean salinity of the ocean,

3.5 per cent. The percentage composition of the saline matter

is given below, in comparison with the average composition of

oceanic salts as found by Dittmar for the Challenger Expedition.

AUSTIN: HIGH SPARK FREQUENCY IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY 5

The striking similarity of the two columns is evident at a glance.

The Dittmar figures are the mean of 77 analyses.

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY. — High spark frequency in radio-teleg-

raphy. L. W. Austin. Naval Wireless Telegraphic Labora-

tory.

In 1908 I published a paper1 on the subject of the advantages

of high spark frequency in radiotelography in cases where inte-

grating detectors were used.2 In this I called attention first to

the great increase in sensitiveness of the telephone with increasing

frequency, and second to the advantage to be obtained by dis-

tributing the energy of the sending station over a large number of

sparks instead of concentrating it in a few. Since that time spark

frequencies of approximately one thousand per second have come

info common use in radiotelegraphy,3 but the expected increase in

sensitiveness of the telephone at these frequencies has not been

obtained. This is illustrated by Table I which contains a com-

parison of the received energy as measured on a zincite rectifier4

with galvanometer and the telephone audibility as measured

with the same rectifier by the shunted telephone method. The

measurements were taken at the Bureau of Standards. From

this it is seen that the sensitiveness of the telephone is approxi-

mately the same for sixty cycle and five hundred cycle stations.

This failure to obtain the increased sensitiveness at the higher

frequency is the more remarkable, since, for sine waves at least,

it has been shown independently by a number of observers.6

We can, however, from the data of Table I determine what

the actual current sensitiveness of the telephone under wireless

conditions is. We shall assume as a rough average that 1 mm.

1 Bull. Bur. Standards, S: 153. 1908.

2 Experiments have shown that the electrolytic and most of the rectifying

detectors depend only on the energy.

3 Prof. R. A. Fessenden was already experimenting with high spark frequencies

at the time my paper was being written.

4 Bull. Bureau of Standards, 7: 295. 1911.

5 Lord Rayleigh, Phil. Mag. 38:294. 1894. Wien, M., Ann. d. Phys. 4:450. 1901.

Austin, L. W., loc. cit.

6 AUSTIN: HIGH SPARK FREQUENCY IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY

TABLE I

STATIONS

U. S. S. Salem

Philadelphia Radio

New York Radio . .

Wilmington

Baltimore

Annapolis

U. S. S. Delaware.

6. «

n °

to <

H P5

500

eo

60

500

D fa

H 0)

■<!

8

Z W

in «

Fessenden 1£0

rotary

Quenched 100

Quenched 190

Old type 80(

fixed

Old type 35

fixed

Old type

fixed

Quenched

> a w

< Z £>

1000

2000

2200

600

630

600

1000

2 > h

! — : h

o <• la

fa fa 2

go*

a

mm.

100

220

20

65

130

70

7

Z H

fa H

HP

H ■<

O H

fa a

W D

77

150

18

1.3

1.45

1.1

32 2.0

150 0.9

93

14

0 8

0.5

deflection on the galvanometer corresponds to the least audible

sound in the telephone. The sensibility of the galvanometer as

used was 1.3 10~9 amperes per millimeter. In the work with sine

waves already cited the telephones then used had a sensitiveness

of 3 X 10-10 at 900 cycles and 3 X 10~7 amperes at 120 cycles.

These experiments were made in a perfectly quiet room and expe-

rience has shown that the amount of current necessary to distin-

guish the dots and dashes under ordinary conditions in the labor-

atory is roughly five times this. We may therefore take the

normal sensitiveness of these telephones for receiving purposes

as 1 . 5 . 10-° amperes at 900 cycles and 1.5.10"6at 120 cycles.

It is seen that the sensitiveness observed in the case of received

signals both at high and low frequencies in Table I corresponds

closely to the value obtained with sine waves at 900 cycles. This

seems to show conclusively that the higher degree of sensitive-

ness is obtained with practically all transformer sparks of the

types ordinarily used.6 This might conceivably be explained

either by supposing that the sparks in low frequency apparatus

6 Possibly sparks produced by induction coils with slow moving interrupters or

the infrequent sparks produced by certain forms of resonance transformers would

show a decreased telephone sensitiveness.

AUSTIN." HIGH SPARK FREQUENCY IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY 7

are always multiple, thus producing more or less regular higher

tones which make themselves felt in increased telephone sensi-

tibility; or that the short sharp jerks to which the diaphragm is

subjected in the case of spark discharges are more effective in

moving the diaphragm than sine waves. These impulses in the

case of 1000 sparks per second and a wave length of 1000 meters

with 20 waves in the train last about one-seventeenth of the length

of time between them if we consider that the duration of the

energy is not prolonged in any way in the receiving circuit.

Regarding the second advantage of a high spark frequency,

namely the distribution of the energy over a large number of

sparks instead of concentrating it in a few, experience has amply

demonstrated its value. In tables II and III are given the rela-

tion between spark frequency, antenna energy, antenna capacity

and current for some commonly used spark frequencies.

One hundred thousand volts is considered to be the maximum

which under any circumstances can be used to advantage on an

TABLE II

Antenna Capacity per Kilowatt of Antenna Energy

* Aruenna resistance assumed to be 6 ohms.

8 AUSTIN: SLIPPING CONTACT DETECTOR

antenna. Unless extraordinary precautions for good insulation

are taken about 50,000 seems to be the most advisable limit.

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY. The slipping contact rectifying detector.

L. W. Austin. Naval Wireless Telegraphic Laboratory.

In 1908 I described1 a detector for electrical waves in which a

bit of tellurium was pressed against an aluminum shaft in rota-

tion. In connection with these experiments, it was found that

any slipping contact if sufficiently light gave audible responses

in the telephone when connected in the usual position of the detec-

tor.

Later experiments showed that this form of detector was very

sensitive and extremely simple in use, requiring little adjustment,

no stopping condenser and no external E. M. F., full sensitiveness

being obtained with the detector simply placed in series with the

secondary inductance of the receiving circuit, and a pair of tele-

phones of from 600 to 1000 ohms resistance. The best results

have been obtained by the use of a slowly rotating disk of highly

polished copper or nickel driven by a spring motor, against which

a bit of fine copper wire is lightly pressed.

The one difficulty which has stood in the way of the practical

usefulness of this device was the obtaining of a proper surface on

which the light sliding point could move, there being a tendency

under most circumstances for the point to jump, thus breaking

up the signal and making it difficult to distinguish the dashes

from the dots. With the introduction of high spark frequency

this difficulty has been to a large extent overcome, the wave trains

following each other closely enough so that the dashes as heard

in the telephone are invariably continuous if the adjustment is

correct. When the signals are strong the musical note of the

spark is reproduced in the telephone. Unfortunately, however,

when they begin to weaken, the irregularities of the contact break

up the musical note and it degenerates into a rustling sound

which does not serve to distinguish one station from another.

In sensitiveness this detector considerably surpasses any of those

Electrical World, 48: 924. 1906. Phys. Rev., 24: 509. 1907.

AUSTIN: RESISTANCE OF ANTENNAS 9

now commonly used, showing itself in various tests to have an

energy sensitiveness from three to ten times that of the electro-

lytic at minimum signal. The response as judged by the shunted

telephone method is more nearly proportional to the current than

to the current squared as in most other detectors.

The cause of detector action is probably complicated. There

is a certain amount of true rectification as shown by a galva-

nometer connected in place of the telephone. This is not, however,

always in the same direction, and the galvanometer sensitiveness

is much less than that of the telephone. It is quite possible that

the sense of the rectification changes from instant to instant and

the galvanometer deflection represents merely the residual in

one direction or the other. In addition to the rectifying effects

it is probably that the changing contact gives rise to an action

similar to that of the Poulser ticker.

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY. — A preliminary note on the resistance

of radio-telegraphic antennas. L. W. Austin. U. S. Naval

Wireless Telegraphic Laboratory.

In the Physikalische Zeitschrift for April 15, C. Fischer published

an article on the determination of antenna resistance. His

method, in brief, is the substitution of an air condenser in place

of the antenna and ground keeping the inductance common to

both circuits and introducing resistance in the condenser circuit

until the current becomes the same as that when the antenna and

ground were used. This method, though I am not aware that it

has ever before been published, has been in use in America for

the measurement of antenna resistance since 1905 or 1906 and was

I believe first suggested by R. A. Fessenden.

It has been known in a general way to many experimenters

that the antenna resistance was larger at the longer wave lengths

than should have been the case according to the Herzian theory of

radiation.

In his article Dr. Fischer has given very interesting experi-

mental observations and curves showing that this increase in

antenna resistance is under certain circumstances proportional

10

AUSTIN: RESISTANCE OF ANTENNAS

to the wave length, and he appears to believe that this increased

resistance is due to radiation.

Systematic measurements on the resistance of the Bureau of

Standards antenna were begun as soon as Dr. Fischer's article

appeared. Observations have also been taken on the antenna

of the U. S. S. Dolphin lying at the Washington Navy Yard

and on the antenna of the Navy Yard station.

»-, — )$— — {TotSSFI 1

J

Fig. 1. Diagram of apparatus for measuring antenna resistance

The arrangement of apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. Here A is

the antenna, E the ground, Lx the tuning inductance, C\ an air

condenser for tuning to very short wave lengths, Th a thermoele-

ment,1 G a galvanometer and C2 a variable air condenser set at

the capacity of the antenna to be measured. A small inductance

L2 was sometimes inserted in circuit with the condenser C2 to

represent the antenna inductance. This has little influence on

1 A zincite rectifier with galvanometer very loosely coupled to the circuit may be

used instead of the thermoelement.

AUSTIN: RESISTANCE OF ANTENNAS

11

the results and at least for the longer wave lengths may be per-

fectly well omitted. Si and *S2 are switches for connecting either

the antenna and ground or C2 to the rest of the circuit. R is a

resistance introduced in the circuit C2 to bring down the thermo-

element deflection to the same value as that observed when the

antenna and ground are in circuit. The high frequency resist-

ance consists of separate units of fine constantan wire inserted in

mercury cups. The measurement circuit is excited by a buzzer-

driven wave meter W of the ordinary type.

Fig. 2 shows the curves obtained on the Dolphin, at the Wash-

800

7600

2400

3200

4000

Fig. 2. Diagram showing resistance curves

ington Navy Yard and at the Bureau of Standards. It is seen

that beginning with the short wave lengths, the resistance falls

rapidly in accordance with the Herzian radiation theory until a

point is reached which is not far from twice the fundamental

wave length of the antennas.

12 AUSTIN! RESISTANCE OF ANTENNAS

Curve A is the Bureau of Standards, B the U. S. S. Dolphin

and C the Washington Navy Yard. In curves B and C the resist-

ance rises gradually as observed by Fischer but the rise is much

slower than in his curves. The height of the flat-top antenna of

the Dolphin is approximately 90 feet above the water, while that

of the Washington Navy Yard is 150 feet. The Navy Yard has

practically a water ground the station being but a few feet from

the river which is moderately salt at this point. The fundamen-

tal of the Dolphin's antenna is 315 meters and its capacity is

0.0073 microfarad. The fundamental of the Navy Yard antenna

is aboiit 1000 meters and the capacity is 0.0036. The radiation

resistance for these two antennas calculated according to the

equation.2

Rr = 1600 ft2/X2

is shown in the dotted curves B' , C. It is seen that the observed

curves for the shorter wave lengths follow with a considerable

degree of approximation the curvature of the calculated radiation

resistances although the observed curves lie somewhat higher,

while beyond the minimum the two curves lie far apart. We

have here an indication of two factors in the resistance; one

decreasing as the square of the wave length, while the other

increases nearly directly as the wave length. It seems to me

probable that the portion of the resistance which increases as the

wave length is ground resistance, or more properly earth current

resistance. *

The resistance of the Bureau of Standards antenna is shown in

curve A. This antenna is an 8-wire harp, 180 feet high at top

and 60 feet high at bottom. This makes the center of capacity

120 feet from the earth. The natural period is 425 meters and

the capacity 0.0012 microfarad. The ground wires are con-

nected to the water pipes of the laboratory. It is seen that the

minimum ground resistance is much higher than in the case of the

Dolphin and Navy Yard and that the straight portion of the curve

slopes more steeply upward than was the case in the other two

antennas measured. It has been observed that the steepness of

* R. Ruedenberg, Ann. d. Phys., 25: 446. 1908.

AUSTIN: RESISTANCE OF ANTENNAS

13

this portion of the curve, as well as the resistance at the minimum

differs by a very appreciable amount from day to day according

to the dryness of the soil. On the day following a heavy rain the

minimum frequently falls by two or three ohms, at the same time

the resistance at a wave length of 3000 meters sometimes falls

as much as ten ohms. The resistances are usually slightly higher

in the afternoon than in the morning.

It is a matter .of considerable interest to know toward what

point the straight portion of the resistance curve descends.

According to Fischer it would cross the zero axis near the funda-

mental, and in the curve of the Washington Navy Yard this also

appears to be the case. At the Bureau of Standards, the curve

of which has been taken much more accurately than any of our

other observations, it appears to point toward the zero of coordi-

nates. This may however be due to the presence of an initial

ohmic resistance of about 5.5 ohms in the pipes of the ground

connection.

Table of Resistances for Antenna

In the table under G is given the ground resistance taken from

a prolongation of the straight portion of curve A. Under RTis

given the calculated radiation resistance, from the Ruedenberg

formula, while in the last two columns are given the sum of

these resistances and the observed values of the curve. For

most of the observations embodied in Fig. 2, I am indebted to

my assistants Meneratti and Scanlin, Chief Electricians, U. S. N.

14 ROSA and grover: inductance formulas and tables

ELECTRICITY. — Formulas and tables for the calculation of mutual

and self inductance. (Revised.) E. B. Rosa and F. W.

Grover. To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of

Standards, 8: 1-237. 1911.

With the increase in the precision demanded in electrical

measurements, and in the standardization of electrical apparatus,

and more especially in the determination of the fundamental

units in absolute measure, there has arisen the necessity for more

and more precise standards of mutual and self inductance, whose

values may be calculated from their dimensions.

For example, in the calibration of working standards of self and

mutual inductance, the values are very conveniently referred

to those of absolute standards, consisting of windings of bare or

enamelled wire wound uniformly on accurately turned forms

of marble or other suitable non-magnetic material. The formulas

for the calculation of the constants of such standards from their

dimensions should be capable of at least the precision attainable

in the measurement of the dimensions of the coil and the pitch of

its winding.

In the most accurate methods employed for the absolute meas-

urement of resistance and for the absolute measurement of

current by means of a current balance, it is required that the

value of a standard of mutual inductance may be calculated to

about one part in one hundred thousand.

In magnetic measurements and in wireless telegraphy, a knowl-

edge of the calculated value of a mutual or self inductance is

often requisite, although in these cases a smaller degree of pre-

cision is sufficient.

The problem of the calculation of inductance received consider-

able attention as early as Maxwell's time, with the result that the

constants of the simpler forms, such as circles, solenoids, and coils

whose cross-section is not too large relatively to the radii, were

calculated with fair precision. Some of these solutions are abso-

lute formulas, involving elliptic integrals; others are expressed

as infinite series, the number of terms requisite being governed

by the precision desired, and the degree of convergence of the

formula for the case in question.

ROSA AND GROVER: INDUCTANCE FORMULAS AND TABLES 15

For numerical calculation, the absolute formulas have the dis-

advantage that the inductance is given by the difference of two

nearly equal terms, each of which is many times larger than

the desired quantity. In such cases, each term must be calculated

with greater precision than is required in the result. Series for-

mulas, on the other hand, exhibit a satisfactory degree of conver-

gence over a more or less limited range only, two or more series

formulas being, as a rule, necessary to cover the same ground as a

single absolute formula.

It thus occurs that several formulas are available in almost

every case, and the question naturally prssents itself as to what

criterion may be applied to aid in the selection of a suitable for-

mula for the solution of a given problem, and which is the more

reliable when their results do not agree.

It was to furnish an answer to these questions that Messrs.

Rosa and Cohen undertook, in 1906-07, a critical examination

of all the existing formulas which had come to their notice. In

the course of this investigation, certain formulas were found to be

in error or capable of giving approximate values only, others were

extended by them so as to give more accurate results, and in

addition many new formulas were derived. These results ap-

peared in a series of papers in the Bulletin of the Bureau of

Standards.

At the conclusion of the work, a compilation was made of all

those formulas which had been shown to be suitable for numerical

calculation, together with auxiliary tables of elliptic integrals and

other constants useful in such calculations. The work was

divided into nine sections, treating of the mutual and self induc-

tance of coaxial circles, solenoids, and coils of rectangular cross-

section and of linear conductors, together with a chapter on

geometric and arithmetic mean distances. A special feature

was a collection of examples so chosen as to provide an illustra-

tion of the various formulas, and to show the agreement and rela-

tive degree of convergence of the different formulas applicable

to the same problem.

Since the appearance of this collection of formulas in 1907,

a number of new formulas have appeared, and the edition becom-

16 burgess: melting points of elements

ing exhausted, a thorough revision was undertaken. In the

second edition the same general plan and division into sections

has been adhered to, with the difference that each example now

appeals in the section to which it applies. Considerable new

material has been introduced into the sections on the mutual

inductance of coaxial circles, the mutual inductance of coaxial

solenoids, and the self inductance of solenoids, and a new section

has been added, treating of the change of the inductance and

resistance of straight cylindrical wires with change in the fre-

quency of the current.

Of the new tables appearing in this edition, may be noted

especially Nagaoka's tables for the calculation of the correction

which must be applied to the self inductance of a solenoid to

take account of the effect of the ends, and the tables for calculat-

ing the change of inductance and resistance with the frequency.

A number of new examples have been introduced, in connection

with the new formulas, special attention having been given to

the agreement of the different formulas and the checking of the

results, and to aid in the selection of suitable formulas for any

given problem. A portion of each section has been devoted to a

discussion of the points of advantage and range of applicability

of each of the formulas therein given.

This collection is intended primarily for work of the highest

precision, and the formulas are consequently often more elaborate

than will be required in much work of moderate precision. In

such cases the calculation may be considerably simplified by

carrying out the values of the various quantities to a smaller

number of places of decimals, and by the retention of a smaller

number of terms in the series formulas. The authors have in

contemplation the preparation of a collection of approximate

formulas for work of less precision.

CHEMISTRY. — The melting points of the chemical elements.

George K. Burgess, Bureau of Standards.

There has been much work done recently in the more exact

location of some of these fixed points. The accompanying

burgess: melting points of elements 17

table represents an attempt to assign the most probable values to

the several melting points from a consideration of all the data

available, and is a revision of the list in the new Smithsonian

Physical Tables.

In so far as possible, the values are reduced to a common tem-

perature scale, that given by the gas thermometer. In general,

differences between the various gas scales as recently deter-

mined and the thermodynamic scale are less than the uncer-

tainties of reproducibility by any one method. For example,

the four observations on the melting point of gold, by the constant

volume nitrogen thermometer, published within the past ten

years, range from 1059.3° to 1067.2° C, and the correction to the

thermodynamic scale is here 1° or less. Besides the direct

gas thermometer determinations, there are, also, for many of the

melting points, precise, differential checks made by electrical

resistance, thermo-electric, or optical thermometers. The differ-

ence between the melting points of gold and copper is thus known

to be 20° C. by auxiliary methods more closely than these tem-

peratures have usually been independently located by the gas

thermometer.

For the range 100° to 500° C, the scale here adopted agrees

with the value 444.7 for the sulphur boiling point, a temperature

that has been many times determined, and which is perhaps the

best known fixed point above 300°.

For high temperatures, the scale is satisfied very exactly by

taking c2 = 14,500 in the formula for Wien's law connecting /,

monochromatic luminous intensity, and T, absolute temperature :

log I/Ix = c2 X log e (1/77! - l/T). This agrees well with the

gas thermometer measurements of Day and Sosman in the range

1000° to 1550° C. The use of Wien's law possesses the theoretical

advantage for extrapolation beyond 1550° in giving the thermo-

dynamic scale.

In the table, elements whose melting points are well known or

used as standards are printed in capitals. An idea of the exact-

ness of our knowledge of some of the melting points is also given.

7

18

burgess: melting points of elements

Melting Points (C) of the Chemical Elements

ELEMENT

Helium.. . .

Hydrogen . .

Neon

Oxygen ....

Fluorine . . .

Nitrogen. ..

Argon

Krypton...

Xenon

Chlorine

Mercury . .

Bromine. . .

Caesium. . .

Gallium

Rubidium..

Phosphorus

Potassium ,

Sodium

Iodine

Sulphur

Indium

Lithium. . . .

Selenium. . .

Tin

Bismuth

Thallium...

Cadmium. . .

Lead

Zinc

Tellurium. .

Arsenic

Antimony. .

Cerium

Magnesium.

Aluminium

Calcium. . . .

Lanthanum

Strontium . .

MELTING POINT

<-269?

REMARKS

B.P. He = - 268.5

Kamerlingh-Onnes

burgess: melting points of elements

19

Melting Points (C) of the Chemical Elements

ELEMENT

Neodyruium

Barium

Germanium ....

Praeseodymium

Silver

Radium

Gold

Copper

Manganese

Yttrium

Samarium

Scandium

Silicon

Nickel

Cobalt

Chromium

Iron

Palladium

Zirconium

Thorium

Vanadium

Platinum

Beryllium

Ytterbium

Titanium

Rhodium

Ruthenium

Niobium

Boron

Iridium

Uranium

Molybdenum. . .

Osmium

Tantalum

Tongsten

Carbon

MELTING POINT

840?

S50

<Ag

940?

961 ±2

600 to 1200?

1063 ±3

10S3±3

1225 ±15

1000 to 1400?

1300 to 1400

1000 to 1400?

1420 ±15

1450 ±10

1490

1505 ±15

1520 ±15

1550 ±15

> Silicon

>1700, < Pt

1730 ±30

1755 ±20

>1S00

1600 to 2000?

2200 to 2400?

180Q to 1850

1920?

>1950

2200?

2200 to 2500

2300?

near Mo

2500?

2700?

2900

3000 ±100

REMARKS

Muthmann-Weiss

Guntz

Winkler

Muthm ann-Weiss

Unknown

Muthmann-Weiss

Unknown

Day-Sosman = 1452

Day-Sosman

Day-Sosman = 1549

Troost

Wartenberg

Waidner-Burgess = 1753

Parsons

Unknown

Weiss-Kaiser

Hunter

Range 1907 to 1970

Joly

v. Bolton = 1950

Weintraub

Range 2100 to 2350

Moissan

Range 2110 to > 2500

Waidner-Burgess

Range 2575 to 3250

Waidner Burgess = 3080

Unknown

20 carhart: concentration cells

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.— Thermodynamics of concentration

cells. Henry S. Carhart. Communicated by E. B. Rosa.

To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

dA

The equation A = H-\- may be Considered as a very general

dT

expression of the laws of thermodynamics for isothermal processes.

For the E. M. F. of a voltaic cell, this may be put in the more

specific form of the Helmholtz equation E = - + T — .

P H nF dT

We may emphazise the two following cases : first, when H, the

change in internal energy, is a constant. dA/dT or dE/dT is

then zero, and the relation between A or E and the absolute

temperature T is linear; second, an examination of Nernst's

expressions for A and H in terms of the integral powers of T.

These are according to Nernst

A=Ao-bT2-±cT*-. . .

H=HQ+bT2+cTs+ . . .

Nernst makes the coefficient of the first power of T in the expres-

sion for A necessarily equal to zero. It is easily shown, however,

that this coefficient is not zero from a mathematical point of view.

We have made an experimental investigation of the E. M. F.

of various concentration cells with amalgams of different concen-

tration as the electrodes. In every case a linear relation is estab-

lished between the E. M. F. and temperature. The expression

for the E then has the form E =Eh-\-aT, where Eh is the E. M. F.

due to the internal change of energy H. The coefficient a is not

zero as Nernst assumed it to be.

For the zinc amalgams used the equation expressing the E. M. F.

is E= -0. 001455+0. 0000308477

and the following table shows how nearly the E. M. F. as com-

puted from this equation correspond with the observed ones :

wells: fractional precipitation

21

Electrolytic thermoelectromotive forces were measured also

and showed a linear relation over a range of temperatures as much

as 25 or 30°.

We have constructed two calomel cells, one with a positive

temperature coefficient and the other with an equal negative

one. The two cells are identical except that the former is set

up with a 10 per cent zinc amalgam, and the latter with one of

about 0.8 per cent. When the two cells are joined in series, the

sum of their electromotive forces is independent of temperature

through at least the range 8° to 34° C.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— The Fractional Precipitation of

Carbonates. Roger C. Wells. Geological Survey. Com-

municated by F. W. Clarke.

In a recent paper I described experiments upon the fractional

precipitation of sulphides and pointed out that the results were

in accord with what would be expected from our knowledge of

the solubilities of the sulphides in water.1 In the experiments

with the sulphides fractionations were carried out with mixtures

of two metallic salts in various proportions. Similar experiments

are now being conducted with carbonates. Some preliminary

results are presented here for mixtures containing equivalent

quantities of each metallic salt. Full data and discussion are

reserved for a later paper.

The procedure in these experiments was simple. A dilute solu-

tion containing two metallic salts in equivalent quantities was

^con. Geol. 5; 1. 1911.

22

wells: fractional precipitation

precipitated by sodium carbonate enough for one metal only.

After a time an aliquot portion of the mother liquor was analyzed

and thus the composition of the precipitate determined by differ-

ence.

Since the experiments were intended to apply to the chemistry

of ore deposition it was desired to find out the final effect. It was

shown by some of the earlier results that the immediate action

consists in a precipitation of both metals in nearly equivalent

quantities, and that one of them proceeds to dissolve, the other

TABLE I

Fractional Precipitations

EXPERIMENT

TAKEN, MILLI-EQ. PES LITER

4..

5..

6..

7.

8.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

39.

40.

41.

42.

60.

64.

71.

74.

78.

8 ZnS04

20 CdS04

10 FeS04

10 CuS04

8 C11SO4

8 Pb(N03)2

8 Zn(N03,2

8 AgN03

8 Z11SO4

8 AgN03

8 FeS04

8 Cd(N03)2

8 MnS04

8 NiS04

8 AgN03

8 CaS04

20 ZnS04

10 CaS04

10 FeS04

8 ZnS04

8 AgN03

8 Cd(N03)2

8 Pb(N03)2

8 HgNOa

8 Cd(NO,)2

8 NiS04

8 Zn(N03)2

8 NiS04

8 Zn(N03)2

8 HgN03

8 CaS04

14.54 MgS04

8 MnS04

DURATION OF

EXPERIMENT

FOUND IN PRECIPITATE

days

17

19

3

2

26

4

6

24

4

10

8

1

11

2

5

9

7

8

6

18 hrs.

1 hr.

15

tr. Ca

4.5 Zn

tr. Ca

5.35 Fe

0.76 Zn

0.08 Ag

0.42 Cd

tr. Zn

7.98 Hg

7.18 Cd

1.50 Ni

3.96 Zn

3.06 Ni

2.64 Zn

7.36 Hg

1.64 Ca

tr. Mg

3.80 Mn

5.76 Mn

1.56 Ca

1.12 Mg

0.20 Cd

2.96 Ag

8.96 Mn

5.70 Ca

2.34 Cd

wells: fractional precipitation

23

TABLE II

Precipitation Series and Relative Precipitations

to precipitate, with the lapse of time. The change goes on for

several days at the ordinary temperature, accompanied by a

gradual transformation of the precipitate from a flocculent to a

24 schaller: ferritungstite

more or less crystalline state. The bottles containing the solution

and precipitates were allowed to stand as long as desired, with

occasional shaking, in the laboratory at about 20°. There is no

doubt that some of the precipitates were basic but this would

make no difference as far as the application to geochemistry is

concerned, for, many such salts are well known as minerals.

In the results below the concentrations are expressed in milli-

equivalents per liter, an equivalent being equal in grams to the

molecular weight of the metal or radicle reduced to a univalent

basis. Where a liter of solution was not employed the results

have been calculated to that dilution. The amount of sodium

carbonate used was sufficient to precipitate all of one metal only.

The results are given in Table I.

When the results in Table I are considered it is seen that in

general the separation is not complete. The metals may be

arranged in a series, however, such that the first one is precipi-

tated to a greater extent than the next and so on. The complete-

ness of the fractionation is greater as the metals are more widely

separated in the series, as is shown in Table II. In some cases

special reactions occur as, for example, the reduction of silver

salts by ferrous and manganous salts, and these experiments are

omitted.

Altho it is incorrect to state that the series represents the order

of solubility of the carbonates it does represent the order of the

precipitating power of carbonates upon metallic salts under simi-

lar conditions. The order is Hg, Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn, Fe, Ni, Mn,

Ag, Ca, Mg. The most striking fact, perhaps, is the position of

silver which is found between manganese and calcium.

The effect of bicarbonates and of higher temperatures is under

investigation.

MINERALOGY. — Ferritungstite, a new mineral. WaldemarT.

Schaller. Geological Survey. To appear in the American

Journal of Science.

The new mineral ferritungstite is a hydrous ferric tungstate

formed by the oxidation of wolframite, with which it occurs in

pure and crystalline form as minute hexagonal scales, in the Ger-

LARSEN AND SCHALLER : HINSDALITE

25

mania Tungsten Mine, Washington. The yellow to brownish-

yellow mineral is decomposed by acids, yellow oxide of tungsten

separating out.

Analyses of two samples from the same specimen gave :

The formula deduced is Fe203. W03. 6H20.

MINERALOGY — Hinsdalite, a new mineral. E. S. Larsen

and W. T. Schaller. Geological Survey? To appear in

the American Journal of Science.

Hinsdalite was first collected (by E. S. L.) from the dump at

the mouth of one of the tunnels of the Golden Fleece mine, near

Lake City, Hinsdale County, Colorado where it is abundant as

an original vein mineral associated with quartz and a little pyrite,

galena, tetrahedrite, and barite. It occurs in bands an inch or

so across and as crystals imbedded in granular quartz.

The crystals are either rhombohedrons, resembling cubes, or

pseudo-hexagonal tablets. The angle rr' is about 91.3° from

which the value 1.268 is calculated for the c axis. If the appar-

ent hexagonal base be taken as the true base, there is a per-

fect basal cleavage, but the cleavage faces are nearly all wavy and

striated. The optical data indicate that the mineral is only

pseudo-hexagonal. The hardness is about 5; the luster is vitreous

to greasy. The fresh mineral is pale greenish, but much of the

material is dark grey from inclusions. The streak is colorless.

The indices of refraction are somewhat variable but the values

for the principal zones are about a = 1.670, /3 = 1.671, 7 = 1.688.

Sections normal to the cleavage show parallel extinction, while

those parallel to the cleavage are in many cases hexagonal in

26

BUTLER AND SCHALLER: BEAVERITE

outline and show the emergence of the positive acute bisectrix.

They may easily be taken for uniaxial crystals, as the axial

angle is small but variable. 2E is usually about 32°. Basal

sections of some of the crystals are divided into six radial seg-

ments and the plane of the optic axis in each segment is normal

to the pseudo-hexagonal prism edge.

The following analysis was made on fresh, light gray crystals

of hinsdalite. They were examined microscopically and found

to be very pure but showed a slight zonal growth.

Analysis oj hinsdalite

W. T. Schaller, analyst

PbO..

SrO..

Al2Oi.

S03...

P2O5..

H20..

31.75

3.11

26.47

14.13

14.50

10.25

1.93 or 2

2.92 or 3

1.99 or 2

1.14 or 1

6.40 or 6

CaO, MgO, Na20, K20 traces. Density = 3.64.

Formula 2 (Pb, Sr) 0.3Al2O3.P2O5,2SO3.6H2O.

Hinsdalite is infusible but whitens on heating. It reacts for

aluminum when heated with cobalt nitrate, and readily yields a

button of metallic lead. The water is driven off only at a tem-

perature of from about 400° to 600° C. It is insoluble in acids.

From its chemical composition and crystallographical form it

is seen to be closely related to svanbergite and forms an addi-

tional member of the alunite-beudantite group.

MINERALOGY. — Beaverite, a new mineral. B. S. Butler and

W. T. Schaller. Geological Survey. To appear in the

American Journal of Science.

The new mineral beaverite, a hydrous sulphate of copper, lead,

and ferric iron, was found (by B. S. B.) in the Horn Silver mine

near Frisco, Beaver County, Utah. The mineralization occurs

along a fault that has thrown Tertiary lavas down against Cambro-

Ordovician limestone. The ore is mainly a replacement of the

volcanic rocks.

The principal primary minerals of the deposit are galena,

BUTLER AND SCHALLERI BEAVERITE

27

sphalerite, wurtzite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, jamesonite (?), pyrar-

gyrite, argentite, quartz, barite, sericite, and small amounts of

other minerals.

To a depth of about 600 feet the primary minerals have been

almost entirely altered by descending solutions and this altera-

tion has taken place to a lesser extent to a much greater depth.

The characteristic alteration is to sulphates with some secondary

carbonates, chlorides, and sulphides.

The following secondary minerals have been recognized:

Anglesite, cerusite plumbojarosite, jarosite, beaverile, linarite,

bindheimite (?), smithsonite, calamine, goslarite, covellite, chal-

cocite, brochantite, malachite, azurite, chrysocolla, chalcanthite,

cerargyrite, sulphur, chalcedony, kaolinite, gypsum, hydrous

oxide of iron and manganese, and alunite (?).

Beaverite commonly occurs mixed with other secondary min-

erals but occasionally is found pure in small, friabls masses. It

is canary yellow in color and crystallizes in six-sided plates too

small for measurement of the angle or determination of the opti-

cal character. Minute inclusions, whose character has not been

determined, are present in nearly every crystal.

The mineral is soluble in boiling hydrochloric acid leaving an

insoluble silicious residue. The analysis and ratios are as follows :

Analysis of beaverite

W. T. Schaller, analyst

The ratios agree well with the formula CuO.PbO.Fe;03.2SOs.

4H20. The water is all constitutional as none was driven off

below 250°. There is no known mineral to which beaverite

is related so that at present it stands as an isolated member of

the sulphate group.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized

to forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications

should be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they

originate. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those

appearing in this issue.

METEOROLOGY. — Free air data at Mount Weather for October, Novem-

' her, and December, 1910. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observa-

tory, 3: 304-346. 1911.

During this period of 92 days, 85 kite and 7 captive balloon ascensions

were made at Mount Weather, Virginia. The average height attained

was 3115 meters above sea-level. The temperature, relative humidity,

direction and velocity of the wind were all obtained at numerous levels

and are given both in tabular form for each flight and graphically for

each half month. W. J. Humphreys.

METEOROLOGY. — Temperature departures, monthly and annual, in

the United States, January, 1878, to June, 1909, inclusive. Bulletin

U. S. Weather Bureau. 1911.

The 474 separate charts of this bulletin show the departure from the

normal of the mean monthly and mean annual temperatures of the

United States for the period, January 1873, to June 1909, inclusive, one

for each month and one for each year.

Beginning with the issue for July, 1909, similar charts have appeared

in each number of the Monthly Weather Review, so that the series is

now complete from January, 1873, to date. W. J. Humphreys.

METEOROLOGY.— Frost data of the United States; and length of the

crop-growing season. P. C. Day. Bulletin U. S. Weather Bureau

No. 5. 1911.

This bulletin consists essentially of five large charts that show, graph-

ically, certain climatological data of vital importance, namely: (1)

The average date of the last killing frost in spring. (2) The average

date of the first killing frost in autumn. (3) The latest date on which

28

abstracts: meteorology 29

a killing frost has occurred in spring. (4) The earliest date on which a

killing frost has occurred in autumn. (5) The average length of the

crop growing season, or the number of days between the average date

of the last killing frost in spring and the first killing frost in autumn.

The data consist of the 10 to 30 year records of about one thousand

country stations, and, therefore, being free from city disturbances, are

of especial climatological value. W. J. Humphreys.

METEOROLOGY.— The Aleutian and Icelandic lows. W. J. Hum-

phreys. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, 4. 1911.

The high regions of Greenland and Iceland are perpetually ice covered

and perpetually cold. Hence at their level the air is, in general, warmer

over the intervening ocean than over the land. There must therefore

exist a nearly continuous atmospheric overflow from above the ocean

onto these two land areas and a drainage in turn of the air from them to

the water. But this is the nature of a cyclonic circulation, and there-

fore this region is almost continuously surrounded by counterclockwise

winds of varying intensity.

A similar temperature distribution, with its resulting cyclonic winds,

obtains during the winter in the neighborhood of the Aleutian islands.

But the Siberian and Alaskan peninsulas, since their elevation is small,

are relatively warm in summer and hence the Aleutian low is only a

seasonal phemonenon.

With the exception of the polar regions, in contrast with the equatorial,

there are no other places with such pronounced and, at the same time,

so continuous temperature gradients to either side of them, and there-

fore no other permanent or semipermanent low. W. J. H.

METEOROLOGY. — Vertical temperature gradients and convection limits.

W. J. Humphreys. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory,

4. 1911.

By day the surface layer of the air is warmed mainly by contact with

the heated earth, and the layers next above by convection. Hence the

afternoon temperature gradient must closely follow first, the dry air

adiabat, and then, if convection has extended high enough, the satura-

tion adiabat.

By night the lowest air is cooled by contact with the relatively cold

earth, and the layers next above partly through mixture with the cooler

under air and partly by radiation, and thus an inversion gradient — one

that shows warming with elevation — is often produced near the surface.

30 abstracts: oceanography

Hence the average gradient departs more and more from the adiabats

as the surface is approached. These deductions are fully supported by

the temperature records of sounding balloons.

Morning convections, therefore, necessarily are shallow, since the

dynamic cooling of the rising air quickly brings its temperature to or

below that of the surrounding atmosphere. The same conditions also

limit the height of the afternoon convections, though these generally

attain to greater elevations than do those of the forenoon. W. J.H.

METEOROLOGY. — Some weather proverbs and their justification.

W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau. Popular Science Monthly,

78: 428-444. 1911.

A large number of weather proverbs dealing with the colors of the

sky, haloes, coronas, clouds and other natural phenomena are given,

and both their causes and relation to weather changes explained in non-

technical terms.

Only those proverbs are quoted that concern natural phenomena and

which have more or less scientific justification for the predictions they

make. W. J. H.

OCEANOGRAPHY.— Arctic tides. Rollin A. Harris. 103 pp. 2

figs, and map. Government Printing Office. 1911.

In preparing this paper, which gives in detail the observations by the

Peary expedition, 1908-1909, and by the expedition under Mikkelsen

and Leffingwell, 1906-1907, one of the principal aims has been to bring

together all available results pertaining to tides in Arctic waters. Scien-

tifically, the most important of these is probably the table of harmonic

constants for 50 stations, all but one of which lie north of the 60th parallel.

The lunitidal intervals and ranges of tide are given for more than 200

points or stations in the Arctic Regions. The mean range of tide varies

from 23 feet in Ashe Inlet, Hudson Strait, to 0.2 foot at Pitlekaj, on the

Siberian coast not far west of Bering Strait.

A cotidal map shows the times and ranges of the semidaily tide, so

far as known, and the estimated times in regions where no observations

have been taken. The semidaily tides of the Arctic Ocean are derived

almost entirely from those of the Atlantic ; for, the semidaily tidal forces

are small in high latitudes and vanish at the Pole. Hence the extensive

progressions from the Atlantic into and over the Arctic. Five "no-

tide points," or points where the range of the semidaily tide becomes

zero, are indicated upon the map.

abstracts: terrestrial magnetism 31

The tides in Baffin Bay and in Robeson Channel consist largely of

stationary waves.

One of the most remarkable results established by the Peary expedi-

tion is that the semidaily tide wave progresses eastward, and not west-

ward, along the northern coast of Grant Land, which shows that the

progressive wave from Lancaster Sound and Jones Sound, which passes

west of Axel Heiberg Island, governs this tide.

The fact that-the range of tide coming from the west can be as large

as 0.8 foot at Point Aldrich, near Cape Columbia, indicates that land is

not far distant towards the northwest.

In high latitudes the diurnal forces are large; and so if there exist a

deep uninterrupted polar ocean, the diurnal tide should approximately

follow the equilibrium theory for an inclosed sea. For certain arctic

coasts this is the case while for others either the times or ranges depart

considerably from the theoretical values.

Some of the facts tending to establish the existence of land situated

between the Arctic Archipelago and the Arctic coast of eastern Siberia

are as follows: (1) At Point Barrow the flood comes from the west and

Dot from the north; (2) the range of the semidaily tide at Bennett

Island is 2.5 feet while it is only 0.4 foot at Point Barrow and 0.5 foot

at Flaxman Island; (3) the times of the semidaily tide on the north

coast of Alaska do not indicate that the tide, propagated from the Atlan-

tic Ocean to Alaska, crosses a deep and uninterrupted polar basin;

(4) the diurnal tides at Teplitz Bay, Bennet Island, Pitlekaj, Point Bar-

row, and Flaxman Island have less than one half of their equilibrium

values, which fact makes the supposition of an uninterrupted polar

basin improbable if not impossible; (5) the westward drift of the Jean-

nette and the westward drift observed by Mikkelsen and Leffingwell

indicate an obstruction in the polar basin. R. A. H.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Directions for magnetic measurements.

D. L. Hazard. Pp.131. Government Printing Office. 1911.

This publication aims to present the subject so that an observer

familiar with the use of instruments but without experience in magnetic

work may make observations for determining magnetic elements with-

out other assistance than the book itself. The first part is devoted to

definitions, explanations of principles, and the derivation of formulas.

The three other sections of the book give specific directions for absolute

observations on land and at sea and general directions for the operation

of a magnetic observatory. At the end of the volume are standard

forms of record and tables for use in computation. The volume can be

easily carried in the field. R. L. Faris.

32 abstracts: terrestrial magnetism

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Results of observations made at the

Coast and Geodetic Survey Magnetic Observatory at Cheltenham, Md.,

1907 and 1908. D. L. Hazard. Washington, Government Printing

Office, 1911. Restdts of observations made at the Coast and Geodetic

Survey Magnetic Observatory at Sitka, Alaska, 1907 and 1908. D. L.

Hazard. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1911. Resultsof

observations made at the Coast and Geodetic Survey Magnetic Observatory

near Honolulu, Hawaii, 1907 and 1908. D. L. Hazard. Washing-

ton, Government Printing Office, 1911.

In terrestrial magnetism the Coast and Geodetic Survey has published

during this calendar year, the results of its magnetic observatory work

at three of its five magnetic observatories for the years 1907 and 1908,

viz: for Cheltenham, Maryland; Sitka, Alaska; and Honolulu, Hawaii.

Each volume contains the results of two years observations. The hourly

values of the magnetic declination, the horizontal and vertical magnetic

intensity are tabulated for the whole period. The mean nourly values

of these magnetic elements are given for each month as well as those for

the " ten least disturbed days." Based upon the data in these tables are

other tables showing the diurnal variation of the magnetic elements.

A summary of monthly mean values of the different magnetic elements

is also given.

The volumes also contain tabulations of the principal magnetic dis-

turbances recorded at the observatories. The actual records of a num-

ber of these magnetic disturbances or "magnetic storms" are reproduced

to three-fourths the original size, and are referred to Greenwich mean

time for facility of comparison with the records of other observatories.

The magnetic data conform as far as possible with the recommenda-

tions of the Commission on Terrestrial Magnetism of the International

Meteorological Committee as expressed at its several meetings since

1896.

In these volumes is also given the data of all earthquakes recorded on

the seismographs operated at the magnetic observatories during 1907

and 1908.

At the present time all of the magnetic observatories of the Coast and

Geodetic Survery are making special registration observations of the

magnetic elements (declination, horizontal and vertical intensity) at

stated periods, in response to the request of the Royal Society of Lon-

don for international cooperation in magnetic work on certain term

days from May, 1911, to January, 1912, covering a portion of the period

of the magnetic work of the English South Polar Expedition now in the

antarctic regions.

abstracts: physics 33

During the month of April special simultaneous registration observa-

tions were made at Cheltenham, Maryland, and at Tucson, Arizona, in

cooperation with the magnetic work of Professor Birkeland at Khartum,

Africa, when stud3ring the zodiacal light. It was thought that the com-

parison of the magnetic curves at places so far apart might serve to

decide the question of the simultaneity or non-simultaneity of the

abruptly beginning magnetic storms. R. L. Faris.

PHYSICS. — On the computation of the constant d of Planck's equation

by an extension of Paschen's method of equal ordinates. E. Buck-

ingham and J. H. Dellinger. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 7:

393-406, 1911.

Planck's equation for the intensity of radiation J, of wave length X,

from a black body at the absolute temperature 6 viz.

J=C1[x5(eC2/X0-l)]~1

appears to represent very well the results of all known observations.

If X0 is not too large, the experimental facts are represented sufficiently

well by Wien's equation:

/ = CiX-VC2/^

This equation defines an optical scale of temperature, which is used for

high temperature work. To make this scale fit the standard gas scale

of temperature within their common range of about 650° C. to 1650° C,

the constant c2 must be known accurately. This constant may be deter-

mined by observing the distribution of energy in the spectrum of a

black body at a constant temperature, giving a so-called "energy curve."

From the two values of X corresponding to equal values of J on either

side of the maximum of the curve, <h may be calculated by an equation

due to Paschen provided the observed curve is representable by Wien's

equation.

This paper extends Paschen's method, in two different ways, to apply

to curves for which Planck's equation must be used. The first method

consists in the substitution in Paschen's equation of corrected values of

the wave lengths read from the energy curve, the point of the method

being in the determination of these corrections. The second method

solves Planck's equation directly, obtaining an exact relation, which

may be simplified by justifiable approximation to a form the same as

Paschen's equation with a small correction term added. J. H. D.

34 abstracts: physics

PHYSICS. — Note on the temperature scale between 100° and 500° C.

C. W. Waidner and G. K. Burgess, Bulletin Bureau of Standards,

7: 1-9. 1911.

By means of resistance thermometers reading to an accuracy of 1 in

100,000 and calibrated1 at the ice, steam, and sulphur-boiling points,

using the Callendar equation, the nitrogen constant volume tempera-

ture scale in the interval 100° to 500° C. is found to be represented to

better than 0.1° C. by the following freezing and boiling points:

Freezing Boiling

Tin 231.9 Naphthaline 218.0

Cadmium 321.0 Benzophenone 306.0

Zinc 419 4 Sulphur 444 7

G. K. B.

PHYSICS. — On the constancy of the sulphur boiling point. C. W.

Waidner and G. K. Burgess. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 7:

127-130. 1911.

Thermocouples of platinum and other metals such as are used in high

temperature measurements often give results in the sulphur boiling

apparatus discordant by 1° C. or more.2 By means of platinum-rhodium

thermocouples free from inhomogeneity and notably with one of only

0.1 mm. diameter, as well as by means of a resistance thermometer of

very short coil, less than 9 mm. in length and of 13.1 ohms resistance

taking only 0.006 amperes measuring current, it is shown that the point

to point variation in temperature within the usual form (loc. cit.) of

sulphur boiling apparatus is less than 0.05° C. The sulphur boiling-

point appears to be the most exactly defined, the most certainly repro-

ducible, and the most constant yet studied, of all the fixed temperatures

given by the chemical elements. G. K. B.

PHYSICS. — A new form of direct-reading candle-power scale and recording

device for precision photometers. G. W. Middlekauff. Bulletin

Bureau of Standards. 7: 11-44. 1911.

In precision photometry it is necessary to take a large number of

readings, which, with the subsequent calculations for candle-power, are

not only fatiguing but introduce the possibility of error, especially when

the observer has both to read the photometer and record the settings

1 Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 6. 149-230. 1910.

2 Ibid., 6. 149-230. 1910.

abstracts: physics 35

Furthermore, the ordinary, commercial candlepower scale cannot well

be adapted to precision work because it is practically impossible to so

adjust the comparison lamp as to make the scale read the exact candle-

power directly, especially since at least six standards should be employed

in making the adjustment.

At the Bureau of Standards these difficulties are overcome by automat-

ically recording the photometric settings by dots on a sheet of paper, or

chart, containing a special printed scale which is capable of being accu-

rately adjusted to the record. The chart is wrapped on a cylinder which

rests on the bench with its axis parallel to the photometer bar. By

pressing a key located on the photometer carriage a record dot is printed

at the correct position on the chart for each setting, as it is made, and as

the key opens, the cylinder, by means of an electrically driven secondary

clock, is advanced a short distance thus preventing any two dots from

coinciding and at the same time showing the order in which the readings

are made. A large number of settings on a given lamp are thus made

quickly and without prejudice and their mean, which corresponds to the

center of mass of the cluster of record dots, is readily and accurately

determined.

The special scale is rectangular in form, the upper and lower sides being

graduated into linear candle-power scales corresponding, respectively, to

the extreme adjustments of the comparison lamp within which it is

desired to work. The points of division in these two linear scales are

joined by straight lines, thus producing within the rectangle an indefinite

number of linear candle-power scales, so that for any arbitrary adjust-

ment of the comparison lamp between the limits chosen there will be a

scale which will exactly fit the record printed by dots on the chart. The

proper one is easily determined by preliminary readings on the standards

and the values of the unknown lamps are read off to the nearest one-

hundredth of a candle.

This scale is adaptable to all arrangements of the photometer and is

adaptable also to the measurement, without the use of rotating sectored

disks,* of lamps differing considerably from one another or from the

standards in candlepower; in which case, to make the record of all settings

fall on the chart, the various lamps when measured are placed, respec-

tively, according to their intensity, at different points along the photo-

meter bar.

In each and every case the scale reads in candle-power directly, and if

the values be written on the chart when they are first read from the

scale it becomes a simple matter for a second reader to check the work of

the first entirely by inspection. G. W. M.

36 abstracts: chemistry

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— The role of hydrolysis in geological

chemistry. Rogers C. Wells. Economic Geology, 6: 211-217.

1911.

Owing to hydrolysis most solutions that are active in geologic changes

are either alkaline or acid, rarely neutral. The nature of the hydrolytic

reaction for several salts is described and it is shown that geologic action

may often be proportional to the concentration of hydroxyl ion in a

solution even though, as with carbonates, it is a "salt" which is assumed

to be present. Owing to the increasing ionization of water at high tem-

peratures, as well as the increasing hydrolysis of salts, hydrolysis becomes

extremely marked at such temperatures. This may help to explain

the action of water as a "mineralizer." R. C. W.

MINERALOGY. — The relation of bomite and chalcocite in the copper

ores of the Virgilina District of North Carolina and Virginia. Fran-

cis Baker Laney, Geological Survey. Proceedings of the United

States National Museum, No. 1835, 40: 513-524, Pis. 63-69. 1911.

The rocks of the Virgilina District are greenstone and sericitic schists

cut by granite and gabbro. The intrusive rocks show no schistosity.

The schists have been derived from volcano-sedimentary rocks of two

types — andesite and quartz porphyry, with tuffs corresponding to these

rock types. Their age is probably early Paleozoic.

The veins have a more northerly trend than the schistosity of the

country rock. Their filling is quartz with local and varying amounts

of epidote and calcite. The ore-bearing veins are confined to the more

basic portions of the greenstone schists, and the ore lies in well-defined

shoots.

The ore minerals are bornite and chalcocite. They are chiefly in

quartz, but are not confined to any one of the gangue minerals. Bornite

is in slight excess over chalcocite and is apparently of only one period of

deposition. Chalcocite is of two periods — one confined to the upper

portions of the vein, younger than, and filling a network of minute

fractures in, the bornite; the other contemporaneous and intergrown

often crystallographically with it. There is no evidence that any of

the bornite is secondary. It is, therefore, clear that in the Virgilina

District the greater part of the chalcocite is a primary mineral contem-

poraneous with the bornite. F. B. L.

abstracts: mineralogy 37

MINERALOGY. — Natramblygonite, a new mineral. Waldemar T.

Schaller. American Journal of Science, 31: 48-50. 1911.

Natramblygonite is a soda amblygonite, or a hydrofluophosphate of

alumina and soda with the soda in part replaced by lithia. This min-

eral was found near Canon City, Colorado, and its analysis gave the

results: P205, 44.35; A1203, 33.59; Li20, 3.21; Na20, 11.23; K20, 0.14;

H20, 4.78; F, 5.63; deduct O for F, 2.3?; total, 100.56. W. T. S.

MINERALOGY. — Thaumasitefrom Beaver County, Utah. B. S. Butler

and W. T. Schaller. American Journal of Science, 31: 131-134.

1911.

The rare mineral thaumasite was found in veins in altered limestone

in the Old Hickory mine, Rocky Range, Rocky district, Beaver Co.,

Utah. Its properties agree with those of thaumasite from other local-

ities and the analysis gives the formula 3CaO.Si02.S03.C02.15H20.

B. S. B.

MINERALOGY. — Bismuth ochers from San Diego County, California.

Waldemar T. Schaller. Journal American Chemical Society,

33: 162-166. 1911.

The bismuth ochers result from the oxidation of native bismuth and

analyses of three samples show them to be either bismite Bi(OH)3,

pucherite BiV04 or mixtures of these two. It is concluded, from a

study of the literature, that the anhydrous bismuth oxide, Bi203, prob-

ably does not occur in nature. W. T. S.

MINERALOGY. — Krystallographische Notizen iiber Albit, Phenakit und

Xeptunit. W. T. Schaller. Zeitschr. Kryst. Mineral., 43: 550-

558. 1911.

Some rare crystal forms are described on albite from Marin Co.,

California. Phenakite from New Hampshire and neptunite (new form)

from California are described crystallographically. All the known

forms, with coordinate angles and literature references, of phenakite

and neptunite are brought together in tables. W. T. S.

GEOLOGY. — A geologic reconnaissance in southeastern Seward Penin-

sula and the Norton Bay-Nulato region, Alaska. Philip S. Smith

and Henry M. Eakin. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 449.

Pp. 141, with maps, sections, and views. 1911.

The region described extends from the Yukon River near the mouth of

the Koyukuk westward to Council in Seward Peninsula. There are two

38 abstracts: geology

main geologic provinces — a Cretaceous basin to the east and an area

occupied by metamorphic rocks to the west.

The Cretaceous rocks, which contain invertebrate fossils, cover a

large area and have a thickness of more than 20,000 feet, with neither

top nor bottom exposed. At the base of the Cretaceous section is the

Ungalik conglomerate, at least a thousand feet thick, which grades

upward, and probably laterally also, into the Shaktolik formation, of

sandstones and shales. The sandstone is made up of fairly fresh felds-

pathic and ferromagnesian minerals. Cross bedding, concentric weath-

ering, and mud-flat markings are common structures and some of the

beds are lignitic.

The Ungalik and Shaktolik rocks are younger than the main igneous

intrusives, but in a few places they are cut by dioritic rocks, and the

mineralization effected by these has given rise to small placers. After

deformation and erosion the Cretaceous rocks were covered by basaltic

lavas.

In the region of metamorphic rocks are schists, limestones, and

altered basic intrusives, all intricately folded and faulted. Fossils

from the limestones are Silurian to Devonian-Carboniferous. The

metamorphic rocks were intruded by granites and diorites after the

main period of metamorphism but before the deposition of the Cretaceous

sediments.

The metamorphic rocks are those most mineralized, and there are

two series of auriferous quartz veins — one older and one later than the

period of metamorphism. Neither carries considerable sulphides.

These veins are the sources from which the placer deposits in the west-

ern part of the region, most notably near Council and Bluff, have been

derived. P. S. S.

GEOLOGY. — The State Geological Surveys of the United States. Compiled

under the direction of C. W. Hayes. Bulletin U. S. Geological

Survey No. 465. Pp.177. 1911.

Material compiled in cooperation with the administrative officers

directing State geological surveys. Thirty-six States now have organi-

zations for carrying on geological work.

PALEONTOLOGY.— The fauna of the Moorefield shale of Arkansas.

George H. Girty. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 439.

Pp. 148, 15 Pis. 1911.

The Moorefield shale is a member of the Mississippian section of north-

ern Arkansas lying above the Boone formation and below the Bates-

abstracts: paleontology 39

ville sandstone. It is a series of black shales which has near Batesville

a thickness of about 225 feet, but which, thins rapidly in a westward

direction, so that at Marshall it is less than 30 feet thick and still far-

ther west, in the Fayetteville region, the Batesville is reported to rest

directly on the Boone.

The Moorefield fauna treated in this report was obtained in the region

about Batesville and at Marshall and comprises 89 species and varieties.

Its facies is conspicuously different from those of the typical Missis-

si ppian faunas farther north and, as pointed out by H. S. Williams, by

whom its general character was first made known, it contains a number

of types which taken by themselves give it, in a measure, a Devonian

aspect.

The Moorefield fauna is closely related to that of the lower portion of

the Caney shale of Oklahoma and the two are regarded as being in cor-

relation. At the same time the Moorefield shale has been generally

referred to the "St. Louis group" and this assignment is probably cor-

rect. G. H. G.

PALEONTOLOGY.— The fauna of the phosphate beds of the Park City

formation in Idaho, Wyoming, and Utah. George H. Girty.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 436. Pp. 8, Pis. 7. 1911.

It is important to note that although this report bears date of 1910,

its actual publication did not take place until early in the following year.

The Park City formation, named from Park City in the Wasatch

Mountains of northeastern Utah, has been traced northward into

Idaho, from which region the collections discussed in this report were

largely made. Most of them came from the vicinity of Montpelier and

of Raymond Canyon.

In this region the formation consists of two limestone members sepa-

rated by a bed of dark shale about 100 feet in thickness. It is in this

shale that the phosphate deposits of the Utah-Idaho-Wyoming

district occur. The fossils are found chiefly in a few thin limestone

sheets by which the shales are divided and especially in what is locally

known as the "Cap lime," a ledge of earthy limestone about 2 feet in

thickness which at Montpelier comes in near the base of the black shales

just above the main phosphate bed. The fauna thus far obtained con-

sists of 45 species and is unique in character being, like so many of our

western faunas, unlike the Upper Carboniferous of the Mississippi Valley

and comparable with the faunas of Asia and eastern Russia. In this

report it is provisionally placed in the Pennsylvanian, but more recent

data indicate that it should probably be classed as Permian. G. H. G.

40 abstracts: forestry

FORESTRY. — The preservative treatment of poles. Compiled by

William H. Kempfer. Forest Service Bulletin No. 84. Pp. 55,

with plates and diagrams. 1911.

Present knowledge of the results of the creosote treatment of wooden

poles is based largely on treatments made by the pressure method, using

from 8 to 12 pounds, or more, of creosote to a cubic foot of timber. The

expense incident to such treatment has been the chief hindrance to

its more general adoption for poles. Investigations of the Forest Ser-

vice have therefore been concerned with treatments which could be

applied locally without the erection of elaborate and extensive plants.

Much attention has also been given to the seasoning of poles, since proper

seasoning not only prepares poles to receive the preservative, but under

certain conditions may be in itself a means of increasing their durability.

Seasoning of poles reduces their weight usually from 16 to 30 per cent,

and even more for some species. In general, poies cut during the spring

and summer lose weight most rapidly; those cut during the autumn and

winter lose less rapidly, but more regularly ,

Preservative applied to the surface of a pole by a brush may add from

one to two years to the life of timber, but permanent protection should

not be expected from the application of so small a quantity of preser-

vative. If the butt be more deeply impregnated, the life of the pole

will probably be limited by the life of the top rather than by that of the

butt. A life of 20 years for butt-treated chestnut and western cedar, and

22 years for northern white cedar poles is believed to be a conservative

estimate. In the drier western climate butt-treated pine poles can

probably be depended on to give 20 years' service.

Impregnation of many pole timbers may be accomplished in open

tanks, without the use of artificial pressure, by immersion in hot and

cold preservatives, the cold following the hot. The open tank process

has the advantage that it is possible to apply the preservative to the

butts only, with a great saving in the creosote. Findley Burns.

FORESTRY — Chaparral: Studies in the dwarf forests, or elfin-wood,

of Southern California. Fred G. Plummer. Forest Service Bulle-

tin No. 85. Pp. 50, with map, plates, and text figures. 1911.

True chaparral is a type of plant formation which occurs in several

widely separated parts of the world. In the United States it is found in

southern California over an area of about 5,500,000 acres, along the axis

of the Sierra for a distance of about 450 miles. The formation is known

to plant ecologists as sclerophyllous woodland, and has many local

abstracts: fisheries 41

names, such as scrub, elfin-wood, bush-forest, heath-scrub, maqui,

shrub, steppe, etc. It may be described (though not defined) as a

mixed forest of stunted trees, the result of peculiar climatic conditions,

such as deficiency of moisture, excessive transpiration, barren soil, high

altitude , and wind.

The economic importance of chaparral is due chiefly to the necessity

of watershed protection in a region where water is scarce ard is of the

utmost importance for irrigation and municipal supply. In southern

California chaparral protects about three-fourths of the upper water-

sheds of the streams along the coast. It serves to conserve and regulate

the flow of streams in two ways: (1) By the root systems which pene-

trate the soil and assist the water to percolate, while they prevent

erosion; and (2) by lessening the evaporation.

In the chaparral, as it now exists, those species best suited for cover

are not the most numerous. The growth of the better sorts should be

encouraged, and possibly some foreign species should be introduced.

F. G. P.

FISHERIES.- — The food value of sea mussels. Irving A. Field, U. S.

Fisheries Laboratory, Woods Hole. Bulletin of the Bureau of

Fisheries, 29: 85-128. Pis. 18-25, figs. 2. 1911.

Sea mussels (Mytilus edulis) are so palatable and nutritious, and are

likewise so abundant and available, that to neglect them for table use is

waste. They are found along the coasts of practically all the northern

half of the Northern Hemisphere, and in the slightly brackish bays and

estuaries of New Jersey, Long Island, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts

they exist in beds so extensive that they can be collected daily by the

ton. Many have pronounced them equal or superior in flavor to the

oyster, and obviously to the coastal population they would be a cheap

food. They pre, moreover, in season when the oyster is out of season,

they breed prolifically, and, requiring less special conditions for growth

than does the oyster, they may be more easily cultivated.

The readiness with which mussels spoil is the one difficulty in market-

ing them raw, for they must be used within 24 hours after being taken

from the water. Dr. Field finds, however, that canned or pickled they

will retain the natural flavor for months. He describes preserving

methods, developed by his experiments, and appends a number of

recipes for preparing mussels for the table.

While the main purpose of the report is practical and directed to the

encouragement of an industry new to America, a large part of Dr. Field's

42 REFERENCES

text is devoted to the natural history of the mussel, and includes chap-

ters describing experiments by Dr. C. L. Alsberg to determine the avail-

able protein in the mussel meats, and by Dr. Donald Van Slyke, assisted

by Messrs. W. M. Clark and C. B. Bennett, to determine the rate of

digestion and proportion of nutriment absorbed from cooked mussels

and squid compared with beef as a standard. E. M. Smith.

FISHERIES.— The fisheries of Alaska m 1910. M. C. Marsh and

John N. Cobb. Bureau of Fisheries, Document 746. Pp. 72.

1911.

While the original duties of the Alaska fisheries service related entirely

to the enforcement of the salmon fishery laws, the scope of its usefulness,

and consequently of the agents' reports, has widened to include not only

operations and statistics but observations of all conditions affecting all

Alaska fisheries and, with the exception of the fur seals on the Pribilof

Islands, the capture of all fur-bearing animals in Alaska as well. An

important feature of the work in relation to the salmon is a series of

investigations designed to throw light on the biological phenomena of

the spawning runs.

Wood and Nushagak rivers, in the Bristol Bay region, were closed to

all fishing in 1908, in which year, with cooperation of the packers, plans

were made for a count of the salmon which reached the spawning grounds

in Wood River. For this purpose a rack was constructed at the foot

of Lake Aleknagik, at the headwaters of the river, in such manner that

all arriving fish must pass through a gate sufficiently small to permit of an

accurate record of their numbers. These figures, with the known catch

in Nushagak Bay, outside the mouth of Wood River, furnish a census of

the run and hence significant information as to the increment of salmon

from natural spawning. Carried through several years already and to be

continued for several years more, such counts are expected to afford

definite scientific basis for regulation of the salmon fishery. Observations

so far indicate that the Nushagak fisheries will be maintained at their

present ample productiveness if 30 per cent of the run reaches the spawn-

ing grounds. E. M. Smith.

REFERENCES

METEOROLOGY.— Monthly Weather Review. 39; No. 1, pp. 1-156, charts 8.

Monthly Weather Review. 39: No. 2, pp. 157-315, charts 8.

Monthly Weather Review. 39: No. 3, pp. 317-4S6, charts 8.

PHYSICS. — The testing of clinical thermometers. Bureau of Standards Cir-

cular No. 5. 2nd ed., issued June 30, 1911.

REFERENCES 43

The standardization of bomb calorimeters. Bureau of Standards Circular No.

11. Issued May 15, 1911.

The control of thermal operations and the Bureau of Standards. G. K. Burgess.

Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 9: 352-356. 1911.

HYDROGRAPHY— Su~ face-water supply of the United States, 1909, Part 10:

The Great Basin. C. La Rue and F. F. Henshaw. Water-Supply Paper,

U. S. Geolog:cal Survey, No. 27., 1911. Pp. 192. Pis. 9.

Under giound-Water Papers, 1910. Water-Supply Papers, U. S. Geological

Survey, No. 258. Pp. 1-123, with maps and figures. 1911. Includes the'

following separate papers: Introduction, W. C. Mendenhall; Drainage

by wells, M. L. Fuller; Freezing of wells and related phenomena, M. L.

Fuller; Occurrence and composition of well waters in the slates of Maine,

F. G. Clapp; Occurrence and composition of well waters in the granites of New

England, F. G. Clapp; Pollution of underground waters in limestone, G.

C. Matson: Protection of shallow wells in sandy deposits, M. L. Fuller;

Composition of mineral springs in Maine, F. G. Clapp; Saline artesian

waters of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, Samuel Sanford; Magnetic wells,

M. L. Fuller; Underground waters near Manassas, Va., F. G. Clapp;

The utilization of the underflow near St. Francis, Kan., H. C. Wolff.

Well-drilling methods. Isaiah Bowman. Water-Supply Paper, U. S. Geolog-

ical Survey. No. 257. Pp. 139. Pis. four, 25 text figures. 1911.

ENGINEERING.— Results of spirit leveling in the State of Washington, 1896 to

1910, inclusive. R. B. Marshall. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey, No.

4:>7. Pp. 108. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in Minnesota, 1897 to 1910, inclusive, R. B. Mar-

shall. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey, No. 453. Pp. 39. 1911.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

At the 239th meeting, at the Cosmos Club, February 8, 1911, Prof.

Frank Leverett upon invitation presented an informal communication

on the investigations of glacial geology that have been carried on in

Minnesota during the past year.

Some exceptional conditions of petroleum accumulation. C. W. Hayes.

No abstract.

The scheelite deposits at Atolia, California. F. L. Hess. No abstract.

Some features of graphite in the United States. Edson S. Bastin.

This paper was devoted largely to a description of certain graphite

deposits of the Adirondack Region in New York. Geological and chem-

ical evidence was advanced to show that some of them were formed by

the dynamic metamorphism of carbonaceous sediments and that others,

notably the deposit at Lead Hill near Ticonderoga, were formed by

dynamic metamorphism succeeded by igneous metamo;phism. Evi-

dence was given that the graphite at Lead Hill crystallized at tempera-

tures below 575° C. Most of the material of this paper is published in

Economic Geology, Vol. V, pp. 134-157, 1910.

The 240th meeting, held in the Cosmos Club, February 22, 1911, was

devoted to a discussion on the subject, Geographical descriptions in

geological publications.

The program opened with an address by Prof. William Morris Davis,

who contended for the adoption of a systematic method of geographical

description such as would speak in terms of physiographic history.

This address was followed by a discussion, in which the following mem-

bers took part: M. R. Campbell, A. H. Brooks, Sydney Paige, Whitman

Cross, Miss Jennie T. Martin, H. M. Eakin, David White, H. E. Gre-

gory, G. O. Smith and W. M. Davis. Robert Anderson, Secretary.

At the 241st meeting, held in the Cosmos Club, March 8, 1911, Mr-

L. D. Burling described a method by means of which very clear results

can be obtained in photographing fossils and other opaque objects by

reflected light, and photographs were exhibited. Dr. C. D. Walcott

exhibited and described lantern slides of panoramic views obtained in

the Glacier National Park and in adjacent portions of Canada.

General description of the Glacier National Park, Montana. M. R.

Campbell.

44

proceedings: geological society 45

The glaciers and glacial sculpture of the Park. F. E. Matthes. Both

papers were illustrated. Edson S. Bastin, Secretary.

The 242nd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, March 22, 1911.

REGULAR PROGRAM «•

The stability ranges of minerals with special reference to the geologic

thermometer scale. Fred E. Wright.

The physico-chemical systems represented by rocks and the geologic

forces which act upon these systems are often so complex that it is not

possible at present to solve completely the problems which they present

and to state definitely the behaviour of any particular rock or magma

under the different conditions of temperature and pressure which may

arise. It is important, therefore, that limits of temperature and pres-

sure be established, beyond which any given system or any component

of the system is no longer stable but undergoes change. These limits

mark points on the geologic thermometer scale or pressure gauge and

place definite boundaries to the region in which the observed reactions

have taken place. At these points an abrupt shift in the equilibrium

of the system occurs and produces profound changes in the system.

The most important thermometric points which may be of service

in this connection are: (a) Enantiotropic inversion temperatures of

minerals, as that of a quartz into /3 quartz; (b) temperature limits

beyond which monotropic or isomeric forms cannot exist, as the tempera-

ture 450°, above which marcasite passes at atmospheric pressure into

pynte* (c) stability ranges of enantiotropic forms and of minerals which

dissociate or decompose at higher temperatures, as the dissociation tem-

peratures, for different pressures, of calcite and other carbonates or of

certain of the garnets and many other contact minerals; (d) melting tem-

peratures of stable minerals and of eutectics : (e) temperatures beyond

which any physical property acquires a permanent set and by virtue of

internal friction or other cause does not revert to its original state on

cooling. In applying these data of laboratory experiment to geologic

problems, it is important to note the conditions under which the data

were obtained and the effect which other conditions of pressure or solu-

tion may have exerted on the observed points of equilibrium change.

Physiographic studies on the south slope of the San Juan Mountains,

Colo. Wallace W. Atwood.

The glacial features on the south slope of the San Juan range do not

differ from those which have been described by various writers in the

high mountains of the West. Moraines of two epochs have been recog-

nized and outwash deposits are associated with each. On ridges above

the limit of ice action are certain gravel-strewn surfaces, which, if extended,

would form a plain with gently rolling topography. This plain, sloping

away from the range, would show distinct down warping at its base,

and merge with the upland surfaces of the neighboring plateaus. These

gravel-strewn upland surfaces are probably portions of a deformed pene-

plain. Beyond the mountains in the plateau district the peneplain

46 proceedings: geological society

surfaces are mantled by a heavy deposit of bowlder-gravels. The bowl-

ders range from one to five feet in diameter and extend at least fifty

miles from the base of the range. Even at that distance some of the

bowlders are three feet in diameter. These deposits are interpreted

as portions of alluvial fans spread out upon the plateaus about the mar-

gin of the San Juan dome, following the redoming of that area and the

associated deformation of the peneplain. Subsequently to the laying

down of these gravels there were at least two distinct stages in the dis-

section of the plateau prior to glaciation. The earlier of these has been

called the Bowlder-mesa stage. During that time broad areas were

reduced to the local base level of erosion and strewn with vast quantities

of gravels. The later stage has been called the Oxford stage. During

this period the areas of softer rocks were reduced to late maturity or

early old age in erosion topography. In the Bowlder-mesa and Oxford

stages the mountain canyons were deepened and widened and remnants

of these ancient valleys appear to-day as benches in the mountain can-

yons. Succeeding these erosion intervals, associated with which there

were evidently periods of mountain growth in the San Juan region, was

the glacial period. During the glacial or inter-glacial epochs moun-

tain growth probably continued and there is reason to believe that some

movement occurred after the disappearance of the last glacier.

Geological features bearing on the construction of the Panama Canal.

C. W. Hayes.

This paper reported the results of a brief visit to the Canal Zone made

for the purpose of determining the cause of and possible remedy for slides

occurring in the side walls of the canal, which were giving much trouble

to the engineers in charge.

In general the side slope practicable in any excavation depends on

(1) depth, (2) character of materials, and (3) geological structure.

Examination of the cut indicates that serious difficulty through failure

of slopes will be experienced only in the section between Empire and

Pedro Miguel. Small slides will occur outside of this section, as at

La Pita, but they are due to exceptional conditions and will be relatively

unimportant.

Within the section defined above are four classes of materials: (1)

Sedimentary rocks . This class includes (a) volcanic agglomerates ejected

from volcanoes in the form of angular fragments varying in size from the

finest dust to several inches in diameter; deposited in water but very

imperfectly bedded; generally bluish green; moderately hard when first

exposed but crumbling rapidly in contact with the air. (b) Fine blue,

red or black clays, composed largely of volcanic dust which has been

transported and deposited by water and is well bedded; like the agglom-

erate, moderately hard when first exposed, but crumbling even more

rapidly in contact with the air. (c) Lignite coal or black carbona-

ceous clay; beds one to three feet thick interstratified with (b). These

beds (a), (b) and (c) with some unimportant sandstones and limestones

constitute the Culebra formation of Tertiary age. (2) Intrusive igne-

ous rocks: These are chiefly large masses of dark andesitic rock which

proceedings: geological society 47

have been forced upward into the sedimentary beds, in some cases in a

fluid^ondition but more generally after having solidified. The intrusion

was accompanied by tilting and crushing of the once horizontal sedi-

mentary beds. The andesiteis generally intersected by numerous joints,

but does not disintegrate readily on exposure, and where supported

below will stand in vertical slopes. Gold Hill and Contractor Hill are

examples of these andesitic intrusive masses. All the other high hills in

the Culebra section of the Zone are apparently due to the presence of

similar rocks. (3) Lava flows: A flow of light gray trachytic lava, 20

to 30 feet thick, is conformabhy interbedded with the Culebra clays

throughout the central portion of the cut. The trachyte does not disin-

tegrate readily, but by reason of its abundant joints it affords no support

to the clays above. (4) Residual clays: The rocks in this region are

deeply weathered and the original surface is covered with residual

clay, derived directly from the rocks on which it rests. It is thinnest

over the intrusive andesites, which decay less rapidly than the sedimen-

tary rocks, and is thickest over those sedimentary rocks that have been

so fractured as to permit the easy percolation of water.

The original "three on two" slopes have failed to stand at numerous

points. Varying conditions have given rise to three classes of failures

which may be designated (1) surface flows; (2) structural breaks; (3)

surface disintegration.

Wherever the residual clay rests on an inclined rock surface and the

lateral support is removed, as when a trench is excavated, a portion of

the mass tends to flow. The material has no cohesion and very slight

adhesion to the underlying rock. It acts like a viscous fluid and may

flow on slopes as low as one on seven or eight. Having started it may

gather sufficient momentum to carry down portions of the underlying

unweathered rock, particularly if the latter is much fractured. The

Cucaracha and Paraiso slides are of this type.

Every variety of rock has a limiting strength beyond which it crushes

or flows. The crushing strength varies between wide limits and is

lowered when one or more sides of the block are unsupported. The

weakest member in the sedimentary series in the Culebra Cut is the

lignite or lignitic clay. When lateral support is removed from a

lignite bed it tends to give way under the overlying weight and a slide

results. This may occur if the weak bed is merely unloaded by excavat-

ing, in which case it bulges up in the excavation. This type has occurred

at various points between Empire and Cold Hill and in nearly every case

the immediate cause appears to be the failure of a lignite bed in conse-

quence of excavation. These structural breaks offer more serious diffi-

culties than the surface flows, and the obvious prevention is to make

the slopes sufficiently low so that the weakest rock is not loaded beyond

its crushing strength. In the section of the canal threatened by slides

of this type less material will have to be removed if the slopes are lowered

before the break occurs.

As previously stated, all the sedimentary rocks of this region disin-

tegrate rapidly when exposed to the air. They first crumble into small

angular fragments and eventually into the finest powder. Slopes cut

48 proceedings: geological society

in such rocks rapidly disintegrate and crumble until they reach an angle

on which the products of disintegration will form a protective mantle.

Vegetation greatly assists in this protection. While the failure of the

canal slopes from this cause will not be a serious matter, it will involve

the removal of a large amount of material in the aggregate and necessi-

tate constant attention for a long time. Under certain conditions this

surface disintegration becomes a more serious matter. For example,

the contact between the intrusive andesite of Contractor Hill and the

sedimentary clays, dips away from the canal at an angle of 55°. The

crumbling of the clays below the contact leaves the andesite mass over-

hanging, and the overhang will increase as the canal is deepened and as

more clay is exposed. With a rock so fractured as the andesite this con-

dition is unsafe and the exposed surface of the underlying clay should

be protected from farther disintegration by a layer of concrete.

Robert Anderson, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. I, AUGUST 19, 1911. No 3.

PHYSICS. — Melting temperatures of sodium and lithium meta-

silicates. F. M. Jaeger. Communicated by A. L. Day.

In studying the heating and cooling curves of the metasilicates

of sodium and lithium, I was led by the rapid rate of crystallization

of the lithium salt to investigate whether the temperature of

change of state of this salt might not prove a favorable constant

temperature for the calibration of thermoelements. No good

fixed point has yet been found for calibration purposes in the

neighborhood of 1200° C, intermediate between the copper point

(1082.6°) and the diopside point (1391°).

The material was prepared by mixing the proper quantities

of pure lithium carbonate with a specially purified quartz and

grinding them together for some hours. After grinding, the mixed

powder was melted in a Fletcher furnace, cooled, and again ground

for six hours in an agate mortar. This process was repeated

three times to insure homogeneity. The analysis of the product

showed 67.2 per cent Si02 and 32.7 per cent Li20, a loss of about

0.5 per cent of Li20. A corresponding quantity of the lithium salt

was then added to the preparation and the mixture again ground

and melted alternately, three times, as before. Subsequent

analysis showed again a slight excess of silica and a third portion

of lithium carbonate was accordingly added. This preparation

when ground and melted three times gave a homogeneous mixture

as follows, the lithium being determined as sulphate:

Analysis of lithium silicate

Si02 66.60 K20 none

(Calculated 66.63 per cent) Na.0 0.51

Fe203 0.016 LioO 32.80

CaO 0.034 (Calculated 33.37 per cent)

FeO none

49

50 jaeger: melting temperatures of metasilicates

The lithium silicate compound crystallizes beautifully in white

glistening needles with perfect cleavage in fine colorless lamellae,

like mica. The microscopic examination showed the preparation

to be quite homogeneous except for a few tiny air bubbles between

the lamellae which were probably crowded out in the crystalli-

zation of the mass. The crystallization is accompanied by a con-

siderable development of heat and increase of volume. The

needles are biaxial with rectangular extinction and very strong

birefringence. The direction of elongation of the needles is that

of the larger refractive index and the principal plane of cleavage

appears nearly parallel to the plane of the optic axis. The angle

of the optic axes is rather large. Microscopical examination

yielded the following additional data: Refractive index in the

direction of elongation of the needles, 1.609; perpendicular to the

direction of elongation, 1.589, giving a birefringence of about

0.020, corresponding nearly to augite; direct measurement of the

birefringence with the Babinet compensator gave 0.019, in good

agreement with the calculated value.

The specific gravity of the finely powdered substance, deter-

mined by the picnometer method with xylene (0.8587) gave 2.5203

at 24.9° C.

Three different samples of this preparation were heated suc-

cessively in the platinum furnace with all the precautions which

have been found desirable in the determination of standard melt-

ing points in the Geophysical Laboratory. The standard thermo-

element C, used by Day and Sosman in the work with the nitrogen

thermometer, was used. The results obtained are given on

page 51. Prior to these determinations, the thermoelement was

examined for homogeneity and found to be free from contamina-

tion.

The melting temperature (11,953 microvolts = 1201.8° C.) is

as sharply defined as that of diopside and quite as reproducible,

as can be readily seen from the experiments themselves.

While the melting temperature of pure lithium metasilicate is

sharply defined, the solidifying temperature obtained by cooling

down the molten mass is completely dependent upon the rate of

cooling, notwithstanding the tendency to crystallize and the

jaeger: melting temperatures of metasilicates

51

rapidity with which crystallization proceeds. Actual measure-

ments will best illustrate this. In one trial the liquid silicate

cooled to 10,914 microvolts where it crystallized suddenly with a

rapid rise of temperature to 11,585 microvolts. In a second at-

tempt, the charge cooled to 10,857 microvolts, followed by a rise

of temperature to 11,650 microvolts. In a third experiment, the

thermoelement was moved within the charge at a temperature

corresponding to 11,075 microvolts, whereby crystallization was

precipitated at once and the temperature rose to 11, 720 microvolts

during crystallization. It is therefore clear that the observed

temperature of solidification is dependent upon the amount of

undercooling and other accidental conditions which chance to

surround the charge. It will be noted, furthermore, that the

undercooling may amount to more than 1000 microvolts, (approx-

imately equivalent to 100°).

Melting temperatures of lithium silicate

From these experiments, it again appears clear that solidifying

temperatures may have no significance whatever as equilibrium

temperatures, but vary with the conditions which chance to sur-

round the melt and with its previous treatment.

This fact probably accounts for the variable results obtained

by different observers who have studied the solidifying tempera-

52 MERWIN : DETERMINING DENSITY OF SOLIDS

ture of sodium metasilicate which crystallizes much more slowly

than the corresponding lithium salt and often shows undercooling

amounting to 150° C. This may be seen from the following data:

Solidifying temperature of sodium metasilicate

1007° (Kultascheff) 1018° (Wallace) 1055° (Gaertler) 1056° (Van Klooster)

A determination of the melting point of an analyzed specimen

of a rather pure sodium metasilicate (Si02 49.3 per cent, Na20

50.6 per cent) made under the same conditions which obtained

in the preceding experiments, gave the following values with three

different rates of heating: 1086°, 1088° and 1088°. The true

temperature of change of state is therefore very nearly 1088° C.

(10,600 microvolts in terms of element G, Day and Sosman).

Cooling this particular charge for an observation of the solidi-

fying temperature gave, upon the first trial, 1046°, following

undercooling to 1017°; upon the second trial, 1050°. In the third

trial, a particle of solid substance was introduced which precip-

itated crystallization suddenly at 1057°. The solidifying tem-

perature was therefore much below the melting temperature, even

under the most favorable conditions of work. It appears to fol-

low from this that the solidifying temperatures of sodium meta-

silicate given in the literature have little or no significance as

determinations of real equilibria. The true melting point is

1088° C.

The refractive indices of the sodium salt are about 1.527 and

1.518 and the birefringence about 0.01.

PHYSICS. — A method for determining the density of certain solids

by means of Rohrbach,s solution having a standard refractive

index. H. E. Merwin, Geophysical Laboratory. Com-

municated by A. L. Day. To appear in the American

Journal of Science.

By means of Rohrbach's solution so prepared that the relation

of its density to its refractive index is known, the density of suit-

able solids between 2 and 3.5 can be determined rapidly and accu-

rately on the total refractometer by finding the refractive index

of the solution while fragments of the solid are suspended in it.

AGNEW: CURRENT TRANSFORMER 53

The solution saturated with mercuric iodide at 20° and at the

density of ordinary orthorhombic sulphur (2.07) has, for concen-

trations between 2.25 and 3.4, the relation d = 5.39 n - 6.0865,

where d is the density and n the refractive index.

ELECTRICITY. — A study of the current transformer with par-

ticular reference to iron loss. P. G. Agnew. Communicated

by E. B. Rosa. To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of

Standards.

It has been generally assumed that the ratio of a current trans-

former always decreases with increasing current, but examples

can be given in which the ratio curve slopes in the opposite direc-

tion, or even passes through a maximum. The ratio and phase

angle performance may be accurately computed from the magnetic

data of the core. In nearly all cases the slope of the ratio curve

may be qualitatively predicted from the value of the Steinmetz

exponent in the equation W = kB where W = total iron loss,

B = max. flux, k and c are constants. But the iron losses, par-

ticularly at the low flux densities used, depart too widely from

such a simple law for accurate work.

The slope of the ratio curve may be accurately computed from

the slope of the curve obtained by plotting the core loss against

the flux on logarithmic paper. It is proposed that this logarith-

mic slope, or logarithmic derivative shall be called the "ratio of

variation." It is much more useful than an actual exponent.

The methods now in use for determining the "exponent" fail to

give a true exponent that will satisfy an equation of the form

W = kB unless z is a constant. The quantity actually deter-

mined by these methods is the ratio of variation.

The wave form of the secondary current of a transformer may

be considered to be the same as that of the primary current for

even the most precise measurements, as the distortion within the

transformer is entirely negligible, as may be shown experimentally.

For a good transformer with sinusoidal primary this distortion

amounts to less than a part in a million in terms of effective

values. While the effect of ordinary variations in wave form on

ratio and phase angle may be detected by accurate measurements,

54 sosman: metasilicate minerals and rocks

it is too small to be of practical importance, being of the same

order of magnitude as the effect of small changes in frequency.

The null methods now in use for the accurate determination

of ratio and phase angle all give theoretically currect results, well

within the experimental error, so that the accuracy attainable

is decidedly greater than is actually required in practice.

GEOCHEMISTRY. — Minerals and rocks of the composition

MgSi03-CaSi03-FeSi03. Robert B. Sosman, Geophys-

ical Laboratory. Communicated by A. L. Day.

This paper is a partial report on a study, from the statistical

standpoint, of certain rocks and minerals having a composition

corresponding to a mixture of the metasilicates of magnesia,

lime, and ferrous iron. The method of treatment is already

familiar to mineralogists and petrologists through the publica-

tions of Vogt.

Although the studies of Vogt have indicated relationships of

great importance in the understanding of rocks, they are open to

the criticism that the systems treated are too complicated to

yield anything more than indications. It should be remembered

that the existence of a 2-component or a 3-component system

depends upon the properties of the chemical substances entering

into it, and upon the range of temperatures and pressures under

consideration, and not simply upon the fact that it is made up of

two or of three distinct minerals. To treat a mixture of diopside

and olivine, for example, as a 2-component system may serve to

conceal as many relationships as it brings out. This mixture

can be completely discussed only as a part of the 3-component

system Si02-MgO-CaO.

There are on record analyses of a few rocks and of a large

number of minerals that are practically completely made up of

the three metasilicates, MgSi03, CaSi03, and FeSi03, with almost

no alumina, ferric iron, or other oxides. These analyses, in com-

bination with the experimental data of this laboratory on the sys-

tem MgSi03-CaSi03 form the material for the accompanying

3-component diagram, fig. 1. The evidence is not complete that

these three can be treated as a 3-component system. But the

sosman: metasilicate minerals and rocks

55

existing data indicate that these metasilicates do not react with

one another to form any compound that can not be represented

in terms of the components, nor do they appear to dissociate to

any appreciable extent into their constituent oxides. We may

1385V

1391° Dl

1537V

CaSiO

Fig. 1. Diagram of analyses of minerals and rocks in the 3-component sys-

tem MgSi03-CaSi03-FeSi03. Black dots are mineral analyses; circles are rock

analyses. EN, enstatite; HY, hypersthene; G, grunerite (amphibole); HE,

hedenbergite; W , wollastonite; DI, diopside; E, eutectic; S, solid solution.

assume for the present, then, that up to at least 1600° and at ordi-

nary pressures they form a true 3-component system.

The material for the diagram consists of analyses of pyroxenite

rocks and pyroxene minerals from the tables of Dana, Clarke,

Washington, Wahl, and a number of scattered sources. The data

are not claimed to be complete.

The analyses have first been calculated to molecular- percent-

56 sosman: metasilicate minerals and rocks

ages of the constituent oxides, Si02, MgO, CaO, FeO, A1203, etc.

Only those analyses were used in which the sum of Si02, MgO,

CaO, and FeO exceeded 94 molecular per cent, and in the major-

ity of cases this sum exceeds 97 per cent. The analyses were

then recalculated to a basis of 100 per cent metasilicates, and plotted

in the diagram. The black dots represent minerals having a

normal metasilicate composition. Those having a slight excess

of Si02 (2 to 4 molecular per cent) are represented by triangles,

and those with a slight deficiency of Si02, by squares. The open

circles with crosses represent rock analyses. The rocks in ques-

tion all consist of two minerals.

The following facts are brought out by the diagram:

1 . The rock analyses and the mineral analyses fall into two

separate parts of the diagram and can be separated by a line.

This line probably represents the boundary between magma

compositions that will form homogeneous solid solutions, and mag-

mas that will separate into two different solid solutions between

which there is a eutectic. The rock analyses lie in the "eutectic

field," the minerals outside of it.

To be consistent, such a diagram should represent conditions

of equilibrium throughout. This diagram is inconsistent in that

the mineral enstatite appears in the MgSi03 corner. Enstatite

has been shown to be an unstable form, next in order of stability

after clino-enstatite or /3-MgSi03, which has rarely been found in

nature. It is to be expected, however, that the relations of solid

solution and eutectic proportion will not be greatly different for

this false equilibrium, which may indeed have been a true equi-

librium under the conditions of formation of these rocks. The

same may be true of the neighboring orthorhombic pyroxenes,

bronzite and hypersthehe.

2. The two types of minerals of which these rocks are made

up are in each case the two solid solutions which appear on oppo-

site sides of the "eutectic field." On the upper or MgSi03 side

they are given the names enstatite, bronzite, and hypersthene;

on the CaSi03 side, diopside and diallage.

In the case of one of these rocks, described and analyzed by

Williams, the composition of the constituent minerals is given.

sosman: metasilicate minerals and rocks 57

*

This is the analysis marked p. Its two constituents, marked b

(bronzite )and d (diopside) should lie at opposite ends of a straight

line passing through p. The line passing through these three

points is almost exactly straight, the small deviation being simply

the error of analysis.

Under conditions of complete equilibrium, the analyses of

minerals from igneous rocks of these compositions should all lie

along the border line of the "eutectic field." If equilibrium were

incomplete during solidification, the composition of the constit-

uent minerals might lie some distance away from this boundary,

as some of those plotted actually do. The diagram also includes

many secondary minerals, which may have almost any composi-

tion within the solid solution portion of the diagram.

3. The mineral and rock relations just discussed agree excel-

lently with the experimental data of this laboratory on the system

MgSi03-CaSi03. Beginning with MgSi03, Allen and White

find a solid solution of diopside in clino-enstatite extending to

about 2 or 3 molecular per cent CaSi03. Mixtures with somewhat

more CaSiOs than this separate into two solid solutions, one of the

composition just given, and one having 30.5 molecular per cent

CaSi03. The eutectic proportion of these two falls at the point

E (29 molecular per cent CaSi03).

Corresponding to this 2-phase region we find the 2-phase pyrox-

enites and websterites. According to Williams, the bronzite has

crystallized first in the websterites which he investigated. This

fact would place the eutectic line close to the diopside side of the

field, agreeing excellently with the determination of its position

in the system MgSi03-CaSi03, as determined by Allen and White.

Next comes the compound diopside, MgSi03.CaSi03, near

which we find grouped a large number of natural diopsides con-

taining varying amounts of FeSi03, very few of them corre-

sponding exactly to the formula because of the range of solid

solution possible. On the CaSi03 side of diopside the solid solu-

tion is found to end at about 52 or 53 molecular per cent CaSi03.

The mineral analyses end here also.

No 2-phase rocks corresponding to the 2-phase region between

the two solid solutions of wollastonite in diopside, and diopside in

58

SCHALLER : CRYSTALLIZED TURQUOISE

wollastonite, are known to me. The eutectic composition is at

69 molecular per cent CaSi03. At the CaSi03 end occur a num-

ber of wollastonites, all lying within the experimentally deter-

mined limits of the solid solution (9 molecular per cent MgSi03).

The diagram illustrates very well how it may become possible

to classify minerals and rocks on a physico-chemical basis, start-

ing with chemical complexity as the fundamental character.

Such a classification means more to the chemist than to the

mineralogist and petrologist, but it is to be hoped that it will

throw increased light on the relations of the silicates from both

points of view.

MINERALOGY. — Crystallized turquoise from Virginia. Walde-

mar T. Schaller, Geological Survey. To appear in the

American Journal of Science.

A sample of a well crystallized, bright blue mineral from Camp-

bell County, Virginia, sent in for identification by Mr. J. H.

Watkins, proved to be turquoise, a species hitherto known only in

a cryptocrystalline condition. The mineral forms a secondary

botryoidal crust on quartz. The minute crystals composing this

crust have a rhombic shape and, like the crystals of chalcosiderite,

with which turquoise is isomorphous, are triclinic. As the angles

of the two species are very close, the crystallographic elements of

chalcosiderite are taken for turquoise: a :b : c = 0.7910 : 1 : 0.6051,

a = 92°58', /3 = 93°30', 7 = 107°41'. Crystal forms of turquoise :

a {100}; M {110}; k {Oil}, large; m {110}, small; b {010},

line face. The mean refractive index is about 1.63. The double

refraction is high (0.04) and the pleochroism strong, pale blue

to colorless.

Analysis and ratios of turquoise

merwin: quaetz and fluorite as standards 59

The analysis of the blue crystals leads to the formula CuO.-

3AI2O3.2P2O5.9H2O, which, as none of the water is given off below

200°, can be interpreted as CuOH.6[Al(OH)2].HB.(P04)).

A comparison with published analyses shows a very close

agreement with the composition calculated from this formula.

The formula of chalcosiderite should be written analogously with

that of turquoise, as CuO.3Fe2O3.2P2O5.9H2O instead of with

8H20.

MINERALOGY. — Quartz and fluorite as standards of density

and refractive index. H. E. Merwin, Geophysical Labora-

tory. Communicated by A. L. Day. To appear in the

American Journal of Science.

The two minerals, quartz and fluorite, in clear colorless varieties,

appear to be the only minerals of wide distribution that have

density constant to =±= 0.C01 and refractive index constant to

±O.OC01, regardless of locality. These minerals may therefore

be used as standards. The density of quartz at 20° is 2.6495 and

its refractive index w at 20° for sodium light is 1.54425. The

corresponding values for fluorite are 3.180 and 1.43385.

MINERALOGY. — The temperature stability ranges, density, chem-

ical composition and optical and crystallographic properties of

the alkali feldspars. H. E. Merwin, Geophysical Labor-

atory. Communicated by A. L. Day. To appear in the

American Journal of Science.

Changes in the double refraction of sections of the alkali feld-

spars, observed during and after heating in the thermal micro-

scope, indicate that both albite and orthoclase appear in two forms,

the transition temperature of the low temperature 0-form into the

high temperature a-form being in both cases about 900°. Sani-

dine has the optical properties of a-orthoclase and adularia those

of /3-orthoclase. Microcline appears to be stable to its melting

point. Anorthoclase behaves like microcline when heated, ex-

cept that a slight change in double refraction near 900° has been

observed in specimens intergrown with albite. The inversion in

both orthoclase and albite is very sluggish even at 1100°. The

60 MERWIN : PROPERTIES OF ALKALI FELDSPARS

optic axial angles of sanidines rich in albite are larger than those

of pure orthoclase. The presence of albite in orthoclase raises

the density, but apparently not so much as might be expected if

no volume change accompanied the mixing; the refractive index,

on the other hand, is generally higher than might be expected

under these conditions. As the percentage of albite increases the

length of the crystallographic axis a decreases. The angles in the

prism zone and in the zone of the basal and front pinacoids are

most affected by this change. Crystals in the same hand speci-

men often exhibit considerable variation in the value of these

particular angles, while other angles remain practically constant.

Such variations indicate that the different interfacial angles are

not equally sensitive to changes in the concentration of albite in

the orthoclase. The crystallographic axis c appears to be slightly

shorter in adularia than in sanidine.

PETROLOGY. — A micrometer ocular with coordinate scale. Fred.

Eugene Wright. Geophysical Laboratory.

This new eyepiece1 (Fig. 1) consists essentially of a hollow

brass cylinder which fits into the microscope tube as an ordinary

eyepiece and serves as support for a positive Eamsden ocular in

the focal plane of which a finely divided 0.1 mm. coordinate scale

is placed. The eyepiece has been designed to serve three purposes

(1) that of an ordinal y micrometer eyepiece, (2) that of a coordi-

nate ocular for the geometrical analysis of rock thin sections either

by the Rosiwal method or by the less accurate method of percent-

age areas, and (3) for the measurement of the optic axial angle of

mineral plates in the thin section provided that at least one optic

axis appears in the field of view. In using this eyepiece for optic

axial angle measurements it is necessary first to ascertain the

equivalent angular value of its different coordinates for the par-

ticular lens system of the microscope with which it is to be used;

after this has been done, the observer has control over the whole

visible field and can measure the optic axial angle of sections which

1 Made for the writer by R. Fuess Company, Steglitz, Berlin, Germany (cost

35 Marks) ; also by the Bausch and Lomb Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y.

The ruled coordinate scale was furnished in both cases by Swift and Son, London.

WRIGHT: MICROMETER OCULAR

61

show in convergent polarized light either both optic axes or only-

one in the field of view.2

The primary purpose in constructing this coordinate microm-

eter eyepiece has been to produce an accurate, simple measuring

device which covers the entire field of view and with which the

f - .RAMSDEN

OCULAR

-OCULAR

SUPPORT

.-COORDINATE

SCALE

Fig. 1. Section of micrometer ocular

optic axial angles of minerals in the thin section can be measured

satisfactorily and geometric analyses of rock thin sections accom-

plished by either one of the two available standard methods.

This eyepiece may well replace the single line micrometer eyepiece

which is ordinarily furnished with petrographic microscopes.

PETROLOGY. — The lavas of Hawaii and their relations.

Whitman Cross G3ological Survey.

Introduction. — The writer has undertaken a study of the lavas

of the Hawaiian Islands with the dual object of contributing to

the petrography of this interesting province and of establishing

a basis for testing certain current broad generalizations concern-

ing the genetic relations of igneous rocks. The generalizations

in question are: (1) that the so-called alkali and subalkali groups of

2 Compare F. E. Wright, Amer. Jour, of Sci. (4), 24: 341. 1907; 29: 423. 1910;

31:204. 1911.

62 cross: lavas of Hawaii

rocks have a pronounced regional distribution on the earth, which

maybe appropriately expressed by the names Atlantic and Pacific

branches or kindred, and (2) that the chemical differences of

these groups are genetically connected with the tectonic distinc-

tion made by Suess between regions of subsidence due to radial

contraction and zones of folding due to tangential stress. The

study is not yet complete but the principal results may be fore-

cast.

In this review of Hawaiian lavas the literature has been care-

fully studied; an extensive collection of rocks from Oahu and

Hawaii, made by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock for the U. S. National

Museum and not previously described, has been examined,1 and

also a collection from the islands of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii,

made by the writer. The chemical discussion is based on 36

apparently reliable analyses, 11 of which have been made by

chemists of the U. S. Geological Survey, of rocks of the writer's

collection.

Character of Hawaiian lavas. — The lavas of the Hawaiian vol-

canoes are generally basaltic in habit and have received far less

attention than they deserve. As indicated by the work of Cohen,

E. S. Dana, Lyons, and Silvestri the rocks range chiefly between

normal basalts rich in olivine, augite, and highly calcic plagio-

clase, to pyroxene andesites, either free from or poor in olivine,

and containing andesine or more richly sodic plagioclase. There

are, however, still more basic rocks than normal basalt, such as

tephrite, limburgite, nephelite, and melilite basalt, while one is

practically an effusive peridotite similar to wehrlite in compo-

sition. At the other extreme there are magmas of essexitic or

trachydoleritic character and some andesites nearly free from

pyroxene. A soda trachyte described by the writer in 1905 is

the most siliceous and feldspathic rock.

The existing analyses evidently do not cover the entire range of

rock types but classifying the analyzed rocks in the quantitative

system they are found scattered through 3 classes and belonging

to 14 subrangs, namely: Nordmarkose-Umptekose (I-II.5.1.4.),

akerose (II. 5. 2. 4), andose (II. 5. 3. 4), beerbachose (II. 5. 3. 5),

lThe writer's thanks are due to Dr. G. P. Merrill for this opportunity.

cross: lavas of hawaii 63

essexose (II. 6.2.4), salemose (II.6.3.4), kilanose (III.5.2.4), camp-

tonose (III.5.3.4), ornose (III.5.3.5), auvergnose (III. 5.4.4-5),

uvaldose (IV.23.12.2), unnamed subrangs IV.34.l3.2, and IV.3.12.1,

wehrlose (IV.13.12.2).

As to the distribution of the chemical types on different

islands it appears that the various volcanic centers are much alike

in their products. The collections are too meager and analyses

are too few to prove a definite peculiarity for any center. Neph-

elite-m^lilite basalts are known on three islands, Kauai, Oahu,

and Maui. Strongly feldspathic andesites occur on Oahu, Maui,

and Hawaii. Trachyte is known only on Hawaii. Kilauea,

the most juvenile volcano of the islands, has produced lavas

belonging to 6 different subrangs among the 17 rocks and analysed.

Relations of Hawaiian lavas to the Atlantic and Pacific Kindred. —

Through the norms of the 36 analysed rocks of the islands a

search has been made for the rocks of the world most nearly

identical in chemical composition with each of the Hawaiian types.

Washington's tables have been most useful, but many newer

analyses have also been compared. For most of the Hawaiian

magmas strikingly similar counterparts have been found, tho in

some cases the correlated forms are not lavas.

Looking first strictly at the geographic distribution of the simi-

lar rocks it is a striking fact that they occur almost all over the

world and no one province shows marked resemblance as a whole

to the Hawaiian group. It seems noteworthy that compara-

tively few of the magmas of Hawaiian volcanoes find their near-

est relatives in other islands of the Pacific. Few rocks of Tahiti,

Samoa, New Zealand, and Australia are closely comparable in

composition with types of the Hawaiian group.

With respect to the assignment of the Hawaiian magmas to

the Atlantic or Pacific kindred, on composition alone, it certainly

appears that the strongest resemblance is to the Atlantic group,

yet many of the types have their analogues in the Pacific group.

The trachyte of Puu Waawaa on Hawaii is nearest to alkali

rocks of Cape Ann, Massachusetts, or of Norway; an andesitic

type of the Kohala Mountains, in Hawaii is very nearly identical

with an "augite andesite" of Pantellaria and an "akerite" of

Norway; two lavas of Kilauea may best be compared to basalts

64 cross: lavas of Hawaii

of Hesse, or to dolerites, or to "diorites" of New Zealand and Aus-

tralia; the essexitic andesites of Haleakala find their nearest

relatives in "mugearite" (Harker) from the island of Skye, in

" trachydolerite" from Cripple Creek, Colorado, in "carmeloite"

(Lawson) of California, and among the rhombic prophyries of

Norway.

One of the lavas of Kilauea is very close to a "diabase" from

Cape Colony, Africa; another is most like a "kersantite" of Thu-

ringia ; a third is nearest to a basalt of Cerro San Miguel, Mexico ;

a fourth may best be compared to a basalt of Pantellaria or one

from Cockburn Island. Space is lacking to present further details

in this place, but what has been said illustrates the widespread

distribution of the magmatic types which are nearest to the lavas

of Hawaii in chemical composition.

With respect to conditions of occurrence it is plain that the

closest analogues of the Hawaiian rocks occur partly in areas of

folded mountain chains, partly in regions of faulting with sub-

sidence, partly in districts where either such characterization

of occurrence is little justified. Whatever be intended by the

terms Atlantic and Pacific branches or "Sippen" the Hawaiian

rocks do not fall clearly into line with either. Among them are

some typical "alkali" or "Atlantic" types, some unquestionable

"subalkali" or "Pacific" varieties, and a number of intermediate

forms.

The Hawaiian magmas tend to show that the generalizations

as to geographic distribution or the genetic relations of the

"alkali" and "subalkali" groups included in current definitions

of the "Atlantic and Pacific branches" or "Sippen" are far from

correct. Hence in their present forms they can have no place

in a petrographic system.

PALEONTOLOGY. — Remarks on the fossil turtles accredited to

the Judith River formation. F. H. Knowlton, Geological

Survey.

The similarity, or often apparent identity, between the turtle

faunas of the Judith River and Lance formations has been em-

ployed of late, and by several paleontologists, to prove the Cre-

KNOWLTON : FOSSIL TURTLES 65

taceous age of the Lance formation ("Ceratops beds")- In the

present paper the several species of turtles accredited to the

Judith River formation are passed in critical review so far as

regards the type locality and formation for each and its sub-

sequent published distribution, both areal and vertical. The

following conclusions are reached: (1) The Judith River fauna

has had accredited to it at least sixteen species of fossil turtles.

(2) Of these sixteen species seven are to be excluded on the suffi-

cient ground that they do not occur in beds of Judith River age.

(3) Of the nine remaining species that may have a more or less

valid claim to membership in the Judith River fauna, five have

their type localities in beds of Judith River and Belly River age

and four in horizons above that of the Judith River. (4) Of the

five typically Judith River species, four are absolutely confined

to these beds, while the remaining one which has an alleged higher

range is shown to be probably a composite species, possibly includ-

ing three species which correspond respectively to the three hori-

zons involved. (5) Of the four species, the types of which came

from post-Judith River beds, and which are claimed to range

downward into the Judith River, not a single one has a clear title to

be so regarded. (6) It is plain, then, that the comparisons that

have been made between "Judith River" turtles and those of

higher horizons (Lance formation, "Laramie," "Ceratops beds,"

"Hell Creek beds," "somber beds," etc.), have not beenmade

with species that really belong to the Judith River fauna, but

with forms that actually belong to these higher beds. It is not

to be wondered at that such a comparison has resulted in show-

ing "identity" and "striking similarity."

ZOOLOGY. — Remarks on the nervous system and symmetry of the

crinoids. Austin H. Clark, U. S. National Museum.

Communicated by Barton W. Evermann.

A year ago I published {American Naturalist, vol. 44, p. 243)

a short note in which I showed how the nervous system of the

crincid might have originated from a nervous system of the

annelid-arthropod type concurrently with a loss of directive

motion. It remains to be indicated, however, in what way the

66 CLAEK : NERVOUS SYSTEM OF CRINOIDS

complex "dorsal" nervous system of the crinoid may be compared

with the relatively simple ventral nervous system of the annelid

or arthropod.

The five primary nerve cords arising from the central nerve

mass are interradial in position; typically (cf. Proceedings U. S.

National Museum, vol. 35, p. 87, fig. 1) they very soon divide

into two, these two derivatives diverging and uniting with sim-

ilar derivatives from the adjacent primary nerve cords just within

the outer face of the radials; an intraradial commissure connects

all the points of union of the branches from the primary nerve

cords; five intrabasal commissures connect the two branches of

each of the pairs of secondary nerve cords shortly after the divi-

sion of the primary cords. From the radials single nerve cords

(which may, however, exhibit slight traces of a longitudinal

division), each composed of half of the two primary interradial

cords in the two adjacent interradii, extend outward into the

arms.

Now in monocyclic crinoids all the derivatives from the central

nervous capsule, or from its extension into the stem, are inter-

radial; and it seems to me that we must regard an interradial

position as primitive for the nerve trunks arising from this cen-

tral capsule. If this view is correct, the dorsal nervous system

of the crinoid consists of five primary branches which divide and

diverge widely so that they become united by their outer sides

to the similar derivatives from adjacent primary branches, each

of the five pairs of secondary nerve cords being united by two

commissures, one within the basals, the other within the radials.

Each one of these five pairs of secondary nerve cords with the con-

necting commissure is strongly suggestive of the ladder-like ven-

tral nervous system of primitive molluscs, phyllopod crustaceans,

nemerteans, peripatus, etc.

This interpretation of the complex nervous system of Isocrinus

or Metacrinus as primarily composed of five interradial nerve

pairs which have become united exteriorly is strongly suggested

by the nervous system of the fossil genus Encrinus as worked out

by Beyrich ; Encrinus has biserial arms, which are more primitive

than the monoserial type as seen in Isocrinus or Metacrinus,

CLARK: NERVOUS SYSTEM OF CRINOIDS 67

and the derivatives from the primary interradial nerve cords do

not join radially, though they approach each other. The intra-

radial commissures do not extend across the radial gap between

the nerve branches, but remain as five separate intraradial com-

missures joining the secondary nerve cords, just like the intra-

basal commissures in the pentacrinites.

The dorsal nervous system of the crinoids is therefore in effect

composed of five interradial nerves and their derivatives, each of

these nerves being comparable to the single double ventral nerve

cord of the arthropod or of the annelid.

Whenever the arm of a crinoid branches, forming an axillary,

a curious chiasma occurs within that axillary. The entering nerve

at once divides, the two derivatives emerging by the two central

canals of the two distal articular faces. Just before they emerge

these two branches are connected by a transverse commissure.

Oblique commissures run from a point just beyond the division

of the main cord to the transverse commissure, crossing each

other distally.

This chiasma appears to be a repetition of the nerve branching

within the calyx; the two oblique commissures represent the inner

branches of the two primitive nerve cords, now fused into one,

which have become atrophied through disuse; the transverse com-

missure represents the intrabasal commissure of the calyx, and

is not developed unless the intrabasal commissure is present,

being quite independent of the presence or absence of the intra-

radial commissure.

The supposition that the chiasma within the axillaries is in

reality a reduplication of the conditions found within the calyx

rather than an original structure peculiar to and developed within

the axillaries is strongly supported by the general agreement to

be found between the radials and the axillaries. In interpolated

division (cf. Proceedings U. S. National Museum, vol. 35, p. 113)

of the post-radial series or arms, such as is seen for instance in

most of the recent comatulids and in the pentacrinite genus

Endoxocrinus, each axillary supports a pair of ossicles which are

the exact equivalent of the first two ossicles beyond each of the

other axillaries, and of the first two ossicles beyond the radials.

68 CLARK: NERVOUS SYSTEM OF CRINOTDS

In its position in reference to the brachials beyond it, therefore,

every axillary is essentially a dissociated radial ; furthermore, in

their proportionate size and shape the axillaries are correlated with

the radials and not with any of the ossicles of the post-radial

series; this is well brought out in such forms as Arachnocrinus

bulbosus. There is thus very gccd reason for believing, aside

from the direct evidence available, that the chiasma within the

axillaries is in reality a dissociated reduplication of the conditions

found within each of the five interradial divisions of the calyx.

The so-called ambulacral nervous system of the crinoids is

entirely different from the dorsal nervous system; it is composed

of extensions of or branches from the circumoral nerve ring which

run cut under the ambulacral grooves; these ambulacral grooves

are simply radial extensions from the peristomal ring which have

carried out with them the nervous structures subjacent to that

ring. The circumoral nerve ring and the ambulacral nerves

taken together are the equivalent of the supracesophageal gan-

glion in the annelid or in the arthropod.

The chief interest in the interpretation of the crinoidal nervous

system as composed of five primary interradial nerves and their

derivatives lies in the relation which it suggests between the

radial and the interradial structures.

From a study of the articulations in the crinoid arm (cf. Ameri-

can Journal of Science, vol. 29, p. 40; American Naturalist, vol.

43, p. 577) I was forced to the conclusion that the monoserial

arm represents the most specialized type, being derived from the

biserial by the slipping inward of the two rows of ossicles so that

they come to form but a single row, and further that originally

the crinoid arms were represented by ten short outgrowths which

became laterally united radially ; these outgrowths I ventured to

suggest as the potential representatives of the ten auricles cf the

urchins, but developed outside of instead of within the body.

The primary interradial position of the paired nerves greatly

strengthens this view; for the derivatives from the primary nerve

cords have become greatly divergent, and unite among themselves

to form radial nerve cords ; as they are most intimately connected

with the dorsal part of the ambulacral system it seems that we

CLARK: NERVOUS SYSTEM OF CRINOIDS 69

must look upon the ambulacral system as primarily double, com-

posed of two similar interradial outgrowths which have moved

outward from their primitive interradial position and become

united to each other by their outer borders. Thus the ambulacra

arose as paired interradial structures, the two components of

each pair gradually moving away from each other and fusing with

those of the adjacent pairs. In the gap thus left various inter-

radial or interambulacral plates have been developed.

It therefore follows that the five fundamental divisions of the

echinoderm, the five units of the pentamerous symmetry, are not

the five ambulacral series bordered with one-half of the inter-

ambulacral series on either side, but the five interambulacral or

interradial areas, plus one-half of each of the adjacent ambulacra.

In this way the fundamentally double structure of the ambulacra

is easily explained.

The ventral ambulacral structures must be considered in the

same light as the ventral ambulacral nerves; they are merely

extensions of the ring systems about the mouth which have grown

outward over the supports formed by the double dorsal ambulac-

ral system.

Thus while the double ambulacral skeleton and dorsal nervous

system of the crinoids are primarily interradial structures, the

single processes from the various circumoral systems are pri-

marily radial, arising from an enormous development of five radial

buds or outgrowths on each of the circumoral structures. The

pentamerous symmetry of the crinoids, therefore, is primarily

interradial in regard to the dorsal structures, but radial in regard

to the ventral.

It might be argued that, as the radial plate (or corresponding

structure) is always single, the dorsal ambulacral structure must

be primarily single also. The echinoderm skeleton was originally

merely a spicular covering developed in the mesoderm of the body

wall, comparable to that seen in certain holothurians (tho usu-

ally in this group the individual spicules have become curiously

specialized) and in general comparable to the skeletons of sponges,

red coral, tubipora, etc.; mechanical considerations caused the

spicules to become localized in definite areas so that they have

70 munroe: consumption of acids

become phylogenetically fixed as definite plates. Any change

in the mechanics of an animal with a spicular skeleton we should

suppose would be immediately accompanied by either (1) a dis-

solution of an existing plate or plates, or (2) the sudden union

of two or more plates.

In the urchins the presence of the anal opening in the anal area

normally occupied by the apical ("sur-anal") plate has resulted

in preventing that plate from assembling and has kept it in most

cases as a mass of small disconnected plates (cf. Vidensk. Meddel.

fra den naturahist. Forening i Kobenhavn, 1911, p. 27) which

collectively represent the primitive apical plate, the potential

homologue of the crinoid stem. Were the anal opening somewhere

else we should undoubtedly find a single plate covering what is

now the anal area in the urchins just as it does in the crinoids.

The sudden union of several plates is seen in such crinoids as

possess three instead of five basals; the three basals collectively

are the equivalent of the five collectively; but five have been

reduced to three not by a fusion after formation, but by a fusion

before formation, really a redivision of the basal-forming area, if

it may be thus expressed, resulting from changed mechanical

conditions at the time of skeleton formation. In the same way

it seems to me that the radials, originally double, have become

single through the operation of mechanical factors upon a prim-

itively diffuse spicular skeleton which in most cases has not

affected the succeeding plates.

CHEMICAL STATISTICS.— The consumption of the commoner

acids in the United States. Charles E. Munroe.

On November 10, 1904, I had the honor of calling the attention

of the members of the Washington Chemical Society to the fact

that as the statistics for chemical manufactures are now being

collected and presented by the Bureau of the Census they could

be used in solving many problems of interest and value, among

them that of ascertaining the principal industries in which a given

material has been used and the extent of its use. The results of

such a research should prove to be not only of general scientific

and economic interest, but also of special value in legislation and

munroe: consumption of acids

71

litigation where the rule of " principal use" obtains; in deter-

mining tariffs and levying taxes; in fixing freight rates; in manu-

facturing and other operations where the question of substitution

may arise; and in other special instances. In the investigation

work of the census itself such data furnishes additional checks

on the returns.

I first dealt with sulphuric acid the results being published in

Bulletin 92, p. 23, "Chemicals and allied products," for 1905;

TABLE I

Consumption of Muriatic or Hydrochloric Acid

PRODUCTION

Consumption

Bleaching materials

Chrome tannage

Cleaning fagades

Disinfectants

Dyestuffs

Fine chemicals

General chemicals

Glucose making

Glue making

Olive curing

Paper making

Pickling metals

Reducing and refining of metals

Soap making

Soldering

Textile manufacture

Washing bone black

Washing sand and clay

All other uses

1900

Pounds

131,229,012

1900

Pounds

908,000

5,000,000

3,000,000

2,500,000

6,559,464

1,146,697

3,488,000

10,846,828

38,186,338

2,500,000

3,000,000

27,000,000

15,357,680

400,000

4,000,000

6,000,000

1,500,000

1,336,005

1905

Pounds

188,538,396

1905

Pound*

1,004,000

6,000,000

4,000,000

3,200,000

7,632,027

1,181,078

13,096,827

12,283,466

61,795,150

3,500,000

4,000,000

30,000,000

24,729,290

393,246

3,000,000

7,000,000

1,750,000

2,000,000

1,973,312

72

munroe: consumption of acids

then salt, published in Bulletin 83, p. 82 "Salt" for 1905; and

then nitrate of soda published in the Journal of Industrial and

Engineering Chemistry, Vol. I, May, 1909. An application of the

results is shown in "The nitrogen question from the military-

standpoint" published on pages 225-236 of the Smithsonian

Report for 1909.

I have been now engaged for several years in collecting the infor-

mation for chlorhydric, nitric and acetic acids. The methods of

procedure followed were those described in the nitrate of soda

paper mentioned above. The results obtained are given in the

accompanying tables. They cannot be as precise as those for

sulphuric acid since the statistics of manufacture embrace all

grades, while those for sulphuric acid were so returned that

they could be reduced to a common standard. They are

believed to represent the best obtainable results and have been

so accepted by the several manufacturers to whom they have

been submitted.

TABLE II

Consumption of Nitric Acid

PRODUCTION

Consumption

Dyestuffs

Explosives

Fine chemicals

General chemicals

Refining metals

Parting metals

Plastics

All other uses

munroe: consumption of acids

73

TABLE III

Consumption of Acetic Acid

PRODUCTION

Consumption

Dyestuffs

Lead acetate

Paper making

Textiles

White lead

All other uses

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to

forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEODESY. — Report of the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic

Survey, showing the progress of the work from July 1, 1909, to June

30, 1910. 454 pp., 4 maps and 5 progress sketches in pocket. 1911.

The administrative portion of this report recounts briefly the progress

of work in field and office for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1910, cover-

ing the coasts under the jurisdiction of the United States. It also

reports the progress made in surveying and marking the United States

and Canada Boundary and the Alaska Boundary, under the direction

of the Superintendent as United States Commissioner. Observations

to determine the relative force of gravity at 27 stations in 14 States

form an important contribution to the gravitation survey of the country.

The magnetic survey was extended by making observations at 238

stations on land and at numerous stations at sea. Continuous obser-

vations with self-registering instruments were obtained at five magnetic

observatories widely distributed over the country. Records of tidal

changes were obtained at 15 widely separated stations.

A notable event of the year was the completion, in the instrument

shop of the Survey, of a tide predicting machine, elsewhere described

in this journal.

The report refers to the important contribution to the science of

Geodesy made by the Survey in publications entitled "The Figure of

the Earth and Isostasy from Measurements made in the United States"

and " Supplementary Investigation in 1909 of the Figure of the Earth

and Isostasy," which furnish a determination of the figure and size of

the earth of a high grade of accuracy and which, by somewhat novel

methods have established the fact that in and around the United States

a condition of isostasy exists. This work was laid before the last General

Conference of the International Geodetic Association and received formal

74

abstracts: geodesy 75

recognition when a famous geodesist, F. R. Helmert, arose and congratu-

lated the Americans on having introduced a new epoch in geodesy.

Surveys were made of various uncharted localities in Alaska and

excellent progress was made in surveying the waters of the Philippine

Archipelago, more than 10 per cent of the estimated general coast line

being covered during the year.

Important improvements were made in the construction and use of the

long wire drag and its length was increased to 8,400 feet in open water.

The report announces that the policy of orienting charts with the meri-

dian adopted twenty years ago will be continued and a definite pro-

gramme followed of eliminating the old-style charts and replacing them

with a smaller number on the mercator projection. The report is

supplemented by six appendixes. Details of field and office operations

are given in Appendixes 1 and 2. Appendixes 3-6 are abstracted sepa-

rately. Isaac Winston.

GEODESY. — Primary base lines at Stanton, Texas and Deming, New

Mexico. William Bowie. App. No. 4, Rept. Coast and Geodetic

Survey for 1910. Pp. 143-171, 5 figs. 1911.

Nickel-steel or invar tapes were adopted by the Coast and Geodetic

Survey for the measurement of primary bases in 1906. (See Appendix

4, Report for 1907.) The first primary bases measured in the United

States with invar tapes alone are those at Stanton, Tex., and Deming,

N. M., in the Texas-California arc of primary triangulation in 1909 and

1910 respectively.

The two bases in question have lengths of 13.2 and 15.5 kilometers.

The cost of measuring on the field was $56 per kilometer on the Stanton

Base and $39 per kilometer on the Deming Base. Work on the Stanton

Base required 17 days, and on the Deming Base 13 days. Measure-

ments with the tape (50-meter) were made on 6 days at Stanton and 3

days at Deming, nearly all in daylight. The probable errors of the

resulting lengths are 1/2,561,00 for the Stanton Base and 1/1,961,000

for the Deming Base. These are comparable with those obtained

with the best base bars.

A new and very much lighter form of tape stretcher was used on

these bases. On the Deming Base five supports were used for each

tape length. With this number wind caused little or no trouble. No

standardizations were made in the field. Those made at the Bureau

of Standards before and after the measurement of each base showed

that no one tape changed in length as much as 1/400,000. W. B.

76 abstracts: geodesy

GEODESY. — Triangulation in California, Part II. C. R. Duvall

and A. L. Baldwin. App. No. 5, Rept. Coast and Geodetic

Survey for 1910. Pp. 173-429. 40 illus. 1911.

The geographic positions on the United States Standard Datum, of

triangulation points between Monterey Bay and Trinidad Head, Cali-

fornia, are given with all available descriptions of stations, and 40

sketches, together with a complete index.

The results of the primary, secondary and tertiary triangulation of

1906-07, executed principally to determine the effect of the earthquake

of 1906 on the old triangulation, are here published in full for the first

time. Along with the newly determined position of each of the 61 old

points is given the position resulting from observations made before the

earthquake. For a number of the old points it was possible to compute

separately the observations made before the earthquake of 1868, and for

these the three corresponding positions are placed together. A compari-

son of these positions and a discussion of the corresponding displacement

was published in Appendix No. 3, Coast and Geodetic Survey Report

for 1907. ("The Earth Movements in the California Earthquake of

1906," by J. F. Hayford and A. L. Baldwin.) C. R. D.

GEODESY. — The measurement of the flexure of pendulum supports with

the interferometer. W. H. Burger. App. No. 6, Rept. Coast

and Geodetic Survey for 1910. Pp. 431-449. 5 figs. 1911.

The interferometer was adopted by the Coast and Geodetic Survey

for determining the flexure of the pendulum supports in 1907. Pre-

liminary investigations were made by the author under the direction of

Mr. John F. Hayford with apparatus designed and constructed in the

instrument division of the Survey, under the immediate direction of

Mr. E. G. Fischer. The instrument and methods are here described and

illustrated in sufficient detail to enable one to use them successfully.

This interferometer is a modified form of the one described in "Light

Waves and Their Uses," by A. A. Michelson. It has given excellent

results at more than sixty field stations in the United States during the

past three years and at the base station at the Sur ey office, while the

pendulums were being restandardized. This is believed to be the first

time that the flexure of the pendulum support has been determined satis-

factorily at field stations by this method. William Bowie.

abstracts: meteorology 77

METEOROLOGY.— Some causes of variation in the polarization of sky-

light. Herbert H. Kimball, Weather Bureau. Journal of the

Franklin Institute, April, 1911.

A summary is given of the observations made by the author in Wash-

ington between December, 1905, and May, 1910, and at various other

stations of the Weather Bureau between July and October, 1910. It

treats mainly of the relation of sky polarization to the meteorological

conditions, with special reference to atmospheric transmissibility for

solar rays. Most of the observations have been made in connection

with pyrheliometric measurements of the intensity of solar radiation.

Accepting Rayleigh's theory that the polarized component of sky

light is due to the scattering of the solar rays by very small particles,

piincipally the gas molecules of the atmosphere, it follows that a deple-

tion of the solar rays due to scattering by large particles, such as dust,

smoke, and water drops, should be accompanied by a decrease in the

percentage of polarization. The observations show that this is the

case, but that loss of solar radiation intensity due to absorption by aque-

ous vapor has no effect upon the polarization.

When air currents of different temperatures, or different degrees of

saturation, and, in consequence, of different densities, are in juxtaposi-

tion, discontinuous surfaces are formed which reflect and disperse light

incident upon them, resulting in a diminution of both the intensity of

the solar radiation and the polarization of sky light as measured at the

surface of the earth. The observations show that such conditions are

usually followed by cloudiness and rain. It would therefore seem that

a measurement of the polarization of sky light should give an early

indication of any disturbance that may exist in the atmosphere. This

would probably be the case were it not for the fact that sky polariza-

tion is modified by the amount of light reflected from the surface of

the earth and from clouds, and also from dust and haze in the lower

layers of the atmosphere.

The distance of the neutral points of Arago and Babinet from the

anti-solar point and the sun, respectively, increase as the percentage

of polarized light decreases. Since these distances may best be measured

when the sun is just below the horizon, the irregularities due to reflec-

tion from the surface of the earth may be largely eliminated. However,

since pyrheliometric measurements are only influenced by atmospheric

conditions along the path of the incident solar beam, they are believed

to offer a more promising index to atmospheric conditions than do any

form of polarization observations. H. H. K.

78 abstracts: meteorology

METEOROLOGY. — Levels of maximum and minimum cloudiness. W. J.

Humphreys. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory,

4. 1911.

The formation of fogs is caused mainly by the cooling of the surface

of the earth through radiation, and hence the surface of the earth itself

is one level of maximum condensation. The next level of maximum

condensation is that of the cumulus cloud, and is limited in elevation

by the vertical temperature gradient of the atmosphere. The decrease

of temperature with elevation for the first three kilometers usually is

far less than the adiabatic rate. Hence, under these conditions, convec-

tion can not extend very high, and therefore cumulus clouds commonly

are phenomena of the lower atmosphere and of frequent occurrence.

The next and only other level of maximum condensation is just beneath

the isothermal region where the cirrus cloud prevails. Since the temper-

ature at this elevation ceases to decrease with altitude therefore it is

the limit of vertical convection, and any clouds brought to this level by

long continued storms must spread out and not go up higher. The

limit to convection and the swift winds of the upper cloud region spread

the cirri over extensive areas, and hence they are more frequently seen

than are those of the next lower levels that are more limited in extent.

At middle latitudes the levels of maximum condensation are, roughly:

(1) Fog level, surface of the earth or water. (2) Cumulus hvel, 1 to 2

kilometers above the surface. (3) Cirrus level, 8 to 10 kilometers above

the surface.

The corresponding approximate levels, or, preferably, regions of

minimum condensation, are: (1) Scud region, 100 to 300 meters eleva-

tion. (2) Alto-stratus region, chiefly 4 to 6 kilometers above the sur-

face. (3) Isothermal region, usually 11 kilometers or more above the

surface. W. J. H.

METEOROLOGY. — Origin of the permanent ocean highs. W. J. Hum-

phreys. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, 4. 1911.

The circulation of the atmosphere between the warm equatorial and

the cold polar regions, together with the rotation of the earth, causes

the prevailing winds at higher latitudes than about 33° to blow from

west to east, and the tropical winds to blow from east to west. The

former have an angular velocity about the axis of the earth greater

than that of the earth itself, and therefore press up toward the equator,

while the latter have a smaller angular velocity than the earth and conse-

abstracts: meteorology 79

quently tend to slide down toward the pole. Hence there are two belts

of high barometric pressure surrounding the earth; one at about 32° S,

and the other about the same latitude north. Both are well marked on

the oceans, but, owing to great temperature variations, are practically

obliterated over continents.

But even on the oceans the belts are not uniform. The northern

belt has one region of maximum pressure, with closed isobars, just west

of southern California, and another in the eastern Atlantic. The south-

ern belt has three regions of maximum pressure; one just west of Chile,

another west of southern Africa, and a third west of Australia. Each

of these five regions of maximum pressure is essentially permanent,

accompanied by fair weather, and surrounded by gentle anticyclonic

winds.

At each of the five places of maximum barometric pressure, but no-

where else, the belts of high pressure are crossed by cold ocean currents.

These pressure maxima, therefore, are due to the combined influence of

the mechanical action of the oppositely directed winds north and south

of them and to the low temperature of the cold ocean currents, and are

located where the sum of the two influences has its maximum values.

The original paper contains several explanatory figures. W. J. H.

METEOROLOGY. — On the relation between atmospheric pressure and

wind. J. W. Sandstrom. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Obser-

vatory, 3: 275-303. 1911.

A difference in barometric pressure between two neighboring places

at the same level necessarily must start the wind blowing from the place

of higher towards the place of lower pressure. But the direction of

flow is modified by the rotation of the earth, and by frictional resistance.

There are, then, three forces acting on a moving mass of air. A gravita-

tional force proportional to and in the direction of the barometric gra-

dient, (2) a force, clockwise in the northern hemisphere, at right angles

to the instantaneous direction of the wind and proportional to the sine

of the latitude, (3) a frictional resistance numerically equal and opposite

in direction to the resultant of the other two.

On applying these facts to special cases the friction is found to be

divisible into two portions, one of which is that of the wind on the sur-

face of the earth, and the other that between the wind and the upper

currents of air, which usually differ from the surface winds both in direc-

tion and speed. The author also shows how these forces may so com-

bine as to cause the wind to follow a sinuous path.

The original paper is abundantly illustrated by meteorological charts

of northern Europe. W. J. Humphreys.

80 abstracts: terrestrial magnetism

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Results of magnetic observations made

by the Coast and Geodetic Survey between July 1, 1909, and June SO,

1910. R. L. Faris. App. No. 3, Rept. for 1910, pp. 71-141. 1911.

This publication contains the results of magnetic observations made

on land and at sea by the Coast and Geodetic Survey in the prosecution

of the magnetic survey of the United States and outlying territories

during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1910, including the determinations

of the magnetic elements in 39 States and Territories. The results on

land are tabulated by States and in the order of increasing latitudes of

the stations. During the year observations were made at seventy-five

(75) old stations to ascertain the secular change of the magnetic elements.

Results of observations on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and in the

Philippines are grouped in separate tables. The latter portion of the

report is devoted to the descriptions of land stations, including their

permanent markings and true bearings from them to permanent objects,

which are of use to local surveyors, especially where true meridian lines

were established in conjunction with the magnetic work. R. L. F.

ELECTRICITY. — The electrical conductivity of commercial copper.

F. A. Wolff and J. H. Dellinger. Bulletin Bureau of Standards,

7: 103-126. 1911.

A reliable average value for the conductivity of the copper furnished

for electrical uses was desired by the American Institute of Electrical

Engineers, to be used as the basis of new tables, to replace their old

Copper Wire Table of 1893. The Bureau of Standards was asked to

obtain the data, and copper samples from representative sources were

investigated. Besides the samples measured extensive data were

obtained from a large manufacturing company. The mean of the data,

representing tests on more than 100,000,000 pounds of copper, was

practically the same as the value previously assumed for the resistivity

of annealed copper, in the preparation of wire tables and in the expres-

sion of per cent conductivity, etc., viz., 0.153022 ohm per meter-gram at

20° C. This value is to be called the "Annealed Copper Standard."

The conductivity of hard-drawn wire of about 2 mm. diameter was

found to be less than the conductivity of annealed wires by a mean value

of 2.7 per cent. The difference between the conductivity of annealed

and hard-drawn wires increases as the diameter decreases. The highest

conductivity found was that of a wire drawn directly from a mass of

native lake copper, viz., 101.71 per cent of the conductivity of the

abstracts: electricity 81

<

'Annealed Copper Standard." The advantages of ohms per meter-

gram as a unit of resistivity are stated. The desirability of an inter-

national standard of copper conductivity is urged. J. H. D.

ELECTRICITY.- — The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper.

J. H. Dellinger. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 7 : 71-101. 1911.

Abstracted in the Journal of the Franklin Institute. 170: 243.

1910.

Standard values for the temperature coefficient of copper have varied

greatly, and anaccurately determined value on representative samples

was needed. Samples were investigated from 14 of the leading copper

refiners and wire manufacturers in the United States, Germany, France,

and Austria. The measurements were of especially high relative accu-

racy, as the wires were all compared against a copper auxiliary wire in the

same oil bath. The principal result was the discovery of a proportional

relation between conductivity and temperature coefficient, which holds

substantially for samples chemically different, and holds within the

errors of measurement for differences in conductivity due to differences

in hardness. The change of resistivity per degree C. of a sample of

copper is 0.000598 ohm per meter-gram or 0.00683 micro-ohm per cen-

timeter cube, these constants holding for any temperature of reference

and any sample of copper.

Bending and twisting a wire produce no material change in the tem-

perature coefficient, although they increase the resistance. It may

therefore be assumed with greater confidence than heretofore that the

temperature coefficient of a copper wire is not changed by winding. In

virtue of the proportionality between temperature coefficient and con-

ductivity, the measurement of temperature coefficient may in certain

cases be substituted for the direct measurement of conductivity.

The relation of resistance to temperature was found to be linear, for

the temperatures investigated, 10° C. to 100°C. If this relation actually

held continuously down to zero resistance, there would be a set of differ-

ent temperatures, all higher than — 273°C, at which the resistances of

copper samples of various conductivities would vanish, and these "in-

ferred absolute zeros" of resistance are sometimes used as an aid in

remembering the temperature coefficient. But this investigation indi-

cated nothing of the actual resistance of copper at very low or very high

temperatures.

The proportionality between temperature coefficient and conductivity

has been confirmed by results obtained at the Reichsanstalt. J. H. D.

82 abstracts: electricity

ELECTRICITY. — A device for measuring the torque of electrical instru-

ments. P. G. Agnew. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 7: 45-48.

1911.

The device consists essentially of a dynamometer of the pendulum

type. A needle is attached to the bob of the pendulum to serve as a

pointer which swings closely over a scale consisting of 153 concentric

circles engraved on the concave surface of a very shallow spherical bowl

of a radius of curvature of one meter. The bob is suspended by a silk

fiber at the center of curvature of this scale, which reads tangents of

angles directly, the divisions being approximately 1 mm. and hence

indicating angles whose tangents are 0.001, 0.002, etc. The force to be

measured (always horizontal) is transmitted to the bob by a second

fiber attached at its center of mass. The force in grams is then equal

to the product of the weight of the bob into the number of divisions

deflection. The range may be changed by attaching extra weights to

the bob.

In measuiing the torque of a deflection instrument — for example a

voltmeter— the horizontal thread is fastened to the pointer at a con-

venient distance from the pivot and the voltmeter moved horizontally

until the desired deflection is produced. We then have

Torque = arm X weight X 0.001 X reading in divisions.

In the case of a watthour meter it is necessary only to attach the

thread to the edge of the disk, apply current and voltage to the meter,

and allow the thread to wind upon the disk as far as it will. Under

proper conditions an accuracy of 0.1 per cent may be obtained. The

torques of some types of instruments have been found to range as

follows: D. C. voltmeter 0.3 to 2.1 gram-cm.; D. C. ammeters 0.2 to

0.9 gram-cm.; A. C. watthour meters 3.0 to 7.8 gram-cm. P. G. A.

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY. — Quantitative experiments in long distance

radio-telegraphy. L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Wireless Tele"

graphic Laboratory. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 7: 315-363.

1911.

The U. S. naval wireless laboratory during the winter 1909-1910 and

the spring and summer of 1910 carried on quantitative measurements

on the relation between the currents in the sending and receiving radio-

telegraphic antennas. This work was taken up in connection with the

testing of the wireless set at the Brant Rock station and those of the

scout cruisers Birmingham and Salem. The Brant Rock station devel-

abstracts: radio-telegraphy 83

oped 60 kw. Its antenna was an umbrella 420 feet at top, about 170 feet

at bottom with a capacity of 0.0073 microfarad. The scouts' sets were

of 10 k.w. and their antennas were flat-topped, 130 feet high, with a

capacity of 0.0018 microfarad. During a part of the test this was

increased to 0.0025 by extensions slanting downward fore and aft of

the regular antenna. The chief wave lengths used were 1500 meters

and 3750 meters on the part of Brant Rock, and 1000 meters and

3750 meters on the ships.

In the July, 1910, test which was considered the most reliable the

measurements were carried on up to nearly 900 nautical miles between

the ships and to about 1200 miles between Brant Rock and the Bir-

mingham.

The receiving measurements for the shorcei distances were made in

part by means of thermoelements in the antenna. At the greater dis-

tances the method of telephone shunt readings in connection with the

electrolytic detector was used, the value of the received antenna current

being derived from the shunt reading by means of comparison readings

taken on a thermoelement in the antenna at the shorter distances.

In addition to these measurements already mentioned subsidiary

observations were made between Brant Rock and a small station 11

miles away on the effect of height of a flat top antenna on sending and

receiving and also on the effect of wave length.

The results are briefly as follows :

(a) Over salt water the electrical waves decrease in intensity in pro-

portion to the distance as found by Duddell and Taylor. In addition

they are subject to an absorption which varies with the wave length

and which may be expressed mathematically by the term e~Ad.

The complete expression for the received current is then

(1) IR=4e-Ad

d

where IR is the received antenna current, d the distance, and K and A

constants.

This is true in general for day transmission. The absorption at night

is entirely irregular varjing from zero to the day value, but is on an

average much less during the winter than in summer. The great varia-

tions in night absorption make useless all attempts to judge the quality

of wireless apparatus from night distances. For this purpose only ob-

servations on the average day range have any value. Variations also

appear to occur during the daytime, but these are probably in general

84 abstracts: chemistry

small. (6) The received antenna currents between two stations are

proportional to the product of the heights of the sending and receiving

antennas and inversely proportional to the wave length, provided the

antenna resistances remain constant, (c) Taking account of the influ-

ence of antenna height and wave length equation (1) may be extended

and a general day transmission formula written as follows

T h,h„ 00015 d

(2) IK = 4.25^fe-vT-

Act

When Is is the sending antenna current, h antenna height and X the

wave length. The currents are given in amperes and all lengths in

kilometers. From this it would appear that it is advisable to rate sta-

tions according to the magnitude of the antenna current, or perhaps

better, according to the product of the current into the height. L. W. A.

CHEMISTRY. — The behavior of high-boiling mineral oils on heating

in the air. C. E. Waters. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 7,

365-376, 1911. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemis-

try, 3: 233. 1911.

The oils were heated to 250° for three hours in Erlenmeyer flasks

which were placed in a special air-bath so arranged as to secure free

diffusion of air into them, as well as to allow the escape of volatile por-

tions of the oils. After cooling, the contents were diluted with petro-

leum ether and next day the insoluble "asphalt" was filtered off and

weighed. The insoluble matter was shown to be an oxidation product.

The amount formed was apparently independent of the amount of oil

evaporated. The latter, and also the amount of varnish-like coating

on the walls of the flasks, varied widely, but the amount of insoluble

matter was fairly constant.

There seemed to be some evidence of catalytic action which influenced

the amount of insoluble and "varnish" formed. These were both

greater in amount when a second lot of oil was heated in a flask which

had not been cleaned after one heating.

Three different oils were heated also in tubes of the same dimensions

made of glass, brass, chrome-vanadium steel, vanadium steel, cold-

rolled steel, cast iron and a steel containing 0.8 per cent carbon. For

two of the oils the percentages of insoluble formed were about the same

in all of the tubes, except those of brass, where the amount was much

greater. The third oil yielded less insoluble in the brass tubes than in

those of glass, and very much greater amounts in the chrome-vanadium

abstracts: chemistry 85

steel tubes than in any of the others. This oil contained approximately

0.5 per cent fatty oil, while the other two were straight mineral oils.

C. E. W.

CHEMISTRY. — The determination of manganese in vanadium and

chrome-vanadium steels. J. R. Cain. Journal of Industrial and

Engineering Chemistry, July, 1911.

The bismuthate method for manganese gives high results in vanadium

or chrome-vanadium steels because some of the chromium and all of

the vanadium are also oxidized and react with the ferrous solution used

to reduce the permanganic acid. The Ford-Williams method gives

high results because of occlusion of chromic acid by the precipitated

manganese dioxide. The present method eliminates those sources of

error by precipitating the chromium and vanadium out of a sulphuric

acid solution of the steel by cadmium carbonate' and determining man-

ganese in the filtrate by the bismuthate method after adding nitric acid.

J.R.C.

CHEMISTRY. — The determination of vanadium in vanadium and chrome-

vanadium steels. J. R. Cain. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 7:

377, 1911; Journal Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 3 : July,

1911.

Various errors in the usual methods for determining vanadium in

steel are pointed out and in a few cases methods for correcting or elim-

inating these are indicated. A new method based on precipitation of the

vanadium by cadmium carbonate followed by electiolysis, reduction

and titration, is described. J. R. C.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY.— The relation of surface action to electro-

chemistry. Harrison E. Patten, Bureau of Soils. Transactions

of the American Flectrochemioal Society, 19. 1911.

A mathematical and illustrated treatment which may be summarized

as: (1) A definition of surface tension as the first derivative of surface

energy with respect to surface change. (2) A consideration of the gen-

eral equations of surface changes following the treatment given by J.

Willard GibLs. (3) An extension of these equations with the assistance

of a cyclic process to surfaces having an electric charge. (4) The appli-

JJour. Ind. and Eng. Chem., 3: July, 1911; also Bull. Bur. Standards, 7: 377.

1911.

86 abstracts: agricultural chemistry

cation of the general equation developed in the third section to

electro-capillary phenomena, to migration of suspended particles, and

to electric osmose. (5) The relation of absorption phenomena to

electro-capillary phenomena, to settling of suspensions, to formation of

electrolytic deposits, and to the behavior of disperse systems in general.

H. E. P.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— The color of soils. W. O. Robin-

son and W. J. McCaughey. Bulletin Bureau of Soils, No. 79.

Pp. 29. May, 1911.

This bulletin treats of the causes of difference in color, particularly

of the red and yellow soils. It is concluded from the results of the iron

determinations and the mechanical analysis of twenty typical red and

yellow soils that the color is due to a colored film, mainly of iron and

aluminum oxides and organic matter, surrounding the soil particles.

A thin film gives a yellow color and a thick film a red color. Theoretical

considerations indicate that the iron oxide in various soils must be in

nearly the same condition of hydration. Miner alogical examination

shows that in general the minerals in the red soils have been subject to

more weathering than those of the yellow soils. Red soils are in general

older than yellow soils, and certain chemical characteristics show them

to be better drained. W. O. R. and W. J. McC.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— The solubility of lime in aqueous

solutions of sugar and glycerol. F. K. Cameron and H. E. Patten,

Bureau of Soils. Journal of Physical Chemistry, 15: 67. 1911.

(1) Solubility isotherms for lime in solutions of sugar and of glycerol

at 25° have been determined by direct analysis of the liquid phases. (2)

The solid phase in the system lime-sugar-water is one of a series of solid

solutions, with calcium hydroxide a limiting case. (3) The solid phase

in the system lime-glycerol-water at 25° is always calcium hydroxide.

(4) The increase in solubility of lime in aqueous solutions of glycerol

over that in pure water is directly proportional to the concentration of

glycerol. F. K. C. and H. E. P.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— rfo theoretical basis for the use

of commercial fertilizers. Frank K. Cameron. Journal of Indus-

trial and Engineering Chemistry, 3: No. 3, March, 1911.

Abstract of remarks made before the Division of Fertilizer Chemists

abstracts: agricultural chemistry 87

at the Minneapolis meeting of the American Chemical Society. It was

pointed out that soils behave as individuals, owing to the number and

interdependence of the properties of the soil mass and its individual

components. Crop production, therefore, is the result of many factors,

natural and artificial, but all mutually dependent. Each of the arti-

ficial methods of control, tillage, crop rotation, and fertilization, affects

all the factors; consequently, no simple theory of fertilizer action can

satisfactorily explain the facts. With intensive methods of cultivation,

fertilizers are effective on all kinds of soils, more so on the naturally

better soils. Materials other than those containing the traditional

plant foods may become valuable fertilizers if they satisfy commercial

requirements. F. K. C.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Effect of a second solute in adsorp-

tion by soils and in leaching of soluble salts from soils. Harrison

E. Patten. Journal of Physical Chemistry, 15. 1911.

A higher concentration of phosphates may be obtained when weak

solutions of salts ordinarily used as soil amendments (potassium chloride,

potassium sulphate, potassium and sodium nitrates, or potassium car-

bonate) are passed through the soil than can be obtained by the use of

distilled water alone. This effect is not simply a question of the "solu-

bility" of phosphate in water or in the solutions used for percolation,

since the volume of liquid held in contact with the soil material is in all

cases far greater than that required to dissolve the small amounts of

phosphates and of other salts present. The effect is evidently due to a

disturbance of the equilibrium between the soluble material retained

by the soil and the soil solution. This disturbance having been produced

the soil system tends to readjust itself, giving a very roughly steady value

for the concentration of the leachings with respect to phosphate.

The bearing of this on the use of soil amendments is that it opens

questions as to the actual functions of different salts when added to pro-

mote plant growth. It appears possible that the addition of, e.g., a

nitrate or a chloride to the soil may benefit a plant by liberating phos-

phate, as well as by the addition of the salt itself for plant use. In addi-

tion must be considered the effects of the liberated phosphates and of

the added soil amendment upon the physical structure and condition of

the soil. H. E. P.

88 abstracts: mineralogy

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— The effect of moisture and of solu-

tions upon the electric conductivity of soils. R. O. E. Davis. Trans-

actions of the American Electrochemical Society, 17: 391-403. 1911.

Experiments on the conductivity of several types of soil under various

conditions are described. The relation of conductivity of a soil to the

corrosion of iron is pointed out. From the measurements of soil resistiv-

ity the conclusions are drawn: (1) That in the dry condition the soil

offers a high resistance to the passage of the electric current. (2) That

at a depth of two feet or more the conductivity remains roughly con-

stant for a given soil type and soil area. (3) That the conductivity

of soils saturated with water increases directly as the amount of salt in

solution increases; below saturation, the resistivity increases almost

in proportion to the surface area of the soil, at saturation and beyond,

the surface area does not exert so much influence. (4) That humus

decreases the conductivity of a soil.

A sandy soil will probably afford least electrolyte, and clay soil most,

due mainly to the state of physical division of the soil. It would be pos-

sible to roughly calculate the electrolysis produced by a given potential

difference between two points in the soil. R. O. E. D.

MINERALOGY. — Die chemische Zusammensetzung von Jamesonit und

Warrenit. W. T. Schaller. Zeitschr. Kryst. Mineral, 49: 562-

565. 1911.

From a review of the literature it is concluded that the formula for

jamesonite is 4PbS.FeS.3Sb2S> while warrenite is a mixture of jamesonite

and zinckenite. W. T. S.

MINERALOGY. — An occurrence of struverite. Frank L. Hess and

R. C. Wells. American Chemical Journal, 31: 432-442. 1911.

The mineral here designated struverite is one of a series containing

Ti 02, Fe 0, Ta2 05 and Cb2 05, in variable proportions. At one end

of the series is a group to which the name ilmenorutile is given, in

which Cb2 05 exceeds Ta2 05. At the other end of the series is a group

in which the Ta2 O5 exceeds the Cb2 05 and of which the mineral de-

scribed in the paper is the only representative known. In 1908 Prior

and Zambonini1 described a mineral with a nearly medial composition,

which they called struverite, and defined in such a way as to include

MDn struverite and its relation to ilmenorutile. Mineralog. Mag., 15: 78-89. 190S.

abstracts: geology 89

and anticipate the discovery of minerals in which Ta2 0B was in excess of

Cb2 O5. To avoid confusion the name is retained.

The mineral here described is found in considerable quantity as an

original constituent of the Etta granite pegmatite dike near Keystone,

South Dakota. It is black, opaque, and crystallizes in the rutile group

of the tetragonal system. It occurs as individual crystals, the largest

of which are 1.8 to 2 mm. across, by 5 mm. long, and in aggregates up

to 16 mm. across. The analysis was made by decomposing the mineral

with chlorine and sulphur monochloride, and separating the chlorides

thus obtained by fractional sublimation. The analysis gives the for-

mula Fe O. (Ta, Cb)2 05. 6 Ti 02 with 49.1 per cent Ti 02, 7.5 per cent

Fe O, 35.7 per cent Ta2 05, 6.4 per cent Cb2 05 and 1.3 per cent Sn 02

(probably replacing Ti 02). R. C. W.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and ore deposits of the Breckenridge district, Colo-

rado. F. L. Ransome. Prof. Paper U. S. Geological Survey No.

75. Pp. 184, with maps, sections and illustrations. 1911.

The Breckenridge district is in Summit County, Colorado, 60 miles

west-southwest of Denver. The fundamental rocks are granites and

schists of pre-Cambrian age. The thick series of Paleozoic rocks present

in the Leadville and Tenmile districts thins to the north and west and is

not represented near Breckenridge, where the oldest sedimentary rocks,

resting directly on the pre-Cambrian, are the red sandstones and shales

of the " Wyoming" (Triassic?) formation. Apparently conformable

above them is the Dakota, overlain in turn by a thick formation of dark

hales which probably represent the Benton, Niobrara, and part of the

Montana formations of the Upper Cretaceous. In the northern part

of the district the Dakota rests on the pre-Cambrian. The sediments

are intruded by monzonitic porphyries ranging in composition from

siliceous quartz monzonite porphyry to hypersthene-bearing diorite

porphyry. The Quarternary deposits may in part be divided into glacial

accumulations of Pleistocene age and stream gravels of the recent epoch.

There were two advances and retreats of the ice. The earlier is repre-

sented by terrace gravels and what has been called older hillside wash;

the latter by moraines and low-level gravels or valley trains.

The principal fissures strike northeast and form a conjugate system.

No single fissure is known to exceed 1700 feet in length and none was

formed to the accompaniment of important structural displacement.

The ore deposits may be grouped as (1) veins of the zinc-lead-silver-

gold series, (2) stockworks and veins of the gold-silver-lead series, (3)

90 abstracts: geology

gold veins of Farncomb Hill, (4) veins in the pre-Cambrian rocks, (5)

metasomatic replacements along bedding planes, and (6) gold-silver

deposits in Dakota quartzite. The Breckenridge ores were deposited

through the agency of thermal waters and gases given off from a solidi-

fying mon^onitic magma and perhaps cooperating with water of atmos-

pheric or of less definitely assignable origin. Whether the metals in

the ores came from the magma or from the rocks invaded by it is not

known. The principal gaseous constituents of the magmatic waters

were hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide.

The ores were probably deposited in early Tertiary time and were

enriched throughout the later Tertiary. The character of the deposits

is notably dependent on the kind of country rock.

Most of the mines show a decrease in the proportion of galena with

augmented depth, which means in general a depreciation of the ore.

Lead ores of shipping grade probably nowhere in the district extend to

a depth of much more than 300 feet. The downward change in the

character of the ores indicates enrichment. A large part of the galena

in the district is believed to have been concentrated by downward-

moving atmospheric water.

There are three general classes of gold placers — (1) the bench or high-

level placers; (2) the deep or low-level placers; and (3) the gulch wash-

ings. The gulch washings were the first worked and yielded much gold

to the pioneers in the district. The most noted placers of this group

were on the slope of Farncomb Hill. The bench placers are in the

terrace gravels and older hillside wash. They have been extensively

worked in the past by hydraulic methods, but were not being exploited

in 1909. They are generally of low grade. The deep placers, in the

low-grade gravels, occupy the bottoms of the present valleys and are

now being worked by dredging. The pay channels are from 180 to 400

feet wide and average locally up to about 50 cents a cubic yard; but

much of the material does not yield 20 cents a yard. F. L. R.

abstracts: botany 91

BOTANY. — Crown-gall of plants: Its cause and remedy. Erwin F.

Smith, Nellie A. Brown and C. O. Townsend. Bulletin Bureau

of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, No. 213. Pp. 215,

pis. 36. 1911. Crown-gall and sarcoma. Erwin F. Smith. Cir-

cular Bureau of Plant Industry No. 85. Pp. 4. June 20, 1911.

Bulletin 213 deals with a widely distributed and harmful disease of

orchard trees and other plants. This disease is commonly known in

the United States as crown-gall, but it may occur not only on the crowns

of plants, but on roots and shoots.

The disease has been known for a long time, and under the supposi-

tion that it was infectious and injurious various States have made quar-

antine laws against it. The disease has been ascribed to various causes,

without satisfactory proof, and many persons have been led to believe

that it was not due to any organism. The experiments detailed in the

Bulletin show clearly that the gall is due to bacteria and is infectious,

being readily transmitted not only from plant to plant of the same kind,

but also to many plants of widely different families. The Bulletin

shows that the growth is not only of itself injurious to the plant, but also

may form an open wound through which other parasites are likely to

enter, such as the fungus of root rot, and the bacteria which cause blight

of apples and pears.

The Bulletin recommends that the inspection laws now in force in

the various States be continued and enforced. It shows what plants it

is not advisable to use as a crop following a galled one. It describes the

life history and cultural characters of the organism involved; points out

the difficulties attending its isolation and identification; gives numerous

illustrations showing the nature of the tumors produced and the time

involved in their production when pure cultures of the organism were

used; shows that the organism has a wide range of host plants, and that

the overgrowths produced are in many ways anatomically and otherwise

strikingly like those found in certain malignant animal tumors.

The bacteria causing these plant tumors are not abundant in the

tissues, sometimes very rare; are hard to see and difficult to stain; they

perish readily both in the tumor and in culture-media; are difficult to

cultivate from the tissues unless one knows the technique; do not form

abscess cavities after the manner of the tubercle diseases, but multiply

in limited number within the tissues and apparently only inside the cells

which their presence stimulates into rapid division. The disease forms

secondary tumors readily, and on this account is cut out with difficulty.

92 abstracts: forestry

The organism loses virulence easily both inside the tumors and in cul-

ture-media, and finally if the plants are not destroyed by it they seem to

acquire a partial or complete immunity.

The Bulletin involves team work done by four people in the Depart-

' ment of Agriculture, covering a period of seven years and the total num-

ber of experiments involved amounts to thousands.

Circular No. 85 gives in outline the results of further studies on resem-

blances of crown-gall of plants to malignant animal tumors. Since

Bulletin 213 was published it has been found that the primary tumors

are connected to the secondary ones by means of a deep-seated strand

of tumor tissue. This strand occurs in the inner wood or at the junc-

tion of wood and pith, and wedges apart the normal tissues of stem

and leaves quite after the manner of a foreign body, giving rise in vari-

ous places to the secondary tumors.

When the primary tumor occurs on a stem, secondary tumors fre-

quently appear in the course of a few weeks or months at a considerable

distance on leaves, and in this case the same thing happens as in meta-

stasis of malignant animal tumors, viz., the structure of the secondary

tumor is that of the primary tumor and not that of the tissue in which

it is lodged. In other words, the leaf tumors of this derivation have

the anatomy of the stem.

The bacteria occur within the multiplying tumor cells and it is through

their action on the nucleus that these cells are compelled to divide and

take on the abnormal rapidly multiplying tumor growth. The bac-

teria have been found (sparingly) in the secondary tumors and in the

strands connecting these to the primary tumor. There is no reasonable

doubt, therefore, that we have in this disease a type of cell multiplica-

tion closely parallel to that which occurs in malignant animal tumors.

Full details will be given in another bulletin as soon as the photomi-

crographic illustrations can be prepared. E. F. S.

FORESTRY. — -Windbreaks: their influence and value. Carlos G.

Bates. Forest Service Bulletin No. 86. Pp. 106, with plates

and diagrams. 1911.

Windbreaks may be used profitably in the middle west, the northern

prairies, the lake states, the eastern states north of the forty-ninth

parallel, the southwestern states, and in the fruit growing regions of the

Pacific coast.

The distance at which the effect of a windbreak may be felt averages

abstracts: forestry 93

twenty times its height, altho absolute protection of a crop such as

corn, in a -wind with a velocity of 50 miles an hour, can not be expected

beyond a distance of from six to eight times the height of the wind-

break. Partial protection is given over a distance of from twelve to

fourteen times the height.

The efficiency of a windbreak in checking evaporation from the soil

may, in extreme cases, amount to 70 per cent of the moisture ordinarily

lost. Protection in this respect is appreciable for a distance equal to

five times the height of the trees in the windward direction, and fifteen

or twenty times the height leeward.

The effect of a windbreak upon temperature in the zone of its influence

is much greater than is commonly supposed. The daily range of tem-

perature in an area protected by a windbreak is nearly 9° F. greater than

where the air circulates freely. The effect of the superheating of both

air and soil in a protected zone is favorable to crops which must begin

growth at a time when the beat is barely sufficient for germination.

Corn and alfalfa are the field crops least affected by the shade from wind-

breaks.

Honey locust and osage orange are the trees adapted to windbreak

planting which cast the heaviest shade. Cottonwood, maple, green

ash, white cedar, and Scotch, Austrian, and white pine are those which

cast the least.

The absorption of soil moisture by the roots in a windbreak may in the

case of an orchard be appreciable, but need not result in real damage.

Corn, oats, and wheat may suffer within 45 feet from the windbreak, but

with care the effect is much less apparent. It may be greatly lessened

by thorough cultivation of the soil near the trees, by planting tap rooted

species in the windbreak, or by the use of seed crops next to the trees.

There is little basis for the belief that windbreaks sap the fertility of

the soil. The trees' use of soil moisture may, however, reduce the

activity of the nitrifying bacteria and cause temporary sterility in the

zone of root influence.

Cottonwood is the best tree for windbreaks in the middle west;

Scotch pine, Norway pine, and Colorado blue spruce in the northern

prairies; white pine in the lake and northeastern States; chestnut and

yellow poplar m the central eastern States ; osage orange in the southwest;

eucalypts, Monterey cypress and Monterey pine in California; and pop-

lars, willows, and cottonwoods in Washington and Oregon.

Findley Burns.

94 abstracts: zoology

FORESTRY. — Eucalypts in Florida. Raphael Zon. Forest Service

Bulletin No. 87. Pp. 47, with plates. 191 1.

Next to southern California, Florida promises most for the growing of

eucalypts in the United States. The region in Florida in which eucalypts

can be successfully grown may be roughly denned as the orange belt,

about 40 per cent of the total area of the State. In all, about 16 species

of eucalypts are growing in Florida today. Those which are especially

well adapted to the climate are E. resinifera, rostrata, viminalis, robusta,

and tereticornis. The planting is still in the experimental stage. If

the species of eucalypts which are adapted to Florida can be economically

grown on a large scale, and will yield durable ties, posts, and piles at an

age at which the native trees hardly reach sapling size, they will prove

of the great value to the State. There are available for experiment large

areas in Dade, De Soto, Lee, Hillsboro, Pasco, Fernando, and Sumter

Counties at present, which are not in a high state of productivity.

Findley Burns.

ZOOLOGY. — Anatomy and physiology of the wing-sheli Atrina rigida.

Benjamin H. Grave, University of Wyoming. Bulletin of the U. S.

Bureau of Fisheries, 29: 409-440, pis. 48-50, figs. 15. 1911.

This study establishes the following points:

1. The arterial system of the two sides is not symmetrical.

2. The venous system lacks the "sinus venosus" which is commonly

present in lamellibranchs and which receives the blood from all parts

of the body previous to entering the kidney. This sinus or a substitute

for it is a necessary part of the mechanism described by Menegaux for

extruding the foot and other organs whose movement is due to blood

pressure.

3. The blood which enters the gills must pass through a capillary

system before emerging again.

5. There is no pallial line but the mantle is attached to the shell at

a single point just ventral to the adductor muscle. As a consequence

the mantle can be withdrawn a considerable distance from the edge of the

shell. After being contracted the mantle again reaches the edge by

creeping outward upon the shell.

6. The spines on the outer surface of the shell are formed by little

tongues of the mantle which creep out into them during their growth

period.

7. The mantle gland which Menegaux calls the "appendice" is

probably a "swab" for keeping the mantle free from dirt.

abstracts: conchology 95

8. The kidney excretes vacuoles containing quantities of concre-

tions, but little protoplasm and no nuclei are thrown off.

9. Each ganglion supplies a definite region of the body and there is

little overlapping. Reflex arcs exist.

10. The otocyst is located in the end of the foot far from the pedal

ganglion and is a variable structure, sometimes consisting of as many

as eight lobes and sometimes of only one. In one instance three separate

ciliated tubes connecting them with the outside were discovered. This

indicates that they have arisen from three separate invaginations of

the ectoderm. This is the first instance of this sort found in lamelli-

branchs above the protobranchia. E. M. Smith.

CONCHOLOGY.— Notes on California shells, II. Wm. H. Dall.

National Museum. Nautilus, 21: 109-112. 1911.

Miscellaneous notes on species represented in the National Museum

and in various California collections. Bathytoma tre?nperiana, Modio-

lus diegensis and Pachyonia inazquale var. spiratum are described as

new. Paul Bartsch.

CONCHOLOGY.— Notes on California shells, III. Wm. H. Dall.

National Museum. Nautilus, 21: 124-127. 1911.

Miscellaneous notes on the distribution of many California species.

Paul Bartsch.

CONCHOLOGrY. — Notes on Gundlachia and Ancylus. Wm. H. Dall.

National Museum. American Naturalist, 45: 175-189. 1911.

Biological notes bearing on the validity and relationship of the two

genera, illustrated by a series in the National Museum.

Paul Bartsch.

CONCHOLOGY. — New species of shells from Bermuda. Wm. H. Dall

and Paul Bartsch. Proceedings U. S. National Museum, 40:

277-288, pi. 38. 1911.

An account of species collected in Bermuda and of which a series is in

the National Museum. The following are described as new and mostly

figured. Mitra haycocki, Columbella somersiana, Aclis bermudensis,

Turbonilla (Careliopsis) bermudensis, T. (Strioturbonilla) peilei, T. (S.)

haycocki, Cerithiopsis movilla, C. ara, C. pesa, C. vicola, C. io, Fissuridea

bermudensis, Odostomia (Chrysallida) nioba, and Ischnochiton (Steno-

plax) bermudensis. A list of the species not new is also given which

contains several not previously reported from Bermuda. P. B.

96 ABSTKACTS: FISHERIES

CONCHOLOGY. — Description of new mollusks of the family Vitrinellidae

from the west coast of America. Paul Bartsch. Proceedings

U. S. National Museum, 39: 229-234, pis. 34-40. 1911.

The following new species are described and figured: Cyclostrema

baldridgei, miranda, adamsi; Circulus liriope and diomedece and Cyclos-

tremella dalli. . P. B.

CONCHOLOGY. — The recent and fossil mollusks of the genus Alabina

from the west coast of America. Paul Bartsch. Proceedings U. S.

National Museum, 39 : 409^18, pis. 61-62. 1911.

This paper is a monograph of the genus Alabina in which all the spe-

cies known from the west coast are described and figured. The fol-

lowing are new: Alabina barbarensis, hamlini, phanea diomedece

ignati, monicensis, tenuisculpta diegensis, and tenuisculpta phalacra.

P. B.

FISHERIES. — The migration of salmon in the Columbia River. Charles

Wilson Greene. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, 29 : 129-148.

Pis. 26-27. 1911.

On August 14, 1908, at the State fish hatchery at Chinook, Washing-

ton, there were liberated 25 chinook saimon, 16 silver salmon, and 18

steelheads which had been marked by means of an aluminum patent

button clamped through the tail fin. Seventeen fish out of this total

of 59 were retaken and reported, and upon their careers as indicated

by place and date of capture are based the following conclusions, -which,

however, because of the preliminary nature and limited extent of the

experiment, are presented as tentative: (1) Salmon may take from 30 to

40 days to pass through the brackish water within the limits of the fish-

ing waters at the mouth of the Columbia River. (2) That salmon

spend considerable time swimming back and forth in tide water during

the acclimatization to fresh water is indicated (a) by the fact that two

fishes were taken below the point at which they were marked, (b) by the

corrosion of the aluminum marking buttons by salt water, and (c) by

the long time spent by certain fishes in reaching the lower limits of fresh

water. (3) When wholly within fresh water, the silver salmon and the

steelhead make the migratory journey at an average speed of from 6 to 1\

miles a day and probably more. (4) There is little evidence that the

process of marking or that partial obstruction of the course by fishing

gear does more than produce a temporary checking of the migratory

journey. E. M. Smith.

abstracts: fisheries 97

FISHERIES. — Condition and extent of the natural oyster beds of Delaware.

H. F. Moore. Bureau of Fisheries Document 745. Pp. 30, 1 chart.

1911.

The State of Delaware, following the example of various other oyster

producing States, recently solicited a Federal survey of her natural oyster

grounds in Delaware Bay. Dr. Moore, representing the Bureau of

Fisheries, was in charge of the work, which had for its specific purpose

the accurate location and charting of the natural oyster beds and mves-

tigat on of their present condition and productiveness.

Of the 16,435 acres (over 25 square miles) explored with sounding

lines and chains, 2,144 acres were found to be included in areas of vary-

ing degrees of productiveness. These represented a total oyster con-

tent estimated after careful examination to be 189,035 bushels. Each

bed is described and details of the examinations are tabulated to show

dense, scattering, very scattering and depleted areas in each case, the

number of each kind of oysters (seed and market) actually caught per

square yard, and the estimated content per acre.

Tides, currents and salinity of the water were noted, as was also the

presence of probability of enemies of the oyster. Of these the drill was

found to be the most destructive in this region.

The chart accompanying the report is of large size and replete with

data as to character of oyster growth, depths and character of bottom, in

addition to accurate delineation of the oyster beds. E. M. Smith.

PHARMACOLOGY. — The effects of a number of derivatives of choline

and analogous compounds on the blood pressure. Reid Hunt and

R. de M. Taveau, Hygienic Laboratory, U. S. Public Health and

Marine-Hospital Service. Bulletin of the Hygienic Laboratory,

No. 73. 1911.

This bulletin discusses the methods of preparation and the physio-

logical action of 79 compounds related to choline; most of them had not

previously been made. Some of these substances have more pronounced

effects upon the circulation than any drugs previously known and it is

probable that some of them will ultimately prove of practical importance.

The relation between the chemical constitution and the physiological

action of the members of this group of compounds was studied as the

basis for further work in the search for useful remedies. R. H.

98 abstracts: pharmacology

PHARMACOLOGY. — Digitalis standardization and the variability of

crude and of medicinal preparations. Worth Hale, Hygienic

Laboratory, U. S. Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service.

Bulletin of the Hygienic Laboratory, No. 74. 1911.

Digitalis is one of the most important drugs in the Pharmacopoeia,

but, unfortunately, it is of very variable activity; this bulletin discusses,

in detail, some of the causes of this variability. The influence of the age

of the leaves (whether of the first or second year growth), the methods

of drying and preserving, and the effect of cultivation, are discussed;

also the variations in the strength of official preparations, the relative

strength of fluid ext acts and tinctures, and best methods of insuring

preparations of uniform activity. A number of special preparations

such as triturates, tablets, and certain proprietary preparations were

also examined. W. H.

PHARMACOLOGY. — Digest of comments on the Pharmacopoeia of the

United States of America (eighth decennial revision) and the National

Formulary (third edition) for the calendar year ending December SI,

1908. Murray Galt Motter and Martin I. Wilbert, Hygienic

Laboratory, U. S. Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service.

Bulletin of the Hygienic Laboratory, No. 75, 1911.

The present bulletin is the fourth of the series of "Digest of Com-

ments" on the Pharmacopoeia of the United States and the National

Formulary, the two books recognized by the Food and Drugs Act of

June 30, 1906, as the standard with reference to the identity, purity and

strength of the medicaments therein described.

All of the available publications, containing matter of interest to the

revisers of the Pharmacopoeia and the National Formulary, have been

reviewed and practical suggestions and references, bearing on the

improvement of the two books as standards under the law, are presented

in as concise a form as possible.

Apart from their use by the members of the several Committees of

Revision these bulletins are of value as a resume of current literature

on the scope and content of the Pharmacopoeia and the National For-

mulary, and on the nature, origin and uses of the various substances

used in the treatment of disease.

Considerable space is given to the discussion of the possible develop-

ment of international standards for potent medicaments, and the gradual

compliance of foreign Pharmacopoeias with the provisions of the treaty

signed at Brussels in 1906 is noted. M. G. M.

abstracts: bacteriology and sanitation 99

BACTERIOLOGY. — Abortive cases of poliomyelitis; an experimental

demonstration of specific immune bodies in their blood-serum. John

F. Anderson and Wade H. Frost, Hygienic Laboratory, U. S.

Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service. Journal of the Amer-

ican Medical Association, 56: 663-667. 1911.

This paper gives the results of a series of experiments to demonstrate

the existence of abortive cases of poliomyelitis or infant. le paralysis by

making use of the serum of recovered cases of this disease to neutralize

the virus of poliomyelitis. It was found that the clinical diagnosis of

abortive cases of poliomyelitis was confirmed by laboratory experiments

in 66 per cent of the cases studied. These findings have a most signifi-

cant bearing on the diagnosis and epidemiology of acute anterior polio-

myelitis. J. F. A.

BACTERIOLOGY. — Experimental measles in the monkey: a preliminary

note. John F. Anderson and Joseph Goldberger, Hygienic

Laboratory, U. S. Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service.

Public Health Reports, 25: 847. 1911. Experimental measles

in the monkey: a supplemental note. John F. Anderson and

Joseph Goldberger. Ibid. 25: 887. 1911. The period of

infectivity of the blood in measles. John F. Anderson and Joseph

Goldberger. Journal of the American Medical Association, 57:

113. 1911. .

Previous to the appearance of these brief papers, various investigators

had reported that the monkey was not susceptible to measles. The

authors, however, have shown that the monkey is susceptible to measles

by inoculation of the blood or of the nasal and buccal secretion from

human cases of measles. Further, that when a well monkey is placed in

the cage with a monkey suffering from measles the former contracts the

disease after the usual incubation period. It is believed that the results

reported in these papers mark an important advance in our knowledge of

the etiology of measles. It is hoped that further work may definitely

determine the cause of measles and the means of its transmission and

methods by which the disease can be prevented. J. F. A.

SANITATION. — Sewage pollution of interstate and international waters,

with special reference to the spread of typhoid fever. I. — Lake Erie and

the Niagara river. Allan J. McLaughlin, Hygienic Laboratory,

U. S. Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service. Bulletin of

the Hygienic Laboratory, No. 77. 1911.

This is the first of a series of papers which it is contemplated to pre-

sent for publication on the problem as it affects certain international

100 abstracts: engineering

and interstate waters. The investigation was begun on the Great Lakes

because of the industrial and commercial importance of the lake cities

and the spread of typhoid fever by means of the enormous interstate

traffic for which these cities are responsible. A. J. McL.

ENGINEERING. — The expansion and contraction of concrete while

hardening. A. T. Goldbeck, Office of Public Roads. Proceed-

ings of the American Society for Testing Materials, 1 1: 1911.

This paper presents the results of micrometer measurements taken

on concrete while hardening. The specimens were 8 inches by 8 inches

in cross-section with a gage length of 50 inches. They were mixed

in different proportions, with varying percentages of water and were

stored under different conditions of moisture. Quantitative results of the

shrinkage in air and expansion while moist are shown graphically, the

initial measurements having been taken when the specimens were one

day old and continued at regular intervals. A. T. G.

ENGINEERING. — Bituminous dust preventives and road binders.

Prevost Hubbard, Office of Public Roads. Yearbook of the

Department of Agriculture, 1910. 1911.

The author, after mentioning bitumens as the most important class

of materials employed as dust preventives and road binders, divides

them into two main classes: (1) Native bitumens, (2) Artificial bitumens.

The treatment of the former for the purpose of making them suitable

for use on roads is briefly discussed, as is also the relative value of differ-

ent bituminous distillates and residues. This is followed by a classifi-

cation of bituminous materials with regard to their value as "dust pre-

ventives" or as "road binders." The conditions affecting the selection

of material are briefly outlined, followed by a description of the two

principal methods of application — the penetration method and the

mixing method. The author also briefly describes the character and

method of application of rock asphalt and manufactured bituminous

aggregates. C. S. Reeve.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

At the 66th meeting, at the Cosmos Club, January 5, 1911, Dr. John

A. Brashear delivered an address on The contributions of photography

to stellar research.

The author discussed in a clear and charming manner many of the

contributions that photography has made to our knowledge of astronomy

and illustrated each with beautiful pictures.

The 67th meeting, at the Cosmos Club, 4:40 p.m., January 19, 1911,

was for the transaction of routine business and the election of officers

for the ensuing year, as follows: President, F. W. Clarke; Non-resident

Vice Presidents, T. C. Chamberlin, H. F. Osborn; Corresponding Secre-

tary, Frank Baker; Recording Secretary, W. J. Humphreys; Treasurer,

A. L. Day; Resident Vice Presidents, nominated by the affiliated socie-

ties; Anthropological Society, Walter Hough; Archaeological, Mitchell

Carroll; Biological, David White; Botanical, W. E. S^fford; Cherrical,

H. W. Wiley; Engineers, M. 0. Leighton; Entomological, A. D. Hop-

kins; Foresters, Gifford Pinchot; Geographic, Henry Gannett; Geolog-

ical, A. H. Brooks; Medical, W. M. Barton; Historical, J. D. Morgan;

Philosophical, Lyman J. Briggs.

At the 68th meeting, at the Cosmos Club, January 19, 1911, Dr.F.

M. Jaeger, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Groningen,

Holland, spoke On doubly-refracting liquids and the so-called liquid crys-

tals.

The subject of "liquid crystals" and "anisotropic liquids" is one of

experimental research and also of theoretical speculation, and has a

most important significance for both chemistry and physics, since it is

fundamental to our theoretical ideas on the real nature of liquids.

When we ask ourselves how far it is right to speak of "liquid crystals,

we can treat the question from two sides: First, as to how far liquids can

exhibit properties that have seemed to be typical- of "crystalline" mat-

ter; and second, to what degree crystals can share the characteristics

of a "liquid" in the common sense of the word.

The typical property of crystalline matter is its anisotropy, or the

rigorous dependence of the physical properties cf crystals on the special

direction in which those properties are observed. In most cases such

media are optically anisotropic, a condition that insures the easiest and

most certain detection and measurement of this property.

It is well known that true liquids can become birefringent under the

101

102 proceedings: Washington academy of sciences

influence of mechanical deformation, as demonstrated by Maxwell,

Mach, de Metz, and others; under dielectric stress, as shown by Kerr,

and also, according to Majorana, in strong magnetic fields.

In all these cases the common point is that the birefringence disap-

pears always with the external forces which produced it— with most

liq ids instantly, with some gradually. The time required for the

birefringence to fall to the 1/e part of its original value has been defined

by Maxwell as the "time of relaxation," and is directly proportional to

the internal friction. The time of relaxation has never been found

greater than one and one-half hours, and this is much reduced with a

slight increase of temperature.

It might be supposeel that liquid crystals are only liquids of very long

relaxation periods, but this view is not supported by accurate measure-

ments of viscocity nor does it agree with the observed close analogy

between the birefringent and the ordinary isotropic liquids. On the

other hand, it is a well known fact that crystals can be plastic to any

degree. In fact thepossiLLity of deforming crystals without destroying

them is of the highest practical importance in drawing and forging metals

and their alloys as Ewing, Rosehain, and others, have demonstrated

with the microscope. We might therefore ask what manner of substance

is a crystal that shows such a high degree of plasticity?

Consider, for instance, the needle-like crystals that form on the carbon

plates of exhausted Leclanche cells, and have the composition ZnCl2

+ 2NH3. These can be wound spirally around an ordinary lead pencil

without breaking them or destroying their orthorhombic character.

Experiment shows that they possess one or more systems of so-called

"gliding planes" along which the molecules roll and glide, under the

influence of feeble forces, incomparably more easily than along any other

plane. The deformation of the crystal in these cases is called "singular

deformation along gliding planes" and does not alter the internal struc-

ture. Exact investigations have shown that the original symmetry

of the molecular aggregation remains wholly intact. A deformed crys-

tal of barium bromide, for instance, will continue growing in its saturated

solution and become a quite normal individual, which would be impos-

sible if the molecular arrangement of the crystal had been modified dur-

ing the deformation. Crystals may have a number of gliding planes;

those of the Leclanche cells have six, situated in two different zones.

Crystals can thus be deformed without alteration of their internal molecu-

lar structure, and this deformation can take place in several directions

at the same time, and the crystals therefore be highly plastic.

Suppose we had a crystal of this kind whose molecules roll so easily

along a number of such gliding planes that even a weak force like gravi-

tation is sufficient to move them; it would be deformed under its own

weight without any change of internal structure — the crystal would

"flow." Looked at in this way the expression "fluid crystal" loses its

seeming absurdity. Such crystals exist and are closely related to ordi-

nary crystals from which they differ only in having a much smaller rate

of recovery after deformation, and a preponderant surface tension.

PKOCEEDINGS: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 103

Fluid crystals, like ordinary crystals, possess form, elasticity, sur-

face tension and molecular vector forces. Presumably, therefore, a

real distinction exists between these fluid crystals and the true "aniso-

tropic liquids," like p-azoxyphenetol, for here no trace of form elasticity

remains. The numerous trunsi.ious of these latter and their whole

physico-chemical behavior are quite analogous to those of fluid crystals,

but th( ir behavior under the microscope differs in so many respects from

that of the true liquid crystals that their real nature is still enigmatic.

All substances showing the phenomena of fluid crystals, or anis tropic

liquid phases, behave exactly like polymorphic substances. All the

transition phenomena shown by these compounds during the gradual

rise or fall of temperature of the system can be explained in just the same

way as in the case of polymorphic substances undergoing a series of

phase-transitions. Even the same two kinds of polymorphic trans-

formations, the "enantiotropie" (reversible) and the "mcnotropic"

(irreversible) are met with again here; and just as there are substances

with two, three, four and more different solid polymorphic modifica-

tions, so there are substances which exhibit two, three, four or more

liquid states. The liquid which appears last, or at the highest transition

temperature, is always the isotropic one; the others are turbid-looking

aggregations of fluid crystals, and notwithstanding the fact that they

are stable at lower temperatures, the fluid crystals are often of much

lower viscosity than the isotropic liquid. Fluid crystals are true homo-

geneous phases as has been proved in a number of ways.

All anisotropic liquid phases have a turbid appearance. They look

as if they were emulsions like oil and water. However, this appearance

of turbidity is not at all indicative of a close analogy to emulsions, but

is a necessary consequence of the particular structure of these phases,

for they are really aggregations of innumerable little fluid crystals each

of which is completely transparent. These little crystals, like ordinary

crystals, are birefringent, and when in great multitude and irrregularly

oriented must be turbid as a whole from the innumerable refractions

and total reflections of the transmitted light at the boundaries between

adjacent individuals.

It has been asked why liquid crystals do not flow together. Real

liquids do so; but they possess no molecular directive force. On cooling,

an isotropic liquid is transformed into an aggregation of liquid crystals

and not into a single one, for the same reason that a molten substance

never solidifies to one big solid crystal but always to a turbid aggregate

made up of a great number of irregularly oriented crystals.

The strange and disturbing phenomena which are displayed by fluid

crystals and in particular this misunderstood turbidity, have led some to

suppose that these substances are not pure compounds but are mixtures

of imperfectly miscible liquids. To be sure, liquid emulsions feebly

depolarize transmitted light; but they can never account for the system-

atic variation of the enormously strong birefringence with the direction

of transmission through these flowing bodies — a birefringence which is,

in some cases, several times that of calcite. And there are many other

104 proceedings: Washington academy of sciences

properties, such as pleochroism, magnetic induction, and discontinuous

phase transition, which can not be explained in this way. In short

numerous physico-chemical researches have proved beyond doubt that

fluid crystals are simple homogeneous phases of well defined chemical

compounds.

The lecture was accompanied by experiments and illustrated by a

number of slides that made the speaker's meaning clear and his argument

convincing.

At the 69th meeting, in the Cosmos Club, February 1, 1911, Dr. W.

D. Bancroft, Professor of Physical Chemistry, Cornell University, pre-

sented A universal law. Reported in Science, 33: 436. 1911.

At the 70th meeting, in the National Museum, March 25, 1911, Dr.

Svante Arrhenius, Director of the Nobel Institute, Stockholm, Sweden,

spoke on The atmospheres of the planets. Reported in Science, 33: 632.

1911.

At the 71st meeting, in the Cosmos Club, March 30, 1911, Dr. Victor

Goldschmidt, Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Heidelberg,

Germany, lectured on The nature of crystals. Reported in Science, 33 :

870. 1911.

At the 72d meeting, in the National Museum, April 18, 1911, Sir

John Murray delivered an illustrated address on The ocean. Reported

in Science, 33: 870. 1911.

The 73d meeting was held on the steamer Southland, en route to the

Dismal Swamp, April 28, 1911. The following addresses were delivered:

Geography and geology of the Dismal Swamp, E. W. Shaw; Peat deposits,

C. A. Davis; The forest types in the Dismal Swamp, R. Zon; Plant life

in the Dismal Swamp, F. V. Coville; Ground animals of the swamp, F.

W. True; The birds of the swamp, C. Hart Merriam. Reported in Sci-

ence, 33: 909. 1911. W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. I, SEPTEMBER 19, 1911. No 4.

PHYSICS. — Note on graphic solutions of Wien's spectral equa-

tion. George K. Burgess, Bureau of Standards.

The fundamental equation of optical pyrometry is that express-

ing Wien's law,

h = C\~5 e~^T

which we may consider from three points of view:

1. For the determination of the temperature 7\ or T2 of a

black body from observations on the corresponding intensities

1 1 and /•> of light of a given wave length:

*fa£«i-l (1)

c h T, Tx

2. For the determination of the temperature T of a substance

whose absorption coefficient A\ (equal to 1 — R\ where R\ is

the reflecting power) for a given wave length X is known and

whose apparent temperature is S\ as given by an optical pyro-

meter using light of the same wave length X :

±lnAx = --- (2)

c T Sx

3. For the determination of the temperature of a black body

from intensity observations at two wave lengths Xi and X2:

&i£-5&^ + !(i-i) (3)

I2 Xi T\X2 Xi/

The value of c is a constant that has been determined as lying

105

106

burgess: wien s spectral equation

between 14200 and 14700 when X is expressed in /x (0.001 mm.)

and temperatures in centigrade absolute.

Equations (1) and (2) are identical in form and may be treated

together. Equation (3) is of only limited interest in temperature

1200

1100

1000

a 900

LI

r-

Ul

5 800

O

E

>-

0. 700

600

O

r-

U)

z

o

I- 500

o

Id

oc

o *00

o

300

200

100

800 1000 1200 14-00 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800

OPTICAL PYROMETER READINGS CENTIGRADE

RED LIGHT X=0.65 fj.

Figure 1. Graphic solution of Wien's spectral equation.

measurements,1 and may be treated graphically by plotting h/h

against T for the wave lengths used.

1Thiirmel, Ann. der Phys., 33: 1139-1160. 1910. Wilsing and Schemer,

Pub. Astiophys. Obs. Potsdam, No. 56, 19.

burgess: wien's spectral equation 107

A graphic solution of (2) suggested by v. Wartenberg2 is to

plot the curves S = constant with values of A as ordinates and

of T-S as abscissae.

In view of the fact that for any given substance the value of

A\, in general, remains constant, it seems to us most convenient

for the estimation of temperatures, of the several possible graph-

ic methods, to plot the curves, A\ = constant, with the values

of the pyrometer reading S\ — 273 as abscissae and the correc-

tion T - S as ordinates or its equal: t — (S\ — 273), where t

is temperature centigrade. Such a plot is shown in figure 1

for a pyrometer using red light of X = 0.65/x and for the value

c = 14500.

The same plot serves also for equation (1) for passing from one

known temperature to another, unknown, when sighting on a

black body. In this case the ratio Ii/I2 is usually given directly

from a known relation of scale reading to intensity for the pyrom-

eter used. When a considerable number of observations is

to be taken, it is worth while to construct such a plot for the wave-

length used.

Pirani3 uses a protractor method for the solution of (2) by

means of which a straight edge laid across the paper gives the

value of T by intersecting the values of S and A.

Pirani also, but it would appear incorrectly, gives a similar

graphical method for passing from the value of ^4.\i to^4\2, or

from the absorption coefficient as measured in terms of one wave

length to that of another. He appears to assume that

— In A\x is equal to - In A\,

c c

which is true, however, only in special cases (i.e., when S\i —

Ste), as for instance the limiting case in which T = S\ (equation

2), or for a black body, and is therefore of no interest in the gen-

eral case for substances possessing values of A differing from unity,

2 Uber optische Temperaturmessungen blanker Korper. Verb. Phys. Ges., 12:

121-127. 1910.

3 Uber zwei Recbentafeln zum Gebrauch bei optischpyrometrischen Messungen.

Verh. Phys. Ges., 12: 1054-1058. 1910.

108 burgess: wien's spectral equation

1 1

since S\ and therefore — ~ — is a variable, depending on the

specific emissive properties of the substance.4 Applied ibr ex-

ample, to the computation of the absorption coefficient of liquid

copper5 for green light, assuming that the value of A for red is

0.15, Pirani's method gives an absurd result, i.e., 0.06 instead of

0.35 for A 55.

It would lessen indefinitely the number of necessary observa-

tions if, in the general case, it were possible to compute the absorp-

tion coefficient for any wave length when that for one wave length

is known. No such mathematical relation exists, however.

Similarly, it is impossible either mathematically or graphically

to find an exact, general relation between the true temperature

of a substance and the apparent temperatures given by observa-

tions with light of two or more wave lengths except in terms of the

absorption coefficients, A\x and A\2, when equation (3) takes the

form

In1-! =5inh+±n-±)+ln^

I2 Xx T\\2 Xi/ Ax,

in which the observed ratio Ii/I* is corrected for the sensibility

of the eye. This equation may be solved graphically, among other

ways, by plotting lines of Axi/Ax2 = constant with values of

I1/I2 or its logarithm as abscissae and of T or t, or their recipro-

cals as ordinates. There are, however, in certain cases, some of

the metals for instance, convenient, simple empirical approxima-

tions connecting apparent temperatures with true, which may be

expressed graphically.6 Although it is impossible graphically

or otherwise, to pass from one value A\t to another Ax2 unless

the energy curve of the substance is known for these regions, yet

it is possible to use equation (2) for the comparison of results of

observers who have used different values of c.

4 Holborn and Henning, Sitzber. Beilin Akad., 12: 311. 1905. G. K. Burgess,

Bull. Bur. Standards, 1: 443-447. 1905.

* G. K. Burgess, Bull. Bur. Standards, 6: 111-119. 1909.

6 Waidner and Burgess, Bull. Soc. Franc, de Phys., 200-204. 1907. Jour, de

Phys., October. 1907.

schaller: composition of nephelite 109

In this case we may write, with Pirani,

a log A = log A' (4)

where a = cc', since c, unlike S or A, is independent of all the

other quantities in equation (2). Equation (4) can be plotted

in several ways, and permits a ready comparison of the otherwise

somewhat contradictory results on the absorption coefficient of

the same substance.

MINERALOGY. — The chemical composition of nephelite. Walde-

mar T. Schaller, Geological Survey.

The chemical composition of nephelite has long been a much

discussed problem among mineralogists. One general theory

endeavors to harmonize the analytical figures with the calculated

values by the assumption of a number of complex formulas. The

very complexity of these formulas is sufficient to cast doubts on

their correctness. Another view is that the groups (Si04) and

(Si308) can replace each other, in an isomorphous sense, so that by

the presence of sufficient (Si308) replacing (Si04), the analytical

figures obtained can readily be accounted for. Foote and Brad-

ley have recently proposed1 still another explanation, namely that

as a substance on crystallizing may form a " solid homogeneous

solution with foreign matter . . . ", the mineral nephelite

consists of a pure compound, probably NaAlSi04, with a varying

amount of dissolved silica. Such an interpretation certainly is

suggestive but before it can be accepted for the case of nephelite

it must be proved that the compound NaAlSi04 can dissolve silica.

Furthermore, the fact that chemically the "dissolved silica"

acts in an entirely different way from any known modification of

silica must be satisfactorily accounted for.

I believe that the composition of nephelite can be readily ex-

plained without assuming complex formulas and without calling

on the hypothesis of "dissolved silica." The mineral albite has

the formula AlNaSi308 and the corresponding isomorphous min-

eral anorthite has the formula AlCa±Si04. The soda anorthite,

1 Foote, H. W., and Bradley, W. M.: On solid solution in minerals with special

reference to nephelite. Araer. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 31: 25. 1911.

110

schaller: composition of nephelite

AlNaSi04, has been prepared artificially, and Washington and

Wright have assumed2 its presence to the extent of 5.58 per cent

in a feldspar (anemousite) consisting essentially of albite and

anorthite in isomorphous mixture.

We have, in the feldspars just named, two types of compounds,

A1R/Si04 and A.lR'Si308, and their isomorphous relation, as earlier

developed by Clarke (Bull. 125, U. S. Geol. Survey) lead to a

simple interpretation of the composition of nephelite. These

compounds occur in several modifications, which are isomorphous.

This relation can be best shown schematically.

Modifications of Compounds AlR'Si04 and AlR'Si3Os

The mineral nephelite is then an isomorphous mixture of the

compounds crystallizing in the hexagonal modification, which

are:

AlNaSi04 — essential component

AlKSi04 — kaliophilite

AlNaSi3Os — best known in its triclinic form as albite.

To show that the explanation offered is in agreement with the

analyses of nephelite it will suffice to quote two analyses, the first

2 Washington, H. S., and Wright, F. E.: A feldspar from Linosa and the exist-

ence of soda anorthite (Carnegieite). Amer. Jour. Sci., 29: 52. 1910.

schaller: composition of nephelite

111

one by Foote and Bradley and the second one by Morozewicz

(No. V — reference given in paper of Foote and Bradley). These

have been chosen as they are among the best analyses and show

a minimum amount of other bases such as CaO, Fe203, etc.

The nephelite analyzed by Foote and Bradley consists, as cal-

culated from their ratios, of the following compounds in the pro-

portions indicated.

Composition of nephelite (Foote and Bradley)

60 parts or 19.0 per cent of KAlSi04

245 parts or 70.4 per cent of NaAlSi04

21 parts or 10.6 per cent of XaA]Si308.

The comparison of the analysis with the figures calculated from

the above composition is very close, as is shown below.

Comparison of Analysis with Calculated Values

Analyses No. V of Morozewicz yields the following composition:

Composition of nephelite (No. V Morozewicz)

62 parts or 19.7 per cent of KAlSi04

259 parts or 74.7 per cent of NaAlSiO-4

11 parts or 5.6 per cent of NaAlSisOs.

As in the other case, the comparison of the analysis with the

values calculated from the above composition, shows a very close

agreement.

112

schaller: alunite-beudantite group

Comparison of Analysis with Calculated Values

The figures prove, I believe, that the composition of the min-

eral nephelite can be solved by the explanation herein offered

which rests primarily on the isomorphous relation of (Si04) and

(Si3Os).

The remarkable fact that the compound KAlSi04 is always

present in nephelite to the extent of about 20 per cent has as yet

not received any adequate explanation.

MINERALOGY. — The alunite — beudantite group. Waldemar

T. Schaller, Geological Survey. To appear in the American

Journal of Science.

A consideration of the various possible members of the alunite-

beudantite group has led to some interesting results for fuller

description of which reference must be made to the complete

paper. Hamlinite is doubtless identical with goyazite; utahite,

cyprusite, raimondite, pastreite, carphosiderite and apatelite

are probably all the same mineral with the formula H20.3Fe203.

4S03.6H20; and the probable compositions of pharmacosiderite

and harttite are suggested. All of the minerals of these groups

have very similar crystallographical and optical properties.

Their formulas may be so written as to clearly bring out their

close chemical relationship. The minerals may be placed into three

sub-groups which are: sulphates, phosphates, and sulphate-

phosphates respectively; the general formula for each of these sub-

schallee: purpurite and heterosite 113

groups being as follows: Sulphates [R'" (OH)2]6.R".[S04]2. [S04]2j

Phosphates, [R'" (OH)2]6.R". [HP0412. [R"(P04)2] and Phos-

phate-sulphates [R'"(OH)2]6.R". [S04]2.[R"(P04)2]. In the sul-

phate sub-group, R'2 replaces R" in most cases or else two uni-

valent alkali metals, such as (K2) may be considered equivalent

to R". Of the acid radicles the bivalent group =[S04]2 is consid-

ered as isomorphous with the bivalent group = [HP04].

MINERALOGY. — The relations of purpurite and heterosite.

Waldemar T. Schaller. To appear in Bulletin 490, U.

S. Geological Survey.

The mineral purpurite, a hydrous manganic ferric phosphate,

(Mn, Fe)203.P205.H20, was first found in North Carolina, by

L. C. Graton, and a description of it was published1 in 1905.

Since the original discovery the same mineral has been found at

other localities2 (South Dakota, Connecticut). Lacroix,3 to whom

some of the original purpurite from North Carolina was sent, has

stated that purpurite is identical with heterosite. In view of this

I propose that the name heterosite be restricted to the ferric

phosphate and the name purpurite to the manganic phosphate.

Heterosite predominates (76 per cent) in the material from South

Dakota while purpurite predominates (65 per cent) in that from

North Carolina. More accurately the North Carolina material

should be called iron (or ferric) purpurite and that from South

Dakota and from France, manganese (or manganic) heterosite.

In the original paper describing purpurite the suggestion was

made that the pure end members could be called ferripurpurite

and manganipurpurite. Since, however, the identity of the min-

eral with the French heterosite has been advocated by Lacroix,

the names ferripurpurite and manganipurpurite should be replaced

by the older names heterosite and purpurite respectively.

1 Graton, L. C, and Schaller, W. T.: Purpurite, a new mineral. Am. Jour.

Sci., 4th ser., 20: 146. 1905.

2 Schaller, W.T.: Mineralogical Notes, — 1. Purpurite from two new localities.

Am. Jour. Sci., 24: 1.52. 1907.

3 Lacroix, A.: Mineralogie de la France, 4: 469. 1910.

114 schaller: barbierite

MINERALOGY. — Note on barbierite, monoclinic soda feldspar.

Waldemar T. Schaller To appear in a bulletin, "Miner-

alogical notes, Series II " of the U. S. Geological Survey.

In a recent paper1 1 proposed the name barbierite for the mono-

clinic soda feldspar isomorphous with orthoclase. A feldspar

from Kragero, Norway, analyzed by Barbier and Prost2- is nearly

pure barbierite, as only 1.15 per cent K20 was found.

Professor Barbier was kind enough to send me some slides of

the feldspar from Kragero which, according to his analysis,

consists essentially of the soda compound. One of the slides, a

basal section giving parallel extinction and appearing uniform,

was uncovered and the feldspar washed free from Canada balsam.

The mineral was then immersed in an oil with refractive index

of 1.530 and it was seen that the index of the mineral was con-

siderably lower than that of the oil. If the orientation of the

mineral is the same as that of orthoclase then a basal section would

yield values for a and for y. As these were both found to be de-

cidedly lower than 1.530, the section cannot be albite3. Unfor-

tunately the very small section was accidentally lost before its

soda content could be verified microchemically. The existence

of a monoclinic form of the compound Al203.Na20.6Si02, differ-

ent from albite, is therefore established.

PETROLOGY. — Note on some albitite dikes in Nevada. Fred-

erick Leslie Ransome, Geological Survey.

The dikes here described occur in the southeast corner of Hum-

boldt County, about thirty miles east-southeast of Lovelock, in

that part of the Pahute Range that is locally known as the Still-

water, Silver, or Table Mountain, Range. They are associated

with the nickel deposits of Cottonwood Canyon1 and are intrusive

as rather short irregular bodies into andesite and diorite.

'Amer. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 30: 358. 1910.

2 Bull. Soc. China., Ill, p. 894. 1908.

3 For albite, a = 1.529, y= 1.539.

' Ransome, F. L.: Notes on some mining districts in Humboldt County,

Nevada. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 414, pp. 55-58. 1909.

ransome: albitite dikes 115

The rock is of almost snowy whiteness and consists chiefly of

striated feldspar with minute, dark, disseminated crystals whose

form and luster as seen under a hand lens are at once suggestive

of anatase or rutile. The general texture of the rock is equi-

granular, the average diameter of the grains being 5 mm. or less.

In thin section under the microscope the rock appears as essen-

tially an aggregate of subhedral and much-twinned plagioclase.

Some of the angular spaces between the feldspar are filled with

clear calcite, others with a fine-grained, foliated aggregate con-

sisting chiefly of kaolinite, and still others with quartz.

The feldspar, which is generally fresh, has a refractive index

of about 1.54, a birefringence equal to or lower than the quartz

in the same section, an extinction angle on (001) of about 4° and

an observed maximum extinction in the zone normal to (010) of

19°. It thus belongs at the albite end of the plagioclase series

although it contains a small proportion of the anorthite molecule.

The twinning lamellae according to the albite and pericline laws,

are generally thin, irregular and discontinuous, so that some of

the crystals as seen in thin section have almost the plaid-like

appearance of microcline. Carlsbad twins are rare and the crys-

tals are not noticeably zoned.

The calcite areas as seen under the microscope are bounded in

part by the crystallographic outlines of the albite and in part pene-

trate the contiguous fresh feldspar in a manner indicative of re-

placement. Without much doubt the calcite is secondary al-

though it does not appear to have been formed by the local de-

composition of feldspar but rather to have been introduced by

solutions into miarolitic cavities which to some extent have been

enlarged by metasomatism. The similarly interstitial kaolinite

likewise shows no evidence of being a product of decomposition

in situ and the adjacent feldspar is not kaolinized. The kaolinite

also may have been carried into small cavities by infiltration.

Finally, the quartz, which is not a conspicuous constituent and

is not distinguishable at a glance from such sections of albite

as show no twinning, may in part be of secondar}^ introduction;

for some of it displays the shadowy extinction and the suggestion

of plumose structure that are specially characteristic of quartz

deposited in veins.

116 ransome: albitite dikes

The mineral noted as occurring in small glittering specks does

not give any clear indication of its crystal form in thin section;

but particles obtained by crushing the rock and concentrating the

powder by panning, when examined under the microscope, show

that the mineral has at least one perfect cleavage, that its luster

is metallic-adamantine and that it crystallizes for the most part

in acute, distorted, tetragonal pyramids, apparently the unit

form, with strong transverse striations. A few, more regular

forms were also observed in which the striations are limited to the

equatorial zone of the crystal. The color by transmitted light

is yellow to chestnut brown, with notable absorption in directions

transverse to the prism axis. The index of refraction is high and

the birefringence strong. Particles tested chemically by Mr. W.

T. Schaller gave a strong reaction for titanium, which, with such

crystallographic and optical data as have been recorded leaves

little doubt of the identity of the mineral as anatase The crys-

tals, none of which is over a millimeter in length, occur embedded

in all of the other constituents of the rock save apatite and zircon,

which are the other accessory minerals present With the apatite,

moreover, it appears to have projected into the cavities now occu-

pied by calcite.

Anatase is not a common rock constituent, and, where present,

has generally been considered as a product of alteration. In these

dikes, however, the mineral is apparently original for alt ho

many of the crystals are enclosed in calcite others are embedded

in fresh albite and in quartz.

A chemical analysis of a specimen of rock from one of the dikes

near the nickel mine in Cottonwood Canyon is as follows:

Chemical analysis of (libit ih

George Steiger, analyst

Si02 61.71 H20- 0 51

A1203 16.63 H20+ 0.81

Fe.,0,\ Q ^ Ti02 0.79

FeO / ' Zr02 0.04

MgO none Ca02 4.05

CaO 5.94 P.,Os 0.15

Na20 8.52 •

K,0 0.16 99.71

ransome: albitite dikes 117

The mineralogical composition as calculated from this analysis

in accord with the microscopical examination, the small quantity

of potash being included in the albite, is as follows:

Albite (approx. Abg6 Ani) 76 5

Calcite 9.2

Quartz ." 8.8

Kaolinite ' 3.5

Anatase 0.8

Apatite 0.4

Water 0.8

100.0

The calculation of the norm in order to find the place of the

rock in the American quantitative system presents some difficul-

ties, owing to the presence of the calcite. If the calcite were

calculated as such it would place the rock with beerbachose in

the dosalane class, where it evidently does not belong. If the

carbon dioxide be disregarded and the analysis recalculated to 100,

the derived norm shows an excess of calcium in the form of over

9 per cent of calcium metasilicate. In other words there is not

enough alumina to combine with all of the alkalies and lime as

feldspar. The norm on this basis falls in the unnamed persodic

subrang of the alkalicalcic rang of the canadare order of the per-

salane class. On the other hand if both the carbon dioxide and

the calcium oxide be rejected, the analysis recalculated to 100, and

the norm then computed, the rock falls into the subrang tuolum-

nose in company with the somewhat similar soda-syenite porphyry

of Tuolumne County, California, described by Turner2 and the

soda syenite or albite diorite3 of Douglas Island, Alaska. This

appears to be its natural as.sociation and the tentative calculation

of the three norms, by showing that the lime is in excess of the

quantity that can be combined with the available alumina to

form feldspar, indicates either that the calcite is an original mineral

(which the microscope disproves) or that the calcite has been

* Turner, H. W.: Further contributions to the geology of the Sierra Nevada,

17th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, Part I, p. 665. 1896.

3 Spencer, A. C: The Juneau gold belt, Alaska. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey

Xo. 287, pp. 99-105. 1906.

118 safford: genus annona

introduced into the rock and is not an ordinary decomposition

product.

The known representatives of -the subrang tuolumnose are

not numerous, there being only three listed in Washington's

tables4 of which one, the albite diorite of Douglas Island, is con-

siderably altered. This fact and the presence of anatase in the

Nevada rock are thought to warrant the publication of this brief

petrographic note.

BOTANY- —The genus Annona: the derivation of its name and itb

taxonomic subdivisions. W. E. Safford, Bureau of Plant

Industry.

The genus Annona, which includes the custard apple {Annona

reticulata) and the soursop (Annona muricata), was described by

Plumier (1703) under the name of Guanabanus, which he adopted

from guanabano, the vernacular name of one of the species on the

island of Santo Domingo, published by Oviedo in his account of

the fruit trees of the New World (1535).

Linnaeus was at first inclined to accept as the name of this

genus Anona, from the vernacular name anon, or hanon, applied

to another species, and used by various early authors; but in his

Hortus Cliffortianus (1737) he rejects both Guanabanus and

Anona, as barbarous words, and substitutes for them the classic

Latin Annona. This name, signifying "the year's harvest"

of fruit, wine, etc., he thought particularly applicable, on account

of the edible fruit of the Annona, which is relished by the natives

of the countries where it grows.1 This was in accordance with the

principal of rejecting barbarous names, which he afterwards de-

fended in his Philosophic Boianique (1788)2.

4 Washington, H. S.: Chemical analyses of igneous rocks. Profess. Paper,

U. S. Geol. Survey No. 14, p. 199. 1903.

1 "Guanabanus et Anona sunt vocabula barbara, ut tamen servetur sonus An-

nonam dico obfructum incolis gratum." — Linnseus, Hort. Cliff. 222. 1737.

2 "Nous adoptons comme nouveaux nes des noms Barbares, auxquels nous avions

donne l'exclusion, lorsque nous rendons nouveaux des noms a exclure, en les for-

mant du Grec ou du Latin .... Corossol, Annona (Anona des Americains),

de la moisson."— Linnaeus, Phil. Bot. 208. 1788.

safford: genus annona 119

Annona then, and not Anona, must be the name used for the

genus. It was published in the first edition of the Species Plan-

tarum (1753), from which modern binomial nomenclature takes

its origin; and it is equivalent to Plunder's genus Guanabanus,

as stated by Linnaeus in his Genera Plantarum (1754). He

changes the name to Annona, and typifies the genus by the species

Annona muricata, Plunder's " Guanabanus fructu e viride lutes-

cente molliter aculeato."3

The name of the family must also preserve its original form

Annonaceae, as published by Richard in 1808; not "Anonaceae,"

as published by Dunal in 1817, and by DeCandolle in 181 8.4

The genus is naturally divided into several sections owing to the

diversity in the form of the flowers. The subdivisions generally

accepted heretofore have been: Guanabani (Plunder), including

Annona muricata and its allies; Attce (Martius), including Annona

squamosa and its allies; and Anonellce (Baillon), based upon

Annona globiflora, a dwarf shrubby plant of eastern Mexico.

The discovery of new species with characters quite distinct

from any of those included in the above sections has made an addi-

tional subdivision necessary, based upon Annona macroprophyllata

the most striking peculiarity of which is the presence of broad

persistent leaf-like bracts at the base of the peduncle. In con-

forming with modern botanical usage the author proposes the

following names for the subdivisions of the genus.

Section I. Euannona (Type, Annona muricata). — In this

section the flowers have a corolla composed of 6 broadly ovate

or orbicular concave petals in two series, the 3 outer ones thick

and leathery and more or less cordate at the base, the 3 inner ones

somewhat smaller and thinner but conspicuous. Here are placed

Annona muricata, the soursop, which is the type of the genus

Annona; Annona montana, the wild soursop of the West Indies;

Annona glabra, the alligator apple of mangrove swamps; Annona

purpurea, the soncoya of southern Mexico and Central America;

and Annona uncinata, an undescribed species from the tierra

caliente of Mexico.

'Linnaeus Sp. PI. 536. 1753— Gen. PI. 241. 1754.

4 Richard, Demonstr. Bot. ou Analyse du Fruit, 17. 1808.

120 safford: genus annona

Section II. Atta (Type Annona squamosa). — In this section

the corolla is composed of 3 narrow, oblong or lanceolate petals,

never opening to the base, or if there are 6 petals the inner ones

are reduced to small scales. The peduncles are usually nodding

or reflexed and are devoid of leaf-like bracts. Here are placed

Annona cherimolia and the closely allied Annona longiflora, both

of which have velvety leaves and delicious fruit called chirimoya;

Annona squamosa, the sugar apple, atta, or pomme cannelle;

Annona reticulata, the common custard apple, or "bullock's

heart;" and Annona scleroderma, a new custard apple from Guate-

mala.

Section III. llama (Type, Annona macropi ophyllata) . — In

this section the peduncles are remarkable for a pair of orbicular

or oval persistent leaf-like bracts at their base. The corolla is

composed of 3 oblong or linear petals swollen at the base and open-

ing widely when the flower is mature. Here are placed Annona

macroprophyllata and the closely allied Annona diver sifolia, a

new species from Colima. The name llama proposed by the

writer for this section is a vernacular name of Aztec origin applied

to the fruit of the latter species at Colima.

Section IV. Annonella (Type, Annona globiflora). — In this

section are included dwarf shrubby species, with very small

3-petaled flowers and small net-veined leaves resembling those

of certain species of Rollinia rather than the typical feather-

veined leaves of the genus Annona. Here are placed Annona

globiflora of eastern Mexico, the peculiar appearance and habit

of which suggests to Baillon the creation of a separate section of

the genus to include it, and Annona palmeri, a closely allied new

species from the tierra caliente of western Mexico. In both

of these species the fruit is about the size of a small peach, with

little pulp surrounding the comparatively large yellowish Rollinia-

like seeds.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to forward

such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should be trans-

mitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate. The

abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this

issue.

ELECTRICITY. — Copper wire tables. Circular Bureau of Standards

No. 32. 1911.

This circular was prepared at the request of the Standards Committee

of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. In its preparation

the Bureau has had the cooperation of that Committee and the tables

have been adopted as official by the Institute.

The circular discusses the results of work recently completed at the

Bureau on the temperature coefficient and the conductivity of copper,

as well as previous standard values, and gives a history of wire gages,

showing that the trend of practice is toward expressing diameter directly

in decimal fractions of an inch.

There are fifteen tables including complete reference tables for stand-

ard annealed copper, American Wire Gage, both in English and in metric

units; and similar abbreviated "working tables." There are also tables

for bare concentric cables of standard annealed copper and for hard-

drawn aluminum wire. The tables also include comparisons of wire

gages, and tables of temperature reductions, with complete explanations.

Four appendixes give additional information — the first on the units

used in the expression of resistivity; the second on the calculation of the

"resistivity-temperature constant" and on the expression of the tem-

perature coefficient; the third on the density of copper; and the fourth

on the calculation of the resistance and mass per unit length of cables.

J. H. Dellinger.

AGRICULTURAL PHYSICS.— Studies in soil physics. E. E. Free.

Plant World, 14: Nos. 2, 3, 5, 7 and 8. 1911.

These five articles present briefly and in a non-technical way the

author's point of view toward certain of the more salient points of soil

121

122 abstracts: physics and chemistry

physics. Conceptions useful to the plant physiologist or ecologist are

especially emphasized. The titles and main conclusions of the individ-

ual papers are as follows : ( 1 ) The physical condition of soils. — The range

of physical conditions possible to a soil is determined by its ultimate

physical nature or character, that is by the nature, size, and number

of the particles of which it is composed. The physical condition, within

this fixed range, is controlled by the moisture content by virtue of the

surface tension on the water films between the soil grains. (2) Move-

ments of soil water. — The capillary actions in the soil are controlled by the

forces of surface tension on the water films. Permeability is a matter

of the size of the individual interspaces of the soil, not of their total

amount. (3) Soil ivater and the plant. — A very important but much

neglected factor in the movement of water from soil to plant and through

the plant is the evaporating power of the air. (4) Physical consta?its

of the soil. — A critical examination of the various measurements which

have been proposed as characteristic soil constants shows that all are

in some degree unsatisfactory. The mechanical analysis in particular,

is much less adequate than is usually believed. It is probable that

another and better constant can be developed out of the water equiva-

lent and the critical moisture content. (5) Soil temperatures. — -The

main effect of the soil character upon its temperature is due to its water

capacity. The wetter soil warms and cools more slowly. E. E. F.

ANALYTIC CHEMISTRY. — The determination of sugars in grain

and cattlefoods. A. Hugh Bryan, A. Given and M. N. Straughn.

Circular 71, Bureau of Chemistry.

The determination of sugars in vegetable materials, either fresh or

dried, having large quantities of starch, gums, fiber, etc., presents many

difficulties. Methods for such determinations are few and in most

cases are not explicit.

Extraction with hot water dissolves the sugars but also gelatinizes

the starch and therefore produces changes in the sugar content, while

cold water extraction causes the enzymes if present to become active

and hence to change the sugar content during extraction. To inhibit

the enzyme action alkalies are often added and the extraction carried

on in the cold. A comparison of a method based on this procedure

and of a method of extraction using 50 per cent alcohol has been made

and as a result it is shown that with some substances the two methods

give concordant results but the alkaline water extraction method is

abstracts: chemistry 123

open to many chances of error, viz., acidity of sample, fineness of sample

and time of digestion, changes in sugar content after neutralizing the

alkalinity, etc. These are separately treated.

The method proposed for extraction with the least chances of error is:

Boil 12 grams of the finely ground material in a 300 cc. flask with 150

cc. of 50 per cent alcohol neutral in reaction for one hour, using a reflux

condenser. Complete the volume to 300 cc, after cooling, with 95 per

cent alcohol. Transfer 200 cc. to a beaker with a pipette and evaporate

on a steam bath to 20 or 30 cc. Transfer this to a 100 cc. flask with water,

clarify with a solution of neutral lead acetate, make to volume and

filter. Remove the excess of lead, which should be very small, with

anhydrous sodium carbonate, filter and determine the reducing sugars

in an aliquot portion by one of the usual methods. Invert another por-

tion with acid or invertase for the determination of total sugars.

For accurate work the volume occupied by the original substance

must be taken into account. An average for a number of determina-

tions shows that 12 grams of such material occupy about 12 cc. and

hence the factor of 0.97 must be applied to the results. It is not well to

weigh the precipitated cuprous oxide as such as this is often contami-

nated with nitrogenous bodies and also mineral matter, but the copper

should be determined in it by some such method as Low's. Results

are best reported as "Reducing sugars calculated as invert sugar" or

"Reducing sugars calculated as dextrose" and "Total sugars by acid

inversion calculated as dextrose (or invert sugar, as the case may be)"

or "Total sugars by invertase calculated as dextrose (or invert sugar,

as the case may be)."

If sucrose is calculated, it should bear some such wording as "Sucrose

calculated from increase of sugars by acid inversion" or "Sucrose cal-

culated from increase of sugars by invertase inversion." A. H. B.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Translocation of plant food and

elaboration of plant material in wheat seedlings. J. A. LeClerc

and J. F. Breazeale. Bulletin Bureau of Chemistry No. 138.

1911.

"Wheat was sprinkled upon thin perforated discs of aluminum and

placed in pans of water to sprout. Samples of 100 to 200 were with-

drawn at regular intervals, the plumule and radicle separated from the

rest of the seed and analyses made of both portions. In this way the

movement of the organic and inorganic salts from the bran and endo-

124 abstracts: chemistry

sperm into the plantlet was determined. The most noticeable feature

of this movement was the action of the potassium. When the seedling

was only two days old and weighed only about 6 per cent as much as the

whole seed, it had absorbed about 50 per cent of the potash of the orig-

inal seed as compared with 25 per cent of the nitrogen and 17 per cent

of the phosphoric acid. Practically all of the salts were found to be

absorbed at the end of the seventeenth day. Evidently there is no

exchange of fat from the bran and endosperm into the plantlet. The

amount of sugar both in the plantlet and in the residual seed reaches

a maximum at about the seventh day and decreases rapidly from that

time until the seventeenth day when the experiments were discontinued.

The pentosans increased steadily throughout this period.

The effect of an outside application of plant food was tried with little

effect. The plants were grown in nutrient solutions containing single

salts and salts in combination but no appreciable difference could be

detected in the movement of the plant foods from the endosperm and

bran into the embryo. J. A. B.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY:— Methoxyl in soil organic matter.

E. C. Shorey and E. C. Lathrop. Journal of the American Chem-

ical Society, 33: 75-78. 1911.

Methoxyl was found (by the Zeisel method) in small amounts in all

but 2 of 10 soils widely varying in type and in character of organic

matter. Its quantity bore no constant relation to, and is perhaps an

unimportant part of the total organic matter of, the soil. It is probably

derived from the decay of vegetable matter and its variation in soils of

the same type indicates some fundamental difference in the chemical,

physical, or biological factors that decide in what way a complex organic

compound shall break down or decay when added to a soil. E. C. L.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Lawn soils. Oswald Schreiner

and J. S. Skinner. Bulletin Bureau of Soils, No. 75. 1911.

In this bulletin is presented the character of soils in respect to their

mineral and organic materials, as well as the kind and amounts of dif-

ferent sized soil particles which determine the suitability of soils for

lawn-making. The texture of soils and the relation of surface soil to

subsoil receive consideration and the difference is pointed out between

land devoted to lawn culture and to a farm crop. The movement of

soil moisture, its dependence on texture, and its importance to the main-

abstracts: chemistry 125

tenance of a good greensward are explained. The presence of harmful

compounds in certain soils is considered, as is also the influence of trees

on lawns.

The best methods of building up grounds artificially by the hauling

in of suitable material, both for subsoil fillings and for surface layering,

are fully described, a list of soil types adapted to grass growing being

given for this purpose.

While the bulletin is mainly for the purpose of aiding in the improve-

ment of large tracts, the individual owner of a small plot in town or

city has also been kept in mind. J. S. S.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Soil organic matter as material

for biochemical investigation. Oswald Schreiner and Edmund

C. Shorey. Journal of the Franklin Institute, 171: 295. 1911.

Attention is called to the complexity of the organic matter of soils and

the fruitful field of research that it offers for biochemical investigation.

The importance of the chemical character of the organic matter of the

soil is considered under four heads : its effect on crops ; its effect on the

bacteria and fungi of the soil; its influence on the physical properties of

the soil; and its relation chemically to the mineral ingredients of the

soil. B\ the application of the biochemical methods there have been

isolated in this research twenty definite organic compounds thus far from

that portion of soil organic matter included in the term humus. A

chart shows the classification of these compounds, as well as methods

of separation. The compounds comprise paraffin hydrocarbons, acids

alcohols, esters, carbohydrates, hexone bases, pyrimidine derivatives

and purine bases. M. X. Sullivan.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Studies in soil oxidation. 0.

Schreiner, M. X. Sullivan, and F. R. Reid. Bulletin Bureau

of Soils, No. 73. 1910.

The fact that roots possess the power of reduction is shown by the

precipitation of tellurium and selenium from sodium tellurite and selen-

ite, respectively. The oxidative power of the roots is shown by means

of organic compounds, which, on oxidation, yield dyes that either color

the solution or are deposited on the root surface. These two opposite

properties may occur separately or concurrently, depending upon the

reaction of the medium. Oxidation within the soil itself is demonstrated

by the same reagents as those showing oxidation by the roots. The

126 abstracts: chemistry

reagent most successfully used in. the case of soil is aloin, a solution of

which in water is changed from yellow to claret red by the oxidation.

The depth of color can be measured and indicates the extent of the oxi-

dation .

This oxidation appears to be mainly nonenzymotic, the result of inter-

action between inorganic constituents and certain types of organic

matter. It may also be brought about by organic matter in a state of

autoxidation and by inorganic oxygen carriers, such as manganese and

iron. Both processes activate oxygen.

The oxidation in soils was increased by the addition of salts of mangan-

ese, iron, aluminum, calcium, and magnesium, especially in the presence

of simple hydroxyacids, such as citric, tartaric, malic, glycolic, and their

salts. The best oxidation was obtained by the addition of manganese,

and the stimulating action of manganese used as a fertilizer is attributed

to its oxidizing power; i.e., to its amelioration of soil conditions rather

than its function as a plant nutrient. Fertilizer salts augment the oxidiz -

ing power of roots, and the fertilized soil has an increased oxidizing power

after cropping. The fertilizer salts alone sometimes increase, sometimes

decrease, the oxidative functions of the soil, thus showing that the fer-

tilizer salts are effecting changes directly or indirectly in the soil con-

stituents more particularly in the organic matter. Some type;s of organic

matter inhibit oxidation but in the main the oxidative power is augmented

by a plentiful supply of organic matter, the nature of which in the soil

is the limiting factor of oxidation. Excessive oxidation is harmful to

vegetation.

Oxidation, in soil is parallel to oxidation in plants and animals. Soils

oxidize substances in a manner analogous to an oxidase, and the increase

noticed by the addition, of certain hydroxyacids is closely paralleled by

the recently discovered activating action of salts of tartaric and citric

acids on the oxidative action of manganese acetate. This analogy

between the oxidative power of a soil and the action of an oxidase is

especially significant in that an oxidizing enzyme, laccase, of alfalfa,

has been found to be more simple in composition than formerly supposed

and to consist of neutral salts, mainly calcium, of glycolic, mesoxalic,

malic, and citric, and probably glyoxylic acid. It is well known that

the oxidase whatever may be their nature, play an important part in

the proper functioning of plants, and that with changes in the oxidizing

ability are associated changes in plant condition. Similarly, oxidative

power of the soil is a symptom of soil condition.

Whatever decreases the oxidation in soils tends also to bring about

abstracts: chemistry 127

the conditions which decrease growth, and the factors which favor oxi-

dation are the factors which favor soil productivity.

O.S.,M.X. S.,andF. R. R.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Enzymotic activities in soils. Os-

wald Schreixer and M. X. Sullivan. Science, 33:339, 1911.

Within the bodies of micro-organisms in plant roots and plant debris*

in worms and animalcules, enzymes of various kinds must exist. Evi-

dence of various enzymotic activities, proteolytic, amylolytic, inverting,

cytolytic, lipolytic, etc., may be seen in many soils. Starches, sugars,

cellulose, fat, and protein are speedily changed or disappear, and in

many cases especially of proteins, some of the products of digestion may

be found in the soil. As yet no satisfactory means have been obtained

of extracting enzymes from soil to any great extent, though in those

recently cropped there is some slight evidence of the presence of enzyme-

like substances in the glycerine extract of the soil. M. X. S.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— The chemical nature of soil or-

ganic matter. Oswald Schreiner and Edmund C. Shorey. Bul-

letin Bureau of Soils, No. 74. 1910.

This bulletin discusses the chemical nature of the organic compounds

in the soil, and methods are described by which a number of organic

compounds have been isolated from soils. These compounds, 16 in

number, are described, the manner in which they have been identified

pointed out, the possible sources of the compounds suggested, and their

relation to other compounds stated. They belong to eight classes of

chemical compounds, some containing carbon and hydrogen only, some

containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and some containing carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Paraffin hydrocarbons, acids, alcohol

esters, carbohydrates, hexone bases, pyrimidine derivatives, and purine

bases are represented. The list of isolated and identified compounds com-

prises: Hentriacontane, C3iH64; monohydroxystearic acid, Ci8H3603;

paraffinic acid, C24H48O2; lignoceric acid, C24H48O2; phytosterol, C26

H44O.H2O; pentosan, C5H804; histidine, C6H902N3; arginine, CsHi402N4;

cytosine, C4H50N3.H20; xanthine, C5H4O2N4; hypoxanthine,C5H40N4;

fatty glycerides and several resin acids and esters.

This work shows that the complexity of the organic matter of soils

is not so great but that the chemical nature of all of the organic matter

of soils can be determined by modern methods. E. C. S.

L28 abstracts: chemistry

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— The oxidative and catalytic poivers

of soils and subsoils. M. X. Sullivan and F. R. Reid. Science,

33: 339. 1911.

Surface soils have the power to oxidize easily oxidizable substances

such as aloin, guaiac, pyrogallol, hydroquinone, etc. When ten grams

of soil are shaken with 500 cc. of a 0.1 per cent water solution of aloin,

the yellow color of the aloin is changed to cherry red. On allowing the

soil to settle, the solution can be filtered and the depth of color deter-

mined in the colorimeter. Broadly speaking, the oxidative power of

the soil is symptomatic of a good soil condition, since soils of good pro-

ductivity have in general good oxidizing power, while soils of poor pro-

ductivity have, as a rule, poor oxidizing power. Subsoils have little,

if any, action on aloin, though occasionally the oxidizing power of the

subsoil may be as great or greater than the corresponding surface soil.

The catalytic power of the soil or its capacity for decomposing hydrogen

peroxide with the liberation of free oxygen is roughly parallel to the oxi-

dative power, in that soils known to be of good productivity have strong

catalytic power, while poor soils have weak catalytic power. The oxi-

dative and catalytic powers of the soil are analogous to these powers

in plants and animals and are modified in much the same way. M. X. S.

BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. — Biological analogies in soil oxidation.

Oswald Schreiner and M. X. Sullivan. Proceedings of the

American Society of Biological Chemists, 2: 11. 1911. Journal

of Biological Chemistry, 9: XVII. 1911.

The soil is the seat of many biochemical activities that directly or

indirectly affect fertility. Many of the processes in the soil are analo-

gous to those occurring in plants and animals. Soils may show fatigue

under a one-crop system and under unsanitary conditions may contain

material which is retardativeof plant growth. Many other compounds,

some of which are known to be products of proteolytic digestion, occur

in soils. The soil per se has oxidizing and catalyzing powers which in

cropped soils are due partly to activities of plant roots, but in air-dried

soils are due mainly to non-enzymotic soil constituents, inorganic and

organic, working separately, conjointly or in reinforcing and activating

combinations. The recently discovered activating action of salts or

organic hydroxyacids and the discovery that alfalfa laccase is a mixture

of salts of organic hydroxyacids have a close counterpart in soil oxida-

tion studies. O. S. and M. X. S.

abstracts: geology 129

BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY— Symptoms shown by plants under

the influence of different toxic compounds. Oswald Schreiner.

Proceedings of the American Society of Biological Chemists, 2 :

7. 1911. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 9: XIII. 1911.

Observations made in connection with the effects of different organic

substances in modifying the growth of wheat seedlings has shown that

toxic substances have a specific effect on certain plant functions. For

instance, cumarin-affected plants have characteristic stunted tips and

broad, distorted leaves. Vanillin strongly inhibits root growth. Qui-

none causes a tall and slender growth, with thin, narrow leaves, in strong

contrast to the cumarin-affected plants. These various effects of toxic

compounds are overcome by entirely different fertilizer combinations, the

cumarin effect by phosphates, the vanillin effect by nitrates, the quinone

effects by potassium salts. The absorption of salts while the plants are

under the influence of these toxic compounds is likewise different, thus

showing that the effect of the poisons is deep-seated, influencing the

entire metabolism of the plants. The changes brought about by etheri-

zation and the influence of certain gases in causing the so-called sleep-

ing of carnations and other flowers belong to this class of phenomena.

Previous work with plants and toxic compounds has usually been

made without the recognition that plants are affected in a markedly

different manner by different poisons. The plant, however, like the

animal, shows characteristic symptoms of specific poisons and there is

a pharmacology of plants as well as of animals.

That organic substances can cause changes in plant characteristics

leads to the suggestion that harmful organic substances in the soil or

in the plant may be the cause of some now little understood plant dis-

eases. M. X. Sullivan.

GEOLOGY. — The movement of soil material by wind. E. E. Free.

With a Bibliography of eolian geology. S. C. Stuntz and E. E.

Free. Bulletin Bureau of Soils, No. 68. Pp. 272. 1911.

This bulletin reviews the geologic actions of the wind with especial

reference to its share in the moving of soil materials and in the making

and mixing of soils. The phenomena of sand dunes, dust storms, eolian

deposits (loess, etc.), blown volcanic dust, etc., are summarized and

excessive soil blowing is briefly discussed. The main conclusion is that

the w ind is of considerable importance as an agent of soil formation and

change, in humid as well as in arid regions. The literature of eolian

geology is critically summarized and the bibliography of over 2000

titles is believed to be fairly complete. S. C. S. and E. E. F.

130 abstracts: geology

GEOLOGY. — The geology and mineral resources of the Nizina District,

Alaska. F. H. Moffit and S. R. Capps. Bulletin U. S. Geological

Survey, No. 448. Pp. 108, with maps, sections, and views. 1911.

The Nizina district embraces an area of about 300 square miles in the

Chitina River valley, on the southeast side of the Wrangell Mountains.

The geologic section, from the base up, comprises (1) the Nikolai green-

stone, not less than 4000 feet thick, made up of lava flows, (2) the Chiti-

stone limestone, 3000 feet thick, (3) the McCarthy shale, at least 2500

feet thick, and (4) the Kennicott formation, consisting of over 7500

feet of conglomerate, shale, and thin limestone. The Chitistone lime-

stone and the conformably overlying McCarthy shale are Upper Triassic.

They rest conformably on the Nikolai greenstone, whose age is not

definitely known. The Kennicott formation is Upper Jurassic or

possibly Cretaceous and rests on the eroded edges of the three older

formations. It is intruded by numerous quartz porphyry dikes, which

are rare in the older rocks. These four formations are closely folded,

but are not greatly metamorphosed. A large part of the shales, hereto-

fore regarded as Upper Triassic, are shown to be Upper Jurassic.

The Nikolai greenstone is of economic importance as a source of

copper. Small bodies of copper ore are widely distributed through it

and several large bodies, notably that of the Kennicott-Bonanza mine,

are situated in the limestone near its contact with the greenstone. The

copper, dissolved by water circulating through the greenstone, was pre-

cipitated in shear zones and fracture planes. Chalcopyrite, bornite,

and chalcocite are the most important copper minerals. The Bonanza

ore body, a large mass of chalcocite, is beiieved to be a primary deposit.

The placer gold of Dan and Chititu creeks is derived from small

quartz veins in the Jurassic shales. These veins are probably related

in origin to the numerous porphyry intrusions. Reconcentration of

the high bench gravels has produced important stream placers.

Certain trains of rock waste that resemble glaciers in form and in

other respects are believed to owe their movement to interstitial ice.

F. H. M.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and oil resources of the Coalinga district, California.

Ralph Arnold and Robert Anderson. With a report on the

Chemical and physical -properties of the oils. Irving C. Allen.

Bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey No. 398. Pp. 354, with

maps, sections and views. 1910. Reprinted 1911.

The Coalinga district is a region of arid hills and mountain ridges bor-

dering the west side of the great interior valley of California. The his-

abstracts: geology 131

torical record begins with the Franciscan rocks, marine Jurassic forma-

tions, which, probably in late Jurassic time, were extensively intruded

by basic igneous rocks. Since then they have repeatedly been exposed

to erosion and have furnished materials for some of the Tertiary strata.

The lower Cretaceous record is scant, the region having been a land area

during much of that period. During the upper Cretaceous on the other

hand this region was covered far and wide by the sea and the great mass

of conglomerate, sandstone and shale then deposited is in places still

represented by a thickness of nearly 10,000 feet. The Tertiary section

is especially complete, with a thickness of 13,000 feet of sedimentary strata

separable by unconformities into six or seven important formations

containing abundant fossils. It shows that this region was land from the

beginning of the Tertiary until the commencement of estuarine deposi-

tion in the Tejon period. Not long after this, in the late Eocene or Oli-

gocene, came the deposition of a great body of diatomaceous shales, of

which a thousand feet are still preserved beneath the important erosional

unconformity which separates them from the marine Vaqueros sandstone

of the lower Miocene. After the lower Miocene there was again a land

interval, followed by submergence beneath the sea in the middle Miocene

Santa Margarita period, which in turn was brought to a close by uplift

and was succeeded at least locally by an interval of erosion. During

the upper Miocene and perhaps also early Pliocene epochs fluctuating

littoral marine conditions prevailed, with the resultant deposition of

variable sediments that make up the Jacalitosand Etchegoin formations.

Part of the Pliocene and probably also the early Quaternary was taken

up by the deposition of several thousand feet of freshwater, fluviatile

and marine sands, gravels and clays composing the Tulare formation,

after which there came one of the principal epochs of orogenic movement

to which the Coast Ranges have been subjected, with the consequent

uplifting and folding of all the strata that precede in time the later

Quaternary valley fillings.

Among the more interesting facts brought out in the study of this

region are the following: (1) the upper Cretaceous age of an organic

shale formation hitherto thought to be Eocene; (2) the presence of a

thick diatomaceous shale formation in the Eocene or Oligocene, and of

a similar formation in the middle Miocene — the one earlier and the other

later than the well known Monterey shale, with which both had been

correlated before: (3) the probable middle Miocene and pre-San Pablo

age of the Santa Margarita formation; (4) the Miocene age of the greater

part of the Etchegoin formation, hitherto regarded as Pliocene; (5) the

unconformities of the Eocene on the Cretaceous, of the Miocene on the

132 abstracts: botany

Oligocene or Eocene, and of various parts of the Miocene upon each other ;

(6) the occurrence of the principal orogenic movements of Cenozoic time

in four different periods — at the beginning of the Eocene, in the late

Eocene or Oligocene, in the early middle Miocene, and in the late Plio-

cene or early Quaternary.

The evidence as to the origin of the petroleum from minute marine

organisms such as diatoms and foraminifera amounts almost to proof.

There are two distinct oils in the Coalinga district, one a paraffin oil

that comes from organic shale in the Cretaceous and another an asphalt

oil almost certainly derived from the diatomaceous Eocene or Oligocene

shale. The presence of oil in association with these shales wherever they

are present, and its unfailing absence where they are lacking is the most

striking of the facts leading to the conclusion that they were the original

source of the oil. R. Anderson.

BOTANY. — Experiments in bhteberry culture. Frederick V. Coville.

Bulletin 193, Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agricul-

ture. Pp. 100, pis. 18, figs. 31. 1910.

As a result of four years' experimentation with the swamp or high-

bush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) , sometimes objectionably

called huckleberry, it has been found that these plants thrive only in

acid soils. They fail to grow satisfactorily in a rich garden soil of the

ordinary type, in a soil made sweet by lime, in a thoroly decomposed

leafmold such as has a neutral reaction, or in a nutrient solution with

alkaline reaction. They require an acid nutrient solution or an acid

medium of some sort, thriving especially in bog peat or in the acid leaf

litter of sandy pine or oak woods.

This type of upland leaf deposit, in which decomposition is retarded

for many years, is regarded as essentially peat and in distinction from

bog peat is called upland peat. An upland peat is described as a non-

paludose deposit of organic matter, chiefly leaves, in a condition of sus-

pended and imperfect decomposition and still showing its original leaf

structure, the suspension of decomposition being due to the develop-

ment and maintenance of an acid condition which is inimical to the

growth of the micro-organisms of decay. The use of the name "leaf-

mold," sometimes applied to this upland peat, should be restricted to

the advanced stages in the decomposition of leaves, in which leaf struc-

ture has disappeared. Typical leafmold is neutral or alkaline in reac-

tion, a fundamentally important characteristic.

The rootlets of healthy plants of the swamp blueberry are inhabited

abstracts: botany 133

by a symbiotic fungus, of the sort known technically as an endotrophic

mycorhiza. There is strong evidence that this fungus acts as a purveyor

of nitrogen to the blueberry plant, a highly important function since

the formation of nitrates in these soils through the agency of nitrifying

bacteria is inhibited by the presence of organic acids.

The experiments appear to warrant the following theory of the method

of nutrition of the swamp blueberry: (a) The swamp blueberry grows

in peaty soils which contain acid or other substances poisonous to many

plants, (b) As a protection against the absorption of amounts of these

poisons great enough to prove fatal, this plant, like many other bog and

acid-soil plants, is devoid of root hairs and consequently has a restricted

capacity for absorbing soil moisture. This low absorptive capacity

is correlated with a low rate of transpiration. Many bog shrubs,

altho living with an abundant supply of moisture at their roots, have

been recognized as showing adaptations for retarded transpiration simi-

lar to desert plants, (c) The special danger to which the swamp blue-

berry is exposed by reason of its low transpiration and its corresponding-

reduced capacity for absorption is insufficient nutrition. The danger

of nitrogen starvation is particularly great since these soils contain

very little nitrates, (d) Some bog plants similarly threatened with

insufficient nutrition, such as the sundews (Drosera), the bladderworts

(Utricularia), the pitcher plants (Sarracenia), and the Venus ffytrap

(Dionaea), possess means of securing the requisite nitrogen by catch-

ing insects and digesting and absorbing their nutritive parts, (e) In

the swamp blueberry the required nitrogen is secured in a different

way. The plant associates with itself a mycorhizal fungus which

is able to assimilate nitrogen from the surrounding organic matter, and

perhaps from the atmosphere also, and to convey it into the plant with-

out taking along with it a large amount of the poisonous soil moisture.

Whether this theory of the nutrition of the swamp blueberry is or

is not substantiated in all its details by future investigation, it has

afforded a useful basis for cultural experimentation. A method of blue-

berry culture has been worked out under which these plants grow with

unexpected luxuriance and there is every prospect that the result will

be the establishment of a new agricultural industry, the commercial

cultivation of the blueberry. F. V. C.

134 abstracts: forestry and agriculture

FORESTRY. — Properties and uses of Douglas Fir. McGarvey Cline

and J. B. Knapp. Forest Service Bulletin No. 88. Pp. 75, with

plates and diagrams. 1911.

Douglas fir is perhaps the most important of American woods. It is

manufactured in almost every form known to the sawmill operator and

much round and hewed timber is used.

Tests on 8 inch by 16 inch by 16 feet Douglas fir bridge stringers

gave an average fiber stress at elastic limit, for all grades, of 4000 pounds

per square inch when green, and 4467 pounds per square inch when air-

dry; a modulus of rupture of 6000 pounds per square inch when green,

and 6327 pounds per square inch when air-dry; and a modulus of elas-

ticity of 1,510,000 pounds per square inch when green, and 1,540,000

pounds per square inch when air-dry. Tests on smaller pieces, free from

defects, to determine the properties of green material, gave an average

fiber stress at elastic limit of 5500 pounds per square inch; a modulus of

rupture of 8400 pounds per square inch; and a modulus of elasticity of

1600 pounds per square inch. Compression parallel to the grain gave

a crushing strength at elastic limit of 3600 pounds per square inch.

Shearing tests gave an average result of 770 pounds per square inch.

Douglas fir varies greatly in quality, the different strength functions rang-

ing in value 50 per cent above and below the averages quoted. Tests

show that the so-called red and yellow fir have practically the same

strength. The mechanical strength of Douglas fir varies directly with

dry weight. Pieces which exhibited the greatest strength show usually

a rate of growth beween 12 and 16 rings per radial inch. The presence

of knots appreciably decreases the strength of green Douglas fir in

compression parallel to gram. In beams, the presence of knots affects

most the modulus of rupture. The tendency of specifications for Doug-

las fir is toward too great severity. Findley Burns.

AGRICULTURE. — The theory and practice of soil management. Frank

K. Cameron, Bureau of Soils. An address before the Michigan

Academy of Science, at Lansing, Michigan, April 5, 1911. To

appear in its Proceedings.

The soil possesses individuality, its problems are dynamic rather than

static, crop production is a complete function in which all the variables

are dependent, and various theoretical considerations which hitherto

have not received due attention indicate a greater producing power in

our soils than has yet been realized in practice. That high production

is desirable in all cases is open to question and involves economic factors

that must be considered for particular cases. F. K. C.

abstracts: conchology 135

AGRICULTURE. — The use of soils east of the Great Plains region.

Milton Whitney. Bulletin Bureau of Soils, No. 78. Pp. 292,

PI. 1 (map), figs. 16.

This is a comprehensive bulletin, embodying the results of the soil

surveys from their inception to January 1, 1910. All the soil types

established on or before that date are briefly described and their prin-

cipal uses stated. The soils are grouped in provinces and in classes, the

latter based upon textural similarity, and the natural crop adaptations

predicated broadly on this basis. The bulletin is divided into seven

principal sections, corresponding with the seven soil provinces, and

with each section is given a key to the classification of its soils, showing

diagrammatically the origin, processes of formation, and other salient

characteristics of the various soil series. A map of the soil provinces

of the eastern half of the United States showing the exact location of the

soil survey areas so far completed accompanies the volume. M. W.

CONCHOLOGY. — The west American mollusks of the genus Eumeta

Paul Bartsch. Proceedings U. S. National Museum, 39: 565-

568, figs. 1-3. 1911.

In this paper Eumeta intercalaris Carpenter, bimarginata, C. B. Adams,

and eucosmia, the last a new species, are described and figured. P. B.

CONCHOLOGY. — The recent and fossil 7nollusks of the genus Diastoma

from the west coast of America. Paul Bartsch. Proceedings

U. S. National Museum, 39: 581-584. 1911.

This paper is a monograph of the members of this genus occurring on

the west coast of America, all of the known species being described and

figured. The following are new: Diastoma chrysalloidea, oldroydoz

and stearnsi. P. B.

CONCHOLOGY. — The recent and fossil mollusks of the genus Cerithi-

opsis from the west coast of America. Paul Bartsch. Proceedings

U. S. National Museum, 40: 327, pi. 36-41. 1911.

This is a monograph of the west American members of this genus,

containing descriptions of the new sub-genera Cerithiopsina, Cerithiop-

sida and Cerithiopsidella. The following species are described as new :

Cerithiopsis (Cerithiopsis) fatua, oxys, carpenteri, abreojosensis, berryi,

galapagensis, cesta, stejnegeri dina, halia, aurea, (Cerithiopsina) necro-

politana, adamsi, (Cerithiopsida) diegensis, rowelli, (Cerithiopsidella)

136 abstracts: engineering

antefilosa, alcima; Cerithiopsis (subgenus?) curtata,fossilis,gloriosa, para-

mcea, bicolor, arnoldi, magellanica, antemuda, diomedem and monte-

reyensis. P. B.

ENGINEERING. — Progress and present status of the good roads move-

ment in the United States. Logan Waller Page, Director,

Office of Public Roads. Yearbook of the Department of Agricul-

ture, 1910. 1911.

The subject is discussed under the following titles: "Period of Colo-

nial Existence," "Early National Existence," "From 1860 to 1890,"

"State Aid," "Present Trend." The author tells of the early need for

roads as a means of communication between the various colonial settle-

ments and for the transportation of troops, arms and ammunition in the

numerous colonial conflicts. The work was largely accomplished by

levying labor taxes, and for two centuries nothing more was attempted

than to meet the most pressing exigencies. With the American Rev-

olution, and the following increase and spread of population and devel-

opment of commerce, road building became of paramount importance.

A decided movement for better roads was begun, which was manifested

by the construction of toll roads by private capital. Strong sentiment

for national roads also grew up, and numerous appropriations from the

national treasury were made for the purpose, but national participation

ended with the Civil War and the consequent heavy national debt.

From this time on little attention was given to road improvement until

the closing years of the last century.

The author then discusses the development of State aid sentiment

in recent years, and the present trend toward more effective highway

legislation and skilled supervision, as well as reforms in methods of

construction and maintenance. C. S. Reeve.

ENGINEERING. — Bitumens and their essential constituents for road

construction and maintenance. Prevost Hubbard, Circular

93 of the Office of Public Roads, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

1911.

This publication presents in condensed form a description and dis-

cussion of various bituminous road materials, in an attempt to dispel

the existing confusion concerning the meaning of certain terms applied

to these materials. The definitions are still more or less arbitrary and

the circular will therefore be revised from time to time in order to keep

it abreast with the latest information obtainable.

abstracts: engineering 137

Definitions and brief discussions occur under the following titles,

which are arranged alphabetically:

Acid sludge, anthracene, artificial asphalt, artificial bitumens, asphalts,

asphaltenes, asphaltic petroleums, asphaltic cement, Baume gravity,

benzol, bitumen, bituminous, blown petroleum, carbenes, carbon bisul-

phide, carbon tetrachloride, coal tar, coke-oven tar, cracked oil, crack-

ing, cut-back products, dead oils, destructive distillation, dehydrated

tar, emulsions, fixed carbon, flux, free carbon, gas-house coal tar, gil-

sonite, grahamite, high-carbon tars, hydrocarbons, low-carbon tars,

malthas, malthenes, mineral rubber, naphthas, naphthalene, native

bitumens, oil asphalts, oil pitches, oil tars, paraffin naphthas, paraffin

petroleum, paraffin scale, paraffine, petrolenes, petroleums, petrolic

ethers, pitches, pyrobitumens, pyrogenetic, reduced petroleums or

reduced oils, refined tar, residual petroleums or residual oils, residual

tars, rock asphalt or bituminous rock, semiasphaltic petroleums, short,

tar pitches, tars, water-gas tars. C. S. Reeve.

ENGINEERING. — Methods for the examination of bituminous road

materials. Prevost Hubbard and Charles S. Reeve. To be

published as Bulletin No. 38 of the Office of Public Roads, U. S.

Department of Agriculture.

This bulletin describes methods now in use by the Office of Public

Roads for the examination of bitumiDous road materials. These are

given in detail with illustrations of practically all of the necessary appara-

tus; so that any intelligent person may, with a little practice, and the

proper equipments, make the desired tests.

For the purpose of examination, bituminous road materials are classi-

fied as follows: (1) Petroleums and petroleum products, including resid-

ual petroleums, fluxes, oil asphalts, and fluxed or cut-back oil asphalts.

(2) Malthas. (3) Asphalts and other solid native bitumens, and asphal-

tic cements produced by fluxing same. (4) Tars and tar products.

(5) Mixtures of tar with petroleum or asphalt products, bituminous

emulsions, and factitious asphalts. (6) Bituminous aggregates, includ-

ing rock asphalts or bituminous rocks, bituminous concrete and asphalt

or other bituminous topping.

A scheme of examination for each of the above classes is then dis-

cussed with relation to the particular tests applicable to each class.

An appendix contains an itemized list of the necessary equipment for

a small laboratory, metric conversion tables, degrees Baume and specific

gravity, and Centigrade and Fahrenheit degrees comparison tables,

concluding with forms for reporting and recording tests. C. S. R.

138 abstracts: references

REFERENCES

AGRICULTURE. — Soil Surveys (Advance Sheets— Field operations of the Bureau

of Soils, 1909) as follows:

Gaston County, N. C. W. E. Hearn, L. L. Brinkley and F. P. Drane. Pp.

33. Map.

Washington County, N. Y. M. E. Carr, G. A. Crabb, V. J. Frost and D. W.

Hallock. Pp. 52. 2 Maps.

Campbell County, Va. R. A. Winston. Pp. 39. Map.

Waushara Courtly, Wis. J. W. Nelson, G. Conrey, A. K. Kuhlman. Pp.

33. Map.

Coffee County, Ala. L. A. Hurst and A. D. Cameron. Pp. 51. Map.

Scotland Co., N. C. R. B. Hardison, J. W. Nelson, and D. D. Long, Pp.

32. Map.

Western South Dakota. (Reconnaissance.) G. N. Coffee. Pp. 80. Map.

Woodland Area, Cal. C. W. Mann, J. F. Warner, H. L. Westover. and J.

E. Ferguson. Pp. 57. 2 Maps.

Clay County, Miss. E. L. Worthen. Pp. 41. Map.

Rice County, Minn. R. T. A. Burke and L. A. Kolbe. Pp. 39. Map.

Cedar County, Mo. E. B. Watson and H. F. Williams. Pp. 34. Map.

Southwestern Pennsylvania. (Reconnaissance.) H. J. Wilder and C. F.

Shaw. Pp. 69. Map.

Berks County, Pa. W. J. Geib, E. L. Worthen, F. S. Welsh, J. C. Britton

and C. R. Zappone, Jr. Pp. 47. Map.

HYDROLOGY. — Surface water supply of the United States, 1909: Part VII. Lower

Mississippi Basin. W. B. Freeman and R. H. Bolster. Water-Supply

Paper, U. S. Geological Survey No. 267. Pp. 99, with views. 1911.

Surface water supply of the United States, 1909: Part VIII. Western Gulf

of Mexico. W. B. Freeman and R. H. Bolster. Water-Supply Paper, U. S.

Geological Survey No. 268. Pp. 107, with views. 1911.

Quality of the water supplies of Kansas. H. N. Parker. With a preliminary

report on Stream pollution by mine waters in southeastern Kansas. E. H. S.

Bailey. Water Supply Paper, U. S. Geological Survey No. 273. Pp. 375,

with maps. 1911.

STATISTICS. — Mineral resources of the United States, calendar year 1909. Part

I — Metals. Part II — Nonmetals. U. S. Geological Survey. 1911.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

At the 243d meeting, at the Cosmos Club, April 12, 1911, the following

paper was presented and illustrated by lantern slides:

The physical conditions under which Paleozoic coral reefs were formed.

T. Wayland Vaughan.

As the physical conditions prevalent during the formation of fossil

coral reefs cannot be ascertained by direct observation, it is necessary

to resort to the process of deduction. Evidence for establishing criteria

may be derived from two sources: The first, through the study of the

conditions under which modern reefs are formed, and the determination

of the factors necessary for the physiologic activity to which large accu-

mulations of calcium carbonate are due; the second, through the investi-

gation of the physical character and the nature of the bedding or strati-

fication of the sediments in which the fossil reefs are embedded. The

distribution of reef corals and other organisms that form calcareous

reefs were considered with reference to depth of water and intensity of

light, temperature, motion of the water, character of bottom, composi-

tion of the oceanic salts and the specific gravity of the water. Especial

attention was paid to the diminishing strength of light with increase in

depth of the sea as limiting the downward extension of reef-forming cor-

als. In this connection attention was called to the fact that a1 the gov-

ernment wharf at Fort Jefferson, Tortugas, which is supported by iron

piles coated with cement, there are many corals on all the peripheral

piles while on those in the permanently shaded areas there arenone.

The results obtained by Sir John Murray from studying the effects

of temperature on the distribution of lime secreting organisms were cited

as bearing on the problem under consideration. According to this in-

vestigator it appears "that the most favorable conditions are met with

in the warm, equable, tropical waters of the ocean, and here as a matter

of fact we find the greatest development of corals, and the largest num-

ber of lime secreting pelagic organisms. In the polar areas and in the

cold water of the deep sea there is, as is well known, a feeble development

of all carbonate of lime structures in marine organisms."

The data on conditions under which modern coral reefs are formed were

summarized as follows: (a) depth, maximum, 25 fathoms: light, strong;

(b) temperature, annual minimum 68° F., annual menu above 70 F.;

(c) water, agitated and circulating; (d) bottom, firm or rocky, without

silty deposits; (e) composition of the oceanic salts, as for the oceanic waters

as a wrhole; (f) specific gravity, as for the ocean in general, range 1.02405

to 1.02748. Of these conditions shallow water, strong light, high tem-

perature, circulating water, a comparatively clean sea-floor, and a chem-

139

140 proceedings: geological society

ical composition of the water insuring a supply of calcium salts for the

formation of the skeletons are essential.

The speaker then gave a brief review of both the stratigraphic and

geographic distribution of Paleozoic coral reefs, calling attention to the

more important constituent genera. The Paleozoic coral reefs begin

in the lower Cambrian and extend through the Carboniferous. The

same groups of reef-building organisms are represented in both the Pale-

ozoic and Recent seas; in both they have the same facies as regards

growth-form; in both, their physiologic activity has resulted in the se-

cretion of large quantities of carbonate of lime from the surrounding

sea-water; and in both, submarine banks, known as coral reefs, have

resulted. The general similarity of the organisms and the similarity

in the result of their physiologic activity, suggest similarity of condi-

tions under which his activity took place.

The nature of the sediments and the character of the stratification

of the beds in which occur the Silurian reefs of , Gotland and Cedarburg,

Wisconsin, and the Devonian reefs of Wisconsin and New York, were

reviewed. As the materials of the matrix in which the reefs are em-

bedded are largely fragmental, and as cross bedding and other evidence

of shallow water deposition is furnished, the conclusion was reached that

these Paleozoic reefs were formed in shallow, agitated, and presumably,

therefore, well-lighted, waters.

The conditions under which Paleozoic reefs were formed were sum-

marized as follows:

(a) Depth, maximum 25 fathoms; light, strong, (b) Temperature,

annual minimum not lower than between 60 and 70° F., and probably

above 70° F. (c) Water, agitated and circulating, (d) Bottom, clear

or relatively free from deposits of silt, (e) Composition of the oceanic

salts, probably the same as in the ocean of the present day. (f) Specific

gravity of the oceanic ivaters, probably about as in the ocean of today.

Certainly the specific gravity was high enough to furnish the large quan-

tities of calcium salts demanded by the reef organisms for the formation

of their skeletons.

Bonney says in his appendix to Darwin's Structure and Distribution

of Coral Reefs, p. 331: "Moreover, the aporosa and madrepor aria,

which are now the chief reef-builders, have only become common since

the conclusion of Paleozoic ages, so that the largest volume of the geo-

logical history of the earth is excluded from consideration, because in the

time which it covers the habits of the reef-builders may have been dif-

ferent." The evidence presented by Dr. Vaughan showed in his opin-

ion, that the habitats of reef-building corals have always been similar.

Sir John Murray discussed Dr. Vaughan's paper, paying especial

attention to the conditions under which organisms secrete large quanti-

ties of calcium carbonate in the ocean. He gave a brief review of the

distribution of the coral reefs of the globe, described the origin of coral

reef foundations, and outlined the theories of the formation of the var-

ious types of coral islands. E. S. Bastin, Secretary.

proceedings: geological society 111

The program of the 244th meeting, at the Cosmos Club, April 26,

1911, was as follows:

Notes on the geology of the Koyukuk-Kobuk region, Alaska. Philip

S. Smith.

There are two main physiographic features (Da high mountain mass

to the north known as the Endicott or Baird Mountains, which has been

correlated with the Rocky Mountain system in the States, and

irregularly distributed highlands and lowlands to the south, forming

what has been called the central plateau province. Roughly speaking,

the mountain province lies to the north of the Kobuk, and the central

plateau province to the south of that river.

The geology of the Endicott Mountains is complex. Schists, lime-

stones, and intrusives, Paleozoic or older in age, are intruded by granu-

lar rocks, both granites and diorites, probably of Mesozoic age. Presum-

ably these mountains owe their main outlines to post-Cretaceous deform-

ation and it is possible that this period of mountain building may have

occurred well along in the Tertiary. The mountains have been eroded

by glacial as well as fluviatile agencies.

The southern province consists mainly of deformed Cretaceous ami

older metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, the oldest of which have been

intruded by granular igneous rocks. In the lowlands Tertiary (?) lavas

have been extruded on the eroded surfaces of the older rocks and here

and there extensive deposits of gravel reaching to elevations of 500 to

600 feet above the main drainage lines probably represent deposits

formed during the waning of glaciation in the mountain province.

One of the striking features of the region is the irregular arrangement

of the drainage. Certain of the larger streams flow transverse to the

ranges in rocky gorges. The valleys of these streams have been occupie* 1

by glaciers or were the spillways through which glacially impounded

drainage was discharged.

A summary of the geologic history is as follows: The earliest recorded

event was the laying down of the sedimentary rocks of the Endicott

Mountains. These, after consolidation, were deformed and intruded

by basic igneous rocks and then intensely folded so that the rocks be-

came crystalline schists.

After deformation, the region appears to have remained above the

sea until the laying down of the Mesozoic sediments. Into these rocks

and probably into the metamorphic rocks, granitic and dioritic intru-

sives were injected probably in middle Jurassic time. These intrusions

were followed by erosion and by the laying down of Cretaceous sedi-

ments. Subsequently these rocks were deformed although there was no

accompanying development of schistosity. During this period the

major outlines of the present topography were blocked out.

A new system of Quaternary lakes in the central Mississippi. Basin. E.

W. Shaw.

Many of the low-lying parts of the central Mississippi Basm are under-

lain by a more or less laminated clay containing locally, especially about

142 proceedings: geological society

the borders, a little fine sand. This clay, by its character and physio-

graphic expression indicates a great system of extinct lakes hitherto

undescribed extending from southern Wisconsin to eastern Kentucky.

The clay lies at concordant elevations and occupies an aggregate area

of several thousand square miles. The physical character, horizontal

attitude of the surface, shore features and fossils show that the material

is in large part of lacustrine origin, and it appears that the lakes were

formed through the rapid development of valley trains on the Mississippi

and Ohio in late glacial time the outwash debris damming the lower ends

of tributary valleys. The lake deposit is thus a "valley fill," and ranges

in thickness up to 130 feet. In each valley the surface of the fill is prac-

tically horizontal but the altitude of the surface varies from valley to

valley. The height increases regularly from Cairo up the Mississippi

and from the same point up the Ohio. The height and hence the extent

of the water in each lake being controlled by the river, fluctuated as the

river rose and fell, but the lakes served as reservoirs so that the range

between high and low water was not so great as it would otherwise have

been. Shore features were generally poorly developed but in places,

as near Madison ville, Kentucky, there are unmistakable beach ridges.

Discussion of the Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of Alaska. Arthur

HOLLICK.

About 200 separate collections of fossil plants from Alaska were sub-

jected to critical examination. The localities represented range from

Herendeen Bay near the end of Alaska Peninsula, along the coast line to

Prince of Wales Island, and through the interior down the Yukon Valley

from Eagle to the vicinity of Kaltag, besides several scattered localities

in the Tanana region.

Three and possibly four, more or less well-defined floral horizons are

represented, with a stratigraphic range extending from the lower part

of the middle Cretaceous to the upper Eocene — two in Cretaceous and one,

or possibly two, in the Tertiary.

Exact correlation of the floras is difficult for the reason that certain

associations of diverse elements occur together in some of the collections

which were not known elsewhere in any known, or described, floras.

Apparently in Alaska many old types persisted long after they had be-

come extinct in other parts of North America and Europe. Cycads of

the genera Zamites, Pterophyllum, and Podozamites are found associated

with upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary angiosperms. The logical

assumption would seem to be that the older and more primitive types

of vegetation, represented by the cycads, had persisted into more recent

times, rather than that the highly developed types, represented by the

angiosperm genera, had begun far back in the early part of the Cretaceous.

It is evident that the Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of Alaska were as

distinct from the equivalent Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of the rest

of the North American continent as the living floras of the Pacific Coast

are from those of the interior.

The paper was illustrated by a map of Alaska and a chart showing

the correlation of the floras. E. S. Bastin, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. I, OCTOBER 4, 1911. No 5.

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY. — Condenser losses at high frequencies.

L. W. Austin, Naval Wireless Telegraphic Laboratory.

To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

The following experiments have been carried out in the wire-

less laboratory for the purpose of determining the equivalent

resistance of various types of condensers in high frequency cir-

cuits.1 The method used was to observe the current in a spark

circuit containing the condensers under test and then substitute

a Fessenden compressed air condenser of approximately the same

capacity and add a high frequency resistance sufficient to reduce

the current to the same value as that observed with the other

condensers. It was found possible to make these resistance

observations with an accuracy of about 0.05 ohm. Special experi-

ments showed that the resistance of the compressed air condenser

under the given conditions was 0.25 ohm, which was probably due

to imperfect insulation and eddy currents in the metal case.

Two types of copper coated Leyden jars were furnished by the

Wireless Specialty Apparatus Company, and one type each by the

Telefunken Company of America and the United Wireless Com-

pany. The Moscicki condensers were of their well known form

encased in brass tubes with the glass thickened at the edges of the

conducting coating and with these edges covered with an insulat-

ing liquid. The paper condenser was of a well known make.

1 While the work was in progress a paper on the same subject by Professor Flem-

ing appeared. See Proc. Phys. Soc. of London, 23: 117. 1911.

143

144

AUSTIN: CONDENSER LOSSES

The results of the tests with the condensers in air are given in

Table I.

TABLE I

Condensers in Air

Volts = 14,500 (Max.) Current = 7 to 8 Amps. Wave-length = 1,000 m. (About).

Wireless Specialty (1).

Wireless Specialty (2) .

Telefunken

United Wireless

Moscicki*

Paper

Compressed Air

* It is not exactly correct to compare the Moscicki condensers with the jars

in air as the insulating liquid covers the edges of its conducting coatings.

Special experiments showed that the slight difference in capacity

between the compressed air and the other condensers made no

observable difference in the results, the inductance remaining

the same. The paper condenser on account of its small capacity

was measured in parallel with a glass condenser of known loss and

its resistance deduced from these observations.

Comparisons were also made by the same method between the

compressed air condenser and the different sets of Leyden jars,

the latter being immersed in a heavy transformer oil, the condi-

tions of the experiment being the same as before. Here no differ-

ence exceeding 0.05 ohm was observed between the jars and the

compressed air, indicating that the losses in the glass of the jars is

small compared with the brushing losses.

Experiments were next tried with the three wireless specialty

jars immersed in oil at voltages from 4700 to 18500 (maximum).

The circuit containing the jars was the same as above except that

there was no spark gap, it being excited by a quenched gap circuit

to which it was coupled. The decrement was determined by

means of a wave meter in the usual way. Table II shows that

there was no certain increase observable with increasing voltage.

foote: macnktic rotation I 15

TABLE II

Volts (max.) 47(H) 7100 11 inn L4500 18600

Decrement 0.0435 0.0440 0 0445 0 0445 0 0445

Comparisons were next made between throe jars in oil and three

in air using the added resistance method in a circuit excited by a

quenched gap circuit. The results were found to vary according

to the cleanliness and nature of the glass in the jars exposed to t he

air; the difference in resistance in air and in oil being nearly negli-

gible at 4000 volts, and amounting in the Wireless Specialty jars

to about 1.4 ohms at 20000 volts. The increase was approxi-

mately proportional to the square of the voltage, in agreement

with the results of Fleming.

From this follows a conclusion which is contrary to the ordi-

narily accepted view; that is, that the brushing losses are not

reduced by placing jars in series if the capacity and voltage remain

the same, for if one jar be replaced by four jars in parallel series,

the voltage on each jar is reduced to one-half and the loss per jar

to one-fourth. The brushing surface is increased four times there-

fore the total loss remains the same. This conclusion was proved

by experiment to be correct.

Another experimental fact which is not so easily explained is thai

the losses in jars with only their edges immersed in oil are consid-

erably greater than when the whole conducting surface is covered.

This result is opposed to the idea that the air losses lie wholly at

the edges of the conducting coatings. This fact has been verified

a number of times.

PHYSICS.— The magnetic rotation and ellipticity for massive

metal mirrors. Paul D. Foote. Communicated by ( J. W.

Waidner. To appear in the Physical Review.

Plane polarized light incident normally upon a mirror of a

magnetic substance placed in a magnetic field in which the lines

of force are perpendicular to the mirror surface, is, in general.

reflected in the form of an elliptic vibration whose axes are inclined

at a small angle to the plane of the incident polarization. A series

of measurements were made upon mirrors of iron, cobalt, steel,

146

foote: magnetic rotation

nickel, invar, magnetite, and Heusler's alloy in the attempt to

establish the magnitude of these effects.

The mirrors, small polished metal plates, were mounted upon

the pole face of a ring magnet capable of producing 25000 c.g.s.

induction. For the measurement of the rotation, a Lippich

half nicol was employed, and for the ellipticity, a Brace Elliptic

Halfshade analyzing system. The magnetic field was calibrated

by the rotation produced on double transmission thru a plate of

glass for which the Verdet constant had been previously obtained.

Fig. 1. Ellipticity Dispersion Curves.

The rotatory dispersion curves for the mirrors examined were

in reasonable agreement with the work of preceding investigators,

being negative thruout (contrary to the magnetizing current)

in the case of iron, cobalt, steel, nickel and invar, and in the case

of magnetite, negative in the violet, zero at 454/*/*, and positive

in the red. Heusler's alloy showed signs of an extremely small

negative rotation.

BUCKINGHAM: REHEAT FACTOR OF TURBINES 147

The ellipticity dispersion curves appear somewhat similar

to those obtained by transmission thru metallic films. For

iron, cobalt, and steel the vibration is negative (contrary to the

magnetizing current), while nickel, iron and magnetite show

anomalous dispersion, the reflected light being plane polarized

at wave length of 600mm for nickel and invar, and 520mm for

magnetite In all of the substances the ratio of minor to major

axes was found to be of an order 10-3. It is interesting to note

the probable influence of the iron in the invar mirror. The curve

closely resembles that obtained for nickel, the points of zero ellip-

ticity being identical, but the magnitude of the effect in invar

is greater in the negative portion of the curve and smaller in the

positive red. Heusler's alloy showed a very slight negative

ellipticity too small to admit measurement. The accompanying

figure presents several typical ellipticity dispersion curves.

Curves were also obtained showing the variation of both rota-

tion and ellipticity with the magnetic field. The rotation resem-

bled the I-B type curves as found by Du Bois. The ellipticity

likewise presented this characteristic, and, when intensities of

magnetization, easily obtainable from the steep slope and the

asymptotic sections of the curve R = f (B), are plotted against

ellipticities, the result is a straight line showing a direct propor-

tionality, E - FT.

The work was carried out in the Brace Laboratory of Physics.

Lincoln, Nebraska, under the direction of Dr. C. A. Skinner to

whom the writer is indebted.

THERMODYNAMICS.— The reheat factor in steam-turbine

design. E. Buckingham, Bureau of Standards. Communi-

cated by C. W. Waidner. To appear in the Bulletin of the

Bureau of Standards, 7, No. 4. 1911.

The expansion line of a multistage steam turbine, drawn on the

Mother diagram with total heat, H, as ordinate and entropy.

<p, as abscissa, crosses each isopiestic at an angle 0 with the v

axis such that

— X2tan/3 = — — 0

1 — e

148 BUCKINGHAM: REHEAT FACTOR OF TURBINES

in which e is the stage efficiency at the given point in the turbine,

0 is the absolute temperature of the steam at this pressure, and

K2 is a constant fixed by the relation of the scales of H and <p. If

the stage efficiency is constant, as may be the case when the tur-

bine has a large number of similar stages, the expansion line is

concave upward, because 0 decreases as the pressure and total

heat fall.

Let Ho be the total isentropic heat-drop available between the

initial state and the final pressure of the steam. Then if the

combined efficiency of a number of stages in series were the same

as their separate stage efficiency e, the heat drop of the steam in

passing through the turbine would be

H=eH0

In reality, the combined efficiency is greater than the stage effi-

ciency because the reheat in each stage except the last is produced

at or above the initial temperature of the next following stage,

and is partially available for reconversion into work. This

fact is expressed on the Mollier diagram, within the saturation

field, by the curvature of the expansion line, which ends at a lower

point on the final isopiestic than if it had the uniform slope

given by

— K2 tan j8 = — — 02

1 — €

in which 02 is the temperature of the exhaust. The heat drop in

the turbine is therefore expressed by the equation

H = R e Ho

in which R is the "reheat factor," a quantity slightly greater than

unity.

On the very approximate assumption that the isopiestics

radiate from a single point, a simple equation may be deduced

for the expansion line of wet steam; and it follows from this equa-

tion that the reheat factor for the expansion of wet steam between

the pressures pi and p2, at which the absolute saturation tempera-

tures are 0i and 02 satisfies the equation

02\

R =

<!

schaller: cuprodescloizite I lit

The values obtainable from this equation may be computed

more conveniently and with sufficient accuracy by an empirical

equation of the form

R-l = (0.975 -e) (logiO0i-log,„02) constant.

A table is given, of values of R for the stage efficiencies e =0.1,

0.2 0.8, and for expansion from 350 lbs. /m2 abs. down to

various lower pressures. When (i? — 1) is plotted against the lower

pressure as abscissa, for a given value of e, the value of (R-l) for

expansion between any two pressures within the limits of the curve,

with this stage efficiency, is equal to the difference of the ordinates

of the curve at the two pressures. Hence if a set of curves be

plotted from the data given for the various stage efficiencies,

the reheat factor may, b}^ interpolation, be found very expedi-

tiously for the expansion of wet steam between any two pressures

and with any stage efficiency. The curve for e = 0.1 is given and

its use illustrated.

A much more exact assumption regarding the distribution of

the isopiestics in the saturation field leads to a very complicated

expression for R, but the values computed in this way are sensibly

identical with those found by the simple graphical method de-

scribed above, which may therefore be regarded as sufficiently

exact for use in designing.

MINERALOGY. — Cuprodesdoizite from California. Waldemar

T. Schaller, Geological Survey.

Some samples of reported vanadium ore, sent to the Survey

by A. L. Lombard and J. F. Main, of the Dirigo Alining and Mill-

ing Company, of Lcs Angeles, California, proved to be coated

with a deposit of cuprodescloizite. The associated lead minerals

are cerusite and vanadinite from which the cuprodescloizite seems

to be derived. The locality is given as Camp Signal in San Ber-

nardino County, California.

A qualitative chemical test showed the presence in quantity

of lead, copper, zinc, vanadium and a little water. A direct quan-

titative determination of the vanadium gave 21 per cent of

V205.

150 schaller: crystallized variscite

The material, when examined under the microscope, was seen

to be well crystallized in minute, colorless or pale yellow plates.

Some of these are square or oblong, others are irregularly shaped.

The rectangular plates give parallel extinction, with the axial plane

parallel to one of the sides. The axial angle is very large. The

thicker pieces are very slightly pleochroic in shades of yellow.

The double refraction is not very high. A few tabular pieces

showed an acute termination, the sides of which are inclined 52°

to the trace of the axial plane. Sections tabular parallel to a { 1 00}

show c{001}, m{011}, both large, and 6{010}, small.

MINERALOGY. — Crystallized variscite from Utah. Waldemar

T. Schaller. To appear in a bulletin, " Mineralogical

Notes, Series II." of the Geological Survey.

A sample of crystallized variscite from Lucin, Utah, collected

by Mr. D. B. Sterrett, furnished material for a determination of

the chief properties of the mineral. The bright green tabular

crystals are orthorhombic and in form similar to those of the anal-

ogous minerals scorodite and strengite, and of phosphosiderite,

which is held to be identical with strengite. Three different

orientations are possible for the variscite crystals and these are

described and their availability discussed. The optical relation

of barrandite to strengite and variscite is also considered.

Some of the variscite crystals have included regular groupings

of small, variously oriented and irregularly shaped particles of

the same mineral. The green crystals are only slightly pleochroic

but on being heated before the blowpipe or up to 160° C, when

all the water is given off, the mineral becomes deep lavender with

strong pleochroism from violet to lavender. The mean refrac-

tive index (1.560) and the birefringence (0.032) of the green

crystals drop to 1.448 and 0.003 respectively, after heating. The

dehydrated, lavender-colored material is now, unlike the original

green-colored mineral, readily soluble in acids.

The chemical analysis shows that small quantities of chromium,

vanadium, and iron are present but no adequate explanation of

SCHALLER: FRENCH PHOSPHORITE MINERALS

151

the color changes has been found. The analysis and ratios i

as follows :

arc

The ratios lead to the accepted formula A1203 P205 4H20.

MINERALOGY. — Chemical composition of the French phosphor-

ite minerals. Waldemar T. Schaller. To appear in a

bulletin, " Mineralogical notes, Series II." of the U. S. Geo-

logical Survey.

The mineralogy of the French phosphorite deposits has been

fully described by Lacroix in two recent publications.1 He shows

that the three minerals of which these phosphorites are composed

are collophanite, dahllite (syn. podolite) and francolite (syn.

staffelite). The formulas of these minerals, as generally given,

are as follows: for dahllite 6CaO 2P205 CaC03 |H20; for francolite

lOCaO 3P205 CaF2 C02H20; and for collophanite 3CaOP205.-

H20 (Dana) or, since C02 has been shown to be an essential con-

stituent of the mineral, x[3CaOP205] or .r[9CaO 3P205CaF2]

+ yC&COs + zH20 (Lacroix).

A study by the writer of the analyses of these minerals has

shown that their formulas are more probably as follows: dahl-

lite 9CaO 3P205 CaO. C02 H20, francolite 9CaO 3P206 CaF2 C02

H20 and collophanite 9CaO 3P205 CaO C02 H,0 + nH20.

^omptes rendus, 150: 1213. 1910; Mineralogie de la France, 4: 555.

1910

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

METEOROLOGY. — Summary of the free air data at Mount Weather for

the three years, July 1, 1907 to June 80, 1910. Wm. R. Blair.

Bulletin Mount Weather Observatory, 4: 25-63. 1911.

The data consist of the air pressures, air 'temperatures and wind direc-

tions observed above Mount Weather in 1013 ascensions, 896 with kites

and 117 with captive balloons. Related surface data and weather

conditions are also included.

Air pressures have been used only in the determination of altitudes.

Air temperatures have been considered in two ways; (1) By months

and seasons, (2) According to surface air pressure, by seasons and quad-

rants in high and in low pressure areas. For the purpose of this summary,

the bounding isobar of the high pressure areas is taken as 764.5 mm. of

mercury; of low pressure areas, 759.5 mm. The quadrants are numbered

counterclockwise, I being in front of the area and to the left of a line thru

the center and lying in the direction of motion of the area.

Those wind directions observed within areas of high and low pressure

have been grouped by octants and distance from the center of the area

at levels 1000 meters apart. The octants are numbered in the same way

as the quadrants. The wind directions not well within high or low pres-

sure areas are tabulated in three groups depending on the location of

maximum and minimum pressure with reference to Mount Weather.

All means are graphically represented besides being tabulated. The

number of observations represented in each mean is shown.

It has been the writer's purpose to group these data so that the con-

clusions to be drawn from them would be evident with the minimum

amount of comment. In the brief discussion accompanying the tables

and diagrams, the distribution of the observations in their respective

groups is considered, also the value as normals of the means obtained

152

abstracts: meteorology and electricity 153

from the first arrangement of the temperatures. In connection with

the second arrangement of temperatures and the wind directions, are

some remarks upon the dynamics of the lower strata of the atmosphere

over high and low pressure areas. \\\ R, B.

METEOROLOGY.— Free air data at Mmrnt Weather for January,

February and March, 1911. Wm. R. Blair. Bulletin Mount

Weather Observatory, 4:65-102. 1911.

Eighty-six ascensions were made at Mount Weather in these three

months, 83 by means of kites and 3 by means of captive balloons. The

average altitude reached was 2840 meters above sea level. Obervations

were made of air pressure, air temperature and wind direction. The

data in detail are published in tabular form. The temperature and wind

direction aloft are graphically summarized in six Charts, and the surface

temperatures at Mount Weather and at the two valley stations, Trapp

and Audle}T, in three figures. W. R. B.

ELECTRICITY. — A comparison of American direct-current switch-

board voltmeters and ammeters. T. T. Fitch and C. J. Huber.

Bulletin Bureau of Standards 7:407-422. 1911.

This paper is an analysis of the various factors of performance and

details of construction of direct-current switchboard voltmeters and

ammeters. All American makers of standard sizes of such instruments

were given an opportunity to submit samples.

The voltmeters all showed maximum errors of calibration less than one

per cent of full scale reading, while the ammeters showed maximum

errors of from two to six per cent. The ammeters are mere subject to

errors than are voltmeters owing to the necessity of working them on

the low electromotive force permissible at the terminals of the shunts.

The details of performance and the constants of construction are tabu-

lated.

The general lines of design are very similar in all the instrument-,

which may be taken as typical not only of American, but also of Euro-

pean direct-current practice. The most decided departure from type

is in the use of the single air gap in the instruments of one maker. Fur-

ther improvements in direct-current switchboard instruments are to

be looked for mainly in the refinement of details of design and construc-

tion. T. T. F.

154 abstracts: physics and chemistry

AGRICULTURAL PHYSICS.— The electrical bridge for the deter-

mination of soluble salts in soil. R. O. E. Davis and H. Bryan.

Bulletin Bureau of Soils, No. 61. 1911.

The bulletin contains a complete description of the modified Wheat-

stone bridge as used by the Bureau of Soils with considerable experi-

mental data on its efficiency. Working drawings and cuts of the instru-

ment are included in the description. Conclusions reached from the

experiments are : Difference in texture of soils influences the resistances

of the soil; the presence of carbonates changes the resistance so greatly

that with black alkali a special table must be used; organic matter in

large amounts increases the resistance, the same amount of salt being

present; and when a soil is in a dry condition, at least twenty minutes

should elapse after moistening before the reading for resistance is made.

R. 0. E. D. and H. B.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— The isolation of creatinine from

soils. Edmund C. Shorey. Science 33: 340. 1911.

Creatinine has been isolated from several soils by the following

method. An extract made by shaking the soil for half an hour with

2 per cent sodium hydroxide is neutralized with acetic acid and filtered.

To the filtrate a small quantity of dextrose is added, after heating to

boiling, Fehling's solution is added until the precipitate formed is red.

The precipitate after washing is decomposed with hydrogen sulphide

concentrated under reduced pressure. Creatinine, if present in the soil,

is in this filtrate together with purine bases. It can be separated as

creatinine zinc chloride and creatinine prepared from this by treatment

with lead hydroxide. The creatinine was identified by the character-

istic crystalline appearance of the zinc chloride compound and by the

Jaff6, Weyl and Salkowski color reactions. M. X. Sullivan.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Reduction by roots. Oswald

Schreiner and M. X. Sullivan. Botanical Gazette, 51: 121.

1911.

Plant roots have the power to reduce sodium tellurite and selenite to

metallic tellurium and selenium. The reducing action of the growing

root is stronger in the young seedling, being much stronger in a seedling

four days old than in one twelve days old.

As judged by the quickness with which the selenium deposits on the

roots and the extent and intensity of the deposit, the reducing power

abstracts: chemistkv i.v,

increases from the time of germination to the sixth or eighth day and

then decreases. It is most marked intracellular^ in the parenchyma

cells of the root tip. A faintly acid reaction stimulates the reducing

power. Xo reducing enzyme could be extracted from the crushe. 1 1 >lants.

M. X. s.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. — Concurrent oxidation and reduction

by roots. Oswald Schreiner and M. X. Sullivan. Botanical

Gazette, 51: 273. 1911.

The power of growing wheat roots to oxidize easily oxidizable sub-

stances such as aloin, and to reduce sodium selenite and tellurite may run

independently or concurrently. A faintly alkaline reaction favors oxida-

tion, a faintly acid reaction reduction. Within certain limits the two

processes may occur together. Reduction seems to be connected with

the inner metabolism of the plant and is probably brought about by

non-enzymotic compounds analogous to the organic hydroxyacids and

their salts, which have a slight reducing action, or to compounds unsat-

urated in respect to oxygen. Oxidation is due to bodies capable of fixing

atmospheric oxygen in an active form, perhaps as peroxides, which is

secondarily transferred to others. Reduction processes are predomi-

nant in the early stages of the seedlings' growth but are less manifest

as these develop and oxidation becomes predominant. Oxidation is the

prominent property of the plant root. M. X. S.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Oxidation in soils. M. X. Sul-

livan and F. R. Reid. Journal of Industrial and Engineering

Chemistry, 3 : 25-30. 1911.

It has been found that soils have an oxidizing power, which varies

with different soils. In general those of better producing powers have

the better oxidation power.

In studying oxidation processes by the use of easily oxidizable sub-

stances like aloin, pyrogallol, hydroquinone, h-phenylenediamine, ben-

zidine, guaiac and a-naphtbylamine, the authors found aloin to be the

best reagent.

Reducing agents such as hydroxylamine HC1, oxalic acid, sodium

thiosulphate and formalin completely check oxidation while such

antienzymotic substances as mercuric chloride, silver nitrate, and

carbon bisulphide have little if any retarding action.

L56 abstracts: chemistry

All soil samples tested with the exception of Orangeburg loam have

their oxidative powers considerably checked by a temperature of 105°

C. dry heat and by steam sterilization in an Arnold sterilizer. The

oxidative powers on all soils are completely destroyed by incineration.

The mineral acids have very little effect in restoring this function while

the organic hydroxyacids, especially citric acid, are very effective in this

regard.

The hydroxyacids tend to increase the oxidative poAver on normal

soils, while the related non-hydroxy acids have little effect.

Manganese dioxide increases the oxidative power somewhat. The

salts of manganese, iron, aluminum, calcium, and magnesium have little

effect alone, but in the presence of simple hydroxyacids they increase

the oxidative function considerably.

The subsoils of soils having marked oxidative powers seldom have

the same property. The effect of cropping and of fertilizers is variable.

Oxidation in soils is comparable to that in plants and animals, and is

due mainly to non-enzymotic forces, inorganic and organic, working

separately, conjointly, or in reinforcing or activating combination.

M. X. S. and F. R. R.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Paraffin hydrocarbons in soils.

Oswald Schreiner and Edmund C. Shorey. Journal of the

American Chemical Society, 33: 81. 1911.

A paraffin hydrocarbon from a peat soil was isolated and identified

as hentriacontane C3iH64. Since this compound has been found in a

number of plants and nothing is known regarding the possibility of its

formation from other organic matter in soil the conclusion is reached

that it may be an unchanged plant residue. E. C. S.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Glycerides of fatty acids in soils.

Oswald Schreiner and Edmund C. Shorey. Journal of the

American Chemical Society, 33: 78. 1911.

There was isolated from a sample of soil (Elkton silt loam) a glyceride

liquid at room temperature. This gave on saponification oleic acid and

some unidentified solid fatty acids. The conclusion is that the gly-

ceride is a plant residue that has resisted decomposition in the soil.

E. C. S.

abstracts: geology 1~>7

GEOLOGY.— The geology of the Lake Superior Region. C. R. Van

Htse and C. K. Leith. Monograph CJ. S. Geological Survey No.

52. Pp. 630, with maps, sections, and views. 1911.

This monograph gives the first connected account of the geology of i he

Lake Superior region as a whole, with special reference to the iron-bear-

ing and copper-bearing formations. Attention is directed primarily to

the correlation of the formations, to the geologic history of the region,

and to the origin of the ores. In addition, there are brief chapters on

parts of the district which had not previously been reported on by the

United States Geological Survey.

The Lake Superior region, comprising approximately 181,000 square

miles, includes three topographic provinces: (1) the peneplain of the

Lake Superior highlands; (2) a series of lowland plains surrounding

the peneplain on the east, south, and west; and (3) the deep basin of

Lake Superior. These provinces are in various stages of development

and preservation.

The Pleistocene epoch is treated in four stages: (1) preglacial time,

when the topography was much as it is now except for certain valleys

that were later deepened by glacial erosion, broad areas that were after-

wards covered by glacial drift, and an entire contrast of drainage; (2)

the time of advancing glaciers, when the land was gradually being covered

and eroded by an ice sheet, drainage was being modified, and plants

and animals were being driven out; (3) the time of retreating glaciers,

when from an extreme stage of glaciation with only the Driftless Area

uncovered the present topography was revealed by the gradual melting

of a largely stagnant ice sheet; (4) the present stage of modification of

glacial deposits, building of stream and lake deposits, return of plants

and animals, and a general tendency toward the restoration of the con-

ditions that prevailed before glaciation.

The lowest rocks found in the region are those of the Archean system

or basement conplex, consisting of the Keewatin and Laurent ian series.

These are overlain successively by the Keweenawan and Huronian series,

which together make up the Algonkian system. In certain districts t he

Huronian is separable into two or three divisions, marked by uncon-

formities. None of these formations is fossiliferous. The Keewatin

series, where relatively unchanged is remarkably uniform in character.

and even the metamorphosed portions show features that indicate ori-

ginal identity with the less altered portions. The Keewatin comprises

a dominant igneous formation and a subordinate sedimentary formation.

158 abstracts: chemistry

The Laurentian series is represented by great masses of granite, grani-

toid gneiss, and syenite. Intermediate and basic rocks are subordinate.

The Laurentian intrudes the Keewatin series in masses ranging from

great batholiths many miles in diameter to dikes and minute injections.

It appears that the Archean was a period of regional igneous activity,

igneous rocks making up more than 90 per cent of the whole. This

activity, both plutonic and volcanic was on a tremendous scale.

The Algonkian system on the whole contrasts with the Archean in

being dominantly sedimentary, in being less metamorphosed, in having

a distinctly recognizable stratigraphic sequence, and in topography.

A subaerial deposition is regarded probable for the Keweenawan and the

lower Huronian of the North Shore. The upper Huronian, the greatest

carrier of iron ore, is regarded as a delta deposit. The iron-bearing for-

mations are regarded as having been derived partly from submarine

volcanic rocks, in magmatic solutions, or by the reaction of hot volcanic

material with sea water, or by weathering, or by some combination of

these methods. The Algonkian system comprises in its fullest develop-

ment four unconformable divisions — lower Huronian, middle Huronian,

upper Huronian, and Keweenawan.

For the most part the formation which overlies the Proterozoic rocks

is a nearly horizontal sandstone, generally recognized as Cambrian.

In general, the relations between this sandstone and the Proterozoic

rocks are those of most profound unconformity, except where Keween-

awan sandstones are the underlying beds.

Of the several periods of deformation, three stand out conspicuously

■ — that at the close of the Archean, throughout the region; that at the

cose of the lower-middle Huronian, mainly on the north shore; and that

at the close of the Keweenawan on the south shore. As a result of these

successive deformations the Lake Superior region is essentially an asym-

metric synclinorium with nearly east-west axis. The copper ores of the

Keweenawan are regarded as directly related to contemporaneous

volcanism.

Iron ores occur in a large number of the pre-Cambrian stratigraphic

subdivisions. The iron-bearing formations consist essentially of inter-

banded layers of iron oxide, silica, and combinations of the two, variously

called jasper or jaspilite (where anhydrous and crystalline) and ferrugin-

ous chert, taconite, or ferruginous slate (where softer and more or less

hydrous). These rocks become ore by local enrichment, largely by the

leaching out of silica and to a less extent by the introduction of iron oxide.

There are accordingly complete gradations between them and the iron

abstracts: geology I.V.I

ores. One of the most significant variations with reference to the origin

of the ore is in the relative abundance of greenalite rocks and siderite.

The average original iron content of the iron-bearing formations, thai

is, of the siderite and greenalite phases, exclusive of interbedded slati

as shown by all available analyses, is 24.8 per cent and of the ferruginous

cherts and jaspers, from which there has been but little leaching of silica,

26.33 per cent. The amphibole-magnetite phases of the formations show

approximately the same percentage. The average iron content of the

formations, as shown by all available analyses, different phases, including

the ores, being taken in proportion to their abundance, is 38 per cent.

A comparison of this figure with 24.8 per cent for the orginal siderite and

greenalite and 26.33 per cent for the ferruginous cherts and jaspers from

which silica has not been removed shows what secondary concentration

has accomplished. It is possible, however, that the ores have in part

been derived from the richer portions of the iron-bearing formations. So

far as this is true, the concentration has been less than these figures

indicate. The iron ores form but a very small part of the rocks of the

iron-bearing formations.

The following theses bear on the genesis of the iron ores: (1) These

ores are altered parts of chemically deposited sedimentary formations

that originally consisted mainly of cherty iron carbonate and greenalite.

(2) A few of the iron-ore deposits represent originally rich layers in which

secondary concentration has made only minor changes. (3) In by far

the greater number of deposits, including all the larger ones, secondary-

concentration has been the essential means of enriching iron-formation

layers to ores. (4) The conditions of sedimentation of the iron forma-

tion may be roughly outlined. (5) The weathering and erosion of bed-

rock surfaces of average composition is inadequate as a source of the

materials of the iron-bearing sediments; these materials have been de-

rived largely from basic igneous rocks. (6) Some of the sedimentation

accompanied or immediately followed each introduction of pre-Cambrian

basic igneous rocks into the outer zone of the earth and some took place

later under ordinary weathering conditions. (7) The chemistry of de-

position under such conditions may be approximated and the original

phases of the sedimentary iron-bearing formations may be synthesized

in the laboratory. (8) The subsequent oxidation of the iron-bearing

formations, the transfer of iron salts, and the leaching of silica by agents

carried in meteoric waters have concentrated the ores in all but an in

nificant portion of the deposits now mined. (9) This second concen-

tration has been localized by structural and topographic conditions.

160 abstracts: geology

(10) In some places before, and in other places after, concentration the

iron-bearing formations have been extensively modified by deformation

or by igneous contact effects such as tend to prevent further concentra-

tion. (11) The sequence of events in the formation of the ores may be

outlined for each district and for the region as a whole. (12) The de-

velopment of the ores in general represents a partial metamorphic cycle.

The iron-bearing formations are bedded and locally cross-bedded and

contain recognizable sedimentary material, such as iron carbonate,

greenalite, shale, sand, and conglomerate. The orignial constituents of

the iron-bearing formations were dominantly cherty iron carbonate and

iron silicate (greenalite) , with minor quantities of hematite and magnet-

ite and with varying amounts of mechanical sediments.

The close association of iron-bearing sediments with contemporaneous

basic eruptive rocks in the Lake Superior region and in other parts of

the world, the richness of these eruptive rocks in iron salts, and the prob-

able derivation of the upper Huronian slates associated with the iron-

bearing formations from the eruptions make it likely that these iron-rich

eruptive rocks were the principal source of the iron in the iron-bearing

sediments. As to the manner in which the iron was transferred from

the eruptive rocks to the place of sedimentation, there are several

hypotheses: (1) It may have been transferred in hot solutions migrating

from the eruptive material during its solidification and carrying iron

salts from the interior of the magma; (2) so far as the lavas were subaeri-

ally extruded, iron may have been transferred by the action of meteoric

waters, either hot or cold, working upon the crystallized iron minerals

of the rock ; (3) the iron may have been transferred by direct reaction of

the hot magma with sea water, in which the iron-bearing sediments were

deposited.

The essentially new features of the monograph are : (1) a much more

detailed and quantitative study of the secondary concentration of the

iron ores than has before been attempted; (2) the establishment of gen-

etic relationship between the primary iron-bearing beds and contempo-

raneous volcanism; (3) the interpretation of structure on a broad scale

as indicating the Lake Superior region to be essentially an old shore line

of heavy deposition, mountain-making, and volcanism; (4) the correla-

tio nof the iron and copper deposits of the Lake Superior region, as well

as the nickel, cobalt, and silver deposits in Ontario to the east, as all

related to volcanism, along an axis of folding parallel to the Lake Superior

syncline, all in the region of heavy shore line deposition in pre-Cambrian

times. C. K. L.

abstracts: agriculture and forestry 161

AGRICULTURE.— Soil erosion, W J McGee. Bulletin Bureau of

Soils, No. 71. Pp. 60, pis. 33. 1911.

The destructive erosion of soils is treated as an abnormal condition in

the relation between soil and water and the treatment is introduced by

an outline of the normal work of water. The soil is considered as of

three parts, viz., soil-body, soil-fluid, and soil-gas; and its efficiency

(measured by productivity) is ascribed primarily to physical conditions

permitting free circulation of the, fluid and gaseous parts through the

soil body and into growing crops. A working coefficient for the agri-

cultural duty of water is brought out, i.e., the production of one-thou-

sandth part of its weight in useful plant crop. The duty of soil, measured

in terms of the first acre-foot, is' also defined as the annual production of

one-three hundred thirty-third of its weight of useful plant crop. The

normal work of water is sculpturing the land surface and producing vege-

tal cover in a state of nature is analyzed and compared with the work of

water under the conditions attending settlement and cultivation of the

country; and it is shown that destructive erosion is one of the conse-

quences of interference with natural conditions. The development of

erosion following deforestation and injudicious cultivation is illustrated

by photographs reproduced in the plates. Remedies for such erosion

are described and illustrated; they include treatment of the soil, treat-

ment of the cover, and treatment of slopes, in such manner as to tend

toward restoration of the normal interrelations between natural water

supply, cover, and slope — the specific aim of the treatment in each case

being such improvement in cultivation as to yield immediate profit,

coupled with progressive increase in value of the land treated. W J M.

FORESTRY. — The Olympic National Forest: its resources and their

management. Findley Burns. Forest Service Bulletin No. 89.

Pp. 20, with map and illustrations. 1911.

The Olympic National Forest in northwestern Washington, with an

area of 1,594,000 acres, contains one of the heaviest stands of timber in

the United States. It approximates 25,500,000,000 board feel , and

Forest is capable of producing a sustained annual yield of 250,000

board feet. Douglas fir, western hemlock, amabilis and grand fir, and

Sitka spruce are the principal species. Present conditions in the lumber

industry in the northwest would make it unwise to cut each year the

amount of timber the Forest is capable of yielding. The Olympic

Forest was set apart to establish a timber reserve which could he drawn

162 abstracts: helminthology

upon for a supply when the immense stands on private holdings have

been cut away. Plans made for logging in the Forest for the next ten

years contemplate a cut during that period of 300,000,000 board feet.

While the Forest contains some mountain meadows, present conditions

are almost prohibitive of stock raising. Without the heavy forest

cover to check the swift runoff of the enormous winter rainfall, much

land on the Olympic Peninsula would be likely to suffer serious damage.

Extensive waterpowers await development, and the dense cover will be

of the utmost importance in preventing alterations in the character of

the streamflow. There is practically no mining development on the

Forest at present though both gold and copper have been found. The

region offers little opportunity for agriculture. F. B.

HELMINTHOLOGY. — Some known and three new endoparasitic trema-

todes from American fresh-water fish. Joseph Goldberger, U. S.

Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service. Bulletin Hygienic

Laboratory No. 71. 1911.

Leuceruthrus micropteri originally described by Marshall and Gilbert,

1905, is redescribed and some new points are added to the original

description. It is probable that the genus Leuceruthrus, of which this is

the type and only species, will be found to represent the type of at least

a new subfamily, Leuceruthrinae, and probably of a new family, Leuceru-

thridae of the superfamily Fascioloidea.

Two new species of Azygia, namely, A. acuminata and A. bulbosa

are described and some new points in the anatomy of Azygia loossii

Marshall and Gilbert, 1905, are added to the original description. A key

to the species of the genus is given, but it does not include Azygia sebago

Ward, 1910. The latter species is evidently very close to A. bidbosa.

The genus Hassallius is created for a new species, Hassallius hassalli

from the stomach of Ambloplites rupestris.

On some new parasitic trematode worms of the Genus Telorchis. Joseph

Goldberger. Bulletin Hygienic Laboratory No. 71.

The author considers Telorchis poirieri, Stossich, 1904 to be distinct

from Dist. poirieri (= Dist. gelatinosum'Pomer) Stossich, 1895 and proposes

for it the name Telorchis (cercorchis) stossichi. Two new species are

described and a key to the species of Telorchis is given.

A new species of Athesmia (A. foxi) from a monkey. Joseph Gold-

berger and Charles G. Crane. Bulletin Hygienic Laboratory No. 71.

The trematode genus Athesmia for many years included only the single

species described by Braun in 1899 under the name of Distomum hetero-

abstracts: conchology 163

lecithodes. The new species described by Goldberger and Crane is the

second species to be placed in this genus. It resembles Braun's form

very closely, but differs in being more slender, in having relatively shorter

ceca, in that the gut crosses at the equator of the vitellarium, and in thai

the vitellarium is more frequently on the right side of the body.

A New Trematode(StyplodoraBascaniensis) with a blind Laurer's canal.

Joseph Goldberger. Proceedings U. S. National Museum 40: 233-239.

1911.

The new species described stands close to Styphlodora solitaria Looss

and is of special interest because of the peculiarity of its Laurer's canal.

Instead of opening on the surface as with only one exception heretofore

known it always does, this duct ends blindly as a globular body of about

the size of the ovary very much as has been described for Aspidogaster

conchicola. This globular cecal end contains spermatozoa, sperm, moru-

las, round deeply staining bodies suggesting nuclei, and a few vitelline

cells. J. G.

COXCHOLOGY. — The recent and fossil mollusks of the genus Bittium

from the west coast of America. Paul Bartsch. Proceedings U. S.

National Museum, 40: 383-414, pis. 51-58. 1911.

This is a monograph of the west American members of this genus,

containing descriptions of the new sub-genus Lirobittium.

The following species and subspecies are described as new: (Bittium)

panamense, johnstonoe, (Semibittium) attenuatum boreale, attenuatum

latifdosum; subplanatum, nicholsi; (Lirobittium) catalinense inornatum.

ornatissimum munitoide, asperum lomaense, cerralvoense, (Semibittium)

larum, Bittium oldroydce, fetellum, giganteum, casmaliense, arnoldi,

and mexicanum. I'- B.

CONCHOLOGY— New mollusks of the genus Aclis from the North

Atlantic. Paul Bartsch. Proceedings U. S. National Museum,

40: 435-438, PI. 59. 1911.

Aclis dalli, cubana, rnshi, floridana, verrilli and carolinensis are de-

scribed as new. "• "■

164 abstracts: fisheries

FISHERIES. — Natural history of the American lobster. Francis

Hobart Herrick, Western Reserve University. Bulletin Bureau

of Fisheries, 29: 149-408, pis. 28-47. 1911.

After a preminary chapter upon the zoological relations, habits and

development of the lobsters and allied Crustacea, the author deals

first with the lobster in aspects of its economic importance — history and

methods of the fisheries, instincts and behavior of the animal and effect

of external conditions in relation to abundance. Growth and size are

discussed with reference to tradition and fact, and the process of molting

is the subject of a long fourth chapter, followed by an account of the

enemies of the lobster, parasites and messmates, diseases and fatalities.

The ensuing major portion of the work is occupied with the anatomy,

embryology and physiology of Homarus americanus, a full chapter being

given to the great forceps, another to the phenomena of defensive mutila-

tion and regeneration. Reproduction, development and rate of growth

are discussed at length with emphasis upon their significance in relation

to the lobster fisheries and lobster culture, and the book concludes with

a most practical discussion of methods of preservation and propagation

of the lobster.

Professor Herrick's conclusions and recommendations endorse the

theories and practices of Dr. A. D. Mead in his lobster-culture work for

the Rhode Island Fish Commission, the essential feature of which is the

rearing of artifically-hatched fry to the self-protective stage before liber-

ating them; and Professor Herrick also supports the arguments of Dr.

George W. Field, of the Massachusetts Board of Fish Commissioners in

regard to lobster laws. He criticizes and deprecates the prevalent

measures consisting of closed seasons, gage limits, and the planting of

artificially hatched fry. Closed seasons are futile because they do not

cover the ten-month and variable spawning period of the lobster; owing

to the increasing productiveness of the female lobster from year to year,

by leaps which bring the number of eggs from 10,000 at the 10-inch

size to 100,000 at 16 inches, the legalized destruction of all adults over

9 and 10 inches is a methodical proscription of the most indispensable

element in the race; while, since the lobster's rate of survival is probably

but 2 in 30,000, it would appear that all of the millions of lobster fry

planted on the coast of New England and the Provinces during the last

ten years would have had to be multiplied by 1250 to maintain the fishery

barely at equilibrium by this means. " If we would preserve this fishery, "

says Professor Herrick, " we must reverse our laws, as Doctor Field has

abstracts: ethnology 165

ably pointed out, and follow the principles of breeders of domestic

animals everywhere— use the smaller and better .-mini;, Is for food, and

keep the older, and in this case by far the most valuable, for propagation,"

Specific suggestions on these points are as follows :

1. Adopt a double gage or length limit, placing in a perpetual close

season or protected class all below and all above these limits. Place the

legal bar so as to embrace the average period of sexual maturity, and

thus to include what we have called the intermediate class of adoles-

cents, or smaller adults. These limits should be approximately !» inches

and 11 inches, inclusive, thus legalizing the destruction of lobsters from

9 to 11 inches long only when measured alive. In this way we protect

the young as well as the larger adults, upon which we depend for a con-

tinuous supply of eggs. The precise terms of these limits are not so vital.

provided we preserve the principle of protecting the larger adults.

2. Protect the "berried" lobster on principle, and pay a bounty for it .

as is now done, whether the law is evaded or not, and use its eggs for

constructive work, or for experimental purposes with such work in view.

3. Abolish the closed season if it still exists; let the fishing extend

throughout the year.

4. Wherever possible, adopt the plan of rearing the young to the

bottom-seeking stage before liberation, or cooperate with the United

States Bureau of Fisheries or with sister states to this end.

5. License every lobster fisherman, and adopt a standard trail or

pot which shall work automatically, so far as possible, in favor of the

double gage, the entrance rings being of such a diameter as to exclude

all lobsters above the gage, and the slats of the trap of such a distance

apart as to permit the undersized animals to escape.

There is appended a bibliography of 329 titles. The plates are chiefly

anatomical and diagrammatic, but three of them picture the young lob-

ster in its life colors. E. M. Smith.

ETHNOLOGY.— The Hoffman FJhilip Abyssinian Ethnological Col-

lection. Walter Hough. Proceedings I". S. National Museum.

40: 265-27(3, 22* plates. 1911.

A description of rare Abyssinian specimens deposited in the United

States National Museum by the Honorable Hoffman Philip, former

minister and consul-general of the United States at Addis Abeba, con-

sisting of metal work, basketry, paintings, manuscript, costume, etc..

which are interesting survivals of an earlier and higher civilization around

the eastern Mediterranean. W . II.

166 abstracts: references

REFERENCES

GEOLOGY. — Contributions to economic geology, 1£09, Part II, Mineral Fuels.

M. R. Campbell and others. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 431.

Pp. 254, with maps and sections. 1911. The volume compiles the follow-

ing papers: Natural gas in North Dakota, A. G. Leonard; The San Juan oil

field, San Juan County, -Utah, H. E. Gregory; Gas and oil prospects near

Vale, Oreg., and Payette, Idaho, G. W. Washburne; Gas prospects in Harney

Valley, Oreg., C. W. Washburne; Preliminary report on the geology and oil

prospects of the Cantua-Panoche region, Cal., Robert Anderson; The

southern part of the Cahaha coal field, Ala., Charles Butts; The Powell

Mountain coal field, Scott and Wise counties, Va., M. R. Campbell and E. G.

Woodruff; The eastern part of the Bull Mount-tin coal field, Mont., C. T.

Lupton; Preliminary report on the Coos Bay coal field, Oreg., J. S. Diller

and M. A. Pishel; The Black Mesa coal field, Ariz., M. R. Campbell and

H. E. Gregory; Coal deposits near Pinedale, Navajo County, Ariz., A. C.

Veatch; Coal in San Benito County, Cal., M. R. Campbell.

Mineral resources of Alaska: Report on investigations of, in 1910. Alfred

H. Brooks and others. Bulletin U.S. Geological Survey No. 480. Pp.333,

with maps and section. 1911. This publication contains thefollowing sepa-

rate papers: Administrative report, A. H. Brooks; Report on progress

of surveys of public lands in Alaska during 1910, A. H. Brooks; The ruining

industry in 1910, A. H. Brooks; Geologic features of Alaskan metalliferous

lodes, A. H. Brooks; Mining in southeastern Alaska, Adolph Knopf;

The Eagle River region, Adolph Knopf; The upper Susitna and Chistochina

districts, F. H. Moffit; Preliminary report on a detailed survey of part of

the Matanuska coal fields, G. C. Martin; A reconnaissance of the Willow Creek

gold region, F. J. Katz; Placer mining in the Yukon-Tanana region, C. E.

Ellsworth and G. L. Parker; Water supply of the Yukon-Tanana region,

1910, C. E. Ellsworth and.G. L. Parker; Mineral resources of the Bonnifield

region, S. R. Capps; Gold placer mining developments in the Innoko-Iditarod

region, A. G. Maddren; The Shungnak region, Kobuk Valley, P. S. Smith

and H. M. Eakin; The Squirrel River placers, P. S. Smith.

AGRICULTURE.— Soils of the eastern United States and their use. 1911. Circu.

lars of the Bureau of Soils as follows:

No. 22— Norfolk fine sandy loam. No. 23— Norfolk fine sand. No. 24— Ports-

mouth sandy loam. No. 25 — Sassafras silt loam. No. 27 — Cecil sandy loam.

No. 28 — Cecil clay.

AGRICULTURE.— Soil Surveys. (Advance Sheets— Field operations of the

Bureau of Soils, 1910) as follows:

Eastern Puget Sound Basin, Wash. (Reconnaissance.) A. W. Mangum.

Pp. 90. 4 Maps.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. I, OCTOBER 19, 1911. No. 6

PHYSICS. — The "correction for emergent stem" of the mercurial

thermometer. E. Buckingham. Communicated by C. W.

Waidner. To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Stand-

ards.

In defining the scale of the mercurial thermometer it is assumed

that the thermometer is all at the same temperature, as is the case

with "total immersion" in a bath of uniform temperature. When

a thermometer is standardized, the corrections are nearly always

stated for total immersion and in terms of the standard gas scale

of the laboratory where the test is made. If, subsequently, the

thermometer is used with only partial immersion, the mean tem-

perature of the emergent stem will be different from the temperature

of the bulb which it is desired to determine; and to allow for this

departure from the condition of total immersion, a "stem correc-

tion" must be applied to the observed reading before the correc-

tions given by the standardization become applicable.

The length, A, of this stem correction is given by the equation

A = l(t-f)a (1)

and its value, K, in degrees, by the equation

K= nl{t-f)a (2)

in which n is the number of degrees per unit length of the stem at

the level where the reading is made, I is the length of the emer-

gent stem, t is the true temperature of the bulb, and a is the mean

167

168 BUCKINGHAM: STEM CORRECTION OF THERMOMETERS

coefficient of apparent expansion of mercury in the glass of which

the stem is made between f and f°, both of which are to be

expressed in terms of the scale used during the standardization.

The correction is often of importance and may in extreme cases

exceed 30° C. The two chief methods for determining it are those

described by Guillaume and Mahlke.

In Guillaume's method, the quantity A is determined directly %

as a length. An auxiliary stem similar to a portion of the work-

ing stem, closed at both ends, partly filled with mercury, and pro-

vided with a scale of equal parts, is placed parallel and close to

the working stem and with its meniscus at the same level as that

in the working stem. The auxiliary stem must be long enough

that its lower end reaches into the region of uniform temperature

containing the bulb of the main thermometer, and the mean

temperature of the mercury column in the auxiliary stem is then

very nearly equal to that of the neighboring column of the same

length in the working stem. If the auxiliary stem were now

totally immersed the change in its reading would evidently be the

desired value of A.

If the conditions are such that total immersion of the auxiliary

stem is possible the determination of A becomes extremely simple.

The scale reading of the auxiliary stem is taken in the position

described above. The instrument is then totally immersed, left

a short time to take the temperature of the bath, raised again

just far enough for observation of the meniscus, and read immedi-

ately. The glass of the stem being thick and a poor conductor,

this second reading is very nearly the exact reading for total

immersion. The difference of the two readings is the value of A

in terms of the scale on the auxiliary stem.

If total immersion at the time of use is not possible, the auxili-

ary stem may be standardized separately and once for all by total

immersion in baths of known temperatures, so that its reading

for total immersion at any temperature f may be found from a

table. If t, which is the desired temperature, is known approxi-

mately, an approximate value of A may be found from a single

reading and the table. Greater accuracy requires a second

approximation by using a corrected value of t. For very accurate

BUCKINGHAM: STEM CORRECTION OF THERMOMETERS 169

work the auxiliary stem must be made of the same glass as tin-

working stem so that the two may be thermally as well as geo-

metrically similar and similarly placed.

In Mahlke's method the correction is not measured directly

as a length but is computed from equation (2). The mean tem-

perature, f°, of a length I of the working stem, including the emer-

gent part, is measured by a special "fadenthermometer" devised

by Mahlke for this purpose. The fadenthermometer has a long,

cylindrical, thick-walled bulb of similar dimensions and construc-

tion to a portion of the working stem, and is provided with a

still finer graduated capillary stem. When in use, it is placed

parallel and close to the working stem, with the upper end of its

bulb at the level of the meniscus in the working stem. The length

I in equation (2) is thus identical with that of the fadenthermom-

eter bulb. If the fadenthermometer has been standardized by

total immersion, its reading gives the mean temperature, /°, of

its bulb and therefore that of the adjacent length I, of the working

stem, for use in equation (2). The fadenthermometer may be

regarded as an auxiliary stem provided with a magnifying device

— the still finer capillary stem — for increasing the sensitiveness

and reducing the reading errors.

The theory of the use of the fadenthermometer presents some

difficulties, and the results obtained by it are subject to several

small errors which are not easily estimated or determined and

which while not of importance in ordinary work, may become so

in work of the highest accuracy. In the more extended form of

this paper the theory is discussed at some length. In addition,

data on the values of a for several thermometer glasses are given

in convenient tabular form for practical use, and suggestions are

given for the selection of the most suitable fadenthermometer

for use in a given piece of work, when several are available.

Careful examination of the relative merits of Guillaume's

and Mahlke's methods leads to the conclusion that the faden-

thermometer is not an improvement on the simple auxiliary stem

of uniform bore, and that its apparent advantages are illusory.

For work of moderate accuracy, either method is satisfactory,

though Guillaume's method is usually simpler in practice. For

work of the highest attainable accuracy, Guillaume's method is

to be preferred.

170 ALLEN: ORE DEPOSITION

GEOCHEMISTRY. — Studies in ore deposition with special

reference to the sulphides of iron. E. T. Allen, Geophysical

Laboratory. Communicated by A. L. Day.

General Principles. — The genesis of ores is essentially a chemi-

cal problem. It involves in each individual case the formation

of one or more minerals. Barring those rare instances in which

the geologist may be able to observe a mineral in the actual proc-

ess of formation, the conditions of formation have to be inferred

from the data obtained by field observation, supplemented by

what chemical information is available. At the present time our

chemical knowledge of minerals generally embraces something

of their behavior toward certain reagents, and often little, if any,

more. Accurate data on the genesis of most of them is still

wanting. This will have to be accumulated by actually forming

the minerals in the laboratory and studying the conditions in

systematic fashion. The questions of first importance in min-

eral synthesis concern, of course, the condition of temperature

and pressure and the composition of the systems in which the

minerals have formed.

By laboratory study, certain limits to these conditions may be

set, outside of which the mineral can not exist, though in general

the limits will be wide. Thus if we learn that a certain mineral

can not exist above 450°, we know only that the mineral in nature

must have formed somewhere between this point and the lowest

temperature which prevails in the earth's crust. It is quite

probable that we shall be able in many cases to narrow down these

temperature limits by the study of paragenesis. Thus if we

could determine the temperature limits of two different min-

erals which, on account of their intergrowth or otherwise, could

be shown to have formed at the same time, it would be certain

in that particular instance that the minerals formed inside the

temperature range which is common to both. Thus far, we have

been able to set these temperature limits for comparatively few

minerals, chiefly those which are capable of existing in more

than one crystal form. Here the temperature is often the most

important condition determining which crystal form shall appear.

ALLEN: ORE DEPOSITION 171

and this characteristic of the mineral may be taken as an index of

the temperature which prevailed in its genesis. In a similar way,

the composition of original solutions has to a slight extent been

determined, since it has been observed that crystal form is some-

times determined by the composition of the solution in which

the crystal grew. For the determination of pressure limits,

there is at present no method.

In drawing inferences regarding the genesis of natural minerals

from experiments in mineral synthesis, one must of course be

constantly on guard lest he mistake secondary for essential con-

ditions. It is therefore necessary for the chemist who works in

this field to keep in constant touch with the geologists.

The Sulphides of Iron. — In this paper we shall consider the

application of some of the above principles to the mineral sulphides

of iron which form one of the most important classes of the sul-

phide ores. The frequent association of these minerals, pyrite,

marcasite and pyrrhotite, with other valuable minerals of the

sulphide group would indicate that the knowledge of the condi-

tions of the genesis of the former might be applied to the latter

as well. Also the association of the different sulphides of iron

with one another have suggested several interesting problems of

more particular nature which will here be considered.

Pyrite and Marcasite. — Pyrite and marcasite,, the disulphides

of iron, often occur in such geological formations as to lead to the

belief that they were precipitated from cold surface solutions.

A typical case of this character is the deposit in the Mississippi

Valley. Geologists have reasoned that these and similar deposits

have been precipitated from sulphate solutions because surface

waters have frequently been observed by them to carry ferrous

and ferric sulphates which were formed by the oxidation of older

deposits of pyrite or marcasite thru the action of atmospheric

influences:

FeS2+7 O + H20 = FeS04 + H2S04.

Observation has gone a step farther. Recent pyrite has been

observed in wooden conduits, and on the twigs of trees which

have fallen into hot springs, and the fact that the same mineral

172 ALLEN: ORE DEPOSITION

occurs on coal and sometimes associated with asphalt has led

to the conclusion that the ferrous sulphate has been reduced in

some way by carbonaceous matter to FeS2. A disulphide ob-

viously could not be formed by simple reduction, but a more

complicated process in which ferrous carbonate would be one of

the products may be conceived of. The following equation in a

very imperfect way conveys this notion:

7 C + 4 FeS04 = 2 FeS2 + 2 FeC03 + 5 C02

Omitting details, it may be stated that experiments which have

been directed toward the formation of pyrite and marcasite thru

the agency of carbonaceous matter have been entirely without

result. A possibility of synthesis is suggested by the fact that

pyrite and marcasite are very commonly associated with other

sulphides of a simpler nature, such as sphalerite and galena which

are directly precipitated by hydrogen sulphide. Experiments

have in fact shown that both pyrite and marcasite may be ob-

tained by the action of hydrogen sulphide on ferric sulphate

solutions. It is well-known that ferric sulphate is directly reduced

by hydrogen sulphide to ferrous sulphate with a simultaneous

precipitation of sulphur, but it had not previously been noticed

that the further action of hydrogen sulphide and sulphur on

ferrous sulphate slowly gives rise to a dark precipitate having

the composition FeS2. This reaction, which we may represent

by the equation

FeS04 + H2S + S = FeS2 + H2S04

takes place even at ordinary temperature, though quite slowly.

A microscopic examination of product proves that it is distinctly

crystalline, tho the crystals are minute. If the reaction is allowed

to go on at a sufficiently high temperature in a sealed glass tube,

say 200° C, the crystals grow large enough to measure, and

it has been found that they are partly marcasite — a mineral

which has not previously been made artificially. A method was

devised by H. N. Stokes for the analysis of mixtures of natural

pyrite and marcasite which we have used to great advantage

on the laboratory products. It consists in the oxidation of the

ALLEN: ORE DEPOSITION 173

sulphides by a dilute solution of ferric sulphate. The products

of the reaction are ferrous sulphate, sulphur, and sulphuric acid

for both minerals, but the relative quantities of the products

are decidedly different, Only 14 per cent of the sulphur in mar-

casite is thus oxidized to sulphuric acid, the rest being precip-

itated as free sulphur, while 56 per cent of the sulphur in pyrite is

oxidized. It is thus possible to determine in any mixture of

the two sulphides the percentage of each. As was stated above,

the action of hydrogen sulphide on a mixture of ferrous sulphate

and sulphur gives in general a mixture of both pyrite and marca-

site, and the application of Stokes' method has proved that there

are two essential conditions which determine the proportions of

the two; these are temperature and acidity. The higher the

temperature during the reaction, the greater is the percentage of

pyrite obtained. It is also true that the lower the acidity of

the solution, the greater is the percentage of pyrite formed, until,

when the solution becomes neutral or alkaline, the product is

practically all pyrite. The equation on p. 172 shows that it is

not possible to maintain the solution neutral when hydrogen

sulphide acts on ferrous sulphate and sulphur, for sulphuric acid

is one of the products, but if we substitute suspended ferric

hydroxide for the ferrous salt, the solution remains neutral, if we

waive the question of the weakly acid nature of hydrogen sulphide

itself. Another way in which we can command the same essential

conditions is to heat pyrrhotite or ferrous sulphide with free

sulphur and a water solution of hydrogen sulphide which contains

a very little sodium bicarbonate. This solution dissolves and

carries over the sulphur to the pyrrhotite, thus forming FeSj in a

practically neutral solution and the result is pyrite.

An alkaline solution of sodium polysulphide precipitates from

a ferrous salt an amorphous mixture of ferrous sulphide and

sulphur, but these combine slowly under the influence of heat,

and probably, even at the ordinary temperature, with the forma-

tion of pyrite.1 These data enable us to draw some important

1 At the lower temperatures (100°) amorphous disulphide appears to be the

6rst product.

174 ALLEN: ORE DEPOSITION

conclusions relating to the formation of these minerals in nature.

(1) We know that the mineral marcasite can be formed by the

action of hydrogen sulphide on ferric sulphate solutions, or,

what comes to the same thing, a solution containing ferrous sul-

phate2 and hydrogen sulphide to which the air finds some access.

If the solution contains as much as 1 per cent of free sulphuric

acid and the temperature is not above 100°, the product is all

marcasite. It is also not improbable that pure marcasite can

form at a higher temperature if the solution is still more acid.

Now, these conditions agree strikingly with what we find about

the genesis of marcasite from field study. It is always a surface

mineral, presumably formed from surface solutions at low tem-

peratures. It is also a matter of common knowledge that such

solutions when they contain iron usually carry it in the form of

sulphate, together with sulphuric acid, since they result from the

oxidation of an older body of pyrite or marcasite. (2) We know

that pyrite forms from solutions which are neutral or alkaline

by the action of alkaline polysulphides on ferrous salts and by

the action of hydrogen sulphide on ferric hydroxide. Both reac-

tions are essentially the union of ferrous sulphide and sulphur

in a neutral or alkaline medium. Coming again to the deduc-

tions from field observation, it is found that pyrite is always

deposited by hot waters instead of marcasite, and that deep veins

which formed under comparatively high temperatures also con-

tain pyrite, never marcasite. Now, hot terrestrial waters are

practically always alkaline, not only because silicates are hydro-

lized by hot waters with the necessary formation of an alkaline

solution,3 but because if a strong acid were allowed to act on rocks

at the high temperatures which prevail in the depths of the

earth's crust, chemical action would soon neutralize it by the

decomposition of carbonates, silicates, etc. (3) Pyrite and mar-

casite form together when hydrogen sulphide acts on ferric sul-

phate unless the percentage of free acid and the temperature are

2 It is not essential to use the sulphate; any other ferrous salt will suffice.

3 This, of course, postulates the presence of some alkali or alkaline earth metal

in the rocks, but some of these metals are practically always present.

ALLEN: ORE DEPOSITION 175

sufficiently low. The quantity of free sulphuric acid must be

about 1 per cent at 100° to insure the formation of marcasite free

from pyrite, while at 300° it must be considerably more, if indeed it

is possible to get a product free from pyrite at that temperature.

Pyrite and marcasite are very commonly found together in

nature, often in the same hand specimen and sometimes inter-

grown. Altho in some cases the two minerals probably belong

to different periods of deposition, it seems entirely probable, in

view of the laboratory results, that in other cases they are con-

temporaneous.

The Relation of Marcasite to Pyrite. — When marcasite is heated

to a temperature of 450° C, under conditions which preclude

oxidation, it changes to pyrite. Not only does its color become

yellower and its density higher (the density of marcasite is 4.889,

that of pyrite 5.02), but its behavior with a ferric sulphate solu-

tion proves conclusively that it has become pure pyrite; for while

at the start the ferric sulphate oxidized only 14 per cent of the

sulphur of all the marcasite it decomposed, now it oxidizes 56

per cent. In a comparatively simple way, it can be shown that

heat is set free during this change, which proves, of course, that

marcasite possesses more energy than pyrite. Pyrite cannot

be changed directly into marcasite, i.e., the change is irreversible

and marcasite is what is called a monotropic form. The question

of the chemical constitution of the two forms will not be discussed

here, except that it may be remarked that they appear to be poly-

morphic forms in which the difference is one of crystalline structure

rather than of a chemical nature. More important for the prob-

lems of ore deposition is the significance of the temperature at

which the change occurs. It goes on at 450° very slowly and could

not be detected at 400° in a period of four hours. It will be ob-

served, therefore, that marcasite cannot have formed in nature

above 450° and any minerals which can be shown to have been

precipitated at the same time with marcasite are subject of course

to the same limitation. Pressure can not be invoked to qualify

this statement, for a pressure of several thousand atmospheres

was found not to accelerate the change. We may also conclude

that a paramorph of pyrite after marcasite would show that the

176 ALLEN: ORE DEPOSITION

original crystal had been subjected to a temperature the lower

limit of which lies somewhere between 350° and 450°, because at

300° marcasite crystals were found not to be changed to pyrite,

either by acid or alkaline solutions.

Pyrrhotite can be readily formed by the decomposition of pyrite

in hydrogen sulphide at temperatures above 575°. The higher

the temperature is carried, the more sulphur is lost, and a product

formed at high temperatures, say at 800° to 1100° C, takes up

more sulphur when heated in hydrogen sulphide below that tem-

perature. Although it is somewhat aside from the main purpose,

of this article, viz., to discuss certain problems of ore deposition,

it may nevertheless be of sufficient interest to remark in regard

to the mooted question of the true chemical formula for pyrrho-

tite, that this mineral is really variable in composition, at the

same time preserving its homogeneity; in other words, ferrous

sulphide can dissolve a quantity of sulphur depending on the

temperature like any other solubility. At 600° the maximum

quantity dissolved is 6.0 per cent. We may if we please repre-

sent such a solid solution by the formula (FeS)Sx.

Under the experimental conditions thus far tested {i.e., heating

pyrrhotite in dry H2S) a solution containing only about 6.0

per cent can be obtained after which further sulphur changes

pyrrhotite into pyrite. The pyrrhotite of nature doubtless

formed from solution, yet it is remarkable that the highest per-

centages of sulphur in the natural mineral range in the neighbor-

hood of 6 per cent dissolved sulphur {i.e., about 40 per cent of

total sulphur).

Geological observation leads to the conclusion that vein form-

ing solutions, doubtless polysulphides, change pyrrhotite to pyrite,

and phenomena are observed about contacts which lead to the belief

that the reverse action, the decomposition of pyrite into pyrrho-

tite and sulphur, occurs. In the neighborhood of contact intru-

sive masses, where the sulphides of iron occur, pyrrhotite is

found close to the contact where the temperature was highest

and pyrite in the colder zones. It is commonly held by geologists

that in nature pyrrhotite was formed from the same solutions

as silicates like olivine and augite. The experimental difficulties

are at present too great to attack this question.

schaller: the rutile group 177

In conclusion, the author wishes to express his indebtedness

to Drs. J. L. Crenshaw and John Johnston, and Mr. Esper Larsen,

in collaboration with whom the experimental data for this article

were worked out; and to Dr. F. L. Ransome and W. H. Emmons,

and especially to W. Lindgren, for geological data.

MINERALOGY. — A study of the rutile group. Waldemar T.

Schaller. To appear in a bulletin, " Mineralogical Notes,

Series II." of the U. S. Geological Survey.

A theoretical study is made of the minerals comprising the rutile

group — rutile, cassiterite, mossite, tapiolite, nigrine, iserite, ainal-

ite, ilmenorutile and struverite. It is shown that they are all

either members or mixtures of members of a group of "primary

compounds", of which there are six chief ones, namely, ferrous

columbate Fe(Cb03)2, ferrous tantalate Fe(Ta03)2, ferrous tit-

anate Fe(Ti03), titanyl titanate (TiO)(Ti03), stannyl stannate

(SnO)(Sn03) and ferrous stannate Fe(Sn03). A study of all

the available analyses of these minerals proves the validity of the

assumptions made and it is concluded that of these minerals only

three, tapiolite, rutile and cassiterite, are definite species. Ilmen-

orutile (and struverite from Italy) is an isomorphous mixture of

compounds, in which iron, tantalum, columbium, and titanium

are present in quantity; struverite from South Dakota is a col-

umbic ilmenorutile; mossite is a columbic tapiolite; nigrine and

iserite are ferrous rutiles; ainalite is tantalic cassiterite; and the

various cassiterites from Mexico are ferrous cassiterites, arsenical

cassiterites, etc.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Magnetic chart errors and secular

changes in the Indian Ocean. L. A. Bauer and W. J. Peters.

Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity.

1911.

This article gives a summary of the magnetic declinations together

with geographic positions as determined on the Carnegie during her

recent cruise from Cape Town to Colombo, Ceylon, and thence to Mau-

ritius, in April to August, 1911. The tables of values are supplemented

by the corresponding values scaled from a British Admiralty chart of

1907, the German chart of 1910, and the United States Hydrographic

Office chart of 1910, these values being referred approximately to the

time of observation by secular changes as indicated on the respective

charts. The differences between the Carnegie values and those of the

various charts are given. With the exception of a few values during the

first part of the cruise from Cape Town the chart errors are always nega-

tive, that is to say, the chart values are too low and hence a value of

west declination scaled from any of the charts mentioned must be

increased to make it correspond with that of the Carnegie. The errors

are unusually large, running up at times to 4°, and for one of the charts

is even as much as 6°. These chart errors, while partly due to the defec-

tive spacing of the lines of equal magnetic declination, are to be referred

chiefly to erroneous secular changes applied to the previous data on

which the charts depend.

From a comparison of the Carnegie values with those of the German

Antarctic ship, the Gauss, made in 1903 by Dr. Bidlingmaier, secular

variation data may be obtained. The following values for secular change

result from the consideration of means at points common to the two

vessels. For the region of the mean south latitude 37° 29' and east

178

abstracts: terrestrial magnetism 179

longitude 25° 52', the average annual change is -10'.9; for the region

of the mean south latitude 35° 16' and east longitude 74° 46' the mean

average annual change is +13'.2; and for the region of the mean south

latitude 25° 17' and east longitude 60° 35' the average annual change is

+5'.4. The mean secular changes corresponding, as taken from the

British Admiralty chart and the United States Hydrographic Office chad

above referred to, are respectively - 2'.5, +2'.5, - 2'.2. The plus Bign al -

tached to the secular change indicates that west declination is at presenl

increasing for the locality, the minus sign meaning of course the reverse.

It will be noticed that the charts give considerably smaller values, and

in the last case values of reversed sign. The large changes and the

rapid variation with geographic position are to be especially noted.

The errors of the charts in magnetic inclination reach a maximum of

about 3 degrees and in horizontal intensity of a unit in the second deci-

mal C.G.S. J. A. Fleming.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Comparisons of magnetic observa-

tory standards by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. J. A.

Fleming. No. 1. Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmos-

pheric Electricity, 16: 61-84, pi. IV. 1911. No. 2. To appear in

same Journal.

A summary is given of the intercomparison observations made at

various magnetic observatories throughout the world by the Depart-

ment of Terrestrial Magnetism for March, 1911. The accuracy striven

for is such that will be sufficient for ordinary magnetic survey purposes

and for this reason the intercomparisons are made with the usual field

instruments and methods and in the course of regular field work as

opportunity permits. Detailed descriptions of the various instrument s

used and their constants are given. The methods of observation fol-

lowed are according to the usual scheme of work at land stations, no

elaboration except in number being attempted.

The corrections of each instrument used are all referred to the pro-

visional international magnetic standards of the Department.1 These

corrections are determined by observations at Washington, which are

made practically under the same conditions as prevail in the field and

involve simultaneous observations with both the standard instrument

1 Bauer, L. A., Preliminary note on International Magnetic Standard. Terr.

Mag., 12: 161- 165. 1907.

180 abstracts: chemistry

and the one being compared, as well as the interchange of instruments

and observers between the stations, in order that there may be no uncer-

tainty from ignorance of the precise station difference, if any, due to

local attraction, either natural or an unsuspected artificial one. Speci-

mens of such intercomparisons are given in detail.

The intercomparisons reported upon were made at the following obser-

vatories: Sitka, Alaska; Potsdam, Germany; Kew, England; Falmouth,

England; Pola, Austria; Toronto, Canada; Tiflis, Russia in Europe;

Tashkent, Russia in Asia; Baldwin, United States; Cheltenham,

United States; Zi-ka-wei, China; Dehra Dun, India; Helwan, Egypt;

Havana, Cuba; Hongkong, China; Honolulu, Hawaii; Vieques, Porto

Rico; Alibag, India; Apia, Samoa; Pilar, Argentine Republic; Sydney

and Melbourne, Australia; Christchurch, New Zealand. By means of

the results obtained by the Department at Kew and Potsdam further

intercomparisons of observatory standards are obtained indirectly

through the recent work of Dubinsky and Kiihl at additional observa-

tories as follows: Upsala, Sweden; Pavlovsk and Katharinenburg,

Russia in Europe; Rude Skov, Denmark; Irkutsk, Russia in Asia;

de Bilt, Netherlands; and Val Joyeux, France. The indirect compari-

sons are of especially great interest because of the conception given by

them of the relative precision obtainable with entirely different types

of instruments and independently determined constants.

From a summary of the comparisons it appears that the provisional

standard adopted by the Department in declination is perhaps from 0.3

to 0.5 minute too high for east declination; in dip a corresponding amount

too low in northerly inclination; and in horizontal intensity as much as

0.0001H to 0.0002H too high. The probable errors of the determina-

tions are quite small, rarely exceeding 0.1 minute in declination, 0.3

minute in inclinations, and 0.00005H in horizontal intensity. The

uncertainties involved in reductions for diurnal variation are much larger

than the order of the probable errors but they may be considerably

reduced by suitably selecting the time for observation. J. A. F.

CHEMISTRY.— A ssay of Lactic Acid. Elias Elvove, Hygienic

Laboratory, Public Health and Marine Hospital Service. American

Journal of Pharmacology, 83: 14-19. 1911.

The United States Pharmacopoeia specifies a lactic acid containing

75 per cent of true lactic acid and having a specific gravity of 1.206 at

25° C. An acid of this specific gravity should contain about 85 per

cent of true lactic acid. This anomalous specification is due to the inac-

curacy of the pharmacopceial method of estimation, which involves

abstracts: agricultural chemistry 1M

direct titration of the boiling acid. In the procedure which is recom-

mended, 50 cc. of normal sodium hydroxide arc added to aboul 2 grams

of the acid and the excess of alkali is titrated with normal sulphuric

acid after the mixture has remained for thirty minutes at ordinary

temperature, using phenolphthalein as indicator. E. E.

CHEMISTRY. — Use of sulphur dioxide in checking strengths of volumetric

solutions of iodine, alkali, and silver. Elias Elvove, Hygienic

Laboratory, Public Health and Marine Hospital Service. American

Journal of Pharmacology, 83: 19-23. 1911.

A scheme is outlined for basing the determination of the strengths of

volumetric solutions on pure silver as a standard. The solutions would

be prepared in the following order, each serving as a standard for the

succeeding one: ammonium thiocyanate (standardised against pure

silver), silver nitrate, hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, oxalic acid,

potassium permanganate, sodium thiosulphate, iodine. To control

the standardisation, 25 cc. of the standard iodine solution is just de-

colorised by freshly prepared sulphur dioxide solution and the acid formed

titrated with the standard sodium hydroxide solution. The total iodide

in this neutralised solution could then be determined by adding excess

of silver nitrate and titrating the excess of silver with standard ammon-

ium thiocyanate, allowance being made for the pure potassium iodide

used in preparing the iodine solution. E. E.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— The toxic action of organic coin-

pounds as modified bij fertilizer salts. Oswald Schkeiner and J. J.

Skinner. Science, 33: 340. 1911.

The action of fertilizer salts in restraining the harmful influence of

certain organic compounds was studied, as wrell as the effect of the com-

pounds on absorption. The culture solutions comprised all possible

ratios of the three principal fertilizer elements; phosphate, nitrate and

potassium, varying in 10 per cent stages.

The various fertilizer salts acted differently in overcoming the respec-

tive harmful effects of the toxic compounds. The mainly phosphatic

fertilizers were the most efficient in overcoming the cumarin eff<

the mainly nitrogenous fertilizers in overcoming the vanillin effect-;

the mainly potassic in overcoming the quinone effects.

The cumarin depressed potash and nitrate removal from nutrienl

solution more than phosphate; the quinone, on the other hand, depre

phosphate and nitrate more than potash; the effect of vanillin was not

determined in this regard. Dihydroxystearic acid, which, us previously

182 ABSTEACTS: PHAKMACOLOGY

reported appears to act much as does vanillin, depressed phosphate and

potash more than nitrate. In this respect again the influence of the

various harmful substances is different.

The conclusion is drawn that different toxic substances produce

definite effects in their action on plants and that the effects are modi-

fied differently by the different fertilizer salts. M. X. Sullivan.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Biochemical factors in soil. M. X.

Sullivan. Science, 33: 543. 1911.

The soil is not an inert reservoir for plant food but is the seat of physi-

cal, chemical and vital actions, the biochemical factors being especially

prominent. Numerous bodies which occur in soils and arise either in

the metabolic activities of micro-organisms or are left in the soil after

the decomposition of the plant and animal debris and perhaps offer

also as a result of excretion from roots or from cell sloughing, play a

considerable role in soil fertility. Some of these substances are harmful

to plants, some beneficial. Fertilizers modify the physiological func-

tions of the micro-organisms by bringing about suitable conditions for

their development, in stimulating or retarding their digestion of inert

bodies, and in furthering their en zymotic functions. Soils per se have

oxidizing and catalyzing properties, while poor soils have these functions

in a much lessened degree. Oxidation in subsoils, which are of much

poorer productivity than surface soil, is usually slight. M. X. S.

PHARMACOLOGY. — The yharmacopozial standard for desiccated thy-

roid glands. Reid Hunt and Atherton Seidell, Hygienic Labora-

tory, Public Health and Marine Hospital Service. American

Journal of Pharmacy, 83: 407-411 (Sept.) 1911.

The parallelism between the iodine content and physiological activity

of thryoid having been established, the authors call attention to the

advantages of the method of Hunter (J. Biol. Chem., 7 : 321-349. 1910),

over the older Baumann method for the estimation of the organically

combined iodine of thyroid, and suggest the incorporation of the Hunter

method in the pharmacopoeial description of this drug. On the basis

of the analysis of a large number of commercial desiccated thyroid sam-

ples, a standard iodine content of 0.2 per cent, with a maximum varia-

tion of 0.03 per cent above or below this figure is recommended. The

limit for moisture is placed at 6 per cent, and that for ash at 5 per cent.

Attention is called to the improbability of the claim that some recently

prepared thyroid preparations contain thyroid iodine compound in a

super active form. A. S.

abstracts: geology is:;

GEOLOGY. — Geology and underground waters of northeastern Texas.

C. H. Gordon. Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geological Survey

No. 276. Pp. 78, with maps, sections, and views. 1911.

Geologic formations that outcrop are (1) upper Cretaceous,

(2) lower Tertiary, and (3) surficial deposits. In addition there are

sands, silts, and clays of Pleistocene age and the flood-plain deposits

of the present streams. Seven water-bearing horizons have been recog-

nized, ranging in age from lower Cretaceous to Eocene.

Warping of the old Jurassic land-surface, which preceded and accom-

panied the deposition of later formations, gave the beds a gentle slope

toward the Gulf of about 55 feet per mile.

Upon the upper Cretaceous beds in the south half of the district,

without recognized stratigraphic break, lie sands, clays, and ferruginous

sandstones belonging to the Eocene. At the beginning of the Eocene

slight warping enlarged the Mississippi embayment, causing overlap

of early Eocene beds upon the Cretaceous contemporaneous with marked

change in fauna. During Eocene time near-shore or swampy condi-

tions prevailed with an occasional submergence by the ocean. No Oli-

gocene or Miocene deposits have been recognized. The Miocene was

essentially a period of erosion, and if deposits of Oligocene age were laid

down they were afterwards removed. During the Pliocene a mantle

of sand, silt, and gravel was* spread over the eroded surface, and was in

turn eroded. Further Pleistocene deposition succeeded, giving rise

to marine and fluviatile (Port Hudson formation) deposits. Erosion

followed again, leaving the present flood plains and principal terrace-.

H. D. McCaskey.

GEOLOGY.— Sewickley, Pa., Folio. M. J. Munn. Geologic Atlas of

the United States, No. 176. Pp. 16, with maps and sections.

U. S. Geological Survey. 1911.

Outcropping formations include the Allegheny, Conemaugh and Mo-

nongahela, of the Pennsylvanian series of the Carboniferous, and

aggregate about 800 feet in thickness. Deep borings indicate

1200 feet of underlying Devonian and Carboniferous strata. The

dip is south-southeast, at about 50 feet to the mile. Detailed study

of the oil sands indicates greater folding in the older buried beds

than in those above. It is suggested that the pre-Pottsville rocks were

slightly folded during the early Pottsville uplift, developing lines of

weakness followed by the post-Carboniferous folds. The Pleistocene

is represented by four terrace formations, of which all but the oldest

are outwash glacial gravels. H. D. McCaskey.

184 abstracts: economic geology and hydrology

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. — Reconnaissance of the ore deposits of north-

ern Yuma County, Arizona. Howland Bancroft. Bulletin U. S.

Geological Survey No. 451. Pp. 130, with maps, sections, and

views. 1911.

The oldest rocks are granites and gneisses, probably Archaean, together

with a group of highly altered sediments, with some igeneous rocks,

cut by numerous intrusives of pre-Cambrian age. Some massive

granite is provisionally assigned to the Mesozoic, and a series of volcanics

with some sediments is regarded as Tertiary. Quaternary deposits

are represented by conglomerate and basalt.

Mineralization took place in the pre-Cambrian, Mesozoic, and Ter-

tiary periods.

Auriferous quartz veins and mineralized shear zones occur in the pre-

Cambrian rocks. Another type of auriferous deposit, also of pre-Cam-

brian age, is represented by quartz siderite stringers in amphibolite

schists and limestones. The largest deposits of copper and iron occur

as irregular, veins in shear zones in the amphibolitic and chloritic rocks

and as replacements of limestone. Copper also occurs in shear zones

and fissure veins in the Archaean gneiss and as fissure veins in the Ter-

tiary lavas. Contact-metamorphic copper deposits are found in the

zones of metamorphism between the limestones and Mesozoic intrusives.

A. H. Brooks.

HYDROLOGY. — The quality of the surface looters of Illinois. W. D.

Collins. Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geological Survey, No. 239.

Pp. 94, 3 plates. 1910.

A cooperative investigation was conducted in 1906 and 1907 by the

United States Geological Survey, the State Water Survey of Illinois,

the engineering experiment station of the University of Illinois, and the

State Geological Survey of Illinois for the study of the chemical compo-

sition of Illinois waters, their action on boilers, the purification of them

for industrial and domestic use, and other similar problems. Stations

were established on the principal rivers and reservoirs of the State at

26 places where daily samples of water were collected for one year for

mineral analysis. The report discusses these analyses in relation to

the sources of the mineral matter, its effect in economic uses of the water,

and the cost methods of reducing its quantity. A noteworthy feature

is the correlation of mineral content with stream discharge, typified by

the computations of the relative components of Mississippi River at

Chester. The physical and economic conditions that affect the quality

of the waters are considered especially in reference to trades wastes.

abstracts: botany and technology 185

The paper is concluded by tables of 700 analyses of water made during

the study. It is a source of definite detailed information regarding the

chemical composition of the surface waters of Illinois. R. B. Dole.

BOTANY.— Inheritance of the "eye" in Vigna. W. J. Spillman. Amer-

ican Naturalist, 45: Sept. 1911.

Certain races of the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) have the seed coat

pigmented only in certain areas. In all such cases the pigmented area

includes the region about the hilum and is called the eye. It varies

widely in size and form.

Genetic studies of these races has demonstrated that there arc two

genetically distinct types of eye, both recessive. When the two types

of eye are brought together in the same individual by proper cross-

breeding, the resulting form of eye is that of the common eyed races of

peas, in which there is a small pigmented area about the hilum. One

type, without the other, gives a pigmented area covering something

over half the surface of the seed ; the other type alone gives a pigmented

area about the hilum, the edges of the area being indistinct, fine dots

of pigment extending into the unpigmented area and covering the micro-

pilar end of the seed.

It is shown that four different hypotheses regarding the nature of

the hereditary factors responsible for the eye are in accord with the

genetic behavior of the characters in question. W. J. S.

«

TECHNOLOGY. — The diffusion of crude petroleum through fidler's

earth, with notes on its geologic significance. J. Elliott Gilfin

and Oscar E. Bransky. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No.

475. Pp. 50. 1911.

When a solution of benzene and a paraffin oil diffuses upward through

a tube packed with fuller's earth, the benzene collects below and the

paraffin oil above. When crude petroleum diffuses a fractionation

occurs. The oil from the top of the tube possesses a lower specific

gravity than that from the bottom. As the fractionation proceeds the

range of specific gravity covered becomes smaller, indicating the pro-

duction of mixtures which will finally pass through the earth unaltered.

The amounts of unsaturated hydrocarbons and sulphur compounds in

the fractions increase gradually from the lightest oils above to the heav-

ier oils below.

Fuller's earth retains the unsaturated hydrocarbons and sulphur

compounds in petroleum, thus exercising a selective action upon the

oil, H. D. McCaskey.

186 abstracts: references

REFERENCES

ENGINEERING. — Progress report of experiments in dust prevention and road

preservation, 1910. Circular 94, Office of public roads, Department of Agri-

culture. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in Ohio, 1909 and 1910. R. B. Marshall. Bulletin

U. S. Geological Survey No. 476. Pp. 79. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in Texas, 1896 to 1910, inclusive. R. B. Marshall.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 468. Pp. 133. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in South Dakota, 1896 to 1910, inclusive. R. B. Mar-

shall. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 472. Pp. 54. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in Missouri, 1896 to 1909, inclusive. R. B. Marshall.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey. No. 459. Pp. 48. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in Ioiva, 1896 to 1909, inclusive. R. B. Marshall.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 460. Pp. 32. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in Michigan and Wisconsin, 1897 to 1909, inclusive.

R. B. Marshall. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No . 461 . Pp.64. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in Oregon, 1896 to 1910, inclusive. R. B. Marshall.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 462. Pp. 82. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in Arizona, 1899 to 1909, inclusive. R. B. Marshall.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 463. Pp. 94. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in New Mexico, 1902 to 1909, inclusive. R. B. Mar-

shall. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 464. Pp. 53. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi , 1896 to 1909,

inclusive. R.B.Marshall. Bulletin U.S. Geological Survey No. 458. Pp.

79. 1911.

Results of spirit leveling in West Virginia, 1909 and 1910. R. B. Marshall

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 477. Pp. 54. 1911.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. I, NOVEMBER 4, 1911. No. 7

APPLIED MATHEMATICS.— A criterion for best magnitudes

in precise measurement. Mayo Dyer Hersey, Bureau of

Standards. Communicated by L. A. Fischer.

In the determination of a quantity y from observations upon

the independent quantities X\, x2). . . xn with which y is connected

by the relation

there is frequently an option as to the order of magnitude which

shall be assigned to the rr's before setting up apparatus. The

problem of best magnitudes has long been recognized as a funda-

mental one in the theory of the precision of measurements, but

available discussions are limited in their usefulness by the assump-

tion of constant errors or proceed by a step-by-step calculation

invented anew for each problem.1

The present analysis aims to formulate the reasoning once for

all, setting up a general criterion from which special cases may be

derived at will.

This is accomplished by the consideration of two functions 4>

and 6 beside the function / characterizing the instrument or

method. If in general Ax denote an error in the observed quan-

1 See, for example, Holman, "Precision of Measurements," pp. 100-119;

Mellor, "Higher Mathematics for Students of Chemistry and Physics," pp. 531 •

540; Baum, "General Method for Determining Best Reading of an Instrument

for Least Error," Phys. Rev. 1899: pp. 181-182.

187

188 hersey: criterion for best magnitudes

tity x, then the function 4>(x) is defined by the statement

Ax = <t>{x)-e, where the constant e represents this error at some

designated region of x, such as the zero point of a scale. On the

other hand, if Ay be the resultant error, then the function Q(y) is

defined by the understanding that it is Q(y) • Ay that we wish

to make a minimum by our choice of best magnitudes for the x's.

Granting that the resultant error is

*V= 2

dy

-f- • AxT

^-* dxr

r = l *

it is seen that to make Q(y)- Ay a minimum, requires a minimum

for

r = n

r=l r

Differentiating by any particular x such as xk will lead to the fol-

lowing condition for a maximum or minimum if we simplify the

notation by omitting functional parentheses and by letting p

stand for df/dx, and if we cast out as physically zero all deriva-

tives of 4>r by xk except that of 0k itself:

sJr2**ft+*li*+-IN*5?r-0 (1)

9 dxK f* dxK f* dxK

This equation is the type for a series of n simultaneous equations,

the group constituting the criterion.

Those who are partial to the theory of probability will remark

that we have taken for Ay the actual error > y- Ax and not

the (smaller) probable error

The treatment of

best magnitudes differs, however, from the greater part of the

theory of errors in that it deals with the prevention and not with

the computation of errors, and therefore must concern itself with

the case when the errors do reinforce each other by pure addition.

Nevertheless, the criterion for minimum probable error can be

obtained from the other by replacing e, 0, and p by e2, cj>2, and p2,

and multiplying the first summation by 2. When there is but

hersey: criterion for best magnitudes 189

one independent variable to consider, the distinction between

actual and probable error vanishes.

Now from (1) by substituting n = 2, Xl = x, x2 = z, p, = />,

Pi = q, 6 = l/f, and 0 = 1, we have the important special case

of two independent variables with constant errors ex and «z, a

minimum fractional error Ay/y being desired in the result. The

criterion reduces to the single equation

<»-«>•*-(£-©•/■ »

where R denotes (pe* + qez).

Finally for one independent variable, if we denote differentia-

tion by primes and put p = f, (1) becomes:

f 0 e' + /' 0' e +/" 00=0 (3)

This breaks up into eight special cases upon assigning to 6

the fundamental values 1 and l/f while 0 is restricted to 1 and x.

The four most important in practice are the following:

1. When seeking a minimum absolute error, 6 = 1, conse-

quently the criterion becomes:

/V +/"</, =0 (4)

2. When seeking a minimum fractional error 6 = l/f.

■ -*~7 r ()

3. When seeking minimum absolute error with constant error

in x, 6 = 1 and 0 = 1, therefore

/" = 0 (6)

4. When seeking minimum fractional error with constant

error in x, 6 = 1// and <p = 1, so that

• /' = \Tr ~

To fix in mind the meaning of the criterion, two examples, in

themselves sufficiently simple to be verified by trial, may be

added, —

I. Find best resistance for heating coil if power input // =

x-z is deduced from readings of 15 a. ammeter with error e, and

190 AUSTIN! WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY NOTES

150 v. voltmeter with error ez = 10ex. By (2), p = b/dx(xz) = z,

while q = x; also R = zex + xez; dR/dx = ez, dR/8z= ex. Substi-

tuting and reducing,

x = \t

3.2 ohms.

The condition for minimum probable error is z/x = 4.6 ohms.

II. Find best order of interference x in determining relative

wave-length y = C/x, if an error of observation of 1/100 wave-

1 / 2x2\

length at zero path-difference becomes 1 nn ( 1 + /^ on sepa-

rating plates. Using (5), with /' — — , /" = 2C/x3, and <£'

-C

x2

= 4x/109 gives at once the result x = 22,000.

In practice a distinction must be drawn between precision and

accuracy.2 If Ax denote the precision of observation of x, the

criterion leads to the best attainable precision in y; but if, from a

knowledge of the reliability of his method, the investigator can

go further and employ for Ax an estimate of accuracy, the formulae

lead to the conditions for best accuracy in y.

In either event, it is the aim of the criterion to afford rules of

interest to the designer and experimenter rather than to the com-

puter.

For their interest and criticism acknowledgment is gratefully

made to President Woodward of the Carnegie Institution and to

Drs. Burgess, Dorsey, Buckingham and Mr. L. A. Fischer of the

Bureau of Standards.

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.— Notes from the U. S. Naval Wire-

less Telegraphic Laboratory. L. W. Austin.

1. Wave Length and Ground Absorption of Electrical Waves

Since the early days of wireless telegraphy, the country lying

to the north and north-east of Newport, Rhode Island, has been

known to show a very large absorption for electrical waves.

2 In short, accuracy = (reliability of method) it (precision of observation).

AUSTIN: WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY NOTES

101

During the experiments in long distance radiotelegraphy1

carried on at Brant Rock during the summer of 1910, the signals

sent out by the Birmingham lying at Newport were measured

at Brant Rock 45 miles away. The wave lengths used were 1000

meters and 3750 meters and the received signals were measured

on a 15 ohm tellurium-constantan thermoelement.2 One milli-

meter on the thermoelement galvanometer corresponded to a

current of 263 X 10~6 amperes.

The data of the observations are shown in the table. Under

the column Calculated, are given the values taken from Table

XVI of the paper cited. The difference between the calculated

and observed values represents the excess of the ground absorp-

tion over that which would have been observed if the waves had

passed over salt water.

Birmingham at Newport, Received at Brant Rock

If we consider the strength of signal which is proportional to

f , it will be found that 95 per cent of the energy was absorbed

in the case of the 1000 meter wave, while in the case of the 3750

meter wave the ground absorption was not detectable, the ob-

served signals being slightly stronger than the calculated values.

The experiment explains fully why with the short wave lengths

ordinarily used, wireless communication has been so difficult

over this region and indicates that where such difficulties are

encountered longer wave lengths should probably be employed.

i Bureau of Standards Bulletin, 7: 315. 1911. Abstract, this Journal, 1:

1911.

2 See paper cited, p. 317.

192 AUSTIN: WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY NOTES

2. Directive Action of the Marconi Bent Antenna at Clifden,

Ireland

While the directive action of the Marconi bent antenna at

short distances has been amply demonstrated by Marconi, Flem-

ing and others, it has not seemed certain that this radiation asym-

metry would not diminish as the distance increased so that at

great distances the radiation distribution would be the same as

that of an ordinary antenna.

Recently at* the request of the wireless laboratory, the National

Electric Signaling Company made telephone shunt measurements

on the signals received at their Brant Rock station from the Mar-

coni transatlantic station at Clifden. These indicated an aver-

age received energy in the day time of 5 X 10~8 watts or in terms

of current through 25 ohms as used in Table XVI of my paper

already cited, 45 X 10-6 amperes. I have been unable to obtain

from the Marconi Company any data on the value of the antenna

current at Clifden, but nevertheless some conclusions can be drawn

from the information at hand. The distance from Clifden to

Brant Rock is 2640 nautical miles. The height of the Clifden

antenna considered as a flat top is approximately 200 feet, the

effective receiving height of the Brant Rock umbrella antenna

was found in the recent long distance experiments to be approx-

imately 350 feet. The wave length of Clifden is a little more

than 6000 meters and the total available power is 1100 h.p.3

In Tables XVI and XVII already mentioned, hx = 200 feet,

h2 = 350 feet, d = 2500 miles, in round numbers, and Ir = 45

X 10~6 amperes. We may calculate from the tables that the

sending antenna current Is = 810 amperes which is an enormous

value. If the total antenna resistance is only 1 ohm it corre-

sponds to 660 K.W. which is more than the whole 1100 h.p.

would be able to transmit to the antenna. But this resistance

is improbably small.

From this it must be concluded that unless the formula is grossly

in error the bent Clifden antenna shows a decided directive effect

even at this distance.

3 Fleming, Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy.

AUSTIN! WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY NOTES

193

S. A Table of Radiation Resistances for Various Wave Lengths

and Antenna Heights

The radiation theory of Hertz shows that the radiated energy

of an oscillator may be represented by

E = const. h°-/r-r- (1)

where h is the length of the oscillator, X the wave length and /

the current at its center.

A Table of Antenna Radiation Resistances

(h = height to center of capacity of conducting system)

194 GROVER AND CURTIS: INDUCTANCE MEASUREMENTS

It has been shown by Ruedenberg4 that for a flat top antenna

the constant in the above formula is in round numbers 1600, or

E = 1600 h2/\2-P- (2)

The term 1600 h2/\2 is commonly spoken of as the radiation

resistance, inasmuch as it is a quantity which when multiplied

by the square of the current gives the radiated energy.

The accuracy of equation (1) was verified in the experiments

on long distance radio-telegraphy already cited. It has therefore

seemed worth while to calculate a table of the radiation resistance

for various heights and wave lengths.

ELECTRICITY. — Methods for the measurement of the effective

inductance of resistance coils. F. W. Grover and H. L.

Curtis. Communicated by E. B. Rosa. To appear in

the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

In the measurement of inductances which are associated with

relatively high resistances, such as resistance coils, the multipliers

of voltmeters and wattmeters and the like, the ordinary bridge

methods using alternating current of suitable frequency are suffi-

ciently sensitive, but they fail to give an accurate determination

due to the fact that the inductance of each arm of the bridge is

of the same magnitude as the inductance to be measured. The

method which we have used to overcome this difficulty is to sub-

stitute for the unknown inductance, an inductance of approxi-

mately the same resistance, but of such a form that its inductance

can be computed from its dimensions. From the changes in the

bridge which it was necessary to make to restore a balance, the

difference in the inductance of the two resistances was computed.

Three bridge methods were used. The first was Maxwell's

method of comparing an inductance with a capacity; the second

was Anderson's modification of the above; the third was the use

of a variable inductance in one of the arms. These methods

gave concordant results and the method to be chosen in any

given case will largely depend upon the value of the resistance

associated with the inductance which is being measured.

4R. Ruedenberg, Ann. d. Phys. 25: 446. 1908.

GROVER AND CURTIS: INDUCTANCE MEASUREMENT- 195

The standards used were in the form either of parallel wires

or of circles. Only in the case of one-ohm coils was it pract icable

to use both forms. The agreement between the two forms was

satisfactory as is shown by the following example. The differ-

ence in the computed values, after allowing for the inductance of

the binding posts, was 128 x 10~9 henry. The measured differ-

ence in the inductance was also 128 x 10-9 henry. With stand-

ards having larger resistance different sizes and lengths of wire

were sometimes used, as well as different distances apart. As

an example, the 5000-ohm parallel wire standard was measured

with the wires 2 cm. apart and again with them 10 cm. apart.

The observed difference was 114 microhenrys. The computed

difference when taking into account the distributed capacity

between the wires was 110 microhenrys.

While in all cases the standards were adjusted to have nearly the

same value of resistance as the coil to be measured, yet it was

necessary to be able to vary the resistance thru a small range

without varying the inductance. This was accomplished by

two different devices. Steps of a tenth of an ohm were obtained

by substituting for manganin links, copper links of the same size

and form. A continuous variation of resistance from 00 to 0.1

ohm was obtained by means of a copper wire sliding in a tube of

mercury. The change in inductance was very small in this case,

but where small inductances were being measured, it was necessary

to make a correction on this account.

The chief difficulty encountered was with coils of high resist-

ance where the capacity between the wires appreciably affects

the effective inductance. If L is the computed inductance, C

the capacity between the wires and R their resistance, then the

effective inductance U is approximately given by the equation

V = L - hCR2.

In commercial resistance coils having resistances of 100 ohms or

over the last term is usually the larger of the two, so that the

effective inductance is negative. With coils greater than 1000

ohms the actual inductance is usually a negligible part of the

effective inductance, so that the value of the effective inductance

depends entirely upon the capacity and resistance. With parallel

196 SEIDELL! BROMINE METHOD FOR PHENOLS

wires the capacity not only depends upon the relative positions

of the two wires, but upon their potential with respect to the

earth. The capacity as usually computed requires that the poten-

tial of one wire shall be as much above earth potential as the

other is below earth potential. To make sure that this require-

ment is fulfilled in practice, a special net work is arranged in which

there are two indicating instruments, both of which must show

zero current. Altho somewhat complicated, this method gives

satisfactory results in those cases where the capacity to earth is

an important factor.

The methods here outlined have been found to give satisfactory

results with resistances from 1 to 10,000 ohms. With coils the

resistance of which lies between 1 and 1000 ohms it was possible

to measure the inductance with such accuracy that the error in

the time constant (L/R) deduced from this measurement is not

more than 10~9 second. For coils with a resistance of more than

1000 ohms the corresponding limit is 10~8 second.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— A new bromine method for the deter-

mination of aromatic phenols. Its special application to

thymol. Atherton Seidell, Hygienic Laboratory. Com-

municated by Walter Wyman.

A quantitative method for the determination of thymol being

desired for use in experiments upon the solubility of this compound

in various solvents, a search of the literature was made for a suit-

able method. Those found were the Messinger and Vortmann

iodine method (Ber. 23: 2753. 1890), the various adaptations

of the bromine method with Koppeschaar's bromate-bromide

solution, and the diazonitraniline method of Riegler (Buletinal

soc. sciinte. Bucuresci, 8: 51. 1899). Experiments with the

first two of these gave unsatisfactory results and the sources of

the errors were carefully investigated. In the case of the iodine

method an absolutely definite ratio of thymol to alkali was found

to be required in order that accurate results might be obtained,

therefore necessitating the knowledge of the amount of thymol

before beginning the determination. The difficulties which were

encountered with the various adaptations of the bromine method

appeared to be due to the too energetic action of the bromine in

SEIDELL: BROMINE METHOD FOR PHENOLS

197

aqueous solutions, or to its loss by volatilization during the deter-

mination. After many experiments these difficulties were sur-

mounted and the following new method devised.

Briefly the principal involved is the conversion of the thymol

to the dibrom compound, with formation of two molecules of

hydrobromic acid, by addition of an excess of bromine vapor to

an aqueous solution of the thymol in contact with a small amount

of carbon bisulphide. After allowing to stand at ordinary tem-

perature a short time, the excess of bromine is removed by means

of potassium iodide and thiosulphate, and the free hydrobromir

acid is then titrated after addition of excess of potassium iodate,

by means of standard thiosulphate solution.

In practice the determination of thymol is made as follows.

The weighed sample of 0.1 to 0.5 grams is placed in a 200 cc. glass

stoppered bottle with 5 cc. CS2 and about 100 cc. H20. Bromine

vapor is then poured into the mixture until the color after

thorough shaking shows that a considerable excess of Br is pres-

ent. After one-half hour an excess of 10 per cent KI solution

is added and the liberated iodine corresponding to the free bromine

is titrated with 0.1 n thiosulphate, an excess of about 5 per cent

KI03 solution is then added, the liberated iodine equivalent to

the free HBr is titrated with 0.1 n thiosulphate. The difference

between the two readings of thiosulphate gives the amount of

HBr formed during the reaction, and calculating two molecules

of HBr for each molecule of thymol the amount of the latter is

directly obtained. A number of determinations gave the fol-

lowing results:

(Factors for standard thiosulphate, Readings x 1.086 = 0.1 N exactly).

198 BUCKINGHAM: BALANCING OF TURBINES

These results show that even with considerable variation in the

amount of excess of bromine used, no appreciable effect upon the

results is obtained. The determinations can be easily made in

less than an hour and no other standard solution than thiosul-

phate is required. The effect of the carbon bisulphide is to pre-

vent the too vigorous action of the bromine on the thymol; with-

out its use high results are obtained unless only the slightest excess

of Br is used and in that case the results are apt to be too low on

account of using insufficient Br to complete the reaction. The

CS2 appears therefore to act as a safety valve and assures accur-

ate results even with considerable variation in the other condi-

tions of the determination. The CS2 also has the advantage that

since it is an excellent solvent for thymol it can be used to extract

this compound from its mixtures or solutions, and then by adding

water and excess of Br the determination readily made as above

outlined.

There is little doubt that this method is of general applicability

to practically all aromatic phenols for the determination of which

various other bromine methods have so far been suggested. It

is my intention to ascertain the limits of the applicability of this

method at an early date and publish the results in a more detailed

paper elsewhere.

MARINE ENGINEERING.— Thrust balancing in direct-con-

nected, marine steam turbines. E. Buckingham, Bureau of

Standards. Communicated by C. W. Waidner.

It is desirable that in a direct-connected marine steam tur-

bine, the steam thrust shall balance the propeller thrust so as to

relieve the main thrust bearing, altho this bearing must be able

to take up the full unbalanced thrust in either direction which

may be thrown on it for short periods during maneuvering or as

a result of accident. If such a balance could be attained only

at the expense of considerable sacrifices in other directions or

only for one particular speed of the ship, it would not be worth

much attention, and it appears from published designs that many

builders attach little importance to close balancing. It will be

pointed out in this paper that a balance may be attained without

BUCKINGHAM: BALANCING OF TURBINKs 199

any important sacrifice of other qualities of the turbine, and fur-

thermore that if the steam and propeller thrusts are balanced at full

speed the balance will be maintained approximately at much

lower speeds,— a matter of more consequence in naval than in

commercial practice.

It may be regarded as a certainty that the standard direct-

connected installation of the immediate future will have turbines

of the mixed wheel-and-drum type driving independent shafts,

each unit being complete in itself.

The operative advantages of the independent shaft system are

obvious; and the superiority of the mixed drum-and-wheel con-

struction is such that it is fast superseding the pure drum turbine,

while the pure multicellular turbine has seldom been used and is

now obsolete in marine practice. The drum construction is more

compact than the wheel construction and permits of the use of

more blade rows in a prescribed length, beside reducing windage.

It should be used at the low pressure (L.P.) end and should extend

toward the high pressure (H.P.) end as far as the steam volume

and blade lengths are great enough that ample radial clearances

can be used without serious leakage losses. Above this point,

the use of impulse- wheel stages contracts the leakage ring to

the diameter of a shaft bushing and permits of unlimited radial

clearances. At the H.P. end the use of impulse stages with

variable partial admission offers several well recognized advan-

tages. The following remarks, therefore, refer only to the mixed

turbine, and they relate to the problem of deciding where the

drum should begin.

With a single rotor and unidirectional flow aft, the steam

thrust, due in the main to the difference of pressure on the ends

of the drum, is available for balancing the propeller t hrust. From

the speed-power curve of the hull the thrust may be found for

the assigned speed at which a balance is desired; and from the

estimated propulsive coefficient the shaft horse-power of the

turbine computed. If the terminal conditions of pressure,

superheat, and vacuum are specified, together with the revo-

lutions per minute, we may then, from the data on efficiency

obtained by experiment on stages of the general style to be used,

200 BUCKINGHAM: BALANCING OF TURBINES

make a sketch design and determine approximately the form of

the curve of pressure distribution thru the turbine at the given

power. It is then easy, if the diameters of drum and shaft have

been fixed, to decide what pressure should act on the H.P. end

of the drum in order that steam and propeller thrusts shall be

balanced. The pressure drop to this point is to be taken upon

wheels, and the remainder on the drum. If the data are good

and the computations correctly made, the rotor and shaft will

float at some speed close to that assumed.

In general, it will be found that the length of the drum computed

in this way is much less than would seem advisable if the question

of thrust-balancing were not considered — there will be too many

wheel stages and the efficiency will suffer because not enough

blade-rows can be got into the prescribed length. With a tur-

bine of large diameter, a satisfactory compromise is impossible.

The writer has seen one design of turbines for a battleship, in

which the drum was long enough that at full power the steam

thrust was about 60 per cent greater than the propeller thrust,

while the drum was still much shorter than was desirable from the

point of view of economy.

The obvious escape from the conflict of requirements is the

adoption of some double-flow scheme. This complication may

not be at all worth while in small machines, but for large powers

when a division of the turbine into two lighter parts is advan-

tageous in itself, the double-flow arrangement offers a simple

solution of the difficulty. Let the H.P. rotor consist of the wheel

stages and the first drum while the L.P. rotor consists of a second

drum — combined of course with the backing turbine. The

steam flows aft thru the H.P. turbine, thence to the after

end of the L. P. drum, and exhausts at the forward end of

the L.P. casing. The two drums thus exert opposing thrusts

and no matter what the pressure at the beginning of the H.P.

drum, the intermediate pressure may be so chosen as to give the

resultant steam thrust due to both drums any value we please.

We are thus able to design the arrangement of stages as seems

most desirable, regardless of thrust, using a long drum and only

a few wheels. We then split the drum at the right point on the

BUCKINGHAM: BALANCING OF TURBINES 201

pressure curve, turn the L.P. part end for end, and put in a sepa-

rate casing. In this way we may get as close an approximation

to exact balancing as is permitted by the accuracy of the data

available in designing. The writer is not aware that this expe-

dient has been used in marine turbine construction, but it is so

obvious that it seems highly probable that it will be used soon.

The question next arises as to how nearly a balance attained for

one speed will be preserved at other speeds, and it turns out that

if the turbine is regulated in the ordinary way, a balance for full

speed will be fairly maintained at much lower speeds. The

amount of the residual thrust, forward or aft, at any speed, de-

pends on various elements; and to compute it exactly, data

corresponding to those already used for full speed and power

must be available, but it will suffice here to treat a single case

roughly.

Let us assume that at half speed the effective horse power

needed to drive the ship is to of that at full speed, — as it will be

approximately. The propeller thrust is then | of that at full

speed, and if the thrust was balanced at full speed it will still

be so if all the steam pressures are reduced to I of their values at

full power. We have, therefore, to ask how nearly this condition

regarding the pressures is fulfilled.

The water rate of the turbine at half speed will probably be

some 40 per cent greater than at full speed. Leaving out of

account the change in propulsive efficiency, which is not great,

we may conclude that at half speed the total amount of steam

flowing thru the turbine will be about 1.4 X rtj or t nearly.

How, then, is the pressure distribution in the turbine altered

when the steam flow is cut down to -f? The answer to this ques-

tion is most opportune : if the steam flow is cut down, by throt-

tling or by closing first stage nozzles, leaving all the subsequent

passages thru the turbine unchanged in area, the pressure

at every point in the turbine except the last few stages next the

condenser remains very nearly proportional to the total flow of

steam thru the turbine.

In our present example, therefore, the steam thrust will be

reduced to f while the propeller thrust is reduced to \, leaving :ui

202 BUCKINGHAM: BALANCING OF TURBINES

unbalanced thrust forward of I — t, or ts of the whole propeller

thrust at full power. A correction to be applied introduces an

improvement. The condenser pressure while it falls somewhat,

does not fall to j of its value at full power, and as the condenser

pressure is acting on the forward end of the L.P. rotor — in the

case of the divided turbine — the steam thrust aft is in reality

somewhat greater than \ and the balance closer than just com-

puted.

The residual thrust can not, in any case, be computed very

accurately, but it is quite evident that if the balance is good at

full speed it can not be far off at half speed. The automatic

readjustment of the pressure distribution which occurs upon a

change in the amount of steam supplied, is favorable to preserv-

ing a balance existing before the change, and intermediate valves

are superfluous in this respect as they have proved to be in others.

A more detailed treatment of this subject, with numerical illus-

trations, will be published elsewhere.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded prompt Iy to the editors. I

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

ASTRONOMY.— Publications of the U. S. Naval Observatory, second

series, 6: pp. LXXIX + 620, illustrated, 10 plates, 4°. 1911.

When the Naval Observatory was moved in 1893 from the old site

to the new one on Georgetown Heights it was decided to discontinue the

practice of issuing an annual volume, and to publish volumes only occa-

sionally, these to contain, however, rather large pieces of work. Fol-

lowing this practice Volume VI includes all the Equatorial Observations

made during the period 1893-1907, inclusive, with the 26-inch and 12-

inch instruments, together with three appendices. The observations

of Eros for parallax, however, have already been published in Volume

III (second series).

When the 26-inch was set up at the new site it was provided with a

mounting and accessories furnished by Warner and Swasey, of the same

general type as those of the large Lick and Yerkes telescopes. Of the

old Clark instrument there remained only the object glass in its cell,

the micrometers, the finders, and a few other small parts.

The walls of the 26-inch Equatorial building are of brick faced with

rough white marble. In the plans for the new observatory, however,

it was not intended that the dome of this instrument should have a

masonry clrum. It was proposed to erect steel uprights to carry the

track for the dome, and have these uprights support a double wall of

sheet metal which could be easily ventilated. As constructed the L'o-

inch telescope is verj' conveniently handled, and is stable. In these

respects it excels, as far as can be learned, the large instruments made

abroad.

As to some of the defects of the mounting, it may be noticed that

although the driving clock is big and heavy, and furnishes plenty «>t'

power to carry the instrument, it has always had a troublesome periodic

•jo:;

204 abstracts: astronomy

error, the magnitude of which has been considerably reduced at the Ob-

servatory.

When the telescope is above the pier the thrust of the declination spin-

dle is taken up by ball bearings, but when below the weight comes against

a tool-steel collar evidently not intended to support it. It is clear that

the designer did not quite comprehend how the instrument was to be

used, since in the case of many objects in the south it is necessary to

observe with the telescope under the pier.

When the 26-inch instrument left the makers the arrangement for

illuminating the declination circle was not altogether satisfactory, and

the circle could not be properly utilized. The illumination has been

improved somewhat.

Three micrometers have been employed with the large Equatorial:

Clark Micrometer I, Clark Micrometer II, and that by Warner and

Swasey. The last has not been of much use. All these instruments

have excellent screws, but were all constructed by men who were not

quite familiar with the measurements that had to be made with them,

and about the necessity for avoiding systematic errors, and they all have

unnecessary defects.

In 1904 a bright field illumination was arranged by reflecting light

from a small 2 candle power lamp to the inner surface of the objective

by means of a prism within the telescope tube near the eye-end and just

outside the cone of rays. A good illumination is furnished for magni-

fying powers up to about 550.

In the selection of work for the equatorial instruments the usual policy

of the Naval Observatory has been followed, that observations should

for the most part be for the improvement of the places of the Sun,

Moon, and planets, and the fixed stars, and for the testing of the laws

according to which the heavenly bodies are supposed to move. Usually,

also, heavy pieces of observing are taken up which would not be cared

for elsewhere, which it is necessary to extend over considerable periods,

and in which it is important to secure continuity.

The plan of work, therefore, was to observe, (1) the satellites and the

diameters of planets, (2) some of the interesting and difficult double

stars, (3) minor planets and comets, and (4) occultations of stars by the

Moon. The 26-inch has been devoted to the fainter and more difficult

objects. Continuity in the observations of the satellites of Saturn,

Uranus, and Neptune was considered important.

For about two years, 1898-1900, attempts were made to do spectro-

scopic work with the 26-inch Equatorial, in the way of determining

abstracts: astronom-* 205

the motions of certain stars in the line of sight. Eowever, on accounl

of the strong colors existing in the flinl and crown glasses of the objective

no better results could be obtained than those given by a very much

smaller instrument. It seemed proper, therefore, to discontinue spec-

troscopic investigations.

As to the observations included in this volume there are then: The

satellites of Mars, measured with respect to the planet a1 five opposi-

tions. These moons were discovered at the Naval Observatory, and

their orbits were first determined there. They are interesl ing when any

questions are considered relating to the evolution of the solar system,

since they revolve about Mars in 7h 39m and 30h 18m, respectively,

while Mars itself rotates on its axis in 24h 37m. Also, there are some

very curious perturbations of the elements of these satellites, caused by

the flattening of Mars.

The four bright moons of Jupiter were observed in pairs, according to

the method of Otto Struve, during four oppositions. But since the

bright moons can probably be measured more accurately in this way

with the heliometer than with the equatorial the work was discontinued.

Satellite VI, however, was observed with reference to fixed stars during

the opposition of 1905-06, and has been measured regularly in that way

since that time.

The satellites of Saturn were observed in pairs, using at first fifteen

combinations, which number was afterwards reduced to nine. At one

opposition, 1895, Hyperion was referred to Saturn.

The four moons of Uranus were referred directly to the planet, and

the combination Titania-Oberon was also made. The satellite of Nep-

tune was followed at every opposition except one.

These satellite measures are a proper extension of the work accom-

plished at the old Observatory site, which included rather elaborate

monographs on the moons of Mars, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, as

well as the discovery of the very curious motion of the line of apsides of

the orbit of Hyperion. The movement of the node and inclination of

the orbit of Neptune's satellite, probably arising from a flattening of the

planet, was pointed out by Mr. Marth as a result of the comparison of I he

Malta and Washington observations.

For the measures of diameters during the years 1900, 1901, and 1902

color cells were used to absorb the outstanding blue light of the secon< lary

spectrum, these cells being placed in front of the eye-pie,

A list was observed of 593 double stars. It was not intended to at-

tempt any thing in the way of finding new doubles, but only to furnish

needed measures of known pairs.

206 abstracts: terrestrial magnetism

A list of 245 asteroids and 45 comets was observed. Many asteroids

were secured at more than one opposition. A good many were found

by means of photographic plates exposed for the purpose, and two were

discovered at the Observatory. For some time the asteroids discovered

by the Rev. J. H. Metcalf of Taunton, Mass., were observed systematic-

ally, for the purpose of securing sufficient data so that orbits could be

computed, and the asteroids found and identified at the following oppo-

sitions. In the list are 20 of these bodies.

Considerable attention was given, also to the Watson asteroids.

In general, it was intended to make observations of the minor planets

only when measures had been lacking for some time.

Many of the observations contained in this volume have been printed

in the Astronomical Journal and the Astronomische Nachrichten. Also,

a good many discussions of observations have appeared in the same

journals.

There are three appendices to Volume VI which include : the Mass of

Titan from Observations of Hyperion; the Orbits of Phobos and Deimos;

the Orbit of Enceladus; a Determination of the Solar Parallax from

Observations of Eros; Orbits of Asteroids and Comets; Reports on the

Transit of Mercury of November 10, 1894; and a List of Publ'cations

issued by the United States Naval Observatory, 1845-1908.

The introduction contains convenient summaries, so that the mate-

rial contained in the volume proper can be found easily. Asaph Hall.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Two new types of magnetometers

made by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie

Institution of Washington. J. A. Fleming. Journal of Terres-

trial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 16: 1-12, pis. 1 and

II. 1911.

The instruments described are the result of the experience gained in

the land operations of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, which

has emphasized the great need of more portable and more compact

instrumental outfits than were heretofore in general use, without any

sacrifice in the degree of precision obtainable. The controlling condi-

tions in the designs and construction of the instruments described were :

(a) portability; (b) compactness; (c) simplicity; (d) minimum of loose

accessories; (e) readiness for immediate use; (f) the attainment of an

absolute observational accuracy equal to that of the best field instru-

ments now in use.

The new instruments are of two types. The first is a theodolite mag-

abstracts: terrestrial magnetism 207

netometer for astronomical work and the determination of magnetic

declination and horizontal intensity; in general principles along usual

lines but differing greatly in details. The second type is a universal

magnetometer by means of which the three magnetic elements may be

determined as well as the astronomical elements.

The magnet and suspension systems of both types are of like design.

The magnets are true cylinders encased in gold-plated brass cylindrical

sheaths to prevent rusting and to provide means of mounting the

collimating optical system in order that the magnets may be left as

perfect cylinders. The suspension systems are comparatively free from

complex or intricate parts, all devices for clamping the phosphor-bronze

ribbon used for suspension being such that they are not removable and

may be manipulated with great ease. For the determination of the

plane of no torsion there is attached permanently to the stirrup a grad-

uated circle which may be brought into the focus of the magnetometer

telescope (previously focused on a distant mark) by interposing an

auxiliary lens; the graduations of the torsion circle are in divisions of

two degrees so that the plane of detorsion may be rapidly determined

within a fraction of a degree.

The theodolite magnetometer weighs with its case but 11 kilograms,

which is about half that of the older forms of corresponding instrument

used by this Department.

The universal magnetometer is completely assembled in one unit,

comprising astronomical telescope and magnetometer for determina-

tion of magnetic declination and horizontal intensity, and dip circle

for the determination of inclination and total intensity, and is there-

fore always ready for immediate use upon mounting on its tripod. The

advantage of being able to proceed with the observations for any of

the elements, without first assembling a number of parts, is evident

and of peculiar value in taking advantage of every available opportunity

for work. The weight of this instrument without its packing case is

1\ kilograms; the case weighs about 6 kilograms so that the total weight

is only about 13 kilograms.

The results of comparisons with the new instruments, both at the office

and under field conditions, have clearly shown that the degree of pre-

cision obtainable with them is of the same order as thai to be had by

types of standard instruments previously used by the Department and

other magnetic organizations, or, with care, an absolute accuracy of

0.5 minute in declination, 0.0002H in horizontal intensity, and about

one-half minute in inclination. •'• -v- ' •

208 abstracts: biological chemistry

BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY.— Further experiments upon the deter-

mination of iodine in thyroid. Atherton Seidell, Hygienic

Laboratory, Public Health and Marine Hospital Service. Journal

of Biological Chemistry, 10: 95-108, Oct. 1911.

In this paper are presented the results of an extensive series of analy-

ses made for the purpose of comparing the Hunter (J. Biol. Chem.,

7: 321-49. 1910), and Baumann methods for the determination of

iodine in thyroid. The results demonstrate the superiority of the Hunter

method, both as to reliability of results and simplicity of manipulation.

Further evidence disproving the contention of Biggs that iodate is

formed during the fusion of thyroid by the Baumann process is pre-

sented. In practically all cases it was found that the older Baumann

method gives only 80 to 90 per cent of the amount of iodine obtained by

the Hunter method. The most probable cause of this difference is consid-

ered to be the loss of iodine which occurs during the acidification of the

aqueous solution of the fused residue, during which there is an active

evolution of C02 and since some of the nitrate of the fusion mixture is

always reduced to nitrite, there must also be present free iodine, which

is liberated by the nitrous acid generated from the nitrite upon acidi-

fication. This source of loss has been effectively overcome in the Hun-

ter method, by converting the inorganic iodine to the iodic state, and

at the same time removing the nitrite by means of sodium hypochlorite

solution, before the aqueous solution is acidified. Duplicate determin-

ations by the Hunter method are therefore quite satisfactory, while

in the case of the Baumann method frequent irregularities of results

which can only be explained on the assumption of a loss, are obtained.

Since it has been claimed by Koch (Proc. Am. Pharm. Assoc, 55 :

371 . 1907), that the iodine content of desiccated sheep thyroids prepared

at different seasons of the year' was as much as three times as great in

the winter as in the summer months, an experiment was made for the

purpose of demonstrating the possible seasonal variation of the iodine

content of dog thyroids. The glands from groups of dogs killed at inter-

vals during more than a year at the Washington dog pound were analyzed

for their iodine, but no regular variation with season could be detected.

It appeared that the cause of this irregularity might be the individual

variation of the dogs, and analyses were therefore made of the dried

glands of individual dogs, with the result that very wide differences

(0.036 to 0.271 per cent iodine) were found. From these results it was

concluded that if there is a seasonal variation in the iodine content of

the thyroid of dogs, the individual variations under ordinary conditions

abstracts: pharmacology and geolo<;y 209

are far too great to permit its detection by analyses of the collected

glands from a reasonable number of dogs.

Thru the kindness of the firms of Armour and ( Jompany, and Parke,

Davis and Company, samples of the several lots of their I . S. P. desic-

cated sheep thyroids manufactured during the past year and a half wire

sent to this laboratory for use in the work upon the pharmacopoeia]

standards for this drug. The dates of the preparation of the several

lots were given, and these together with the analytical results, furnished

the necessary data upon the question of the seasonal variation of the

iodine content. It was found that the results did not confirm the obser-

vation of Koch; there being the greatest possible irregularity with sea-

son. It cannot be claimed, however, that these results disprove Koch's

claim since the glands from which the present lots of desiccated thy-

roid were prepared came from both sheep and lambs, and this fact is

probably sufficient to explain the variation. It may be concluded,

however, that unless Koch exercised particular care to have only the

glands from sheep in his average lots, his results must have been due to

an accidental regularity. A. S.

PHARMACOLOGY — Influence of diet on the thyroid gland. Reid

Hunt, Hygienic Laboratory. Journal American Medical Asso-

ciation, 57: 1032. 1911.

Indirect evidence had been obtained (Bulletin 69, Hygienic Labor-

atory) that certain diets have specific effects upon the thyroid gland of

animals; in the present series of experiments direct evidence for this

was obtained. After removal of the thyroid certain diets no longer pro-

duced certain characteristic effects; the thyroid glands themselves

showed marked physiological effects resulting from the diets. Oatmeal

and liver were found to increase the activity of the glands; milk and eggs

decreased it. The latter diet markedly increased the reproductive act -

ivity of the animals (mice and rats) used in the experiments. R. H.

GEOLOGY.— Foxburg-Clarion, Pa., Folio. E. W. Shaw and M. J.

Munn. Geologic Atlas of the United States, No. 178. Pp. 17,

with maps and sections. U. S. Geological Survey. 1911. Coal,

oil and gas of Foxburg Quadrangle, Pa. E. W. Shaw and M. J.

Munn. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 154. Pp. 85, with

maps and sections. 1911.

Outcropping rocks, aside from the Quaternary stream deposits,

belong to the Cuyahoga, Burgoon, Allegheny, and Conemaugh forma-

210 abstracts: geology

tions of the Carboniferous. The lowest rock (Cuyahoga shale) appears

in the bottom of the Allegheny Gorge ; the Burgoon and Pottsville sand-

stones outcrop along the valley sides, and the Allegheny and Conemaugh,

which consist of shale, sandstone, and limestone, with interbedded

coal and clay, appear higher in the hills. The dip is gently to the south

with modification by low folds.

The principal streams are Allegheny and Clarion rivers and Redbank

Creek, and along these a much discussed system of high terraces and

abandoned valleys is well developed.

The coal beds lie mainly in the Allegheny formation. The lower and

upper Clarion, lower Kittanning, and upper Freeport coals are the most

important. Oil and gas in great quantities have been found in sand-

stones of the upper part of the Devonian and lower part of the Carbon-

iferous. E. W. S.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and mineral resources of the St. Louis Quadrangle,

Mo.-Ill. N. M. Fenneman. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey

No. 438. Pp. 73, with maps, sections, and views. 1911.

The hard rocks outcropping in the St. Louis quadrangle are all of

Carboniferous age and include the Osage, Merrimac, and Chester (?)

groups of the Mississippian, all of which have been further subdivided,

and the Pennsylvanian coal measures. Older rocks, including the Kin-

derhook formation (Mississippian) and part of the upper, Ordovician

have been reached by drilling. The Paleozoic rocks are unconform-

ably overlain by Lafayette gravel of Tertiary age. The Pleistocene

is represented by the Kansan and Illinoian drifts, by loess, and by gla-

cial outwash of the Wisconsin stage. The recent deposits of the region

include terrace gravels and the alluvial filling of river valleys.

The Paleozoic strata dip in general north-northeasterly, the fall

being from 50 to 60 feet to the mile. A. H. Brooks.

PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

699th Meeting, November 11, 1911, Cosmos Club at 8.15.

A. J. Lotka: Evolutions in discontinuous systems.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. I, NOVEMBER 19, 1911. \,,. g.

ELECTRICITY.— .4 determination of the international ampere

in absolute measure. E. B. Rosa, N. E. Dorset and J. M.

Miller, Bureau of Standards.

The absolute unit of current in the electromagnetic system is

denned in terms of the magnetic field which it produces. Hence

we can measure current in absolute units by measuring the mag-

netic field due to the current, or by measuring the ratio between

this field and some other field which is measurable, as, for example,

the earth's magnetic field. The comparison may be made by

means of the tangent galvanometer, and is often called the tangent

galvanometer method.

Or, we can calculate the force of attraction between circuits

carrying electrical currents, and determine the current by meas-

uring the forces of attraction experimentally; this is called the

electrodynamometer or current balance method. The potential

energy of two circuits relative to one another is equal to IJ2M

where Ii and It are the strengths of the currents flowing in the

two circuits and M is the flux of magnetic force through one cir-

cuit produced by a unit current in the other, that is, the mutual

inductance. The force or torque between the two circuits tend-

ing to produce a displacement is measured by the rate of change

of the potential energy. If the currents are constant, we have to

consider, therefore, only the rate of change of the mutual induc-

tance. If a particular displacement be represented by a chai

dx in the variable x, and the current is the same in the two cir-

cuits, the force F =f ' = KI2. in which .1/ has the dimensions

ox

of aline; hence — - = K is of zero dimensions, and is a function

211

212 ROSA, DORSEY AND MILLER: INTERNATIONAL AMPERE

only of ratios of the dimensions of the electrical circuit. To

measure the current I, the force F must be measured and K must

be determined. As to the method of measuring F and deter-

mining K, the various types of instruments differ.

The force or torque may be balanced by

(a) The elastic deformation of a wire or fiber.

(b) The gravitational attraction of the earth.

Then the torque or force must in turn be evaluated in absolute

units.

K may be determined in three ways

(c) by measurements of the separate dimensions of the instrument.

(d) 1 y comparisons of the instrument with some other instrument,

the dimensions of which can better be measured.

(e) by measurements of the ratios of the dimensions which enter

into K.

The accuracy attainable with the instrument depends upon the

possible accuracy of these determinations.

The method (a) requires a direct determination of the force of resti-

tution of the deformed body (generally a fiber) as it was used in the

electrical measurements. The elastic after-effects shown by all mate-

rial bodies introduce formidable difficulties.

The method (b) requires the measurement of a force by weighing,

and the absolute value of the acceleration of gravity. The first is capa-

ble of extreme precision. An accurate determination of the second is

very difficult, but results obtained with this method at different times

and places can be very accurately compared by relative determinations

of the acceleration of gravity and may be corrected at any time when

the absolute value is determined to a higher degree of accuracy.

The determination of the constant K by the method given in (c)

requires that the geometrical form of the apparatus be simple and the

dimensions relatively large. Thus, the use of single layer coils is neces-

sitated in general. The forces of attraction are usually small and can,

therefore, be measured accurately only with difficulty. Furthermore,

the constant is determined once for all and must be assumed to remain

constant.

The method (d) allows the use of multiple layer coils and some other

features which tend to give a high sensibility in non-absolute instru-

ROSA, DORSEY AND MILLER: INTERNATIONAL AMPERE 213

ments. The limitations of simplicity of form are, however, imposed

upon a second apparatus with which the instrument itself is compared.

The method (c) allows the use of multiple layer coils and the resulting

high sensibility. The ratios which enter into the constanl of the instru-

ment may be determined experimentally by methods which are compara-

tive and allow an extreme precision. The constant can be redetermined

at any time.

The Rayleigh type of current balance as used in this work embodies

the advantages of the methods (b) and (c). It consists essentially of

three multiple-layer coils of square cross-section; two large fixed coils

and a smaller moving coil. All of the coils are coaxial and their planes

are horizontal. In this work three pairs of fixed coils (50, 50 and 40 cm.

in diameter) and three moving coils (25, 25 and 20 cm.) were used. The

moving coil was suspended midway between the other two from one pan

of a precision balance. The current was led in and out of the moving

coil at the balance pan by means of fifty silver wires. These wires were

slack and, on account of their fineness, did not interfere sensibly with

the oscillations of the balance.

The force exerted upon the moving coil by the current in the fixed

coils was weighed by means of the balance, as follows : The strength and

the direction of the current in the coils were arranged so that the moving

coil was pulled dowm by a force of about 3 g. This force and the weight

of the moving coil were counter-balanced. Then the rest point a of

the balance was determined. The current was then reversed in the

fixed coils alone. The force then became a pull up instead of down,

giving a change of about 6 g. A weight of 6 g. was put on one pan of

the balance from which the moving coil was suspended, and very nearly

compensated for the change in the force. Another rest point b was

taken, the difference between a and b gave the difference between 6 g.

and twice the electrical force upon the moving coil. The drift of the

balance was eliminated by taking a series of the rest points a and b

and plotting these against the time.

The determination of the force in absolute units required the knowl-

edge of the absolute value of the acceleration of gravity. The value

at the Bureau of Standards was determined in terms of the value at

the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey by Mr. Wm. II Bei

of the Survey. Mr. G. R. Putnam of the Survey has connected the

latter value with Potsdam by relative pendulum observations. Thus,

the value at the Bureau of Standards has been referred to Potsdam,

where, as the result of a long series of observations, the absolute value is

214 ROSA, DORSEY AND MILLER! INTERNATIONAL AMPERE

believed to be known to three parts in a million. On this basis, the abso-

lute value at the current balance is 980.091 cm. per sec. per sec, and is

probably correct to five or six parts in a million.

As seen before, the constant K is the rate of change of the mutual

inductance with the displacement of one circuit in that direction in

which we wish to determine the force. In the present case then, K

is the rate of change of the mutual inductance of two coaxial circular

coils, with the displacement of one coil in the direction of the common

axis. The calculation can be simplified by first considering the actual

coils to be linear circular circuits of radii equal to the mean radii of the

coils. Then in various ways corrections for the finite sections of the

coil can be applied. Maxwell has derived an exact formula for the mu-

tual inductance of coaxial circles, and by differentiation obtained the

expression for the force between them acting along the common axis.

The force is given by the equation,

F=SB= V37, t2*'-(1 + "rfT)M

where A and a are the radii of the two coaxial circles, B is the distance

between their planes, Fy and Ey are the complete elliptic integrals of

argument y and »

2VZa

sin 7 = —

V(A+a)2+S2

, . . a B

This expression for F can be put in a form where only the ratios — and —

enter, hence F is a function of these ratios alone. Furthermore, at a

certain distance B the force is a maximum, and the coils of the Bureau

of Standards current balance were spaced so that this condition was

a

satisfied. In this case the force becomes practically a function of ~

alone; in other words is determined solely by the ratio of the radii of

the two circles.

The determination of this ratio is then the important point in the

determination of the constant of the instrument. It was determined

experimentally by methods which admit of extreme accuracy. The

principle of the method was identical with that given by Bosscha and

used by Lord Rayleigh, but was modified to increase the precision. The

coils to be compared were adjusted concentric and coplanar, with their

planes vertical and in the magnetic meridian. Most of these adjust-

ROSA, DORSET AND MILLER: INTERNATIONAL WIl'KKF. 215

ments were made experimentally. Currents were then passed through

the two coils in opposite sense and adjusted until the resultanl magnetic

field at the center was zero. This was indicated by a magnetometer

needle, 2 mm. long. The ratio of the two currents which balance each

other in this manner is equal to the inverse ratio of the "galvanometer

constants" of the two coils, excepting for a small correction on account

of the length of the needle. The ratio of the "galvanometer constants"

gives the ratio of the two mean radii when the numbers of turns and the

sectional dimensions of the coils are known.

The ratio of the current was measured in two ways which have been

called the "potentiometer" and "shunt" methods, respectively. Tic

first method consisted in a simultaneous measurement of the two cur-

rents by means of two potentiometers. The second method was em-

ployed in cases where, as designed, the coils had nearly the same gal-

vanometer constants. In this method the two coils are joined in series

in such a manner that the current flows through them in opposite sense.

As used in this work both methods permitted an accuracy of about two

parts in a million. The latter method, however, is somewhat the more

accurate, considerably more rapid, and requires but one observer. In

the table is given the results of a series of measurements of the ratio

November 28

November 29.

December 2.

1.004596

94

95

94

93

89

94

93

92

95

96

92

91

94

93

92

3

1

2

1

0

4

1

0

1

2

o

O

1

2

1

0

1

Mean.

1.004593

1 I

216 ROSA, DORSEY AND MILLER: INTERNATIONAL AMPERE

of the galvanometer constants of a small fixed coil (SI) and a moving

coil (M3). The values given have not been corrected for the length of

the needle but have had small corrections applied for temperature varia-

tions and the heating effect of the measuring current.

The deviations from the mean in parts in a million are given in the

third column. The average deviation is 1.4 parts in a million.

One of the features of the current balance which contributed

very strongly to the attainment of a high accuracy is the water

cooling system. In each of the fixed coils there is a channel

back of the windings through which water can be circulated to

carry away the heat generated by the electrical current. The

supply of water was held at a constant temperature by means of

a thermostat, thus maintaining the coils at a constant tempera-

ture and radius. Water circulated thru the fixed coils while

the constant was being determined and when weighings of the

force were being made. During the latter experiment the mov-

ing coil was surrounded by a copper water jacket thru which water

from the same source was circulated. This served the purpose of

carrying away the heat generated in the moving coil and also

made constant the convection currents of air which were set up

by the heating of the coil. The possible accuracy in the weigh-

ing was thereby considerably increased. By the method of weigh-

ing the constant lifting force of the currents of air was eliminated.

It was found important to measure the temperatures of the

coils when being used. In the determination of the constant and

the weighing, the temperature coefficient of the apparatus is zero

since only the ratios of the dimensions enter; provided all portions

are made of the same material and are at the same temperature.

Since, however, heat is being generated in some portions and not

in other portions, it is evident that the whole apparatus will not

be at the same temperature and that the temperature differences

will depend upon the quantity of heat generated in the various

parts. Hence in this work the temperatures of the coils were

measured by measuring the resistance of the windings and cor-

rections were applied to bring all of the parts to the same temper-

ature.

The rest points of the balance were read by means of a tele-

ROSA, DORSEY AND MILLER: INTERNATIONAL AMPERE J 1 7

scope and scale and a small mirror mounted upon the central

knife edge of the balance. The scale distance was about 2.5

meters. The accuracy of reading, therefore, was equivalent to

that which would be obtained with a balance pointer 5 meters

long. Thus, it was possible to have the balance very stable and

of short period without decreasing the accuracy of the weighing.

Since the intensity of a current cannot be represented by a

concrete standard, two expedients have been adopted to pre-

serve the results of the absolute measurement of current. One

is to determine the mass of silver deposited per second in a silver

voltameter by a current of one absolute ampere, the other is to

determine the electromotive force of a standard cell in terms of

a standard of resistance and the absolute ampere. In this work

the electromotive force of the Weston Normal cell at 20° C. was

determined in terms of the international ohm and the absolute

ampere. The authors have called the unit of electromotive force a

semi-absolute volt. Also, the final result has been expressed in

terms of the electrochemical equivalent of silver as determined by

a large number of observations with two types of voltameters at

the Bureau of Standards.

In the final work four combinations of coils were used, besides

one which was not used in taking the mean, owing to a very slight

uncertainty in its cross-sectional area, and the following results

obtained :

il/2, L3, IA.

M3, L3, IA.

MZ, II, L2.

MS, 51, 52.

Mean.

COMBINATION

E.M.F. OF WESTON NOR-

MAL CELL AN 22° C.

1.01822 8

1.018202

1.018226

1.01823 5

1.01822,

DEVIATION FROM MEAN

PARTS IN A MILLION

5

21

3

12

10

The conclusion is that the electromotive force of the Bureau

of Standards concrete realization of the mean Weston Normal

cell at 20° C. January 1, 1911, was 1.01822 semi-absolute volts.

We believe that it is a conservative estimate to assign t«> the value

given above a possible uncertainty due to all causes of two in

218 ROSA, DORSEY AND MILLER: INTERNATIONAL AMPERE

100,000 a quantity equal to twice the average deviation from the

mean.

The value given by the combination iV4 L3 L4, which was

omitted from the mean, was 1.018252.

The weight to be attached to the final mean is considerably

increased on account of the fact that three pairs of fixed coils,

two large and one small, and two moving coils, of different radii,

have been used. The possibility of the occurrence of appreciable

constant errors in the work is thereby very much diminished.

Other observers in England, France and Holland have recently

published results obtained by means of various types of instru-

ments. When reduced to the same basis as used above, the values

obtained are as follows:

The absolute value of the electrochemical equivalent of silver

as obtained from the current balance of the Bureau of Standards

and 159 silver deposits made by Rosa, Vinal and McDaniel in

this laboratory with two types of voltameters is 1.11804 mg. per

coulomb. The value adopted by the London Conference in

1908 was 1.11800. In other words, the international ampere as

defined by means of the silver voltameter, as used at the Bureau

of Standards, differs from the absolute ampere as realized there

by means of the current balance by only four parts in 100,000.

When the absolute value of the international ohm is as accu-

rately known as the absolute value of the international ampere is

now known, the watt can be realized with high precision from the

international watt, by applying as a correction the small dif-

ference between them. Even now the most accurate way of

measuring energy or power absolutely is by means of electrical

instruments.

CURTIS AND GROVER: ALTERNATING CURRENT RESISTANCES 219

ELECTRICITY. — Resistance coils for alternating current work.

H. L. Curtis and F. W. Groveu. Communicated by

E. B. Rosa. To appear in the Bullet in of the Bureau of

Standards.

In an ideal resistance coil for alternating current work two

requirements need to be fulfilled in addition to those which are

of importance in direct current work; viz, (1) the resistance must

be independent of the frequency and (2) the phase angle must be

zero. Many of the resistance coils in use at the present time do

not even approximately fulfill these conditions. This paper

attempts to set forth the principles which must be followed in

the construction of satisfactory resistance coils for alternating

current work, and to show how to apply them to the design and

construction of several coils of different denominations.

The most important thing in the design of a coil whose phase

angle is to be small, is to wind it in such a way that its inductance

will be a minimum. However there are three other effects which

need to be considered in the discussion of the phase angle; viz,

(1) "skin effect," (2) capacity between the wires and (3) absorp-

tion in the dielectric between the wires. Each of these three

causes also gives rise to a change in the effective resistance of

the coil when used with different frequencies of alternating cur-

rent.

Formulas have been developed for computing the value of the

"skin effect." By means of these it can be shown that, with the

size of wire usually used with coils having a resistance of one ohm

and larger, the "skin effect" is in all cases negligible.

The capacity between the wires is in parallel with their resist-

ance and inductance, and is distributed along their length. If

R' is the effective resistance of a bifilar coil and 6 its phase angle,

then to a first approximation

3 " 15

p ( L — 7T CR j

tan 6 =

R

220 CURTIS and grover: alternating current resistances

where R is the ohmic resistance of the coil, L its inductance,

C, the capacity between the two wires, and p is 2tt times

the frequency. From this we see that R' =R and 6 = 0 only

under the condition that both L and C are zero. While this

cannot be accomplished in practice, yet if L is made as small

as possible and if L — CR~ = 0, then the phase angle will be zero

and the change in resistance with frequency negligible. With

coils having low resistance (less than 10 ohms) it is difficult to

make the capacity large enough to make L — CR2 = 0; but with

coils of high resistance (1000 ohms and over) the capacity is usu-

ally much larger than it should be. Between these extremes

satisfactory coils can be constructed without great difficulty.

In case alternating current is used, the absorption of a poor

dielectric between the wires may produce an apparent leakage

between turns where the direct current insulation resistance is

sufficiently high. The magnitude of the effect of this upon the

resistance of the coil will depend upon the resistance of the coil

and upon its capacity as well as upon the absorption. Hence

while it is entirely negligible for coils of low resistance, it becomes

of importance in coils of high resistance. By so designing the

coil that the capacity is small, it may usually be made negligible.

By keeping in mind the facts which are stated above, it has

been found possible to design coils of denominations from 0.1

to 10,000 ohms in which the change in resistance is less than a

part in a hundred-thousand for frequencies up to 3000 cycles per

second, and in which the phase angle is not more than 3.5' at

3000 cycles. For xo-ohm, 1 ohm and 10 ohm coils strip man-

ganin, wound in a bifilar manner is used. For 100-ohm coils a

single-layer bifilar winding is satisfactory. For 1000-ohm coils

fine 200-ohm single-layer bifilar coils are wound on an insulating

spool (porcelain is satisfactory) and connected in series. For

10,000-ohm coils a special winding was devised. A tube of bis-

cuit porcelain is cut along a diameter for two-thirds of its length.

The winding is then made as follows: One turn is made with a

single wire, then the wire passed thru the slit, and a turn made in

the opposite direction. The wire is then passed thru the slit

and the third turn is made in the same direction as the first,

and the process repeated until sufficient wire is upon the spool.

nutting: ftelttm \s li«;mt standard 221

PHYSICS.— Helium tubes as light standards. P. G. \Yi tin

Bureau of Standards. Communicated by S. W. Stratton.

The investigation of the properties of electrically conducting

gases with a view to their possible use as primary standards of

luminous intensity has been in progress at the Bureau of Stand-

ards for the past six years. A summary of the results obtained

is given below, this includes a report of a recent reproducibility

test here given for the first time.

Of the available gases and vapors, helium is the only one emit-

ting light of a suitable color and having reasonable lasting qual-

ities. The light is of a yellowish white approximately that of

the Hefner flame and of an old type carbon filament glow lamp.

The useful life of a helium tube is from 5 to 100 hours depending

on its construction and operation. The next best gases would

be carbon dioxide and sulphur, but these emit a snow white light

and disappear rapidly in carrying a current.

The form of tube found most suitable has a capillary portion

of 2-mm. bore, 2-mm. thickness of wall and about 7 cm. long.

The terminal bulbs are 35 mm. in diameter and spherical while

the electrodes are aluminum disks 1 mm. thick and 25 mm. in

diameter. Recent results indicate that possibly a slightly in-

creased bulb diameter might give longer life to the tubes.

The relation between current and light emitted is very nearly

linear over a wide range of intermediate currents, 10 to 35 m.a.

Twenty-five milliamperes was chosen as the most suitable stand-

ard current.

The ratio of light emitted to internal energy, current times

potential gradient, is not quite constant. The minimum watts

per candle for a tube of 2-mm. base, namely, 3.8 w./c.p., occurs

at a current between 25 and 30 m.a. Owing to the large and

uncertain variations in the potential gradient and the difficulties

in its precise determination, attention was directed toward ex-

pressing light in terms of current and bore rather than in terms

of internal energy.

The light emitted by a helium tube as a function of current

was later determined line by line for each of the six prominenl

spectrum lines. These all behave nearly alike, increasing with

222 nutting: helium as light standard

current sensibly as does the total light. Helium shows no trace

of any secondary spectrum in the visible region.

Neither the voltage nor frequency of alternation of the excit-

ing current affect the light emission by a measurable amount.

Voltages of 1, 2, 5 and 10 thousand were used and direct, alter-

nating 60-cycle and 900-cycle current.

Gas density does not affect the specific light emission over a

range from 3 to 8 mm. pressure provided the bore of capillary

is not much over 2 mm. With 25 m.a. current through 2 mm. -bore,

the light is sensibly independent of gas density from 3 to 8 mm.

pressure. Chiefly for this reason these specifications and 4 to 7

mm. pressure were adopted for the standard tubes inasmuch as

gas density is difficult to control and determine in such tubes.

The correction to the light emitted by a centimeter length

of capillary for slight departures from 2 mm. in the bore was

carefully determined. It is —0.010 c. p. /cm. for each +0.1 mm.

difference in bore from 2.00 mm.

A test for reproducibility was made on a set of forty tubes.

The capillary portions of these tubes were specially prepared and

selected by Baudin to secure the utmost possible uniformity of

bore and wall and freedom from striations. The tubes were made

up and filled at the Bureau of Standards.

Color reproducibility was determined by intercomparing the

spectra of these tubes line by line with a spectrophotometer.

The slight variations observed were well within the errors of

observation.

Photometric observations on the mean horizontal candle power

per centimeter length of capillary were made by four experienced

observers. The computed probable error in the c. p. /cm. for

all observers and all the tubes was 0.16 per cent. The average

deviation of the tubes from their mean value was 1.15 per cent,

the maximum deviation 3 per cent. The four different observers

read on an average 1.2 per cent below, 0.1 per cent above, 1.5

per cent above and 0.5 per cent below the mean of the four.

The report on reproducibility tests is to be published in the

Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. The preliminary work

was reported on in the Bureau of Standards Bulletin 4: 511. 1908;

the relation between line intensity and current in same journal,

7: 65. 1911.

menge: new choline compoi nds '22'.]

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. — Some new compounds of the choline

type. G. A. Menge, Hygienic Laboratory, Public Health

and Marine Hospital Service. Communicated by Walter

Wyman. To appear in the Journal of Biological ( Jhemisl ry.

The synthetic development of compounds of the choline type

has been practically limited to choline itself, the so-called homo-

cholines (j3 and 7) and certain derivatives. The physiological

activity of these compounds, as reported in the published work

of Hunt and Taveau (Hyg. Lab. Bull. 73) is considered to indi-

cate in a general way that the greatest activity and least toxicity

is realized in those compounds which contain the trimethylamine

nucleus and in which the alcoholic hydroxyl is not further removed

from the nitrogen than the /3 position, suggesting the substitution

of the a- and /3-hydrogen of the carbon chain as the direction

of most promising development from the standpoint of physiologi-

cal activity.

It would appear that the simplest method of nomenclature for

such a class of compounds is to consider them as substituted cho-

lines, a or /3 according to the position of the substituted groups.

The author has prepared three new choline compounds in line

with the suggested development and certain of their derivatives :

a-methyl-choline, CLn/ , a white, crystalline, very

\CH-CH2OH

CH3

hygroscopic compound, was prepared by converting allyl chloride

into methylethylenechlorhydrine and condensing this with trim-

^(CH3)3

ethylamine; ^dimethyl-choline, CI • Nf , awhite,crys-

CH/ CH3

talline, hygroscopic compound was prepared by condensing the

chlorhydrine of dimethylglycol with trimethylamine; and 0-0-

methyl-ethyl-choline, C1-n/ * * , a crystalline, hygrosco-

^CH2 • COH

CH3/ C2H5

224 WILEY: RESEARCH AT BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY

pic compound, was prepared by condensing the chlorhydrine of

methyl-ethyl-glycol with trimethylamine.

The three compounds were identified and analyzed by means

of their platinum salts, which together with the gold salt of a-

methyl-choline, are described. The chlorhydrines used for the

disubstituted cholines were prepared from monochloracetone by

means of the Grignard's reaction.

Description of the acetyl, phenyl-acetyl, benzoyl, monobrom-

isocapronyl, and palmityl derivatives of a-methyl-choline and

their platinum and gold salts, already prepared, is reserved for

a later paper.

CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.— Research work of the division of

foods of the bureau of chemistry. H. W. Wiley.

In the Division of Foods of the Bureau of Chemistry, some of

the research work done during the past year is as follows :

Drs. W. D. Bigelow and R. F. Bacon in studying the corrosion

of tin plate by canned foods have called attention to the fact

that many non-acid vegetables, fish, etc., attack the lining of tin

containers to an even greater extent than do the acid fruits. This

kind of corrosive action on tin, which is of very great commercial

importance, has not been considered heretofore and is apparently

due to the nitrogenous constituents of these foods, especially

amines and amino acids. Dr. Bigelow and his co-workers are

continuing the study of the action of various foods on tin plate.

Drs. Bacon and Dunbar have studied the spoilage of tomatoes,

detailing the chemical changes in these vegetables, together with

methods for detecting the use of spoiled tomatoes in catsups,

tomato sauces, etc. The same chemists have proposed an

accurate and convenient method for determining malic acid in

food products. This method depends on the very large increase

in optical activity of this acid when treated with uranium salts.

Dr. Bacon has also published during the year methods for the

detection and determination of small quantities of ethyl alcohol,

methyl alcohol and formic acid.

Mr. H. C. Gore has recently published a work on the processing

of persimmons and on the respiration of the fruit.

M. E. Pennington has continued her investigations on the cold

HALE AND SEIDELL: SUPRARENAL GLAND 225

storage of food products, a recent contribution having for its

subject Drawn and Undrawn Poultry.

Other recent work includes EnologicaJ Studies by William

B. Alwood; Estimation of Tin in Canned Goods by Herman

Schreiber; and Tomato Catsup under the Microscope by B. J.

Howard.

BIOCHEMISTRY. — The colorimetric and physiological estimctr

Hon of the active principle of the suprarenal gland. Worth

Hale and Atherton Seidell, Hygienic Laboratory. Com-

municated by Walter Wyman. To appear in American

Journal of Pharmacy.

Of the many color tests which have been proposed for the active

principle of the suprarenal gland, none appears to have been

developed to the accuracy required of a quantitative method.

Several have been used for comparative studies on glands from

different sources but, so far as shown by the literature, no attempts

have been made to correlate the results obtained by color tests

with the activity as determined by physiological methods.

In applying a number of the better known color reactions to

a series of desiccated suprarenal glands, for the purpose of select-

ing a suitable one for the forthcoming revision of the U. S.

Pharmacopoeia, it was noticed that considerable variation in the

intensities of the colors from the several samples was obtained;

preliminary blood pressure experiments with some of these samples

confirmed the differences indicated by the color tests. It there-

upon appeared probable that a colorimetric method which would

yield results in close agreement with those obtained by the physi-

ological standardization, could be developed.

The color reaction selected was that first proposed by Krauss

(Apoth. Ztg. 23: 701. 1908) and independently described by

Frankel and Allers (Biochem. Zeitschr. 18: 40. 1909); it consists

in heating to the boiling point, a mixture of equal volumes of

the aqueous suprarenalin solution and dilute (0.2 per cent I

KI03 solution (acidifying with H3P04 as proposed by Frankel

and Allers is not desirable), the reddish color being fairly per-

manent, and well marked even in solutions containing only 1

part of the active principle per 100,000.

226 HALE AND SEIDELL: SUPRARENAL GLAND

Permanent color standards. It was found that the color ob-

tained in the reaction just described consisted of a mixture of

red and yellow and its tint could be accurately matched by a

mixture of about 3 parts of a 1.2 per cent cobalt chloride solution

strongly acidified with HC1 and 1 part of similarly acidified 0.2

per cent potassium platinic chloride solution. (These solutions

are described by the Committee on Standard Methods of Water

Analysis.) The intensity of this permanent color standard was

then adjusted to correspond exactly with that obtained by mix-

ing 5 cc. of a 1 :50,000 solution of the ash free active principle of

the suprarenal, with 5 cc. of a 0.2 per cent KI03 solution (yielding

therefore 0.1 mg. active principle per 10 cc), heating just to the

boiling point and after 15 minutes comparing with the color stand-

ard in a suitable colorimeter. After standardization, a series

of test tubes were prepared with dilutions of the permanent color

standard, corresponding to 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08 and

0.10 mg. active principle per 10 cc. of solution.

The determination of the per cent of active principle in a given

sample of desiccated suprarenal is made as follows: 0.01 gm. is

placed in a test-tube with 5 cc. of dilute HC1 (2.5 cc. 0.1 n HC1

diluted to 100 cc. with H20) and 5 cc. of 0.2 per cent aqueous

KI03 solution, and the mixture heated just to the boiling point,

allowed to stand 10 minutes and filtered; the color obtained is

compared with the series of standards and its position determined.

There may be a slight difference in the tint of the unknown solu-

tion due to yellow coloring matter extracted from the desiccated

glands, but this difference has so far not been sufficient to inter-

fere with the accurate determination of the position in the series

of standards.

Determinations were made upon nine samples of desiccated

suprarenal glands obtained from two firms and one sample of

1 :1000 solution of the active principle which had been in the

laboratory some time. The physiological activity of these same

samples was determined by the blood pressure method, using as

a basis for the determination the same sample of pure base which

had been used to standardize the permanent color tubes required

in the colorimetric method. The results are as follows.

HALE AND SEIDELL: SUPRARENAL GLAND

227

From this table it will be seen that fairly large differences exist

in the two sets of values; however, it will be noted that a close par-

allelism exists between them. The results by the physiological

method are some 30 per cent higher in most cases. We are unable

at present to account for this but believe that the small amount

of yellowish extractive material yielded by the samples is the

cause of the lower readings by the colorimetric method. In spite

of these variations, however, this test appears to be by far the

most satisfactory one at present available and furnishes a means

for closely estimating the relative value of different lots of desic-

cated suprarenal glands and 1:1000 solutions of the active prin-

ciple. We hope to be able in the near future to extend our exper-

iments to man}^ other samples, both of the desiccated glands and

the commercial 1 to 1000 solutions and trust that we will be able

to remedy the cause of the present differences in values obtained

by the two methods.

In conclusion special attention should be called to the very wide

differences in activity found for the various commercial samples

of desiccated glands and the considerable diminution in strength

of a 1 :1000 solution of the active principle. Such wide varia-

tions have not so far been reported for the commercial glands

and were not expected when we undertook these experiments.

They illustrate very forcibly the need of just such a simple met Ik id

of control of this product as is described in the present paper.

228 BRIGGS AND SHANTZ : WILTING COEFFICIENT OF PLANTS

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY.— The wilting coefficient for different

plants and its indirect determination.1 Lyman J. Briggs

and H. L. Shantz. To appear in Bulletin 230, Bureau of

Plant Industry.

The object of this investigation was to determine the extent of

the variation exhibited by different plants with respect to the

minimum point to which they can reduce the moisture content

of the soil before permanent wilting occurs. It has heretofore

been believed that plants differ widely in this respect and that

drought resistance is in part due to the additional supply of water

which is available to some plants thru the greater force which

they exert upon the soil moisture. The results of this investi-

gation have led us to conclude that the differences exhibited by

plants in this respect are much less than have heretofore been

supposed, and are so small as to be of no practical utility from the

standpoint of drought resistance. As compared with the great

range in the wilting coefficients, the small differences arising from

the use of different species of plants in determining the wilting

coefficient become almost insignificant.

The moisture content of the soil corresponding to the wilting

of a plant growing in a confined soil mass is usually spoken of

as non-available moisture. We have found that plants are cap-

able of reducing the moisture content of the soil far below that

corresponding to the wilting point, and that a steadjr loss of mois-

ture goes on through the plant tissues even after the death of the

plant. The moisture content at the wilting point can not then

be considered as non-available, and we have adopted the term

wilting coefficient as expressing more specifically the moisture

content of the soil corresponding to the permanent wilting of

the plant.

The wilting coefficient is then defined as the moisture content

of the soil (expressed as a percentage of the dry weight) at the

time when the leaves of the plant growing in that soil first under-

goes a permanent reduction in the moisture content as the result

'Presented before the Botanical Society of Washington, October 9, 1911, and

before the Philosophical Society of Washington, October 14, 1911.

BRIGGS AND SHANTZ: WILTING COEFFICIENT OF PLANTS 229

of a deficiency in the soil moisture supply. By a permanent

reduction in the moisture content is meanl a condition from which

the leaves can not recover in an approximately saturated atmos-

phere without the addition of water to the soil. In the case of

most plants, wilting accompanies the reduction of the water

content of the leaves, and is the criterion used to determine the

wilting coefficient of a soil for that plant, The definition, as

stated, is applicable also to those plants which, owing to struc-

tural peculiarities, do not give visible evidence of a reduction of

the moisture content of the leaves. The wilting coefficient

for such plants is determined by means of the balancing method.

In making wilting coefficient determinations the following

precautions are necessary:

1. The soil used should be as uniform as possible.

2. The soil should be brought to a uniform water content before

being used.

3. All loss of water should be prevented except that due to the tran-

spiration of the plant.

4. All sudden fluctuations in temperature should be avoided.

5. The moisture determination should be made as soon as the plant

has first reached a wilted condition from which it can not recover when

placed in a damp chamber.

The method employed consists in growing the plants in a small

glass pot, evaporation from the soil surface being prevented by

means of a seal of wax which is melted and flowed over the soil

surface. In the case of monocotyledons, this wax seal can be

applied immediately after planting the seeds, and the seedlings

will grow readily through the wax, which forms a perfect seal around

the stems. In the case of dicotyledons, the wax, which is usually

a mixture of paraffin and petrolatum having a low inciting point

and low heat conductivity, can be melted and flowed around the

stems of the seedlings without injury. During growth, the pots

are kept immersed in a water bath to avoid condensation of the

soil moisture on the pot walls.

\Vhen the precautions noted above are observed, the probable

error of the mean of the determinations from twelve pot> docs

230 BRIGGS AND SHANT2 : WILTING COEFFICIENT OF PLANTS

not usually exceed one part in a hundred, which is comparable

with the accuracy with which the moisture retentiveness of the

soil used can be determined by purely physical methods.

The wax seal method is also particularly adapted to the study

of transpiration, since all loss of water is avoided except that

taking place through the plant. «

Wilting coefficient determinations have been made in a series

of twenty soils, ranging from sands to clays. In this work, in-

volving about 1300 determinations, a large number of varieties of

the different crop plants have been tested, as well as many native

plants from the Great Plains.

The results obtained show that species differ only slightly as

regards the soil moisture content at which permanent wilting

first takes place. Taking 100 to represent the average wilting

coefficient, the different species tested give an extreme range

(excepting Colocasia and Isoetes) from 92 for Japan rice to 106

for a variety of corn. Most of the species and varieties tested

differ much less than this. On the same scale, the great crop

plants gave the following values, obtained by combining the dif-

ferent varieties: corn, 103; wheat, 99; oats, 99; sorgo, 98; millet,

97; barley, 97; rye (one variety only) 94; rice, 94; grasses, 97;

legumes, 101.

We are, then, led to conclude that the differences exhibited by

crop plants, in their ability to reduce the moisture content of

the soil before wilting occurs, are so slight as to be without prac-

tical significance in the selection of crops for semi-arid regions.

Furthermore, we believe that the slight differences which we have

observed are largely due, not to the ability of one variety to exert

a greater tractive force upon the soil moisture than another, but

to the more perfect root distribution of one variety as compared

with another. Drought resistance in certain plants cannot,

then, be attributed to their ability to exert a greater force upon

the soil moisture, and so gain an additional water supply.

A series of comparisons have also been made of the relative

time of wilting of different plants grown together in the same pot.

In practically every case, wilting occurred simultaneously, which

is in harmony with the above conclusions.

BRIGGS AND SHANTZ: WILTING COEFFICIENT OF PLANTS 231

A balancing method has been developed for determining the

wilting coefficient for plants in which wilting [s difficull to observe,

owing to structural peculiarities. The plant is potted in a glazed

pot and the soil surface sealed with wax as before. The potted

plant is then mounted horizontally in a frame balanced on knife

edges. The water transpired by the plant is at first replaced

from the supply in the soil. During this time the soil end of t lie

system tends to move upward, owing to the loss of water, and

is kept balanced by adjusting a counterpoise. A short period

then occurs during which the water lost thru transpiration is

supplied both from the soil and from the storage tissues of the

plant. During this time the system appears sluggish. Finally

the amount supplied from the soil is insufficient to offset the in-

creasing amount lost from the storage tissues of the plant, and

the direction of motion of the system is reversed, the plant mov-

ing upward. The soil moisture content at this time corresponds

to the wilting coefficient of that soil for the particular plant

used, since the loss of water from the plant tissues would be accom-

panied by wilting, except for structural peculiarities.

We have shown by this method that the olive and Opuntia

undergo a reduction in the moisture content of their aerial parts

at the time other plants wilt, altho no outward evidence of such

loss is apparent.

That part of the soil moisture content that is available for

plant growth is represented by the difference between the actual

water content and the wilting coefficient. The latter determi-

nation is consequently essential in any critical study of the rela-

tion of plant growth to soil moisture. The desirabilhVy of a rapid

determination of the wilting coefficient in connection with field

work led to an investigation to determine whether it could be

computed from physical measurements of the moisture retentivity

of the soil. A comparison of the wilting coefficient has been made

with the moisture equivalent, hygroscopic coefficient, moisture

holding capacity, and the mechanical analysis (all expressed in

percent), using a series of soils ranging from sand to clay. From

this comparison a series of linear relationships have been estab-

lished as expressed in the following equations, which thus provide

232 BRIGGS AND SHANTZ I WILTING COEFFICIENT OF PLANTS

a means of computing the wilting coefficient when direct deter-

minations are not feasible.

Wilting coefficient =

Moisture equivalent

1.84(1 ±0.0077"

Hygroscopic coefficient

0.68(1 ±0.018)~

Moisture holding capacity — 21

2.90(1 ±0.021)

0.01 sand - 0.12 silt - 0.57 clay

(1 ±0.025)

The second term of the quantity within the brackets shows the

probable error of the relationship in each case and constitutes a

measure of the relative accuracy of the different methods.

The moisture equivalent method, in which the measurements

are made with the aid of the centrifugal machine exerting a force

1000 times that of gravity, is the most accurate and satisfactory

of the indirect methods.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly i0 the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

METEOROLOGY. — Variations of temperature at summit and base

stations in the central Rocky Mountain region. Alfred J. Henry.

Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, 4: 103-116. 1911.

In this and a previous paper the author discusses the temperatures

at summit and base stations in the high Rocky Mountain region of

eastern Colorado, as recorded simultaneously by Richard thermographs,

the latter being controlled by eye readings of standard mercurial ther-

mometers.

It is shown that as a rule, the course of the temperature at both levels

is very nearly parallel, that the accidental changes occur nearly simul-

taneously, with the exception that changes to warmer weather set in

at the upper station earlier than on lower levels, that while the course

of the temperature at both levels is generally similarly directed, there

are times when it is oppositely directed, as when the temperature rises

on the mountain summits and falls on the plains to the eastward. Such

instances indicate that the temperature control is occasionally shifted

from one side of the mountain to the other and that the mountains then

become a real climatic barrier. Ordinarily they offer little or no hin-

drance to the movement of atmospheric disturbances on which temper-

ature changes depend. In the cold season when the Great Basin is

occupied by an area of high pressure the latter seems to dominate the

winds and temperature on the higher mountain summits of Colorado

and New Mexico but not the plains to the eastward.

The dependence of temperature on altitude is discussed for the pair

of stations, Fraser, in Middle Park, Colorado, altitude 2,609 meters,

8,560 feet, and Corona, the latter on the summit of the continental

divide, altitude 3,554 meters, 11,660 feet. Although Eraser is 945

meters, 3,100 feet, lower than Corona, it has a temperature that during

the night hours and under certain weather conditions is considerably

lower than that of Corona notwithstanding the difference in altitude.

The cause of the abnormally low temperatures observed at Fraser are

233

234 abstracts: physics and chemistry

ascribed to the surrounding topography which favors the drainage of

cold air down the mountain sides and its accumulation on the valley

floor, since there is no easy means of escape. Nocturnal cooling is also

at a maximum in the clear dry air of Colorado and it seems to be accen-

tuated under certain types of pressure distribution which prevail over

Wyoming and Idaho during the cold season. A. J. H.

PHYSICS. — Selective radiation from various substances III. W. W.

Coblentz. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, Reprint 156. 1911.

The present paper is a continuation of previous work (Bur. Bull.

Standards, Reprints 97 and 131) on this subject. The selective emis-

sion and absorption of the acetylene flame is investigated spectro-

radiometrically; also the selective emission of the Welsbach mantle, and

of the same material formed into a solid rod which was heated to incan-

descence electrically.

The conclusions arrived at from the results of the experiments and

from historical inquiry are that the selective emission can be explained

on a purely thermal basis without invoking the hypothetical andunproven

assumption of the presence of "luminescence" and of catalysis.

w. w. c.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. — Radiometric investigation of water of crys-

tallization, infra-red absorption screens and standard spectral lines.

W. W. Coblentz. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, Reprint 168.

1911. Journal Franklin Institute, October. 1911.

This is a continuation of previous investigations of the condition of

water in minerals (Bull. Bur. Standards, Reprint 45). The infra-red

transmission of tremolite and of opal are examined in extenso; the latter

after various stages of de- and rehydration. The spectroradiometric

analysis shows no distinction between "water of crystallization," "ab-

sorbed water," and "water of solid solution;" all showing the absorption

bands of water in its free liquid state. Tremolite is supposed to contain

dissolved water but the radiometric test, although sufficiently sensitive

for the purpose, failed to detect it. A group of miscellaneous substances

is described including gelatin, in which the moisture appears to be pres-

ent as "water of constitution." W. W. C.

abstracts: chemistri and geologi 235

CHEMISTRY.— The determination of t<»tnl sulphur in india rubber.

C. E. Waters and J. B. Tuttle. Journal of [ndustrial and Engi-

neering Chemistry, 3: 734. 1911. Bulletin Bureau of Standards

8: No. 2. 1911.

A comparative study of differenl methods already published and of

variations of these methods. The procedure finally adopted was essen-

tially that of Henriques, except that the nitric acid used to decompose

the rubber is saturated with bromine to ensure complete oxidation of

free sulphur to sulphuric acid. The methods were tester 1 1 >y using a large

uniform sample of rubber, as well as pure sulphur and a solution of sul-

phuric acid of known strength. C. E. W.

GEOLOGY. — The Mount McKinley region, Alaska. Alfred H.

Brooks. With description of the igneous rocks and the Bonnifield

and Kantishna districts. L. M. Prindle. Professional Paper

U. S. Geological Survey No. 70. Pp. 234, with maps, sections,

and views. 1911.

The Mount McKinley region is blocked out by the meridians 148°

and 154° and parallels 61° and 65° 20' north, but the Alaska Range,

which traverses the central part of this region is more specially here

under consideration. The Alaska Range is a belt of rugged mountains

trending northeast and east 50 to 60 miles wide and from 500 to 600

miles long, of which Mount McKinley (20,300 ft.) is the highest peak.

This range was practically unexplored until 1902, when most of the

data were collected on which the following conclusions are based.

Undifferentiated Paleozoic sediments, unconformably overlaid by a

great complex of volcanic, probably Jurassic, rocks (Skwentna group),

and these in turn unconformably succeeded by Middle Jurassic sedi-

ments (Tordrillo formation), occur in the eastern part of the range.

These rocks dip toward the axis of the range and form the eastern arm

of a broad synclinorium. In the western arm the Tordrillo formation

rests unconformably on a great series of Paleozoics which has been

subdivided into (1) Tatina group (Ordovician), (2) Tonzona group

(Silurian or Devonian [?| ), (3) Middle Devonian limestone, (4) Cant-

well formation (Carboniferous [?] ). The last, which rests unconform-

ably on the older rocks, has only been recognized in the northern part

of the range. Complex folding and profound faulting have taken place

along the inland (northern) front of the range, and in this some Kenai

beds (Eocene) are involved. Numerous stocks and dikes of granites,

diorites, and related rocks, probably of late Jurassic age, occur in the

236 abstracts: geology

Alaska Range, and diabase dikes, probably of Eocene age, are not uncom-

mon. Along the northern margin of the range the oldest recognized

Paleozoics rest unconformably on complexly folded metamorphoric sedi-

ments (Birch Creek schists). Still farther north these metamorphic

schists are succeeded by a great thickness of Paleozoics only in part

subdivided and correlated with the formations described above. The

Mesozoic horizons of the Alaska Range have in part been recognized

in the Matanuska Valley of the eastern part of the McKinley region.

An extensive river system was developed in this region during Eocene

times, and in this the sediments classed as Kenai were deposited. The

northern part of the province was peneplaned in later Tertiary times

and it is possible also that the same period of erosion may have base-

leveled the southern part of the province. Uplift followed and the

modern stream valleys were in part developed along the old Tertiary

drainage system. A. H. B.

GEOLOGY. — Denudation and erosion of the southern Appalachian

region and the Monongahela Basin. Leonidas Chalmers Glenn.

Professional Paper U. S. Geological Survey No. 72. Pp. 137, with

maps and views. 1911.

Two kinds of aqueous erosion are recognized, namely, (1) stream ero-

sion, confined to the water courses, and (2) general surface erosion,

over the whole drainage basin. Stream erosion is continuous but varies

greatly in intensity with the amount of water. General surface erosion

is due almost entirely to the rain. During heavy rainfall a grass sod

absorbs less water than a good humous cover in forested areas and the

run-off from grass-land is greater than from forest. The force of the

rain drop is lessened in forested areas, and as the fallen drops gather

to flow down the slopes they are checked by the leaves and litter or are

absorbed by the spongy mass of soft moss or turf. The protective

effect of forest cover was noted in many parts of the region. In the

course of ages there has come about, in all but a very small part of the

area, such an adjustment between the steepness of the forested slope

and the average rainfall and other erosive agencies that the wasting of

the slope is reduced to a minimum. Streams that flow from such for-

est-clad graded slopes rise more slowly during rains than similar streams

in cleared areas; they also continue longer in flood and subside more

slowly. Removal of the forest disturbs the natural equilibrium, exces-

sive erosion takes place, the soil is swept away, and the mountain slopes

are scarred.

abstracts; geology 237

Other things being equal, the extent and character of erosion varies

with the bed-rock. The nature of the rock determines the character

of the soil and this determines the kind and rate of erosion.

A. H. Brook-v

GEOBOGY.— Geologic Atlas of the United States. Folio No. 177.

Bargettstoivn-Carnegie folio, Penn. E. W. Shaw and M. J. Munn.

U. S. Geological Survey. Pp. 11, with maps and sections. 1911.

Oil and gas fields of the Carnegie Quadrangle, Penn. M. J. Munn.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 156. Pp. 99, with maps

and sections.

The outcropping rocks belong to the Conemaugh, Monongahela,

and Greene formations of the Carboniferous system and consist of shale,

sandstone, and limestone with minor amounts of coal and clay. Beneath

the surface are similar rocks of Allegheny, Pottsville, and Pocono age,

and even older rocks have been reached by the drill. The beds dip

gently south but the structure is modified by minor irregularities.

Almost all the coal produced is taken from a bed known as Pittsburg

coal. This coal outcrops extensively, but in general it is below the

surface in the southern half of the district and up near the tops of the

hills in the northern half. A few feet above this coal is another bed

three or four feet thick known as the Pittsburg rider which is mined to

some extent. The oil and gas are found in sandstones 1000 to 2000

feet below the surface, belonging mostly in the Pottsville and Pocono

formations.

Two surface features of especial interest are: (1) heavily gravel-

covered terraces in the larger valleys of the region lying 200 to 300 feet

above present streams and (2) a symmetry in the minor drainage lines

of the region, the small tributaries flowing southeast being much longer

than those flowing in an opposite direction. E. W. S.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and underground waters of southern Minnesota.

C. W. Hall. E. O. Meinzer, and M. L. Fuller. Water-Supply

Paper U. S. Geological Survey No. 256. Pp. 406, with maps and

sections. 1911.

The region here described includes approximately the southern two-

fifths of the State of Minnesota and has an area of 28,265 square miles.

Five great rock divisions occur in southern Minnesota. In the order

of age, these are the Archean, Algonkian, Paleozoic (here including the

Cambrian, Ordovician, and Devonian systems), Cretaceous, and Qua-

ternary. Tertiary stream deposits doubtless exisl in <ome localii

238 abstracts: economic geology

but they are so unimportant that they have not been differentiated and

are here considered with the Quaternary.

In the northwestern and the north-central parts of the area the

Archean system, consisting of granite and allied crystallines, outcrops in

a number of localities and everywhere lies within a few hundred feet of

the surface, but toward the south and east it slopes downward abruptly

and is found only at considerable depths. In the southwest the Sioux

quartzite, which is of Algonkian age, projects up through younger for-

mations and appears at the surface at numerous localities.

In the east and south, where the granite is far below the surface, it

is overlain by a succession of indurated sandstones, shales, and lime-

stones, aggregating many hundreds of feet in thickness, at least the

upper part being of Paleozoic age. Throughout most of the western

part, and probably in isolated areas of the eastern part, of southern

Minnesota, Archean, Algonkian, and Paleozoic rocks are covered by

Cretaceous deposits consisting of soft, plastic shales and incoherent

sandstones which together attain a maximum thickness of at least 500

feet, though they are generally much thinner. A mantle of glacial

drift is spread out over all these formations and, with the exception of

the alluvium recently formed in stream valleys, is the youngest deposit

in the region.

In regard to their importance in furnishing water supplies, the Pleis-

tocene ranks first and the Paleozoic second, while the Cretaceous and

Algonkian are of minor value, and the Archean is virtually destitute

of available supplies, everywhere marking the lower limit of water hori-

zons. H. D. McCaskey.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.— The Lander and Salt Creek Oil Fields

Wyoming: The Lander oilfield, Fremont County. E. G. Woodruff.

The Salt Creek oil field, Natrona County. C. H. Wegemann. Bul-

letin U. S. Geological Survey No. 452. Pp. 87, with maps, sections,

and views. 1911.

Viewed as a whole the Lander oil field consists of a central highly

dissected ridge with moderately-trenched slightly-undulating plains on

either side. The topographic expression of the field is believed to have

resulted from the erosion of a plain composed of loose material that once

covered the area at a much higher altitude than the present surface and

sloped northwestward from the mountains toward the interior of the

Wind River Basin.

The strata exposed at the surface in this field belong to the Trias-

sic (?), Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary systems. Below

abstracts: petrology 239

the Triassic (?) are rocks of Permian (?) and Pennsylvanian age, which

do not outcrop in the field but are exposed on the slope of Wind River

Mountains. They are entered by some of the oil wells and are believed

to be the source of most, if not all, of the oil.

The Triassic (?) is represented by the Chugwater formation, the

Jurassic by the Sundance and Morrison formations, and the Upper

Cretaceous by the Dakota sandstone, Mancos shale, and the Mesaverde

formation. An unconformity separates the Wind River formation

(Eocene) from the Upper Cretaceous rocks. The formations, including

from the Chugwater to the top of the Upper Cretaceous, aggregates

nearly 9500 feet in thickness.

The structural province in which this field lies comprises very broad

synclinal basins bordered by relatively high narrow mountain ranges

with small steep-sided, slightly elevated anticlines that are exposed about

the edges of the basins in a zone between the basins proper and the moun-

tains. If the strata in the interior of the basins are folded, the folds

are concealed beneath beds which were deposited subsequent to the

major structural movements in the province.

The Salt Creek oil field lies in the northeast corner of Natrona County,

Wyoming, and in the drainage basin of Powder River. Topographically

the region includes broad flat-topped interstream areas, separated by

broad flat valleys. Scarps representing the outcropping edges of hard

strata are plentiful. The geologic sequence includes about 6,800 feet

of Upper Cretaceous strata, divided into 13 formations. In addition

to these, there are the Morrison formation of Jurassic age (?), the Lance

formation, which is Tertiary or Cretaceous, and the Fort Union, which

is Eocene.

A broad anticlinal arch, more or less faulted, crosses the field in a

northwest-southeast direction, the limits of which dip at angles of from

8° to 29°. The steepest dips are found on the west side of the arch.

Within this anticline are two domes. To the west of this arch is a

second anticline of similar character. The oil occurs at or near the

crest of the anticline. A. H. Brooks.

PETROLOGY. — Geology of the pegmatites and associated rocks of Maine,

including feldspar, quartz, mica, and gem deposits. Edson S. Bas-

tin. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 445. Pp. 152. Illus-

trated. 1911.

The commercially important pegmatite deposits are principally

in the southern and western parts of Maine. Most of the pegmatites

are distinctly intrusive into the surrounding schists and granites. They

240 abstracts: biology

differ greatly in coarseness but have the common distinguishing char-

acteristic of extreme irregularity of grain. They commonly form long,

narrow lenses lying parallel with the foliation of the schists. The asso-

ciated foliated rocks, which are of unknown age, are in part of igneous

and in part of sedimentary origin. The granite and pegmatite are min-

eralogically similar and numerous observed transitions from one into the

other, show that the two are in a broad way contemporaneous and are

genetically related.

The pegmatite deposits are essentially coarse granites, their principal

light-colored constituents being potash and soda feldspars, quartz,

and muscovite, and their principal dark-colored constituents biotite

and black tourmaline. Accessory constituents present in almost all

pegmatites are garnet, magnetite, and green opaque beryl. Acces-

sory minerals present only in certain pegmatites number over fifty

species, the most important probably being lepidolite, emblygonite,

spodumene, tourmaline, beryl, topaz, and rose or amethystine quartz.

Variations through increase in the sodium and lithium content are

responsible for most of the gem deposits of the State.

External conditions, though locally having some slight influence,

are not primarily the cause of the pegmatitic textures. The presence

of the rarer elements also seems to have had only a minor influence on

the texture. Theoretical considerations and the presence of miarolitic

cavities in certain pegmatites point to the presence of gaseous constit-

uents in the magmas, especially water vapor, as the primary cause of

their textures.

There are many facts which suggest that the difference in average

composition between the granite pegmatites and the normal granites

was relatively slight and that the pegmatite magmas were not so dif-

ferent in physical characters from the granite magmas as has been com-

monly supposed.

The theory that the graphic intergrowths in pegmatites represent

eutectic mixtures can not be regarded as proved.

Field relations suggest that the large areas characterized by partic-

ular abundance of pegmatite intrusions correspond to the roofs of granite

batholiths. E. S. B.

BIOLOGY. — Development of sponges from dissociated tissue cells. H.

V. Wilson. Bulletin U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 29: 1-30, pi. i-v.

1911.

Sponges were cut into small pieces and strained thru fine bolting cloth

into a dish containing water. The cells settle to the bottom as a fine

abstracts: fisheries and plant pathology 241

sediment, but immediately begin to fuse into conglomerate masses,

which in turn unite and metamorphose until the sponge is eventually

restored.

The experiments were made chiefly with Microciona prolifera, which

it was shown can be perfectly regenerated by this method of growth from

dissociated cells. Lissodendoryx carolinensis is less hardy, and it proved

difficult to dissociate the cells in healthy condition, but the behavior

of the tissue was the same as in Microciona. In Stylotella heliophila

the behavior of the tissue was slow and feeble as compared with Micro-

ciona, but the plasmodial masses were formed. In neither of the latter

two species, however, did the plasmodial masses metamorphose.

Intermingling of the red tissue of Microciona with the bright green

of Lissodendoryx failed to produce fusion of the different species, as did

also the intermingling of tissue of Microciona and Stylotella.

E.M.Smith.

FISHERIES. — Effects of explosive sounds, such as those produced by

motor boats and gunshots, upon fishes. G. H. Parker. Bureau of

Fisheries Document No. 752. Pp. 9. October, 1911.

To the human ear, when the listener is under water, the noise of motor

boats and the sound of gunshots, even at very close range, are very slight.

Testing fishes in enclosures with the same kinds of sounds the following

conclusions were reached:

The sounds produced by motoi boats are extremely faint under water

and have little influence on the movements and feeding of fishes. Such

influence as they do have is temporary and very much restricted in local

extent.

Single explosive sounds, like the report of a gun, may startle fish and

cause them to cease feeding, but these responses are also temporary

and local.

Altho most sounds are repellent to fish, some may serve as lures to

particular species. E. M. Smith.

PLANT PATHOLOGY.— The rusts of grains in the United States.

E. M. Freeman and Edward C. Johnson, Bureau of Plant Indus-

try, Bulletin 216. Pp. 87, pis. 1. 1911.

This paper embodies results of a detailed study of the grain rusts with

regard to distribution, relationships, physiology, and life history. Par-

ticular attention is directed to "biologic forms" of rusts, vitality of

successive uredo generations, wintering of the uredo generation, clima-

tology in relation to rust epidemics, and methods of breeding grains for

rust resistance. Some of the more important conclusions derived follow :

242 abstracts: plant pathology

The so-called stem rusts of wheat, barley, rye, and oats are undoubt-

edly "biologic forms" of the same species, Puccinia graminis Pers.,

and though many of them are highly specialized an interchange of hosts

may often be induced by special cultural methods. By gradual varia-

tion and adaptation to varying conditions, a rust species widely distrib-

uted may form a number of strains or types differing in physiological

reactions.

In successive cultures of the uredospores of six different grain rusts,

the fifty-second generation was apparently as vigorous as the first in

spite of the absence of the aecidium during this period, no "invigoration"

having been necessary for this length of time. The uredo of several

of the rusts may survive the 'winter in latitudes as far north as St. Paul,

Minn. Rust spores may be carried from one region to another for hun-

dreds of miles by winds and upper air currents.

Subnormal temperatures, delaying and lengthening the heading and

early flowering of period the wheat and furnishing conditions most favor-

able for spore germination and infection, are believed to have been an

important factor, if not the determining factor, for the stem rust epi-

demic of 1904 in the Middle Northwest.

For the prevention of rusts fungicides and soil treatments, as a rule,

have proven ineffective, and the only practical method known is the

production of rust-resistant varieties through hybridization and selec-

tion. To what character resistance is due is not clearly understood.

Resistance and susceptibility in cereals, however, are inheritable char-

acters, apparently occurring in Mendel ian proportions. In breeding

ceieals for resistance, the rust must be present in the breeding plants

every year. To insure this special methods of rust propagation must

be employed. E. C. J.

PLANT PATHOLOGY.— Timothy rust in the United States. Edward

C. Johnson, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 224. Pp. 20. 1911.

Timothy rust was reported from Wisconsin in 1882. There is some

doubt concerning the accuracy of this report. It was reported from Iowa

in 1891. From 1891 to 1906 no mention of the parasite has been found.

In 1906, the rust became epidemic at the Arlington Experimental Farm

and since then has been found from Maine to Minnesota, and south

to Iowa, Kentucky and Virginia.

Rust on timothy is similar to Puccinia graminis Pers. on wheat. Ex-

perimental results demonstrate its identity with the rust on timothy

in Europe. The aecidial stage is not definitely known. Early indica-

abstracts: plant pathologi 243

tions that the barberry may be the aecidial host in Europe have not

been substantiated. For this reason and because of many other more

or less distinctive characteristics of this rust the writer favors the use

of the specific name Puccinia Phlei-pratensis Erikss and Henn.

The rust mycelium survives the winter at the Arlington Experimental

Farm, producing fresh uredospores in the spring. Its distribution is

undoubtedly due to dissemination of the uredospore by the usual

agencies, namely, insects, birds, man, other animals, surface winds and

upper air currents. Its further distribution is to be expected.

The resistance of varieties of timothy to rust varies greatly. Depend-

able data on this point can be secured only under epidemic conditions.

Breeding of rust-resistant varieties of timothy is the only known method

of preventing the disease. This may not be as difficult as it appears at

first as timothies thus far have not been highly bred. Varietal differ-

ences and variations, therefore, are many, giving promise of market 1

response to selection. E. C. J.

PLANT PATHOLOGY.— The blister rust of white pine. Perley

Spaulding, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 206. Pp. 88. July

22, 1911.

As a result of the active and increasing reforestation movement in

the northeastern States, white pine nursery stock has been imported

from Europe in considerable quantities for a number of years. Small

quantities of such stock have been imported for a much longer time.

The white pine is attacked in Europe by the fungus Peridermium strobi,

which is its most serious enemy in Europe, causing very serious loss in

nurseries and young plantations. The fungus is widely spread in Europe

and has been proved to be one stage of Cronartium ribicola, which

occurs on currant and gooseberry leaves. The disease also has attacked

Pinus cembra, P. lambertiana, and P. monticola. It also probably has

attacked P. excelsa. Early in 1909 it was discovered that this disease

had been imported extensively into the northeastern States upon young

white pine seedlings imported from Germany. Nearly all of the dis-

eased stock has been sent to this country by a single nursery, namely,

J. Heins Sons of Halstenbek. As soon as the presence of this disease

was known, the various State officials met and agreed to endeavor to

prevent it from obtaining a foothold in this country. This has involved

repeated inspections of the plantations of diseased white pines and the

removal of the species of Ribes in the neighborhood of these plantations.

Up to the present time the disease is not known to have become estab-

lished here. Owing to the great danger from importations of white

244 abstracts: entomology

pine from Europe, the import trade in this stock since 1909 has been

reduced to a small amount. In the years 1910 and 1911 only a very

few shipments are known to have come into the country from the above

mentioned nursery. Diseased shipments have, however, been received

from three French firms, thus showing the danger from importations

from any European country. The disease has an incubation period

during which it cannot be detected by the most skilful plant patholo-

gist. Because of this incubation period, which is of indefinite length, the

only feasible plan of handling the situation seems to be the prohibition

of the importation of white pine, and of other five-leaved pines, which,

so far as we know, are also susceptible to the disease. P. S.

ENTOMOLOGY.- — Descriptions of Tineoid moths (Microlepidoptera)

from South America. August Busck. Proceedings U. S. National

Museum, 41 : 205-230. Plates 8-9. 1911.

The material is from the collection of Mr. Wm. Schaus and almost

wholly from French Guiana. Forty-five species and the following five

new genera are described:

Filinota, related to Carcina; Hasta, allied to Anchinia; Gonada, near

Necedes; Ordrupia, similar to Hemerophila; and Plumana, based on a

male much like Fumea. Twenty-three of the new species are in the

genus Stenoma. The plates are photographs and do not well illus-

trate the moths. N. Banks.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Bees in the collection of the U. S. National Museum.

T. D. A. Cockerell. No. 1. Proceedings U. S. National Museum,

39: 635-658. 1911. No. 2. Ibid., 40: 241-264. 1911.

In these two papers Professor Cockerel] describes new species of bees

from the United States and Oriental Asia. There are notes of value on

many of the described species and frequently closely allied forms are

separated by synoptic tables. In the second paper there is a table to

the Asiatic species of Anihophora. There are no new generic names

but new characters are given to distinguish Viereckella from Melano-

nomada, both really subgenera of Nomada. N. Banks.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Notes on the distribution of millipedes in Southern

Texas, with descriptions of new genera and species from Texas, Ari-

zona, Mexico, and Costa Rica. O. F. Cook. Proceedings U. S.

National Museum, 40: 147-167. 1911.

In the isolated humid spots, now containing certain peculiar milli-

pedes, the author sees evidence of the existence of former forests in

abstracts: entomology 245

South Texas. Eurelus and Anelus are the new genera from Texas;

three new species of Onychelus are described from Arizona, one from

the nest of a wood-rat. He also describes from Central America two

other two new genera; Glosselus, related to Anelus, and Centrelus,

closely allied to Eurelus. One misses the figures that are so useful in

papers on myriopods. X. Banks.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Descriptions of new Hymenoptera. 3 parts. J. C.

Crawford. Proceedings U. S. National Museum, 39: 617, 623;

40: 439-449; 41: 267-282. 1911.

Forty-six new species are described from various parts of the world,

mostly in the Chalcidae and Proctotrypidae, a few are bees. The fol-

lowing new genera are erected; Dipachy stigma, Winnemana, Sophen-

ei/rtus, Leurocerus, and Agiommatus. A table is given for the West

Indian species of Horismenus. Figures of wings or antennae are given

for a few forms which are very useful in identification. The collectors

are remembered in the specific appellations. N. Banks.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Notes on insects of the order Strepsiptera, with de-

scriptions of new species. W. D. Pierce. Proceedings U. S.

National Museum, 40: 487-511. 1911.

This is supplementary to the author's "Monographic Revision"

of the order. Twenty-four new species are described, and the following-

new generic names: Triozocera, Belonogastechthous, Tachytixenos,

Diozocera, Pentozocera , Pentozoe; three of these are emendations and so

synonyms. A host-list is appended giving many new records.

N. Banks.

ENTOMOLOGY. — On some Hymenopterous insects from the island of

Formosa. S. A. Rohwer. Proceedings U. S. National Museum,

39: 477-485. 1911.

A list of nineteen species captured at Horisha by Mr. T. Fukai, of

which nine are described as new; no new genera. X. Banks.

ENTt )M( >LOGY— The color of the light emitted by lampyridae. W. W.

Coblentz. The Canadian Entomologist, p. 3.")."). October. 1911.

Phys. Zeitschrifc. October. 1911.

The light of various species of fire-flies and of a standard lamp were

photographed, and the densities compared by means of spectrophoto-

graphic photometry. In this manner the spectral energy curve of the

240 abstracts: psychopathology

light of the fire-fly was deduced from a knowledge of the spectral energy

curve of the standard lamp. It is shown that the color of the light is

not a subjective phenomenon, the maximum emission of the Pyrophorus

noclilucus being at 0.538/z; Photuris pennsylvanica being at 0.552/x;

Photinus pyralis being at 0.567/*; Photinus consanguineus being at 0.578/x.

w. w. c.

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY. — Occupations neuroses (writer's cramp, etc.)

recovery after psycho-analytpic ?neasures followed by reeducation.

Tom A. Williams. Washington Medical Annals. January, 1911.

Monthly Cyclopaedia. July, 1911.

The true professional neurosis is psychogenically perpetuated, even

though it may have been at first produced by a physical disability. To

show this five cases are studied. They are: (1) A right torticolis and

cramp of the right arm while counting money. The pathogenesis was

traced to an unpleasant incident with a fellow employee who sat behind

and to the right while they were counting money in the treasury. The

patient's impatience interrupted the great improvement. (2) Writer's

cramp in a bank-teller, who refused treatment and had to change occu-

pation. (3) Tremulous writers cramp in a paymaster, which was traced

through a psychological mechanism in one interview, which lead to re-

covery after one month, which persists two and a half years later. (4)

Writer's cramp in a woman who always hated correspondence. Cured

in four months after unveiling psychological mechanism. (5) Complex

multiple cramps in a psychasthenic woman of thirty. After persevering

psychoanalysis and arduous education for six months, the patient re-

covered the power of writing with the right hand.

In no case was a sexual factor found in the genesis. Treatment, after

psychoanalysis, consisted of explanation of the mechanism until the pa-

tients themselves could expound it: following which psychomotor dis-

cipline preceded the reeducation of the professional act. T. A. W.

PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

700th Meeting, November 25, 1911, Cosmos Club at 8.30. Address

of the retiring President. Arthur L. Day: Geophysical Research.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. I, DECEMBER 4, 1911. No. 9.

GEOPHYSICS. — Geophysical research.1 Arthur L. Day.

To write the history of the earth is a very different undertaking

from writing the history of a people. In the latter case, a dili-

gent seeker can usually find some ancient monastery where far-

sighted historians of an earlier generation have collected the more

important records which he requires, and placed them within

reach of his hand. With the earth's history, which is the prov-

ince of geology, it is another matter. The great globe has been

millions of years in the making, and except for a mere fragment

of its most recent history, it has had neither a historian nor an

observer. Its formation has not only extended over an almost

incomprehensible interval of time, but we have no parallel in our

limited experience to help us to understand its complicated devel-

opment, and no system of classification adequate to the task,

even of grouping in an orderly way all the observed rock and

mineral formations with reference to the forces which moulded

them. And even if we could correctly interpret all the visible

rock records, we are still quite helpless to comprehend all those

earlier activities of the formation period, whose record is now

obliterated.

To the student of the earth's history, therefore, the problem

of gathering and ordering such a widely scattered and hetero-

geneous collection of effects and causes is one of somewhat over-

whelming scope and complication. In the industrial world, a

situation of this kind soon results in replacing individual effort

with collective effort, in the organization of a system of a scope

i

Presidential address delivered at the 700th meeting of t he Philosophical Society

of Washington, November 2.5, 1911.

247

248 day: geophysical research

more appropriate to the magnitude of the task. We are familiar

with industrial organization and the wonderful progress in the

development of American industries which has everywhere fol-

lowed it. We are also familiar with organized geological sur-

veys and the success which has attended them in geological and

topographical classification. But the idea of organizing research

to meet a scientific situation of extraordinary scope and com-

plexity is still comparatively new. The very words science

and research are still regarded as referring to something out of

the ordinary, something to be withheld from the common gaze,

to be kept hidden in a special niche, behind a mysterious curtain

and served by priests of peculiar temperament and unpractical

ideals. This is both disparaging to our good sense and prejudi-

cial to the progress of knowledge. Scientific research is not a

luxury; it is a fundamental necessity. It is not a European fad,

but is the very essence of the tremendous technologic and indus-

trial success of the last twenty years, in which we have shared.

Professor Nichols, of Cornell, as retiring president of the Amer-

ican Association for the Advancement of Science, put the case in

this way "The main product of science (research) ... is

knowledge. Among its by-products are the technologic arts,

including invention, engineering in all its branches, and modern

industry." The idea of scientific research is therefore not less

tangible than industrial development, or less practical; it is merely

one step more fundamental; it is concerned with the discovery

of principles and underlying relations rather than their applica-

tion. This being true, research should profit as much, or even

more, from efficient organization as industrial development has

done.

Altho this conclusion is making its way but slowly in Amer-

ican science, in geological research, where material must be

gathered from the utmost ends of the earth and even from within

it, and where nearly every known branch of scientific activity

finds some application, there is a peculiarly favorable opportunity

for organized effort which is already coming to be recognized.

"So long as geology remained a descriptive science," says Presi-

dent Van Hise of Wisconsin, "it had little need of chemistry and

day: geophysical research iM'.i

physics; but the time has now come when geologists are not satis-

fied with mere description. They desire to interpret the phenom-

ena they see in reference to their causes — in other words, under the

principles of physics and chemistry This involves

cooperation between physicists, chemists and geologists."

In a general way, physics, chemistry and biology have already

supplied working hypotheses which have been used by students

of geology to help in the examination, classification and mapping

of the most conspicuous features of the exposed portion of the

earth. The geologist has gone abroad and has studied the dis-

tribution of land and water, the mountain ranges, the erosive

action of ice and of surface water and the resulting sedimentary

deposits, the distribution of volcanic activity and of its products,

the igneous rocks; or more in detail he has studied the appearance

of fossils in certain strata, and has inferred the sequence of geologic

time. The distribution of particular minerals and of ore deposits

has been carefully mapped. Regions which offer evidence of

extraordinary upheaval thru the exercise of physical forces

have been painstakingly examined, and so on thru the great

range of geologic activity. In a word, the field has been given

a thoro general examination, but the manifold problems which

this examination has developed, altho early recognized, and

often the subject of philosophical speculation and discussion, still

await an opportunity for quantitative study. They are often

problems for the laboratory and not for the field, problems for

exact measurement rather than for inference, problems for the

physicist and chemist rather than for the geologist. This is not

a result of oversight, it is a stage in the development of the science,

— first the location and classification of the material, then the

laboratory study of why and how much.

Certain indications have led us to believe, for example, that the

earth was once completely gaseous and in appearance much like

our sun. Indeed, it possibly formed a part of the sun but thru

some instability in the system became split off — a great gaseous

ball which has cooled to its present condition. The cooling

probably went on rapidly at first until a protecting crust formed

about the ball, then more and more slowly, until now, when our

250 day: geophysical research

loss of heat by radiation into space is more than compensated by

heat received from the sun. Obviously, the earliest portions of

this history are and must remain dependent upon inference but

the formation of a solid crust cannot advance far before portions

of it become fixed in a form such that further disturbance does not

destroy their identity. From this point on the history of the

earth is a matter of record and can be interpreted if only we have

sufficient knowledge of the mineral relations thru all the stages

of their development.

It must have been a very turbulent sea, the molten surface of

our earth upon which the rocky crust began to form. The first

patches of crust were probably shattered over and over again

by escaping gases and violent explosions of which our waning

volcanic activity is but a feeble echo. If the earth was first

gaseous, and the outer surface gradually condensed to a liquid,

its outer portions at least must have been whirled and tumbled

about sufficiently, even in a few thousand years (which is a very

small interval in the formation of an earth), to mix its various

ingredients pretty thoroly. It has accordingly been hard to

see just how it came to separate into individual rocks of such widely

different appearance and character. Of course the number of its

ingredients was large. We have already discovered eighty or

more different elementary substances in the earth, and there is an

almost endless number of more or less stable compounds of these.

The freezing of an earth is therefore different from the freezing

of pure water, but the freezing of salt water offers a clue to the

explanation of the way in which the earth solidified as we find it.

When salt water freezes, the salt is practically all left behind.

The ice contains much less salt and the remaining water relatively

more salt than before freezing began. Applying this familiar

observation to the supposed molten surface of the earth as it

begins to solidify, we have a suggestion of order and reason in its

separation into so many kinds of rocks.

Now, it happens that in the recent development of chemistry

much attention has been given to the study of solutions of vari-

ous kinds, and a great body of information has been gathered and

classified of which our observation upon the freezing of salt water

day: geophysical research 251

is a simple type. Still more recently (quite lately in fact), it

has occurred to many students of the earth that here lies not only

the clue but perhaps the key to their great problem. If the indi-

vidual components which are intimately mixed in solution separate

wholly or partially in some regular way upon freezing — and

nearly all the solutions which have been studied appear to show

such segregation — we have a quantitative system which will

probably prove adequate to solve the problem of rock formation,

provided only that the experimental difficulties attending the

study of molten rock and the complications imposed by the pres-

ence of so many component minerals, do not prove prohibitive.

This is a very simple statement of the point of view which has

led to the experimental study of rock formation in the laboratory

as a natural sequence to statistical study in the field.

Geophysics therefore does not come as a new science, nor as a

restricted subdivision of geology, like physiography or stratig-

raphy, but rather to introduce into the study of the earth an

element of exactness, of quantitative relation. It may include

physics or chemistry, biology or crystallography or physical

chemistry, or all of these at need. The distinctive feature of

geophysics is not its scope, which may well be left to the future,

but its quantitative character. The Geophysical Laboratory of

the Carnegie Institution at Washington has entered upon sonic

of the investigations suggested by this long preliminary study of

the earth, — the physical properties and conditions of formation

of the rocks and minerals. The Department of Terrestrial Mag-

netism of the same institution has undertaken another, — the

earth's magnetism; the German Geophysical Laboratory at

Gottingen a third, — the earthquakes — and these will no doubt

be followed by others.

The first effect of calling exact science into consultation upon

geologic problems is to introduce a somewhat different viewpoint.

It has been our habit to study the minerals and the rocks as we

find them today, after many of the causes which have had a

share in their evolution have ceased to be active, — after the fibre

has gone out. If we attempt to reconstruct in our minds the

operations which enter into the formation of an igneous rock or

252 day: geophysical research

of a body of ore, we must infer them from present appearances

and environment. The experimental geophysicist, on the other

hand, confronting the same problem, says to himself: Can we

not construct a miniature volcano in the laboratory, Can we not

build a furnace in which an igneous rock can be formed under

such conditions that we can observe its minutest change? He

proposes to introduce temperature measuring devices and appara-

tus for the determination of pressure, to investigate the character

of the surrounding atmosphere and the quantity of water vapor

which may be present. He insists upon the chemical purity of

every ingredient which goes into the furnace and guards it care-

fully against contamination. In these various ways he will

undertake to ascertain the exact magnitude of all the causes, both

physical and chemical, which have been at work in his miniature

rock-producer, together with the physical characteristics of the

product.

A very practical question now arises. Can he do all this suc-

cessfully at the temperatures where the minerals form? We must

press this question and insist upon a satisfactory answer, for

it is by no means obvious that the relations which the physicist

and chemist have established at the temperatures of everyday

life — energy content, density, solubility, viscosity, dissociation —

will continue to hold when substances are carried up to a white

heat. The substances, too, are different from those with which

the chemist and physicist have been generally familiar. Instead

of simple metals, aqueous solutions, and readily soluble active

salts, we encounter silicates and refractory oxides, inert in behav-

ior and capable of existing together in mixtures of great complexity.

We must therefore extend the range of our physics and our chem-

istry to a scope in some degree commensurate with the wide range

of conditions which the earth in its development has passed thru.

Let us follow for a little the actual progress of such an attempt.

The first step is to provide the necessary temperatures. Obvi-

ously, the common fire-clay crucible and the smelter's furnace

with its brick lining, will not serve us, here, for all these are them-

selves mineral aggregates. The charge, furnace lining, and

crucible would go down together in a fall as disastrous as Humpty

day: geophysical research 253

Dumpty's. But experiment has taught us that platinum crucibles,

magnesia furnace tubes enclosing an electrically-heated helix of

platinum wire, and electric temperature-measuring devices, pro-

vide a furnace in which nearly all of the important minerals can

be successfully studied, which is not enough to melt zinc, silver,

gold, copper, nickel or iron readily, and where any temperature

up to 1600° Centigrade can be maintained perfectly constant if

need be for several weeks. All these temperatures can be meas-

ured with no uncertainty greater than 5°. This equipment pre-

serves the chemical purity of the mineral studied, and enables

the temperature to be controlled and measured at every step of

the experimental work. Or an iridium furnace tube and an iri-

dium crucible can be substituted for platinum, the magnesia

supports can still be used, and we have it in our power to go on to

2000° C, which is quite sufficient for all the more important min-

erals which we know.

The physicist has therefore found a suitable melting pot, and

means of ascertaining what goes on within the pot; but he at once

encounters another difficulty. Nature has provided us with

relatively few minerals of high chemical purity. If a natural

mineral is chosen for experiment, however typical it may be,

several per cent of other minerals may be expected to be present

with it, the effect of which is at present quite unknown. Now,

the first axiom of the investigator in a new field who desires to

undertake measurements which shall have a real value, is that

the number of unknown quantities in his equations must not be

greater than he can eliminate by his experimental processes;

in other words, he must begin with conditions so simple that the

relation between a particular effect and its cause can be absolutely

established without leaving undetermined factors. Having solved

the simple case, it is a straightforward matter to utilize this infor-

mation to help solve a more complicated one. If we would there-

fore reduce the mineral relations to an exact science, which is our

obvious purpose, it is necessary from the outset to prepare min-

erals of the highest purity and to establish their properties. Hav-

ing obtained such a pure mineral type, it may be, and often is,

in the power of the mineralogist and his microscope to determine,

254 day: geophysical research

by direct comparison with its natural prototype, the kind and

amount of effect actually produced in the natural mineral by the

one or more other minerals which it contains. We have therefore

hardly started upon our investigation before the need of an organ-

ized system is demonstrated, — first comes the chemist, who pre-

pares and analyzes the pure mineral for investigation; then the

physicist, who provides and measures the conditions to which it is

subjected; then the mineralogist, who establishes its optical prop-

erties in relation to the corresponding natural minerals.

Having prepared such a mineral, of high purity and of known

crystalline character, we can ascertain its behavior at the temper-

atures which must have obtained during the various stages of

earth formation. We can study the various crystal forms thru

which it passes on heating and the temperature ranges within

which these forms are stable; we can also melt it and measure the

melting or solidifying temperature. Another mineral, prepared

with the same care and studied in the same way, may afterward

be added to the first, and the relation of these two determined. If

they combine, heat is absorbed or released; and this quantity

of heat can be measured, together with the exact temperature at

which the absorption or release takes place. If the mixture

results in the formation of one or more mineral compounds, we

shall learn the conditions of formation, the temperature region

within which the new forms are stable, and the changes which

each undergoes with changes of pressure and temperature, as

before. If the new forms show signs of instability, we can drop

them into cold water or mercury so quickly that there will be no

opportunity to return to initial stable forms, and thus obtain,

for study with the microscope at our leisure, every individual

phase of the process thru which the group of minerals has passed.

Without complicating the illustration further, it is obvious that

we have it in our power to reproduce in detail the actual process

of rock formation within the earth, and to substitute measure-

ment where the geologist has been obliged to use inference; to

tabulate the whole history of the formation of a mineral or group

of minerals under every variety of condition which we may sup-

day: geophysical research 255

pose it to have passed thru in the earth, provided only we « in

reproduce that condition in the laboratory.

During the past quarter of a century, there has arisen in the

middle ground between physics and chemistry a new science of

physical chemistry, in the development of which generalizations

of great value in the study of minerals have been established.

As long ago as 1861 the distinguished German chemist, Bunsen,

pointed out that the rocks must be considered to be solutions

and must be studied as such; but inasmuch as comparatively

little was known about solutions in those days, and the rocks

at best appeared to be very complicated ones, no active steps

in that direction were taken during Bunsen's life. But in recent

years solutions have been widely studied, under rather limited

conditions of temperature and pressure, to be sure, but it has

resulted in establishing, relations — like the phase rule — of such

effective and far-reaching character, that now, just half a century

afterward, we are entering with great vigor upon the prosecution

of Bunsen's suggestion. It is now possible to establish definite

limits of solubility of one mineral in another, and definite condi-

tions of equilibrium, even in rather complicated groups of min-

erals, which enables us not only to interpret the relations devel-

oped by such a thermal study as that outlined above, but also

to assure ourselves that only a definitely limited number of com-

pounds of two minerals can exist, that they must bear a constant

and characteristic relation to each other under given conditions

of temperature and pressure, and that changes of temperature

and pressure will affect this relation in a definite and determinable

way. Physical chemistry not only takes into account the chem-

ical composition of mineral compounds, but their physical prop-

erties as well, thruout the entire temperature region in which

they have a stable existence, and therefore furnishes us at once

with the possibility of a new and adequately comprehensive classi-

fication of all the minerals and rocks in the earth. The value of

an adequate system of classification appeals chiefly to those whose

duties bring them into intimate relations with the subject matter

of a science, but so much may appropriately be said, that a con-

sistent application of physical chemistry to the minerals may

256 day: geophysical eesearch

operate in the not far distant future to develop an entirely new

conception of the science of mineralogy.

As the number and scope of such exact measurements increase,

we gradually build up what may be called a geologic thermometer.

Just as the location of fossils offers a basis for estimating geologic

time, it often happens that a mineral takes on a variety of differ-

ent crystal habits, according as it happened to form at one tem-

perature or another. Quartz, for example, which is one of the

commonest of natural minerals and one of the most familiar,

undergoes two changes in its crystal form which leave an inefface-

able record. One occurs at 575° and the other at 800°. An

optical examination of even a minute quartz fragment from the

mountainside will reveal to the skilful petrologist whether the

crystal formed at a temperature below 575°, between 575° and

800°, or above 800°. And if we could, have at our disposal a

great body of such exact measurements of the temperature region

within which particular crystals originate and remain stable,

we could apply that directly to terrestrial formations in which this

mineral occurs, and read therein the temperature which must

have obtained during their formation. All this will not be done

in the first year, and perhaps not in the first decade ; but the ulti-

mate effectiveness of this method of procedure in establishing

the relations between the minerals and the valuable ores is now

as certain of success as the operations of any of the sciences which

have now come to be characterized as exact, as opposed to descrip-

tive.

There is one important difference between the great laboratory

of nature and its feeble human counterpart. Nature operated

with large masses, mixed with a generous hand, and there was

always plenty of time for the growth of great individual crystals,

at which we marvel whenever we encounter them, and which we

have sometimes come to regard highly as precious stones. To

carry these processes into the laboratory is necessarily fraught

with certain limitations. The quantities must remain small and

the time and available financial resources will always be limited.

So long as we are able to ascertain the optical character of a crys-

tal with equal exactness whether the crystal is of the size of the

day: geophysical research 257

proverbial mustard-seed or a walnut, the scientific laboratory

cannot properly afford the time necessary to produce the large

crystals which nature offers so abundantly. Furthermore, the

crystals of nature often owe their brilliant coloring to slight

admixtures of impurity, which, to the scientific laboratory, spell

failure and are avoided with the utmost care. Most of the mineral

crystals, when reproduced in the laboratory, are quite colorless.

And so, altho the question is often raised whether we are not really

engaged in the artificial production of gems, and altho the seduc-

tive character of such an investigation would no doubt appeal

to many, it must be admitted that the geological laboratory is

not and probably will never become the serious competitor of

nature in those directions in which nature has produced her most

brilliant effects.

In what has preceded, I have laid emphasis upon the value of

experimental measurements in the systematic development of a

more exact science of the earth. It is a fair question, and one

which is very often raised, whether all this investigation has a

utilitarian side, whether the knowledge obtained in this way and

with such difficulty, will help to solve any of the problems arising

in the exploitation of our mineral resources or assist in our indus-

trial development. It is neither wise nor expedient, in entering

upon a new field of research, to expatiate long upon its practical

utility. Its principles must first be established, after which there

is no lack of ingenuity in finding profitable application of them.

The development of thermoelectric apparatus for the accurate

measurement of high temperatures was begun and has been per-

fected in the interest of geophysical research, and it has already

found such extended application among the technical industries

as to demand the manufacture and calibration of thousands of

such high temperature thermometers every year. The temper-

ing and impregnation of steel are no longer dependent upon the

more or less trained eye of the workman, but are done at measured

temperatures and under known conditions which guarantee the

uniformity of the product and admit of adaptation to particular

purposes, like high speed tools or armor plate. This has the

incidental but far-reaching industrial consequence that workmen

258 day: geophysical research

of great individual skill in these industries are much less neces-

sary now than formerly. Everything is accomplished by bring-

ing temperature conditions under mechanical control and mak-

ing them absolutely reproducible without the exercise of critical

judgment on the part of anyone.

A more intimate knowledge of the behavior of the minerals

themselves finds almost immediate industrial application. An

industry which has grown to enormous proportions in recent

years is the manufacture of portland cement, about which little

more has been known than that if certain natural minerals were

taken in the proper proportions and heated in a peculiar furnace

developed by experience, the resulting product could be mixed

with water to form an artificial stone which has found extensive

application in the building trades. Chemical analysis readily

established the fact that the chief ingredients in a successful

portland cement were lime, alumina and silica, with a small admix-

ture, perhaps, of iron and magnesia; but the relation in which

these ingredients stood one to another, — that is, which of them

were necessary and which merely incidental, — and in what

compounds and what proportions the necessary ingredients

required to be present, has never been satisfactorly established.

When we know the stable compounds which lime, alumina and

silica can combine to form, together with the conditions of equi-

librium between these for different temperatures and percentages

of each component, a formula can be written offhand for a success-

ful portland cement from given ingredients somewhat as an experi-

enced cook might write out the recipe for a successful dish. Such

definite and valuable knowledge is not beyond our reach. To

obtain it requires, in fact, precisely the same system of procedure

which has been described above and which has already been suc-

cessfully applied to many of the natural minerals which have been

reproduced and studied in the Geophysical Laboratory during

the past five years. It happens that we have examined a con-

siderable number of these very mixtures in our recent work upon

the rocks. All the compounds of lime, silica and alumina have

been established, and a portion of the silica-magnesia series, and

their relations have been definitely determined thruout the

day: geophysical research 259

entire range of accessible temperatures. There is ao reason to

apprehend serious difficulty in applying the same procedure to

the commercial ingredients of portland cement, and replacing

the present rule-of-thumb methods and uncertain products with

dependable cements. The problem of determining the relation

of the ingredients in commercial cement and the conditions neces-

sary for its successful formation is exactly the same in character

as that of determining the conditions of formation of the rocks of

the earth.

A physico-chemical investigation of the sulphide ores over a

wide range of temperatures and pressures has also been under-

taken, which has developed a large body of exact information of

value in mining industry. And such illustrations could be con-

tinued almost indefinitely, if it would serve any useful purpose to

do so.

The industrial world is not as a rule interested in scientific

principles ; the principle must first be narrowed down to the scope

of the industrial requirement before its usefulness is apparent.

The immediate effect of an industrial standpoint is therefore to

restrict investigation at the risk of losing sight of underlying

principles entirely. An illustration of this has come down to

us thru the pages of history, of a character to command and

receive the utmost respect, for such another can hardly be

expected to occur. We have honored the early philosophers

for their splendid search after broad knowledge; but in what is

now the field of chemistry, they allowed themselves to be turned

aside to the pursuit of a single, strictly utilitarian problem,-

the transmutation of base metals into gold. The history of

chemistry is a history of this one problem from the fourth to the

sixteenth century, — twelve centuries before a man arose whose

broader standpoint enabled him to divert the fruitless search

into other channels from which a science has slowly arisen which

is now so broad as to overlap most of the other sciences, and withal

so practical that hardly an industry is entirely independent of it.

The so-called practical questions may therefore as well be left

to take care of themselves. There has been no lack of ingenuity

in making profitable application of systematic knowledge when-

260 JOHNSTON: ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF METALS

ever the need for it became insistent, for the rewards of such effort

are considerable. And it is no longer an argument against pro-

ceeding to establish relationships in a new field, that the scope

of their application cannot be completely foreseen.

Now, what more promising questions occur to one than these:

If the earth was originally fluid, as it appears to have been, and

has gradually cooled down to its present state, its component

minerals must at some time have been much more thoroly mixed

than now; how did they come to separate in the process of cooling

into highly individualized masses and groups as we now find them,

and what were the steps in their deposition? If the whole earth

was hot, whence came the marble of which we have so much and

which can withstand no heat? What has given us the valuable

deposits of iron, of gold, of precious stones? What determines

the various crystal forms found in the different minerals, and

what is their relation? Some must have formed under pressure,

some without pressure, some with the help of water, and some

without. Where is the center, and what the source of energy

in our volcanoes? All these questions, and many more, the

geophysicist may attempt to answer.

PHYSICS. — A correlation of the elastic behavior of metals with

certain of their physical constants. John Johnston. Com-

municated by A. L. Day.

As is well known, the effect of pressure acting on both the solid

and liquid phase of a single substance is to raise or lower its melt-

ing point according as the process of melting is accompanied by

an increase or a decrease of volume respectively, the latter being

the exceptional case. But, when pressure acts only on the solid

phase, but not — or not to the same extent — on the liquid phase, the

melting point is always lowered and by an amount which is many

times as great as the corresponding change produced by the same

pressure acting on both the liquid and the solid phase.

It seemed of interest to calculate the effect of pressure, acting

on the solid phase alone, in lowering the melting point of metals,

and to compute the amount of such unequal pressure required

JOHNSTON: ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF METALS 263

to cause the metal to melt at, or about, 25°. The method of cal-

culation follows.

The application of thermodynamical principles to this case

yields the differential equation.1

^ = A (I)

dP QD u;

which when integrated so as to be applicable to the case in hand

becomes

^i = -^L_ (ir)

AP 42.72QlA

according to which the change in melting-point (a7\) produced

by a pressure (AP) acting only on the solid phase is expressed in

terms of the melting point (Ti) at atmospheric pressure, the

heat of melting (Qx), and the density (A) of the solid at ordinary

temperature and pressure.

Lack of space precludes a discussion, and justification, of the

assumptions involved in obtaining this integrated form of equa-

tion I; suffice it to say that the matter has been carefully con-

sidered, and that any inaccuracy in this integration is quite

unimportant in the present connection, more especially since the

accuracy of the available values of Qi (and even of DO leaves

much to be desired.

The above formula has been applied to the calculation of the

lowering of melting point produced by 1 atmosphere excess pres-

sure on the solid in the case of all the metals2 for which values of

1 A succinct mode of deriving this equation is given by G. N. Lewis (J. Am. Chem.

Soc, 30: 680. 1908).

2 Excepting iron, on account of the uncertainty of what "iron" is, and the dis-

parity of the recorded values. The value given for nickel in Landolt-Bornstcin-

Meyerhoffer Tabellen (p. 470) as a heat of fusion (taken from Pionchon, Ann.

chim. Phys., (6), 11: 106. 1887) was found, on reference to the original, to be a

heat of transformation (occurring somewhere between 230° and 400°) ; consequent I y

nickel could not be included. (Similarly, Pionchon's values for iron given in

L.-B.-M. (p. 470) are heats of transformation.) Mercury and gallium are omitted,

since they are liquid at ordinary temperatures. The value of Q, for aluminium

is somewhat doubtful : it was calculated from the "total heat" (as given in L.-B.-M.)

by means of the specific heat of aluminium (0.30) as given by Bontschew (L.-

B.-M., p. 383). No alloys could be included, owing to lack of the necessarj dal a;

in any case the formula is applicable only to those alloys which melt at a definite

temperature.

262

JOHNSTON! ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF METALS

Qi are given in Landolt-Bornstein-Meyerhoffer Tabellen (2

Aufl. p. 470). For some metals more than one value is given, but

it is at present impracticable to determine which are most relia-

ble; for this reason, the mean value was adopted in all such cases.

For the same reason, the general mean value of the density, as

given in the tables (pp. 224-9) was taken. The melting points

are those now generally adopted. The data and results are

brought together in Table 1.

TABLE 1

Lowering of Melting Point of Metals Effected by Unequal Pressure

The last column of Table 1 contains the values (in atmospheres)

of the excess pressure (acting on the solid only) required to cause

the metal to melt at 25° ; these were calculated from the expression

<p25 = {Tx - 298) /AT7! (Ill)

The metals are arranged in the order of increasing values of <p

calculated in this way. It was conjectured that this order might

bear some relation to that obtained when these metals are ar-

ranged with reference to the relative values of their elastic con-

stants and mechanical properties.

The most obvious mechanical property with which to com-

pare the series of <p values is the flow-pressure. This was deter-

JOHNSTON: ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF METALS

263

mined by Tammann, Verigin and Levkojeff3 for a series of metals.

Arranged in the order of decreasing ease of flow, the metals follow

in the order K, Na, Pb, Tl, Sn, Bi, Cd, Zn, Sb, a sequence which

is identical with that deduced thermodynamically and presented

in Table 1. But not only is the sequence of <p values identical

with that of the flow pressure, it is practically identical with the

sequence obtained when the metals are arranged in the order of

any of their elastic properties for which measurements have been

made. This is shown by Table 2, in which have been brought

TABLE 2

Relative Values4 of the Elastic Constants of Metals

(a) As given by Richards and collaborators, J. Am. Chem. Soc, 31 : 156. 1909.

(&) According to Rydberg, L.-B.-M. Tabellen, p. 57.

(c) L.-B.-M. Tabellen, p. 53.

Id) Wertheim (1848) quoted by Faust and Tammann, Z. Physik. Chem. 75:

118. 1911.

(e) L.-B.-M. Tabellen, p. 53.

(/) As determined by Faust and Tammann, loc. cit.

(g) (h) General mean of the (sometimes very discordant) values given in.

L.-B.-M. Tabellen, pp. 43-45.

(i) Horton, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, A, 204. 1905.

3 Ann. Physik, 10: 649. 1903.

4 It is to be noted that the values given in the table are relative only, and are

not always expressed in the same units (e g., columns c and d, e and/, h and 1 1,

264 JOHNSTON: ELASTIC behavior of metals

together all the data available on the elastic properties, namely,

compressibility, hardness, tensile strength, elastic limit, elastic

modulus, and modulus of rigidity.

From this table it is evident that as the value of <p increases,

the compressibility decreases, and the values of the other elastic

properties increase steadily. The exceptions to this statement

are very few as regards any one property, and vary irregularly

as we pass from one property to another; in other words, there are

no systematic divergences between the sequence of the metals

as derived from the thermodynamic relationship discussed in this

paper, and that obtained when they are arranged progressively

with reference to any one of their elastic properties. The slight

divergences are no greater than one might expect from the uncer-

tain character of the thermal data, on the one hand, and of the

elastic constants on the other.

From the above, then, it appears to be true that the mechanical

properties of metals are correlated with the amount of pressure —

assumed to act on the solid alone — requisite to cause the metal

to melt at or near the ordinary temperature. This pressure in

turn depends upon the melting point, the density, and the heat

of melting, of the metal. The first two of these quantities are

known to be periodic functions of the atomic weight, and there is

every reason to believe that the heat of melting, and therefore

also <p, is. Therefore we should expect some, or all, of the elastic

properties to be periodic functions. So far, thoro measurements

have been made only on the compressibility, which, according to

Richards, shows marked periodicity.

The remarkable concordance shown in the above table, which

can hardly be due to coincidence, indicates that the "flow" of

metals — or indeed, every permanent distortion of a crystalline

solid — is due to an actual fusion and resolidification of the crystals.

These considerations may also be used to throw light on the

general behavior and properties of metals, and on many geological

phenomena; but it would lead too far to go fully into these matters.

We wish, however, to give briefly a mechanical picture of the

probable mode of action of unequal pressure upon a metal, and

to indicate how such an explanation accounts plausibly for many

JOHNSTON: ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF METALS 265

of the phenomena observed in the " hardening" of metals, and

for the increase of strength following upon deformation.

Le Chatelier5 used this conception of unequal pressure to

account for regelation— the consolidation of a mass of loose snow

at 0° into a block of solid ice. The pressure, due to the superin-

cumbent material, lowers the melting point at the surface of

contact of adjacent grains by an amount A t. The water formed

flows out into the interstices of the snow grains, where it is at a

pressure of 1 atmosphere but at a temperature of - A t, and is in

contact with ice at 0° ; consequently it freezes again. This process

continues until all the interstices are filled up; that is, until a

solid block of ice is formed. The behavior of metals under the

action of an unequal compression we conceive to be identical

with that pictured above for ice. Namely, that metal melts

wherever the pressure reaches the appropriate value, flows into

the interstices where the pressure is smaller, and solidifies again,

with the formation in general of very small crystals, owing to the

exceedingly rapid rate of recrystallization.

This mode of action, besides accounting in an approximately

quantitative manner for many of the phenomena observed with

metals, is also in harmony with observations on the structure of

metal which has " flowed" or has been subjected to deformation

of any kind.

According to Beilby6 the process of deformation is always

accompanied by a partial transformation of the metal to an

"amorphous" form, which acts as a cementing material for the

untransformed grains. In favor of this view, he adduces evi-

dence that there is (a) a difference in the energy content of the

strained and unstrained metal, which is manifested in a differ-

ence between the two forms, (1) in their electrolytic potential

when immersed in a solution, (2) in their thermo-electric power,

(3) in their heat of solution; (b) a difference in structure mani-

fested in differences in (1) microscopic appearance, (2) mechani-

cal properties, — hardness, tensile strength, etc., (3) density, (4)

5 Z. physik. Chem., 9: 338. 1892.

6 Phil. Mag. (6), 8: 258-76. 1904.

266 JOHNSTON: ELASTIC behavior of metals

conductivity for heat or electricity, etc. According to Faust and

Tammann,7 on the other hand, the change of properties on defor-

mation is parallel to the formation of smaller crystallites.

Whichever be the correct interpretation — if indeed these views

are mutually exclusive — the fact remains that changes in the

properties of a metal ensue upon deformation, the most important

one from a practical standpoint being an increase in its rigidity.

The considerations presented in this paper are not inconsistent

with either of the above views, and in addition, account easily

for the increased rigidity of metal which has been strained.

For, exactly as in the case of the consolidation of loose snow to

a block of ice, as soon as the stress reaches an appropriate value

(the lower elastic limit), melting and flow into the interstitial

spaces take place, with immediately subsequent recrystalliza-

tion; this process continues until flow is no longer possible (the

upper elastic limit), whereupon increased stress produces a rup-

ture of the material. Now, the actual process of flow diminishes

the volume of the spaces into which flow is possible, and to this

extent diminishes the inequality of pressure acting on liquid and

solid; hence it requires progressively higher pressures absolutely

(though at the same temperature the same excess of pressure on

the solid) to produce flow; in other words, the rigidity of the

material is increased.

Moreover, it is a well-known fact that the strength of eutec-

tics (which are always fine-grained) is always greater than that of

their components; further, that the varieties of steel possessing

the greatest tensile strength (e.g., vanadium steels) are very

fine-grained. From the standpoint of this paper, such metals

are strong because they are fine-grained, and hence, if we wish to

make a steel of high tensile strength, we should endeavor to obtain

a very fine-grained structure, producing this by whatever means

(addition of foreign material, heat-treatment, or mechanical

treatment) may be found suitable for this purpose.

Summary. The object of this preliminary note is to establish

the* existence of a parallelism between the elastic properties of

7 Z. physik. Chem., 75: 108-26. 1911.

rose: new echeverla 267

metals and an expression — involving certain of their physical

constants only — derived from thermodynamical principles on a

basis which is equivalent to the assumption that the "flow,"

or permanent distortion, of a metal is a manifestation of an actual

melting produced by a stress (pressure) acting on the solid phase,

but not — or not to the same extent — on the liquid phase. Some

of the implications of this theory are discussed briefly.

BOTANY. — A new Echeveria from Mexico. J. N. Rose.

The botanical collections of the National Museum have all

been greatly increased during the last few years but especially

in those groups to which intensive study has been given, like the

ferns, succulents, and Laciniaria. In no other group has this

growth been so marked either in number of specimens or of new

species as in the Crassulaceae of Mexico. In the case of these

plants exhaustive and definitely directed field work has been

carried on for fifteen years, while the maintenance of a large

living collection has furnished good material for full and accurate

diagnoses and for the making of good herbarium specimens of

most of the species.

In 1880 the Crassulaceae of Mexico were catalogued by Mr.

W. Botting Hemsley, who recognized 4 genera and 62 species.

When the writer began his work on the group the National Her-

barium contained representatives of all these genera and about

54 of the species, amounting to 86 sheets or specimens.

In 1905 Britton and Rose revised this family for the North

American Flora. They recognized 17 genera and 164 species from

Mexico. Since then 32 species have been described, making the

total known from Mexico 196.

All these genera are represented in the collections of the

National Herbarium and all the species with the exception of 8

or 10 of the older and obscure ones. The number of sheets has

arisen to a total of 847. In spite of the long-continued study of

this group new species are constantly coming to light, of which

the following is one.

268 rose: new echeveria

Echeveria luiea Rose, sp. nov.

Basal leaves numerous, ascending, thickish, 8 to 10 cm. long, light

green, glabrous with upturned margins forming a deep trough, acuminate

with mucronate tip, the apical portion upturned like a horn; flower-

ing stem 20 to 30 cm. long; leaves 4 to 5 cm. long, linear, semiterete,

stiff, flattened on the upper surface, pointed, with a toothed free margin

at base; inflorescence a secund raceme, at first strongly reflexed but at

the flowers often becoming erect; flowers 20 or more, often subsessile;

sepals 5, distinct, very unequal, the longest 2 cm. long, free and toothed

at base, linear, pointed, ascending; flower bud strongly 5-angled and

pointed; corolla lemon yellow, 15 mm. long, the lobes distinct for about

two-thirds their length but not spreading except a little at the tip.

Type in U.S. National Herbarium, no. 619743, collected at San Rafael,

San Luis Potosi, Mexico, November, 1910, by C. A. Purpus and flowered

in Washington, July, 1911.

This is a very remarkable species and quite distinct from all the

others which we have had in cultivation. The foliage is of a

rather pale green color, quite stiff, almost pungent. The flowers

are a lemon yellow, an unusual color in the genus, only one other

species being at all like it.

rose: new echeveria

2G9

Fig. 1. Echeveria lutea Rose, sp. nov.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYSICS.— The reflecting power of various metals. W. W. Coblentz.

Bulletin Bureau of Standards, Reprint 152. 1911.

The reflectivity of various substances is given including tungsten,

tantalum, molybdenum, chromium, antimony, tellurium, vanadium,

silicon, graphite, etc. The paper gives also (Note I) the thermoelec-

tric properties of molybdenum, (Note II) a method for the preservation

of silver mirrors, and (Note III) comments on radiation laws of metals

(see also Bull. Bur. Standards, Reprints 45 and 105). W. W. C.

GEOLOGY. — Mineral resources of the Llano-Burnet region, Texas,

with an account of the pre-Cambrian geology. Sidney Paige.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 450. Pp. 103, with maps,

sections, and views. 1911.

The rocks of the region are: (1) pre-Cambrian schists, gneisses, and

granites, (2) Paleozoic sandstones, limestone, and shales, and (3) Cre-

taceous sandstones, clays, and limestones.

The folded and faulted Pa'eozoic strata, which surround the pre-Cam-

brian area, are separated from the pre-Cambrian by a great unconform-

ity. The Cretaceous formations rest almost undisturbed with pro-

nounced unconformity on the Paleozoic rocks.

The pre-Cambrian (Algonkian?) rocks have been divided into (1)

the Packsaddle schist, predominantly basic, including amphibolite and

mica schists and old basic intrusive rocks; (2) the Valley Spring gneiss,

including quartzites or their derivatives, light-colored mica schists,

and acidic gneisses; (3) a very coarse-grained pink granite; (4) all other

granitic rocks.

The granite cuts the schist as batholiths, dikes, and sills, and, in peg-

matitic phase is found in minute veinlets and in huge dikes :ni<l sheets.

There are all gradations between granite and schist.

In some localities the contacts between schists and dikes are sharp;

at others the temperature of the intruding mass was so high that

27 1 sZ'

272 ABSTRACTS : GEOLOGY

masses of schist melted; and elsewhere granitic material forced itself

between the layers of the schists and formed injection gneisses.

The iron ores are chiefly magnetite or mixtures of magnetite with

hematite. The magnetite deposits typically conform with the layering

of the enclosing schistose rocks, notably in the case of the leaner ore

bodies.

The geologic history of the Llano ores is as follows: (1) Deposition

of iron as oxide, carbonate, etc., with the sediments, either in extended

basins or along borders of the sea; (2) Burial, followed by intrusion of

dikes and sills of a diabasic type with possible local introduction of soda

and perhaps granitic intrusions; (3) Deeper burial with subsequent

folding and metamorphism and a second intrusion of basic types; (4)

Intrusion by granite with great Focal disruption; (5) Elevation and

erosion. H. D. McCaskey.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.— Copper deposits of the Appalachian States.

Walter Harvey Weed. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No.

455. Pp. 166, with 5 plates and 32 sections. 1911.

Throughout the Appalachian province the copper ores are confined

to (1) crystalline schists; (2) altered basalts; (3) Triassic rocks close to

trap intrusions; and (4) Devonian rocks, in which they are generally

insignificant. No two deposits are precisely alike, yet if their general

characteristics be considered they all fall into six types, as follows:

(1) Ducktown type. Pyrite lenses and veins in crystalline schists.

(2) Copper quartz-vein type. Quartz veins containing metallic sul-

phides: (a) Virgilina variety; quartz veins with glance and bornite.

(b) Gold Hill variety; silicified schists, containing chalcopyrite and

pyrite, with ore shoots of quartz and chalcopyrite. (c) Seminole variety;

zone of pyritized schists, carrying local shoots of high-grade ores. (3)

Carolinian type. Bands of amphibolite traversing mica schists and

carrying chalcopyrite and pyrite disseminated through the rock or

gathered in bunches or, more commonly, deposited in the gray gneiss

alongside. (4) New Jersey type. Impregnated shale and sandstone

adjacent to trap masses; in part in the trap. (5) Pahaquarry type.

Devonian sandstones impregnated with copper ores; and shales, etc., of

Coal Measure regions with occasional ore; not rare, but insignificant in

amount. (6) Blue Ridge (Catoctin) type. Bunches and joint fillings in

the surficial portions of the basaltic rocks (Catoctin schist) of the Blue

Ridge region. F. L. Ransome.

ABSTRACTS : ENTOMOLOGY 273

ENTOMOLOGY. — Descriptions of new species of wasps with notes on

described species. S. A. Rohwer. Proceedings U. S. National

Museum. 40: 551-587. 1911.

Forty-five new species and five new sub-species or varieties. One

new genus, Gonostigmus, is described, and the type species is indicated

for several other genera. Much of the material came from the Western

States or Central America. N. Banks.

ENTOMOLOGY. Descriptions of six new genera and thirty-one new

species of Ichneumon Hies. H. L. Viereck. Proceedings U. S.

National Museum, 40: 173-196. 1911.

Most of the new species are from the United States, but several are

from Portuguese East Africa, a few from South America, Japan, and the

Hawaiian Islands.

New generic names are Cryptoxilos, near Peristenus; Dolichozele,

near Zele; Platyspathius near Spathius, Polystenidea near Hecabolus,

and Stenopleura near Protapanteles. New subgeneric names are Doli-

chogenidea, subgenus of Apanteles; and Daiotes and Mastrus, subgenera

of Phygadeuon; these last two are stated to be "genera" but only used

in a subgeneric sense. One or two more of Foester's names are perhaps,

for the first time, connected with species. N. Banks.

ENTOMOLOGY. — New species of reared Ichneumon flies. H. L.

Viereck. Proceedings U. S. National Museum, 39 : 401-108. 1911.

Descriptions of eleven new species are given and, apparently, no new

generic names; nearly all were bred from insects of economic value.

N. Banks.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Descriptions of one new genus and eight new species

of Ichneumon flies. H. L. Viereck. Proceedings U. S. National

Museum, 40: 475-480. 1911.

The new generic name, Cyanopteridea, is for Cyanopterus Szepligeti

(not Haliday). Parapahteles Ashm. is made a synonym of Apanteles.

Several of the species have been bred in connection with the work on

the Gipsy moth. N. Banks.

274 PROCEEDINGS AND PROGRAMS

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The eleventh annual meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington

was held in the Bureau of Chemistry building Tuesday, October 24,

1911, President W. J. Spillman presiding.

The reports of the Secretary, Treasurer, and the Executive Commit-

tee showed that the Society is in a flourishing condition. Eight pro-

gram meetings were held during the year with an average attendance

of thirty-nine. Nineteen new members were added during the season,

while five were lost by reason of removal from Washington and vicinity.

Officers as follows were elected for the ensuing year :

President, W. A. Orton; Vice-President, A. S. Hitchcock; Recording

Secretary, Edw. C. Johnson; Corresponding Secretary, W. W. Stock-

berger; Treasurer, F. L. Lewton; Vice-President in the Academy of

Sciences, W. R. Maxon.

At the 74th meeting of the society, at the Cosmos Club, October 10,

1911. at 8 P. M., the following papers were read: The wilting coefficient

for different plants and its indirect determination. L. J. Briggs and H. L.

Shantz. (See this Journal 1 : 228. 1911.) The forest of Arden, a dream.

H. C. Skeels. Edw. C. Johnson, Secretary, pro tempore.

PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

WASHINGTON SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS

December 5, 8 P. M. C. & P. Telephone Company's Hall. Discus-

sion of Oyster Fisheries, in which Dr. H. F. Moore, Bureau of Fisheries,

Dr. Caswell Grave, Scientific Member of the Maryland Shellfish Com-

mission, and Mr. C. C. Yates, of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, will

participate.

December 19, 8 P. M. Cosmos Club Hall. Annual meeting and elec-

tion of officers. Mr. George W. Littlehales will give a paper on the

relation of the engineer to the advance of civilization.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

701st Meeting and 41st Annual Meeting. December 9, 1911. Cosmos

Club at 8.15. Reports and election of officers.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. I, DECEMBER 19, 1911. No. 10.

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY. — A ship's antenna as a Hertzian oscil-

lator. L. W. Austin, Naval Wireless Telegraphic Laboratory.

In the work on long distance radio-telegraphy1 it was shown

that the equation giving the value of the current in the receiving

antenna in terms of the sending antenna current, the antenna

heights, the wave length, and the distance was identical in form

with the Hertzian equation for the amplitude of the electric waves

at a distance from the oscillator, provided this distance was not

great enough to involve the atmospheric absorption.

I have made a calculation of the current which might be ex-

pected in a receiving antenna, making use of the form of radiation

formula given by Zenneck.2

# = 27r--3.1010c.g.s.

X d

Here I represents the length of the oscillator, X the wave length,

J the current and d the distance in the equatorial plane from the

oscillator. The difficulty in applying the equation to the case

of the scout cruisers Birmingham and Salem lies in the determi-

nation of the dimensions of the electrical oscillator which would

be equivalent to the antenna system of the ships. Considering

the antenna as forming half the oscillator, the lower half of which

may be imagined to be below the surface of the sea, I would be

equal to 2/i where h is the height to the center of capacity of the

antenna. But, since the lower half of the antenna contributes

1 Bull. Bur. Standards, 7: 315. 1911.

2 Zenneck, Leitfaden der Drahtlosen Telegraphie, p. 43.

275

276 AUSTIN: ANTENNA AS HERTZIAN OSCILLATOR

nothing to the radiation, the Hertzian oscillator which will radiate

the same amount of energy as the antenna will be3 Vl-h. In

our case, however, this does not fully determine the value of I,

since the wireless room is some 30 feet above the water and

enclosed in the steel hull which is at approximately zero potential.

Then too, the exact height of the center of capacity of the antenna

system is a matter of some uncertainty. Since the lines of elec-

tric force to a large extent come down to the water and not to the

hull, it is probable that the point where the antenna leaves the

hull at the wireless room is somewhat too high to be taken as the

center of the oscillator. On the other hand, the center of capacity

of the antenna is certainly lower than the level of the flat top

antenna. As a probable approximation I have taken the height

from the wireless room to the antenna top, 29.2 meters as the

value of h. Then I = 41.3 m, A = 1000 m, the average sending

current of the two ships, J = 30 amperes. Then in c.g.s. units.

4-1 3-1 O3 3

E = 6.28 ---— — - 3-1010 = 2.34105 c.g.s. = 2.34-10"3 volts per

1.10 1.10 centimeter

The receiving electromotive force on the antenna will be

E-h = 2.34 -10-3 X 2.92 -103 = 6.83 volts. The resistance of the

receiving antenna was approximately 25 ohms, thus,

6 83

Calculated Received Current = — — = 0.27 amperes

The corresponding observed value, that is the average of the two

values of K in Tables X and XI of the paper already cited, gives

Observed Received Current =0.21 amperes.

Considering the difficulties in determining the values of h

and the fact that a certain portion of the radiated energy must have

and the fact that a certain portion of the radiated energy must

have been absorbed by the rigging of the ships, the agreement

between the calculated and observed currents seems quite as

good as it is possible to expect.

3 R. Ruedenberg Ann. d. Phys. 25: 446. 1908.

grover: paraffined paper condensers 277

ELECTRICITY. — The capacity and phase difference of paraf-

fined paper condensers as functions of the temperature and

frequency. Frederick W. Groyer. Communicated by

E. B. Rosa. To appear in the Bulletim of the Bureau of

Standards, 7: No. 4. 1911.

In an ideal condenser the capacity would be independent of

changes in the temperature and the frequency of the measuring

current, and the phase of the current thru the condenser would

always be 90° ahead of that of the electromotive force impressed

on the condenser. In actual condensers these conditions are not

exactly fulfilled; the capacity decreases somewhat with increasing

frequency and the temperature coefficient of the capacity is

appreciable. Further, the phase of the current lags behind the

ideal position of 90° in advance of the electromotive force, by

an angle 9, which is usually small but always measurable. (In

what follows the angle 6 will be designated as the phase differ-

ence.)

To account for these departures from the behavior of an ideal

condenser, all of which have their origin in the phenomenon of

electric absorption, a number of theories have been proposed

which give at least a qualitative explanation of the facts. Much

of the existing experimental data, has, however, been obtained

from experiments with a steady applied voltage, and with such

various times of charge and discharge, lengths of insulation or

short circuit, and such different galvanometer periods, as to ren-

der it very difficult, if not impossible, to decide whether or not

there is quantitative agreement between any given theory and the

observations. To meet this difficulty, measurements with alter-

nating currents would appear to be especially suitable to give

data for such comparisons, since the condenser is submitted to a

* perfectly definite cycle of charging and discharging.

The present paper gives the results of measurements of the

capacity and phase difference of thirteen commercial condensers

by English, French, German and American firms at temperature

ranging from 10° to 35° in steps of 5°, and at frequencies of from

33 to 1000 cycles per second. In every condenser, the dielectric

278 grover: paraffined paper condensers

was of paraffined paper, except in two cases; where paper impreg-

nated in beeswax was employed. Such condensers were selected,

on account of their relatively large and varied absorption effects,

as being better fitted for a theoretical study of absorption than

mica condensers.

The measurements were made by means of alternating current

bridge methods in use at the Bureau of Standards,1 using as indi-

cating instruments vibration galvanometers, tuned to the fre-

quencies of the currents used. This procedure has the advantage,

that the balance of the bridge depends on the fundamental com-

ponent only of the electromotive force wave employed, thus

rendering valid in the theoretical work, the assumption of a sinu-

soidal electromotive force. The condensers were compared, by

substitution, with standard mica condensers whose constants

were known from previous work, and capacity effects between

the different parts of the bridge and the earth were shown to

have no influence on the results thus obtained.

The following points of practical importance were established

by the measurements:

1. The temperature coefficients of the capacity of those con-

densers with the smaller values of the phase difference (5' to

20'), were found to be negative and nearly constant, 2 to 6 in

10,000, except at the higher temperatures. This effect is to

be ascribed to the expansion of the paraffin, the actual effect

of absorption being of relatively small importance, except in those

condensers of larger phase difference. In the latter case the

temperature coefficient of the capacity is positive and increases

rapidly with the temperature, reaching in some instances, values

of the order of one per cent per degree.

2. In all cases, the capacity decreases with increasing fre-

quency, at first rapidly and then more slowly, the changes being

the larger, at all frequencies, in condensers with the larger phase

differences.

3. While the phase difference of a mica condenser is usually

less than 3' or 4' and often is as small as 30" at 1000 cycles, the

1 Bull. Bureau of Standards, 3: 371. 1907.

grover: paraffined paper condensers 279

paper condensers here studied, in no case gave values less than

6', and in the case of the poorer condensers the phase difference

ranged from 1° to the enormous value of 22°. It was found that

in the case of some telephone condensers, made by rolling up

together long strips of tin foil and paraffined paper, the energy

loss, in the resistance of the tin foil, amounted to considerably

more than the loss in the dielectric. (This disadvantage may

be avoided by making connection to the tin foil at several points

along its length).

4. The phase difference generally increases with increasing

temperatures; and in those condensers with large phase difference,

the rate of increase becomes rapidly larger with rising tempera-

ture.

5. The phase difference, when corrected for the resistance of

the plates and leads, decreases with increasing frequency, at first

rapidly and then more slowly. The rate of change is greatest,

at all frequencies, in the case of condensers with large phase dif-

ference.

6. The capacity of a paper condenser varies so considerably

with the conditions under which it is used, that such a condenser

should not be emploj^ed in work where a knowledge of the capa-

city is requisite, except where a previous study of the condenser

has shown that it may so be used.

In the latter half of the paper, the absorption theories of Max-

well,2 Houllevigue,3 Pellat,4 von Schweidler5 and Hopkinson6

are considered for a sinusoidal wave of electromotive force, and

the formulas for the capacity and phase difference, as functions

of the frequency, are compared with the observed results. The

theory of von Schweidler (which is a modification of the Pellat

theory and its mathematical equivalent, that of Hopkinson) as-

sumes that the absorption in a dielectric is due to the presence

of a periodically damped ions and the capacity and phase differ-

2 Elect, and Magnet., I, § 330.

3 Jour, de Phys., 6: 113. 1897.

4 Ann. de Chim. et Phys. 18: 150. 1899.

5 Ann. der Phys., 24: 787. 1907.

6 Phil. Trans., 167: 599. 1877.

280 ALLEN : POLYODON SPATHULA

ence depend on the number and the distribution of these abnormal

ions as a function of their rate of damping.

It is further shown that only a few constants need be deter-

mined in von Schweidler's equations to represent the observa-

tions with a good degree of accuracy. The remaining theories

do not seem to be adequate to represent the present observations.

FISHERIES. — Notes on the breeding season and young of Polyodon

spathula. Wm. F. Allen, Institute of Anatomy of the

University of Minnesota.

Since the appearance of Mr. Allis's recent papers in the Anatom-

ischer Anzeiger on the " Pseudobranchial and carotid arteries of

Polyodon^ in which he made use of a specimen 130 mm. (5.5

inches) long, I have received several letters of inquiry as to when

and where this material was obtained.

It is a well-known fact that nothing is known concerning the

early development of Polyodon, and very few specimens under

6 inches in length have been obtained.

In 1904, when employed by Mr. Allis, I was sent to the Missis-

sippi River for the purpose of obtaining all of the Ganoid material

possible. After considering various localities on the Mississippi

River system, the junction of the Ohio with the Mississippi, at

Cairo, was selected as probably the most favorable place for

obtaining this material.

For an entire year the bars of these rivers were seined at all

times of the day and night; also the adjacent overflow lakes,

sloughs, and small streams were seined at regular intervals thruout

the year, and during the early spring a number of adults were

obtained from hoop-nets placed in the channel on the Missouri

side of the Mississippi, with the hope of obtaining sexually mature

individuals whose eggs could be fertilized and the embryos reared.

So far as early embryonic material was concerned my results

were a failure, but a great many specimens from 6 to 12 inches

long were obtained, and about 25, varying in length from 4 to

6 inches were secured. Considerable data were obtained con-

cerning the habits that may be of value in future search for this

material.

ALLEN: POLYODON SPATHULA 281

Spawning Season. — In this locality the spawning of this species

occurs during the month of March, mainly from the first to the

middle of the month. I have never seen sexually mature Poly-

odon weighing less than 15 or 20 pounds and fish of this size are

rarety, if ever, taken by seining the sand and mud bars of the

rivers; they can, however, be obtained from the deep channel on

the Missouri side of the Mississippi, from Bird Point south, by

the use of hoop-nets. Floating ice prevented this mode of fishing

for the first week of March, 1904, but during the second week,

three mature females and several spent females were taken from

these nets, but no males. One of these females was tied out

from a fish wharf by a stout string attached to its tail, and the

other two were placed in a fish cage anchored to the wharf, with

the hope of keeping all three alive until a mature male could be

secured, but with the result that the one tied out with a string

was stolen and the two in the fish cage lived but four or five

days, dying doubtless from injuries received in vain attempts

to escape. Upon examining the eggs they appeared mature,

were black in color, and very closely resembled the eggs of

Acipenser and Lepisosteus. During the third week in March a

single mature male was obtained along with several spent fe-

males. I am unable to account for the scarcity of males during

the breeding season.

From this time on most vigorous efforts were made to secure

the young of Polyodon by seining the small streams, sloughs,

overflow lakes, and the sand and mud bars of the two rivers with

a fine meshed seine, but not until July first were any located,

when some 25 specimens of from 4 to 6 inches in length were

caught from Minor Slough. This slough is located on the Ken-

tucky side, at the junction of the Ohio with the Mississippi.

It had been seined numerous times before this; in fact, the very

day before, but always with negative results. The previous day

(June 30) marked a high water stage of the rivers, and on July

first the rivers were beginning to recede rapidly, so that there was

a strong current in the outlet of the slough. The small Polyodon

obtained doubtless migrated from the river during the previous

night or early morning, when the water in the outlet could have

282 ALLEN! POLYODON SPATHULA

been almost at a standstill or a rather strong current. There is

no ground whatever for believing that these little Polyodon were

hatched and reared in Minor Slough.

While this seining was being done a violent thunder storm was

in progress so that little time was spent in examination of these

most interesting specimens; they were immediately thrown into

a fixing fluid. It was noted, however, that their bill or paddle

constituted about one-half of their total length, and that their

bodies were almost transparent.

Notwithstanding that this slough and other overflow lakes and

small tributary streams were afterward frequently seined with a

fine-meshed seine, and the river bars were seined with both fine-

and coarse-meshed seines, during both day and night, no other

young Polyodon were found until late in August or early Septem-

ber, when a large number were obtained thru seining, at night or

early morning, the mud and sand bars of the Ohio River opposite

Cairo on the Kentucky side. Singular to say, they were never

obtained in this manner during the day time. Apparently they

never leave the channel except at night to feed in the mud and

sand bars. These small fish were all obtained by the use of a

very long coarse-meshed seine. It is possible that if a sufficiently

long fine-meshed seine could have been operated on the river bars

at night, or dragged on the bottom of the channel during the day,

still younger stages would have been obtained.

My experience with Polyodon leads me to believe that it is

primarily a deep-channel fish, that the eggs are laid and the young

are reared in the deep channel rather than in the shallow water of

the river, or in overflow lakes, or in small tributary streams; that

the young do not leave the main channel to feed in the mud bars

of the river or the sloughs until they have attained a length of

3 or 4 inches. About Cairo, Illinois the spawning season occurs

during the month of March, and only specimens from 15 to 20

pounds and up are sexually mature. Fish of this size are rarely,

if ever, taken in seining the river bars, but they can be had in small

numbers from fishermen operating hoop-nets in the Missouri

channel of the Mississippi south of Bird's Point.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

ELECTRICITY. — Outline of design of deflection potentiometers, with

notes on the design of moving-coil galvanometers. H. B. Brooks.

Bulletin Bureau of Standards 8: No. 2. 1911.

This paper outlines the principles on which deflection potentiometers

are designed, and gives a numerical example. It includes some notes

on the fundamental constants of the moving-coil galvanometer, and

shows how to change the field strength, spring strength and size of wire

in order to secure a desired galvanometer performance. A procedure

is outlined which is intended to facilitate the production in quantity

of galvanometers whose resultant performance is satisfactory, while

allowing some latitude in the values of individual constants. H. B. B.

ELECTRICITY. — Deflection potentiometers for current and voltage meas-

urements. H. B. Brooks. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 8: No.

2. 1911.

The deflection potentiometer differs from the usual potentiometers

in one essential feature, viz., the use which it makes of the galva-

nometer. The greater portion of the electromotive force under observa-

tion is compensated, but the galvanometer deflection indicates the

remainder. The accuracy obtainable by the potentiometer method is

thus combined with the ease and speed of reading a deflection. In pre-

vious papers (Bulletin of Bureau of Standards, 2 : 225. 1906, and 4 : 275

1908) the writer has described two forms of deflection potentiometer,

both intended for voltage measurements only. This paper describes

two new instruments, each of which is suitable for both current and

voltage measurements. The theory of the deflection potentiometer

used with current shunts is developed, and a special set of values for

such shunts is shown to give economy of time in testing, with reduced

computation and liability of error. J. H. Dellinger.

283

284 abstracts: physics

PHYSICS. — High-temperature gas thermometry. Arthur L. Day and

Robert B. Sosman; with an investigation of the metals by E. T.

Allen, Geophysical Laboratorjr. Publication No. 157, Carnegie

Institution of Washington.

The errors which have heretofore been present in measurements with

the nitrogen thermometer have been reduced by the present investiga-

tion to about one-fourth their former magnitude, and the certainty of

their evaluation is at least proportionately increased.

The particular points to which most attention has been given are the

following :

(1) To provide a uniform temperature about the bulb by a suitable

arrangement of electric-heating coils and diaphragms.

(2) To enclose the furnace in a gas-tight bomb in which the pressure

outside the bulb can be maintained equal to that within for all tempera-

tures. This offers three distinct advantages: (a) it provides against

the deformation of the bulb through differences of pressure within and

without in the region of highest temperatures, where the bulb material

becomes softer; (b) by using the same gas within and without, there is

no tendency for it to diffuse through the bulb wall; (c) it enables the

initial pressure to be varied within considerable limits, thereby increas-

ing both the scope and sensitiveness of the manometer.

(3) The expansion of the bulb material was determined with great

care and is probably accurate within 0.5 per cent.

(4) The unheated space between the bulb and manometer has been

reduced until the total correction in this hitherto uncertain region

amounts to less than 4° at 1100°. An error of 5 per cent in the deter-

mination of its volume or temperature distribution is, therefore, prac-

tically negligible.

It is probable that these changes serve to reduce the uncertainty

hitherto prevailing in the correction factors which require to be applied

to the gas thermometer in the region of 1100° to less than one-tenth of

its former magnitude. Furthermore, these improvements are equally

applicable throughout the region above 1100° as far as the present

measurements have extended (to 1550°). The chief source of the present

uncertainty is the temperature distribution over the surface of the

bulb in an air-bath.

No effort has been made to prepare metals of exceptional purity in our

own laboratory, for the reason that such metals would not be available

for general use and would therefore be of little service. We have accord-

ingly adopted metals which are carried permanently in stock by dealers.

In order to facilitate as far as possible the application of these results

abstracts: physics

285

in general practice, a typical thermo-element curve has been tabulated

in small 10° intervals thruout its entire length from melting ice to

melting platinum, together with a diagram showing the character and

magnitude of the variation from this curve which may be expected to

appear in other thermo-elements of the same nominal composition (90

parts platinum, 10 parts rhodium) . With a new platin rhodium thermo-

element of undoubted homogeneity, but unknown constants, it is quite

practicable with this table to prepare a curve of its electromotive force

for any temperature with sufficient accuracy for most purposes (say 5°

at low temperatures and =*= 10° above 1200°) from a single determination

in melting copper.

List of Standard Melting Points

286

abstracts: economic geology

There is no sure way to guard against the contaminating influence of

metal-vapors upon a thermo-element in laboratory or industrial practice,

altho glazed porcelain is usually effective. There are very simple

and rapid means of detecting contamination in an clement and deter-

mining its distribution, and with a second element at hand for an occa-

sional comparison there is little of serious danger from this cause. In

any case, the slight inconvenience is well worth while wherever consider-

able accuracy is sought, for there is no other device yet available, in

the region between 1100° and 1600°, which is comparable with the

thermo-element in sensitiveness and general practicability.

In conclusion, the list of standard melting-points is given in tabular

form, together with an estimate of the degree of trustworthiness to be

accorded to each. Beside it for convenient comparison is the present

Reichsanstalt scale. It may be added that no indication of a limit to

the temperature attainable with the nitrogen thermometer or to its

ultimate accuracy was discovered during the present investigation.

In addition the following temperatures were incidentally obtained:

A. L. D and R. B. S.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.— The production of asbestos in 1910. J. S.

Diller. Advance chapter from Mineral Resources of the United

States for 1910, pp. 1-13. The types, modes of occurrence and impor-

tant deposits of asbestos in the United States. J. S. Diller. U. S.

Geological Survey Bull., 470-K, pp. 3-22, with 2 maps. 1911.

The annual production of asbestos for 1910 in the United States was

3,693 tons, about one-twentieth as much as that of Canada whose output

for the same time was 75,578 tons, which is 78 per cent of the total pro-

duction of all countries. Georgia and Vermont are the chief producers

abstracts: economic geology 287

in the United States, but Arizona, Idaho, Virginia and Wyoming have

deposits of special interest.

The fundamental property of asbestos is its fibrous structure, and

it includes the fibrous forms of several species of minerals, especially

amphibole and serpentine.

Using the term "type of asbestos" to designate the form of fibrous

aggregation and "mode of occurrence" to designate the environment of

the asbestos deposit, referring especially to its relation to the rocks

with which it is genetically associated, there are three types of asbestos

and four modes of occurrence known in the United States.

The three types of asbestos are cross fiber, slip fiber, and mass fiber.

The first occurs in veins and the fibers, if not disturbed since their for-

mation, run across the veins. The second occurs along planes of rock

fractures on which slipping has occurred, and the direction of the parallel

fibers in the slipping plane indicates the direction of the slipping. The

third occurs in the form of bundles or groups and the fibers may be

parallel or divergent. It is strongly contrasted with cross fiber and slip

fiber in that it forms the whole mass of the rock in which it is developed.

Asbestos of the cross fiber type is almost invariably chrysotile (ser-

pentine) and rarely anthophyllite. Some of the slip fiber type is chryso-

tile but more is amphibole. The mass fiber type, so far as known, is

always anthophyllite in the United States.

The first mode of occurrence is illustrated by the mines at Chrysotile, .

in the Lowell region of Vermont, where the productive serpentine belt,

so extensively mined in eastern Canada, reaches the United States.

There is a similar but less productive locality near Casper, Wyoming.

An excellent illustration of the second mode of occurrence is in the

Grand Canyon of the Colorado in Arizona, where veins of high-grade

cross fiber chrysotile occur in a narrow belt of limestone. The limited

quantity and difficult accessibility hinders mining in that region.

The third mode of occurrence as mass fiber (anthophyllite) is well

illustrated at Sail Mountain, Georgia, where though much less valuable

than chrysotile it has been mined for many years. There is a similar

deposit at Kamiah, Idaho.

The fourth is illustrated by the slip fiber veins in the hornblendic

and pyroxenic rocks of Bedford City and Rocky Mount, Va., where

unsuccessful attempts to mine it were made some years ago. J. S. D.

288 abstracts: hydraulics

HYDRAULICS. — Measurements of the suction of vessels made in the

experimental model basin at the Navy Yard, Washington, D. C.

U. S. Hydrographic Office Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean

for June, 1911.

Naval Constructor D. W. Taylor has recently investigated the ques-

tion of the relative reactions of vessels under way and close to one

another. These reactions are found to be strong, and the suction clue

to them when vessels make ill-advised attempts to pass others too closely

account for many collisions especially in shallow waters.

The models, which were of a mean immersed length of 20 feet and of

a displacement of 3000 pounds, were towed in pairs abreast, or at defi-

nite distances ahead or astern. In the abreast positions, they were towed

at various distances apart; for other positions, the uniform distance

apart of their center lines was nineteenth-hundreclths of the length of

the model. While this is quite close, it should be remembered that these

experiments were made in water many times deeper than the draught of

the models, and hence the suction effects under given conditions would

be less than if the water had been relatively shallow, as is usually the

case when suction phenomena are of importance in connection with

actual ships. Imagine one vessel overtaking another on a parallel

line, quite close to the right of the latter, then the sequence of phenom-

ena is about as follows:

When the overtaking vessel just begins to overlap the other, there is

little force acting. There appears to be a repulsion at both bow and

stern, and curiously enough the repelling force upon the stern appears

to be greater than that upon the bow. The resulting tendency is for

the overtaking vessel to turn in toward the overtaken vessel. When

partially overlapping, the tendency is for the bow to be drawn in while

the stern is still repelled.

As the overtaking vessel continues to pull up, the suction at the

bow becomes stronger and the repulsion of the stern falls off, until, as

they come abreast, there is a rapid change in the stern force, which

shifts from repulsion to strong suction.

As the overtaking vessel draws ahead, there is a reversal of condi-

tions, the bow pull falling off rapidly, and soon becoming a repulsion,

while the stern pull becomes stronger, reaching its maximum when the

center of the overtaking vessel is about two-tenths its length ahead the

center of the overtaken vessel. It should be understood that the idea

of the right hand vessel overtaking the other is simply used for conven-

ience in description. For given relative positions, the forces upon the

right-hand vessel would be the same whether overtaking or overtaken.

abstracts: fisheries 289

In close quarters the intensity of these reactions may amount to twice

the resistance of the vessel to propulsion, and situations may readily

arise in which vessels will be brought into collision regardless of the

action of the rudder. G. W. Littlehales.

FISHERIES. — Special investigation of the Alaska fur-seal rookeries,

1910. Harold Heath. Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 748.

Pp. 22. November, 1911.

Dr. Heath, sent to the Pribilof Islands as a special scientific investi-

gator pending the permanent appointment of a resident naturalist under

the act of Congress of April 21, 1910, affecting the seal fisheries, reports

that compared with estimates of the preceding year the herd has

apparently undergone a loss of 13,293 in its numbers, by reason of the

incessant killing of seals at sea in the vicinity of the islands by the Japan-

ese and Canadian fleets.

The breeding herd is well supplied with male life, however, the average

harem in 1910 containing fewer than 32 cows and there being a surplus

of 600 idle and young bulls. With such proportions of the sexes and

the polygamous habit of the seal, and with, moreover, a breeding reserve

of 1,000 to 2,000 bachelors exempted from killing every year, there is

no possibility of injury to the seal herd as a result of land killing under

present regulations. Ethel M. Smith.

FISHERIES. — The salmon fisheries of the Pacific coast. John N. Cobb.

Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 751. Pp. 179. November,

1911.

This report is historical, descriptive and statistical, covering the entire

period of salmon canning on the west coast, discussing the development

of fishing methods and preservation processes, and containing figures for

every year from the beginning of the industry down thru 1909. It

contains also a chapter on fishery legislation and law enforcement, an

account of salmon hatcher}- work, and figures showing the foreign trade

in salmon. E. M. Smith.

FISHERIES.— The fur-seal fisheries of Alaska in 1910. Walter I.

Lembkey. Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 749. Pp. 35.

November, 1911.

The status of the fur-seal industry of Alaska was changed by the law

of April 21, 1910, the former leasing system being abandoned for direct

government management of these resources.

The law relating to the killing of seals on the Pribilof Islands exempts

all females and all seals under one year of age. The additional Depart-

290 abstracts: plant pathology

ment regulations, similar in 1910 to the regulations of previous years,

restricted the killing further to bachelors having pelts weighing at least

5 pounds and not more than 8^ pounds, except such as might be required

to complete the natives' supply of food. Before any killing was done

1,271 bachelors, 915 of them three-year-olds, were marked and exempted

as a breeding reserve. The take of skins was 13,584.

Mr. Lembkey's estimate of the number of seals in the herd in 1910 at

the end of the killing season is 132,279. This is approximately the same

as Dr. Heath's estimate of 149,195, the latter figure including the 13,584

that were killed.

Mr. Lembkey urges the continued killing of surplus male seals, not

only to permit the government an income from the seal resources but

to preserve the herd from the injurious presence of the haremless and

fighting bulls. He urges also a readjustment of the scheme of compen-

sation for the natives, abolishing the government contribution as such

and paying higher wages. E. M. Smith.

PLANT PATHOLOGY. — The timber rot caused by Leniztes sepiaria.

Perley Spaulding, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 214, Pp.

46. July 21, 1911.

Lenzites sepiaria is one of the most important of the fungi which

destroy coniferous timber while in use. It does not ordinarily attack

living trees. With several other species it destroys a large proportion of

the coniferous railway ties and telegraph and telephone poles which are

in service in this country. The fungus is very widely distributed and

attacks the wood of spruce, larch, fir, pine, hemlock, Douglas fir, and

juniper, and occasionally attacks the wood of willow and aspen. It

usually enters timbers through season cracks. The fruiting bodies

revive after long periods of desiccation, the writer having obtained spores

from specimens after two years' time. Mature sporophores may be

produced within six or ten days after the first mycelium becomes visible

on the exterior of an affected timber. Inoculations in green timber

have produced sporophores within five months'time in Texas. Pure

cultures have been made and the same type of rot has been secured

upon sertilized wood blocks in large tubes as that which commonly

accompanies the fruiting bodies in the open air. The decay caused

by this fungus may be prevented or greatly retarded by seasoning

of timber, which decreases the water content to such a point that the

fungus cannot readily grow; by floating, which largely excludes the air;

and by chemical treatment with substances which are poisonous to

the fungus. P. S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 486th regular meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, October 21,

1911, President David White in the chair, and about 60 persons present.

The principal communication was presented by 0. P. Hay, of the

U. S. National Museum on The Ice Age and its Animals, illustrated by

lantern slides, showing maps of the areas of successive glaciation and

photographs of the characteristic fossils as well as restorations of the

mammals.

The 487th regular meeting was held November 4, 1911, the president

in the chair and about 75 persons present.

Under the heading Brief Notes and Exhibition of Specimens, W. P.

Hay exhibited lantern slides from photographs of living Amphioxus,

and of the blue crab, with egg masses. He calculated the number of

eggs laid by the female of this species as about 1,500,000.

The regular communication was on Recent Biological Explorations in

Panama, participated in by S. E. Meek, E. A. Schwartz, E. A. Gold-

man, and August Busck.

In the fall of 1910 the Smithsonian Institution perfected plans for a

somewhat comprehensive and thoro biological survey of the Panama

Canal Zone. It was realized that the solution of a number of vital

problems in the geographic distribution and origin of the fauna and the

flora of that region requires thoro field investigations in the Zone and

adjacent territory before the great physiographic changes occur which

will come with the completion of the Canal. It was therefore felt that

the necessary field work should be undertaken at once. With this

object in view Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian

Institution, invited the various scientific bureaus of the government

to cooperate with the Institution in making such a survey. The Bureau

of Fisheries and the Field Museum of Natural History, having already

contemplated making such a study of the aquatic life of the Zone,

promptly joined the Smithsonian, and the entire work was carried on

under the general direction of that Institution.

The Bureaus and institutions participating in the survey are as

follows: The Smithsonian Institution; the Field Museum of Natural

History; the Bureau of Fisheries; the Biological Survey; the Bureau of

Plant Industry, and the Bureau of Entomology.

At this meeting Dr. E. A. Schwartz and Mr. August Busck of the

Bureau of Entomology told of the entomological work done by the recent

291

292 proceedings: biological society

expedition to the Canal Zone. The work of former collectors of insects

in the region was reviewed as well as that done during the present year.

The climatic conditions were described and their effect on the insect

fauna Avas considered. The operations incident to digging the Canal

have destroyed much of this fauna in the immediate vicinity of the work.

In spite of efforts to destroy them, a few flies and mosquitoes still exist.

Dr. S. E. Meek of the Field Museum spoke of the fishes and other

aquatic life of the Canal Zone and showed maps and a series of pic-

tures of characteristic scenery along the streams in which collecting was

done, as well as of operations along the Canal route. In Dr. Meek's

field work he was assisted by Mr. S. F. Hildebrand of the Bureau of

Fisheries. They landed at Cristobal, December 28, and at once entered

upon their field investigations which they continued without interrup-

tion until the twenty-fourth of the following May. They gave first

attention to those streams soon to be most changed by the work on the

Canal. Then collecting was done in the brackish waters and along

the shores in order that ample series of specimens might be gotten

of those species most likely to pass through the Canal on its com-

pletion. Practically all the streams of the Zone and a few adjacent

ones on the Pacific side were thoroly explored. Much additional work

remains to be done in the salt and brackish waters, particularly on

the Atlantic side, and in the streams in the adjacent territory.

It is necessary to extend the explorations to the streams and shallow

bays on each side of the Zone for a distance of 50 to 100 miles. It is

the intention to do this during the coming winter.

Mr. E. A. Goldman of the Biological Survey told of his field work in

studying the distribution and abundance of the mammals and birds,

and collecting specimens. He remained in the field from December

28 to the end of June following. Gatun was selected as headquarters,

as that region will undergo great biologic changes as a result of the trans-

formation of a forest into a lake with an area of 164 square miles upon

the completion of the Canal. Nearly 2500 specimens were secured.

Among bird groups the antthrushes, flycatchers, woodhewers and hum-

mers are most numerous in genera and species. Mammals of 39 genera,

exclusive of bats, were collected. These included five genera of monkeys

and four generations of opossums. One of the most interesting of the

mammals collected is a specimen of Bassariscyon, one of the rarest of

American mammals in the museums of the world. The genus has a

known range extending from Nicaragua on the north to Ecuador on

the south, and while it includes four species probably less than 10 indi-

viduals, all told, have been collected.

While the work Avas concentrated largely in the Gatun Lake area

collections were also made at various localities along the line of the Pan-

ama Railroad soutlrvvard to the Pacific coast, and in adjoining parts of

Panama. In March a trip was made overland from Chepo into the

mountains near the headwaters of the Chagres River where ten days

were spent on the Cerro Azul, a mountain about 3000 feet high. To

reach this mountain pack horses were used to transport the field outfit

proceedings: geological society 293

across the broad, open savannas which extend from the Pacific coast to

the base of the mountain, where the loads were transferred to the backs

of men. At this point the heavy forest begins abruptly and extends

upward in unbroken growth, becoming lower, but denser, until on the

summit where the rainfall is more copious, orchids and bromeliaceous

plants overspread the ground as well as the branches of the trees. In

the latter part of May work was carried on at Porto Bello, on the north

coast, and by traversing swamps and wading eight or ten miles up the

Cascajal River the upper slopes of the Cerro Brujo were reached at

about 2000 feet altitude D. E. Lantz, Recording Secretary.

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 245th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, May 10, 1911.

As an informal communication Mr. L. D. Burling exhibited specimens

of Silurian crinoid stems associated with Pleistocene mollusks collected

on the beach north of Chicago. Both are well preserved and afford an

example of mechanical mixture of faunas of widely different age.

REGULAR PROGRAM

The anorthite-nephelite series. N. L. Bowen.

The classification of higher grade coals. G. C. Martin.

On the classification of ore deposits. Waldemar Lindgren.

At the 246th meeting, May 24, Mr. E. W. Shaw presented two new

facts concerning the Maquoketa formation of the Upper Mississippi

lead and zinc district: (1) Certain more or less round bits of rock resem-

bling concretions with obscure structure and found in a layer near the

base of the formation are fossil algal secretions. (2) There is a hereto-

fore undescribed angular unconformity between the Ordovician and

Silurian at the top of the Maquoketa shale, and a non-fossiliferous rock*

which has been considered to be Maquoketa is in reality Silurian resting

upon the thin parts of the Maquoketa. The Marquoketa, instead of

being 200 feet thick as stated in published reports, varies from 180 to less

than 100 feet. At the base of the non-fossiliferous rock and resting upon

the deeply eroded Maquoketa is a thin layer appearing to be laminated

sandstone but made up of grains of dolomite.

By invitation of the Council Prof. John C. Merriam of the University

of California spoke on recent progress in the correlation of the Tertiary

lacustrine deposits of the Pacific coast and Great Basin regions.

regular program

Phosphate deposits of the United States. F. B. Van Horn.

There are at present five producing phosphate fields of the United

States. In the order of quantity of production they are:

294 proceedings: geological society

(1) Florida, (2) Tennessee, (3) South Carolina, (4) Arkansas, (5)

The Western States — Idaho, Wyoming, and Utah.

In quantity available for the future the most important of these fields

is the last named one, where enormous deposits of high grade phosphate

rock are available for mining. Tennessee ranks second; Florida third;

South Carolina fourth; and Arkansas last.

The Florida deposits are of three classes: hard rock, land pebble,

and river pebble, of which the land pebble is of most importance. The

Tennessee deposits are also of three classes, according to Hayes; brown

residual phosphate, blue bedded phosphate, and white phosphate. The

South Carolina phosphate occurs in two forms: hard rock, and river rock.

The phosphate of Arkansas occurs in bedded form.

The deposits of the Western States are in northeastern Utah, south-

western Wyoming, and southeastern Idaho. The phosphate horizon

consists of 200 feet of phosphatic shales and beds of phosphate rock with

some limestone. The rock phosphate itself is chiefly characterized by

an oolitic texture, by which it can usually be recognized in the field.

In color it varies from coaly black to dull gray or iron stained. Its

float is characteristically marked with a thin coating of bluish-white

bone-like material, resembling chalcedony, and this coating is useful in

tracing the concealed outcrop in the field by means of scattered float or

fragments to be found in the overlying soil.

Asbestos deposits of the United States. J. S. Diller. See this Journal,

1: 286. 1911.

Further data on the stratigraphic position of the Lance formation ("Cer-

atops beds,,). F. H. Knowlton.

In June 1909 the author published a paper entitled, "The strati-

graphic relations and paleontology of the 'Hell Creek beds,' 'Ceratops

beds,' and equivalents, and their reference to the Fort Union formation,"

in which the conclusion is reached that the beds considered are "strati-

graphically, structurally, and paleontologically inseparable from the

Fort Union, and are Eocene in age." The present paper presents the

'results of the two field seasons that have intervened since the first paper

was published, the areas in which the observations were made being in

the main eastern Wyoming and eastern Montana and adjacent portions

of North and South Dakota.

In the early nineties Hatcher discovered dinosaurian remains along the

North Platte River some 25 or 30 miles north of old Fort Fred Steele,

in Carbon County, Wyoming, the exact locality being indicated as

" opposite the mouth of the Medicine Bow River." This area was inves-

tigated in 1906 by A. C. Veatch, who published an outline geological

map in which was shown the areal distribution of the formations

involved. Strictly interpreted Hatcher's locality would fall within

Veatch's so-called "Lower Laramie," which is there 6500 feet in thick-

ness, and is separated from the overlying beds (Upper Laramie of

Veatch) by an unconformity which according to Veatch has involved the

removal of more than 20,000 feet of strata, but as a matter of fact his

locality is a mile or more up the North Platte from a point "opposite

proceedings: geological society 295

the mouth of the Medicine Bow." The author, assisted by Dr. A. C.

Peale, visited the area in 1910 and failed to find a trace of remains of

dinosaurs in the "Lower Laramie," but did find Triceratops in place

300 feet above the base of the "Upper Laramie," or Lance formation as

it must now be called. This discovery is regarded as of far-reaching'

importance, since it proves that the Lance formation ("Ceratops beds"),

which elsewhere rests on Fox Hills and other Montana formations, is

here above a great unconformity which separates it from the 6500 feet

of "Laramie" and effectually disposes of the contention that the Lance

formation is the equivalent of the Laramie.

An area in South Dakota west of the Missouri River and between the

Cannonball and Cheyenne Rivers, was studied in 1909 by parties from

the U. S. Geological Survey under the general charge of W. R. Calvert,

who furnished the data for this part of the paper. The four formations

present in this region are Pierre, Fox Hills, Lance and Fort Union. The

Fox Hills with a maximum thickness of 150 to 200 feet, has been irregu-

larly reduced by erosion and in exceptional instances has been entirely

removed. The Lance formation rests on the eroded surface of the Fox

Hills and in at least one locality upon the Pierre. Angular as well as

erosional discordance has also been noted between them, especially on

the Moreau River near Go vert P. O., where the Fox Hills dips at an

angle of 10° and the overlying Lance is horizontal. The marine Fox

Hills invertebrates, reported at five localities in the basal 10 or 12 feet

of the Lance formation, are presumed to be re-deposited, as they always

occur in eroded channels.

Converse County, Wyoming, the type locality for the Lance formation,

has been visited by several parties and the attempt made to fix the upper

line of the Fox Hills, but while it appears that these beds are of unequal

thickness, the fact remains that the upper limit is not yet definitely

placed.

In southeastern Montana the relations between the Fox Hills and the

overlying Lance formation were found to be the same as already shown

for South Dakota, that is, they are separated by an unconformity which

is erosional and occasionally also angular.

In the original paper the statement was made that thruout the vast

region studied the Lance formation was found conformably overlain by

the acknowledged Fort Union. Field work of the past two seasons

has confirmed this in every particular, and there is yet to be observed a

single locality at which unconformable relations have been even sus-

pected. Hence it seems to have been demonstrated that sedimentation

from one to the other was continuous and uninterrupted.

The following conclusions regarding the stratigraphic relations of the

Lance formation seem justified: (1) The Lance formation is separated

from the underlying formations by an unconformity, which in some

cases at least is profound; (2) the Lance formation is not the equivalent

of the Laramie, in fact, as shown by the relations in Carbon County,

Wyoming, they are separated by a great unconformity; (3) the Lance

formation cannot be separated on structural or lithologic grounds from

296 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL AND HISTORICAL SOCIETIES

the overlying Fort Union; (4) the line at the base of the Lance formation

becomes more clearly than ever the logical point at which to draw the

line between Cretaceous and Tertiary; (5) finally, the Lance formation

seems to find a final resting place in the Tertiary.

Edson S. Basttn,

Robert Anderson,

Secretaries.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

At the 697th meeting, held at the Cosmos Club on October 14, 1911,

the following papers were read: Direct and indirect determination of the

wilting coefficient of soils for different plants: L. J. Briggs andH. L. Shantz.

(See this Journal 1: 228. 1911.) Magnetic rotation and ellipticity for

massive mirrors: P. D. Foote. (See this Journal 1 : 145. 1911.)

The 698th meeting, held on October 28, 1911, at the Cosmos Club,

was a joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences. Profes-

sor Arthur Schuster, by invitation, presented a most interesting and

instructive paper on The foundations of physics.

At the 699th meeting, November 11, 1911, at the Cosmos Club, the

following papers were presented, A. J. Lotka: Evolution in discontinuous

systems; P. G. Nutting: Helium tubes as light standards. (See this

Journal 1: 221. 1911.) R. L. Faris, Secretary.

THE COLUMBIA HISTORICAL SOCIETY

At the 125th meeting, November 21, 191 1, Mrs. Corra Bacon-Foster

presented a paper on the Early Development of the Potomac Route to

the West.

Mary Stevens Beall, Secretary.

CORRECTIONS, VOL. 1

55, Fig. 1, for "1537° C." read "1357° C."

213, lines 3 and 9, for " (c)" read " (e)."

213, line 15 from bottom, for "one" read "the."

214, line 15, after "force" insert "for unit current in each circle."

216, line 7, before "current," for "the" read "this."

217, line 16, after "called," for "the" read "this."

217, table, for "22° C." read "20° C."

218, line 3, for "AT" read "M."

INDEX TO VOLUME I

July 19 to December 19, 1911

PROCEEDINGS, PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE

ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Washington Academy of Sciences.

Proceedings, 101-104

Biological Society of Washington.

Proceedings, 291

Botanical Society of Washington.

Proceedings, 274

Columbia Historical Society. Proceed-

ings, 296

Engineers Society of Washington. Pro-

gram and announcements, 275.

Geological Society of Washington.

Proceedings, 44-48, 139-142, 293

Philosophical Society of Washington.

Proceedings, 274, 296 ; Programs and

announcements, 210, 246. 274

AUTHOR INDEX

Agnew, P. G. A device for measuring

the torque of electrical instru-

ments, 82

A study of the current transformer

with particular reference to iron

loss, 53

Allen, E. T. Studies in ore deposition

with special reference to the sul-

phides of iron, 170

Allen, W. F. Notes on breeding sea-

son and young of Polyodon Spat-

hula, 280

*Anderson, J. F. Abortive cases of

poliomyelitis; an experimental

demonstration of specific immune

bodies in their blood-serum, 99

* Experimental measles in the mon-

key, 99

* The period of infectivity of the

blood of measles, 99

*Anderson, R. Geology and oil re-

sources of the Coalinga district,

Cal., 130

*Arnold, R. Geology and oil resources

of the Coalinga district, Cal., 130

Atwood, W. W. Physiographic studies

on the south slope of the San Juan

mountains, Colo., 45

Austin, L. W. Condenser losses at

high frequencies, 143

High spark frequency in radio-

telegraphy, 5

— —Notes from the U. S. Naval wire-

less telegraphic laboratory, 190

A preliminary note on the resist-

ance of radio-telegraphic antennas,

9

Quantitative experiments in long

distance radio-telegraphy, 82

Ships' antenna as Herztian oscilla-

tor, 275

Ihe slipping contact rectifying

detector, 8

Ship's antenna as a Hertzian oscil-

lator, 275

*Baldwin. A. L. Triangulation in

Cal., Pt. II, 76

*Bancroft, Howland. Reconnais-

sance of the ore deposits of northern

Yuma County, Arizona, 184

*Bartsch, P. Description of new

mollusks of the family vitrinelli-

dae from the west coast of Amer.,

96

* Refers to Abstracts.

297

ijJ/6 3

298

INDEX

New mollusks of the genus Aclis

from the North Atlantic, 163

* New species of shells from Ber-

muda, 95

* The recent and fossil mollusks of

the genus Alabina from the west

coast of Amer., 96

* The recent and fossil mollusks of

the genus Bittium from the west

coast of Amer., 163

*— — Recent and fossil mollusks of the

genus Diastoma from the west

coast of Amer., 135

* West Amer. Mollusks of the

genus Eumeta, 135

*Bastin, E. S. Geology of the peg-

matites and associated rocks of

Me., inch feldspar, quartz, mica,

and gem deposits, 239

Some features of graphite in the

U. S., 44

*Bauer, L. A. Magnetic chart errors

and secular changes in the Indian

Ocean, 178

*Bates, C. G. Windbreaks: their influ-

ence and value, 92

*Blair, W. R. Free air data at Mount

Weather for Jan., Feb. and Mar.,

1911, 153

* Summary of the free air data at

Mount Weather for the three years,

July 1, 1907 to June 30, 1910, 152

*Bowie, W. Primary base lines at

Staunton, Tex. and Deming, N. M.,

75

*Bransky, O. E. Diffusion of crude

petroleum through fuller's earth,

with notes on its geologic signifi-

cance, 185

*Breazeale, J. F. Translocation of

plant food and elaboration of plant

material in wheat seedings, 123

Briggs, L. J. The wilting coefficient

for different plants and its indirect

determination, 228

*Brooks, A. H. Mount McKinley

region, Alaska, 235

Brooks, H. B. Design of deflection

potentiometers, 283

Deflection potentiometers for cur-

rent and voltage measurements, 283

*Brown, N. A. Crown-gall of plants:

its cause and remedy, 91

*Bryan, A. H. The determination of

sugars in grain and cattle food, 122

*Bryan, H. The electrical bridge for

the determination of soluble salts

in soil, 154

Buckingham, E. The "correction for

emergent stem" of the mercurial

thermometer, 167

* On the computation of the con-

stant C2 of Planck's equation by an

extension of Paschen's method of

equal ordinates, 33

The reheat factor in steam-turbine

design, 147

Thrust balancing in direct-con-

nected, marine steam turbines, 198

*Burger, W. H. The measurement of

the flexure of pendulum supports

with the interferometer, 76

Burgess, G. K. The melting points of

the chemical elements, 16

Note on graphic solutions of Wien's

spectral equation, 105

* Note on the temperature scale bet.

100° and 500° C, 34

* On the constancy of the sulphur

boiling point, 34

*Burns, Findley. Olympic National

Forest; its resources and their

management, 161

*Busck, A. Descriptions of Tineoid

moths (microlepidoptera) from

South Amer., 244

* — ■ — Recent biological explorations in

Panama, 000

Butler, B. S. Beaverite, a new

mineral, 26

* Thaumasite from Beaver County,

Utah, 37

*Cain, J. R. The determination of

manganese in vanadium and

chrome-vanadium steels, 85

INDEX

299

* The determination of vanadium in

vanadium and chrome-vanadium

steels, 85

*Camerox, F. K. The solubility of

lime in aqueous solution of sugar

and glycerol, 86

* The theoretical basis for the use

of commercial fertilizers, 86

* The theory and practice of soil

management, 134 .

*Capps, S. R. Geology and mineral

resources of the Nizina District,

Aka., 130

Carhart, H. C. Thermodynamics of

concentration cells, 20

Clark, A. H. Remarks on the nervous

system and symmetry of the

crinoids, 65

Clarke, F. W. Note on the compo-

sition of sea water, 4

*Cline, M. Properties and uses of

Douglas Fir, 134

*Cobb, J. N. The fisheries of Alaska

in 1910, 42

Cobb, J. F. Salmon fisheries of Pacific

Coast, 289

*Coblentz, W. W. Color of the light

emitted by lampyridae, 245

* Radiometric investigation of

water of crystallization, infra-red

absorption screens and standard

spectral lines, 234

*- The reflecting power of various

metals, 271 ".

* Selective radiation from various

substances 111, 234

*Cockerell, T. D. A. Bees in the

collection of the U. S. Nat. Mus.,

244

*Collixs, W. D. Quality of the sur-

face waters of Illinois, 184

*Cook, O. F. Notes on the distri-

bution of millipedes in Southern

Texas with descriptions of new

genera and species from Texas,

Arizona, Mex. and Costa Rica, 244

*Coville, F. V. Experiments in blue-

berry culture, 132

*Crawford, J. C. Descriptions of

New Hymenoptera, 245

Cross, W. The lavas of Hawaii and

their relations, 61

Curtis, H. L. Methods for the meas-

urements of the effective induct-

ance of resistance coils, 194

— — Resistance coils for alternating

current work, 219

*Dall, W. H. New species of shells

from Bermuda, 95

* -Notes on California shells, II

and 111, 95

* Notes on Gundlachia and Aucylus

95

*Davis, R. O. E. The effect of moist-

ure and of solutions upon the

electric conductivity of soils, 88

* The electrical bridge for the de-

termination of soluble salts in

soil, 154

Day, A. L. Geophysical research, 247

* High temperature gas thermome-

try, 284

*Day, P. C. Frost data of the U. S.;

and length of the crop-growing

season, 28

*Dellinger, J. H. The electrical con-

ductivity of commercial copper, SO

* — ■ — On the computation of the Con-

stant G> of Planck's equation by

an extension of Paschen's method

of equal ordinates, 33

* The temperature coefficient of

resistance of copper, 81

*Diller. J. S. The Production of

Asbestos in 1910, 286

Dorsey, N. E. Determination of the

international ampere in absolute

measure, 211

*Duvall, C. R. Triangulation in

Cal., Pt. II, 76

*Eakin, H. M> A geologic reconnais-

sance in southern Seward Peninsula

and the Norton Bay-Nulato region

Aka., 37

*Elvove, E. Assay of Lactic acid, 180

300

INDEX

* Use of sulphur dioxide in checking

strengths of volumetric solutions of

iodine, alkali, and silver, 181

*Faris, R. L. Results of magnetic

observations made by the Coast

and Geodetic survey between July

1, 1909, and June 30, 1910, 80

*Fenneman, W. W. Geology and min-

eral resources of the St. Louis

Quadrangle, Mo. -111., 210

*Field, I. A. The food value of sea

mussels, 41

Fischer, E. G. The new Coast and

geodetic survey tide predicting

machine, 1

*Fitch, T. T. A comparison of Amer.

direct-current switchboard volt-

meters and ammeters, 153

*Fleming, J. A. Comparisons of mag-

netic observatory standards by

the Carnegie institute of Washing-

ton, 179

* Two new types of magnetometers

made by the Department of ter-

restrial magnetism of the Carnegie

institute of Washington, 206

Foote, P. D. Magnetic rotation and

ellipticity for massive metal mir-

rors, 145

*Free, E. E. The movement of soil

material by wind; with Bibl. of

colian geology, 129

* Studies in soil physics, 121

*Freeman, E. M. Rusts of grains in

the U. S., 241

*Frost, W. H. Abortive cases of

poliomyelitis; an experimental

demonstration of specific immune

bodies in their blood-serum, 99

*Fuller, M. L. Geology and under-

ground waters of southern Minne-

sota, 237

*Gilfin, J. E. Diffusion of crude

petroleum through fuller's earth,

with notes on its geologic signifi-

cance, 185

*Girty, G. H. The fauna of the

Moorefield shale of Ark., 38

* The fauna of the phosphate beds

of the Park city formation in Id.

Wy. and U., 39

*Given, A. The determination of

sugars in grain and cattlefoods, 122

*Glenn, L. C. Denudation and ero-

sion of the southern Appalachian

region and the Monongahela Basin,

236

*Goldbeck, A. T. The expansion and

contraction of concrete, while

hardening, 100

*Goldberger, J. The period of in-

fectivity of the blood in measles, 99

* Some known and three new endo-

parasitic trematodes from Amer.

fresh-water fish, 162

-Experimental measles in the

monkey, 99

*Goldman, E. A. Recent biological

explorations in Panama, 291

♦Gordon, C. H. Geology and under-

ground waters of northeastern

Texas, 183

*Grave, B. H. Anatomy and physi-

ology of the wing-shell Atrina

rigida, 94

*Green, C. W. The migration of sal-

mon in the Columbia River, 96

Grover, F. W. Capacity and phase

difference of paraffined paper con-

densers as function of temperature

and frequency, 277

Formulas and tables for the calcu-

lation of mutual and self induct-

ance, 14

Methods for the measurement of

the effective inductance of resist-

ance coils, 194

Resistance coils for alternating

current work, 219

Capacity and phase difference of

paraffined paper condensers as

functions of temperature and fre-

quency, 277

Hale, Worth. Colorimetric and

physiological estimation of the

INDEX

301

active principle of the superarenal

gland, 225

* Digitalis standardization and the

variability of crude and of medic-

inal preparations, 98

*Hall, C. W. Geology and under-

waters of southern Minnesota, 237

*Harris, R. A. Arctic tides, 30.

Hates, C. W. Geological features

bearing on the construction of the

Panama Canal, 46

* The state geological surveys of

the U. S., 38

*Hazard, D. L. Directions for mag-

netic measurements, 31

* Results of observations made at

the Coast and geodetic survey

magnetic observatory at Chelten-

ham, Md., 1907 and 1908; . . .

at Sitka, Alaska, 1907 and 1908;

. . . near Honolula, Hawaii,

1907 and 1908, 32

*Heath, H. Special investigation of

Alaska fur-seal rookeries, 2S9

*Hexry, A. J. Variations of tempera-

ture at summit and base stations

in the central Rocky Mountain

region, 233

*Herrick, F. H. Natural history of

the Amer. lobster, 164

Hersey, M. D. A criterion for best

magnitudes in precise measure-

ment, 187

*Hess, F. L. An occurrence of strii-

verite, 88

Hollick, Arthur. Discussions of the

Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of

Alaska, 142

*Hough, \Y. Hoffman Philip Abys-

sinian ethnological collection, 165

*Hubbard, P. Bitumens and their

essential constituents for road con-

st ruction and maintenance, 136

Bituminous dust preventives and

road binders, 100

* Methods for the examination of

bituminous road materials, 137

*Huber, C. J. A comparison of Amer.

direct-current switchboard volt-

meters and ammeters, 153

*Humphreys, W. J. The Aleutian and

Icelandic lows, 29

The amount and vertical distribu-

tion of water vapor on clear days, 1

* Levels of maximum and minimum

cloudiness, 78

* Origin of the permanent ocean

highs, 78

* Some weather proverbs and their

justification, 30

* Vertical temperature gradients

and convection limits, 29

*Htjnt, R. The effects of a number of

derivatives of choline and analo-

gous compounds on the blood

pressure, 97

* Influence of diet on the thyroid

gland, 209

* Pharmacopoeial standard for

desiccated thyroid glands, 182

Jaeger, F. M. Melting temperatures

of sodium and lithium metasili-

cates, 49

— ■ — On doubly refracting liquids and

the so-called liquid crystals, 101

Mohnson, E. C. Rusts of grains in

the U. S., 241

* Timothy rust in U. S., 242

Johnston, J. A correlation of the

elastic behavior of metals with

certain of their physical constants,

260

*Ivempfer, W. H. The preservative

treatment of poles, 40

*Kimball, H. H. Some causes of varia-

tion in the polarization of sky-

light, 77

*Knapp, J. B. Properties and uses of

Douglas Fir, 134

Knowlton, F. H. Remarks on 1 he

fossil turtles accredited to the

Judith River formation, 64

*Lathrop, E. C. Methoxyl in soil

organic matter, 124

302

INDEX

*Laney, F. B. The relation of bornite

and chalcocite in the copper ores

of the Virgilina District of N. C.

and Va., 36

Larsen, E. S. Hinsdalite, a new

mineral, 25

*Le Clerc, J. A. Translocation of

plant food and elaboration of plant

material in wheat seedlings, 123

*Leith, C. K. Geology of the Lake

Superior region, 157

*Lembkey, W. I. Fur-seal fisheries in

Alaska in 1910, 289

*McCatjghey, W. J. The color of soils,

86

*McGee, W J Soil erosion, 161

*McLatjghlin, A. J. Sewage pollution

of interstate and international

waters, with special reference to

the spread of typhoid fever, I.

Lake Erie and the Niagara R., 99

*Marsh, M. C. The fisheries of

Alaska in 1910, 42

*Meek, S. E. Recent biological ex-

plorations in Panama, 291

*Meinzer, E. O. Geology and under-

ground waters of southern Minne-

sota, 237

Menge, G. A. Some new compounds of

the choline type, 223

Merwin, H. E. A method for deter-

mining the density of certain solids

by means of Rohrbach's solution

having a standard refractive index,

52

Quartz and fluorite as standards

of density and refractive index, 59

The temperature stability ranges,

density, chemical composition and

optical and crystallographic prop-

erties of the alkali feldspars, 59

*Middlekauff, G. W. A new form of

direct-reading candle-power scale

and recording device for precision

photometers, 34

Miller, J. M. Determination of the

international ampere in absolute

measure, 211

*Moffit, F. H. Geology and mineral

resources of the Nizina District,

Aka., 130

*Moore, H. P. Condition and extent

of the natural oyster beds of Dela-

ware, 97

*Motter, M. G. Digest of comments

on the Pharmacopoeia of the U. S.

of A. (8th decennial revision) and

the National Formulary (3d ed.)

for the calendar year ending Dec.

31, 1908, 98

*Munn. M. J. Coal, oil and gas of

Foxburg quadrangle, Pa., 209

* Foxburg-Clarion, Pa., Folio, 209

* Geologic atlas of the U. S. Folio

no. 177. Bargettstown-Carnegie

folio, Penn., 237

* Oil and gas fields of the Carnegie

Quadrangle, Penn., 237

* Sewickley, Pa., folio, 183

Mtjnroe, C. E. The consumption of

the commoner acids in the U. S., 70

Nutting, P. G. Helium tubes as light

standards, 221

*Page, L. W. Progress and present

status of the good roads movement

in the U. S., 136

*Paige, S. Mineral resources of the

Llano-Burnet region, Tex., with an

account of the pre-Cambrian

geology, 271

*Parker, G. H. Effects of explosive

sounds such as those produced by

motor boats and gunshots, upon

fishes, 241

*Patten, H. E. Effect of a second

solute in adsorption by soils and

in leaching of soluable salts from

soils, 87

* The relation of surface action to

electro-chemistry, 85

-The solubility of lime in aqueous

solutions of sugar and glycerol, 86

*Peters, W. J. Magnetic chart errors

and secular changes in the Indian

Ocean, 178

INDEX

303

*Pierce, W. D. Notes on insects of

the order Strepsiptera with de-

scriptions of new species, 245

*Plummer, F. G. Chaparral; studies

in the dwarf forests, or elfin-wood,

of southern Cal., 40

*Prindle, L. M. Description of the

igneous rocks and the Bonnifield

and Kantishna districts, 235

*Ransome, F. L. Geology and ore

deposits of the Breckenridge dis-

trict, Colo., 89

Note on some albitite dikes in

Nevada, 114.

*Reeve, C. S. Methods for the exami-

nation of bituminous road mate-

rials, 137

*Reid, F. R. Oxidative and catalytic

powers of soils and subsoils, 128

* Oxidation in soils, 155

* Studies in soil oxidation, 125

*Robinson, W. O. The color of soils,

86

*Rohwer, S. A. Descriptions of new

species of wasps w'th notes on

described species, 273

* On some Hymenopterous insects

from the island of Formosa, 245

Rosa, E. B. Determination of the

international ampere in absolute

measure, 211

Formulas and tables for the calcu-

lation of mutual and self induct-

ance, 14

Rose, J. N. A new echeveria from

Mexico, 267

Safford. W. E. The genus Annona:

the derivation of its name and its

taxonomic subdivisions, 118

*Sandstrom, J. W. On the relation

between atmospheric pressure and

wind, 79

Schaller, W. T. The alunite-beudan-

tite group, 112

Beaverite, a new mineral, 26

* Bismuth ochers from San Diego

County, Cal., 37

-The chemical composition of

nephelite, 109

-Chemical composition of the

French phosphorite minerals, 151

—Die chemische zusammensetzung

von Jamesoint unci Warrenit, 88

-Crystalized turquoise from Vir-

ginia, 58

-Crystalized variscite from Utah,

150

-Cuprodescloizite from Cal., 149

-Ferritungstite, a new mineral, 24

-Hinsdalite, a new mineral, 25

— Krystallographische notizen liber

Albit, Phenakit, und neptunit, 37

— Natramblygonite, a new mineral,

37

-Note on barbierite, monoclimic

soda feldspar, 114

-The relations of purpurite and

heterosite, 113

-Study of the rutile group, 17/

— Thaumasite from Beaver County,

Utah, 37

*Schreiner, O. Biological analogies

in soil oxidation, 128

* The chemical nature of soil

organic matter, 127

* Concurrent oxidation and re-

duction by roots, 155

* Enzymotic activities in soils, 127

* Glycerides of fatty acids in soils,

156

* Lawn soils, 124

* Paraffin hdyrocarbons in soils, 156

* Reduction by roots, 154

* — - — Soil organic matter as material

for biochemical investigation, 125

* Symptoms shown by plants under

the influence of different toxic

compounds, 129

-Toxic action of organic com-

pounds as modified by fertilizer

salts, 181

*Schwartz, E. A. Recent biological

explorations in Panama, 291

Seidell, A. Colorimetric and physio-

logical estimation of the active

304

INDEX

principle of the superarenal gland,

225

*— — Further experiments upon the

determination of iodine in thyroid,

208

A new bromine method for the

determination of aromatic phenols.

Its special application to thymol,

196

* Pharmacopoeal standard for des-

iccated thyroid glands, 182

Shantz, H. L. The wilting coefficient

for different plants and its indirect

determination, 228

*Shaw, E. W. Coal, oil and gas of

Foxburg Quadrangle, Pa., 209

* Foxburg-Clarion, Pa., Folio, 209

* Geologic atlas of the U. S. Folio

no. 177. Bargettstown-Carnegie

folio, Penn., 237

New system of Quaternary lakes in

the central Miss. Basin, 141

*Shorey, E. C. Chemical nature of

soil organic matter, 127.

* Glycerides of fatty acids in soils,

156

* — —The isolation of creatinine from

soils, 154

* — — Methoxyl in soil organic matter,

124

* Paraffin hydrocarbons in soils, 156

* Soil organic matter as material for

biochemical investigation, 125

*Skinner, J. J. Toxic action o*

organic compounds as modified by

fertilizer salts, 1S1

*Skinner, J. S. Lawn soils, 124

*Smith, E. F. Crown-gall and sar-

coma, 91

* Crown-gall of plants: Its cause

and remedy, 91

*Smith, P. S. A geologic reconnais-

sance in southeastern Seward

Peninsula and the Norton Bay-

Nulato region, Aka., 37

Notes on the geology of the Koyu-

kuk-Kobuk region, Aka., 141

Sosman, R. B. Minerals and rocks of

the composition MgSi03 — CaSiOa

-FeSiC-3,54.

* High temperature gas thermome-

try, 284

*Spaulding, P. Timber rot caused by,

Leniztes sepiaria, 290

* Blister rust of white pine, 243

*Spillman, W. J. Inheritance of the

"eye" in vigna, 185

*Straughn, M. N. The determination

of sugars in grain and cattlefoods,

122

Steiger, George. Note on the compo-

sition of sea water, 4

*Stuntz, S. C. Bibl. of eolian geology,

129

*Sullivan, M. X. Biochemical factors

in soils, 182

* Biological analogies in soil oxida-

tion, 128

Concurrent oxidation and re-

duction by roots, 155

* Enzymotic activities in soils, 127

* Oxidation in soils, 155

* The oxidative and catalytic

powers of soils and subsoils, 128

* Reduction by roots, 154

* Studies in soil oxidation. 125

*Taveau, R, de M. The effects of a

number of derivatives of choline

and analogous compounds on the

blood pressure, 97

*T<5wnsend, C. O. Crown-gall of

plants: its cause and remedy, 91

*Tuttle, J. B. Determination of

total sulphur in india rubber, 235

*TJ. S. Bureau of standards. Copper

wire tables, 121

*U. S. Coast and geodetic survey. Re-

port . . . showing the prog-

ress of the work from July 1, 1909,

to June 30, 1910, 74

*Van Hise, C. R. Geology of the Lake

Superior region, 157

INDEX

305

Vaughan, T. W. The physical con-

ditions under which Paleozoic coral

reefs were formed, 139

*Viereck, H. L. Descriptions of one

new genus and eight new species of

Ichneumon flies, 273

* Descriptions of six new genera

and thirty-one new species of

Ichneumon flies, 273

-New species of reared Ichneumon

flies, 273

*Waidner, C. W. Note on the tem-

perature scale between 100° and

500° 0, 34

* On the constancy of the sulphur

boiling point, 34

*Waters, C. E. The behavior of high

boiling mineral oils on heating in

the air, 84

* The determination of total sul-

phur in india rubber, 235

*Weed, W. H. Copper deposits of the

Appalachian states, 272

*Wegemann, C. H. Lander and Salt

Creek oil fields, Wyoming: Salt

Creek oil field, Natrona County, 238

Wells, R. C. The fractional pre-

cipitation of Carbonates, 21

* An occurrence of striiverite. 88

* The role of hydrolysis in geo-

logical chemistry, 36

*Whitnet, M. The uses of soils east

of the Great Plains region, 135

*Wilbert, M. 1. Digest of comments

on the Pharmacopoeia of the U. S.

of A. (8th decennial revision) and

the National formulary (3d ed.) for

the calendar year ending Dec. 31,

1908, 98

Wiley, H. W. Research work of the

division of foods of the bureau of

chemistry, 224

*Williams, T. A. Occupations neu-

roses (writer's cramp, etc.) re-

covery after psycho-analytic meas-

ures followed by reeducation, 246

*Wilson, H. V. Development of

sponges from dissociated tissue

cells, 240

*Wolff, F. A. The electrical con-

ductivity of commercial copper, 80

*Woodrtjff, E. G. Lander and Salt

Creek oil fields, Wyoming: Lander

oil field, Fremont County, 238

Wright, F. E. A micrometer ocular

with coordinate scale, 60

The stability ranges of minerals

with special reference tb the

geologic thermometer scale, 45

*Zon, Raphael. Eucalypts in Fla., 94

SUBJECT INDEX

Agricultural Chemistry. *Biochemi-

cal factors in soil. M. X. Sul-

livan, 182

*Chemical nature of soil organic mat-

ter. O. Schreiner and E. C.

Shorey, 127

*Color of soils. W. O. Robinson and

\V. J. McCaughey, 86

*Effect of a second solute in adsorp-

tion by soils and in leaching of

soluable salts from soils. H. E.

Patten, 87

*Electric conductivity of soils. R.

O. E. Davis, 88

*Enzymotic activities in soils. O.

Schreiner and M. X. Sullivan,

127

*Fertilizers. F. K. Cameron, 86

*Glycerides of fatty acids in soils. O.

Schreiner and E. C. Shorey, 156

*Isolation of creatinine from soils.

E. C. Shorey, 154

*Lawn soils. O. Schreiner and J. S.

Skinner, 124

*Methoxyl in soil organic matter.

E. C. Shorey and E. C. Lathrop,

124

306

INDEX

♦Oxidation and reduction by roots.

O. Schreiner and M. X. Sulli-

van, 155

♦Oxidation in soils. M. X. Sullivan

and F. R. Reid, 155

♦Oxidative and catalytic powers of

soils and subsoils. M. X. Sulli-

van and F. R. Reid, 128

*Paraffin hydrocarbons in soils. O.

Schreiner and E. C. Shorey, 156

*Reduction by roots. O. Schreiner

and M. X. Sullivan, 154

*Soil organic matter as material

for biochemical investigation. O.

Schreiner and E. C. Shorey, 125

*Soil oxidation. O. Schreiner and

M. X. Sullivan and F. R. Reid, 125

*Solubility of lime in aqulous solu-

tions of sugar and glycerol. F. K.

Cameron and H. E. Patten, 86

Toxic action of organic compounds.

. . . O. Schreiner and J. J.

Skinner, 181

Translocation of plant food and

elaboration of plant material in

wheat seedings. J. A. Le Clerc

and J. F. Breaseale, 123

Agricultural physics. *Electrical

bridge for determination of soluble

salts in soils. R. O. E. Davis and

H. Bryan, 154

♦Soil physics. E. E. Free, 121

Agriculture. *Soil erosion. W J

McGee, 161

♦Soil management. F. K. Cameron,

134

*Soils, east of Great Plains region.

M. Whitney, 135

References. 138, 166